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Title: Harper's Pictorial Library of the World War, Volume XII - The Great Results of the War
Author: Various
Language: English
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HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY
OF THE WORLD WAR
_In Twelve Volumes
Profusely Illustrated_
VOLUME XII
THE GREAT RESULTS OF THE WAR
Economics and Finance, The Peace
Treaty, The League of Nations. Index
[Illustration: Painting by Frank Stick A Soldier of the Soil]
=HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY
OF THE WORLD WAR=
_In Twelve Volumes
Profusely Illustrated_
FOREWORD BY CHARLES W. ELIOT, PhD.
_President Emeritus, Harvard University_
VOLUME XII
The Great Results of the War
_Economics and Finance, The Treaty of Versailles
and League of Nations----Index_
WITH INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR IRVING FISHER, YALE UNIVERSITY
_Edited by_
DR. W. L. BEVAN, KENYON COLLEGE
_and_
DR. HUGO C. M. WENDEL, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY
GENERAL EDITORIAL BOARD
PROF. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART
Harvard University
GEN. DOUGLAS MACARTHUR, U.S.A.
Chief of Staff, 42nd Division
ADMIRAL ALBERT GLEAVES
U.S. Navy
PROF. W. O. STEVENS
U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis
GEN. ULYSSES G. MCALEXANDER
U.S. Army
JOHN GRIER HIBBEN
President of Princeton University
J. B. W. GARDINER
Military Expert, _New York Times_
COMMANDER C. C. GILL, U.S.N.
Lecturer at Annapolis and aide
to Admiral Gleaves
HENRY NOBLE MACCRACKEN
President of Vassar College
PROF. E. R. A. SELIGMAN
Columbia University
DR. THEODORE F. JONES
Professor of History, New York
University
CARL SNYDER
PROF. JOHN SPENCER BASSETT
Professor of History, Smith College
MAJOR C. A. KING, JR.
History Department, West Point
HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK AND LONDON
Established 1817
Copyright, 1920, by Harper & Brothers Printed in the United States of
America M-U
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XII PAGE
_Introduction_ Professor Irving Fisher vii
PART I
I. Economic Results of the War 1
II. Wartime Food and Price Problems 34
III. Industry and Labor in Wartime 65
IV. Government Control 87
V. The Money Cost of the War, Edwin R. A. Seligman 105
VI. American Business in the War, Grosvenor B. Clarkson 115
VII. The Liberty Loan Army, Guy Emerson 126
VIII. Food and the War, Vernon Kellogg 135
IX. The High Cost of Living, Director of the Council of 142
National Defense
PART II
I. The Peace Conference at Work, Thomas W. Lamont 149
II. Wilson's Fourteen Points 163
III. How the Peace Treaty Was Signed 165
IV. The Peace Treaty--Its Meaning to America, George W. 170
Wickersham
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES AND THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Preamble 179
Part I. The Covenant of the League of Nations 182
Part II. Boundaries of Germany 186
Part III. Political Clauses for Europe 188
Part IV. German Rights and Interests Outside Germany 206
Part V. Military, Naval, and Aerial Clauses 209
Part VI. Prisoners of War and Graves 216
Part VII. Penalties 217
Part VIII. Reparation 217
Part IX. Financial Clauses 226
Part X. Economic Clauses 229
Part XI. Aerial Navigation 246
Part XII. Ports, Waterways, and Railways 247
Part XIII. Labor 255
Part XIV. Guarantees 261
Part XV. Miscellaneous Provisions 262
Rejection of the Peace Treaty 264
The Reservations Which Failed 269
Peace by Congressional Enactment Fails 271
The Map of Europe Remade 279
Our Part in Winning the War 280
Index
Text 291
Illustrations
I. Portraits 363
II. General 368
Maps 383
ILLUSTRATION IN COLOR
A Soldier of the Soil _Frontispiece_
Illustrations in this volume
Price Movements of the United States and England from the Earliest
Index Numbers Through the First Years of the World War
Trend of Prices Before and After the Great Wars of History
William McAdoo
Money and the Price Level
John Pierpont Morgan
President Wilson and Rear Admiral Grayson Passing the Palace of the
King in Brussels
Women Munition Workers in the International Fuse and Arms Works
Poster for Boy Scouts Who Worked for the Victory Loan
Dropping the First Bomb
A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign
Detroit--City of Automobiles
A Woman Doing Road Construction Work
A Woman Operating a Multiple Spindle Drill in an English Shell
Factory
Launching the Quistconck at Hog Island
Ship-building at Camden, N. J.
Diagram Showing the Effect of the War on the Prices of Stocks
Centres of Live Stock Production Throughout the World
Members of "The Women's Land Army" in England
A Map Issued by the Food Administration to Show Food Conditions in
Europe After the Signing of the Armistice
A Food Riot in Sweden
Harry A. Garfield
Drying Fruit and Vegetables to Save Tin and Glass
"Back on the Farm"
The Nations and Their Wheat Supply
A Municipal Canning Station
In the Heart of the Bethlehem Steel Plant
Forging Armor Plate
Building Howitzers
Guns and Armaments for United States and Her Allies
Plowing by Night
A War Time Warning
Women Workers in America
Samuel P. Gompers
Walker D. Hines
Building a Steel Ship in Seattle, Washington
Hog Island Ship-building Yards
Launching the City of Portland on the Columbia River, near Portland,
Oregon
Examining Cargoes for Contraband
An Antidote for the Submarine Pest
The Awkward Squad
The Economic Conference in Paris
Lord Reading
While the Men Fought, Those Left Behind Bought Bonds
French School Children Waiting to Welcome General Pétain
United States Council of National Defense and Its Advisory
Commission
Bernard M. Baruch
Daniel Willard
John D. Ryan
A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign
A Poster for the Third Liberty Loan Campaign
Victory Way at Night
The Battle Scene at Home
A Community Conference on Food-Saving
Will There Be Enough to Go Around?
Women Doing Night Farming
The Ore Market--Cleveland
David Lloyd George
President Poincaré With the Swiss President, M. Gustave Ador,
Driving to the Peace Conference in Paris
Where the Peace Treaty Was Signed
Awaiting the Decision of the German Peace Delegates.
The George Washington
Paris Crowds Greeting President Wilson
Henry White
Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau
Victoria Hall at Geneva
William Howard Taft
Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States
President and Mrs. Wilson Waving Good Bye
President Wilson's Welcome in Paris
Sir Eric Drummond
Lord Robert Cecil
Berlin Demonstrations Against The Peace Treaty
German Press Representatives in Versailles
Dreadnoughts Welcoming President Wilson Home
M. Stephen Pichon
Henry Cabot Lodge
America's Peace Capitol in Paris
The White Flags That Meant Defeat for the German Cause and Marked
the Beginning of the End of the War
Paris in War Time
Senator Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania
Male Population Registered and Not Registered
Comparative Losses of Merchant Shipping During the War
Production of Training Planes and Engines to the End of Each Month
Number of Battle Aeroplanes in Each Army at the Date of the
Armistice
Secretary of War Baker Drawing Registration Numbers
Our Flag in Alsace
INTRODUCTION
By PROFESSOR IRVING FISHER
Department of Political Economy, Yale University
In various ways, as this volume shows, the war has profoundly affected
our economic and political life. War has ever been a disturber and
innovator, always leaving after it a different world from that which
existed previous to it. On account of our tremendously complex economic
organization--the specialization of industry among nations, and the
network of commerce--war today causes more profound changes than ever
before. There can not be a human being in the world today whose life is
not altered by the war through which we have just passed.
In trying, now that the war is over, to _stop drifting_, and to think
our way out of the bent (or broken) remains of the _ante bellum_ life,
the world is confronted by a maze of problems and a still greater maze
of proffered solutions.
Many of these proposals are, unfortunately, of the nature of treatment
directed not at fundamental conditions, but merely at _symptoms_. We
should be past the stage, in our social science, as we are in medicine,
where we treat symptoms without a thorough diagnosis of the fundamental
causes.
And yet it is just this thorough diagnosis that we lack.
What, then, are the changes brought about by the war which most deeply
affect "the body politic," and by meeting which the most far reaching
improvements can be made?
HIGH COST OF LIVING A VITAL QUESTION
I can not take up, or even touch on, all of them; but to one of them I
wish to call especial attention--the High Cost of Living or, more
generally, the high level of prices, which is the most striking economic
effect of the war throughout the world. It is, as I see it, hard to
over-emphasize the need for attacking this problem of the price level as
a preliminary to attacking the other economic problems which the war has
left us.
We need only glance at a newspaper today, or step into a corner grocery,
or fall into conversation with our neighbor in the train to have this
topic come out as foremost in interest. It is, I believe, responsible
for much more of our present uncertainty and confusion than is usually
realized. In its ramifications it is chiefly this phase of the war's
effects which, as I suggested above, touches every one of us at every
point of our lives. A member of the Federal Reserve Board has called the
price level problem _the_ central economic problem of reconstruction.
Professor William Graham Sumner, who has inspired so many to the
scientific study of social conditions, used to say: "In taking up the
study of any social situation, divide your study into four
questions--(1) What is it? (2) Why is it? (3) What of it? (4) What are
you going to do about it?"
Let us follow this outline, and look first at the facts of the case;
secondly at their causes; thirdly at the evils involved; and lastly at
the remedies.
MEASURING CHANGES IN PRICES
We now possess a device for measuring the average change in prices. This
is what is known as an "index number."
Thus, if one commodity has risen 4 per cent. since last month and
another, 10 per cent., the average rise of the two is midway between the
sum of 4 per cent., and 10 per cent., or 7 per cent. It is
4 + 10
------ = 7
2
If we call the price level of the two articles last month 100 per cent.,
then 107 per cent. is the "index number" for the prices of the two
articles this month. The same principle, of course, applies to any
number of commodities.
The index number of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, the
best index number we have, shows an average price level in 1918 of 196
for wholesale prices and 168 for retail prices of food on the basis of
100 per cent. for 1913, the year before the war; showing that wholesale
prices, on the average, almost exactly doubled. The latest index number
for wholesale prices (May, 1919) is 206, and for retail (July, 1919),
190.
A look at the history of prices shows the interesting fact that, while
prices have sometimes fallen, they have generally risen. The high cost
of living has been for centuries a source of complaint. In the 16th
century, people objected to the price of wheat, which was three to ten
times what it cost during the preceding 300 years.
WORTHLESS PAPER MONEY
Where, through ignorance of monetary science, irredeemable paper money
was used, prices have sometimes gone up quite "out of sight." This was
the case with the famous assignats of the French Revolution, and the
"Continental" paper money of our own Revolution. After the Revolution a
barber in Philadelphia is said to have covered the walls of his shop
with continental paper money, calling it the cheapest wallpaper he could
get! Jokes were also heard of a housewife taking a market-basket full of
this "money" to the butcher's shop and bringing home the meat in her
purse! This money became a hissing and a byword; and, even to this day,
one of the favorite expressions for worthlessness is "not worth a
Continental." We see the same situation repeated again today with
Russian paper money.
But our first scientific measurement of price movements began with 1782,
the beginning of Jevons' index number of wholesale prices in England.
COMMENTS ON FIGURE 1
Figure 1 shows the course of prices in England from that date, and also,
for comparison, that in the U.S.
[Illustration: Figure 1
Price Movements of the United States and England from the Earliest Index
Numbers Through the First Years of the World War
Showing, in general, a close similarity. England was on a paper basis,
1801--1820; and the United States, 1862--78. The dotted lines for these
periods show the prices as translated back into gold.]
The conspicuous feature of these curves is their great irregularity.
Practically never are they for any length of time at all horizontal.
Sometimes, even in time of peace, a variation of over 10 per cent. is
shown in one year. The curve for the U. S. shows, at the time of the
Civil War, a very considerable rise (especially as measured in terms of
paper), followed by a decline beginning in 1873 and continuing to 1896.
The fall in the first part of this period was accentuated by the return
from a paper to a gold standard. From an index number of 100 in 1873,
the index number dropped to 51 in 1896. This decline resulted
politically in the famous Bryan "Free Silver" campaign.
[Illustration: Figure 2
Trend of Prices Before and After the Great Wars of History]
Since that time, however, the course of prices has been steadily upward.
Between 1896 and the outbreak of the war, the index number of the U. S.
rose about 50 per cent. Substantially the same increase took place in
Canada, while in the United Kingdom there was a rise of 35 per cent.
This rise before the war amounted, in the United States, to about
one-fifth of one per cent. per month. During the war, however, the rise
amounted in this country to 1½ per cent. per month, and abroad to much
more--in Germany and Austria to 3 per cent. per month, and in Russia,
apparently, to 4 or 5 per cent. per month. In the light of the
excitement caused up to 1914 by the comparatively moderate increase in
this country, we can better understand the Russian economic unrest when
a far steeper ascent of prices got under way.
The total effect can be summed up as follows: between 1914, before the
war, and November, 1918, the price level in this country (as indicated
by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics retail food index
number) rose 79 per cent.; that in England (according to the _Statist_
index number), 133 per cent.; that in France, approximately 140 per
cent.; that in western Europe probably at least three-fold; and in
Russia perhaps ten or twenty-fold.
The price level of the United States today is over three-fold that of
1896. Expressing the same fact in terms of the purchasing power of
money, our dollar of today is worth only 30 cents of the money in 1896,
so that as contrasted with the dollar of 1896 our dollar literally
"looks like thirty cents."
COMMENTS ON FIGURE 2
Now it is a common belief, and one which seems to be borne out by the
present situation, that war raises prices whereas peace lowers them. The
matter is, however, not so simple. Each case must be considered on its
own merits. Figure 2 shows price curves for the various wars.
In general prices have risen during wars. But there has not been any
such uniformity of movement after wars. Moreover in most cases the price
disturbances both during and after the wars had scarcely anything to do
with the coming and going of the war. In only four of the cases on the
chart is the rise of prices during the war really and clearly due to the
war. In the Napoleonic Wars, the war of 1812, the Civil War, and the
World War the rise of prices during the war was largely due to war
inflation.
As to the after effects on prices there are likewise only four clear
cases. The fall of paper prices relatively to gold after the Napoleonic
Wars, and the Civil War was, in each case, clearly due to resumption of
specie payments. The fall of prices in the United States after the War
of 1812 was doubtless due in large measure to the resumption of foreign
trade. In one case there was a rise of prices as an aftermath; the war
of 1871, which gave Germany a billion dollars of indemnity, created
inflation in Germany and prices rose there between 1871 and 1873 faster
than in any other country. This doubtless accentuated the crash in the
crisis of 1873.
In the other cases in the diagram the many instances of rise of prices
after the wars were due primarily at least, to other causes, although
the cessation of war and the undue optimism and spirit of speculation
which often follow may, in several instances, have contributed to the
boom period and the crisis which so often came a few years later, viz.,
that of 1857 after the Crimean War, that of 1866 after the Civil War, as
well as that of 1873 just mentioned.
The only safe generalizations seem to be the following two: The first is
that in so far as a war has been costly, _i. e._, has strained the
economic resources of the belligerents, there has been recourse to
inflation in some form and prices have risen. Besides the examples in
the chart are those of the French Revolution, the American Colonial
wars, the American Revolution and many others. The second generalization
is that after a costly war the price level is affected up or down by the
fiscal policy of the governments concerned.
HIGH PRICES NOT DUE TO SCARCITY
Most cherish the belief that high war prices today represent war
scarcity. In the case of some countries like Belgium and some
commodities like paper this is true and in such cases scarcity serves as
a partial explanation of high prices. But in the case of most countries
and most commodities there has been no general scarcity. The almost
universal rise of prices cannot be ascribed to scarcity. Prices have
risen of many goods not affected by the war or in countries remotest
from the war.
[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood
William McAdoo
Secretary of the Treasury during the World War, and Director-General of
the Railroads.]
As Mr. O. P. Austin, statistician of the National City Bank, has said:
"Raw silk, for example, for which the war made no special
demand and which was produced on the side of the globe opposite
that in which the hostilities were occurring, advanced from
$3.00 per pound in the country of production in 1913 to $4.50
per pound in 1917, and over $6.00 per pound in the closing
months of the war. Manila hemp, also produced on the opposite
side of the globe and not a war requirement, advanced in the
country of production from $180 per ton in 1915 to $437 per ton
in 1918. Goat skins, from China, India, Mexico and South
America, advanced from 25 cents per pound in 1914 to over 50
cents per pound in 1918; and yet goat skins were in no sense a
special requirement of the war. Sisal grass produced in Yucatan
advanced from $100 per ton in 1914 at the place of production
to nearly $400 per ton in 1918; and Egyptian cotton, a
high-priced product and thus not used for war purposes, jumped
from 14 cents per pound in Egypt in 1914 to 35 cents per pound
in 1918. Even the product of the diamond mines of South Africa
advanced from 60 to 100 per cent. in price per karat when
compared with prices existing in the opening months of the war.
"The prices are in all cases those _in the markets of the
country in which the articles were produced_ and in most cases
at points on the globe far distant from that in which the war
was being waged. They are the product of countries having
plentiful supply of cheap labor and upon which there has been
no demand for men for service in the war. The advance in the
prices quoted is in no sense due to the high cost of ocean
transportation since they are those demanded and obtained in
the markets of the country of production.
"Why is it that the product of the labor of women and children
who care for silk worms in China and Japan, of the Filipino
laborer who produces the Manila hemp, the Egyptian fellah who
grows the high grade cotton, the native workman in the diamond
mines of South Africa, the Mexican peon in the sisal field of
Yucatan, the Chinese coolie in the tin mines of Malay, or the
goatherd on the plains of China, India, Mexico or South America
has doubled in price during the war period?"
Mr. Austin goes on to show that the scarcity or "increased demand" for
war goods has been greatly exaggerated. It is true that some 40 million
men were at one time fighting in the war. But this is less than 2½ per
cent. of the world's population and it must not be forgotten that these
40 million were also consumers before the war. Their withdrawal from
industry did not really create a vacuum of even 1 per cent. of the
world's productive power; as women, boys and old men took their places
and others worked harder than in peace time.
In addition to the 40 million soldiers, some 150 million people have
been required to work on "war work" at home but they have simply been
"switched" from other forms of production which have been
correspondingly reduced. War supplies were demanded but these also
largely "switched" the demand from former and industrial uses. Lord
D'Abernon found that in England those objects of luxury "which would
seem to be influenced not at all or only very remotely and to a very
small degree by increased cost of labor and materials," such as old
books, prints and coins, had, nevertheless, advanced, roughly speaking
50 per cent., during the war. Thus "scarcity" and especial "war demands"
do not go far toward explaining the high price level even in Europe and
not at all, I believe, in this country.
In the United States while certain things have become scarce, including
certain foods, the general mass of goods has been actually increased as
a consequence of war.
The raw materials used in the United States in 1918 were 16 per cent.
more than in 1913 and 2 per cent. more than in 1917. The physical volume
of trade is estimated variously to be in 1918 from 22 per cent. to 41
per cent. above that in 1913 and 8 per cent. above that in 1917.
President Wilson, in his address to Congress, August 8, 1919, on the
high cost of living, gave other impressive examples as to foods,
especially eggs, frozen fowls, creamery butter, salt beef, and canned
corn, showing that scarcity is not the cause of high prices.
HIGH PRICES DUE TO MONETARY CAUSES
The truth is that the chief causes of the rise of prices in war time are
monetary causes.
It is almost invariably true that the great price movements of history
are chiefly monetary. This is shown, in the first place by the fact that
countries of like monetary standards have like price movements. Thus--to
consider gold-standard countries--there has usually been a remarkable
family resemblance between the curves representing the rise and fall of
the index numbers of the United States, Canada, England, France,
Belgium, Holland, Scandinavia, Germany, Austria and Italy. Again, the
price movements in silver countries show a strong likeness, as in India
and China between 1873 and 1893.
On the other hand, we find a great contrast between gold and silver
countries or between any countries which have different monetary
standards. In the World War the data are still too meager to enable us
to express all the relations in exact figures, but we may arrange the
different countries in the approximate order in which their prices have
risen. The order of the nations corresponds, in general, with the order
in which the currency in those nations has been inflated by paper as
well as with the order in which their monetary units have depreciated
in the foreign exchange markets.
This order--of ascending prices and of inflated currency--is as follows,
beginning with the least rise and inflation: India, Australia, New
Zealand, United States, Canada, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark,
Italy, Holland, England, Norway, France, Germany, Austria and Russia.
[Illustration: Figure 3.
Money and the Price Level
Showing a correspondence between the quantity of money and the level of
prices. Since the middle of 1915, when the quantity of money in the
United States began to be greatly affected by the war, the
correspondence has been close, changes in the price level seeming
usually to follow changes in the quantity of money one to three months
later.]
The ups and downs of prices correspond with the ups and downs of the
money supply. Throughout all history this has been so. For this general
statement there is sufficient evidence even where we lack the index
numbers by which to make accurate measurements. Whenever there have
been new discoveries of gold and rapid outpourings from mines, prices
have gone up with corresponding rapidity. This was observed in the 16th
century, after great quantities of the precious metals had been brought
to Europe from the Americas; and again in the 19th century, after the
Californian and Australian gold finds of the fifties; and still again,
in the same century after the South African, Alaskan and Cripple Creek
mining of the nineties.
Likewise when other causes than mining, such as paper money issues,
produce violent changes in the quantity or quality of money, violent
changes in the price level usually follow.
COMMENTS ON FIGURE 3
The World War furnishes important examples of this. In the United States
the curve for the quantity of money in circulation and the curve for the
index number of prices run continuously parallel, the price curve
following the money curve after a lag of one to three months. It was in
August, 1915, that the quantity of money in the United States began its
rapid increase. One month later prices began to shoot upward, keeping
almost exact pace with the quantity of money. In February, 1916, money
suddenly stopped increasing, and two or three months later prices
stopped likewise. As figure 3 shows, similar striking correspondences
have continued to occur with an average lag between the money cause and
the price effect of apparently about one and three-quarters months.
On the whole, the money in circulation in the United States rose from
three and one-third billions in 1913 to five and a half billions in
1918, and bank deposits from thirteen to twenty-five billions, both
approximately corresponding to the rise in prices.
Taking a world-wide view, the money in circulation in the world outside
of Russia has increased during the war from fifteen billions to
forty-five billions and the bank deposits in fifteen principal countries
from twenty-seven billions to seventy-five billions. That is both money
and deposits have trebled; and prices, on the average have perhaps
trebled also.
The Bolsheviki are a law unto themselves. They have issued eighty
billion dollars of paper money, or more than in all the rest of the
world put together. Consequently prices in Russia have doubtless reached
the sky, though no exact measure of them, since the Bolshevist régime,
is at hand.
The increase of over thirty billions in the money of the world (outside
of Russia) is as Austin says "more, _in its face value_, than all the
gold and all the silver turned out by all the mines of all the world in
427 years since the discovery of America."
The conclusion toward which the foregoing and other arguments lead is
that, in this war as in general in the past, the great outstanding
disturber of the price level has always been money. If this is the case,
how fruitless, except as treatments of symptoms, are price-fixing, or
campaigns aimed at profiteers! The cry of profiteering may hinder a real
solution of the difficulty by diverting attention from the real issue
and fanning and giving up an object to the spirit of revolt. Money is so
much an accepted convenience in practice that it has become a great
stumbling block in theory. Since we talk always in terms of money and
live in a money atmosphere, as it were, we become as unconscious of it
as we do of the air we breathe.
ASSOCIATE EVILS OF HIGH PRICES
We have now considered the cost of living situation under the two
questions "What is it?" and "Why is it?"
The third question, "What of it?"--_i. e._, what are the evils connected
with it--is more easily answered today, when it comes home to all of us,
that it might have been 10 years ago.
If, for each one of us, the rise of income were to keep up exactly with
the rise in cost of living, then the high cost of living would have no
terrors; it would be merely on paper. But no such perfect adjustment
ever occurs or can occur. Outstanding contracts and understandings in
terms of money make this out of the question. The salaried men and the
wage earners suffer--that is, the cost is borne by those with relatively
"fixed" incomes.
The truth is, the war was largely paid for, not by taxes or loans but by
the High Cost of Living. The result is that the effort to avoid
discontent of tax payers has created or rather aggravated the discontent
over high prices. Every rise in the cost of living brings new recruits
to the labor malcontents who feel victimized by society and have come to
hate society. They cite, in their indictment, the high price of
necessities and the high profits of certain great corporations both of
which they attribute, not to the aberrations of our monetary yardstick
but to deliberate plundering by "profiteers" or a social system of
"exploitation." They grow continually more suspicious and nurse an
imaginary grudge against the world. We are being threatened by more
quack remedies--revolutionary socialism, syndicalism, and Bolshevism.
Radicalism rides on the wave of high prices.
As a matter of fact, the real wages in 1918, that is, their purchasing
power, were only 80 per cent. of the real wages of 1913. That is, while
the retail prices of food advanced 68 per cent., wages in money advanced
only 30 per cent. The real wages of 1913 were in turn less than in
earlier years.
Lord D'Abernon, in a recent speech in the House of Lords said: "I am
convinced and cannot state too strongly my belief that 80 per cent. of
our present industrial troubles and our Bolshevism which is so great a
menace to Europe are due to this enormous displacement in the value of
money." In fact, before the war, rising costs of living were
manufacturing socialists all over the world, including Germany, and the
German Government may have weighed, as one of the expected dynastic
advantages of war, the suppression of the growing internal class
struggle which this high cost of living was bringing on apace.
MANY SUGGESTED REMEDIES INADEQUATE
We are now ready for the question, "What can be done about it?" So far
as the past is concerned, comparatively little. Bygones must largely be
bygones. So far as wages and salaries are concerned, the remedy must be
to raise them rather than to lower the high cost of living. While some
kinds of work have had excessive wages during the war, this has not been
true in general, public opinion to the contrary notwithstanding. I quite
agree with Mr. Gompers that the wage level should not be lowered even
if it could be. On the contrary it should be raised to catch up with
prices, just as was done after the Civil War. But in regard to contracts
little relief for past injuries can be expected. We would best use the
past as a lesson for the future. That is what I understand by
"reconstruction."
[Illustration: John Pierpont Morgan
The banking house of Morgan was closely identified with international
finance throughout the World War.]
Many impracticable plans have been proposed. Secretary Redfield
undertook to stabilize prices by arbitrarily fixing them. He failed,
necessarily. We might as well try to fix the sea level by pressing on
the ocean. The same, as I stated above, is true of a campaign against
profiteers though proposed by so high an authority as President Wilson.
PROPOSED REMEDY
The plan I shall here outline has received the approval of a large
number of leading economists, business men, and organizations,
including President Hadley of Yale; a committee of economists appointed
to consider the purchasing power of money in relation to the war; Frank
A. Vanderlip, president of the National City Bank of New York; George
Foster Peabody, Federal Reserve banker of New York; John Perrin, Federal
Reserve Agent of San Francisco; Henry L. Higginson, the veteran banker
of Boston; Roger W. Babson, statistician; John Hays Hammond, mining
engineer; John V. Farwell, of Chicago; Leo S. Rowe, Assistant Secretary
of the Treasury: United States Senator, Robert L. Owen, one of the
authors of the Federal Reserve Act; Ex-Senator Shafroth; the late
Senator Newlands; Sir David Barbour, one of the originators of the
Indian gold exchange standard; the Society of Polish Engineers; the New
England Purchasing Agents' Association; and a few Chambers of Commerce.
WANTED--A STANDARDIZED DOLLAR
Our dollar is now simply a fixed weight of gold--a unit of weight,
masquerading as a unit of value. It is almost as absurd to define a unit
of value, or general purchasing power, in terms of weight as to define a
unit of length in terms of weight. What good does it do us to be assured
that our dollar weighs just as much as ever? We want a dollar which will
always buy the same aggregate quantity of bread, butter, beef, bacon,
beans, sugar, clothing, fuel, and the other essential things that we
spend it for. What is needed is to stabilize or standardize the dollar
just as we have already standardized the yardstick, the pound weight,
the bushel basket, the pint cup, the horsepower, the volt, and, indeed,
all the units of commerce except the dollar.
Money today has two great functions. It is a medium of exchange and it
is a standard of value. Gold was chosen because it was a good medium,
not because it was a good standard. And so, because our ancestors found
a good medium of exchange, we now find ourselves saddled with a bad
standard of value!
The problem before us is to retain gold as a good medium and yet to make
it into a good standard; not to abandon the gold standard but to rectify
it; not to rid ourselves of the gold dollar but to make it conform in
purchasing power to the composite or goods-dollar. The method of
rectifying the gold standard consists in suitably varying the weight of
the gold dollar. The gold dollar is now fixed in weight and therefore
variable in purchasing power. What we need is a gold dollar fixed in
purchasing power and therefore variable in weight. I do not think that
any sane man, whether or not he accepts the theory of money which I
accept, will deny that the weight of gold in a dollar has a great deal
to do with its purchasing power. More gold will buy more goods.
Therefore more gold than 25.8 grains will, barring counteracting causes,
buy more goods than 25.8 grains itself will buy. If today the dollar,
instead of being 25.8 grains or about one-twentieth of an ounce of gold,
were an ounce or a pound or a ton of gold it would surely buy more than
it does now, which is the same thing as saying that the price level
would be lower than it is now.
A Mexican gold dollar weighs about half as much as ours and has less
purchasing power. If Mexico should adopt the same dollar that we have
and that Canada has, no one could doubt that its purchasing power would
rise--that is, the price level in Mexico would fall. Since, then, the
heavier or the lighter the gold dollar is the more or the less is its
purchasing power, it follows that, if we add new grains of gold to the
dollar just fast enough to compensate for the loss in the purchasing
power of each grain, or vice versa take away gold to compensate for a
gain, we shall have a fully "compensated dollar," a stationary instead
of fluctuating dollar, when judged by its purchasing power.
But how, it will be asked, is it possible, in practice, to change the
weight of the gold dollar? The feat is certainly not impossible, for it
has often been accomplished. We ourselves have changed the weight of our
gold dollar twice--once in 1834, when the gold in the dollar was reduced
7 per cent., and again in 1837, when it was increased one-tenth of 1 per
cent. If we can change it once or twice a century, we can change it once
or twice a month!
HOW GOLD CIRCULATES
In actual fact, gold now circulates almost entirely through
"yellowbacks," or gold certificates. The gold itself, often not in the
form of coins at all but of "bar gold," lies in the government vaults.
The abolition of gold coin would make no material change in the present
situation.
If gold thus circulated only in the form of paper representatives it
would evidently be possible to vary at will the weight of the gold
dollar without any such annoyance or complication as would arise from
the existence of coins. The government would simply vary the quantity of
gold bullion which it would exchange for a paper dollar--the quantity it
would give or take at a given time. As readily as a grocer can vary the
amount of sugar he will give for a dollar, the government could vary the
amount of gold it would give for a dollar.
CRITERION OF STANDARDIZATION
But, it will now be asked, what criterion is to guide the government in
making these changes in the dollar's weight? Am I proposing that some
government official should be authorized to mark the dollar up or down
according to his own caprice? Most certainly not. A definite and simple
criterion for the required adjustments is at hand--the now familiar
"index number" of prices.
If, for instance, the index number is found to be 1 per cent. above the
ideal par, this fact will indicate that the purchasing power of the
dollar has gone down; and this fact will be the signal and authorization
for an increase of 1 per cent. in the weight of the gold dollar. What is
thereby added to the purchasing power of the gold dollar will be
automatically registered in the purchasing power of its circulating
certificate. If the correction is not enough, or if it is too much, the
index number next month will tell the story.
Absolutely perfect correction is impossible, but any imperfection will
continue to reappear and so cannot escape ultimate correction. Suppose,
for instance, that next month the index number is found to remain
unchanged at 101. Then the dollar is at once loaded an additional 1 per
cent. And if, next month, the index number is, let us say, 100½ (that
is, one half of 1 per cent above par) this one-half of 1 per cent. will
call for a third addition to the dollar's weight, this time of one-half
of one per cent. And so, as long as the index number persists in
staying even a little above par, the dollar will continue to be loaded
each month, until, if necessary, it weighs an ounce--or a ton, for that
matter. But, of course, long before it can become so heavy, the
additional weight will become sufficient; so that the index number will
be pushed back to par--that is, the circulating certificate will have
its purchasing power restored. Or suppose the index number falls below
par, say 1 per cent. below. This fact will indicate that the purchasing
power of the dollar has gone up. Accordingly, the gold dollar will be
reduced in weight 1 per cent., and each month that the index number
remains below par the now too heavy dollar will be unloaded and the
purchasing power of the certificate brought down to par.
Thus by ballast thrown overboard or taken on, our dollar is kept from
drifting far from the proper level. The result is that the price level
would oscillate only slightly. Instead of there being any great price
convulsions, such as we find throughout history, the index number would
run, say 101, 100½, 101, 100, 102, 101½, 100, 98, 99, 99, 99½, 100,
etc., seldom getting off the line more than 1 or 2 per cent.
A PROBLEM CALLING FOR URGENT ACTION
With the question now before us, it is evident that the problem of our
monetary standards has much more than theoretical significance. It is a
practical problem, and, I submit, the most pressing which the war has
left us. I do not offer the solution described above as the only answer
to the problem. It is, however, a working basis, a starting point, from
which we may be able to work out a better plan. _Some_ scientifically
sound plan is essential, or we shall be the victims of quack remedies.
Finally, _now_ is the time to take up the matter. Public interest is now
focused on the cost of living and is very largely educated to the fact
that the high prices have a monetary basis. Furthermore, the world is
looking to us, as never before, for leadership. It is our golden
opportunity to set _world_ standards. If we adopt a stable standard of
value, it seems certain that other nations, as fast as they can
straighten out their affairs, resume specie payments, and secure again
stable pars of exchange, will follow our example.
Let us, then, who realize the situation, act upon our knowledge; and
secure a boon for all future generations, a true standard for contracts,
a stabilized dollar.
[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood
President Wilson and Rear Admiral Grayson Passing the Palace of the King
in Brussels]
The Great Results of the War
The Great Results of the War
_PART I_
I--ECONOMIC RESULTS OF THE WAR
Striking Changes Made by the European Conflict Upon the Economic Life of
the Great Nations
The paramount position of War Finance was brought vividly and
continuously before the whole people of the United States by the Liberty
Loan campaigns. This lesson was an old one though it was enforced by all
the improved methods of modern publicity. To Napoleon Bonaparte is
attributed the statement that three things are necessary to wage a
successful war: money, more money, and still more money.
FINDING THE MONEY FOR WAR
It has been well said that:
"Perhaps the greatest surprise of the war to most people, even
to those who had studied political economy, has been the
enormous expenditure of money which a nation can incur, and the
length of time which it can go on fighting without complete
exhaustion. This should not have been in reality a surprise to
anyone who had studied past history, for all experience shows
that lack of money itself has never prevented a nation from
continuing to fight, if it were determined to fight. The
financial condition of Revolutionary France at the commencement
of Napoleon's career was wretched in the extreme, yet France
went on fighting for nearly twenty years after that. The Balkan
States can hardly be said ever to have had great financial
resources, and yet they fought, one after the other, two severe
wars, and are now fighting a third still more severe and
prolonged. The Boers in South Africa found no difficulty in
fighting the British Empire for three years with practically no
financial resources. The Mexicans recently managed to fight one
another for a good many years in the same way. Lastly, the
Southern states in our own Civil War fought for years a
desperate and losing fight and were ultimately beaten to the
ground, not so much by a lack of money, as by an actual lack of
things to live on and fight with. In fact, all history proves,
and this war proves over again, that if what the Germans call
'the will to fight' exists lack of money will never stop a
nation's fighting, provided it possesses or can obtain its
absolutely minimum requirements of food, clothing, and
munitions of war. It was Bismarck who said: 'If you will give
me a printing press, I will find you the money.' In finding the
money required for an exhausting war a nation is driven to all
sorts of desperate financial expedients which may very
seriously affect its economic life, but if a nation wants to
continue fighting and can produce, or be induced to produce,
the things that are absolutely necessary for life and warfare,
the government will get hold of those things somehow. If it
cannot get them in any other way, ultimately it will take
them."
STRONG POSITION OF UNITED STATES
When the war opened England was in the strongest position of any of the
Allies. She was the greatest creditor nation in the world. That is, she
was able to purchase goods from foreign countries on easier terms than
her associates. Russia and Italy were debtor nations and had to borrow
even before the war in order to balance their foreign accounts. So these
members of the Entente had to be assisted in making purchases abroad.
England was able for a long time to keep up her exchange rate in New
York. This was done by the shipment of gold and by inducing the holders
of American securities in England to sell or lend such securities to
their government.
England was forced to act as the agent of other Powers who were fighting
with her. Until the United States came in, it was the greatest
industrial arsenal among the Allies. Large imports were naturally a
feature of this policy. The United States soon began to feel the result
of the changes in international credit. Exports almost doubled between
1912 and 1917, the figures being in millions, $2,399,000,000 and
$6,231,000,000, respectively.
Another side of the United States trade account to the world is
indicated by the following classified list of loans to January, 1917:
"Between August 1, 1914, and December 31, 1916, the loans
raised in the United States by foreign countries were estimated
to reach $2,325,900,000, of which $175,000,000 had been repaid.
The net indebtedness on January 1, 1917, was therefore
$2,150,900,000. The loans may be classified geographically as
follows:
Europe $1,893,400,000
Canada 270,500,000
Latin America 157,000,000
China 5,000,000
--------------
Total foreign loans $2,325,900,000
Less amount paid, estimated 175,000,000
--------------
Net foreign indebtedness $2,150,900,000
"The loans of the belligerent countries which were floated in
the United States up to the close of 1916 are divided as
follows:
Great Britain $908,400,000
France 695,000,000
Russia 160,000,000
Germany 45,000,000[1]
Canada 270,500,000
--------------
Total $2,078,900,000[2]
[1] Estimated.
[2] Nearly $1,900,000,000 of this constituted war loans.
NEW PACE IN WAR FINANCE
A new pace in war finance was set by the United States when it became a
belligerent. It had to provide for an increase of taxation ascending
from the point of $3,000,000,000 in 1917 to over $8,000,000,000 in 1918.
The largest source of estimated revenue was from taxes on excess
profits, including war profits of $3,100,000,000, and the next was from
taxes on incomes, $1,482,186,000 from individuals, and $828,000,000 from
corporations. The New York _Journal of Commerce_ shows by the following
table the difference between the old and the new system of taxation.
Exemptions under the new law were the same as under the old: $1,000 for
single persons and $2,000 for married, $200 additional allowed for each
dependent child under eighteen years of age:
Incomes Tax Under
Old New
Law Law
$2,500 $10 $30
3,000 20 60
3,500 30 90
4,000 40 120
4,500 60 150
5,000 80 180
5,500 105 220
6,000 130 260
6,500 155 330
7,000 180 400
7,500 205 470
8,000 235 545
8,500 265 620
9,000 295 695
9,500 325 770
10,000 355 845
12,500 530 1,320
15,000 730 1,795
20,000 1,180 2,895
25,000 1,780 4,240
30,000 2,380 5,595
35,000 2,980 7,195
40,000 3,580 8,795
45,000 4,380 10,645
50,000 5,180 12,495
55,000 5,980 14,695
60,000 6,780 16,895
70,000 8,880 21,895
80,000 10,980 27,295
100,000 16,180 39,095
150,000 31,680 70,095
200,000 49,180 101,095
300,000 92,680 165,095
500,000 192,680 207,095
1,000,000 475,180 647,095
5,000,000 3,140,180 3,527,095
The following estimated yield from other sources is given by the same
authority:
"Transportation--Freight, $75,000,000; express, $20,000,000;
passenger fares, $60,000,000; seats and berths, $5,000,000; oil
by pipe lines, $4,550,000.
"Beverages (liquors and soft drinks), $1,137,600,000; stamp
taxes, $32,000,000; tobacco cigars, $61,364,000; cigarettes,
$165,240,000; tobacco, 104,000,000; snuff, $9,100,000; papers
and tubes, $1,500,000.
"Special Taxes.--Capital stock, $70,000,000; brokers,
$1,765,000; theaters, etc., $2,143,000; mail order sales,
$5,000,000; bowling alleys, billiard and pool tables,
$2,200,000; shooting galleries, $400,000; riding academies,
$50,000; business license tax, $10,000,000; manufacturers of
tobacco, $69,000; manufacturers of cigars, $850,000;
manufacturers of cigarettes, $240,000; use of automobiles and
motor cycles, $72,920,000.
"Telegraph and telephone messages, $15,000,000; insurance,
$12,000,000; admissions (theaters, circuses, etc.),
$100,000,000; club dues, $9,000,000.
"Excise Taxes.--Automobiles, etc., $123,750,000; jewelry,
sporting goods, etc., $80,000,000; other taxes on luxuries at
10 percent., $88,760,000; other taxes on luxuries (apparel,
etc., above certain prescribed prices), at 20 percent.,
$181,095,000.
"Gasoline, $40,000,000; yachts and pleasure boats, $1,000,000."
"The income tax law levies on all citizens or residents of the
United States a normal tax of 12 percent. upon the amount of
income in excess of exemptions, except that on the first $4,000
of the taxable amount the rate shall be 6 percent. The law also
increases the surtaxes all along the line. The advances by
grades compared with the percentage under the old law are:
$5,000 to $7,500 incomes, increased from 1 to 2 percent.;
$7,500 to $10,000, from 2 to 3 percent.; $10,000 to $12,500,
from 3 to 7 percent.; $12,500 to $15,000, from 4 to 7 percent.;
$15,000 to $20,000, from 5 to 10 percent.; $20,000 to $30,000,
from 8 to 15 percent.; $30,000 to $40,000, from 8 to 20
percent.; $40,000 to $50,000, from 12 to 25 percent.; $50,000
to $60,000, from 12 to 32 percent.; $60,000 to $70,000, from 17
to 38 percent.; $70,000 to $80,000, from 17 to 42 percent.;
$80,000 to $90,000, from 22 to 46 percent.; $90,000 to
$100,000, from 22 to 46 percent.; $100,000 to $150,000, from
27 to 50 percent.; $150,000 to $200,000, from 31 to 50
percent.; $200,000 to $250,000, from 37 to 52 percent.;
$250,000 to $300,000, from 42 to 55 percent. The rate continues
to increase, but on incomes of over $5,000,000 the increase is
only from 63 percent., under former law to 65 percent."
[Illustration: Copyright by International Film Service
Women Munition Workers in the International Fuse and Arms Works
Before entering the war, the United States was the great arsenal of the
Allies. After our entry, production of munitions increased, while the
man power in the industry diminished through enlistments and the draft.
Women took up the work and showed surprising ability.]
MEANING OF NEW TAXATION
According to a calculation published in the New York _World_ the war
revenue bill imposed a war tax of $80 on every man, woman and child in
the United States, or approximately $400 for each family. The amount
expected to be derived from each item is given in the following table:
Individual income tax $1,482,186,000
Corporation income tax 894,000,000
Excess and war profits 3,200,000,000
Estate tax 110,000,000
Transportation 164,550,000
Telegraph and telephone 16,000,000
Insurance 12,000,000
Admissions 100,000,000
Club dues 9,000,000
Excise, luxury, and semi-luxury 518,305,000
Beverages 1,137,600,000
Stamp taxes--chiefly documentary 32,000,000
Tobacco and products 341,204,000
Special business and
automobile-user's Taxes 165,607,000
--------------
Total $8,182,452,000
With the operation of this tax the people of the United States found it
no longer possible to speak in terms of opprobrium of the tax-ridden
people of Europe. The American income tax has a higher rate on large
incomes than that provided for under the English system. A man in the
United States with an income of $5,000,000 is taxed nearly 50 percent.,
more than in England. The New York _Tribune_ published tables printed
below comparing the income tax rates of the United States with those
existing in France and in Great Britain.
INCOME TAX COMPARISON
A compilation made for the _Wall Street Journal_ shows that the United
States income tax even with the increases made in 1918 was still far
lower than the English income tax:
"The great bulk, numerically, of incomes taxed in 1917 was in
the field reached by the lowering of the exemption in the 1917
law.... It is a fact, however, that no one of these new
taxpayers was called on to contribute more than $40 to the
government, as the rate was only 2 percent., while all other
incomes paid a basic normal tax of 4 percent. The lowest rate
for normal tax in Great Britain is 2 shillings and 3 pence on
the pound, or 11¼ percent., and the exemption is only $600. The
basic normal tax under the new English law is 6 shillings on
the pound, or 30 percent., on all incomes over $25,000.
_United States
Old Law New Law United Kingdom France
Income Rate Rate Rate (%) Rate
Am't (%) Am't (%) Unearned Earned (%)_
$ 2,500 $10 .40 $30 1.20 11.25 8.44 1.25
3,000 20 .67 60 2.00 14.84 11.87 1.67
3,500 30 .86 90 2.57 16.24 12.96 2.07
4,000 46 1.00 120 3.00 18.16 14.53 2.44
4,500 60 1.33 150 3.33 18.75 15.00 2.86
5,000 80 1.60 180 3.60 18.75 15.00 3.20
5,500 105 1.91 220 4.00 22.50 18.75 3.48
6,000 130 2.16 260 4.33 22.50 18.75 3.71
6,500 155 2.38 330 5.08 22.50 18.75 3.90
7,000 180 2.57 400 5.71 22.50 18.75 4.07
7,500 205 2.73 470 6.27 22.50 18.75 4.21
8,000 235 2.93 545 6.81 26.25 22.50 4.34
8,500 265 3.12 620 7.29 26.25 22.50 4.53
9,000 295 3.28 695 7.72 26.25 22.50 4.69
9,500 325 3.42 770 8.11 26.25 22.50 4.84
10,000 355 3.55 845 8.45 26.25 22.50 4.98
12,500 530 4.24 1,320 10.56 30.00 26.25 5.53
15,000 730 4.87 1,795 11.97 32.08 32.08 6.07
20,000 1,180 5.90 2,895 14.48 34.06 34.06 6.99
25,000 1,780 7.12 4,245 16.98 35.75 35.75 7.84
30,000 2,380 7.93 5,595 18.65 37.29 37.29 8.41
35,000 2,980 8.51 7,195 20.56 38.75 38.75 8.99
40,000 3,580 8.95 8,795 21.99 39.84 39.84 9.43
45,000 4,380 9.73 10,645 23.66 40.97 40.97 9.77
50,000 5,180 10.36 12,495 24.99 41.88 41.88 10.05
55,000 5,980 10.87 14,695 26.72 42.84 42.84 10.27
60,000 6,780 11.30 16,895 28.16 43.65 43.65 10.45
70,000 8,880 12.69 21,895 31.26 44.91 44.91 10.75
80,000 10,980 13.72 27,295 34.12 45.86 45.86 10.96
100,000 16,180 16.18 39,095 39.10 47.19 47.19 11.27
150,000 31,680 21.12 70,095 46.73 48.96 48.96 11.68
200,000 49,180 24.59 101,095 50.55 49.84 49.84 11.89
300,000 92,680 30.89 165,095 55.03 50.73 50.73 12.09
500,000 192,680 38.54 297,095 59.42 51.44 51.44 12.25
1,000,000 475,180 47.52 647,095 64.71 51.97 51.97 12.38
5,000,000 3,140,000 62.80 3,527,095 70.54 52.39 52.39 12.48
"Actual rate, allowing for deductions, normal tax, and surtaxes, based
on taxes on incomes of heads of families. Persons with no dependents pay
more; those with more than one pay less. $2,000 is exempted for heads of
families, $1,000 for bachelors. Below $4,000, 6 per cent. is the normal
tax; above, 12 per cent. Surtaxes begin at $5,000."
"If the new normal tax in the United States were made uniformly
12 percent.--wiping out the 2 percent. discrimination of the
1917 law--a single man in this country with a salary of $1,500
a year would be called on to pay $60 in income tax, as against
an English tax of $101.25. Assuming that the normal tax were
raised to 12 percent. and the surtax and excess tax were left
as at present, an unmarried American with a salary of $10,000
would pay $1,430.20, while the unmarried Englishman would pay
$2,250. If the Englishman derived his $10,000 income from
rentals, his tax would be increased to $2,625, while the
American tax would be reduced to $1,165--an Irish dividend on
effort.
"According to a level where the British surtax becomes
effective, take a salary of $20,000. The English normal tax on
this would be $6,000 and the surtax $812.50 (figuring $5 to the
pound), a total of $6,812.50. At the suggested rate of 12
percent., the American's normal tax would be $2,145.60 (rate
applying to $20,000, less $1,000 exemption and $1,120 excess
tax); the surtax would be $444 and the excess tax $1,120; a
total of $3,709.60. If the American cut non-tax-free coupons
for his income instead of working for it, his tax would be
reduced to $2,780, making it more than $600, less than one-half
the English tax. This, be it remembered, is figuring the
American normal tax at the supposititious rate of 12 percent.
"Going abruptly to an income of $1,000,000, the American normal
tax at 12 percent., would be $119,880, against an English normal
tax of $300,000. The increase in the American normal tax would
be $79,960 over present rates. The American surtax at present
rates would be $435,300, as against a British surtax of
$217,915; total American, $555,180, English, $519,687.50. No
account is taken in this computation of any excess tax on the
American income. With an income of $3,000,000. the American
normal tax at 12 percent. would be $359,880, an increase of
$239,960 over present rates. The surtax at present rates would
be $1,680,300, a total of $2,040,180, or nearly 70 percent.,
the rate on the last $1,000,000 being at 75 percent. The
corresponding British tax is, normal, $900,000, and surtax
$669,685; total, $1,569,685, or nearly 52 percent., the actual
maximum rate being 52½ percent. on all excess over $50,000.
"Expressed in tabular form, comparative results from a normal
tax of 12 percent., combined with present surtax rates and
assuming all income up to $50,000 to be earned income for a
single man, would be as follows:
U.S. Per British Per
Income Tax Cent. Tax Cent.
$1,500 $60.00 4.00 $101.25 6.75
3,000 240.00 8.00 375.00 12.50
5,000 480.00 9.60 750.00 15.00
7,500 789.40 10.52 1,406.25 18.75
10,000 1,430.20 14.30 2,250.00 22.50
15,000 2,534.80 16.90 4,812.50 32.08
20,000 3,709.60 18.55 6,812.50 34.06
30,000 6,336.00 21.12 11,187.50 37.29
40,000 8,956.00 22.39 15,937.50 39.84
50,000 11,855.20 23.71 20,937.50 40.18
75,000 18,605.20 24.81 34,062.50 45.42
100,000 26,855.20 26.80 47,187.50 47.19
150,000 46,355.20 30.90 73,437.50 48.96
250,000 92,355.20 36.94 125,937.50 50.37
500,000 235,355.20 47.07 257,187.50 51.44
700,000 359,355.20 51.33 362,187.50 51.74
750,000 390,355.20 52.05 388,437.50 51.79
1,000,000 557,855.20 55.78 519,687.50 51.97
3,000,000 2,042,855.20 68.09 1,569,687.50 52.32
10,000,000 7,292,855.20 72.93 5,244,687.50 52.45
"With additional exemption of $1,000 for heads of families and
$200 each for dependent children, the United States figures in
the table would be reduced by $120 for the $1,000 exemption and
$24 for each child. There are similar deductions to be made in
the English figures. Furthermore, for incomes above $50,000,
deduction for the excess tax has not been figured exactly in
order to avoid long computations. This would slightly reduce
the figure on the large incomes. But for demonstrative
purposes, the table gives a fairly accurate general comparison
of the range of taxes under the proposed English law and a
tentative 12 percent. normal rate under our law.
"It will be noticed that the rates would come together just
below $750,000. It is in the range between $5,000 and $500,000
incomes that greatest divergence in rates occurs. The British
tax takes its largest jump between $10,000 and $15,000, where
the surtax begins to operate. The United States gradations are
erratic and irregular, showing the haphazard manner in which
the steps of the surtax were applied."
ATTITUDE TOWARD WAR TAX BILL
The passing of the war tax bill was not altogether easy sailing; there
was plenty of criticism from the press throughout the country.
Republican editors and congressmen wondered why the bill did not contain
a tax on cotton, and one Pennsylvania congressman thought that the tax
levy should be at the rate of three dollars a bale. Senator Smoot of
Utah attacked the bill as a bunglesome measure.
The New York _Journal of Commerce_ called attention to the
discrimination between those whose income is in the form of services or
property and those who get it in cash:
"Take the case, for instance, of the salaried employee of a
bank or factory who receives $5,000 a year, out of which he
pays his house rent and his usual costs of living; contrast him
with the case of a farmer who owns his land and obtains the
bulk of what he needs, both in food, fuel, and other
essentials, for himself and family in produce or in goods
obtained by trade at the neighboring village; the situation
becomes clear and shows why it is that the farming class pays
only a microscopic proportion of the income tax at the present
time."
And the Democratic New York _World_ agreed that the farmer "is not
carrying his share of the load of war taxation," and observes:
"An analysis of income tax returns for the fiscal year 1916,
recently published, shows that, although farmers are the most
numerous class of Americans engaged in gainful occupations,
they were at the foot of the list proportionately among income
tax payers. Outside of the notorious war profiteers, no element
of our population has advantaged so greatly by war as
agriculturists; yet in the year of which we speak only one
farmer in four hundred paid a farthing's tax upon income. In
this respect preachers and teachers showed a higher
percentage."
There was some demand for extending the income tax downwards to cover
smaller incomes, for example, we find the Council Bluffs' _Nonpareil_
contending:
"The men of more moderate income should be required to pay at
least a nominal income tax. This is a common country. It
belongs to common people. And common people will esteem it a
privilege to contribute their mites. One dollar per hundred on
a thousand-dollar income would be both reasonable and just."
CRITICISM OF THE TAX
The attitude of the New York press is indicated by the _Evening Sun_ and
the _Times_. The New York _Evening Sun_ (Rep.) said the committee "left
so many rough edges upon their work." In the opinion of this newspaper,
Mr. Kitchin "has given us a measure of class-taxation highly
accentuated, and yet has failed to suit the McAdoo group, the most
clear-minded adherents of the conscription-of-wealth idea. He has
produced a confused series of taxes beyond the practical power of the
ordinary busy citizen to master or comprehend, but has not combined
these into a harmonious system." The morning _Sun_ even went so far as
to remark that "nothing that the Senate could do could make the Kitchin
measure worse than it is." Yet it by no means criticized all the
features of the bill. It objected to the proposed taxes on oil producers
as discouraging the production of oil, and styled the plan to tax
distributed corporation earnings at twelve percent. and undistributed
earnings at eighteen percent. "simply a fool tax," which "will help to
lock the wheels of every great industry in this country."
The foundation mistake of the bill, in the opinion of the New York
_Times_ (Ind. Dem.) was the "attempt to assess taxes upon the smallest
possible number of persons and businesses, leaving a great majority of
the people free from a levy direct or indirect." The _Times_ thought
that this policy was dictated by the desire "to leave the mass of voters
free from grounds of complaint against the party in power." It insisted
that there should be a consumption tax levying "upon the breakfast table
and upon the purchases of a great mass of people." Such necessities as
tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, should bear a tax, in the opinion of this and
other newspapers. The number of those taxed was also kept comparatively
small by the retention of the old income exemption limits, namely,
$1,000 for bachelors and $2,000 for married men, with the normal tax
rate placed at only six percent. on incomes up to $5,000.
WILSON'S TAX PROGRAM
An outline of what was expected from the people of the country as a
financial contribution was given by Mr. Wilson in his May (1918) address
to Congress, when he decided to ask its members to remain in Washington
and prepare a new revenue bill. Mr. Wilson's call for immediate action
in behalf of both the public and the Treasury Department was a summons
to a universal duty in language which, it is remarked, "was never before
used in a tax speech." He said in part:
"We can not in fairness wait until the end of the fiscal year
is at hand to apprize our people of the taxes they must pay on
their earnings of the present calendar year, whose accountings
and expenditures will then be closed.
"We can not get increased taxes unless the country knows what
they are to be and practices the necessary economy to make them
available. Definiteness, early definiteness, as to what its
tasks are to be is absolutely necessary for the successful
administration of the treasury....
"The present tax laws are marred, moreover, by inequities which
ought to be remedied....
"Only fair, equitably distributed taxation of the widest
incidence, drawing chiefly from the sources which would be
likely to demoralize credit by their very abundance, can
prevent inflation and keep our industrial system free of
speculation and waste.
[Illustration: Poster for Boy Scouts Who Worked for the Victory Loan]
"We shall naturally turn, therefore, I suppose, to war profits
and incomes and luxuries for the additional taxes. But the war
profits and incomes upon which the increased taxes will be
levied will be the profits and incomes of the calendar year
1918. It would be manifestly unfair to wait until the early
months of 1919 to say what they are to be....
"Moreover, taxes of that sort will not be paid until the June
of next year, and the treasury must anticipate them....
"In the autumn a much larger sale of long-time bonds must be
effected than has yet been attempted....
"And how are investors to approach the purchase of bonds with
any sort of confidence or knowledge of their own affairs if
they do not know what taxes they are to pay and what economies
and adjustments of their business they must effect? I can not
assure the country of a successful administration of the
treasury in 1918 if the question of further taxation is to be
left undecided until 1919."
Mr. Wilson's appeal for the practice of personal economy met with
widespread approval in England, as it did in the United States. The
_Economist_ considered that his manifesto to the American people on this
subject was among the greatest documents that the war has produced.
National self-sacrifice had gone far, but not far enough. To attain Mr.
Wilson's standard of individual patriotism much was still needed, the
_Economist_ says:
"We still have a very long way to go before we can attain to
President Wilson's standard of individual patriotism. From the
outbreak of war to the end of last year the small investor in
this country has lent £118,179,000 to the government. Moreover,
in the first two months of 1917 as much as £40,000,000 was
contributed to war loans in one form or another in the shape of
small savings. That result represents a great deal of patriotic
saving, and reflects the highest credit on the committee, as
well as upon the Montagu committee, which devised so suitable a
form of investment as the 15s 6d certificate. But far more is
required. During the war loan campaign, war savings
certificates brought in £3,000,000 in a single week. That
effort was, perhaps, too great to be kept up; but it is hardly
satisfactory that, in spite of the hard work of the committee,
and an enormous growth in the number of active war savings
associations all over the country, the weekly receipts from the
15s 6d certificates have fallen back to the £800,000 to
£900,000 level which was reached last December. This relapse
may be partially accounted for by the late increase in the cost
of living, but there can be no doubt that much more might yet
be done by the masses of people of moderate means to whom the
small certificates appeal. Nor is there any evidence that the
wealthier classes, generally speaking, have done nearly as
much, in the matter of war self denial, as they might have
done."
LUXURY TAXES
When it came to a question of taxing luxuries, the difficulty was to
decide what was a luxury. The situation perplexed Congress, for we find
one congressman in Pennsylvania who held that collar buttons and cuff
buttons were a necessity, while a representative from Texas asserted
that Texas could get along without either collar buttons and cuff
buttons and still be patriotic. A congressman from Oklahoma thought that
all kinds of buttons could be done away with, adding, "Before I came to
Congress I could use nails for my suspenders." Congressman from
agricultural states considered that automobiles and gasoline were not
luxuries but were really necessities, especially for farmers.
Many newspapers opposed anything like a luxury tax. We find the New York
_Times_ advising the imposition of taxes on tea, sugar, coffee and
cocoa. These are good revenue producers but few politicians care to
interfere with the free breakfast table. The _Wall Street Journal_
approved of luxury taxes because they would be a means of enforcing
thrift. The Treasury's plan for imposing these taxes may be gathered
from the following condensed summary:
"Fifty percent. on the retail price of jewelry, including
watches and clocks, except those sold to army officers.
"Twenty percent. on automobiles, trailers and truck units,
motor cycles, bicycles automobile, motor cycle, and bicycle
tires, and musical instruments.
"A tax on all men's suits selling for more than $30, hats over
$4, shirts over $2, pajamas over $2, hosiery over 35 cents,
shoes over $5, gloves over $2, underwear over $3, and all
neckwear and canes.
"On women's suits over $40, coats over $30, ready-made dresses
over $35, skirts over $15, hats over $10, shoes over $6,
lingerie over $5, corsets over $5. Dress goods--silk over $1.50
a square yard; cotton over 50 cents a square yard, and wool
over $2 per square yard. All furs, boas and fans.
"On children's clothing--on children's suits over $15, cotton
dresses over $3, linen dresses over $5, silk and wool dresses
over $8, hats $5, shoes $4, and gloves $2.
"On house furnishings, all ornamental lamps and fixtures, all
table linen, cutlery and silverware, china and cut glass; all
furniture in sets for which $5 or more is paid for each piece;
on curtains over $2 per yard, and on tapestries, rugs, and
carpets over $5 per square yard.
"On all purses, pocketbooks, handbags, brushes, combs and
toilet articles, and all mirrors over $2.
"Ten percent. on the collections from the sales of vending
machines.
"Ten percent. on all hotel bills amounting to more than $2.50
per person per day. Also the present 10 percent. tax on cabaret
bills is made to apply to the entire restaurant or café bill.
TAXES OF MANUFACTURER OR PRODUCER
"Ten cents a gallon on all gasoline to be paid by the wholesale
dealers.
"Ten percent. tax on wire leases.
"Graduated taxes on soft drinks. Mineral now taxed 1 cent a
gallon to pay 16 cents. Chewing gum now taxed 2 percent. of
the selling price, to pay 1 cent on each 5-cent package.
"Motion-picture shows and films: abolish the foot tax of ¼ and
½-cent a foot and substitute a tax of 5 percent. on the rentals
received by the producer, and double the tax rate on
admissions.
"Double the present taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco and
cigarettes.
"Automobiles--a license tax on passenger automobiles graduated
according to horsepower.
"Double club membership dues.
"Household servants, made 25 percent. of the wages of one
servant up to 100 percent. of the combined wages of four or
more. Female servants, each family exempted from tax on one
servant. All additional servants (female) from 10 to 100
percent. on all over four."
LUXURIES IMPORTED
Heavy taxes on luxuries were anticipated but until these taxes were
considered it was hardly realized how much of the consumption in America
was concerned with articles that could be considered luxuries; for
example, the country imported $6,000,000 worth of foreign cigarette
papers. Pictures, statuary and other works of art were brought into the
country to the extent of $17,000,000. Over $2,000,000 worth of ivory was
imported every year; over $2,000,000 worth of mother-of-pearl and more
than $2,500,000 worth of bulbs and roots. Higher taxes were urged by the
financial experts, so we see a writer in _Financial America_ emphasizing
the connection between the importation of luxuries and the need of
shipping:
"America can not spare ships to bring costly garments and
furnishings thousands of miles across the sea. For the war
period these articles can be replaced at home with materials
that cost less labor and less money. The money spent for
domestic goods remains in America and maintains our working
population and our business and banking resources.
"We lack a sufficient market for our cotton crop, owing to the
lack of ships. Americans should wear more cotton. The money
spent upon it maintains the Southern planter and his family.
Modern processes give it the appearance of silk. It serves very
well as carpets, curtains, hangings, and furniture coverings.
It should answer present needs for such fabrics. A heavier tax
on imports of these goods is indicated as a means of revenue
and war economy.
"Imported wearing apparel of silk pays 60 percent. duty and of
wool 44 cents a pound and 60 percent. _ad valorem_. There is a
graduated rate on dress goods of these materials. Despite the
tax, America spent more on imported manufactures of silk in
1917 than ever, the total being nearly $40,000,000. The same
was true of woolen goods, amounting to $23,000,000.
"Our imports of woolen carpets and rugs, most of them brought
half way round the world from oriental lands, were also larger.
They cost us $3,740,000, though America is a large producer of
carpets and rugs, fine as well as coarse. These imports paid
ten cents a square foot and 40 percent. _ad valorem._
Evidently, it was not enough.
"We also spent $53,000,000 for imported cotton manufactures,
including cloth, laces, curtains, handkerchiefs, veils, and
wearing apparel, though America is the world's chief producer
of cotton. A higher tariff is indicated as a tax on those who
insist on the foreign product.
TAXES ON TOBACCO
"America has a large tobacco industry at home. We import
tobacco in vast quantities from every producing land to satisfy
the whimsical and varying tastes of connoisseurs. Our own
tobacco is discouraged by those who smoke it under the name of
Turkish, Egyptian, Cuban, Dutch, Spanish, and other foreign
products, and pay a heavy price for the critical taste which
their vanity causes them to imagine they possess. Last year
these imports of leaf tobacco alone were valued at $26,000,000,
or $10,000,000 more than in 1915. The war tax is five cents a
pound added to eight cents paid under the internal revenue act,
or thirteen cents altogether. There is also a duty of $1.85 to
$2.50 a pound. To increase the tax would encourage the industry
in Kentucky, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and other
states, while saving our resources in ships and keeping our
money at home.
"In addition, America spent $7,000,000 for foreign-made cigars
and cigarettes last year. These purchases support foreign
factories, although our own factories use the same raw material
which they import. They have jumped nearly $3,000,000 in two
years. Until the war is ended, Americans should be satisfied
with cigars 'made in America.' The present war tax ranges from
one tenth of a cent to one cent on each cigar, according to
value, in addition to a duty of $4.50 a pound and 25 percent.
_ad valorem_. A higher tax would deprive the smoker of nothing
but a craving for the foreign label on his cigar box, unless he
chose to pay well for it. He can even get a Spanish name on his
American-made cigar.
DIAMONDS, LEATHER AND MILLINERY
"America spent $41,000,000 in 1917 to import diamonds, pearls,
and other precious stones and imitations, not set. They paid a
war tax of only 3 percent. when made into jewelry. America
could be content with beauty less adorned to keep this
$40,000,000 at home, or those who insist on sending their money
to African mine owners and Dutch cutters should pay a larger
tax.
"America last year had a tremendous bill for hides and skins of
$209,000,000, nearly two and a half times that of 1915. Much of
it was for the great necessities of the army. A good proportion
of the rest was unnecessary. These imports of raw material are
free of duty and there is no war tax on leather goods.
Substitutes have been devised for many of them. These should be
encouraged by a tax on the unnecessary use of leather in
furnishings, decorations, toilet articles, hand bags, trunks,
high shoes, belts, hatbands, and many small articles.
Substitutes for these will be provided quickly enough if
leather is lacking. A heavy tax would help the movement. The
tremendous military and other legitimate demands for leather
goods will keep the industry in thriving condition without so
much waste.
"For imported millinery materials America spent nearly
$13,000,000 last year, and we also spent $3,000,000 for mere
feathers, tributes to feminine vanity that filled up many ships
needed for war use. The greater part of this stuff came 10,000
miles from China and Japan. There are plenty of substitutes
that a high war tax would encourage, including those provided
by the American hen.
"Our imported glassware, on which there is no war tax, cost
nearly $2,000,000. It occupies large space aboard ship, owing
to voluminous packing that is necessary. Imported china,
porcelain, earthenware, and crockery cost America nearly
$6,500,000."
BEARING THE BURDEN
In spite of the enormous cost of war operations, roseate views were
taken of the ability of the country to surmount the unusual
difficulties. Unprecedented taxes were being paid, heavy subscriptions
to the Liberty Loans were being collected and yet the business of the
country seemed to show a high degree of prosperity. This optimistic
outlook marks the following comment found in a circular published by the
First National Bank in Boston, after it had called attention to the
small number of failures reported throughout the country for August,
1918. No such low record had been reached since July, 1901:
"The steps that have been taken to curtail credits have
resulted in greater conservatism, and have had a beneficent
effect, which is likely to continue for some time after the
present necessity disappears. The business foundation is
extremely sound. Figures of resources of savings banks show
that the subscriptions to the Liberty Loans have brought only
a trifling decrease in savings deposits. Evidently subscribers
are buying bonds with their current income rather than with
their savings. In other words, the Liberty Loans represent
additions to the savings of the country, and not merely
transfers of investments."
It was prophesied that in spite of the enormous financial obligations
assumed by the United States normal conditions would soon be restored.
History shows, the circular goes on to say, that financial recovery from
devastation has been prompt and complete. Even the railway conditions at
this time were viewed optimistically. Such a competent authority as the
_Wall Street Journal_ did not anticipate the financial troubles that
soon overtook railway administration under government control. It
thought that, by the end of the year, the existing debits on current
operations would probably be wiped out:
"Aggregate railroad earnings and expenses for July of all the
important roads in the country are in line with the individual
statements of the different roads already published in showing
large increases in both gross and net revenues. They also
indicate, so far as one month's operating results may be used
to generalize from, that the railroads are now on a
self-supporting basis, if they are not actually returning a
profit to the government on current operation.
"Net operating income of these roads for the month of July
(1918) was $137,845,425 as compared with $92,599,620 in the
same month of 1917. In a recent statement from the
Director-General's office the compensation payable to the
railroad companies for the use of their property by the
government was estimated at $650,000,000 for the first eight
months of the year, or at the rate of $81,250,000 a month. The
net operating income of the Class 1 roads as mentioned above
exceeds this monthly rental figure by $56,595,000."
THE FIRST GOVERNMENT LOAN, 1789
Although called by other names, the United States has had issues of
Liberty Bonds on several occasions during a period of one hundred and
twenty-nine years, notably in the first years of the Republic and in the
Civil War. The first was floated in 1789, the year when the Federal
Government was established. Alexander Hamilton was Secretary of the
Treasury and on him devolved the duty of raising funds for the
government.
"Conditions being pressing, Hamilton, in raising the necessary
money, at first did not wait even for the approval of Congress,
but went to the Bank of New York, which he had helped to found
in 1784--the second bank in the United States and the first in
New York City--to raise the first necessary money. At a meeting
of the board of directors the new secretary of the treasury
asked for a loan of $200,000. It was promptly and unanimously
granted, the money to be advanced in five installments of
$20,000 each and ten of $10,000 each, at 6 percent. On the
following day Hamilton sent to the bank the first bond ever
issued by the United States Treasury--a bond of $20,000--on
receipt of which the money was paid over, so that the United
States Treasury could show $20,000 cash on hand. In _The
Investor's Magazine_, where these facts were recently brought
to light, we are further told that the bond then issued is
still carefully preserved by the bank which bought it. Quite
unlike the now familiar Liberty Bonds of 1917 and 1918, it was
executed with an ordinary quill pen, such as was in use in
those times, and signed in ink by the secretary. With its seal
somewhat yellow with age, the bond is still in an excellent
state of preservation."
[Illustration: Richards in the Phila. _North American_
Dropping the First Bomb]
POPULARITY OF THE LIBERTY LOANS
America's financial reputation stood at a fairly high level after the
close of the Civil War. An era of unexampled production ensued for more
than five decades, yet there were many timorous souls who were
frightened at the thought of the United States being called upon to bear
the burden of the colossal loans. The surprising feature of the Liberty
Loans was the elasticity of the subscriptions. The subscribers for the
first three loans numbered respectively 4,500,000, 10,020,000,
17,000,000; in every case the records show over subscription. A graphic
statement of the nation's riches was presented by S. L. Frazier in the
_Northwestern Banker_, Des Moines, October, 1918:
"Our resources are well up toward $300,000,000,000, or about
equal to the combined resources of France, England, and
Germany. Our annual production is close to $50,000,000,00,
amounts that stagger the imagination. Why it would take ten
thousand years to count the dollars representing out country's
resources counting one each second, and working day and night
and Sundays."
The New York _Tribune_ remarked, "If any learned professor of economics
had predicted that on top of ten billions of government loans in one
year a fourth Liberty Loan would reach nearly seven billions we know
what we all would have thought."
HOW EUROPE WILL PAY US BACK
An official in the National City Bank of New York, Mr. G. E. Roberts, is
quoted by the New York _Times_ as saying that the wealth-producing
equipment of the country had become greater than ever during the war. He
did not believe either that there would be any difficulty of the United
States being paid back for the money it had loaned foreign governments.
"We are going to be peculiarly situated in our foreign
relations after the war. We have paid off the greater part of
what we owe abroad, and we have lent to foreign governments
some $7,000,000,000 or $8,000,000,000. Including all loans by
the time the war is over, probably there will be annual
interest payments coming to us amounting to $400,000,000 or
$500,000,000. How are we going to receive our pay? I am not
questioning the ability of our debtors to raise this amount
from their people. I have no doubt they can do it, but in what
manner are they going to make payment to us? They can't pay it
in gold; they haven't the gold to do it, and the total
production of gold in the world outside of the United States
wouldn't be enough to do it. We won't want them to pay it in
goods, for that would interfere seriously with our home
industries....
"There is only one way out, and that is by extending more
credit to them. We will have to capitalize the interest
payments and reinvest them abroad. And if we want to sell goods
to them we will have to take their bonds and stocks. In short,
we will have to play the part that England has played in the
past, of steadily increasing our foreign investments."
While the great sums subscribed for the Fourth Loan by banks,
corporations, and individuals had a spectacular interest, observed the
New York _World_, it was the plain people who made the loan a
conspicuous success, and the twenty-one million subscribers mean in
effect the purchase of a new Liberty Bond by "every American family."
THE LOAN PERIODS
There were very good reasons on the part of the government for selecting
the definite periods at which the Liberty Loans were to be issued. There
were also very good reasons derived from experience by which the
government was guided in preparing for the loans. Prior to the fourth
loan Secretary McAdoo believed that it could be made to reach fully
one-fourth of the population of the country. Preparation for it was made
through publicity on a scale hitherto unprecedented. The Washington
correspondent of the New York _Journal of Commerce_, writing on July 31,
1918, said:
"The country will be appealed to, with new and striking film
arguments, with a great variety of poster slogans, and with a
use of the press and the platform such as has never been
witnessed before in this country.
"There are to be nineteen days of actual campaign work. The
great task of organization and preparation is now going on.
Artists have been making posters, writers have been preparing
arguments, and printing presses in all parts of the country
have been turning out many millions of mottoes, cartoons, and
slogans."
He added interesting data as to outstanding treasury certificates and
war expenses. The time chosen for the loan was probably as good, it
thought, as could have been selected, inasmuch as it would fall just
after the bulk of the crops had been harvested and when much of them had
been sold at good figures.
"War expenses for July were somewhat less than for June and
May, amounting to about $1,482,000,000 as compared with
$1,512,000,000, the record for June, and $1,508,000,000 for
May, the Treasury Department announced. The outlay for July,
however, was approximately the amount estimated in advance by
the treasury, and expenses for August probably will be higher,
it was said.
"During July the government's daily outlay was about
$48,000,000, an average of $38,000,000 daily was for ordinary
expenses of the army, navy, shipping board, and other agencies,
and $10,000,000 daily in loans to the Allies. Total ordinary
expenditures for the month were about $1,157,000,000 and loans
to the Allies $325,000,000.
"Receipts from sale of War Savings Stamps July 3rd passed the
half-billion dollar mark, of which $200,000,000 came in this
month as a result of the campaign on Thrift Day, June 28th.
"The government now is financing itself mainly through the sale
of certificates of indebtedness, in anticipation of the Fourth
Liberty Loan. More than $1,600,000,000 came in from this source
in July. In addition, the government received $491,000,000 from
belated income and excess profits taxes, and $97,000,000 from
miscellaneous internal revenue. Customs duties yielded only
$14,000,000.
"Payments on the Third Liberty Loan now amount to
$3,652,000,000, leaving $524,000,000 to come in from the next
installment payment."
------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE LIBERTY LOANS--BY FEDERAL RESERVE DISTRICTS
------------------------------------------------------------------------
FIRST LOAN SECOND LOAN THIRD LOAN FOURTH LOAN
(June, 1917-- (Oct., 1917-- (1918-- (1918--
3½ 4 4¼ 4¼
Per Cent.) Per Cent.) Per Cent.) Per Cent.)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Boston $332,447,600 $476,950,050 $354,537,250 $632,221,850
New York 1,186,788,400 1,550,453,450 1,115,243,650 2,044,778,000
Philadelphia 232,309,250 380,350,250 361,963,500 598,763,650
Cleveland 286,148,700 486,106,800 405,051,150 702,059,800
Richmond 109,737,100 201,212,500 186,259,050 352,688,200
Atlanta 57,878,550 90,695,750 137,649,450 213,885,200
Chicago 357,195,950 585,853,350 608,878,600 969,209,000
St. Louis 86,134,700 184,280,750 199,835,900 296,388,550
Minneapolis 70,255,500 140,932,650 180,892,100 241,028,300
Kansas City 91,758,850 150,125,750 204,092,800 294,646,450
Dallas 48,948,350 77,899,850 116,220,650 145,944,450
San Francisco 175,623,900 292,671,150 287,975,000 459,000,000
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total $3,035,226,850 $4,617,532,300 $4,176,516,850 $6,989,047,000
subscriptions
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total quotas $2,000,000,000 $3,000,000,000 $3,000,000,000 $6,000,000,000
Total 2,000,000,000 3,808,766,150 4,176,516,850 6,989,047,000
allotments
Total number of 4,500,000 10,020,000 17,000,000 21,000,000
subscribers
------------------------------------------------------------------------
NEW YORK CITY SUBSCRIPTIONS
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Manhattan $960,417,050 $1,095,189,000 $702,577,750 $1,353,449,550
Bronx 404,700 1,015,500 5,112,350 5,751,800
Brooklyn 30,312,000 44,424,200 52,427,600 100,469,650
Queens 2,202,600 4,136,150 10,137,350 17,331,900
Richmond 679,600 1,373,700 3,386,800 5,075,750
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total city $994,015,950 $1,146,139,150 $773,641,859 $1,482,078,650
subscriptions
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Included in the Third Loan subscription total is $17,917,750 subscribed
by the United States Treasury. War Savings Stamps subscriptions totalled
$879,330,000 up to November 20, 1918.
THE INDIVIDUAL INVESTOR
Some curious facts were brought out in the effort of the Liberty
Campaign propaganda to reach the individual investor. In the large
cities the organization was remarkably successful. In the smaller
communities it was a greater difficulty. In a suburb or a small town
everybody knows everybody else and the Liberty Loan Committee had hard
work in getting subscribers. Mr. A. W. Atwood of Princeton thinks that
the occupational and vocational classification of possible investors was
not tried. Widows and maiden ladies who had inherited $50,000 or $75,000
were not reached. Some of them who were patriotic came forward of their
own accord. The little town of Kircunkson in New York State exceeded its
quota many times and there was an item in the papers about it. The
success of the Liberty Loan in that town was due to the fact that it
contained a large sanitarium patronized by millionaires. Yet there were
no banks in the town and if their banking resources were used as a basis
their quota would have been very small indeed.
As to the assignment of quotas Mr. Atwood makes the point that it was
sometimes based on population, sometimes based on the amount of bank
resources. He thought that in small places it would be better to post up
a list of those who had subscribed and he even thought that if the
country made the effort it could ultimately raise a loan of
$100,000,000,000, his reason being the following:
"This country is approaching, as England has long ago, the
position of being a possessor of great accumulated wealth. One
broker after another is really nothing but a family investment
agent. That is what it amounts to. There are railroad magnates,
bankers, steel kings, copper kings and so on indefinitely.
Hundreds of firms in the New York Stock Exchange are nothing
but channels for the investment of accumulated wealth and I do
not think we realize how much there is of that in this
country."
LIBERTY LOANS AND THRIFT
One of the best methods of testing the influence of Liberty Loan
activities on the thrift of the country is used by _Bradstreet's_ in its
examination of the annual report of the United States League of Building
and Loan Associations. These Associations, be it remembered, are not
patronized by capitalists but almost wholly by wage earners. During the
past fifteen years the membership of building and loan associations has
increased 150 percent. and since the war broke in 1914, the number of
members has extended 52 percent. The latest report shows a gain in
assets of 30 percent. over the amount indicated in 1914. The following
tables taken from _Bradstreet's_ give detailed items of the financial
situation of these important organizations:
The following table gives membership and total assets of building and
loan associations for a fifteen-year period:
Membership Assets
1902--03 1,530,707 $577,228,014
1903--04 1,566,700 579,556,112
1904--05 1,631,046 600,342,586
1905--06 1,642,127 629,344,257
1906--07 1,699,714 673,129,198
1907--08 1,839,119 731,508,446
1908--09 1,920,257 784,175,753
1909--10 2,016,651 856,332,719
1910--11 2,169,893 931,867,175
1911--12 2,332,829 1,030,687,031
1912--13 2,518,442 1,136,949,465
1914--15 3,103,935 1,357,707,900
1915--16 3,334,899 1,484,205,875
1916--17 3,568,342 1,696,707,041
1917--18 3,838,612 1,769,142,175
The following table shows total membership and total assets for States
in which accurate statistics are compiled by state supervisors. The data
for other States are consolidated under the heading, "Other States," and
the figures given are estimated:
--------------1917--18---------------
Members Assets Increase
Pennsylvania 677,911 $324,265,393 $25,438,326
Ohio 767,100 321,741,529 51,188,940
New Jersey 329,063 168,215,913 13,088,951
Massachusetts 247,725 126,695,037 13,389,130
Illinois 246,800 113,528,525 8,050,122
New York 199,571 86,072,829 6,442,948
Indiana 202,409 78,112,917 5,818,661
Nebraska 101,929 54,545,630 6,627,783
California 42,227 35,928,447 3,134,429
Michigan 69,041 35,659,360 4,279,888
Kentucky 62,846 27,085,282 1,272,372
Missouri 56,116 26,770,144 3,226,311
Kansas 66,442 26,000,167 2,446,058
Louisiana 47,793 25,911,928 1,362,683
Dist. Columbia 37,075 22,399,995 255,115
Wisconsin 50,612 19,887,368 3,013,526
North Carolina 37,400 17,608,000 1,703,230
Washington 46,318 14,444,177 2,366,450
Arkansas 21,053 10,583,447 409,439
Iowa[3] 33,035 9,638,852 ........
Minnesota 22,020 8,979,642 626,537
West Virginia 21,500 8,119,131 369,564
Colorado[3] 10,200 6,688,983 ........
Maine 14,959 6,671,239 233,961
Oklahoma 18,142 6,554,175 2,354,175
Rhode Island 11,499 5,938,436 577,906
Connecticut 14,900 4,869,748 610,423
South Dakota 5,857 3,603,836 89,286
N. Hampshire 8,554 3,336,072 322,812
Tennessee 5,166 3,207,754 [4]112,865
North Dakota 5,785 2,837,118 90,308
Texas 7,156 2,314,927 372,489
Montana 4,239 1,849,935 209,906
New Mexico 3,545 1,469,276 72,660
Vermont 749 287,791 52,079
Other States 341,875 157,319,172 10,975,756
--------- -------------- ------------
Total 3,838,612 $1,769,142,175 $170,514,039
[3] Reports issued biennially; figures of 1916 used.
[4] Decrease.
[Illustration: A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign]
THE THRIFT HABIT
Such was the success of the Liberty Loan campaign in appealing to all
classes of private investors, that it became an interesting speculation
whether the popular thrift habit would survive war conditions. It was
the general belief in financial centers that the habit of saving had
been promoted. Perhaps no better illustration of the thrift habit could
be presented than returns made by the savings banks of Boston in
October, 1918. At that date these banks had $321,000,000 against
$319,000,000 at the same date in 1917, the previous banner total for the
end of a banking year. It was estimated by Mr. Ingalls Kimball, the New
York _Times_ annalist, that twenty million separate individuals were
saving by the method of subscribing to the Liberty Loans, and, as more
than $800,000,000 worth of War Saving stamps had been sold, it was
probable that nearly half the population of the country was saving money
in one of these new ways. As to the method of continuing to encourage
thrift, Mr. Kimball pointed out the value of the experience derived from
the Liberty Bond Campaign:
"The thrift machine set up by the Treasury was as follows: 1.
small unit government bonds; 2. non-interest-bearing Thrift
Stamps; 3. War Savings Stamps--a short-term obligation paying
interest at maturity.
"This was the mechanism. What was the power that actuated the
machine to such wonderful effect? 1. salesmanship, including
every modern device of advertising; 2. distribution: (a)
through retail stores; (b) through employers, by partial
payments (usually pay-roll deduction).
"From these simple elements was built up a campaign that
induced the people to save in a new and unaccustomed way at
least twenty times as much as they had ever before saved in the
same time. None of the elements was unimportant, but
salesmanship, probably, contributed most. The selling campaigns
of the Liberty Loans and War Savings Stamps were carried on by
the largest and most effective selling organization ever put
together, under the direction of the ablest men in the United
States, and with an energy and devotion that were unimaginable.
This selling force was irresistible. Everybody bought because
everybody was asked, or begged, or told, to buy. Under the same
stimulus almost anything would have sold.
"SAVING AT THE SOURCE"
"Next in importance to the direct selling effort came
distribution. For the first time in the history of finance it
has been made easy to save; for the first time the great retail
channels of distribution have been thrown open to saving; for
the first time millions of wage-earners have learned the value
and ease of 'Saving at the Source' by pay-envelope deduction of
a dollar or so a week toward a Liberty Bond."
Mr. Kimball questioned whether or not we are to lose the benefit of the
great lesson of thrift and whether some plan could be devised to make us
keep on saving. No problem of reconstruction seemed to him more
important than this, "yet in no one of the announced conferences on
reconstruction do I find mention of it." He then goes on to say:
"The greatest thrift lesson in the world is thrift, no matter
what its motive. A great many hundred thousand persons in this
country have found themselves this year possessed of $100 or
more in one piece for the first time in their lives; often
without realization of how they got it. Will that lesson last?
Will the wage-earner, now that loan drives are over, keep on
saving, going weekly to the bank to put in his dollar. The
answer to these questions is, unfortunately, 'no.'
"It would be perfectly possible to continue the issue of War
Savings Stamps, and there are many advocates of this plan, but
it is doubtful if distribution could be permanently maintained
on anything like its present scale. Merchants and banks, with
rare exceptions, would scarcely continue to handle them, for
the cost is not inconsiderable, and there is no compensating
commercial gain. In the postoffices alone their continued sale
would set up competition with the present postal savings
system, which would serve no good purpose and would be highly
confusing.
"Can the savings banks successfully undertake this great task?
I believe they could. I believe a national savings bank,
operating through commercial banks, stores, and employers all
over the United States, making its investments through a small
compact, very highly paid and very efficient and very
stringently supervised board of executives in one city,
supporting a vigorous, numerous, and far-flung selling
organization, similar in many respects to the industrial life
insurance organizations, could undertake this work and, were it
possible to act quickly enough, could keep the thrift movement
going without losing the amazing momentum which it has now
acquired."
SPENDING THE MONEY
For a period of twenty-five months, from April, 1917, through April,
1919, the United States spent for war purposes more than $1,000,000 an
hour. All sorts of comparisons are used to make this figure seizable by
the imagination. For example, the whole sum, nearly $22,000,000,000, was
twenty times the whole of the pre-war debt. Indeed, it was nearly large
enough to pay the entire cost of our Government from 1791 up to the
outbreak of the European War. In addition to the actual war cost of our
own Government Congress paid to various associated governments the sum
of $8,850,000,000. As to how this enormous sum of money was spent,
two-thirds of the amount practically was spent upon the Army, and the
rate of expenditure for the Army was constantly advancing period by
period. Even after the termination of hostilities there was a very high
daily average owing to the building of ships for the Emergency Fleet
Corporation, the construction and operation of naval vessels, food,
clothing, pay and transportation of the Army. The Quartermaster's
Department had the largest proportion of expenditure.
The amount spent about equals the value of all the gold produced in the
whole world from the discovery of America up to the outbreak of the
European War. The pay for the Army during the period of warfare was
larger than the combined salaries of all of the public school principals
and teachers in the United States for five years, from 1912 to 1916.
Some of the money spent represents permanent assets. At the end of the
war there were large stocks of clothing on hand and large supplies of
standardized trucks. There were thousands of Liberty motors and service
planes that were available for other uses. Engineer, signal and medical
equipment still continued to have a value, but if the race for
militarism is maintained it is hard to see how the quantities of war
munitions can fail to escape the scrap heap in a few years' time.
Comparing the individual estimates of war expenditure, it is noteworthy
that the Austro-Hungarian Empire spent almost as much as the United
States. Of all the powers Germany spent the largest sum,
$39,000,000,000--one billion more than England.
MONEY LOANED TO ASSOCIATE NATIONS
The following is quoted from the _Annalist_ for December, 1918:
"Money owed to a government by the nations of the world, with
whom it is in active commercial competition, is another line of
fortifications in defense of the frontier. Let us, then
consider our debts and our debtors, and how we both propose to
pay. Our long-time loans may be scheduled as follows:
First Loan $2,000,000,000
Second Loan 3,808,766,000
Third Loan 4,170,019,650
Fourth Loan 6,989,047,000
---------------
$16,967,832,650
"The totals of each of the above loans have changed substantially since
allotment, through conversions with a correspondingly increasing charge
on the service. However, the gross amount is substantially unchanged. Of
the old loans the Treasury statement of March 31 showed the following
totals:
Consol. 2's of 1930 $599,724,050
4's of 1925 118,489,900
Panama Canal 2's, 1906 48,954,180
Panama Canal 2's, 1908 5,947,400
Panama Canal 3's, 1911 50,000,000
Conversion 3's, 1946--7 28,894,500
Postal Savings 2½'s, 1931--7 10,758,560
Postal Savings 2½'s, 1938 302,140,000
--------------
$1,184,908,590
"The short-term loans in the shape of certificates of indebtedness and
War Savings Stamps at the present writing are as follows:
4½% certificates, Series E $639,493,000
4½% certificates, Series 4F 625,216,500
4½% certificates, Series 4G 614,069,000
-------------
$1,878,778,500
"In addition to the above a series of certificates of
indebtedness, designated as TA, bearing interest at four per
cent. and maturing July 15, 1919, was issued to a small amount
in anticipation of next year's income taxes. The sale proved to
be slow, and further issuance was discontinued and a new issue
for the same purpose and of a similar maturity bearing interest
at 4½% per cent. was substituted. The sale of these securities
through the agency of the Federal Reserve Banks is in the
nature of a continuous operation, and no totals so far have
been announced.
[Illustration: Detroit--City of Automobiles
Many thousands of standardized trucks were made in Detroit during the
war rush, the automobile having proved to be indispensable to the
fighting forces overseas.]
"The sale of War Savings Stamps and certificates has increased
the national debt by $1,257,000,000, or within 400 million of
the maximum under the first authorization. A second series,
however, amounting to two billion dollars, has been authorized,
so that the operation will probably continue into the coming
year. The Treasury for the fiscal year 1917--18 estimated
receipts of $663,200,000 from this source and about a billion
for 1918--19. The first estimate was out of line, owing to the
difficulty in getting the plan into smooth operation.
Subsequent results have, however, justified the average of
expectations.
"The pre-war debt, in the light of recent figures, is almost
negligible, and the outstanding certificates in anticipation of
taxes and the Fourth Liberty Loan will be redeemed in due
course by the flow of funds owing to the Government in taxes
and subscription payments. The problem of how to deal with the
eighteen-billion-dollar war debt is the vital question. How
much of this sum represents a charge on the coming generation
and how much an invaluable national asset?
WHAT IS OWED THE AMERICAN PEOPLE.
"We have loaned abroad the following items:
Great Britain $3,745,000,000
France 2,445,000,000
Italy 1,160,000,000
Russia 325,000,000
Belgium 183,520,000
Greece 15,790,000
Cuba 15,000,000
Serbia 12,000,000
Rumania 6,666,666
Liberia 5,000,000
Czechoslovak Republic 7,000,000
-------------
[5]$7,919,976,666
[5] Increased to $9,646,419,494 by October, 1919.
"Here, then, are figures totaling nearly half of our war debts
that are not only self-supporting but also a double-edged
weapon in the international market. In the first place, they
represent money spent at home on American goods, from which the
American manufacturer has taken his toll of profit; and in the
second place, they have put the world in our debt to an extent
that will be difficult to pay in the exchange of goods.
"Imports of foreign commodities or even gold will take a decade
to halve the debt, for the gold can not be spared, nor do we
wish it, and our creditors will find it difficult to increase
their exports to a point capable of bringing about a balance in
their favor. The imports from Europe are bound to be offset by
our own exports, some able economists predicting a balance of a
billion dollars in our favor for the next five years.
Regardless of the demands to be made upon us from this source,
it is probable that the peak-load of expenditure has been
reached and the period of readjustment and redemption set in.
"Charging off, then, our loans to the Allies as an asset, let
us then consider how we may best meet the bill due the American
people. Vague discussions of the creation of a huge sinking
fund have been heard, although for some reason or other, in
history these operations have not been entirely successful.
Fortunately the bulk of our debt has an early callable date,
and the Treasury has recently come in for much applause by
advocating no more loans unless they be in the nature of a
one-to five-year currency. Experience teaches that the full
benefit and effect of war taxes are rarely felt until after the
war. England, after the Napoleonic wars, came back with a
rapidity that astonished the Exchequer itself. Taxes rolled up
in such a volume and expenses dropped with demobilization to
such an extent that the Government found itself anticipating
the callable date in national debts by market purchases, and
even then it was found convenient gradually to reduce the scale
of taxation.
"Our experience after the Civil War was very similar to
England's, and the Treasury's surplus annually accumulated to a
point that forced the Government to buy back at high premiums
the bonds it was not privileged to call. This was true, though
to a lesser degree, with the Spanish war loan.
"It seems as though the two operations of liquidating our own
debts and the debt of Europe to the United States dovetailed
perfectly into one gradual and stupendous task. While Europe is
paying her indebtedness to us without interfering with the
development of international trade by the sale of foreign
securities in our home market our buyers here must receive the
tools to operate with through the redemption and repurchase of
their Liberty Bonds. In this half of the deal safety, as usual,
lies in the middle course. It is hoped that taxes will be
maintained at a level that will infallibly provide funds for
fixed redemptions with a sufficient surplus to get a flying
start by purchase around the present low levels."
FINANCIAL STATUS OF ENGLAND IN 1914
One year before the war England's position in regard to the balance of
trade was most favorable. Her imports were valued at $3,210,000,000 and
her exports at $2,560,000,000. But it was usually estimated that foreign
countries owed England about $1,610,000,000 annually for interest on
capital lent for shipping freights and for banking insurance and other
commissions. The total amount owed her, therefore was $4,170,000,000 as
against $3,210,000,000 which she owed for her imports. She had therefore
a favorable balance of about $960,000,000 which was lent abroad. The
war brought an enormous decrease in tonnage, and the excess of imports
over exports attained the figure of $1,950,000,000 a year.
Exceptional measures had to be taken to maintain the exchange rates with
the United States from whom the chief purchases were made. Large amounts
of gold were exported, but by June, 1915, there was a collapse in
American exchange. Drastic measures were used to induce the holders of
American securities in England to sell or lend those securities to the
Government. In this way exchange was kept up practically to the gold
point. This question of exchange and the position of England as the
director of the financial campaign of the Allies is illustrated from an
address given by Mr. R. H. Brand to the American Bankers Association, in
September, 1917:
"Of course no nation could permanently tolerate such
unfavorable trade balances as those from which the Allies in
Europe are now suffering. They can only do so now and keep
their exchanges with the United States steady by borrowing
immense sums here. But the war itself is not permanent, and the
question is merely whether the present state of affairs can be
continued long enough to enable all the enemies of the Central
Powers to exert their full strength and win a final victory.
"You will no doubt all have noticed that the credits granted
Great Britain have been greater than those granted to any other
Ally. The reasons are simple, though they are not, I think,
generally understood. We have, in the first place, the largest
war and munition program of any Ally; in the second place, as I
have shown above, we are, with the exception of the United
States, the greatest industrial arsenal among the Allies; that
necessarily involves large imports. We send a great deal of
steel from England to our Allies; we have to replace it by
steel from here. We make rifles for Russia; we have to import
the steel to make them. We send boots to Russia; we have to
import the leather needed. These examples might be multiplied
many times. Thirdly, we extend large credits in England to our
Allies, some part of which they may use anywhere in the world,
and this part may ultimately come back on the sterling exchange
in New York. Lastly, it is well known that neutrals who are
owed money by England unfortunately find it convenient to
utilize the sterling exchange in New York in order to recoup
themselves in dollars. But so also do neutrals who are owed
money by the other Allies. So long as we maintain the sterling
exchange this appears to be inevitable, and the burden of
financing both our own and our Allies' trade tends to fall on
that exchange. It is by our maintenance of this sterling
exchange that the continuance of our Allies' trade is rendered
possible. The maintenance of the sterling exchange means the
maintenance of the allied exchanges. All these factors together
exert an immense influence. If England had had only herself to
finance since the beginning of the war, and indeed even if she
had only herself to finance now, it is quite possible she would
not have needed to borrow at all abroad."
LOSS IN PRODUCTIVE POWER
The extent of the withdrawal of productive power can only be judged by
figures. Of the 7,500,000 men serving in the British Army, 4,530,000
were contributed by Great Britain, 900,000 by the British dominions and
colonies; and the remaining 1,000,000 by India and the various British
African dependencies. Production went on to a remarkable degree, but
this production was largely for war purposes. It was secured by
recruiting female labor to an unheard of extent in the munition
factories. According to the London _Economist_, the financial side of
the British administration was anything but satisfactory. It speaks of
waste and faulty methods:
"On the financial side our record is by no means so
satisfactory. We have, it is true, poured out money like water,
but much of it has been raised by faulty methods, and the
amount of it that has been wasted is appalling to consider. In
the matter of borrowing, our methods have lately been greatly
improved; and the recommendation of the Committee on National
Expenditure, that the system of raising money by bank credits
should be checked as far as possible, is being brought within
the bounds of practical politics by the great success of the
War Savings Committee's energetic and ingenious campaign for
prompting the sale of National War Bonds. Perhaps also we may
claim some small share in that success through the adoption of
the principle so long advocated in these columns of a lower
rate for money at home combined with special terms for money
left here by foreigners. But successful borrowing, direct from
the investor, instead of in the shape of money manufactured by
banks, is a welcome, but not sufficient, improvement. We have
to raise much more money by taxation. We have also to do much
more than has yet been done to reduce the wicked waste of
public money and support the efforts of the Committee on
National Expenditure to husband the resources of the nation. A
correspondent in a provincial town in which a Tank has lately
been busy asks: 'Is it not pathetic to see widows and children
scraping together their shillings and pennies to help the
Government, while we have tens of thousands of pounds being
squandered by a profligate Ministry of Munitions!'"
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
A Woman Doing Road Construction Work
Of the 7,500,000 men serving in the British Army, 4,530,000 were
contributed by Great Britain. Yet production was speeded up by
recruiting and training the labor of women.]
EQUALIZING LOANS AND TAXATION
A thorny problem of all war finance is how to equalize as far as
possible the amount of money furnished by taxation with the amounts
borrowed. The proportion indicated in the last English war budget of
1918 was that between £842,000,000 raised by taxes and 2,000,000,000
sterling by fresh borrowing. Besides, war experience shows that the
parliamentary estimates in each year were always far below the amount
spent. In 1917 in Great Britain the shortage was upwards of
£400,000,000. According to the London _Economist_, no effective steps
were taken to stop the profligate extravagance by which public money was
poured out through the sieves of the war spending departments into the
pockets of innumerable manufacturers, middlemen and traders, not to
mention the ever growing sums allocated to the privy purses of countless
new bodies of officials. Each year, it says, there is a new debt charge
of some £120,000,000 and each year there is a constant rise of prices in
wages that enhances the cost of governmental goods and services.
The amount raised by taxation, £842,000,000, seems enormously large, but
as the London _Nation_ states:
"The enormous rise of prices only makes it represent half that
amount in actual purchasing power. Before the war our
expenditure was 200 millions. If money had kept the same value,
the taxation and other public income for this year would only
have been 420 millions, a little more than twice the pre-war
level. Would that have seemed so heroic an effort for a
patriotic nation? No. It can never be repeated too often that a
really rigorous taxation, begun in 1914 and carried on till
now, would have left us in a far sounder condition both for
conducting the war and for facing the peace finance. The money
and the goods are there. We get them. But we get them by
crooked and expensive methods of borrowing which inflate
prices, oppress the poorer purchasers, put huge war loot into
the pockets of contractors and financiers, and fail to restrain
expenditure in luxuries."
GERMANY'S ECONOMIC PREPARATION FOR WAR
There is much evidence to show that long before the war began financial
preparations were made in Germany for the great struggle. For a
considerable period prior to 1914, Germany and Russia had been engaged
in a contest to accumulate a gold supply. Russia, it is known, had begun
to withdraw the large balances which she kept in German, French and
English banks. In Germany the story was circulated that in 1913 the
Kaiser inquired of the governor of the Imperial Bank if the German banks
were equipped for war. Being told that they were not ready he is said to
have replied: "When I ask that question again I want a different
answer." The Imperial Bank of Germany became an active bidder at the
London gold auctions for the gold which arrived weekly from South
Africa, and its activity along these lines was shown by the increasing
of the German gold reserve in the bank vaults from $184,000,000 on
December 31, 1912, to $336,000,000, the amount it stood at a month
before the war began. In addition, the Imperial Bank collected for the
Government a sum of about thirty million dollars to be added to the same
amount said to be stored in the vaults of the Julius Thurm at Spandau,
and to be used as a war chest. Other European countries were increasing
their gold supplies, so it was not surprising that the New York markets
were called upon to export eighty-four million dollars of gold for six
months before the outbreak of the war. The entire gold production of the
world during the eighteen months ending on June 30, 1914, was
approximately $705,000,000. Of this amount, about two million dollars
was required for the arts, and one hundred and fifty million dollars
went to British India. This left about $350,000,000 to be applied to
monetary uses and the whole of this amount was absorbed by the four
great central banks of Germany, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary.
In order to resist raids on the German gold reserve a policy of note
issuing was adopted. The situation, as forecast by Mr. C. A. Conant in
September, 1914, in the New York _Times_, can be gathered from the
following extract:
"With the general suspension of gold payments at the central
banks of Europe, except at the Bank of England, the banks are
in a position to resist raids upon their gold and to lend their
resources, as far as sound banking policy permits, to the
struggle of their Governments to maintain national
independence. In England, while the bank is still paying gold
for notes, the policy of keeping gold in circulation has been
abandoned, and the old limit of note issue, which was £5
($24.40), has been lowered to 10 shillings ($2.44) and £1
($4.88).
"It is not the purpose of any of the European Powers, however,
to carry on the war by issues of paper money. The suspension of
gold payments at the banks and the issue of notes for small
denominations, which are legal tender in domestic transactions,
is for the purpose of husbanding the gold stock against
needless runs and keeping it as a guaranty fund of national
solvency. It is the course which was adopted by France at the
time of the Franco-German War in 1870, but so prudently were
the affairs of the Bank of France conducted that the paper
never fell more than 2½ per cent. below its value in gold.
"A similar policy of reserve will probably be pursued by the
banks of France, Germany, and Russia in the present contest.
The Government of France has raised the maximum limit of the
note circulation of the bank by nearly $1,000,000,000, but the
increase will not be used except as additional currency may be
required, owing to the restriction in other forms of credit and
the special demand for notes in the districts where the armies
are gathered.
"The suspension of specie payments does not convey to the
banking community quite the same doleful warning of the
unlimited issue of paper and its steady depreciation in gold
which were conveyed by specie suspension in the United States
in 1861 or by Austria-Hungary and Russia in the desperate
contest of the Napoleonic wars. Monetary science is better
understood at the present time than in those days."
GERMAN WAR FINANCE
Among all the belligerent powers Germany occupied the unique position of
using the war as an excuse for not publishing national accounts. The
sole guide to her expenditure must be looked for in the credit votes
passed by the Reichstag. Using this method, it is estimated that Germany
spent about $30,000,000 a day. To cover this expenditure there was a
regular plan of national loan--in March and September. This was the
method followed in all the four years of the war. During the intervening
six months there was an issue of Treasury bills. The German people
were, apparently, schooled to these regular demands with commendable
promptness, but the Imperial Government adopted a policy of inflation in
the hope that a speedy victory would bring fruits in the shape of an
indemnity, and so the German people would avoid being called upon to
bear war burdens. Taxation was introduced only reluctantly and at a
later period, and merely for the purpose of meeting so-called normal
civil expenditure and interest on war debt. The plan followed was to
spare the middle classes as far as possible from additional taxation
charges.
THE LOAN BUREAU SCHEME
The war loans have been, on paper, most successful. For example, the
seventh loan of September, 1917, yielded $3,000,000,000; the eighth loan
nearly $4,000,000,000. There was a large amount of ready money in the
country and besides this all stocks of raw material have been realized.
Large as the loans have been they have not been able to keep pace with
the increase of expenditure. Out of the total amount of $30,000,000,000
about $20,000,000,000 have been covered by long-term loans. Of course,
owing to the peculiar situation of Germany in relation to her allies,
which were dependent upon her financial support, these loans have been
raised by the German people themselves. The German Loan Bureaus were
criticized at the beginning of the war, and German figures show that
only about ten percent. of the national loans were involved in the Loan
Bureau scheme. These Loan Bureaus, it was announced, would continue
after the declaration of peace. According to the London _Economist_,
Germany followed an easy and sure policy of war finance, although the
same authority does not hesitate to use the terms "complete financial
ruin" in connection with German post-war finance.
The whole subject of German inflation is difficult to analyze. The
_Economist_ works out a post-war expenditure of $5,000,000,000 a year
against a revenue of a billion and a half. Its estimate of German
inflation is contained in the following passage:
"To take note circulation alone is obviously misleading,
particularly in view of the violent efforts that have been
made, especially during the last year, to extend the use of the
check, and in other ways to limit as far as possible the use
of notes. For what these figures are worth, it may be said that
the total note circulation of the country at the end of June
(1918), including Reichsbank notes, State Bank notes, Treasury
notes, and loan notes, stood at £1,030,000,000, as compared
with £109,300,000 on July 23, 1914. Reichsbank deposits, again,
stood on June 30, at £459,100,000, as compared with £47,600,000
on July 23, 1914, while the deposits of the eight 'great'
banks, even at the end of 1917, stood at £800,000,000, as
compared with £250,000,000 at the end of 1914, £362,000,000 at
the end of 1915, and £500,000,000 at the end of 1916."
In this connection it is interesting to give a summary of Germany's war
expenses as reported in the London _Economist_:
"In his comparison of German war finance with ours, the
Chancellor, in his Budget speech, made the following points:
First, that German war expenditure is now £6,250,000--almost
the same as ours--though our expenditure includes items (such
as separation allowances) which are not included in the German
figures. Second, that the whole amount of the German Votes of
Credit (£6,200 millions) has been added to their war debt,
'because their taxation has not covered their peace expenditure
in addition to their debt charge.' Third, the total amount of
new taxation levied by them since the beginning of the war
comes to £365 millions, against our £1,044 millions. Fourth, in
a year's time they will have a deficit, comparing the revenue
with the expenditure, of £385 millions at least. 'If that were
our position,' the Chancellor added, 'I should certainly think
that bankruptcy was not far from the British Government.'
Fifth, with the exception of the war increment tax, 'scarcely
any of the additional revenue has been obtained from the
wealthier classes in Germany'."
GERMAN WAR PROFITS
An extraordinary list of the gigantic war profits collected by Germany
was drawn up by A. Cheraband, the well known French critic. He estimated
that in three years Germany had spent $322.50 per head, France $444.00,
Great Britain $559.75. He presents a list of war profits made by
Germany. The "booty" he divided into movable and immovable property. In
the former category he includes the 212,000 square miles of territory
that had fallen into German clutches, and this he values at
$32,000,000,000, which, he says, is a conservative estimate. Turning to
the movable booty, he classifies it as follows:
"_(a) Capture of 'Human Material.'_--This consists of the
46,000,000 Allied subjects from whom the Germans obtain free
labor.
"_(b) Capture of War Material._--Guns, rifles, munitions,
vehicles, locomotives, railway trucks, and thousands of miles
of railway. The Belgian railway system alone is worth nearly
$600,000,000.
"_(c) Capture of Foodstuffs._--Everywhere the Germans have
stolen horses, cattle, corn, potatoes, sugar, alcohol,
foodstuffs of every kind, and crops grown by the forced labor
drawn from the 46,000,000 Allied subjects whom they have
enslaved.
"_(d) Theft of Raw Materials._--Throughout the occupied
territories the Germans have appropriated coal, petroleum,
iron, copper, bronze, zinc, lead, etc., either in the mines or
from private individuals; textile materials, such as woolen and
cotton. In the towns of northern France alone the Germans stole
$110,000,000 worth of wool.
"_(e) Theft of Industrial Plant._--On a methodical plan
throughout the occupied territories, the motors, engines,
machine-tools, steam and electric hammers, steel-rolling mills,
looms, models, and industrial plant of all kinds have been
carried off to Germany.
"_(f) Thefts of Furniture._--The way in which furniture and
household goods were stolen and carried off is confessed by
implication in the following advertisement published in the
_Kölnische Zeitung_ at the beginning of April, 1917:
"'Furniture moved from the zones of military operations in all
directions by Rettenmayer at Wiesbaden.'
"It is impossible to estimate the money value of the goods thus
removed.
"_(g) Seizure of Works of Art._--The works of art collected for
centuries in museums, churches, and by private individuals in
Poland, Italy, Belgium, and France have been carried off by the
Germans.
"_(h) War Levies._--Scores of millions in money have been
secured by the Germans in the form of requisitions, fines, war
levies, war taxes, and forced loans.
"_(i) Thefts of Coin, Jewels, and Securities._--In the occupied
regions, and especially wherever they have been obliged to
evacuate those regions, as, for instance, at Noyon, the Germans
have emptied, by order, the safes and strong boxes of private
persons and of banks and have carried off securities, jewels,
and silver. In September and October, 1917, they seized at one
stroke the deposits of Allied subjects in the Belgian banks
amounting to $120,000,000.
"In view of the high prices of foodstuffs, coal, metals,
petroleum, war materials and machines, it is clear that the
booty thus secured by the Germans during the last three years
in the occupied territories is certainly worth several billion
dollars."
[Illustration: A Woman Operating a Multiple Spindle Drill in an English
Shell Factory
Photo by James M. Beck
"Since the war broke out," said M. Barriol, a French celebrated actuary,
"no less than 1,500,000 women have been added to the ranks of wage
earners in England, an increase of fully 25 per cent."]
GERMAN MONEY INDEMNITY
It became commonplace after Germany's defeat was evident that her war
cost must include the cost of the destruction she had caused her
enemies. To estimate this was no easy matter. The attitude of the
Germans on the subject was indicated by their constantly expressed hope
that trade would recommence as usual and that they would be able to
start economic relations in a favorable position. So we find the Cologne
Chamber of Commerce beginning to prepare for peace by adopting a
resolution expressing the hope that the destruction of French and
Belgian industries would allow the rapid recovery of German power.
The _Wall Street Journal_ used this statement as a guide to the Allied
Powers for measuring the kind of indemnity that would be imposed upon
Germany.
"One of the departments of the Government at Washington has in
its files a report of a German commission on industry after the
war. Reading this, one can understand the motive for what at
one time looked like pure vandalism. Vandalism it was, by
descendants of the Vandals, but it was a deliberate destruction
of international competitors, killing the workmen--and
workwomen--and destroying plants and machinery for the one
purpose of removing competition. A physical injury to a child
helped to weaken future competition in the world's trade; and
it was upon the power gained thereby that Germany hoped to
launch another war for world domination....
"A peace that gives the cold-blooded perpetrators of these
crimes an advantage over their victims would not be equitable.
If any must suffer, let it be those who are guilty, but don't
give them a start ahead of their victims.
"In substance, that point should declare that Germany shall not
profit through the wrecking of any Allied industry. Except to
admit necessary foodstuffs, the blockade should not be lifted
until every Allied country from England to Serbia has been
industrially rebuilt. One object of the wholesale murder of
civilians was to weaken industrially the enemy countries. The
greater proportionate loss of man-power in the Allied countries
should be met by restrictions on the entry of raw materials
into Germany. Every piece of stolen machinery should be
returned before her own industries are allowed to resume."
The soft plan of dealing with Germany's war cost was championed by
Secretary Daniels. The Springfield _Republican_ and the _New Republic_
seemed to agree with the Manchester _Guardian_ that Germany ought to
be helped rather than punished, that the main thing was to set her on
her feet again.
"Representative papers like the New York _Times_, Syracuse
_Post-Standard_, Buffalo _Express_, and Sacramento _Bee_ all
insist that while we might or perhaps should claim no
war-expenses from Germany, 'we must exact payment,' in the
words of the Syracuse daily, 'to the last penny for losses
suffered through illegal warfare.' Germany's submarine campaign
cost us, according to this paper's figures, 375,000 tons of
shipping and 775 civilian lives. If we take the burden of
payment for this property and these lives from the guilty
shoulders of Germany it would only be to 'pass it on to the
innocent shoulders of the American taxpayer,' which, the New
York _Times_ declares, would be 'rank injustice'."
FORECASTING THE TOTAL COST OF WAR
It is interesting also to note an attempt made by one of the expert
statisticians attached to the Guaranty Trust Company of New York to
estimate the total cost of the war at the close of the four-year period.
The five main Allies possessed, before the war, $406,000,000,000 for
national work, a sum nearly four times as great as the national wealth
of the two Central Powers. In four years the seven leading belligerents
had spent $134,000,000,000. The only way to grasp the meaning of this
enormous sum is to contrast the cost of the World War with all former
wars. The total cost of wars that had taken place since the American
Revolution was $23,000,000,000; the World War costs therefore, are six
times greater. In these figures, staggering as they are, it was
comparatively easy to figure out the costs, debts and interests of
actual war expenditures. Much more complicated is the problem of
estimating the property value destroyed through military operations on
land and sea:
LOSS FROM DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY
"The total area of the war zone is 174,000 square miles, of
which the Western theater of the war, in France and Belgium,
stretches over an area of 19,500 square miles, and it contains
over 3,000 cities, villages, and hamlets, great manufacturing
and agricultural districts, of which some have been totally
annihilated and some heavily affected. The estimate by the
National Foreign Trade Council of the war losses, which
unfortunately does not go beyond 1916, is as follows:
"'Destruction of buildings and industrial machinery in Belgium,
$1,000,000,000, and in France $700,000,000. The destruction of
agricultural buildings and implements, of raw materials, of
crops and live stock, has been estimated at a sum of
$780,000,000 in Belgium and $680,000,000 in France. Roads were
destroyed frequently by the retreating troops and have been
seriously damaged by heavy gun fire and excessive use. The
losses from destruction of railway bridges, etc., have been
estimated in Belgium at $275,000,000 and in France at
$300,000,000.
"'In the Eastern theater of the War Germany has been invaded
only in eastern Prussia, where the agricultural population has
been seriously impaired. Heavy damage was inflicted upon
bridges, roads, and governmental property, including railroads.
The direct cost to Germany through the loss of agricultural
products, of manufacturing products, as well as in interest on
investments abroad, of earnings from shipping and banking
houses, and profits of insurance and mercantile houses engaged
in business abroad has been enormous'."
ECONOMIC LOSS OF MAN-POWER
The same expert goes on to figure out the economic value of the loss of
human life:
"Mr. M. Barriol, the celebrated actuary, gives the following
figures as the capital value of man: in the United States,
$4,100; in Great Britain, $4,140; in Germany, $3,380; in
France, $2,900; in Russia, $2,020; in Austria-Hungary, $2,020
or an average capital value for the five foreign nations of
$2,892.
"The number of men already lost is 8,509,000 killed and
7,175,000 permanently wounded, or a total of 15,684,000. Thus
society has been impoverished through the death and permanent
disability of a part of its productive man-power to the extent
of $45,000,000,000.
"The loss of men, measured in terms of the capital value of the
workers withdrawn from industry, is offset in some degree by
the enhancement of the capital value of the remaining
producers.... This loss of man-power is also partly offset by
the large contingents of women drawn into industries. In
England, out of a female population of 23,000,000, about
6,000,000 were engaged before the outbreak of the war in
gainful occupations. Since the war broke out no less than
1,500,000 women have been added to the ranks of wage-earners,
an increase of fully 25 per cent. Moreover, about 400,000 women
have shifted from non-essential occupations to men's work. In
the United States, approximately 1,266,000 women are now
engaged in industrial work, either directly or indirectly
necessary to carry on the war.
EFFECTS ON POPULATION
"The physical and moral effects of the war, the moral strain to
which the nations have been subjected, the 'shell-shock' which
has reacted upon the population at home as well as upon the
soldiers on the battlefield, the undernourishment and
starvation of children as well as adults, all have resulted in
a lowered vitality, the ill effects of which, especially in the
countries of the Central Powers, are already seen in an
increase of the death rate, in a spread of epidemics and
diseases that have taxed the medical resources of all
countries.
The lowered vitality of the race, which is still further
aggravated by the millions of incapacitated soldiers and the
premature and excessive employment of children and women in the
industries, will eventually make for a lower standard of
efficiency in all human activities, or a retardation of human
progress. Authoritative statements are to the effect that in
Belgium in the earlier period of the war, the deaths of women
and children far outnumbered those of men. Annual deaths among
the German civilian population have increased by a million
above the normal.
"Besides the loss in actual population there is a loss of
potential population. Carefully compiled figures show that by
1919 the population of Germany will be 7,500,000 less than it
would have been under ordinary circumstances. The people in
Austria in 1919 will be 8 per cent. less in numbers than in the
year before the war. Hungary will be still worse off; it will
have a population of 9 per cent. lower than in pre-war days."
CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT'S ESTIMATES
The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace made public in November,
1919, an elaborate report on the cost of the World War in human life and
in property and the consequent economic losses. The chief conclusions
derived from this intensive study of all the conditions may be
summarized as follows:
All the wars of the nineteenth century from the Napoleonic down
to the Balkan wars of 1912--1913, show a loss of life of
4,449,300, according to the report, while the known and
presumed dead of the World War reached 9,998,771. (See Vol.
III, pp. 403-5.) The monetary value of the individuals lost to
each country is estimated, the highest value on human life
being given to the United States, where each individual's
economic worth is placed at $4,720, with England next at
$4,140; Germany third, at $3,380; France and Belgium, each
$2,900; Austria-Hungary at $2,720, and Russia, Italy, Serbia,
Greece, and the other countries at $2,020.
With a loss of more than 4,000,000 the estimate puts Russia in
the lead in human economic loss, the total being more than
$8,000,000,000; Germany is next with $6,750,000,000; France,
$4,800,000,000; England, $3,500,000,000; Austria-Hungary,
$3,000,000,000; Italy, $2,384,000,000; Serbia, $1,500,000,000;
Turkey, almost $1,000,000,000; Rumania, $800,000,000; Belgium,
almost $800,000,000; the United States slightly more than
$500,000,000; Bulgaria, a little more than $200,000,000;
Greece, $75,000,000; Portugal, $8,300,000, and Japan, $600,000.
On this basis the total in human life lost cost the world
$33,551,276,280, and the loss to the world in civilian
population is placed at an equal figure.
The attempt to determine property losses is the least
satisfactory, as it is the most difficult. The destruction and
devastation in the invaded areas of Belgium, France, Russian
Poland, Serbia, Italy and parts of Austria are probably
incapable of exact determination, and it may well be doubted if
the exact losses will ever be known.
The total property loss on land is put at $29,960,000,000,
one-third of which was suffered by France alone, its loss being
given as $10,000,000,000, with Belgium next at $7,000,000,000,
and the other countries following as follows:
Italy, $2,710,000,000; Serbia, Albania, and Montenegro,
$2,000,000,000; The British Empire and Germany, each,
$1,750,000,000; Poland, $1,500,000,000; Russia, $1,250,000,000;
Rumania, $1,000,000,000, and East Prussia, Austria, and Ukraine
together, the same amount.
[Illustration: Copyright by Central News Service
Launching the Quistconck at Hog Island
According to the report of the Carnegie Endowment the cargo loss at sea
was $3,800,000,000, the total tonnage and cargo loss being
$6,800,000,000. To offset the Allied loss in shipping, ship-building in
the United States was rushed at topmost speed.]
In the property losses on sea, that is, to shipping and cargo,
the report estimates that "the construction cost of the tonnage
loss can scarcely be estimated at less than $200 a ton, and the
monetary loss involved in the sinking of this 15,398,392 gross
tons may, therefore, be placed at about $3,000,000,000." To
this is added loss of cargo, which is estimated at $250 a ton,
giving a cargo loss of $3,800,000,000, and a total tonnage and
cargo loss of $6,800,000,000.
Among the indirect costs of the war, loss of production is
placed at $45,000,000,000. In arriving at this figure an
average of 20,000,000 men are counted as having been withdrawn
from production during the whole period of the war, and their
average yearly productive capacity is placed at $500. War
relief is another indirect cost which totalled up to
$1,000,000,000; and the loss to the neutral nations is given as
$1,750,000,000.
With the total direct costs of the war amounting to
$186,336,637,097 and the indirect costs to $151,612,542,560,
the stupendous total of $337,946,179,657 is reached. Finally,
the report says:
"The figures presented in this summary are both
incomprehensible and appalling, yet even these do not take into
account the effect of the war on life, human vitality,
economic well-being, ethics, morality, or other phases of human
relationships and activities which have been disorganized and
injured. It is evident from the present disturbances in Europe
that the real costs of the war cannot be measured by the direct
money outlays of the belligerents during the five years of its
duration, but that the very breakdown of modern economic
society might be the price exacted."
THE WAR AS A PRODUCT OF HIGH PRICES
All of the great wars in European history have been followed by periods
of increased production and economic expansion. Experts are convinced
that the World War will prove no exception to the world's previous
experience. Wars have been the principal influence that have determined
the course of commodities and prices. In the Napoleonic Wars the index
number rose seventy-two points in twenty years, but during the four
years between 1914 and 1918 there was a rise of one hundred and eight
points in four and a half years, a movement which Edgar Crammond, widely
known British expert in economic and financial affairs, declared to be a
movement to which there was no precedent in point of rapidity or
magnitude. In an address outlined in the New York _Journal of Commerce_
this authority estimated the direct cost of the war to the Allies as
being roughly $145,000,000,000. The Central Powers had spent about
$60,000,000,000. The total cost in dollars he estimated at
$260,000,000,000. The upheaval caused by the war was manifested,
according to the same authority, in the rise of the cost of living and
in the universal increase of wages. Other economic consequences will be
more gradually unfolded. Prospects of fall in the price of commodities
and wages as the result of peace, he thinks, will be arrested for two
reasons: First, the vast increase in the amount of paper money; second,
the huge amount of public debts to the belligerents. He saw an
additional psychological cause in the attitude of the laboring classes
to maintain wages at a higher level than before the war and to improve
the standard of living.
Reduced production is sufficient to account for all the economic
disturbances that were produced during the war, according to the London
_Statist_, which says:
"It is enough to say that production is reduced almost to a
minimum, while consumption is going on at a most extravagant
rate. Those who wish to pose as economists without competent
knowledge are telling the public that all the evil is due to
this, that, and the other thing--such, for example, as
inflation, the rise in prices, the enormous loans raised, and
several other fads. It is pure moonshine. The world is
impoverished, firstly, because so much of the world's manhood
is withdrawn from production to consumption; and, secondly,
because reduction in production is so serious that very little
has been saved either by the belligerents or the neutral
countries of Europe, at all events. International trade is
really carried on by barter. It is true that money is
frequently paid. At the present time money has in some markets
to be paid because credit has been injured, and those who
possess wealth are not as willing as they used to be to trust
to mere credit."
QUESTIONS OF INFLATION
The enormous advance of prices in England was synchronous with the issue
of currency notes to an excess of £700,000,000 beyond the gold reserve.
High officials in British administration ascribed this rise to the
increased consuming capacity. According to the British Board of Trade a
sovereign could purchase no more during the war time than eleven
shillings would just before the war started. A writer in the
_Fortnightly Review_, Mr. W. F. Ford, quotes Jevons' remark in his
classical book on money in explanation of the phenomenon. "A number of
bankers all trying to issue additional notes resemble a number of
merchants offering to sell corn for future delivery, and the value of
gold will be affected as the price of corn certainly is. We are too much
inclined to look upon the value of gold as a fixed datum line in
commerce, but in reality it is a very variable thing." Substitute today
the word Government for bankers and one can see the reason for the
upward rise in prices. This rise would take place apart from any
questions of war waste, profiteering, difficulties of transport by sea
or land or shortage of labor. All the countries involved have followed
the same policy of inflation. The operation is depicted in the following
passage:
"The inevitable result of extensive note issues by a number of
Governments was that prices were irresistibly impelled upwards
in all belligerent countries--apart from any questions of war
waste, profiteering, difficulties of transport by sea or land,
or shortage of labor. Belligerent countries became
extraordinarily good markets in which to sell goods; and a
golden harvest was temptingly displayed to neutral nations, in
whose favor enormous trade balances rapidly grew up. In large
part these balances were met by payment in gold.... But just as
gold substitutes in the shape of paper money swelled the
currencies and increased prices in the belligerent countries,
so also the large quantities of gold coin sent to neutral
States in payment for goods supplied to the warring nations
swelled the currencies and increased prices in the neutral
states themselves. The withdrawal of gold set up a natural
tendency for prices to fall in the countries from which it had
been exported; but not only was this tendency overcome, but the
upward movement of prices was continued by the action of the
several Governments in placing still further issues of
inconvertible paper money on their respective markets. The net
results have been that currencies have been inflated and prices
forced up all over the world, that inconvertible paper money is
tending more and more to drive out gold from the currencies of
the states that issue it, and that the gold so driven out is
being absorbed into the currencies of the neutral nations.
Between August, 1914, and the date of her own declaration of
war, America increased the amount of her gold currency by
approximately £200,000,000 sterling. No real benefit has
accrued.
"The currencies of the whole world have been artificially
inflated to the extent that, under the most favorable
circumstances existing in any part of the world, £5 are now
needed to do the work in circulation that before the war was
accomplished by £3. The loss to people with fixed incomes, the
disturbance of trade, the potential labor difficulties are
stupendous. And as a result of purchasing war material at
excessively high prices, the dead weight of debt incurred by
all the countries at war is very much greater than it need have
been had currencies been kept within reasonable bounds."
CURRENCY EXPANSION IN GREAT BRITAIN
In Great Britain £200,000,000 worth of new paper currency was placed in
circulation and there was a considerable expansion in the use of
banknotes, silver and copper coinage. Proposals were made that the
famous English Bank Act should be repealed and that excess issues of
banknotes should be made legal on the payment of a tax. But apart from
these theories of involving the banking system there was a good deal of
adverse criticism.
"Mr. Herbert Samuel made a masterly attack upon the vicious
system of War Finance, by which no less a sum than £196,170,000
is added to the expenditure by bonuses and increases of wages,
which, in their turn, only force prices still higher and raise
the cost of living. Lives have been conscripted; incomes have
been conscripted; the only thing which has not been conscripted
is labor. If the Government had at an early stage of the war
had the courage to fix wages, instead of prices, the cost of
living would then have been regulated by supply and demand. By
fixing prices of commodities, after they had risen to almost
famine figures, we have the maximum of loss and inconvenience,
high wages, dear food, and a war bill that increases day by
day. Despite Mr. Bonar Law's assurance that the bill of the
year would not be so high as he expected, we have the fact that
we are spending over seven millions a day. The satire of 'the
cheap loaf' consists in its cost to the nation at large of
£45,000,000 a year. Bonuses to munition workers amount to
£40,000,000, bonuses to miners come to £20,000,000, to railway
workers £10,000,000, to potato growers £5,000,000. Is this
anything else but a system of gigantic corruption? In order
that artisans and agriculturists may be kept in good humor with
the war, they are bribed with bonuses and allowed to buy food
at prices which are partially paid by the rest of the
community. If ever there was a case of robbing Peter to pay
Paul it is here."
AMERICA'S EXPERIENCE WITH INFLATION
Protests against war inflation were not confined to British specialists
in finance. What is inflation? As used by the more careful writers on
the subject today, it is taken to signify the increase of bank credits
not represented by any immediate addition to current wealth. For
example, if the Government borrows by an issue of bonds, such bonds
taken by the banks, and payment for them made in the form of bank credit
which is at once transferred to individuals who have furnished labor or
supplies, it is evident that there has been a net addition to the
purchasing power of the community not represented by any corresponding
addition to wealth whether of a saleable or available form. Mr. Delano,
a member of the Federal Reserve Board, said that the war had produced a
world inflation the like of which had never occurred before--"The usual
symptoms of such methods of inflation are the disappearance of metallic
money and the general advance in the prices of commodities." He gives
the following illustration of what has taken place in this process of
inflation:
"Prior to our entry into the war, when the European nations
were buying heavily in the United States, they paid largely in
gold for what they bought, and as a result about a billion
dollars in gold coin came to this country in the period of two
and one-half years. The reason the European nations were able
to send us their gold was that they printed paper money for
their own use, releasing gold for us. But that gold inflation
in this country is one explanation of the general advance in
prices of all commodities, although undoubtedly it is not the
only explanation; for it must be freely admitted that prices
have been affected, first, by scarcity, occasioned by increased
demand from Europe for many articles produced by us; second, by
reason of the fact that increases in taxes and wages of labor
have entered into the cost of production and sale of all
articles and account for a share of the increased prices of
commodities."
CIVIL WAR INFLATION.
The United States had large experience with inflation during the Civil
War. Some $500,000,000 were in this way added to the cost of the war
which might have been avoided. A plain statement of the real incidents
of inflation is given by Mr. A. C. Miller of the Federal Reserve Board
in his _Financial Mobilization for War_, in the following passage:
"For let it not for a moment be overlooked that inflation, in
its effects, amounts to conscriptive taxation of the masses. It
is, indeed, one of the worst and the most unequal forms of
taxation, because it taxes men, not upon what they have or
earn, but upon what they need or consume. The only difference
for the masses between this kind of disguised and concealed
taxation and taxes which are levied and collected openly is
that in the case of the latter the government gets the revenue,
while in the former case it borrows it, and those to whom it is
eventually repaid are not those, for the most part, who have
been mulcted for it. Inflation therefore produces a situation
akin to double taxation in that the great mass of the consuming
public is hard hit by the rise of prices induced by the
degenerated borrowing policy and later has to be taxed in order
to produce the revenue requisite to sustain the interest charge
on the debt contracted and to repay the principal. The active
business and speculative classes can usually take care of
themselves in the midst of the confusion produced by inflation
and recoup themselves for their increasing outlays. Indeed
inflation frequently makes for an artificial condition of
business prosperity. That is why war times are frequently
spoken of in terms of enthusiasm by the class of business
adventurers. But it is a prosperity that is dear-bought and at
the expense of the great body of plain living people. It would
be a monstrous wrong if in financing our present war we should
pursue methods that would land us in a sea of inflation in
which the great body of the American people, who are called
upon to contribute the blood of their sons to the war, were
made the victims of a careless or iniquitous financial policy."
INFLATION ILLUSTRATED.
One of the ways in which inflation was caused in the United States
during the war period was the plan adopted by the banks of financing the
loan directly by means of bank credits to the buyers. According to Mr.
Carl Snyder the banking officials roughly agree that on the first
Liberty Loan for $2,000,000,000 the banks may have loaned somewhere near
half the total and on the second loan even more. Of course, this means a
heavy expansion of bank credit. Economists are generally agreed that the
flooding of the country with paper money brings about an enormous rise
in prices. They differ chiefly in regard to the degree of inflation. The
most accepted statement of inflation is that prices vary directly as the
volume of the actual currency employed and its rate of turn over or
velocity, and inversely with the volume of trade. The effect of bank
credits is exactly that of an excessive issue of notes; that is, if they
are expanded more rapidly than the actual volume of business there is a
rise in prices, that is to say there is inflation.
The situation of the country during the war in regard to business was
put plainly by Mr. Snyder in the following words: "Railroads cannot haul
any more goods. The government is already stepping in to shut down on
shipments on certain lines of industry. We can not get any more coal
unless labor is drafted from other industries, and as a whole we cannot
get any more labor as is evident from the fantastic wages that are now
being paid. In a word, production and therefore the actual volume of
exchange is practically at the limit and has been for a year or more. No
expansion of bank credits can put this production any higher. It
follows, therefore, as a practical fact that _any expansion of bank
loans now means inflation_--to all practical intents dollar for
dollar." Because of the introduction of a billion dollars worth of gold
into the country, prices have risen nearly one hundred percent. The
expansion of bank credits increases the cost of living and the cost of
the war will be doubled.
Some bankers estimated that if the war lasted the expansion of bank
loans might reach $50,000,000,000. The progress of these loans was
encouraged by the cutting of the required metallic reserve under the new
Federal Reserve system and the system of book credits with the Federal
Reserve banks allowed to the banks that are members of the system. The
following is Mr. Snyder's description of the way the inflation was
encouraged.
"Every dollar of gold may become three dollars of Federal Bank
credits and each dollar of this may in turn become the basis of
eight dollars of credits for the Central Reserve cities, ten
dollars for the smaller cities and fifteen dollars for the
country banks, which works out to a practical average of ten
dollars for all the banks in the Federal Reserve system."
He then went on to speak of the possibilities of this inflation and
uttered a warning of the danger, because the only obstacle in the way
was the good sense and conservatism of the American banks. Some
authorities hold that a war cannot be fought without inflation. Mr.
Snyder thought that the United States with large ante-war income could
and should have tried the experiment. People want easy money and flush
times. If credit were contracted there would be tight money and a high
interest rate. Mr. McAdoo and the Administration at Washington feel
highly elated when they roll up five billion of statistics, half of
which are merely bank rolls. It seems not to matter that all this may
add two or three billion to the already swollen credit currency and that
the millions of poor people, small investors and life insurance holders
who cannot expand their income in any adequate way must pay the piper.
These are the millions who rarely have any voice in national affairs,
and all the more so because they are for the most part ignorant. It
seems an idle consequence that we may spend perhaps ten long weary years
of hard times, of falling prices, declining business and sharp distress,
paying for the orgy of inflated prices, waste and extravagance in which
we are now indulging.
[Illustration: Photo by Paul Thompson
Ship-building at Camden, N. J.
One of the financial effects of the war was the transformation of the
United States from a debtor to a creditor nation. Immense private
fortunes were made. In no industry was there a greater boom than in
ship-building.]
CREDIT EXPANSION
The wide expansion of credit can be studied by making a comparison of
the gold holdings of the leading nations. For example, in 1914 just
before the outbreak of the war, the amount of cash held by all the banks
of the United States was estimated at about $1,639,000,000. Of this
amount about $913,000,000 was in the form of gold or gold certificates.
Upon this basis there rested a structure of credit amounting to
$21,351,000,000. In other words the gold basis of the country's deposit
credits amounted to 4.27 percent.
In 1916 the cash held was $1,911,000,000; about $1,140,000,000 was in
gold; and on this basis there rested a credit structure of
$28,250,000,000.
UNITED STATES A CREDITOR NATION
One of the financial effects of the war was the transformation of the
United States from a debtor to a creditor nation. The reconstruction
period in finance is certain to bring about a situation described by a
writer in the _Wall Street Journal_ as one of the most interesting
developments known in financial history. Financial waste in emergency
measures was a superficial side of America's part in the World War. But
this writer considers that what happened during the war was not
altogether financial waste:
"A great upheaval took place in the world of finance. Credit
resources were brought to the fore and nations established on a
financial basis of far-reaching importance, but of a kind that
had only a secondary place before.
"The war has turned the United States from a debtor to a
creditor nation. Formerly we owed abroad something like
$4,000,000,000, about three-quarters of which sum we have
bought back. Moreover, Europe now owes us about
$9,000,000,000--on private account; about $2,000,000,000 in
securities; in United States Government obligations over
$7,000,000,000. The world is under obligations to us in
interest alone of between $400,000,000 and $500,000,000 a
year."
After the United States took an active part in the war large credits and
loans were made in behalf of other countries as the following excerpt
shows:
"A total appropriation of $7,000,000,000 has been made,
$3,000,000,000 by the Act of April 24, 1917, and $4,000,000,000
by the Act of September 24, 1917. Under these authorizations
credits have been established in favor of the governments of
Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Belgium, and Serbia.
These loans, up to January 17, 1918, are given in the following
table:
Loans and Balances
Country Credits Agreed Loans Under-Established
Upon Made Credits
Great Britain $2,045,000,000 $1,985,000,000 $60,000,000
France 1,285,000,000 1,225,000,000 60,000,000
Italy 500,000,000 450,000,000 50,000,000
Russia 325,000,000 187,729,750 137,270,250
Belgium 77,400,000 75,400,000 2,000,000
Serbia 6,000,000 4,200,000 1,800,000
Totals $4,238,400,000 $3,927,329,750 $311,070,250
"On the basis of the requests being made on the Treasury, it is
estimated that credits aggregating approximately $500,000,000
per month will be required to meet the urgent war needs of the
foreign governments receiving advances from the United States.
At this rate approximately the entire appropriation authorized
by Congress will be accredited to our Allies by the close of
the present fiscal year (June 30, 1918).
"A significant feature of the loans floated in this country in
the last three and a half years has been the fact that many
states and municipalities which formerly went to London to sell
their securities have recently been financed through the United
States. About $150,000,000 of the Canadian loans went to
provinces and municipalities, and many of the South American
obligations were contracted for municipal improvements. The
neutral nations of Europe have also sought accommodation in the
American money market. Loans have been made to the city of
Dublin, Ireland, the London Water Board, and the French cities
of Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, and Marseilles."
DISAPPEARANCE OF GOLD CURRENCY
During the war gold almost ceased to be currency in all the Allied
countries. The Central Powers at the end of the struggle had
comparatively little. Of the total gold production the United States
produced about twenty-five percent., while the British Empire produced
nearly sixty-four. A writer in the _Edinburgh Review_ proposed to take
the opportunity of creating a standard price for gold. For example, if
the standard price of gold were reduced to half, the prices of all
commodities would come down in sympathy. We must take advantage of the
fact that we are working with a paper currency, and all authorities
agree that financial stability is only secured by the backing of as much
gold as possible against paper securities and emergencies.
The plan involved an increase of the standard price. The success of the
scheme depends upon the concordant will of the United States and Great
Britain to adopt it as the following article suggests:
"Obviously if Great Britain or any other country _alone_
attempted to alter the standard price of gold, and therefore
the value of the present sovereign (or its equivalent), the
currency would be debased, instead of being enhanced. It would
also in effect amount to a partial repudiation of national
debt. A standard ceases to be a standard if _one_ nation can
arbitrarily alter it, but surely there can be no argument
against the creation of a new standard sanctioned by the whole
civilized world for their mutual advantage. If Great Britain
and the United States were to proclaim their desire to adopt my
scheme it is hardly likely that any country other than the
Central Powers would fail to welcome it. Spain, for instance,
has increased her gold reserve to about £80,000,000 and greatly
enhanced the value of her currency thereby. Would she fail to
grasp the happy chance of making this £120,000,000, and would
any country continue to part with its gold at £4 per ounce when
it could get £6 or £8?"
WAR'S EFFECT ON SILVER
Along with all other commodities, that cinderella of
finance--silver--had a share in the general rise in prices. One of the
reasons is the enormous falling off of silver production in Mexico,
where one-third of the total world supply is produced; another is the
great demand for silver. Prior to the war, the use of silver plate by
the wealthy classes had largely fallen off; but the war, because of the
rise in wages, brought about a largely increased demand for silver to be
used in ornaments:
"The war has brought into the market a vast number of new
buyers for ornaments, whose demand in the aggregate is
estimated to more than compensate for the falling off in the
purchases by the wealthy classes of silver plate. Wages
everywhere, not merely in England, but practically all over the
world, have advanced, and particularly in Western Europe;
moreover, immense numbers of women, and even children, are
being employed who were not employed before, and those who were
employed before have a larger income, particularly amongst the
wage earning classes, than has been the case in this country
for many years past."
The use of silver in coinage, too, was notably increased. Gold
disappeared in countries where gold coins were used; paper money and
silver token money took its place. Another reason for the advance in
silver is connected with the demand for the metal in eastern countries.
According to the _London Statist_:
" ... About half the annual production of silver throughout the
world is absorbed by the East, meaning principally India and
China. It has to be borne in mind that prices in the East have
advanced as well as in Europe and the two Americas, and,
consequently, more token money is required there as well as
here. Silver is the standard of value, and not token money at
all, in China; and in India, while gold is nominally the
standard of value, the rupee is the actual coin in which the
Indian natives, as distinct from mere government officials,
reckon their wealth. Now, as one result of the war, nearly all
the governments forbid the export of gold; consequently, India
requires a steadily increasing supply of silver, not merely to
do the work that silver did before the war, but, in addition,
to supply the void created by the prohibition of the export of
gold."
STOCK EXCHANGE WAR
The accompanying diagram showing how military operations in Europe
affected the average prices of fifty stocks, half industrial and half
railway, was published in the _New York Times Annalist_:
The wider black area shows the high and low average prices of
the twenty-five industrials included in the fifty, and the
white area the corresponding figures for the twenty-five rails.
The lines begin at a time when Germany was suffering severely
from her failure at Verdun and from losses in men and territory
from the great Allied Somme offensive. The subsequent rapid
decline (November to February) embraces the period of
Bethmann-Hollweg's sensational peace offensive, followed a few
weeks later by Germany's intensified submarine warfare. The
lowest point of all (December, 1917) was reached after
Germany's successful counter-thrust for Cambrai, her "peace
offensive" with the Bolsheviki at Brest-Litovsk, and the taking
over of our railroads by the government.--_Literary Digest_,
October 19, 1918.
A further indication of how military operations reacted on Stock
Exchange quotations was shown in the decided improvement that took place
since the end of July, 1918, after the Germans were pushed back in their
drive towards Paris. The most direct way of measuring this influence is
to take the quotations for the bonds and notes of the Allied Governments
dealt in at the New York Stock Exchange since 1915:
"The lowest quotations for these bond and note issues were
reached in 1917, when the cause of the Allies assumed a gloomy
appearance. The depression was aggravated by the general
decline of the entire securities market in the later part of
that year. Some recovery occurred by the end of last year, but
the beginning of 1918 saw them still depressed. Last March,
April, May and June, when the great German drives were in
progress, they showed little disposition to break, but after
the active participation of the American Army in the fighting
began and news came that the counter-offensive had assumed a
decided and successful phase, an assertion of strength took
place in foreign government bonds, carrying quotations 'not
only to the highest of the year, but in some instances to the
best figures attained since they first made their appearance in
the American market.' The following tabulation is presented by
_Bradstreet's_ as giving the range of prices for the most
prominent bonds and short-term notes of foreign countries
during 1917 and 1918, with the quotations for them on August
22nd:
/---1917----\ /---1918----\ Aug.
High Low High Low 22
Am. For. Sec. 5s. 1919 97-7/8 90 98 94½ 97½
Anglo-French 5s. 1920 95 81-7/8 95 88¼ 94¾
Canada 5s. 1926 100 89 95 90-7/8 92
Canada 5s. 1931 100¼ 87½ 94 88-7/8 92-3/8
Fr. Republic 5-1/2s. 1919 101 91½ 99 94 98-7/8
U. Kingdom 5s. 1918 98-5/8 95½ 100 97 99-7/8
U. Kingdom 5-1/2s. 1919 98-7/8 93¼ 99¼ 95¼ 98¾
U. King. 5-1/2s, new 1919 101-9/16 95¼ 100 9¾ 99-5/8
U. Kingdom 5-1/2s. 1921 98½ 84½ 95¾ 91-5/8 95-3/8
_French Cities_
Paris 6s. 1921 96-7/8 73½ 92-1/8 81-5/8 91-7/8
Bordeaux 6s. 1919 96-7/8 74 95½ 84 94-7/8
Lyons 6s. 1919 96-7/8 74 95½ 84 94¾
Marseilles 6s. 1919 96-7/8 74 95½ 84 94¾
_Russian Govern._[6]
External 6½% 98¾ 45 64½ 33 61
External 5½% 1921 98-5/8 36 60½ 34½ 57
[6] Curb market quotations.
[Illustration: Diagram Showing the Effect of the War on the Prices of
Stocks
(See explanation on page 32)]
"British issues, as shown above, declined least of all, 'and
consequently had less ground to regain in the rise,'
_Bradstreet's_ adds:
"The feeling of confidence in England's credit has all along
been a factor in connection with its American obligations. This
will doubtless be strengthened by the announcement made this
week that the United Kingdom secured 5 per cent. notes, due
September 1, 1918, will be paid at their maturity on that date.
There were originally $250,000,000 of these notes, which were
sold in our market in 1916; but the outstanding issue has been
reduced to about $180,000,000 by purchases in the market for
redemption. French obligations have been one of the chief
features of the advance. As will be seen from the above table,
the French Republic 5½ per cents., due 1919, have risen 6
points from the low figures of the year. The 6 per cent. notes
of the French cities, Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Marseilles,
with rises of about 10 points each, are conspicuous examples of
the good effects following the checking of the German advance
and the counter-offensive launched by the Allies and the
American Army. No division of this part of the bond market has,
however, shown such a marked improvement as the Russian
external or dollar bonds, which though not listed at the Stock
Exchange, are dealt in extensively on the New York Curb
market'."
GERMAN PROPERTY IN AMERICA
Until the United States entered the war with Germany it had never been
realized that an enormous share of the economic wealth of the country
was under German control. Attorney-General Palmer, in an address at
Detroit, estimated this share to be about two billion dollars in money
value, with an economic and political value far greater:
"Furthermore, this structure was 'designed so to hold American
industry as to frustrate the organization of our resources in
case of war.' With two hundred American corporations controlled
by the financial and military power in Germany, we had a
situation that 'might easily have been fatal in America had it
not been discovered in time.' When the war began in 1914 the
structure 'had become so large and powerful and was so firmly
entrenched in the industrial life of our country that its real
commanders in Germany cherished the hope that it would prove
the make-weight which would keep America out of the war, or,
failing in that, constitute a powerful ally of the German cause
in our very midst.'" Mr. Palmer added:
"'During the last twenty-five or thirty years Germany had built
up upon American soil a structure reaching into every part of
the country and stretching its arms across the seas to fasten
upon Porto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and the
Philippines. Congress has declared that all these enemy
properties shall be managed and administered by the Alien
Property Custodian with all the powers of a common law trustee,
the proceeds to be distributed after the war in such manner as
the Congress may determine. This means that the final
disposition of the properties or the funds realized from their
sale will be a topic for discussion and a subject for
settlement at the council table of the nations at which
permanent peace shall be restored to the world.
"'This being so, it seems to me to be an important part of our
work to capture the army which Germany skilfully and craftily
planted midst the busy wheels of American industry, and to
break, never to be again repaired, the industrial and
commercial chain which Germany has stretched across the
American continent and our insular possessions. I would let
Germany understand now that her plan has dismally failed. I
would let her understand now that no matter how long she
fights, or what sacrifice she makes, or what price she pays,
however much territory she may occupy, or whatever worlds she
may conquer, there is one place which she will never soil again
with the tramp of the marching legions of her industrial army.
That is the United States of America. I would divorce utterly
and forever all German capital from American industry'."
II--WARTIME FOOD AND PRICE PROBLEMS
Intricacies of a Perplexing and Critical Situation Which Taxed the
Ingenuity of Statesmen of All the Belligerents
Europe was financially plunged into anarchy in August, 1914. All the
exchanges were demoralized, checks were not cashed, the five-pound note
became a worthless scrap of paper. The only thing that counted was gold
and goods. Prices advanced to prohibited levels. England, in danger of a
food famine, set up a Food Control Committee. Then the discovery was
made that the country was short of sugar. This shortage was due to the
fact that the war broke out when supplies from Cuba and elsewhere were
stopping and when the German imports had not begun. Sugar was bought to
the value of $86,000,000 from every country which had it to sell. When
the sugar merchants began to put the price up, purchasing was stopped
for the time. Later the Government managed to secure the quantity
required, because it became the only sugar importer. It also supplied
the French Government with sugar at cost price. Any further difficulties
with the sugar supply were due to freight shortage. By this system sugar
was cheaper in England than in any other belligerent country and the
Exchequer took in $34,000,000 in the way of taxes, after raising the
rate from 45¢ per hundred weight to $3.36 per hundred weight.
In its control of the meat situation, the Government put itself in a
dominating position by seizing all steamers that had refrigerating
space. Enormous quantities of canned meats were imported from the United
States from the American packing firms, but the Government practically
created a state monopoly in frozen meat. This product was distributed by
it to all the other belligerents, except Russia. The purchase of wheat
was entrusted to a large importing house, which acted as an agent of the
Government. For supplying the fish market, a service of fishing boats
was maintained and a deal with Norway was made by which the whole
Norwegian fish supply was secured:
"The British Government went into the beef business in order to
supply the troops at home and overseas with chilled meat. It
did so at an average cost of 12 cents per pound. It also
supplied all meat of this kind required by the French Army, the
Italian Army, the Belgians, and the Serbians. The amount of
meat required for the British and French armies was over 50,000
tons per month; for the Italian Army about 10,000 tons per
month. These quantities increased proportionately with the
additions to the forces. Having created a state monopoly in the
importation and control of chilled meat, the Government had to
make provisions for domestic supplies outside the Army. The
Board of Trade arranged to sell to British firms the surplus
meat at market prices. They obtained a small commission, lower
than it hitherto received from traders. Sales to speculators
were prohibited.
"Wheat was quite as important as sugar and beef, although there
was less risk of a world-corner. Wheat was purchased for
Government account on somewhat similar lines as beef. One of
the largest importing houses was commissioned to do all the
purchasing, while the other houses held off, and it was four
months before the corn trade, on the selling side, discovered
that purchases were made for the state. Naturally the
commission which the state paid on such transactions was
nominal. The British Government organization bought and shipped
wheat, oats, fodder, etc., for Italy. The French Government
bought their civil _ravitaillement_ wheat through the Hudson
Bay Company. Large purchases were made in Canada on behalf of
the Italian Government."
UNITED STATES AS FOOD PRODUCER
"It is hard to realize that the United States was in 1917 much
less favorably situated for producing a huge food surplus than
it was thirty years before. In the interim industrialism had
made huge strides in the land, and a great urban population has
risen to eat up a large part of the surplus of food produced by
the farms. This change is indicated by a growth of the urban
population in the twenty years from 1890 to 1910 from
22,720,223 to 42,625,383, or more than 80 per cent., while
rural population during the same period increased from
40,227,491 to 49,348,883, or less than 25 per cent. If the same
ratios have been maintained since 1910 urban population has now
become one-half of the whole. In terms of food production
decidedly more than one-half of our population now produces a
very insignificant part of the food which it consumes, for the
rural population includes all who live in towns of less than
2,500. The significance of the change is indicated by the
following figures of the production, export, and consumption
of typical food products. The comparison is between the average
of the five-year period ending in 1895 and that ending in 1914.
The average production of wheat per year for the former period
was 476,678,000 bushels; for the latter 697,459,000 bushels, an
increase of 46 per cent. Between these periods domestic
consumption increased from 310,107,000 to 588,592,000 bushels,
or about 90 per cent., while exports decreased from 166,571,000
to 104,945,000 bushels, or 37 per cent. The average production
of corn for the former period was 1,602,171,000 bushels; for
the latter 2,752,372,000 bushels, or an increase of 72 per
cent. Consumption increased from 1,552,003,000 to 2,790,962,000
bushels, or 79 per cent., while exports decreased from
50,168,000 to 41,509,000 bushels, or 17 per cent. The figures
upon sugar, beef, pork, and other staples lead to similar
conclusions. The growth of industrial centers has given us an
increasingly urban population which has been consuming a larger
and larger part of the food surplus."
THE FOOD CONTROLLER
No policy of _laissez-faire_ for handling the food situation was
possible. The need of direction was paramount and required
administrative talent of a high order. Fortunately the United States met
this demand.
The work of Herbert M. Hoover was one of the main factors in securing
the Allied victory. This was recognized by as conservative an organ of
public opinion as the London _Economist_, which speaks of him as an
unimpeachable authority and as the organizer of the Allied victory. His
experience is a tribute to the wonderful readiness and self-sacrifice
shown by the Americans in the matter of food consumption and to the
untiring and increasing success of our fleet in combating the submarine.
How much success in the war depended upon food supplies may be gauged
from the panicky feeling prevailing in Government quarters in England
when it was reported in the winter of 1917--18, that the American wheat
surplus had been used up. Lord Rhonda, the British Food Controller,
cabled to Mr. Hoover--"We are beaten, the war is over." Then began the
era in the United States of wheatless days and war bread. The result of
this period of national abstinence enabled the exportation to Europe of
about 150,000,000 bushels of wheat. A British member of the Allied Food
Commission said it was very remarkable to see a whole nation denying
itself of all wheat products, "not because it was short but because it
wanted to assist." This rationing was accomplished with very little
exercise of authority, and the peril of the defeat of the Allies by
famine was averted.
[Illustration: Centres of Live Stock Production Throughout the World]
AMERICA'S CONTRIBUTION IN FOOD TO THE ALLIES
Mr. Hoover in a letter to President Wilson stated that the total value
of American food shipments to Allied countries for their armies, for the
civilian population, Belgium relief and Red Cross, amounted to about
$1,400,000,000 for the fiscal year, 1918:
"Shipments of meats, fats, and dairy products were as follows,
Pounds.
Fiscal year, 1916--17 2,166,500,000
Fiscal year, 1917--18 3,011,100,000
Increase 844,600,000
"'Our slaughterable animals at the beginning of the last fiscal
year were not appreciably larger in number than the year
before, and particularly in hogs; they were probably less';
so, as Mr. Hoover points out, 'the increase in shipments is due
to conservation and the extra weight of animals added by our
farmers.' Our shipments of cereal and cereal products have
been,
Bushels.
Fiscal year, 1916--17 259,900,000
Fiscal year, 1917--18 340,800,000
Increase 80,900,000
"The total shipment of wheat from our last harvest was about
141,000,000 bushels, with 13,900,000 of rye, a total of
154,900,000 bushels, of prime breadstuffs. Mr. Hoover notes a
remarkable achievement in connection with the wheat shipments:
"'Since the urgent request of the Allied Food Controllers early
in the year for a further shipment of 75,000,000 bushels from
our 1917 wheat than originally planned, we shall have shipped
to Europe, or have _en route_, nearly 85,000,000 bushels. At
the time of this request our surplus was already more than
exhausted.
"'This accomplishment of our people in this matter stands out
even more clearly if we bear in mind that we had available in
the fiscal year 1916--17 from net carry over and a surplus over
our normal consumption about 200,000,000 bushels of wheat,
which we were able to export that year without trenching on our
home loaf. This last year, however, owing to the large failure
of the 1917 wheat crop we had available from net carry over and
production and imports only just about our normal consumption.
Therefore, our wheat shipments to Allied destinations represent
approximately savings from our own wheat bread.'
"The effort and sacrifice made by our people to do this are
more fully appreciated when we consider that last year's wheat
crop was a small one and that the corn failed to mature
properly. Mr. Hoover concludes his letter with these words of
warm appreciation of the people who have made up the army of
which he has been the commanding general:
"'I am sure that all the millions of our people, agricultural
as well as urban, who have contributed to these results should
feel a very definite satisfaction that, in a year of universal
food shortages in the northern hemisphere, all of these people,
joined together against Germany, have come through into sight
of the coming harvest, not only with health and strength fully
maintained, but with only temporary periods of hardship. The
European Allies have been compelled to sacrifice more than our
own people, but we have not failed to load every steamer since
the delays of the storm months of last winter.
"'Our contributions to this end could not have been
accomplished without effort and sacrifice, and it is a matter
for further satisfaction that it has been accomplished
voluntarily and individually. It is difficult to distinguish
between various sections of our people--the homes, public
eating places, food trades, urban or agricultural
populations--in assessing credit for these results, but no one
will deny the dominant part of the American women'."
AGRICULTURE AND THE WAR
The significance of the strides made in agricultural productivity by
which Mr. Hoover's food campaign was made possible and successful is
brought out in the report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1918:
"The efforts put forth by the farmers and the agricultural
organizations to secure increased production can perhaps best
be concretely indicated in terms of planting operations. The
size of the harvest may not be the measure of the labors of the
farmers. Adverse weather conditions and unusual ravages of
insects or plant diseases may partly overcome and neutralize
the most exceptional exertions."
ACREAGE UNDER CULTIVATION
"The first year of our participation in the war, 1917,
witnessed the Nation's record for acreage planted--283,000,000
of the leading cereals, potatoes, tobacco, and cotton, as
against 261,000,000 for the preceding year, 251,000,000 for the
year prior to the outbreak of the European war, and 248,000,000
for the five-year average, 1910--14. This is a gain of
22,000,000 over the year preceding our entry into the war and
of 35,000,000 over the five-year average indicated. Even this
record was exceeded the second year of the war. There was
planted in 1918 for the same crops 289,000,000 acres, an
increase over the preceding record year of 5,600,000. It is
especially noteworthy that, while the acreage planted in wheat
in 1917 was slightly less than that for the record year of
1915, it exceeded the five-year average (1910--14) by 7,000,000;
that the acreage planted in 1918 exceeded the previous record
by 3,500,000; and that the indications are that the acreage
planted during the current fall season will considerably exceed
that of any preceding fall planting."
YIELDS OF PRINCIPLE CEREALS
"In each of the last two years climatic conditions over
considerable sections of the Union were adverse--in 1917
especially for wheat and in 1918 for corn. Notwithstanding this
fact, the aggregate yield of the leading cereals in each of
these years exceeded that of any preceding year in the Nation's
history except 1915. The estimated total for 1917 was
5,796,000,000 bushels and for 1918, 5,638,000,000 bushels, a
decrease of approximately 160,000,000 bushels. But the
conclusion would be unwarranted that the available supplies for
human food or the aggregate nutritive value will be less in
1918 than in 1917. Fortunately, the wheat production for the
current year--918,920,000 bushels--is greatly in excess of that
for each of the preceding two years, 650,828,000 in 1917 and
636,318,000 in 1916, and is next to the record wheat crop of
the Nation. The estimated corn crop, 2,749,000,000 bushels,
exceeds the five-year pre-war average by 17,000,000 bushels, is
3.4 per cent. above the average in quality, and greatly
superior to that of 1917. It has been estimated that of the
large crop of last year, approximately 900,000,000 bushels were
soft. This, of course, was valuable as feed for animals, but
less so than corn of normal quality. It should be remembered,
in thinking in terms of food nutritional value, that, on the
average, only about 12 per cent. of the corn crop is annually
consumed by human beings and that not more than 26 per cent.
ever leaves the farm. It should be borne in mind also that the
stocks of corn on the farms November 1, 1918, were 118,400,000
bushels, as against less than 35,000,000 bushels last year, and
93,340,000 bushels, the average for the preceding five years.
It is noteworthy that the quality of each of the four great
cereals--barley, wheat, corn, and oats--ranges from 3 to 5.4
per cent., above the average.
"The tables printed below may facilitate the examination of
these essential facts:
NEED OF FOOD CONSERVATION
Statistics have not yet been published as to the comparative food
production before the war and during the war years. Statistics of this
kind would go a long way towards settling the question whether high
prices were due to currency inflation or due to a scarcity of food. It
must be remembered that the arguments on both sides are expressed very
dogmatically. Take, for example, the following passage from an address
by Mr. Moulton: "The food problem," he says, "goes much deeper than
conserving the use of an existing stock of foodstuffs. The real food
problem is how to secure a supply of food large enough to meet the
continuous requirements of this nation and our Allies. This is more a
question of production than of consumption. That is to say, conservation
in consumption is less important than large production. There is no
possible escape from a substantial shortage of the necessities of life."
=========================================================================
ACREAGE OF CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES.
[Figures refer to planted acreage.]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
| 1918, | 1917, | | | Annual
Crop |subject to |subject to | 1916 | 1914 | average
| revision | revision | | | 1910--1914.
--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+-------------
CEREALS | | | |
Corn |113,835,000|119,755,000|105,296,000| 103,435,000| 105,240,000
Wheat | 64,659,000| 59,045,000| 56,810,000| 54,661,000| 52,452,000
Oats | 44,475,000| 43,572,000| 41,527,000| 38,442,000| 38,014,000
Barley | 9,108,000| 8,835,000| 7,757,000| 7,565,000| 7,593,000
Rye | 6,119,000| 4,480,000| 3,474,000| 2,733,000| 2,562,000
Buckwheat 1,045,000| 1,006,000| 828,000| 792,000| 826,000
Rice | 1,120,400| 964,000| 869,000| 694,000| 733,000
Kafirs | 5,114,000| 5,153,000| 3,944,000| |
--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+-------------
Total |245,475,400|242,810,000|220,505,000|[7]208,322,000[7]207,420,000
=========================================================================
VEGETABLES | | | |
Potatoes| 4,113,000| 4,390,000| 3,565,000| 3,711,000| 3,686,000
Sweet | 959,000| 953,000| 774,000| 603,000| 611,000
Potatoes| | | | |
--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+-------------
Total | 5,072,000| 5,343,000| 4,339,000| 4,314,000| 4,297,000
=========================================================================
Tobacco | 1,452,900| 1,447,000| 1,413,000| 1,224,000| 1,209,000
Cotton | 37,073,000| 33,841,000| 34,985,000| 36,832,000| 35,330,000
--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+-------------
Grand |289,073,300|283,441,000|261,242,000|[7]250,692,000[7]248,256,000
Total.| | | | |
--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+-------------
[7] Excluding kafirs.
PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
[Figures are in round thousands; i. e., 000 omitted.]
======================================================================
Crops | 1918 | 1917, | 1916 | 1914 | Annual
|(unrevised| Subject | | | average
| estimate | to | | |1910--1914
| November |revision.| | |
| 1918). | | | |
-------------------+----------+---------+---------+---------+---------
CEREALS | | | | |
Corn | bush| 2,749,198|3,159,494|2,566,927|2,672,804|2,732,457
Wheat | do| 918,920| 650,828| 636,318| 891,017| 728,225
Oats | do| 1,535,297|1,587,286|1,251,837|1,141,060|1,157,961
Barley | do| 236,505| 208,975| 182,309| 194,953| 186,208
Rye | do| 76,687| 60,145| 8,862| 42,779| 37,568
Buckwheat | do| 18,370| 17,460| 11,662| 16,881| 17,022
Rice | do| 41,918| 36,278| 40,861| 23,649| 24,378
Kafirs | do| 61,182| 75,866| 53,858| |
|-----+----------+---------+---------+---------+---------
Total | do| 5,638,077|5,796,332|4,792,634|4,983,143|4,883,819
|========================================================
VEGETABLES | | | | |
Potatoes | bush| 390,101| 442,536| 286,953| 409,921| 360,772
Sweet | do| 88,114| 87,141| 70,955| 56,574| 57,117
potatoes| | | | | |
Beans | do| 17,802| 14,967| 10,715| 11,585|
(commercial)| | | | | |
Onions, fall | do| 13,438| 12,309| 7,833| [8] |
commercial| | | | | |
crop| | | | | |
Cabbage | tons| 565| 475| 252| [8] |
(commercial)| | | | | |
FRUITS | | | | |
Peaches | bush| 40,185| 45,066| 37,505| 54,109| 43,752
Pears | do| 10,342| 13,281| 11,874| 12,086| 11,184
Apples | do| 197,360| 174,608| 204,582| 253,200| 197,898
Cranberries, | bbls| 374| 255| 471| 644|
3 States| | | | | |
MISCELLANEOUS | | | | |
Flaxseed | bush| 14,646| 8,473| 14,296| 13,749| 18,353
Sugar beets | tons| 6,549| 5,980| 6,228| 5,585| 5,391
Tobacco | lbs| 1,266,686|1,196,451|1,153,278|1,034,679| 991,958
All hay | tons| 86,254| 94,930| 110,992| 88,686| 81,640
Cotton |bales| 11,818| 11,302| 11,450| 16,135| 14,259
Sorghum sirup|galls| 29,757| 34,175| 13,668| |
Peanuts | bush| 52,617| 56,104| 35,324| |
Broom corn, 5| tons| 52| 52| 39| |
States| | | | | |
Clover seed | bush| 1,248| 1,439| 1,706| |
----------------------------------------------------------------------
[8] no estimate
The same point of view is expressed in the following extract:
"It is not usually understood that the chief cause of the
enormously high prices of the necessities of life at the
present time is their relative scarcity. The supply of
necessities in this country has not materially increased, but
the demand for them, owing to the requirements of our Allies,
has enormously increased. We can prevent a still further
soaring of prices only by increased production of
necessities--increased production to be accomplished, let it be
repeated through a diversion of productive power from the
non-essential lines.
"The wealthy have often been urged since the war started to
spend lavishly on luxuries and to economize on necessities in
order that the necessities will remain for consumption by the
poor. This is sheer shortsightedness; for the energy devoted to
the production of luxuries for consumption by the wealthy
would, if diverted to the production of essentials, give us a
sufficient supply of the necessities of life that all might
have them in relative abundance. The result of a policy of
spending lavishly on luxuries is an inadequate production of
necessities and hence prices so high as to cause real privation
among the masses. Those engaged in producing luxuries obviously
cannot at the same time be engaged in producing necessities."
In a war of attrition, physical deterioration of the masses of society
in consequence of inadequate nourishment was certain to result in a
serious decline in national morale, and this was a decided factor in the
final outcome of the struggle. Food and other physical necessities would
win the war. Mr. F. A. Vanderlip used the same argument for economies:
"Thus the diversion of productive resources to public ends
requires of each of us a voluntary or compulsory rearrangement
of individual and household budgets and radical changes in the
habits of our lives. We must encourage direct diversion by
reducing to a minimum our consumption of articles which can be
used by our soldiers. But it is even more important that we
give up the consumption of non-essential things in order that
the productive energy which they embody be devoted to the
accomplishment of the purpose in hand. The amount which we are
forced to give up or voluntarily surrender constitutes a
surplus over private consumption that measures the extent of
our ability to wage war. We are fighting a nation which
continues to be willing to reduce private consumption to the
barest subsistence minimum. Unless a large surplus is produced
we can gain no active participation in war and cannot hope for
a victorious peace. The larger the surplus the shorter the war
will be, and the nearer we are to victory."
GREAT BRITAIN'S FOOD DANGER
Under the long rgime of free trade Great Britain depended upon other
countries for its food supply. To offset the submarine campaign earnest
appeals were made to make England self-supporting in this respect. The
appeals were answered and were given enthusiastic popular support. What
strides were made in England's agriculture since the war began can be
seen from a paragraph in the London _New Statesman_:
"In 1918, as against 1916, the acreage (England and Wales)
under oats is up by 35 per cent.; that under wheat by 38 per
cent.; that under barley by 11 per cent.; that under other
grain by 69 per cent.; that under potatoes by 50 per cent. The
number of allotments (1,300,000) has increased by 140 per cent.
The Report of the Food-Production Department ... is as
satisfactory as we could wish; the number of acres under
cultivation in the United Kingdom has gone up by over four
millions in two years, all records being broken.
"This figure ignores the great increase in gardens and
allotments, and it is estimated that, on the present scale of
consumption, this year's home harvest will be sufficient to
feed the population for forty weeks. The supply before the war
was only enough to meet a ten weeks' consumption. Breadstuffs
are not everything; and even of them one-fifth still has to be
provided. But granted that we can keep this rate of production
up, and--in spite of the drains of the Army upon our
labor--can, with the help of women and prisoners, save what we
produce, the wolf has now been driven a considerable distance
from the door. With sinkings diminishing and ship-building on
the increase, we can, we think, congratulate ourselves on the
final failure of the German attempt to starve us out."
ACREAGE INCREASE DUE TO WOMEN'S LABOR
"Much of the increased cultivation has been done by women, we
are told, and Mr. Prothero, the British Minister of
Agriculture, had a cheerful picture to paint when appealing for
recruits for 'the Women's Land Army.' As reported by the London
_Morning Post_ his speech ran:
"'Today (1918) the acreage under wheat, barley, and oats is the
highest ever recorded in the history of our agriculture. That
is one of the finest achievements of the war. In the same
period the number of allotments has been increased by 800,000,
which means something like 800,000 tons of produce raised
additionally a big saving in transport, and an improvement
socially and morally. This advance has been effected in spite
of the fact that there are 500,000 fewer laborers on the land.
It is because of that decrease of labor that the appeal is
being made for more women. I do not believe that any assembly
of British farmers will hold back men who can possibly be
spared when the alternative is our troops being driven back by
overwhelming numbers and butchered on the beach by German guns.
The promise of the harvest is not yet fulfilled, and there is
much to be done. Women's work on the land is a vital necessity.
I know the work they are asked to do is hard, bringing with it
discomforts, and, comparatively speaking, is poorly paid. Life
on the land is not luxurious, but it brings health with it, and
the women have the conviction that they are doing something in
one of the most important fields to make victory sure.'"
EVIDENCES OF FOOD SHORTAGE
One of the by-products of the food situation in England was the
suffering occasioned by the scanty food supply on the canine population
of the island. The London _Times_ of June, 1918, contained the following
pathetic paragraph:
"Considerable alarm has been caused among dog owners by the
intimation that stocks of biscuits are practically exhausted.
Not only is this the case, but the prospects of more flour
being released for their manufacture are also remote unless
some action is taken by the government to insure further
importations of low-grade flours suitable for the purpose.
"The state of things is undoubtedly acute. Until the food
economy campaign set in early last year most households
provided enough waste to feed a dog, and where more than one
was kept butchers' offals could be had for a few pence. These
sources of supply having now vanished, much ingenuity will have
to be exercised in order to preserve the family friend and
guard from extinction. Blood, steamed until it is of a solid
consistency, fish heads, and the heads of poultry offer some
alternatives. Rice, oatmeal, and other cereal products may not
be used.
"The whole question of dogs is engaging the closest attention
of the authorities. Admittedly the problem of reducing the
numbers is beset with difficulties, and, whatever is done, it
is extremely unlikely the one-dog owner will be disturbed, the
government recognizing the sentimental forces involved, to say
nothing of the utility value of many breeds."
[Illustration: Members of "The Women's Land Army" in England
Girls weeding frames in which cauliflower plants were set out to be
ready for market in the early spring.
Copyright by Underwood & Underwood]
But while English dogs were threatened with starvation, dogs of Germany
were having a still worse time. Numerous cable paragraphs were published
giving the price of dog flesh in various German cities.
Indeed, from all over Germany, at the closing period of the war, the
hope of drawing upon Russian food supplies was seen to be illusory.
There was much talk of getting food from the Ukraine, but this was
probably used to keep up popular morale. The situation in the Ukraine
did not encourage German hopes. This was frankly admitted by the
_Frankfort Zeitung_:
"The stores and warehouses in the Ukraine are almost emptied.
The peasants' stocks are depleted, while the best seed corn has
been used to feed cattle or to supply a secret still, which
nearly every household possesses.
"The outlook for next harvest is most unpromising. The peasants
have plundered the estates, destroyed farm buildings and
machinery, and have stolen or slaughtered most of the cattle.
No labor is available for cultivation, and there are no
facilities for harvesting the next crop, while the sugar
industry is confronted with ruin, owing to the decrease of beet
cultivation."
FOOD CONTROL FOR NEUTRALS
It is interesting to study the effect of the war on the food situation
of the neutral powers. In Scandinavia, there was at first a panicky
feeling of a world-wide catastrophe; then there came the realization of
an unparalleled chance for making profit. The international shortage of
tonnage made freight rates soar. Shipping shares became attractive. Then
came the submarine sinkings, and the refusal of the Allies to allow
goods to be imported into Scandinavia for the sole purpose of selling
them to the Central Powers. Imports fell off rapidly. Everything which
could be sold had been sold in the beginning of the war. The next step
was the placing of an embargo on exports by the Scandinavian
governments:
"The index of the Swedish official list of laws, dated October
31, 1916, forbidding exports, mentioned more than 1,100
articles, and even that was expressly called only a help to
find the commodity looked for and did not pretend to be a
complete index. The result was, of course, that trade, compared
to former volumes, decreased very considerably, and the energy
as well as the wealth actually earned was turned towards
speculation on the local exchange.
"To supply all the people of Scandinavia with the necessities
of life was a problem. Law upon law, one governmental decree
after the other, tried to regulate the distribution of
commodities as well as their prices. The majority of the people
were in actual need. Prices soared, and it really did not
matter to the ordinary man whether the cause of this rise in
the cost of living was a too big circulation of paper currency
or a limited supply of goods. What confronted him was the fact
itself, not theories, and he realized all too well that he
could not make 'both ends meet.' There was, generally speaking,
no doubt that under normal circumstances the laws of supply and
demand will work satisfactorily to the community and that
artificial interference was only harmful. The supply being
short, consequently the demand and the consumption must be
controlled to secure a fair distribution. Sugar cards, which
had been used in Sweden for months, and which were decreed in
Denmark to go into force January 1, 1917, were an example of
the means employed to control the distribution and to prevent
waste to supplies.
"While on the one hand one saw new millionaires permit
themselves to indulge in the most senseless luxuries, which
incidentally added considerably to the high cost of living
under circumstances like these, the less well-to-do actually
were without many things formerly considered necessities.
Collections of money and foodstuffs were made all over
Scandinavia to help the less fortunate through the winter. The
poorer population of the cities was especially considered. It
was even difficult to get a roof over one's head. Proposals and
counter proposals to remedy the evil were forthcoming, but no
real remedy seemed to be in sight."
FEEDING EUROPE'S STARVING MILLIONS
A preliminary accounting was rendered on December 1, 1919, by Herbert C.
Hoover, covering the $100,000,000 fund appropriated by Congress for the
relief of starving Europeans. From Mr. Hoover's report it appears that
in payment for relief supplied to eight European countries Mr. Hoover
decided to accept their notes bearing 5% interest. Mr. Hoover's report
stated:
"About 88 per cent. of the relief supplies furnished were sold
under contract to the various Governments in the relief areas.
For all such sales these Governments gave their special
treasury notes in a form approved by the United States
Treasury, bearing 5 per cent. interest, due June 30, 1921, to
June 30, 1924. It was impossible to obtain reimbursement in
cash because the currency in the countries to which these
supplies were sent was impossible to convert into foreign
exchange, except in comparatively insignificant amounts.
POLAND THE BIGGEST DEBTOR
"I give herewith approximate list of the notes of each
Government, which we expect to turn over to the United States
Treasury.
Poland $57,000,000
Czechoslovakia 6,750,000
Armenia 10,000,000
Russia. 5,000,000
Esthonia 2,300,000
Latvia 3,000,000
Lithuania 700,000
Finland 4,000,000
Total $88,750,000
"The remaining 12 per cent. of the supplies was donated in
assistance to private organizations set up in each country
under direction of the American Relief Administration for the
purpose of furnishing food on a charitable basis to
undernourished children. For such supplies it was, of course,
impossible to obtain reimbursement. This service has
contributed greatly to stabilizing the situation in those
countries, aside from the physical benefits to more than
3,000,000 undernourished children, to whom the war threatened
serious and permanent injury. Certainly this service is one for
which the name of America will always be held in deepest
gratitude."
FOOD CONDITIONS AFTER THE ARMISTICE
[Illustration: A Map Issued by the Food Administration to Show Food
Conditions in Europe After the Signing of the Armistice.]
It is impossible in words to show what the food conditions were in
Europe after the armistice was signed. The United States Food
Administration issued a statement that there were 420,000,000 people in
Europe with food supplies sufficient to last only until next harvest for
a small proportion of them. Some countries had to be supplied at once;
others, it was believed, could help themselves temporarily, provided
they could be given guarantees of food for the future. Many countries
were devastated, undernourished and stripped bare of food and
agricultural equipment because of enemy occupation. A graphic picture of
the situation was presented by the Food Administration in the Hunger Map
of Europe.
NEW FACTORS AFTER NOVEMBER, 1918
An official survey of how cessation of active fighting introduced new
factors in the food situation is presented in a publication of the
Agricultural Department, July, 1919.
"With the signing of the armistice and the cessation of active
fighting, new factors were introduced which affect the food
situation. One of these was the step taken to release shipping
as rapidly as possible, with the probable result that the
agricultural products of the more distant producing countries
will again largely appear on the markets of Europe. The
channels of trade are being reëstablished and food supplies
will be sought wherever they can be secured most cheaply.
"A provision of the armistice required the immediate evacuation
by the Germans of a large area in Belgium, France,
Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg, and other territory. As a result
many millions of people have been added to those that must be
aided and fed by the Allies, and a material increase in the
amount of foodstuffs to be imported has been made necessary. It
may be found, too, that Turkey, Austria, and even Germany will
have to draw on outside supplies to meet their needs.
"The demobilization of the European armies will permit men to
return to the farms, and it may be expected that under the
stimulus of an urgent demand for food an attempt will be made
this year to increase food production in all the affected
European countries. The devastated regions will be slow in
recovering. Much time and labor will be required to construct
necessary homes and farm buildings, level the ground, remove
obstructions, and in other ways prepare for a resumption of
regular agricultural activities. But it must be remembered that
as compared with the whole of the countries concerned these
areas are small and should not affect the results in any large
way.
"In many sections of Europe there is a shortage of horses and
other work stock, farm machinery, seeds, and fertilizers. In
these localities a normal production should not be expected,
but it is evident that under favorable conditions a material
increase over the past year will be secured.
CEREAL REQUIREMENTS FOR 1919
"The following table presents estimates of the cereal
requirements for 1919 and shows the world balance as deficit or
surplus. Figures for the cereals, except rice, represent
millions of bushels.
==========================================================
Import Requirements |Wheat| Rye|Barley| Oats| Corn| Rice,
| | | | | | Hulled
--------------------+-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
EUROPE | | | | | |_Million_
| | | | | | _pounds_
Allies | 525| 25| 50| 150| 220| 1,945
Neutrals | 124| 40| 30| 38| 78| 302
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
| 649| 65| 80| 188| 298| 2,247
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
Germany | 68| | 149| 3| 32| 438
Austria-Hungary | 11| | | 2| 15| 183
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
Total Europe | 728| 65| 22| 193| 345| 2,868
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
Other countries | | | | | | 7,411
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
Grand total | | | | | | 10,279
|=====================================
Surplus (estimated):| | | | | |
Canada | 100| | 50| 75| |
Argentina | 185| | | | 90|
Australia | 210| | | | |
India | | | | | | 18,000
Other countries | | | | | | 7,400
(pre-war) | | | | | |
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
Total, except United| 495| | 50| 75| 90| 25,400
States | | | | | |
|=====================================
Net deficit | 233| 65| 179| 118| 255|
|=====================================
UNITED STATES, 1918 | | | | | |
Production | 917| 89| 250|1,538|2,583| 1,123
Consumption | 640| 32| 130|1,254|2,730| 816
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
Surplus | 277| 57| 120| 284| | 307
Deficit | | | | | 147|
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
WORLD | | | | | |
Surplus | 44| | | 166| | 14,428
Deficit | | 8| 59| | 402|
|-----+----+------+-----+-----+-------
NOTE.--Estimates of European crop and live-stock production,
consumption, and stocks on hand, surplus or deficiency, are based on
incomplete data, which are subject to change as more complete data
become available.
"The figures on import requirements of the Allies and neutrals
are those estimated for 1917--18, while the estimated
requirements of Germany and Austria are pre-war net imports.
"The rice surplus might be required in the Orient for countries
whose crops may have failed.
MISCELLANEOUS CROP REQUIREMENTS, 1919.
=================================================================
Import requirements of-- | Cotton (500| Tobacco| Flaxseed
|pounds bales).| (million| (million
| | pounds).| bushels).
----------------------------+--------------+----------+----------
EUROPE | | |
Allies, including Japan | 8,058,000| 340| 21.6
Neutrals | 720,000| 150| 7.9
Germany and Austria-Hungary | 2,932,000| 355| 15.7
(pre-war boundaries) | | |
Other countries | 1,200,00| 17|
----------------------------+--------------+----------+----------
Total requirements | 13,010,000| 1,022| 45.2
|====================================
SURPLUS (ESTIMATED) | | |
Countries, except United | 2,680,000| | 40
States, recently reported | | |
(1918) | | |
Average, 1900--1913, for | 500,00| 650| [9]5.7
other surplus countries | | |
|--------------+----------+----------
Total, except United States | 3,180,000| 650| 40
UNITED STATES | | |
Production, 1918 | 11,700,00| 1,340| 14.7
Consumption | 6,600,000| 720| 26.7
Surplus | 5,100,000| 620|
Deficit | | | 12
WORLD | | |
Surplus | | 148|
Deficit | 4,730,000| | 17.2
----------------------------|--------------+----------+----------
[9] Russia
NOTE.--The figures are based on pre-war averages, 1909--1913, which may
be considerably changed by post-war conditions.
"The cotton table is based upon normal industrial conditions in
all the consuming countries and upon the restoration of the
spinning industry in the devastated regions. If conditions do
not reach normal, and if the industry is not restored, the
consumption of cotton will be substantially less. With
practically complete restoration, cotton consumption may well
be expected to equal the normal or pre-war times on account of
the present shortage of cotton goods in various countries. The
economies which the peoples of Europe must practice for some
years to come must be considered."
CENTRAL EUROPE IN DIRE WANT
News from Europe showed everywhere acute suffering from lack of food;
even in France the country districts were badly off. A member of the
Federal Food Administration reported that bread was practically the only
food that anyone could afford. President Wilson referred to this subject
in the address with which he accompanied his announcement of the terms
signed by Germany. He definitely took a stand in favor of provisioning
the country, explaining that by use of the idle tonnage of the Central
Empires it ought presently to be possible to lift the fear of utter
misery,
"'from their oppressed populations and set their minds and
energies free for the great and hazardous tasks of political
reconstruction which now face them on every hand. Hunger does
not breed reform; it breeds madness and all the ugly distempers
that make an ordered life impossible.
"'For with the fall of the ancient governments which rested
like an incubus on the peoples of the Central Empires has come
political change not merely, but revolution.'
"Putting this danger into a nutshell, the _Wall Street Journal_
asks whether Central Europe shall have 'bread or Bolshevism?'
This strong exponent of a firm social order is of the opinion
that 'we must recognize the fact that hunger breeds anarchy,
and that the most effective weapon against Bolshevism is a loaf
of bread.' Victory has made the Allied peoples, 'through their
governments, responsible for world conditions,' in the opinion
of this paper as well as of the Montreal _Star_ quoted above,
and Food Administrator Hoover declares that 'the specter of
famine abroad now haunts the abundance of our tables at home.'"
TO PREVENT FAMINE IN GERMANY
Both in England and in France there was official recognition of the need
of preventing famine conditions in Germany. It was believed that large
imports of wheat could be brought from Australia and India. The _Times_
(London) said:
"Mr. Hoover expects that enough wheat will be brought from
those countries to permit reduction of the percentage of
substitutes now required in bread, and thus release fodder
grain for dairy use. The change, it is said, may take place
within three months. But it will not reduce the total of
foodstuffs which we must supply. He predicts that 'our load
will be increased,' and that there will be a greater demand for
economy.
"The available quantities of grain are sufficient. From our
great crop of wheat we can spare more than 300,000,000 bushels.
Canada, with a yield almost equal to last year's, has a
surplus. While our crop of corn shows a decline of 441,000,000
bushels from that of a year ago, it is very near to recent
averages and of very good quality. The output of home gardens,
increased by one half, is not included in official reports,
although its value exceeds $500,000,000. Australia has on hand
the surplus of three wheat crops, India is said to have
120,000,000 bushels for shipment, and much can be taken from
Argentina. As a rule, our war partners in Europe increased
their crops this year. England gains 30,000,000 bushels of
wheat, Italy 24,000,000, and France 35,000,000. But other crops
in France are short, and the nutritive value of the entire
yield is less than that of last year's harvest. It is well
known that the Central Powers have very little food; and no
help can come to them from the East. Before the war Russia
exported a large surplus of wheat. Many of her people are now
starving. So far as can be learned, she has no grain to sell.
Bulgaria and Rumania have the smallest crops in fifty years.
Germany and Austria can get no grain from the northern
neutrals; we are sending wheat to them. There is food enough to
supply the wants of our European friends and foes until the
next harvest if it can be carefully distributed. But if the
plans for helping those who have fought against us, as well as
our partners in the war, are carried out, the American people
must practice economy and submit to restrictions for some time
to come."
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
A Food Riot in Sweden
News from Europe immediately following the armistice showed everywhere
acute suffering from lack of food. A member of the Federal Food
Administration reported that bread was practically the only food that
anyone could afford.]
SUGAR DISTRIBUTION
Among the multiform activities of the American Food Administration, the
distribution of sugar was most difficult. America had to supply sugar to
the Allies and retain enough for the use of its own people. The matter
of the feeling of personal self-sacrifice was difficult enough but there
was the further question of how to organize and allocate distribution.
The government had to decide the amount to be distributed to sugar-using
industries. These industries had to be classified. For the manufacture
of soft drinks it was decided to allow only one-half of the sugar used
in normal times. Bakers were given a 70 percent. allotment and hotels
were permitted three pounds of sugar to every ninety meals served,
including cooking.
The sugar resources of the country, both cane and beet-root, were
regulated by the so-called Sugar Equalization Board. The operation of
this body was explained officially in the _Literary Digest_:
"This board is a part of the Food Administration and approved
by the President. Its purpose is to equalize the cost of
various sugars and to secure better distribution. It can also
coöperate with the Allies in the procurement of sugar for them
and in the adjustment of overseas freight rates. Through
capital supplied by the President through his special funds, it
is enabled, when desirable, to buy up all available sugars at
different prices and resell them at one fixed and even rate.
"In other words, it provides a sort of vast storehouse of
sugar, which may be doled out where it is most needed, at a
price secure from the fluctuations otherwise inevitable in war
time."
KEEPING DOWN THE PRICE
What might happen without this Sugar Equalization Board is illustrated
by the Civil War, when sugar, because of speculation, went as high as
thirty-five cents a pound. And at _that_ time there was no world
shortage of sugar. If there were no sort of sugar control today, it may
readily be believed that the consumer might have to pay sugar prices
soaring far above those Civil War levels.
"It costs more to produce and market some sugars (such as
domestic beet sugar and Louisiana cane) than it does others,
such as Cuban cane sugar. But that is no reason why the sugar
manufacturer, whose production costs are high, should suffer,
even to the extent of being forced out of the market. Nor can
the country afford to have this happen under present war time
shortage of nearby supplies. Consequently, when it becomes
necessary, the Sugar Equalization Board through its purchasing
powers can insure fair profits to the manufacturers. Then the
Board may resell this sugar, so that it reaches the public at a
price lower than what the maximum would otherwise be."
POTATO ECONOMY
In order to remedy the generally inadequate food supply, it became
necessary to treat such a standard food as the potato according to newly
devised methods by which it could be stored for permanent use and widely
distributed. In a lecture in Economics given to a class of the National
City Bank, it was stated that, since the war began, it was found
practicable so to preserve the potato by grinding and drying as to
transform it from a local and perishable commodity to one which could be
produced in almost unlimited quantities and distributed to any part of
the world:
"The potato can be grown in almost any temperate zone area, but
theretofore nine-tenths of the world's crop of 6,000,000,000
bushels is grown in a half-dozen countries, and almost
exclusively in Europe and North America. Germany, Russia,
Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, and the United States
have produced in favorable years about 5,000,000,000 bushels,
while the remainder of the world produced only 1,000,000,000.
These six countries that produced five-tenths of the world's
potato crop have only 450,000,000 peoples, while the potatoless
world has a population of over 1,200,000,000, from which it
appears that 'fully two-thirds of the population of the world
live outside of the area.'
"Germany is by far the largest potato grower of the world,
producing about 2,000,000,000 out of a world crop of
6,000,000,000 bushels, using them as a food for man and animals
and the production of alcohol for use in her industries, and
for the production of heat and power when necessary. Next in
line is European Russia, with an annual crop of about
1,000,000,000 bushels; Austria-Hungary, 600,000,000; France,
500,000,000; United States, 450,000,000, and Great Britain,
300,000,000 bushels.
"This new system of turning the potato into a condition in
which it can be readily distributed has, quite naturally,
developed in the country which has the largest potato
production of the world, Germany. Factories for the crushing
and drying of the potato and turning the product into flour for
man, flakes and cubes for animals, or alcohol for the chemical
industry and also as a substitute for petrol, have grown from
about a dozen a few years ago to over 400 in 1914 and 840 in
1916, with a capacity to turn into this condensed form more
than 1,000,000,000 bushels of potatoes a year. The reduction in
weight is about 60 per cent., while the product can be
preserved almost indefinitely.
"The value of our own potato crop in the United States last
year was approximately $540,000,000 at the place of production,
and yet the amount entering international trade was only
$4,000,000. Our potato crop averages about 90 bushels per acre,
that of European Russia 100 bushels; France 135 bushels;
Austria 150 bushels; United Kingdom 124 bushels, and Germany
200 bushels and upward per acre, her large flavorless potato,
grown chiefly for alcohol, having reached and sometimes
exceeded 500 bushels per acre."
FUEL CONTROL
The coal industry was the one basic war industry. Food and munitions
were dependent upon the coal supply. It is not necessary to elaborate
this argument; it is patent to every one. The following table gives a
view of the coal production of the most important countries:
COAL PRODUCTION IN THE LEADING COAL-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD
=========================================================================
Country | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917
-------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------
United States|570,048,125|513,525,477|531,619,487|585,372,568|621,409,629
Great Britain|287,698,617|265,664,393|253,206,081|256,348,351|248,473,119
Germany |278,627,497|245,482,135|235,082,000| |
Austria-Hungary59,647,957| | | 30,896,388| 28,558,719
France | 40,843,618| 29,786,505| 19,908,000| 21,477,000| 28,960,000
Russia | 35,500,674| | 27,820,632| 13,622,400| 13,266,760
Belgium | 22,847,000| | 15,930,000| |
Japan | 21,315,962| 21,293,419| 20,490,747| 22,901,580|
India | 18,163,856| | 17,103,932| 17,254,309|
China | 15,432,200| | 18,000,000| |
Canada | 15,012,178| 13,637,529| 13,267,023| 14,483,395| 14,015,588
Spain | 4,731,647| 4,424,439| 4,686,753| 5,588,594|
Holland | 2,064,608| | 2,333,000| 2,656,000|
=========================================================================
THE COAL SHORTAGE
A rapid advance in coal prices was inevitable under war conditions of
unceasing demand and diminishing supply. Says Mr. William Notz in an
article in the _Journal of Political Economy_, June, 1918:
"The question of war-time coal prices offers many angles of
interest. Everywhere prices have increased far above pre-war
levels. Voluntary agreements on the part of producers and
dealers to limit prices and profits have failed without
exception. In all the leading coal-consuming countries of the
world maximum prices had to be fixed sooner or later by
government action. In every case the maximum mine prices are
considerably above the average scale of prices obtaining in the
years immediately prior to the war. In every country where
maximum sales prices at the mines were fixed, liberal
allowances were made for wage increases to mine workers. In
Great Britain present maximum mine prices approximate 6s. 6d.
above the average mine price which obtained during the year
ending June 30, 1914. In the United States special mine prices
have been fixed for each state, and in many cases also for
certain coal fields within a state. The f.o.b. price for
bituminous coal in Pennsylvania was in 1913 $1.11 and in 1918,
$2.60. Anthracite increased to $4.00 ($4.55 for white ash
broken).
"In Germany the total increase in mine prices of the
Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate from the beginning of the
war to January, 1917, approximated $1.25 per ton.
"While a certain degree of uniformity is noticeable in the rise
in price levels for coal at the mines in the countries where
maximum prices have been fixed, an entirely different picture
presents itself if we compare the maximum retail coal prices
obtaining under government regulations in different sections of
the same country. In most countries the national coal
controller has established a uniform maximum margin of profit
for all retail coal dealers, while local authorities have fixed
maximum retail coal prices for their communities. By reason of
the fact that in establishing maximum retail consumers' prices
allowances had to be made for increased handling expenses,
freight rates, middlemen's profits, war taxes, etc., retail
coal prices at the present time universally show a very heavy
increase over pre-war prices."
FUEL CONSERVATION MEASURES
American Fuel Control had to grapple drastically with a situation of
shortage so dangerous that a catastrophe might have been precipitated at
any moment. Fuel Administrator Garfield issued orders for coal
conservation of a most startling and unusual character. Factories east
of the Mississippi were ordered shut down for five days beginning
January 18, 1918. Monday, furthermore,
"was decreed a holiday for ten weeks on which offices,
factories, and stores, except drug and food stores, must use
only such fuel as is necessary to prevent damage. The order
under which these restrictions were made, according to the Fuel
Administration's statement to the press, was 'designed to
distribute with absolute impartiality the burden,' and it added
that the Fuel Administration 'counts upon the complete
patriotic coöperation of every individual, firm, and
corporation affected by the order in its enforcement.' We read
further that the government aims to carry out its plan without
'undue interference with the ordinary course of business' and
earnestly desires to 'prevent entirely any dislocation of
industry or labor.'
SHUT-DOWN OF INDUSTRY TO SAVE COAL
"Fuel Administrator Garfield hoped to save 30,000,000 tons of
coal and to give the railroads a chance to straighten out the
transportation tangle in the eastern states, according to a
Washington correspondent of the New York _Tribune_, who notes
that the measures were taken by the President and the
government heads 'as a desperate remedy.' The closing down of
the greater part of the nation's industries, trades, and
business, says the New York _Sun_, is the 'fruit of the insane,
criminal starvation of the railroads by the government for a
generation'; yet regardless of what it may cost any individual
or group of individuals, the order is to be 'greeted without
protest.' A surgeon was more welcome than an undertaker, in the
view of this daily, and a disaster of the second degree and a
temporary one is better than a disaster of the first degree and
a permanent one. If the five-day term clears the railroads and
the Monday holidays set the trains running with their former
clocklike regularity, the _Sun_ added, we can resume being the
'busiest nation on earth, instead of being an industrial
paralytic.' While recognizing that the order struck Utica and
all cities in the designated territory 'a staggering blow,' the
_Utica Press_ holds that there is really nothing a patriotic
city could do about it save to accept the situation with as
good grace as possible, and if the result hasten the end all
will agree that it was a good investment. The Chicago _Herald_
considered the order 'a tremendous decision' carrying with it a
'tremendous responsibility,' and while the chief industries of
the principal part of a nation can not be stopped even for a
day without disorganization and loss, still the country is
willing to pay the price 'if it is the necessary cost of
preventing the suffering of hundreds and thousands, perhaps
millions, of individuals and of keeping certain indispensable
war and public functions going at their accustomed speed.'"
[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood
=Harry A. Garfield=
As Fuel Administrator during the war he issued orders for coal
conservation of a most startling character. Factories east of the
Mississippi were ordered shut down for five days beginning January 18,
1918. Monday was decreed a holiday for ten weeks "on which offices,
factories and stores must use only such fuel as is necessary to prevent
damage."]
THE GOVERNMENT'S EXPLANATION
From Fuel Administrator Garfield's explanation of the necessity of the
order the following passage is taken:
"The most urgent thing to be done is to send to the American
forces abroad and to the Allies the food and war supplies
which they vitally need. War munitions, food, manufactured
articles of every description, lie at our Atlantic ports in
tens of thousands of tons, while literally hundreds of ships,
waiting, loaded with war goods for our men and the Allies, can
not take the seas because their bunkers are empty of coal. The
coal to send them on their way is waiting behind the congested
freight that has jammed all the terminals.
"It is worse than useless to bend our energies to more
manufacturing when what we have already manufactured lies at
tidewater, congesting terminal facilities, jamming the railroad
yards and side tracks for a long distance back into the
country. No power on earth can move this freight into the war
zone, where it is needed, until we supply the ships with fuel.
"Once the docks are cleared of the valuable freight for which
our men and associates in the war now wait in vain, then again
our energies and power may be turned to manufacturing, more
efficient than ever; so that a steady and uninterrupted stream
of vital supplies may be this nation's answer to the Allies'
cry for help....
"This is war. Whatever the cost, we must pay it, so that in the
face of the enemy there can never be the reproach that we held
back from doing our full share. Those ships, laden with our
supplies of food for men and food for guns, must have coal and
put to sea."
GARFIELD'S PLAN FOR FUEL ECONOMY, 1918--19
After the trying experiences of the winter of 1918, the Fuel
Administration began to prepare in the following summer for another
prospective shortage in coal supply. Fortunately the following winter
was remarkably mild throughout the country. But the plans outlined by
the Fuel Administration are more than useful as a matter of record. They
may be used as a model under other conditions of fuel shortage. The
following passage from the Fuel Administration _Bulletin_ illustrates
the plan of campaign:
"Fuel economy is being given intensive study in connection with
steam plants and industrial uses. An organization is already in
existence, provided with engineers and inspectors who will
visit every one of the two hundred and fifty thousand
steam-producing plants in the country with a view to the
improvement both of equipment and firing practice. This is
expected to save twenty million tons of coal.
"The economical use of power in factories will be in the hands
of organized shop committees. The power loads of the public
utilities throughout the country are being studied with a view
to readjustments which will result in large saving.
"In many cities the isolated power plants which use an extravagant
amount of coal in proportion to the power produced will be urged to
obtain more economical power from large producing stations.
"The introduction of 'skip-stop' schedules on all the street
railways is expected to save a million tons of coal. The
consolidation of ice plants will yield a still larger tonnage.
Unnecessary outdoor lighting, including advertising signs and
display illumination, will be reduced. Hotels, office
buildings, apartment houses, and public buildings are being
asked to join in rigid economy of light and heat.
"Every American citizen will be asked to clean his furnace,
keep it in repair, and study economical firing. Instructions
prepared by the highest authority will be furnished by the Fuel
Administration.
"If every one joins in this movement, from the owner of an
industrial plant to the householder with his furnace and cook
stove, if indoor and outdoor lighting is reduced to the amount
absolutely needed, if houses are not overheated, the furnace
dampers properly adjusted, and the ashes sifted, it will be
possible to save from fifty to seventy-five million tons of
coal without serious inconvenience to the American people."
DIFFICULTIES OF FUEL CONTROL
Some conception of the difficulties involved in the work of fuel control
was set forth officially in a paper published by the Fuel Administration
called _Fuel Problems in War Time_. The production of coal, it pointed
out, stands on a different basis from that of any other major industry
of the country. The differences are illustrated in the following
paragraphs:
"As an illustration, consider the cotton crop with its millions
of bales. Every bale of cotton raised in the country last year
amounted to no more than the coal moved in one and one-third
days. Or take the wheat crop for comparison. We hear of the
immense preparations made during the fall months for moving the
wheat crop; yet the weight of America's enormous wheat crop of
1917 is equaled by the coal mined and transported every eight
days.
"Every year the miners go into the ground and dig out coal and
the railroads ship it for hundreds of miles, dragging back the
empty cars, until the amount mined equals two and one-fourth
times the earth and rock removed in digging the Panama Canal.
_It took sixteen years to dig the Panama Canal. Our miners will
dig two and one-half Panama Canals this year._
"In the mining of coal we are dealing with a task so gigantic
that the wonder is not why we have not increased production to
meet the demand, whatever that might be, but how, with the men
and equipment overtaxed by the multiplicity of the demands of
the war, we were able to increase the output fifty million tons
in 1917, and will be able to add a probable fifty million tons
to that high record the present year.
"The wonder is increased when we note that every other
coal-producing country now in the war found it impossible to
maintain the pre-war production of coal. In every case the
output is less now than before the war. In England seven and
one-half per cent. less coal was produced the first year of the
war than in the previous year and five per cent. less than this
reduced output in the following year. America alone has been
able to increase its production of coal in addition to meeting
the thousands of other increases demanded by war preparation.
COAL AND THE STEEL SUPPLY
"As every one knows, coal mining is very largely a matter of
coal transportation. The most difficult task involved in an
increase must fall upon the railroads. The wonderful work these
railroads are doing is brought into bold relief when we
remember that in 1914, when the great war started, the output
of bituminous coal in the United States was 423,000,000 tons,
and that in 1918 it promises to be nearly 200,000,000 tons
greater.
"Apparently, this country today can furnish the steel required
if only it can get the necessary coal. The work of the Fuel
Administration during many months has been directed toward
increasing coal production. These efforts have borne much
fruit, miners are approaching one hundred per cent. service,
while the railroads are outdoing themselves expediting the
movement of coal cars from the mine to the consumer and back
again.
"But war's demands mount so rapidly that even with full speed
ahead production can not make the pace. _A fuel deficit can be
averted only by the most intensive conservation._ Conservation,
economy, savings, sacrifice must fill the gap between the
possible increase of production and the greater increase of
demand. If every user of coal will join the army of fuel
conservationists, realizing that the need for steel to carry on
this war is practically unlimited and that every ton saved
means an additional five hundred pounds of steel, there is
prospect--the figures show it--that the work of the miners will
not be in vain. Our increased production, plus conservation,
the Fuel Administration believes, can furnish the coal, and
hence the steel needed for the war, and still leave none of our
people cold."
SIDE ISSUES OF FUEL CONTROL
Economizing coal involved all kinds of unexpected side issues. As an
illustration of the far extended reach of the Fuel Administration there
was the example of the skip-stop plan in street railway traffic enforced
by the Federal administration. A writer in the Chicago _Engineering and
Contracting Journal_ suggested, September 4, 1918, that the Government
should adopt and extend the policy of compelling individuals and
corporations to use economic methods and machines:
"Conceive, if you can, what could be accomplished in America in
the way of increased productivity and economy if our Federal
Government had the authority to make every individual and every
company adopt any method or device that had been proved to be
economic. No engineer acquainted with the application of the
principles of the science of management can doubt that if the
universal adoption of those principles could be forced upon
producers in general, this nation could increase its
productivity fully 25 per cent. That would alone add more than
twelve million dollars annually to the national income. But
that is not all. The application of the principles of the
science of management is only a fraction of the total enginery
at our disposal. We have literally countless labor and
material-saving machines and appliances that are scarcely used,
although many of them are generations old. Does this sound
incredible? Certainly not to any engineer who has a wide
acquaintance with the literature of engineering.
"Take so simple a thing as the heat insulator for steam pipes
and boilers. It has been known to engineers for nearly a
century that by encasing boilers and pipes with magnesia or
other suitable insulators, practically all heat radiation and
conduction losses could be stopped. Furthermore, it has been
known to engineers that the saving in fuel thus effected would
pay an annual interest of 20 per cent. on the cost of the heat
insulator. But go into the basements of steam-heated residences
if you want to get a conception of how rarely this knowledge is
applied. The landlord may know that heat insulators would earn
a big return on their cost, but since they would earn it for
the tenant and not for himself, he does not cover the boiler
and pipes adequately, if at all. The tenant, even if he knows
the economics of heat insulating, will not spend the money for
insulators whose use he may not enjoy for more than a year or
two before he moves out. For similar reasons very few houses
have double windows, although double windows will save fully 15
per cent. of the fuel required to heat the average house. On
these matters the Fuel Administration has power to act, and it
should act."
FUEL CONTROL IN GREAT BRITAIN
Coal mining was always one of the most significant elements in British
trade. Before the war 270,000,000 tons of coal were produced in the
mines of Great Britain. Parliamentary legislation of a most radical
character dealing with the ownership and operation of coal mines was
passed. The main provision of this legislation was described in the
following passage from the London _Morning Post_:
"Briefly, the main provisions of the bill are the following:
Under the present Finance Act the state takes 80 per cent. of
the profits in excess of those made in the two best of the last
three pre-war years, or above 9 per cent. of the capital
employed. The new scheme deprives owners of these statutory
rights. It does away altogether with the percentage standard.
Output is made the chief determining factor in the regulation
of the profits to be retained by the coal owner. The production
of a colliery working under normal conditions during the two
pre-war years, which has already been adopted under the Finance
Act for the purposes of the Excess Profits Duty, is adopted as
the standard output. If that output is maintained in any
accounting period under the new bill, the colliery owner will
be guaranteed a profit equal to the average profit made in the
standard period, whether he makes it or not. If his trading
profits in the accounting period are greater than those in the
standard period, the treasury will take its 80 per cent. of the
difference under the authority of the Finance Act, the
Controller will retain 15 per cent. of it in order to create a
fund for the compensation of the less fortunate collieries and
the administration of his department, and the coal owner will
be allowed to retain 5 per cent. of the excess. Thus a colliery
company with a profits standard of £50,000 will, if it maintain
its standard output, continue to receive £50,000; if such
company make, say, £70,000, it will be permitted, generally
speaking, to retain only 5 per cent. of the extra £20,000, that
is to say, £1,000, plus the statutory £200, or £51,200 in all;
but in no case shall the retainable profits exceed five-sixths
of the profits standard. In that illustration the scheme is to
be seen at its best, and, under the conditions, it is not
unreasonable."
[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson
Drying Fruit and Vegetables to Save Tin and Glass
Conservation became a great watchword during the World War. Mr. F. P.
Lund of the U. S. Department of Agriculture showed women how tin and
glass could be saved by drying fruit instead of canning it.]
OTHER FORMS OF CONSERVATION
The War Industries Board worked out a program for clothing conservation
that showed a positive genius for detail. The most technical directions
were issued regarding clothing. Double breasted coats, for example, were
eliminated and the Board urged the wearing of sack suits only. Even the
complicated subject of handling women's attire had no terrors for the
experts employed by the Board. The characteristic features of its order
can be judged by the following extract from the directions published on
this subject:
"All shoes, both leather and fabric, shall be restricted to
black, white, and two colors of tan (the two colors of tan to
be dark brown or tan and a medium brown or tan).
"Patent leather shall be black only. These color regulations do
not apply to baby shoes made of fabrics.
"Shoe-manufacturers shall not, for the next six months,
introduce, purchase, or use any new style lasts. They may
replenish to cover wastage or to meet requirements on present
lasts now in use in the manufacture of shoes. This is to be
effective at once. By new style lasts is meant any lasts which
have not actually been used for the manufacture of shoes in the
past season.
"The use of leather as a quarter lining in oxfords and low
shoes is permitted only when used in skeleton form with fabric.
Leather linings will be permitted in evening slippers where
uppers are made of fabrics. We advocate the use of full fabric
linings for low shoes wherever possible.
"The maximum height of women's shoes, both leather and fabric,
shall not exceed eight inches (measured from breast of heel at
side to center of top at side of finished shoes), size 4B to be
the base measure.
"The maximum height of misses' shoes, size 1½, shall not exceed
6½ inches (measured as above).
"The maximum height of children's shoes, sizes 8½-11, shall not
exceed six inches.
"The maximum height of boys' and youths' shoes shall not exceed
5½ inches.
"The maximum height of infants' shoes, sizes 4-8, shall not
exceed 5½ inches.
"The maximum height of button shoes for women shall not exceed
6½ inches.
"The maximum height of all women's overgaiters shall not exceed
eight inches, measured from breast of heel at side to center of
top at side.
"The maximum height of misses' overgaiters shall not exceed 6½
inches (measured as above)."
LEATHER CONSERVATION
Germany was not the only country prepared to employ substitutes. When
the National Army in the United States was organized the _Wall Street
Journal_ predicted that on account of the large consumption of leather
for military purposes, the civilian population would be obliged to have
thinner soles and probably to use leather substitutes:
"Price fixing on leather is still 'in the air.' It is not an
easy proposition, in view of the complexity of grades and the
variations in quality. The most practicable arrangement would
be a series of general price standards, with allowance for
deviations. Unlike other commodities, leather trading is a very
flexible affair. The trade is confident of fair price maxima in
relation to recently fixed hide quotations; possibly, in view
of higher labor and other costs, of somewhat more liberal rates
than hide prices, which have just been modified upward
somewhat.
"Leather prices have been tending upward all round. Heavy sole
leather, which did not recede nearly as much as lighter grades
in the slump of last winter, are now nearly back to the high
point of early last fall. Union sole has advanced four cents
since May 1, and for some varieties of leather above No. 9 iron
the market is around eighty cents, against sixty-five cents
earlier this spring.
"In leather it is a case of all-round conservation, plus
intensive effort for maximum output with government aid. Export
license-restrictions have just been tightened, and most of what
is shipped now goes to England. Neutrals must wait. In nine
months to April 1st we exported but 20,342,101 pounds of sole
leather, against 84,267,573 a year before. In March we shipped
only 490,000 pounds to other countries than England, against
1,945,000 a year earlier. Hardly any is now moving save on
British government order.
"Men's shoes of higher quality and price will be affected
chiefly by the requirement to carry soles as light as women's
wear. This will involve either more frequent buying or more
resort to tapping. Cheapest grades of shoes will be least
affected, being almost wholly outside the military scope. In
fact, some manufacturers of low-priced shoes have lately been
enabled to use better material than usual, thanks to army
'leavings.' It is the urgent advice of the Government and
tanners that shoe manufacturers promptly conform to the new
program and that consumers cheerfully accept it. Meanwhile,
experiments are continuing under government direction as to
further extension of the use of composition or even of wooden
soles to help meet the increased demand and short supply
equation in leather."
FAIR PRICE LISTS
[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson
"Back on the Farm"
The number of slaughterable animals decreased in the United States and
in Europe during the war. The shortage of fats was helped by the
production of more animals, increasing the weight of those slaughtered,
and by changed methods of cooking, including the substitution of
vegetable oils for butter.]
One of the plans to prevent the discontent arising from food speculation
promoted by retailers and profiteers, was the preparation of fair price
lists to protect the consumer. Every week new price lists were prepared
so as to cover new fluctuation of cost to the retailer. These lists were
given to the newspapers so that the consumer might be steadily informed
and advised as to what he ought to pay the retailers in his city or
town. It was shown how the patriotic retailer gained by the protection
that this list afforded him against the danger of unpatriotic
profiteering. The United States Food Administration explained in a
public statement the significance of the fair price lists. "They were
nothing more," it said, "than bulletins to inform the public of the
prices the retailer has to pay for certain foods, and the price he has
to sell them to the consumer.
"Such a bulletin at one stroke does away with all the obscurity
which too often veils the price increase which takes place at
the hands of the retailer.
"To give an example, it shows at just what price a retailer is
able to buy oatmeal and at just what price he is entitled to
sell it. If any retailer decides to set upon the food he has
for sale a higher price than that which brings him a fair
profit, he is labeling himself 'Profiteer.' And thereafter it
depends upon the public's own choice whether they shall trade
with him or not.
"In accordance with the plans of the Food Administration such a
system of fair price lists is now in operation throughout the
country. Every week new price lists are prepared so as to cover
new fluctuations of cost to the retailer. And these
up-to-the-minute fair price lists are given to the newspapers
to print so that the consumer may be steadily informed and
advised as to what he ought to pay the retailers in his city or
town."
HOW FAIR PRICE LISTS ARE MADE UP
"In theory the plan is the simplest imaginable. But it is
complicated by the size of this country and by the variety of
local food conditions which are bound to affect the price at
which the retailer can buy and sell his foodstuffs. It would be
utterly impossible to set forth one fair price list which would
_be_ fair for every spot in this country at any one time. A
grocer in Calais, Maine, may be able to buy potatoes at a lower
rate than a grocer in Snohomish, Washington. And the grocers of
Red Oak, Iowa, may have to pay a different price from either.
Obviously, each locality must determine its own fair price
list.
"This is done by establishing in every community or county
where fair price lists are to be put out a Price Interpreting
Board, consisting of representatives of wholesale grocers,
retailers, and consumers. The County Food Administration or his
representative should act as chairman of this board. Such
boards include representatives of both 'Cash and Carry' stores
and 'Credit and Delivery' stores. These boards secure from
wholesale representatives the prices charged to the retailer
for various staple foods. With this as a basis, plus their
knowledge of local conditions, and guided by a schedule of
maximum margins submitted to them by the Food Administration at
Washington, they determine what is a reasonable profit at which
the retailer may sell to the consumer. Thus the retailer does
not have a scale of selling prices arbitrarily thrust upon him;
he helps determine them himself."
PROFITEERING
The natural and inevitable results of war on living conditions with food
shortage and high prices were an unfamiliar factor in American
experience for two generations. The artificial product of war time
industry, "profiteering," was hard to be evoluted and caused resentment
against those responsible for the practice. To deal with profiteers was
no easy matter. How can profiteering be discriminated from legitimate
profit-taking? How, too, can its existence be proved, for high fixed
prices are not always an evidence of profiteering methods. The
complexities of the various trade practices lumped together under the
term profiteering are illustrated in the pamphlet on _Profiteering_,
issued by W. B. Colver, Chairman of the Federal Trade Commission, in the
form of a letter submitted on request to the U.S. Senate:
"Survey of the petroleum field shows that the market, when
under the control of dominating factors, such as Standard Oil,
can be one of huge profits without the device of the high fixed
price. No price for the public has been fixed upon petroleum
and its products by the government. Unlike the situation in
steel, flour, and coal, there has been as yet no government
interference with the law of supply and demand except in the
instances of government purchases. Under that law large profits
may eventuate through the bidding up of prices by anxious
buyers. And, moreover, even in the absence of this element,
prices may be forced up by spreading false and misleading
information concerning the condition of supply and demand.
Reports, for instance, have been circulated that the supply of
gasoline was endangered for the purpose of maintaining the high
price of that product and the heavy profits from it. At
different stages of the oil industry different products of
petroleum have yielded the heavy profits. Kerosene was once the
chief profit producer. Gasoline followed and superseded it as
the chief producer of profits. Enormous profits are now being
made in fuel oil, with the advantage to the refiner that the
high price of that product meets no popular challenge. Gasoline
is maintained at its present high price and produces heavy
profits for the low cost refiners."
PROFITEERING IN THE MEAT INDUSTRY
"Similarly, the power of dominant factors in a given industry
in maintaining high prices and harvesting unprecedented profits
is shown in a survey of the meat packing situation. Five meat
packers, Armour, Swift, Morris, Wilson, and Cudahy, and their
subsidiary and affiliated companies, have monopolistic control
of the meat industry and are reaching for like domination in
other products. Their manipulations of the market embrace every
device that is useful to them, without regard to law. Their
reward, expressed in terms of profit, reveals that four of
these concerns have pocketed in 1915, 1916, and 1917,
$140,000,000. Comparisons between their present profits and
those of the pre-war period are given below. However delicate a
definition is framed for 'profiteering,' these packers have
preyed upon the people unconscionably. They are soon to come
under further governmental regulation approved by Executive
order."
PROFITEERING IN THE MEAT INDUSTRY
Some further details on the methods of securing huge profits in the meat
packing industry are given in the following:
"An exposition of the excess profits of four of the big meat
packers (Armour, Swift, Morris, Cudahy, omitting Wilson as not
comparable) is given in the fact that their aggregate average
pre-war profit (1912, 1913, and 1914) was $19,000,000; that in
1915 they earned $17,000,000 excess profits over the pre-war
period; in 1916, $36,000,000 more profit than in the pre-war
period; and in 1917, $68,000,000 more profit than in the
pre-war period. In the three war years from 1915 to 1917 there
their total profits have reached the astounding figure of
$140,000,000, of which $121,000,000 represents excess over
their pre-war profits.
"These great increases in profits are not due solely to
increased volume of business. The sales of these companies in
this period increased 150 per cent., much of this increase
being due to higher prices rather than to increased volume by
weight, but the return of profit increased 400 per cent., or
two and one-half times as much as the sales.
"The profit taken by Morris & Co. for the fiscal year ended
November 1, 1917, is equal to a rate of 18.6 per cent. on the
net worth of the company (capital and surplus) and 263.7 per
cent. on the three millions of capital stock outstanding. In
the case of the other four companies the earned rate on common
capital stock is much lower--from 27 per cent. to 47 per
cent.--but the reason for this is that these companies have
from time to time declared stock dividends and in other ways
capitalized their growing surpluses. Thus Armour in 1916 raised
its capital stock from twenty millions to one hundred millions
without receiving a dollar more of cash. If Swift, Wilson,
Cudahy, and Armour had followed the practice of Morris in not
capitalizing their surpluses (accumulated from excessive
profits), they too would now show an enormous rate of profit on
their original capital."
JUGGLING OF ACCOUNTS--HUGE SALARIES
Mr. Colver gives information supported by trustworthy data on other
devious and subtle types of profiteering practices:
"In cases where the government fixes a definite margin on
profit above costs, as in the case of flour, there is a
considerable incentive to a fictitious enhancement of costs
through account juggling. This has added to the volume of
unusual profits. Increase of cost showing on the producers'
books can be accomplished in various ways. The item of
depreciation can be padded. Officers' salaries can be
increased. Interest on investment can be included in cost. New
construction can be recorded as repairs. Fictitious valuations
on raw material can be added, and inventories can be
manipulated.
"The Federal Trade Commission has been vigilant and untiring in
its exclusion of these practices. An instance of this practice
was afforded by the Ismert-Hincke Milling Co., of Kansas City,
Mo. This company padded its costs by heavily increasing all its
officers' salaries and by manipulating the inventory value of
flour bags on hand. As evidence of the length to which padding
can be carried, it may be added that this company even included
in its costs the gift of an automobile which it charged to
advertising expenses. This case was heard of by the commission
for the Food Administration. The commission recommended
revocation of license and the recommendation was followed.
"Payment of extraordinary salaries and in some instances
bonuses to executives of corporations have been found by the
commission during its investigations."
WAR COST OF LIVING
A complete synopsis of the cost of living situation in the United
States, during the four years' period July, 1914, to June, 1918, was
issued by the National Industrial Conference Board after a country-wide
survey. The basis taken was that of family budgets divided under five
heads: food, shelter, clothing, fuel and light, and sundries. The
average increase for the period was shown to be between 50 and 55 per
cent. The most marked advance was in clothing, 77 per cent. But the food
advance of 62 per cent. was really more important because food
represented 43 per cent. of the average expenditure, while clothing
represented only 13 per cent. Wholesale prices, the report pointed out,
are not to be relied upon in estimating the cost of living, because many
articles enter only indirectly into the family budget. Often, too,
wholesale prices are not reflected in retail prices until months later.
The estimates given by the Board were based upon the expenditures of
eleven thousand families:
"In reaching 52.3 per cent. as the amount of increase in the
cost of living for the four years' period, the expenditures of
11,000 families were considered. Following is a table in which
besides the 52.3 per cent. for all items entering into the
family budget, the percentage for rent, clothing, fuel, and
light, and sundries are given:
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Per Cent. Inc. in Cost Increase
Distribution Dur'g War as Related
Budget of Family Period to to Total
Item Expenditure June, 1918 Budget
All items. 100.0 52.3
Food 43.1 62 26.7
Rent 17.7 15 2.7
Clothing 13.2 77 10.2
Fuel and light 5.6 45 2.5
Sundries 20.4 50 10.2
The figures examined prove that there was a fair similarity of
increase in the different sections of the country. The advance
in rent in the dwelling places of the average wage earner was
put down at 15 per cent.
"A general summary is given of changes in the cost of living
among industrial workers as presented by the Railroad Wage
Commission for the period between December, 1915, and the end
of April, 1918, as follows:
Per Cent.
For families with incomes up to $600 43
For families with incomes from $600 to $1,000 41
For families with incomes from $1,000 to $2,000 40
"By the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen the
advance in living costs between 1914 and 1917 was placed at 43
per cent. Conditions among ship-building workers on the Pacific
coast, as arrived at by the United States Shipping Board,
indicated that between June, 1916, and February, 1918, living
costs had gone up 46 per cent. A table is given which shows
relative increase in the cost of food as measured by wholesale
and retail prices for the past six years."
Relative Relative
Year and Month Wholesale Price of Retail
Farm Food, Price of
1913 Products Etc. Food
Average for year 100 100 100
January 97 99 98
April 97 96 98
July 101 101 100
October 103 102 104
1914
Average for year 103 103 102
January 101 102 104
April 103 95 97
July 104 103 102
October 103 107 105
1915
Average for year 105 104 101
January 102 106 103
April 107 105 99
July 108 104 100
October 105 104 103
1916
Average for year 122 126 114
January 108 114 107
April 114 117 109
July 118 121 111
October 136 140 121
1917
Average for year 188 177 146
January 147 150 128
April 180 182 145
July 198 180 146
October 207 183 157
1918
January 208 188 160
April 217 179 154
CIVIL WAR COST OF LIVING
The Civil War years of the United States were always remembered as the
era of high prices. Yet it is interesting to know that the increase in
living cost after the United States had been in war one year was greater
than the increases in the fourth year of the Civil War. During the Civil
War prices rose from 100 to 117 per cent., but necessities were
relatively cheaper than at present because the currency was depreciated.
In January, 1864, gold was at a premium of 52 per cent.
Emerson David Fite, assistant professor of history in Yale University,
describes "Social and Industrial Conditions During the Civil War" as
follows:
"The situation in New York City at the end of the year 1863 is
typical of the period. Eggs had then reached 25 cents per
dozen, from 15 cents in 1861; cheese, 18 cents from 8 cents;
potatoes, $2.25 from $1.50 per bushel, and for all the
necessities of life there was an advance ranging from 60 to 75
and in some cases even 100 per cent. Wages, on the other hand,
lagged behind; the blacksmith's increase was only from $1.75 to
$2 per day, that of common laborers from $1 to $1.25, that of
bricklayers from $1.25 to $2, and the average increase in all
the trades was about 25 per cent., or less than one-half the
increase of prices. The winter of 1863--64 and the ensuing
months were accordingly a time of unusual industrial unrest,
which increased in severity as the discrepancy between wages
and prices continued. The dollar was slowly but surely
diminishing in value, and labor engaged in a determined
struggle to force wages up, capital to keep them down. The
advantage lay with the employing classes, but labor in 1864
recovered much of the ground that had been lost in the two
previous years, and the war closed with wages much nearer
prices than a year earlier. It was generally agreed at the time
that prices during the entire war period advanced approximately
100 per cent. and wages from 50 to 60 per cent."
WHERE THE COST OF LIVES WEIGHED THE MOST
The rapid rise in the cost of living was much more severely felt by the
classes of the population dependent upon small or less rigid incomes. In
many industries wages increased faster than average living expenses.
Figures published by the New York Labor Bureau show that the sum
distributed in wages to industrial workers was substantially doubled in
the four years of warfare. Investigation conducted by the National
Industrial Board of Boston showed that there had been an increase of 50
to 55 per cent. in the budget of the average wage earner from July,
1914, to June, 1918.
"The increases for the different items are given as follows:
Food 62%
Rent 15%
Clothing 77%
Fuel and light 45%
Sundries 50%
Average increase (depending on apportionment
of these respective items in the
family budget) 50% to 55%
In explanation of these figures the report goes on to say:
"'In combining the percentages of increase for the respective
items, in order to determine the average increase for the
budget as a whole, food was taken as constituting 43 per cent.
of the total family expenditure, rent 18 per cent., clothing 13
per cent., fuel and light 6 per cent., and sundries 20 per
cent. Applying the Board's percentages of increase for the
respective items to this distribution of the budget, the
average increase is 52 per cent. The distribution of budget
items just given is an average based on cost of living studies
made by several United States Government bureaus and other
agencies, covering in all 12,000 families.
"The proportions of these major items of expenditure can be
varied within narrow limits, but no reasonable arrangement
would cause a wide change in the increase in the total cost of
living as given above. For instance, if, instead of this
average distribution of the budget, food be allocated as much
as 45 per cent., rent and clothing 15 per cent. each, fuel and
light 5 per cent., and sundries 20 per cent., the indicated
increase in the total cost of living, using the Board's
percentages of increase for the respective items, would be 54
per cent."
All articles of food, we are told, show a considerable increase
in price since 1914, exceptional advances being recorded in the
case of flour, lard, and cornmeal. The item of rent, says the
report, "showed such wide variation that no general average
applicable to all sections of the country could be reached,"
but the 15 per cent. estimate "is apparently ample to cover the
increase in wage-earners' rents in New York, Chicago,
Philadelphia, Boston, and St. Louis, which alone include
several millions of the country's industrial population." Of
the increase in clothing prices we read:
INCREASED COST FOR WEARING APPAREL
"Information secured from retail stores in cities well
distributed throughout the country indicates increases in
prices of the most common articles of wearing apparel, ranging
from 50.5 per cent. for women's dollar blouses up to 161 per
cent. for men's overalls. Striking increases occurred in the
prices of certain yard goods, where advances in cost over 1914
prices amounted, in a number of cases, to more than 100 per
cent.
"Men's hosiery, selling for 15 cents in 1914, cost in June,
1918, usually not less than 25 cents, and women's hosiery,
selling for 25 cents four years ago, brought 45 cents in June
of this year. Knit underwear, the report finds, had increased
nearly 100 per cent. Women's shoes of a standard grade
increased 88.5 per cent.; men's 69 per cent. Women's kid gloves
which in 1914 cost $1 averaged more than $2 in June, 1918.
"The report places the average rise in the total clothing
budget since 1914 at 77 per cent. This increase compares with
an increase of 51.33 per cent. between 1914 and 1917 for
families in the ship building districts of Philadelphia and an
increase of 54.21 per cent. among similar families in the ship
building district of New York, as reported by the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics. The difference between these
increases and the Board's figure of 77 per cent. is largely
explained by the difference in the period of time covered;
clothing prices have continued to advance since 1917. Further
increases in the fall of 1918 were, moreover, clearly indicated
by the statements of retail dealers."
WAR PRICES AND LUXURY IMPORTS
In spite of the contention that war-time conditions led to an increased
standard of luxurious living, statistics of imports indicated a rapid
fall in articles of luxury brought into the country. In the fiscal year,
1918, there was a material decline compared with the preceding year and
a marked decline when compared with the year before the war:
"A recent compilation by the National City Bank shows this in
practically all imports usually classed as luxuries. That the
imports should be less than before the war was quite natural by
reason of the fact that many articles of this character
originated in European countries, some in countries with which
we are now at war, and some with our Allies who are otherwise
too busily employed.
"In art works, for example, the value of the imports of 1918
was only about $11,000,000 against $23,000,000 in 1917, and
$35,000,000 in the fiscal year 1914. In automobiles the value
in 1918 was about $50,000 against nearly $2,000,000 in 1913,
and more than $2,000,000 in 1912, while the average value per
machine imported in 1918 was less than one-half what it was
before the war. Decorated china imported in 1918 was about
$3,500,000 in value against practically $8,000,000 in 1914. Of
cotton laces imported in 1918 the value was about $10,000,000
against $16,500,000 in 1917, and nearly $34,000,000 in 1914. Of
silk laces the 1918 imports were valued at little more than
one-half those of 1914. Of cotton plushes and velvets the
quantity in 1918 was less than 1,000,000 yards against more
than 3,000,000 in 1917, and practically 5,000,000 in 1914. Of
ostrich feathers, in 1918 the imports were valued at nearly
$1,000,000 against nearly $4,000,000 in 1914 and over
$6,000,000 in 1913. In precious stones the total for 1918 was
only about $32,000,000 against $47,000,000 in 1917 and
$50,000,000 in 1913; while of pearls alone the value in 1918
was less than $2,000,000 against over $8,000,000 in 1917, and
more than $10,000,000 in 1916.
"In articles of food usually classed as luxuries there was also
a marked fall. Cheese imported in 1918 amounted to about
9,000,000 pounds against 15,000,000 in 1917, and 64,000,000 in
1914. Of currants the imports of 1918 were over 5,000,000
pounds against 25,000,000 in 1916 and 32,000,000 in 1914, and
of dates only 6,000,000 pounds in 1918 against 34,000,000 in
1914; while olives and olive oil showed totals in 1918 of about
one-half those of the year before the war."
[Illustration: The Nations and Their Wheat Supply
Under the Lever Bill, which became the Food Control Law after the United
States declared war, the President was authorized to fix a reasonable
guaranteed price for wheat.]
GOOD EFFECTS OF PRICE CONTROL
It became accepted on all sides that price control was the one method to
correct the inequalities of war conditions. It was necessary to prevent
the poorer classes in the population from having an inadequate
consumption of wealth. There was the political side, too. Price control
had an effect on the morale of large strata of the population. It acted
as a bulwark against the rising tide of discontent and internal
dissension incident to warfare on a democratic scale. Mr. Sydney Webb, a
well known English student of labor problems, conceded that the British
government had by its system of price control been fairly successful in
staving off any general fall in the standard of life in its people. How
the system worked is summarized by him in the following passage:
"What has been successful in Great Britain in economizing
supplies has been a widespread appeal to the whole nation to
limit its consumption of wheaten bread (4 pounds per week),
meat (2½ pounds per week), and sugar (¾ of a pound per week) to
a prescribed maximum per person in the household; and to make
up the necessary subsistence by the use of substitutes, such as
fish, other cereals than wheat, and other vegetables than
potatoes, of which the crop throughout all Europe has largely
failed. More efficacious still has been the absolute government
monopoly of sugar, secured at the very beginning of the war,
and the drastic restriction of the total quantity allowed to be
issued from store, the aggregate reduction being thus
infallibly secured, and the retailers being left to share what
sugar they obtained among their customers. It has been found
useful, too, to make the wheaten flour go farther by compelling
all the millers to include both an increased proportion of bran
and a certain proportion of other cereals. More drastic
measures are near at hand."
STAY-AT-HOMES WHO MADE MONEY
The important effort, as seen by the _Economist_, was to back up the
armies at the front by a policy of self-sacrifice at home, and it spoke
in drastic terms of the constant evidence of profiteering among certain
classes in England. The contrast in the attitudes of those at the front
and those active in business life is set forth in the following words:
"One of the most curious and interesting psychological facts of
the war is the manner in which one man goes to the front and
becomes a hero and a _preux chevalier_, while another, just
like him in training and blood and outlook, stays at home and
works for spoils, whether in wages or profits, resenting
taxation, grumbling about his food, and seeming to think that
this war for justice was invented to increase his wealth and
comfort."
PRICE CONTROL IN UNITED STATES
Although price control is a measure disapproved of by economists,
experience has shown that for certain products, such as wheat and
flour, it produced good results. In the case of bituminous coal,
Professor Anderson of Harvard said that it had probably done much harm
and little good, because the cut in price was too drastic. One good
feature of the price control system was the ability to apply it to draft
labor from non-essential industries to the production of munitions and
necessities of life. It was possible to do this by refusing coal,
copper, steel and freight cars to the non-essential industries. How the
Food Administration came to be a general price fixing body is explained
in the following article by a member of the Food Administration:
WHEAT AT $2.20 A BUSHEL
"There are many evidences that price fixing has come to lodge
itself as an unwelcome factor in the program of the Food
Administration. Price fixing came to be a fact even while
avoided as a theory, and eventually it has become necessary to
face it, if not to accept it, even as a theory. What are the
evidences that price fixing is essentially involved in the
program of the Food Administration? One piece of evidence lies
in the fact that when once you have fixed the price of one
commodity the condition is bound to be reflected in other
commodities. In fixing the price of wheat Congress fixed as
well, though not so explicitly, the price of corn, and hogs,
and sugar beets. The determining and administering of these
prices it left to the Food Administration.
"A further evidence that the Food Administration could not
avoid the onus of price fixing lies in the reasons for which
the Administration was brought into existence and the services
it was created to perform. The Food Administration is a war
agency. Its chief purpose is the feeding of warring nations,
our own nation and the Allies. All its other activities, its
conservation, its stabilization of trade processes, its
encouragement of production, are tributary to the one purpose
of segregating stocks of food for the effective prosecution of
the war. This latter purpose, in fact, takes the Food
Administration directly or indirectly into the market.... By
Section 14 of the Lever Bill, which became the Food Control
Law, the President is authorized from time to time to determine
and fix a reasonable guaranteed price for wheat and this
section itself fixed the price for the crop of 1918 at not less
than $2 per bushel at the principal interior primary markets.
Pursuant to this section the President has, by two separate
decrees, set the price of 1917 wheat and of the 1918 crop at
$2.20 per bushel. Section 11 of the law authorizes the
President to purchase and store and sell wheat and flour,
meal, beans, and potatoes. Manifestly any purchase so made by
the government would in effect fix the price. Aside from these
delegations of power no authority is given by the Food Control
Law to fix prices. And yet a study of the operations of these
provisions as well as a regard for the implications of other
functions of the Food Administration carry the conviction that
price fixing is a necessary and inescapable corollary of the
effective prosecution of the Food Administration program."
PRICE LEVEL, NOVEMBER, 1918
With the close of military operations there was noted a slight decline
in commodity prices; how far the downward tendency would reach was
considered a moot point. The apparent zenith point in prices was
attained in July, 1918, but _Bradstreet's_ prudently thought it unwise
to indulge in any prophecies regarding low prices. The increased demand
for food products among the stricken peoples of Europe would, it was
believed, prevent any considerable fall in prices. There was not much to
encourage consumers in the study of the index numbers of food
commodities. The writer in _Bradstreet's_ shows a wide range of price
movements in the following table, in which are given the index numbers
based on the prices per pound of ninety-six articles:
1912
January $8.9493
February 8.9578
March 8.9019
April 9.0978
May 9.2696
June 9.1017
July 9.1119
August 9.1595
September 9.2157
October 9.4515
November 9.4781
December 9.5462
1913
January 9.4935
February 9.4592
March 9.4052
April 9.2976
May 9.1394
June 9.0721
July 8.9522
August 9.0115
September 9.1006
October 9.1526
November 9.2252
December 9.2290
1914
January 8.8857
February 8.8619
March 8.8320
April 8.7562
May 8.6224
June 8.6220
July 8.6566
August 8.7087
August 15 9.8495
September 9.7572
October 9.2416
November 8.8620
December 9.0354
1915
January $9.1431
February 9.6621
March 9.6197
April 9.7753
May 9.7978
June 9.7428
July 9.8698
August 9.8213
September 9.8034
October 9.9774
November 10.3768
December 10.6473
1916
January 10.9163
February 11.1415
March 11.3760
April 11.7598
May 11.7485
June 11.6887
July 11.5294
August 11.4414
September 11.7803
October 12.0699
November 12.7992
December 13.6628
1917
January 13.7277
February 13.9427
March 14.1360
April 14.5769
May 15.1208
June 15.4680
July 16.0680
August 16.3985
September 16.6441
October 16.9135
November 17.0701
December 17.5966
1918
January $17.9636
February 18.0776
March 18.0732
April 18.4656
May 18.9133
June 19.0091
July 19.1849
August 19.1162
September 19.0485
October 19.0167
November 18.9110
The groups that make up the index number are as follows:
Nov. 1, Sept. 1, Oct. 1, Nov. 1,
1917 1918 1918 1918
Breadstuffs $0.2105 $0.2077 $0.2026 $0.1999
Live stock .6785 .7400 .7100 .6960
Provisions 4.0285 4.3264 4.5359 4.5889
Fruits .4288 .3725 .3725 .3725
Hides and leather 2.3900 2.2150 2.2150 2.2050
Textiles 5.1179 5.8742 5.7554 5.7029
Metals 1.1477 1.4233 1.3662 1.3062
Coal and coke .0101 .0119 .0120 .0120
Oils .9084 1.3185 1.3121 1.2734
Naval stores .0956 .1295 .1255 .1348
Building materials .1448 .2047 .2047 .2046
Chemicals and drugs 1.4261 1.5153 1.5253 1.5278
Miscellaneous .4832 .7095 .6795 .6870
-------- -------- -------- -------
Total $17.0701 $19.0485 $19.0167 $18.9110
[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson
A Municipal Canning Station
In city establishments like the one shown above, food that would
otherwise go to waste in the markets was saved, and women were
instructed in the best methods of putting up fruits and vegetables for
winter use.]
FOOD CONDITIONS AND PRICE LEVEL, 1919
A clear summary of the food situation and price conditions in the
half-year succeeding the armistice is to be found in the Federal
Commission's Memorandum on food stocks and wholesale prices, June, 1919:
"The comparative amounts of food stocks on hand June 1, 1919,
as against June 1, 1918, in the case of many important foods,
show that the stocks are considerably larger.
"On June 1, 1918, the United States stocks were in demand for
feeding the armies of the Allies as well as the civilian
population. The fact that stocks of many important foods were
much larger on June 1, 1919, while prices were as high or
higher, apparently, means that they are being withheld
speculatively for a world demand which is not now here but
which is expected when hunger-impelled strikes secure higher
wages with which higher food prices can be paid.
"The statistics of stocks are from the latest and last issue of
the Bureau of Markets 'Food Surveys,' June 27, 1919. We use the
quantities reported by identical firms for 1918 and 1919.
(Stocks held June 1, 1919, by other firms not reporting for
June 1, 1918, increase the actual stocks from 5 or 10 per cent.
up to 20 or 25 per cent. over the comparable stocks). The
stocks are those in warehouses and cold storage houses and in
hands of wholesale dealers. Retail stocks are not reported. The
prices are wholesale prices, furnished by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, for the first Tuesday in June.
COMMODITIES INCREASING IN STOCKS AND IN PRICE (WHOLESALE PRICES)
=========================================================================
| | Quantity | | Price
|------+----------+----------+--------| |-----------+-----
| | | | | | |
Commodity Unit |June, 1919|June, 1918|Per cent| Unit of| June | June
| of | | | in- | Price | 1919 | 1918
|quan- | | | crease | | |
| tity | | | 1919 | | |
| | | | over | | |
| | | | 1918 | | |
--------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+-----
Wheat |Bushel|41,955,167|15,286,331| 174.5| Dollars| 2.51| 2.20
| | | | | per bu.| 2.46| 2.17
--------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+-----
Wheat |Barrel| 3,942,205| 3,236,671| 21.8| Dollars| 12-12.20| 9.80
flour | | | | |per bbl.|11.50-11.80| 9.95
--------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+-----
Canned |Pound |99,203,544|82,616,582| 20.1| Dollars| 2.70-2.75| 2.70
salmon | | | | |per doz.| |
| | | | | No. 2 | |
| | | | | cans | |
--------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+-----
Canned |Pound |81,233,023|42,352,994| 91.8| Dollars| | 1.70
corn | | | | |per doz.| 1.75-(Mch)| 1.75
| | | | | No. 2 | |
| | | | | cans | |
--------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+-----
Fresh | Case | 5,975,817| 5,441,560| 9.8| Cents| .40-40½| .29
eggs | | | | |per doz.| | .30¾
--------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+-----
Butter |Pound |29,190,222|12,749,055| 129.0| Cents| .53 .41
(creamery) | | | | per lb.| |
--------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+-----
Salt |Pound |25,701,138|24,962,881| 3.0| Dollars| 35.00|32.00
Beef | | | | |per bbl.| 36.00|34.00
--------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+-----
Frozen |Pound |10,962,670| 2,749,077| 298.8| Cents | .37½| .34½
fowls | | | | | per lb.| |
=========================================================================
COMMODITIES INCREASING IN STOCKS AND DECREASING IN PRICE.
(Wholesale Prices.)
=========================================================================
| Quantity | | | Price
---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+-----
|Unit of | | | |Unit of| |
|quantity| | |Per cent| Price | June | June
Commodity| | June, 1919|June, 1918|increase| | 1919 | 1918
---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+-----
| | | | |Dollars| 1.19 - | 1.21
Barley | Bushel | 16,399,396| 7,916,073| 107.2|per bu.| 1.27 | 1.26
---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+-----
Rye | Bushel | 11,613,127| 3,355,349| 246.1|Dollars| 1.53½ | 1.73
| | | | |per bu.| |
---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+-----
Buckwheat| Pound | 18,053,230| 5,523,850| 226.8|Dollars| 5.00 | 5.75
Flour | | | | |per cwt| (Apr) | 6.25
| | | | | | |(Apr)
---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+-----
Canned | Pound |179,101,286|88,531,024| 102.3|Dollars| 2.05 | 2.30
Tomatoes | | | | | per |(Dec'18)|
| | | | | doz. | |
| | | | | No. 3 | |
| | | | | cans | |
---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+-----
COMMODITIES DECREASING IN STOCKS AND IN PRICE. (Wholesale Prices)
=======================================================================
| | Quantity | | Price
| |----------+-----------+--------+ |------+-----
Commodity|Unit of |June, 1919| June, 1918|Per cent|Unit of| June | June
|quantity| | |decrease| Price | 1919 | 1918
| | | | 1919- | | |
| | | | 1918 | | |
---------+--------+----------+-----------+--------+-------+------+-----
Oats | Bushel |37,827,343| 41,763,555| 9.4| Cents | 69|73½
| | | | |per bu.| |
---------+--------+----------+-----------+--------+-------+------+-----
Corn Meal| Pound |34,231,066|117,674,918| 70.9|Dollars| 3.90| 4.25
| | | | |per cwt| |
---------+--------+----------+-----------+--------+-------+------+-----
Beans | Bushel | 4,252,451| 4,408,686| 3.5|Dollars| 7.75-|12.25
| | | | |per cwt| 8.00|12.50
---------+--------+----------+-----------+--------+-------+------+-----
Rice | Pound |75,134,920| 80,727,516| 6.9| Cents | 6 | 8.5
(Blue | | | | |per lb.| 7-7/8| 8.9
Rose- | | | | | | |
Honduras)| | | | | | 9-1/8| 8½
| | | | | [10][11] 9-5/8
=======================================================================
[10] First week JUNE.
[11] Increase in price.
COMMODITIES DECREASING IN STOCKS AND INCREASING IN PRICE.
(Wholesale Prices)
=========================================================================
| | Quantity | | Price
| | | |
| |-----------+-----------+--------+ +-----+------
| | | | | | |
Commodity |Unit of |June, 1919 |June, 1918 |Percent |Unit of|June | June
|quantity| | |decrease| Price |1919 | 1918
| | | | 1919- | | |
| | | | 1918 | | |
----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------
Corn | Bushel | 13,260,910| 27,883,361| 52.4|Dollars| 1.76| 1.50
| | | | |per bu.| 1.77| 1.55
----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------
Sugar | Pound |207,622,237|217,632,365| 4.6| Cents | 8.82| 7.30
| | | | |per lb.| |
----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------
Cheese | Pound | 10,174,502| 15,875,236| 35.9| Cents | 31|21½
(American)| | | | |per lb.| |
----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------
Dry Salt | Pound |395,940,437|488,344,838| 18.9|Dollars|58.00| 48-50
Pork | | | | | per |58.50|
| | | | | bbl. | |
----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------
Lard | Pound | 81,275,392|106,649,588| 23.8| Cents |33.80|24.15
| | | | |per lb.|34.30|24.25
=========================================================================
The following data, taken from the _Monthly Labor Review_ of July 1919,
give a survey of the retail prices of food in the United States:
AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES AND PER CENT OF INCREASE OR DECREASE IN THE UNITED
STATES MAY 15 OF EACH SPECIFIED YEAR COMPARED WITH MAY 15, 1913
========================================================================+
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | Average retail prices, May 15-- |
| +---------------------------------------+
Article | Unit | |
| | 1913|1914|1915|1916|1917|1918|1919|
-----------------------+--------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----|
| | _Cts.|Cts.|Cts.|Cts.|Cts.|Cts.|Cts._
Sirloin steak | Pound | 25.7|25.9|25.7|27.8|32.2|40.0|44.4|
Round steak | do | 22.3|23.3|23.0|25.0|29.6|38.0|41.6|
Rib roast | do | 19.9|20.1|19.9|21.6|25.7|31.8|35.2|
Chuck roast | do | 16.1|17.0|16.3|17.5|21.8|27.8|29.7|
Plate beef | do | 12.1|12.5|12.3|13.1|16.6|21.9|22.5|
| | | | | | | | |
Pork chops | do | 20.9|22.2|20.9|22.9|30.6|36.7|43.0|
Bacon | do | 27.0|26.7|26.4|28.4|41.6|50.5|56.7|
Ham | do | 26.8|26.8|25.6|31.8|38.8|45.6|54.6|
Lamb | do | 19.4|19.8|21.7|23.2|29.7|36.8|39.6|
Hens | do | 22.2|22.7|21.5|24.1|29.3|37.9|43.5|
| | | | | | | | |
Salmon, canned | do | | |19.8|20.0|25.7|29.6|31.9|
Milk, fresh | | | | | | | | |
Milk, evaporated | | | | | | | | |
(unsweetened) | [12] | | | | | |15.1| |
Butter | Pound | 35.9|32.7|34.7|37.0|46.5|51.0|67.9|
Oleomargarine | do | | | | | | |40.4|
| | | | | | | | |
Nut margarine | do | | | | | | |35.3|
Cheese | do | | |23.5|24.8|33.8|33.4|42.2|
Lard | do | 15.8|15.6|15.1|20.1|27.8|32.9|38.8|
Crisco | do | | | | | | |33.9|
Eggs, strictly fresh | Dozen | 26.3|26.6|26.3|28.1|39.8|42.4|53.1|
| | | | | | | | |
Bread |Pound[13] 5.6| 6.2| 7.2| 7.0| 9.6| 9.8| 9.8|
Flour | Pound | 3.3| 3.3| 4.5| 3.9| 8.7| 6.6| 7.5|
Corn meal | do | 3.0| 3.1| 3.3| 3.3| 5.4| 7.0| 6.2|
Rolled oats | Pound | | | | | | | 8.4|
Corn flakes | [14] | | | | | | |14.1|
| | | | | | | | |
Cream of wheat | [15] | | | | | | |25.1|
Rice | Pound | | | 9.1| 9.1|10.5|12.3|13.4|
Macaroni | do | | | | | | |19.0|
Beans, navy | do | | | 7.6| 9.4|19.1|17.8|12.0|
Potatoes | do | 1.6| 1.9| 1.6| 2.5| 6.1| 2.2| 3.3|
| | | | | | | | |
Onions | do | | | 4.3| 5.1| 8.6| 5.6|10.7|
Cabbage | do | | | | | | | 9.6|
Beans, baked | |No. 2 can. | | | | |17.5|
Corn, canned | do | | | | | | |19.1|
Peas, canned | do | | | | | | |19.0|
| | | | | | | | |
Tomatoes, canned | do | | | | | | |15.8|
Sugar, granulated | Pound | 5.4|5.0 | 6.8| 8.5|10.0| 9.1|10.6|
| | | | | | | | |
Tea | do | | |54.6|54.6|55.7|63.8|69.8|
Coffee | do | | |27.9|29.9|30.2|30.1|40.5|
| | | | | | | | |
Prunes | do | | |13.7|13.3|15.3|16.5|23.2|
Raisins | do | | |12.5|12.6|14.4|15.1|16.3|
Bananas | Dozen | | | | | | |38.8|
Oranges | do | | | | | | |54.1|
| | | | | | | | |
All articles combined | | | | | | | | |
-----------------------+--------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----+
=========================================================================
| | |Per cent of increase (+) or |
| | |decrease (-) May 15 of each |
| | |specified year compared with |
| | |May 15, 1913. |
| |---------------------------------------+
Article | Unit | |
| | |1914|1915|1916|1917|1918|1919|
-----------------------+--------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----|
| | | | | | | | |
Sirloin steak | Pound | | +1|[16]| +8| +25| +56| +73|
Round steak | do | | +4| +3| +12| +33| +70| +87|
Rib roast | do | | +1|[16]| +9| +29| +60| +77|
Chuck roast | do | | +6| +1| +9| +35| +73| +84|
Plate beef | do | | +3| +2| +8| +37| +81| +86|
| | | | | | | | |
Pork chops | do | | +6|[16]| +10| +46|+ 76|+106|
Bacon | do | | -1| -2| +5| +54|+ 87|+110|
Ham | do | |[16]| -5| +19| +45|+ 70|+104|
Lamb | do | | +2| +12| +20| +53|+ 90|+104|
Hens | do | | +2| -3| +9| +32|+ 71|+ 96|
| | | | | | | | |
Salmon, canned | do | | | | | | | |
Milk, fresh | | | | | | | | |
Milk, evaporated | | | | | | | | |
(unsweetened) | [12] | | | | | | | |
Butter | Pound | | 9 | 3| +3| +30| +42| +89|
Oleomargarine | do | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
Nut margarine | do | | | | | | | |
Cheese | do | | | | | | | |
Lard | do | | -1| 4| +27| +76|+108|+146|
Crisco | do | | | | | | | |
Eggs, strictly fresh | Dozen | | +1|| +7| +51| +61|+102|
| | | | | | | | |
Bread |Pound[13] | +11| +29| +25| +71| +75|+ 75|
Flour | Pound | |[16]| +36| +18|+164|+100|+127|
Corn meal | do | | +3| +10| +10|+ 80|+133|+107|
Rolled oats | Pound | | | | | | | |
Corn flakes | [14] | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
Cream of wheat | [15] | | | | | | | |
Rice | Pound | | | | | | | |
Macaroni | do | | | | | | | |
Beans, navy | do | | | | | | | |
Potatoes | do | |+ 19|[16]|+ 56|+281|+ 38|+106|
| | | | | | | | |
Onions | do | | | | | | | |
Cabbage | do | | | | | | | |
Beans, baked | |No. 2 can. | | | | | |
Corn, canned | do | | | | | | | |
Peas, canned | do | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
Tomatoes, canned | do | | | | | | | |
Sugar, granulated | Pound | |- 7|+ 26|+ 57|+ 85|+ 69|+ 96|
| | | | | | | | |
Tea | do | | | | | | | |
Coffee | do | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
Prunes | do | | | | | | | |
Raisins | do | | | | | | | |
Bananas | Dozen | | | | | | | |
Oranges | do | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
All articles combined | | |+ 1|+ 3|+ 13|+ 56|+ 64|+ 91|
-----------------------+--------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----|
[12] 15-16 ounce can.
[13] Baked weight.
[14] 8-ounce package.
[15] 28-ounce package.
[16] No change in price.
"The total of dry storage stocks, including those that
increased and those that decreased is as follows, all items
being reduced to pounds:
June 1, 1919 7,875,280,040
June 1, 1918 6,336,763,505
"That is the total dry storage stocks reported on June 1, 1919,
were 124 per cent. of those on June 1, 1918.
"The total of cold storage items reported in pounds in June,
1919, and June, 1918 (omitting apples in barrels but covering
eggs; frozen eggs; butter; cheese, frozen and cured beef;
frozen lamb and mutton; frozen, dry salt and pickled pork;
lard; and frozen poultry), was as follows:
June 1, 1919 1,671,777,990
June 1, 1918 1,669,826,166
"That is, cold storage stocks this June are 100.1 per cent. of
those last June.
"None of the above figures include army stores nor the army
excess supply which is to be distributed by the War Department
under resolution of the House of Representatives.
"The sum of dry storage and cold storage (except apples) for
the two periods (combining the figures already given) was as
follows:
June 1, 1919 9,547,058,030 pounds
June 1, 1918 8,006,589,671 pounds
"That is the total stocks reported on June 1, 1919, were 119
per cent. of those on June 1, 1918.
"This as noted does not include Army supplies.
"Grouping the commodities in four classes:
"(1) Those increasing in stocks and increasing in price.
"(2) Those increasing in stocks and decreasing in price.
"(3) Those decreasing in stocks and increasing in price.
"(4) Those decreasing in stocks and decreasing in price; we
have the accompanying significant tables, which indicate that
the 'law of supply and demand' is not working.
III--INDUSTRY AND LABOR IN WARTIME
Unprecedented Conditions and Developments Due to the World War
and How They Were Met
The issue of the great world conflict between autocracy and democracy
rested largely in the hands of the laboring classes behind the lines.
Mr. William B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor, placed vividly before the
public in one of his official statements the views of American labor at
the outbreak of the war:
"During the past decade the sentiment of American labor has
crystallized against resort to arms as a means of settlement of
disputes between nations. War had come to be considered
wasteful economically, socially, and morally. Labor felt that
no national advantage gained through force of arms could offset
the human life sacrificed, the burden of taxation levied upon
successive generations to pay the cost of war, the standards of
life set back or destroyed, which had to be rebuilt slowly and
with infinite sacrifice. In short, war had come to be looked
upon as morally wrong, entirely unnecessary, a calamity that
could be avoided and must be avoided if the race was to
progress. This feeling was shared to a greater or lesser extent
by the workers of all civilized nations, and there was a
universal feeling in world labor ranks prior to the outbreak of
the European war that this sentiment, shared by many thoughtful
people outside the ranks of the wage workers in all civilized
nations, was strong enough to prevent any armed conflict which
would involve any number of peoples. This sentiment was
undoubtedly responsible for the lack of military preparedness,
in the sense that Germany prepared, among the other major
powers now engaged in the world conflict.
"When the war clouds broke in Europe, American labor was
stunned. All its preconceived notions as to the inability of
any great nation to wage war upon another nation because the
working people would refuse either to fight or produce
munitions and supplies of war were shattered when nation after
nation quickly mobilized its armies and the organized labor
movements of each country, without exception, quickly pledged
their men and their resources to the support of their
respective governments. But the fact that America itself might
be drawn into the world conflict was still foreign to the mind
of the American workman. While American labor grieved over the
fate which had befallen its kind in Europe no sense of danger
to this country was apparent. From the beginning of this
Republic it had been our national policy to hold aloof from the
quarrels of the Old World. The splendid isolation of thousands
of miles of ocean protected us. We had no quarrel with Europe
and we asked but to be let alone. We stood upon our rights to
protect the people of continental America from invasion or
aggression as enunciated by the Monroe Doctrine, and further
than that we could not see that the European conflict embroiled
us as a nation. Let Europe settle her own family quarrel. We
were to remain the one great neutral nation of the earth. When
the time came America, untrammeled by participation in the
conflict, with no desire for American aggrandizement or
territorial expansion, would be the natural messenger of peace
to war-worried Europe."
SAFEGUARDS FOR WORKINGMEN
From the moment of the declaration of war the general loyalty of the
laboring classes throughout the United States was apparent. This
attitude of loyalty found a ready response in the immediately declared
intention of the Government to safeguard the interests of the
workingmen. Congress announced its attitude toward standards of legal
protection for workers. It was printed verbatim in _Labor Laws in War
Time_, 201, p. 1, as follows:
"WHEREAS, The entrance of the United States into the World War
appears imminent; and
"WHEREAS, Other countries upon engaging in the conflict
permitted a serious breakdown of protective labor regulations
with the result, as shown by recent official investigations, of
early and unmistakable loss of health, output, and national
effectiveness; and
"WHEREAS, Our own experience has already demonstrated that
accidents increase with speeding up and the employment of new
workers unaccustomed to their tasks, that over fatigue defeats
the object aimed at in lengthening working hours, and that new
occupational poisoning has accompanied the recent development
of munition manufacture; and
"WHEREAS, The full strength of our nation is needed as never
before and we cannot afford to suffer loss of labor power
through accidents, disease, industrial poisoning, and
overfatigue; now, therefore, be it.
"_Resolved_, That the American Association for Labor
Legislation, at this critical time, in order to promote the
success of our country in war as well as in peace, would sound
a warning against the shortsightedness and laxness at first
exemplified abroad in these matters, and would urge all
public-spirited citizens to coöperate in maintaining, for the
protection of those who serve in this time of stress the
industries of the nation (who as experience abroad has shown
are quite as important to military success as the fighting
forces), the following essential minimum requirements:
I. SAFETY
"1. Maintenance of all existing standards of safeguarding
machinery and industrial processes for the prevention of
accidents.
II. SANITATION
"1. Maintenance of all existing measures for the prevention of
occupational diseases.
"2. Immediate agreement upon practicable methods for the
prevention of special occupational poisonings incident to
making and handling explosives.
III. HOURS
"1. Three-shift system in continuous industries.
"2. In non-continuous industries, maintenance of existing
standard working day as basic.
"3. One day's rest in seven for all workers.
IV. WAGES
"1. Equal pay for equal work, without discrimination as to sex.
"2. Maintenance of existing wage rates for basic working day.
"3. Time and one-half for all hours beyond basic working day.
"4. Wage rates to be periodically revised to correspond with
variations in the cost of living.
V. CHILD LABOR
"1. Maintenance of all existing special regulations regarding
child labor, including minimum wages, maximum hours,
prohibition of night work, prohibited employment, and
employment certificates.
"2. Determination of specially hazardous employments to be
forbidden to children under sixteen.
VI. WOMAN'S WORK
"1. Maintenance of existing special regulations regarding
woman's work, including maximum hours, prohibition of night
work, prohibited hazardous employments, and prohibited
employment immediately before and after childbirth.
VII. SOCIAL INSURANCE
"1. Maintenance of existing standards of workmen's compensation
for industrial accidents and diseases.
"2. Extension of workmen's compensation laws to embrace
occupational diseases, especially those particularly incident
to the manufacture and handling of explosives.
"3. Immediate investigation of the sickness problem among the
workers to ascertain the advisability of establishing universal
workmen's health insurance.
VIII. LABOR MARKET
"1. Extension of existing systems of public employment bureaus
to aid in the intelligent distribution of labor throughout the
country.
IX. ADMINISTRATION OF LABOR LAWS
"1. Increased appropriations for enlarged staffs of inspectors
to enforce labor legislation.
"2. Representation of employees, employers, and the public on
joint councils for coöperating elsewhere with the labor
departments in drafting and enforcing necessary regulations to
put the foregoing principles into full effect."
ORGANIZING LABOR FOR WAR WORK
Supplying the man power for industrial action during the war was a
really more complicated task than drafting men for military service. In
the earlier period of American participation labor was distributed more
or less according to the law of supply and demand. The unequal
distribution of workers became a grave problem. To meet this the United
States Employment Service of the Department of Labor took over the
supply of war industries with common labor, and all independent
recruiting of labor by manufacturers having a pay roll of more than a
hundred men was discontinued.
[Illustration: In the Heart of the Bethlehem Steel Plant
H. E. Coffin, Chairman on Industrial Preparedness of the Council of
National Defence, described the conflict as a war of munitions, of
factories, of producing powers, of sweating men and women workers. In
the plant sketched above, 26,000 men toiled and sweated during the war
to make munitions for our troops overseas.]
"On this Board were representatives of the War, Navy, and
Agriculture Departments, the Shipping Board and the Emergency
Fleet Corporation, the War Industries Board, and the Food,
Fuel, and Railroad Administrations. Assistant Director Nathan
A. Smyth, of the United States Employment Service, was quoted
in the New York _Globe_ as saying in part:
"'Today the war industries of the country are short about
500,000 unskilled workers, and the coming requirements of war
production necessitate finding between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000
more.
"'Similarly the demand for skilled workers in war industries is
greater than the immediately available supply. Before long we
will have to take every tool maker and die-sinker in non-war
work and put him in war production.'
"The country was divided into thirteen Federal districts, by
the regulation of labor for war industries, and each was in
charge of a superintendent of the United States Employment
Service, while the States within the several districts were in
charge of a State director. The labor problem this measure was
designed to remedy and control was pictured by Secretary of
Labor Wilson, who was quoted in the New York _Sun_ as saying in
part:
"'The Government found itself in need of men, and on going out
to get them found itself in competition with private industry,
which was equally hard pressed. Men who had never drawn more
than a common laborer's wages found themselves at a premium in
the market, and began to ask and receive extortionate prices,
and to rove from place to place seeking still higher prices.
"'Everywhere industry was hampered by what is known as the
turnover, or the constant shifting of itinerant labor, in some
cases the loss in efficiency running as high as 100 per cent.
This is what is perhaps best described as the evil of the
individualistic strike--the strike by the man, thousands of
him, in different yards and factories all over the country, who
is forever throwing down his tools and wandering away on the
slightest rumor of higher wages elsewhere, who by his habit of
roving never masters the details of any trade, and who in the
mass accounts for a greater loss than all the organized strikes
and walkouts in the land.'"
INFLUENCE OF WAR CONDITIONS
In the United States under war conditions labor unrest did not reach the
intense form manifested in England. Nevertheless a great many strikes
were reported. Surprise was expressed that the labor adjustment
machinery of the War Department and of the Navy Department was not
appealed to. Besides there was the National War Labor Board to take up
mediation. Investigations in Bridgeport, Connecticut, showed an increase
of earnings of 81 per cent. against an increase of living prices of 61
per cent. Yet at one time the Press reported strikes in over 350 machine
shops in New Jersey--nearly all engaged in necessary war work--as well
as trouble in many shipyards. Of course there was the explanation of
foreign propaganda or a tendency toward industrial Bolshevism. Such
explanations failed to account for the fact that American workmen as a
whole were patriotic.
Attention was called, on the other hand, to the warm tribute given by
the Federal Fuel Administrator to the bituminous coal miners who had
brought production past the 13 million ton mark in the second week in
July, 1917, and the exceptional efforts of diligent and patriotic
workers in the shipyard. A portion of the press emphasized the
unreasonableness of striking while the laboring people enjoyed, during
war time, immunity from service and immunity from the pressure of
competition for wages. The Springfield _Republican_ protested against
applying to the workingmen exaggerated standards of economic rectitude.
"It is easy to be harsh in one's judgment even in the case of
the strikes that occur. Why do they strike at all while the war
continues? Have they no capacity for self-sacrifice for the
country? These questions will be asked by many people whenever
war work anywhere is checked in the least degree by workmen
dropping their tools.
"On the other hand, let us not be unjust to labor, for in the
American Army in France labor is represented by multitudes of
youth upon whose gallantry and steadiness all our hopes of
victory depend. No class here at home gives 100 per cent.
efficiency or commits itself to 100 per cent. of sacrifice in
the winning of the war. Why demand it of the wage earners or
the labor unions?
"Simply because of its organization and its machinery of
leadership, however, labor enjoys an exceptional opportunity to
contribute to the winning of the war. This is the first great
war in history in which labor has been organized into an
economic unit, and that is the reason for some special war
problems today which were never encountered by governments in
previous wars. But there can be gains even more than losses to
the national strength by reason of this organization, if the
opportunity be accepted to promote labor's contribution. This
is a task especially for the leadership of organized labor. It
is certainly no exaggeration to say that in no way can labor be
advantaged after the war so much as by the wholehearted
acceptance of its opportunity for loyal service to the nation
during the war. Let labor splendidly do its part in bringing
victory and its future influence will expand beyond the dreams
of its prophets....
"Labor and victory are inseparable; nay more, the one may
command the other, and thus it may control the fate of the
world."
INDUSTRIAL MEANING OF WAR
Mr. H. E. Coffin, Chairman of the Committee on Industrial Preparedness,
described the European War in its last analysis as a war of munitions, a
war of factories, of producing powers, of sweating men and women
workers. When the United States entered the war there were four main
things required of its government and its people, viz., ships, munitions
and materials of war, food and soldiers. It can be seen that three out
of these four factors are matters that belong to the economic history of
the war. Fortunately for our Government, it had the experience of
foreign countries to learn from, and learning was an essential part of
war preparation in spite of the resources in hand in the United States;
as Mr. Coffin said:
"A close observation of the experience in foreign countries has
shown us the vital necessity for a peace time prearrangement
for conversion in all industries. Wars, as now waged, involve
every human and material resource of a belligerent nation.
Every factory and every man, woman, and child are affected.
Every sinew of industry, of transportation, and of finance must
be harnessed in the country's service. In England two years and
a half ago there were three government arsenals. Today
thousands of England's industrial plants are being operated as
government factories for the production of war materials, and
many other thousands of plants, still under private control,
are centering their energies in this same direction.
"We have here in the United States vast resources in
manufacturing and producing equipment, but they are unorganized
and uneducated for the national service. Our observations of
the European War have taught us that it is upon organized
industry that we must base every plan of military defense. In
the event of trouble with any one of the several first-class
powers, between 80 and 90 per cent. of our industrial activity
would of necessity be centered upon the making of supplies for
the government. We have learned also that from one to two years
of time and of conscientious effort are needed to permit any
large manufacturing establishment to change over from its usual
peace-time commercial line to the quantity production of war
materials for which it has had no previous training."
In certain respects the position of the United States was unique, not
only because of its resources but because it was to a certain extent
self-dependent as a belligerent. England was able for some time to
import large quantities of munitions and supplies from other countries.
In the case of the United States when it entered the war, munition and
food supplies had to come from its own resources. Practically all of the
war materials had to be ultimately produced in the United States. Many
observers were optimistic because they had a sanguine opinion of the
efficiency presented by American industrial democracy. But efficiency
alone could not win the war. There were certain limitations to the
sphere of efficiency. This was pointed out by Mr. H. G. Moulton in an
address on "Industrial Conscription," delivered before the Western
Economic Society, at Chicago, in 1917:
"At this point it should be emphasized that the position of the
United States is unique, so far as the allied nations are
concerned. England, for instance, at the outbreak of the
conflict could import vast quantities of munitions and supplies
from other countries. England, therefore, had a fourth
alternative, one denied to us because the struggle is now
world-wide. All of the materials of war that we furnish must
come from the current energy of our own people. We must
ourselves produce these ships, munitions, food supplies, and
stocks in the coming months. There is no one else to do it for
us. In this connection I should like to emphasize with all the
power at my command the argument that we cannot by bond issues
shift the burdens of this war to future generations. The mere
fact that all of us--as represented by the government--borrow
from some of us--as represented by bond purchasers--does not
change the other essential fact that we, the people within this
country, must actually produce practically all the war
materials we are to have for use in the war.
"There is also much current discussion of the wonderful gains
that may be made through increasing efficiency. It is argued
that we should make our patriotic impulses the occasion for the
universal introduction of scientific management. It of course
goes without saying that we should do all that we possibly can
to further the improvement of industrial methods; and doubtless
something may be accomplished."
[Illustration: Forging Armor Plate
"Every man, in the draft age at least, must work or fight," said General
Crowder. And the workers were just as important a factor in winning the
war as the fighters. In the gigantic machine sketched above, ingots of
sixty and seventy tons were pressed into plates of any size and
thickness for use on our super dreadnoughts.]
LABOR DISLOCATION
It is estimated that about 35,000,000 men, women and children in the
United States do the country's work: dig its coal, raise its crops, run
its trains, build its roads, make its powder, turn out its munitions.
There was an increase each year of a million man-power through
immigration. The result of the war was that this source of supply was
cut off. What was the economic significance of this cutting off of
immigration? The immigrant was almost the only source of what we call
day labor--the men who do the building and repairing of railroads, the
mending of streets and roads, mining, and the rough work of steel mills
and other factories. Along with the cessation of immigration came the
withdrawal from labor power of two million men who were drawn into the
Army. These men, incidentally, became large consumers of goods rather
than normal producers of wealth. Some estimates were made that the
United States Government was using for war purposes about one-half of
the entire productive capacity of the country. These figures enable one
to gauge the industrial dislocation caused by the war. In matters
affecting the members of what might be called the labor army, which
still kept up the work of production, the Government laid great emphasis
on the need of securing industrial peace.
A Mediation Commission was appointed by the President to deal with
conditions of labor unrest. This Commission made a report early in 1918,
in which it spoke of the lack of knowledge on the part of Capital as to
Labor's feelings and needs and on the part of Labor as to problems of
management. The program outlined by the Commission was as follows:
"1. Modern large scale industry has effectually destroyed the
personal relation between employer and employee--the knowledge
and coöperation that come from personal contact. It is
therefore no longer possible to conduct industry by dealing
with employees as individuals. Some form of collective
relationship between management and men is indispensable. The
recognition of this principle by the government should form an
accepted part of the labor policy of the nation.
"2. Law, in business as elsewhere, depends for its vitality
upon steady employment. Instead of waiting for adjustment
after grievances come to the surface there is needed the
establishment of continuous administrative machinery for the
orderly disposition of industrial issues and the avoidance of
an atmosphere of contention and the waste of disturbances.
"3. The eight-hour day is an established policy of the country;
experience has proved justification of the principle also in
war times. Provision must of course be made for longer hours in
case of emergencies. Labor will readily meet this requirement
if its misuse is guarded against by appropriate overtime
payments.
"4. Unified direction of the labor administration of the United
States for the period of the war should be established. At
present there is an unrelated number of separate committees,
boards, agencies, and departments having fragmentary and
conflicting jurisdiction over the labor problems raised by the
war. A single-headed administration is needed, with full power
to determine and establish the necessary administrative
structure.
"5. When assured of sound labor conditions and effective means
for the just redress of grievances that may arise, Labor in its
turn should surrender all practices which tend to restrict
maximum efficiency.
"6. Uncorrected evils are the great provocative to extremist
propaganda, and their correction would be in itself the best
counter-propaganda. But there is need for more affirmative
education. There has been too little publicity of an educative
sort in regard to Labor's relation to the war. The purposes of
the government and the methods by which it is pursuing them
should be brought home to the fuller understanding of Labor.
Labor has most at stake in this war, and it will eagerly devote
its all if only it be treated with confidence and
understanding, subject neither to indulgence nor neglect, but
dealt with as a part of the citizenship of the state."
ADVISORY LABOR COUNCIL
In order to prevent lack of coördination in the government's handling of
the labor situation an advisory council was created to help the
Secretary of Labor to organize the new war work. The field of this
advisory council is indicated in a series of memoranda presented to him
in January, 1917.
"1. An Adjustment Service which will have to do with the
adjustment of industrial disputes according to policies and
principles arrived at through the deliberations of the War
Labor Conference Board.
"2. A Condition of Labor Service which will have charge of the
administration of conditions of labor within business plants.
"3. An Information and Education Service which will devote
itself to the establishment of sound sentiment among both
employers and employees and to the establishment in individual
plants of the local machinery (_e. g._, employment management)
and policies necessary for the successful operation of a
National Labor Program.
"4. A Woman in Industry Service which will meet the problems
connected with the more rapid introduction of women into
industry as a result of war conditions.
"5. A Training and Dilution Service which will administer such
training and dilution policies as may be agreed upon.
"6. A Housing and Transportation of Workers Service whose duty
it will be to provide the housing facilities to meet the
nation's needs.
"7. A Personnel Service whose duties it shall be to assemble
and classify information concerning appropriate candidates for
positions in the war-labor administration and make
recommendations for appointment.
"8. A Division for the Investigation of Special Problems which
would be a part of the Secretary's office force and would
conduct investigations in the placing of contracts, in priority
of labor demand, in powers of the Department, in problems of
reconstruction, and would assist in formulating the national
labor policy.
"9. An Investigation and Inspection Service to provide the
field force of examiners and inspectors required by the other
services."
After various stages of experience the War Industries Board secured
something more than an advisory position. This was done only after a
year of warfare. The final situation was explained by Mr. C. M.
Hitchcock in the _Journal of Political Economy_, June, 1918:
"When on March 4th of the present year the President appointed
Bernard M. Baruch Chairman of the War Industries Board and
defined his duties he did not, as certain press reports have
implied, create an industrial dictator. His action did clear
the way for Mr. Baruch's assumption of the duties of a director
of industrial war strategy, of an industrial Chief of
Staff--for the present position of the War Industries Board in
the American Government is comparable in its relation to
national industrial policy to nothing so much as the functions
of the General Staff of the Army in its jurisdiction over
military strategy. After a year of war the direction of
industrial policy is placed in single hands, and a central
planning board is established for dealing not only with the
problems of production and purchase but with the whole attitude
of the government toward the mobilization of business resources
for the prosecution of the war. Leadership has been focused and
an administrative channel opened for the inauguration of a
studied and inferentially constructive industrial policy.
"From the present trend of events the War Industries Board
promises to become the sole directing agency between the
government and industry. Backed by the power of the President
to commandeer, to withhold fuel, and in other ways to force the
halting into line, it can mold the country's industrial system
almost as it will--whether in organizing the nation for war or
in directing the lines along which it shall return to normal
conditions when peace comes. In a system of government such as
ours, where the responsibility for directing the war rests
almost exclusively in the hands of the President, and where his
power ultimately becomes almost absolute, the Board has been
shaped into a very potent instrument.
"Yet powerful as it may become, subject only to the
jurisdiction of the President, it is well to remember that in a
comprehensive national war plan it cannot stand alone. Its
policies must be subject to the administration's general
strategy in the war--for instance, to the amount of munitions
in comparison with the number of men or the amount of food that
it wishes to send abroad at any given time. The munitions
program and the conversion of industry to war purposes must be
governed by the ultimate end in view. In addition, one of the
great factors in production--the labor factor--is being
administered by another government agency, and it is obvious
that priority in the labor supply must go hand in hand with
priority in materials."
WORK OR FIGHT
Military men were as keen as business men in realizing the industrial
factor as a powerful contributory cause in winning the war. General
Crowder's famous "work or fight" alternative was a sufficient witness of
this fact. He said:
"Every man, in the draft age at least, must work or fight.
"This is not alone a war of military maneuvers. It is a deadly
contest of industries and mechanics. Germany must not be
thought of as merely possessing an army; we must think of her
as _being_ an army--an army in which every factory and loom in
the Empire is a recognized part in a complete machine running
night and day at terrific speed. We must make ourselves the
same sort of effective machine.
"We must make vast withdrawals for the Army and immediately
close up the ranks of industry behind the gap with an
accelerating production of every useful thing in necessary
measure. How is this to be done? The answer is plain. The first
step toward the solution of the difficulty is to prohibit
engagement by able-bodied men in the field of hurtful
employment, idleness, or ineffectual employment, and thus
induce and persuade the vast wasted excess into useful fields.
"One of the unanswerable criticisms of the draft has been that
it takes men from the farms and from all useful employments and
marches them past crowds of idlers and loafers away to the
Army. The remedy is simple--to couple the industrial basis with
other grounds for exemption and to require that any man
pleading exemption on any ground shall show that he is
contributing effectively to the industrial welfare of the
nation."
[Illustration: Building Howitzers
A nine-mile howitzer nearly ready for transportation. Beyond are seen
heavy armorplate turrets in the making. The small and large
manufacturers were given equal opportunity to obtain war business.]
Industrial preparation for war was guided by the principle of priority.
This is an old principle, but it began to be applied in unheard-of ways.
When an army is to be moved all means of transport in sight are
commandeered. When an army is to be fed, civilians protest in vain
against the seizure of stores. These practices were always features in
the history of warfare.
A novel factor in priority as applied during the present war was the
breadth of its scope.
"When the whole industry of a nation is mobilized behind the
fighting line, it is not merely finished munitions that must be
given priority in transportation, but also the materials and
fuel for further munitions production. The food supply of the
industrial population, as well as that of the army, has a claim
to priority. So also have clothing supplies, lumber for
housing, and whatever else is essential to working efficiency.
In production it would be impossible to fix definite limits
upon the application of the priority principle. We can not much
longer permit the free flotation of the securities of foreign
enterprises, nor even of the less essential domestic
enterprises, so long as national loans or issues designed to
finance railways or industrial enterprises of prime necessity
are to be floated. Modern warfare, in involving the whole
national life, has made inevitable a control of business
practically coextensive with the economic system.
"The application of the priority principle to transportation
and production is quite in accord with plain common sense. It
is none the less revolutionary in its social economic
implications. What it means is that necessities shall have
right of way. If we have excess productive capacity, the
unessentials and luxuries may be provided, but not otherwise.
And necessities are definable in terms that take account only
of physical requirements. There is no room in the definition
for class distinction. A new country house may seem a matter of
necessity to the man of fortune, but he will persuade no
priority board to permit shipment of building materials while
cars are needed for coal or wheat. Nor will he persuade them to
let him have lumber that could be used for ships or
workingmen's camps, or labor that could be employed to
advantage in production for more clearly national and
democratic needs."
WAR SUPPLIES
The United States, following the experience of other belligerents,
adopted the policy of decentralization in the production of war
supplies. A plan was worked out under which the small and large
manufacturer were given equal opportunity to obtain war business:
"Under the plan that has been worked out for bringing the
manufacturing resources of the country into more effective
coöperation with the government, the country is to be divided
into twenty industrial regions, with the following cities as
centers: Boston, Bridgeport, New York, Philadelphia,
Pittsburgh, Rochester, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Cincinnati,
Baltimore, Atlanta, Birmingham, Kansas City, St. Louis, Dallas,
Milwaukee, St. Paul, Seattle, San Francisco. The following plan
for effecting the organization is suggested by the officials in
charge:
"1. Organize through Chambers of Commerce and other business
associations Industrial Committees with the principal
industrial center as headquarters and such subdivisions as are
recommended by the business association of each district.
"2. Develop such organization in various classes of industry as
well as in area for greatest convenience, to get information of
all classes of products in and between regions.
"3. Having established such region and sub-region, through the
coöperation of the best business men in each district have a
survey of the industries recorded in the hands of the section
in Washington of the War Industries Board for information to
the various procurement sections of the government.
"4. Each region may have in Washington a representative who
through the Resources and Conversion Section of the War
Industries Board may keep in direct contact with his region and
be available to the governmental procurement divisions or the
War Industries Board for prompt action in giving data from his
region.
"The detailed form of organization suggested for each region
(subject, of course, to modifications as desired to meet the
needs of any region) is known as the Cleveland Plan, which has
been for some time in operation. Under this plan each region is
divided into eight sub-regions, an important industrial city in
each sub-region being designated as a center. Each sub-region
has a local War Industries Commission which coördinates all
industry within its territory. Within each sub-region
manufacturing is divided into the following classes: castings,
forgings and stampings; machinery and machine products; rubber
products; clay products, chemicals, oils, and paints; textiles
and clothing, wood and leather; engineering; automotive. Other
classifications may of course be added in important lines of
industry."
Such regional divisions were but one factor in industrial
administration. Government needs and labor shortage made imperative the
regulation of manufactures by the priority system.
[Illustration: Guns and Armaments for United States and Her Allies
Interior of one of the Bethlehem Steel Company's mills--among the
largest plants in the world for the production of munitions during the
War.]
THE PRIORITY SYSTEM
The actual working of the priority system is shown in the following
general classification of industry for the purpose of priority
treatment:
Ships--Including destroyers and submarine chasers.
Aircraft.
Munitions, Military and Naval Supplies and
Operations--Including building construction for government
needs and equipment for same.
Fuel--For domestic consumption, and for manufacturing
necessities named herein.
Food and Collateral Industries--(_a_) Foodstuffs for human
consumption, and plants handling same.
(_b_) Feeding stuffs for domestic fowls and animals, and plants
handling same.
(_c_) All tools, utensils, implements, machinery, and equipment
required for production, harvesting and distribution, milling,
preparing, canning and refining foods and feeds such as seeds
of foods, and feeds, binder twine, etc.
(_d_) Products of collateral industries, such as fertilizer,
fertilizer ingredients, insecticides and fungicides, containers
for foods and feeds, collateral products.
(_e_) Materials and equipment for preservation of foods, and
feeds, such as ammonia and other refrigeration supplies,
including ice.
Clothing--For civilian population.
Railroad--Or other necessary transportation equipment,
including water transportation.
Public Utilities--Serving war industries, Army, Navy, and
civilian population."
But the perplexity of applying this system to such a question as fuel
administration is shown in the following list taken from one of the
trade publications of the Administration for April, 1918:
"The Fuel Administration has therefore arranged the following
list of preferred industries:
Aircraft--Plants engaged exclusively in manufacturing aircraft
or supplies and equipment therefor.
Ammunition--Plants engaged in the manufacture of ammunition for
the United States Government and the Allies.
Arms (small)--Plants engaged in manufacturing small arms for
the United States Government and the Allies.
Army and Navy cantonments and camps.
Chemicals--Plants engaged exclusively in manufacturing chemicals.
Coke plants.
Domestic consumers.
Electrical equipment--Plants manufacturing same.
Electrodes--Plants producing electrodes.
Explosives--Plants manufacturing explosives.
Farm implements--Manufacturers exclusively of agricultural
implements and farm-operating Equipment.
Feed--Plants producing feed.
Ferro-alloys--Plants producing same.
Fertilizers--Manufacturers of fertilizers.
Fire brick--Plants producing same exclusively.
Food--Plants manufacturing, milling, preparing, refining,
preserving, and wholesaling food for human consumption.
Food containers--Manufacturers of tin and glass containers and
manufacturers exclusively of other food containers.
Gas--Gas-producing plants.
Guns (large)--Plants manufacturing same.
Hemp, jute, and cotton bags--Plants manufacturing exclusively
hemp, jute, and cotton bags.
Insecticides--Manufacturers exclusively of insecticides and
fungicides.
Iron and steel--Blast furnaces and foundries.
Laundries.
Machine tools--Plants manufacturing machine tools.
Mines.
Mines--Plants engaged exclusively in manufacturing mining tools
and equipment.
Newspapers and periodicals--Plants printing and publishing
exclusively newspapers and periodicals.
Oil--Refineries of both mineral and vegetable oils.
Oil production--Plants manufacturing exclusively oil-well
equipment.
Public institutions and buildings.
Public utilities.
Railways--Plants manufacturing locomotives, freight cars and
rails, and other plants engaged exclusively in manufacture of
railway supplies.
Refrigeration--Refrigeration for food and exclusive
ice-producing plants.
Seeds--Producers or wholesalers of seeds (except flower seeds).
Ships (bunker coal)--Not including pleasure craft.
Ships--Plants engaged exclusively in building ships (not
including pleasure craft) or in manufacturing exclusively
supplies and equipment therefor.
Soap--Manufacturers of soap.
Steel--Steel plants and rolling mills.
Tanners--Tanning plants, save for patent leather.
Tanning extracts--Plants manufacturing tanning extracts.
Tin plate--Manufacturers of tin plate.
Twine (binder) and rope--Plants producing exclusively binder
twine and rope.
CIVIL WAR CONDITIONS
During the war period labor was much better off than during the Civil
War epoch. The New York _World_ presented the following table from the
_Merchants' Magazine_ of December, 1864, showing the rise of prices
during the Civil War era:
_1862_ _1864_
Copper, 100 lbs $22.00 @ $25.00 $41.00 @ $42.00
Coal, ton 4.50 @ 5.00 9.00 @ 10.00
Iron, pig 21.00 @ 25.00 48.00 @ 49.00
Lead, 100 lbs 6.50 @ 6.75 11.75 @ 12.00
Nails, 100 lbs 3.25 @ 3.75 6.00 @ 6.25
Ashes, pot bbl 5.50 @ 5.75 8.75 @ 8.87
Dry cod, cwt 3.37 @ 4.25 6.50 @ 7.00
Flour, bbl 4.50 @ 5.60 7.30 @ 7.35
Corn, 100 bush 58.50 @ 60.00 131.00 @ 134.00
Hay, 100 lbs .80 @ .85 1.35 @ 1.40
Wheat, bush 1.30 @ 1.45 1.63 @ 1.65
Hemp, cwt 10.00 @ 11.25 14.00 @ 16.12
Barley, bush .85 @ 1.00 1.35 @ 1.50
Oats, bush .37 @ .39 .90 @ .91
Hops, 100 lbs 14.00 @ 20.00 26.00 @ 33.00
Clover seed, 100 lbs 7.50 @ 7.75 12.50 @ 13.50
Lime, bbl .60 @ .65 1.25 @ 1.35
Oil, whale, gal .25 @ .35 .58 @ .60
Oil, coal, gal .48 @ .57 1.10 @ 1.12
Pork, bbl 13.25 @ 13.75 21.75 @ 23.50
Beef, bbl 5.50 @ 8.00 10.00 @ 15.00
Lard, 100 lbs 7.50 @ 8.25 13.59 @ 14.00
Whisky, 100 gals 25.00 @ 25.50 89.00 @ 91.00
Tallow, 100 lbs 8.75 @ 9.00 12.62 @ 12.75
Whalebone, 100 lbs 68.00 @ 70.00 150.00 @ 155.00
Wool, fleece, 100 lbs 52.00 @ 53.00 78.00 @ 82.00
Wool, pl'd, 100 lbs 44.00 @ 45.00 70.00 @ 75.00
Butter, 100 lbs 16.00 @ 21.00 36.00 @ 37.00
Cheese, 100 lbs 5.00 @ 7.00 15.00 @ 18.00
"Wheat flour, one of the prime necessities, 'was at no time
during the Civil War above $7.35 per barrel, which is somewhat
less than four cents per pound,' while at the present time it
is seven cents per pound, 'or close to 100 per cent. higher
than the top notch of the '60s.' Lard has already advanced
about 100 per cent., while its greatest advance during the
Civil War was 75 per cent.
"'The present-day advance in the price of clothing in general
has not been proportionate with the advance of foodstuffs,
though it has been considerable, especially as to the cheaper
grades. Cotton shirts that sold for 48 cents in 1913 are now
bringing 90 cents to $1. Cheap hosiery has also about doubled
in value. Suits that formerly sold for $15 are now bringing
$17, which is about 10 per cent. advance. Cotton goods during
the Civil War were exceptionally high, owing to the difficulty
of procuring the staple. After the stocks on hand at the
beginning of the war were exhausted, New England mills shut
down because of inability to get supplies. In 1864 raw cotton
ruled at 72 cents per pound, while at one time it touched
$1.90. Cotton goods of all kinds were therefore extraordinarily
high.'
[Illustration: Plowing by Night
The number of men drawn from Great Britain into the army and navy during
the war was about 5,000,000. This meant extraordinary efforts of
production were necessary on the part of those who were left behind. By
means of a motor tractor and an acetylene gas generator, the owner of
the farm shown above was able to run day and night shifts.
Copyright Underwood & Underwood]
"The public spirit manifested at present is much more admirable
than that displayed in the '60s, as shown by the following
first-hand description of life in those days, as compared with
what we see on every hand today. Said the New York
_Independent_ of June 25, 1864:
"'Who at the North would ever think of war if he had not a
friend in the army or did not read the newspapers? Go into
Broadway and we will show you what is meant by the word
"extravagance." Ask Stewart about the demand for camel's-hair
shawls and he will say "monstrous." Ask Tiffany what kind of
diamonds and pearls are called for. He will answer "the
prodigious, as near hen's-egg size as possible, price no
object." What kind of carpetings are now wanted? None but
"extra." Brussels and velvets are now used from basement to
garret. Ingrains and three-plys won't do at all.
"'Call a moment at a carriage repository. In reply to your
first question you will be told, "Never such a demand before,
sir." And as for horses, the medium-priced $500 kind are all
out of the market. A good pair of fast ones, "all right," will
go for $1,000 sooner than a basket of strawberries will sell
for four cents. Those a "little extra" will bring $1,500 to
$2,000, while the "superb" 2.40 sort will bring any price among
the high numbers.'"
GREAT BRITAIN'S PRODUCTIVE POWER
To appreciate what industrial mobilization meant in England the best
method is to start with the figures on national production taken from
the British census of 1907, the last accessible for the peace period:
In 1907 the British people are
estimated to have produced
goods to the total amount of,
roughly $10,000,000,000
The nation consumed during that
year in personal consumption 7,050,000,000
It spent on capital purposes at
home:
(_a_) On betterment of its national
plant 950,000,000
(_b_) On maintenance of its national
plant 900,000,000
It used up goods to the value of
(in keeping up and probably increasing
its stocks of material
on hand) 325,000,000
It exported goods in the form of
loans to foreign countries of
about 500,000,000
By 1914 the British Empire had probably advanced its income to at least
$12,500,000,000; and the surplus of goods which it had to export as
loans to foreign countries seems to have increased from about
$500,000,000 to $1,000,000,000. What happened in war-time? First of all
there was an unprecedented manufacture of munitions and war supplies.
This production was needed not only for Great Britain, but also for her
Allies. Seven-tenths of what was produced in Great Britain in the year
1907 was immediately used up in the form of personal consumption by its
population; accordingly war industrial activities meant either that
British production must be increased or British consumption reduced, or
that more goods must be bought from foreign countries through the sale
of British liquid capital assets.
First of all, consumption was cut down; in detail, this was accomplished
in the following ways: 1. By cutting down all normal additions to
England's national plant, _i. e._, by building no more houses,
factories, railways, roads, etc., except for purely war purposes. This
expenditure in 1907 amounted to about $950,000,000. 2. By cutting down
and ceasing as far as possible to spend money on the maintenance of this
national plant, except the minimum required to keep it running. This
expenditure in 1907 amounted to $900,000,000. 3. Most important of all,
by cutting down civil personal expenditure. This was so far the largest
item of consumption that it was here that the most important savings
were made.
A WHOLE POPULATION AT WORK
In England the total number of "occupied males" between the ages of 18
and 44, _i. e._, roughly, the conscription age was, in 1911, 7,200,000.
The number of men from the United Kingdom in the Army and Navy amounted
to over 5,000,000; therefore, out of every seven of these men, on the
average five were soldiers or sailors. These men were lost from the
productive capacity of the nation. It is obvious that if English
production remained the same, or increased, it must have been the result
of extraordinary efforts on the part of the small percentage of occupied
males of fighting age left, on the part of all the other males occupied
or formerly occupied, and on the part of all females.
Mr. R. H. Brand, in discussing the situation in 1918, said:
"Notwithstanding the great difficulties, I think it is probable
that our production is quite as great as before. Measured in
money, and owing to the rise of prices, it would probably be
much greater. This is due to the fact that the whole
population, practically speaking, has been working, and working
intensely. Millions of women who have not worked before are
working now. No one is idle. Every acre of land or garden that
can be used is being used. Methods of production have been
speeded up, labor-saving machinery in industry and agriculture
multiplied. In every direction the wheels have been turning
faster.
"But, perhaps more important still, the _character_ of our
production has entirely changed--almost our entire industry is
producing for war purposes. Ordinary civil needs are no longer
considered. We have of course to produce what is essential for
life, but beyond that all our energies are directed to war
production. The government has of necessity compelled the whole
of British industry to produce for war and to produce what it
is told to produce, because in no other way could our own
armies and our Allies have been supplied. No man is free to do
what he likes with his labor and capital, with his ships, or
with his steel. He has to do what he is told to do. By this
means production for war purposes has enormously increased, and
civil consumption has enormously decreased, because the goods
for the civil population were no longer produced and one cannot
buy what isn't there. Instead of gramophones, the gramophone
company makes fuses; instead of cloth for ordinary clothes, the
woolen factory makes khaki; instead of motor cars, the
motor-car maker makes shells.
BRITISH INDUSTRY ON WAR BASIS.
"Apart from selling our liquid capital assets in return for
foreign goods, and apart from borrowing from foreign countries
for the same purpose, our power to provide our own army and
navy with all they want and have any surplus over for our
Allies has indeed depended entirely on our extraordinary
efforts in production--not in normal production, but in war
production--and also on the extent to which we have been able
to reduce our civil consumption of all kinds. I put production
first because, while economy in consumption is exceedingly
important, increased productive capacity devoted to war
material, in my opinion, is still more important. Our increased
productivity has, as I say, been devoted entirely to war
requirements. We have had to turn over our whole industry from
a peace to a war basis. We have both voluntarily and
compulsorily cut off the production of goods which are
unnecessary for war purposes. Many trades have been actually
shut down and the labor taken from them and handed over to war
industries. Labor itself has been subjected to restrictions
which would have been wholly impossible before the war. Labor
may not leave its employment without government leave; salaries
and wages may not be increased without government approval.
Measures for the control of industry which were unheard of and,
in fact, absolutely impossible before the war have been imposed
upon all industry.
"Fixed prices had been placed on the most important materials;
the government now has the absolute control of the use of
steel, copper, lead, wool, leather, and other materials for
which the war demand is insatiable, and also of all materials
manufactured therefrom. No use may be made of most of these
materials for any purpose whatever without a certificate being
first obtained, no buildings of any kind may be erected without
leave of the Ministry of Munitions. The whole of industry may
now be said to be directed according to the requirements of the
government, its regulation is an enormous task. In the head
office of the Ministry of Munitions alone there are more than
10,000 people.
Mr. R. H. Brand, who is responsible for these statements and used them
in an address to the American Bankers' Association, showed how these
regulations had resulted in a decline of British imports from peace
conditions of 55,000,000 tons annually to war conditions of 20,000,000
tons. The imports were nearly all foodstuffs. England exported large
amounts of munitions and supplies to her Allies. In the year 1916 alone
we supplied them with 9,000,000 pairs of boots, 100,000,000 sand bags,
40,000,000 yards of jute, millions of socks and blankets, and in
addition several thousand tons of leather; also cloth, foodstuffs of
every kind, portable houses, tools, hospital equipment and so on.
LABOR POWER IN ENGLAND
Mr. Lloyd George became the man naturally selected to be Prime Minister
because of his success in directing one of the chief war industries--the
work of munitions. In May, 1915, when he was made head of the newly
created Department of Munitions, the problem before him was no easy one.
The Central Empires were able to turn out 250,000 shells a day, while
the British rate of production was 2,500 high-explosive shells a day,
and 13,000 shrapnel shells. Lloyd George selected a large technical
staff; the work was decentralized as much as possible, and special
committees were formed for the purpose of organizing the work in each
district. The question of raw materials had to be handled and this was
not always easy because there were unscrupulous suppliers trying to make
a corner in their goods. New machinery had to be made for the
manufacture of large shells; all the big machine works were taken under
direct control by the Government. Old factories had to be equipped and
altered and twenty-six large plants had to be created. To provide the
labor power, workmen were recruited by voluntary methods. A hundred
thousand were in this way got together by July, 1915, most of whom were
experts in machinery and ship-building. The result is pictured in the
following extract by a French expert, Jules Destrée:
"On the 20th of December, 1915, Mr. Lloyd George, in a speech
delivered in the House of Commons, summarized the results of
the first six months of his tenure of office. We will take a
few points.
"Orders placed before the formation of the department were
delivered with an increase of 16 per cent. on previous
deliveries. The number of new orders placed increased by 80 per
cent.
"The state regulation of the metal market resulted in a saving
of from 15 to 20 million pounds sterling.
"The present output of shells for a single week is three times
as great as the entire output for May, 1915, which means that
the rate of production is twelve times as great.
"The enormous quantity of shells consumed during the offensive
of September, 1915, was made good in a month. The time will
soon come when a week will suffice.
"The output of machine guns is five times as great; that of
hand grenades is increased forty fold.
"The production of heavy artillery has been accelerated, and
the heaviest guns of the early days of the war are now among
the lightest.
"An explosive factory in the south of England, which on October
15, 1915, started to fill bombs at the rate of 500 a week with
a staff of 60, was in March, 1916, turning out 15,000 a week
with a staff of 250.
"An entirely new factory which started work at the end of
October, 1915, with one filling shed and six girl fillers and
an output of 270 a week, was in March, 1916, employing 175
girls and handling 15,000 bombs a week.
"The Ministry of Munitions has built, or is building, housing
accommodation for 60,000 workers, and canteens and mess rooms
in munition works now give accommodation for 500,000 workers a
day.
"All the workmen were assigned either to the works already in
existence--which in many cases were short of hands and unable
for this reason to fulfill their contracts--or else they were
allotted to the new factories.
"But in view of influence wielded by the labor unions, various
provisions were inserted in the Munitions Act. They related to
the settlement of labor disputes and to the prohibition of
strikes and lockouts the grounds for which had not been
submitted to the Board of Trade.
"To obviate such disputes, which were generally called forth by
the excessive profits accruing to the employers and the demands
of the wage-earners, the system of 'controlled establishments'
was instituted. Every establishment engaged on munition work
was placed, so far as the regulation of profits and salaries
was concerned, under direct government control. Any
modification in the rate of wages had to be submitted to the
Ministry of Munitions, which had power to refer the question to
an arbitration board specially set up by the act.
"To complete this rapid survey it must be added that a
department was created by the Ministry of Munitions, under the
control of an undersecretary, whose special business it was to
examine war inventions."
INDUSTRIAL DISLOCATION IN FRANCE
When war was declared in 1914, the result in France was a complete
disorganization. It must be remembered that workingmen from the age of
19 to 45 were called to the colors. This meant that the labor supply was
reduced by about three-fourths. The revival of trade was very slow until
the beginning of 1915. When it began to be realized that the war would
be a long one, and when the consumption of ammunition and war materials
was beyond all previous records, the Government was forced to prepare a
program for industrial warfare. It was a hard task because much of
industrial France was under enemy occupation. Munition work had to be
undertaken in neighborhoods largely agricultural. Everything was
lacking: labor, coal, raw material and transportation. As it became
evident that the stoppage of industrial work was a serious mistake, an
attempt was made to revive industries not connected with munitions, such
as paper manufacture, glove and silk making. The operations undertaken
by the Government are described in the following passage from M. R.
Blanchard's article in the _North American Review_ (1917):
"The first was to take men out of the army and send them to
industrial work. This was done with great caution during the
winter of 1914--15. The proportion of the men thus taken
increased more and more during the year 1915 and reached its
fullest extent in 1916. The specialists in steel work were the
first to be taken out of the trenches; these were far from
being sufficient, and common workmen were added to them. Then
chemists and workmen trained in the manufacture of explosives
were recalled; electric engineers were sent back to the
hydro-electric plants; miners above thirty-five years of age
who belonged to the territorial regiments were sent to the
mines; paper-makers and cardboard-makers who could be employed
in the preparation of explosives were put to work;
cabinet-makers were put to manufacturing rifle stocks;
wood-cutters were brought back from the front in order to see
that there was no waste in providing the enormous amount of
wood needed in the army. All this recalling of mobilized men
was effected at first according to the need, and without
method. By degrees it became clear that the output would be
greater if these soldier-workmen were assigned to the plants or
factories where they were working before the war. As it would
have been unwise to take too large a number of men out of the
fighting units, hundreds of thousands were taken from the
auxiliary troops of the interior, men who through lack of
physical ability to fight were employed in sedentary tasks.
Thus in 1915 and 1916 auxiliaries were swept away to become
workmen, foremen, secretaries, bookkeepers, accountants, etc.
Finally the administration decided to draw from the oldest
classes of men still under the military law. These were called
in 1915 and sent to the factories--men born in 1868, either
bachelors or married men without children.
"Another draft was made on the civil population. To make up for
the absence of male help, women were called upon for a great
number of occupations. Along with the women the refugees were
to do their part. After a rather long period of unsettled life
these refugees took again to regular occupations, some working
in the fields as agricultural hands, others in factories. Today
it is difficult to find unemployed people among them.
"The alien population for France is also large, considerable
numbers of Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese being employed
in the southeastern region. A newer element was provided by
natives from French colonies, namely, Morocco and Algeria.
Since the war started large numbers of Greeks and Armenians had
been imported into France; and during the last two years
something like 200,000 Chinamen had been brought to France for
unskilled work. The last resource was the enemy itself. There
were in France more than 250,000 German prisoners engaged in
various work and receiving a salary for it."
Germany's industrial mobilization was picturesquely described by the
head of the General Electric Co., Dr. Walter Rathenau, who was appointed
at the beginning of the war to superintend the supplying of the German
War Office with raw materials. He told the officials at the War Office
that Germany was provided with more war materials only for a limited
number of months. Accurate statistics were prepared in a short time on
the power of production in various German industries. Then all the raw
material was put where it could be commandeered. The flow of products
was restricted, so that the raw material and also half manufactured
products could be automatically diverted to articles needed by the Army.
New methods were discovered and developed. Where former technical means
were insufficient substitutes had to be found. Where it was prescribed
that this or that article was to be made out of copper or aluminum, it
was permitted to make it out of something else. All the laboring power
of the country, including men from 16 to 60, were enrolled and
controlled from the central organization called the War Office,
described by General Gröner as follows:
"The new War Office represents Germany as a colossal firm which
includes all production of every kind and is indifferent to the
kind of coat, civil or military, which its employes wear. The
new measures are intended to mobilize all effective labor,
whereas up to the present we have only mobilized the army and
industry. The whole war is becoming more and more a question of
labor, and in order to give the army a firm basis for its
operations the domestic army must also be mobilized. All the
labor, women's as well as men's, must be extracted from the
population, so far as possible voluntarily. But if voluntary
enlistment does not suffice we shall not be able to avoid the
introduction of compulsion."
THE GERMAN NATION IN ARMS
Sixteen months after this war organization was effected, General
Ludendorff said that when the great spring offensive of 1918 opened the
Germans were superior to the Allies in every form of war supplies. There
was a speeding up all round; the output of shells and cannon was double.
This meant the doubling of the coal and iron production, and could be
done only by increasing the workers necessary to double the output of
basic war materials. Adequate food had to be supplied to the workers;
there was what is known as the Hindenburg "Fat Fund" to which
contributions were sent in from German peasantry and agriculturists.
General Gröner, the head of the German War Office, outlined
optimistically the future of German war industrial production as quoted
in the New York _Times_ of December 14, 1916:
[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson
A War Time Warning
Dairy production among the Allies decreased 30 per cent. during the war.
The lard supply was also decreased. Kitchen economy in fats was never
more important. Fats were so scarce in Germany during the latter part of
1917 that a "Hindenburg Fat Fund" was organized to which contributions
were sent in from German peasantry and agriculturists.]
"German locomotives are running to the Taurus in Asia Minor; we
are operating practically all the Serbian railways with German
rolling stock; we have thousands of cars in Transylvania and
Rumania, to say nothing of other occupied territories. After
the transportation problem, we are taking measures to double
the production of the auxiliary raw materials and semi-finished
products. As one example, we are doubling our efforts for the
manufacture of nitres from the nitrogen of the air. Not only of
the basic raw materials, coal and iron, but of auxiliary raw
materials we have no lack.
"The brains of our chemists and technicians are supplying the
missing imports, and will continue to do so. Only when we have
accomplished all this will we proceed to the last step of
doubling the production of shells and cannon. Such a war is not
to be won by looking ahead from month to month, but only by
thinking of the distant future. After we have doubled the
pyramid, we shall proceed to treble it.
"By spring we shall be going full steam ahead. After that our
production will increase from month to month; and we have the
labor and raw materials for keeping up the pace indefinitely.
"The male working forces available between the ages of
seventeen and sixty, as provided by the Auxiliary Service Law,
will cover our requirements into the distant future, but
ultimately, aside from the children, aged and sick, every man
and woman will be enlisted for home defense, if necessary. The
home army will be the whole nation.
"What we are engaging on is not alone the progressive
mobilization of all the nation's physical strength and material
resources, but the mobilization of the nation's brains. An army
corps of professors, scientists, chemists, engineers,
technicians, and other specialists is already working with the
Kriegstaat. Our idea is to be eminently scientific and
practical--no theorizing. We are working to show results.
"We are coöperating closely with the war industries of Turkey,
Bulgaria, and Austria. It means doubling and trebling their
ammunition supply, too.
"The military successes achieved in Rumania, which synchronize
with the birth of patriotic auxiliary service, are an advantage
that cannot be overestimated. The Danube means everything to
us. Last year we had to beg Rumania for her oil and grain and
pay our good money for it too. Now we don't need to beg costly
favors of Rumania.
"Lloyd George does not scare us. We have, however, not time for
busying ourselves with politics; we have more important things
to do--supplying Hindenburg with the means of victory."
RUSSIA'S INDUSTRIAL MOBILIZATION
In Russia industrial mobilization was badly managed. Cattle were taken
to the front in herds. Often driven on foot, they were slaughtered on
the spot where the meat was needed for the soldiers. The hides were
thrown aside to rot. As a result of this wasting of hides, the supply of
leather for military uses and for shoes for both the Army and the
civilian population was soon utterly inadequate. Horses were
requisitioned in the most unintelligent way, the result being that
agricultural production decreased and with the lack of transportation
facilities the Army horses could not be supplied with food. They died by
the tens of thousands.
Gross mismanagement marked the war handling of the Russian railway
system. The rolling stock was allowed to deteriorate. Locomotives and
cars were put aside permanently when they needed slight repairs. They
could not be repaired because the railway machine shops had been
converted into munition factories. There was an appalling shortage of
manufactured goods for the civilian population, because the entire
output of many manufacturing concerns was taken over for the Army. It
was almost impossible to get clothing, boots and articles of wearing
apparel. So great was the dearth of cloth at the end of the third year
of the war that one was struck by the contrast between the lines in
front of the bakeries formed in the early morning hours and the groups
of women gathered at eight in the evening before the shops which sold
cloth to stand all through the night in line for the opening of the shop
in the morning.
A bright spot in Russian war administration was the work of the
Municipal and Provincial Councils. The members of these bodies did
valiant service in preventing the growing disorganization of the
economic life of their country. Their activities are described by Prof.
Harper of Chicago University, an actual eye witness of Russian
conditions during the war, in the following passage:
"So these organizations entered upon a campaign of 'saving' and
'production.' They saved the hides that were being thrown away,
collected the discarded boots at the front and repaired them,
and took over the task of supplying the underwear for the whole
army--mobilizing the village coöperative societies to fill the
large orders. And they did much to organize the refugees from
the invaded districts for productive work. In a word, these men
saw that the war was going to extend into years, and they
realized that only foresight and organization of productive
resources would make it possible for Russia to withstand
economically the burdens of a protracted struggle.
"The attitude of the governmental authorities (the bureaucratic
departments) toward the work of these non-bureaucratic, but
public, institutions (the Unions of the Municipal and
Provincial Councils) was one of suspicion and antagonism, and
difficulties were put in their way with the deliberate intent
to block their activities. The institutions were suspected of
pursuing political aims. Only when it became clear that the
ruling group in the bureaucracy was consciously allowing the
country to drift into a state of anarchy in order to bring
Russia out of the war did these leaders venture to risk
revolutionary methods of action.
"The president of the All-Russian Union of Provincial Councils,
the Zemstvo, was Prince Lvoff, the first Prime Minister of the
new Russia after the revolution of March, 1917. In the monthly
reports of the work of the All-Russian Union of Zemstva, Prince
Lvoff, repeatedly issued warnings of the impending economic
collapse of the country. But neither he nor Kerensky was able
to liquidate the heritage received from the old régime in time
to stave off the series of economic and financial crises of
which the Bolsheviki availed themselves."
FOREBODINGS OF RUSSIA'S COLLAPSE
But it was not only foreign observers who were able to detect the
prevailing rottenness in Russia's economic status. The following passage
from an address made by A. I. Konovalov, a member of the Moscow Stock
Exchange, shows that Russian business men were keenly alive to the
dangers of the situation as early as April, 1917:
"The old régime has seemingly done everything deliberately to
destroy and demoralize the trade-industrial apparatus it took
years to build up. As a result the usual course of the
country's economic life was stopped, and at the same time,
through the peculiarly enforced system of regulations, a wide
field for all sorts of abuses and speculations was opened. We
must frankly acknowledge that from these abuses and
speculations a system of oppression grew up which has called
forth fully merited reproach, distrust, and hostile feelings
towards the representatives of the trade-industrial class.
"At the same time there can be no doubt but that under present
circumstances, lacking most of the necessaries of existence,
with the factories and mills forced to cut down their
production due to lack of raw material and fuel, with the
demoralization of the transportation system, and being
compelled, despite all these obstacles, to meet the numerous
requirements at the front--there is no other way out but
government control of private industrial and mercantile
enterprises, and the coöperation of the democratic masses of
the population in the matter of regulating the trade-industrial
life of the country. In addition to fair distribution it should
be the task of all the committees, which are to become parts of
the Ministry, also to regulate the prices.
"Closely connected with this question there is another one
which I personally consider of tremendous importance. I have in
mind the question of limiting the profits of all mercantile and
industrial establishments. Undoubtedly a properly worked-out
solution of this question would have the tendency to check the
unwarranted growth of prices that would appease the masses. The
normal effect of a decree limiting profits is of tremendous
importance, not only in that it would soften the feeling of
ill-will towards the trade-industrial class, but also because
it would afford the government a new, convincing proof that the
commercial and industrial class is ready to make all possible
sacrifices for the common good, a proof which would paralyze
the voicing of any new demands on the part of the masses.
"Now, these are the main ideas, the fundamental points of view
which the trade-industrial class should consider as a starting
point in its efforts to win the confidence of the population
and to safeguard that important position which it ought to
occupy in the life of the country.
"The situation is becoming all the more difficult because of
the ever-increasing famine due to the shortage of means of
production as well as of all the necessaries of life; this
famine will be felt very acutely, not only on account of the
lack of these goods, but also because of the overabundance of
paper money."
LABOR TRADITIONS UPSET
All kinds of economic theories and all varieties of economic experiences
have been overturned by the abnormal industrialism of the war. The world
really passed into a _terra incognita_. Even the firmest foundations of
trade unionism have been shaken. There was no more firmly established
fact before the war than the inability of women to secure a level of
wages equal to that of the male wage earner. Such theories have passed
to the limbo of forgotten things. Prejudice and tradition have given
away before the actual test of facts. Women have taken the place of men
called away to war service in practically all the fields of industrial
activity. Apart from theory, biological and otherwise, it is now seen
that the old exclusion of women from skilled industry was largely the
result of trade union regulation. But the woman war-worker was found in
fields untouched by trade unionism. There was the woman bank clerk as
well as the woman engineer.
There was much discussion, mostly pessimistic, as to what would happen
if the woman labor supply should permanently take the place of man labor
after the war was over. The best solution was thought to be the placing
of the woman worker under a régime of trade unionism. How far such
prognostications went is illustrated in the following quotation from
Miss Mary Stocks in the London _Athenaeum_.
"It has been presupposed that the war will end decisively
before the armies engaged are reduced to inappreciable numbers
of able-bodied men. It has been presupposed that the return of
peace will find British industry based upon the old system of
private ownership of capital and haphazard production in
response to the effective demand of individuals. It presupposes
no change of heart on the part of employers, government or
trade unions. But, in view of possible, if not probable
dangers, the most urgent stress should be laid upon what is an
undoubted palliative, if not a fundamental cure for such
prospective economic ills; that is, the strenuous promotion and
public encouragement of trade unionism among women. What women,
by reason of underlying social and economic causes, are not
able to do for themselves, the moral and financial support of
the public must do for them, and such support should be
regarded not merely as an interference in the old struggle
between capital and labor, but as an attempt to ward off a
national danger.
"The root of the evil is the old incompatibility between male
and female labor in the skilled and semi-skilled grades of
industry. That incompatibility has arisen partly from
fallacious theorizing of the 'wages-fund' type, but largely
from the fact that the industrial woman, in spite of the uphill
and often successful trade union work which has been
accomplished, mainly from above, during the past forty years,
is regarded by her male colleague as nature's blackleg. And in
spite of the short-sighted policy of hostility to women members
displayed by a few trade unions, it is fairly clear that it is
not the woman trade unionist that the man is afraid of, but the
woman blackleg; not the well-paid woman, but the sweated woman.
Now there are three ways of dealing with a blackleg: he may be
elbowed out of the industrial world altogether; he may be
penned up, as women have been penned up, in the lowest and most
undesirable grades; or he may be turned into a trade unionist.
As far as women are concerned, the first two are closed by
national expediency, humanity and justice. The third lies open;
and in view of the peculiar economic rocks which loom vaguely
ahead of us, it may be said without exaggeration that one woman
trade-union leader is worth a hundred welfare workers."
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
Women Workers in America
A field of winter lettuce, with the cloches, or glass bells, which made
it possible during the war to raise plants in cold weather.]
WOMEN WORKERS IN AMERICA
As a result of the labor dislocation due to the operation of the
American Draft Law, a large number of women were employed in railway
work. The experience of the United States Railroad Administration in the
matter of women employes was summarized in a paper read by Miss Pauline
Goldmark, manager of the women's service section of the Railroad
Administration, at a conference at the Academy of Political Science, in
1918:
"The number of women employed on the railroads of the United
States had been 60,000 at the beginning of the year, and
reached approximately 100,000 by October 1st. The greatest
number are in the clerical and semi-clerical occupations. Of
the 81,000 employed July 1st, 61,000 were working as clerks of
all kinds, stenographers, accountants, comptometer operators,
etc. In this class appear women ticket sellers and bureau of
information clerks, who served the public for the first time;
they were found well fitted for this type of work, and special
instruction agencies were opened by the government in various
states to train them in the intricacies of tariffs and routes.
"The next largest group of 4,000, it is not surprising to
learn, appears in women's time-honored occupation of cleaning.
Women have long been cleaning stations, offices, etc., but now
they are employed in the yards to clean coaches and Pullmans,
both inside and outside; and in the roundhouses, doing the
heavier work of wiping locomotives; 800 were so employed. In
personal service, including work in dining rooms and kitchens,
as matrons and janitresses, 2,000 were found. In the railroad
shops, women entered the greatest variety of new occupations.
Three thousand were employed, ranging at one end of the scale
from common laborers, at the other end of the scale of skilled
mechanics earning the machinists' or carmen's rate of pay.
"Many women were employed a year and a half ago, before the
railroads were put under Federal control, because they could be
obtained for less pay than men. They were, for instance,
engaged as common laborers at 20¢ to 22¢ an hour, at a time
when men were receiving 28¢ to 30¢ for the same class of
labor. With rare exceptions where adjustments are still
necessary, the wage orders have absolutely stopped this
undercutting of men's wages by women.
WORK UNSUITABLE FOR WOMEN
"Soon after women began to be largely employed it became
apparent that some of their work was neither profitable nor
appropriate. The use of women as section laborers, for
instance, in a gang of men working along the tracks at a
distance from any house or station was judged to be unsuitable.
This was also found to be the case where women were employed as
truckers in depots and warehouses on account of the
extraordinary physical exertion required of them. In view of
the wages now paid it was believed possible to secure men and
to transfer the women to some class of work suitable to their
strength and with proper regard to their health. The railroads
were accordingly asked to discontinue their employment in both
these positions.
"Comparisons with other industries can probably best be made in
respect to the women employed in the shops. They are operating
a number of machines such as bolt-threaders, nut-tappers, drill
presses, for which no great skill or experience is needed, and
which is classed as 'helpers' work,' and rated at the specified
pay of 45¢ an hour. They are also employed for highly skilled
work. A number have succeeded as electric welders and
oxy-acetylene-burners. They have been found well adapted for
work on the air-brake equipment and are cleaning, testing, and
making minor repairs on triple valves. In some places they are
now working in a separate group on the lighter-weight valves,
weighing not more than forty pounds. After a period of
training they are giving satisfaction without the help of any
man operator.
"A remarkably fine type of woman is now to be seen in many of
the shops, who enjoys the greater freedom of her work as
compared with factory routine, although in many cases the
discomfort, the dirt, and exposure are far greater. It remains
to be seen whether the women will remain in these jobs to any
great extent. The railroads will, of course, recognize the
seniority rights of all their employees returning from military
service, but as far as the new employees are concerned, women
will have the same privileges as other new employees in
retaining their positions or being assigned to other jobs.
There can be no doubt that in the clerical and semi-clerical
positions they have proved their worth, and will to a great
extent be retained."
ALIEN LABOR FOR WAR PURPOSES
The man in the fighting line was only one factor in the prosecution of
warlike operations. The success of strategy and tactics was dependent
upon the organization of the man in the labor line not only at home but
also in the territory behind the miles of trenches in France. For this
purpose Chinese labor was drafted by both the British and the French
Government. Large numbers of British ships sailed with crews practically
consisting of Chinese sailors. The sentiment in favor of Chinese
exclusion had to give way before imperative needs for labor power. There
were tens of thousands of Chinamen in the service of the Allies. In the
_Sunset Magazine_, Mr. G. C. Hodges calls attention to the fact that the
break between the Chinese Republic and Germany was precipitated largely
by the Allied drafting of China's manpower. Even in its beginnings he
says, the French and British mobilization of Chinese labor caused a
diplomatic battle royal. The significance of Chinese labor behind the
battle front is described in the following words:
"They are a war factor. His Britannic Majesty's Chinese Labor
Corps now behind the battle line in France is almost as large
as the total Chinese population in the United States. The
French Republic has recruited a force of similar dimensions,
bringing Chinese manpower overseas for non-combatant and
industrial work. Even teeming Russia, before its tragic
collapse, had drawn upon thousands of Chinese for work as far
west as the Ural mines. In 1914 there were but 7,000 in this
rich country, but a fourfold increase brought the total to
30,000. All told, 200,000 Chinese are 'carrying on' in the war
zone, laboring behind the lines, in munition works and
factories, manning ships.
"Though the pages of no White Book say it, the break between
the Chinese Republic and Germany was precipitated largely by
the Allied drafting of China's manpower. Even in its
beginnings, the French and British mobilization of Chinese
labor caused a diplomatic battle royal."
ECONOMIC VALUE OF AMERICAN ARMY TO FRENCH INDUSTRY
Permanent economic improvements were one result of the presence in
France of the American Expeditionary Force. An industrial movement was
created that will probably continue long after the war is over. In
various French seaports, docks had to be constructed to handle the
enormous tonnage of supplies needed for the American troops. A letter in
the New York _Journal of Commerce_ gives a picture of the transformation
in the transport system in France made in order to handle with speed and
certainty the various supplies on which the American Army depended:
"Our project comprises nearly 1,000 miles of railroad
construction, but not continuous. France already controls on
her lines such facilities that she has been able to support her
great military burden and not break. Their local development in
the way of sidings and so forth is chiefly in the big towns,
and small engines and cars are used. To meet our larger needs,
it is necessary to establish terminals outside the towns for
the change of engines and for our great storage warehouses. Our
great railway construction in France, apart from a few cut-off
lines, is in the way of storage yards. We have practically the
use of two trunk-line tracks. The French run over them, too,
for there is a tremendous civil population to be supported. The
French are necessarily supreme, and we simply have the right to
run over their railroads subject to their rules.
"The French have an arrangement with their railroads by which a
piece of track that is put in for military purposes is paid for
by the French Government. If the civil requirements of the
railroad grow up to the use of that particular piece of track,
then the government is reimbursed by the railroad. We are in
the same position toward these railroads as the French
Government. At the end of the war the improvements which we
make will be surveyed. If they are useful to the railroads our
expenditures will be reimbursed. If not, we are at liberty to
take up the stuff and clear the ground. Two days ago a
semi-official statement was made to the Paris press, reading:
"'Americans, in full agreement with the French authorities,
are making every effort to carry out, by their own means, the
debarkation of their troops in ports, their provisioning as
well as their transportation over our railroads. Sidings, large
stations, and establishments of every kind are being
constructed by the most modern and expeditious processes. One
of the warehouses has an area of about 4,000 acres, and it has
a cold-storage plant capable of holding several thousand tons
of meat. Aviation training camps and repair shops, considerable
in size and with the most improved machinery, are being erected
on every side.'"
FRENCH INDUSTRIAL EXHAUSTION
A realistic picture of the industrial exhaustion of France at the close
of the war was given by M. Tardieu, General Commissioner for
Franco-American war affairs. The war expenses of 120,000,000,000 francs
was only a fractional part of the whole loss. Another 50,000,000,000
would have to be raised to secure raw material destroyed during the war.
M. Tardieu presented in detail the various items indicating to what
extent France had suffered economic disability and paralysis:
"The territories which have been under German occupation for
four years were the wealthiest part of France. Their area did
not exceed six per cent. of the whole country. They paid,
however, 25 per cent. of the sum total of our taxes. These
territories are now in a state of ruin even worse than we had
anticipated. Of cities and villages nothing remains but ruins;
350,000 homes have been destroyed. To build them up again--I am
referring to the building proper, without the furnishings--600
million days of work will be necessary, involving, together
with building material, an outlay of 10,000,000,000 francs. As
regards personal property of every description either destroyed
by battle or stolen by the Germans, there stands an additional
loss of at least 4,000,000,000 francs. This valuation of lost
personal property does not include--as definite figures are
lacking as yet--the countless war contributions and fines by
the enemy, amounting also to billions. I need hardly say that,
in those wealthy lands, no agricultural resources are left. The
losses in horses and in cattle, bovine and ovine species, hogs,
goats, amount to 1,510,000 head--in agricultural equipment to
454,000 machines or carts--the two items worth together
6,000,000,000 francs.
"As regards industries, the disaster is even more complete. Those
districts occupied by the Germans, and whose machinery has been
methodically destroyed or taken away by the enemy, were,
industrially speaking, the very heart of France, the very backbone
of our production, as shown in the following startling figures: In
1913 the wool output of our invaded regions amounted to 94 per
cent. of the total. French production and corresponding figures
were: For flax from the spinning mills, 90 per cent.; iron ore, 90
per cent.; pig iron, 83 per cent.; steel, 70 per cent.; sugar, 70
per cent.; cotton, 60 per cent.; coal, 55 per cent.; electric
power, 45 per cent. Of all that--plants, machinery, mines--nothing
is left. Everything has been carried away or destroyed by the
enemy. So complete is the destruction that, in the case of our
great coal mines in the north, two years of work will be needed
before a single ton of coal can be extracted and ten years before
the output is brought back to the figures of 1913.
[Illustration: Samuel P. Gompers
President of the American Federation of Labor.
Copyright Underwood & Underwood]
THE WORK OF REBUILDING
"All that must be rebuilt, and to carry out that kind of
reconstruction only, there will be a need of over 2,000,000
tons of pig iron, nearly 4,000,000 tons of steel--not to
mention the replenishing of stocks and of raw materials which
must of necessity be supplied to the plants during the first
year of resumed activity. If we take into account these
different items, we reach as regards industrial needs a total
of 25,000,000,000 francs. To resurrect these regions, to
reconstruct these factories, raw materials are not now
sufficient; we need means of transportation. The enemy has
destroyed our railroad tracks, our railroad equipment, and our
rolling stock, which, in the first month of the war, in 1914,
reduced by 50,000 cars, has undergone the wear and tear of
fifty months of war.
"Our merchant fleet, on the other hand, has lost more than a
million tons through submarine warfare. Our shipyards during
the last four years have not built any ships. For they have
produced for us and for our Allies cannon, ammunition, and
tanks. Here, again, for this item alone of means of
transportation we must figure on an expense of 2,500,000,000
francs. This makes, if I sum up these different items, a need
of raw material which represents in cost, at the present rate
of prices in France, not less than 50,000,000,000 francs."
IV--GOVERNMENT CONTROL
Wartime Nationalization of Railways and Shipping--Ship-building at
High Speed--Trade Licensing, Etc.
On April 5, 1917, the day before war was declared, Franklin K. Lane,
Secretary of the Interior, introduced and had passed by the Council of
National Defense the following resolution:
_Resolved_, That Commissioner Willard be requested to call upon
the railroads to organize their business so as to lead to the
greatest expedition in the movement of freight.
Acting in accordance with this resolution, the principal railroad
executives of the country met in Washington on April 11, 1917, and
resolved that during the war they would coördinate their operations in a
continental railway system, merging during such period all their merely
individual and competitive activities in the effort to produce a maximum
of national transportation efficiency. The direction of the continental
railway system thus organized was placed by the railroads in the hands
of the executive committee of the Special Committee on National Defense
of the American Railway Association. This executive committee was also
known as the Railroads' War Board.
Under this resolution the railroads of the United States continued to be
operated under private ownership and private management until December
28, 1917.
On that date President Wilson, exercising his war-time prerogative, took
control of the railways of the country and appointed W. G. McAdoo
Director General.
2. Congress in January passed a railroad-control bill.
3. On April 11, 1918, President Wilson issued a proclamation taking over
for the Government the property of coastwise shipping lines.
4. On May 24th, Director General McAdoo placed in charge of each
railroad property a federal manager whose duty it was to report to the
regional director.
5. On June 29th, the Railroad Administration relinquished from federal
control nearly 2,000 short-line railroads whose control by the
Administration was regarded as not "needful or desirable."
During the first six months after the United States entered the war
statistics showed that the railways not only handled far more traffic
than in any earlier six months of their history but also as much as in
any entire year prior to 1907. It will be remembered that the years 1906
and 1907 marked the climax of a long period of rapid increase of
railroad business which resulted in the longest and most acute
congestion of traffic and shortage that had ever been known prior to the
war period. The grounds offered by the Government for taking over the
railway systems during the war might be explained as the resultant of
the findings of the Interstate Commerce Commission on December 5th, in
which it was stated that the claim of the roads for higher rates could
not be granted.
"From the standpoint of the Government three principal reasons
are seen for the taking over of the lines:
"1. The avoidance of obstructions to transportation due to the
routing and division of freight, intended to give a fair share
to each line in a given territory.
"2. The abolition of preferences to given shippers and kinds of
freight, and the centralization of control over priority in
shipment.
"3. The practical termination of rate controversies and labor
discussions as between private individuals and the placing of
the roads on a semi-military basis.
"The railroads themselves have received the announcement of the
President's action with much greater equanimity than could have
been expected. They undoubtedly see in the step the following
advantages:
"1. Assurance of a moderate if not generous income in a period
of great uncertainty and difficulty, during which they have
been caught between the upper and nether millstones of fixed
rates and advancing costs and wages.
"2. Termination of the danger that threatened them from the
continually maturing obligations which ordinarily they would
have little trouble in refinancing, but which, under existing
conditions, can scarcely be provided for on any basis.
"3. Provision of means for betterment and improvement at a time
when such provision can be had practically only through
government orders designed to place such requirements ahead of
those of private concerns."
OBJECTS OF GOVERNMENT CONTROL
This experiment in government control was discussed and explained by the
Director General after six months' experience in the following statement
issued by him on June 15, 1918:
"The policy of the United States Railroad Administration has
been informed and shaped by a desire to accomplish the
following purposes, which are named in what I conceive to be
the order of their importance:
"_First_, the winning of the war, which includes the prompt
movement of the men and the material that the Government
requires. To this everything else must be subordinated.
"_Second_, the service of the public, which is the purpose for
which the railways were built and given the privileges accorded
them. This implies the maintenance and improvement of the
railroad properties so that adequate transportation facilities
will be provided at the lowest cost, the object of the
Government being to furnish service rather than to make money.
"_Third_, the promotion of a spirit of sympathy and a better
understanding between the administration of the railways and
their two million employees, as well as their one hundred
million patrons, which latter class includes every individual
in the nation, since transportation has become a prime and
universal necessity of civilized existence.
"_Fourth_, the application of sound economies, including:
(_a_) The elimination of superfluous expenditures.
(_b_) The payment of a fair and living wage for services
rendered and a just and prompt compensation for injuries
received.
(_c_) The purchase of material and equipment at the lowest
prices consistent with a reasonable, but not an excessive,
profit to the producer.
(_d_) The adoption of standardized equipment and the
introduction of approved devices that will save life and labor.
(_e_) The routing of freight and passenger traffic with due
regard to the fact that a straight line is the shortest
distance between two points.
(_f_) The intensive employment of all equipment and a careful
record and scientific study of the results obtained, with a
view to determining the comparative efficiency secured.
"The development of this policy will, of course, require time.
The task to which the Railroad Administration has addressed
itself is an immense one. It is as yet too early to judge of
the results obtained, but I believe that great progress has
been made toward the goal of our ideals."
GOVERNMENT CONTROL CRITICISED
The defects of the Government administration of the railways have been
the subject of both criticism and apology. A diagnosis published by the
_Engineering News Record_ of New York states that the whole difficulty
is ascribed to the employment of bankers in high places of railway
management. Railroads, it was asserted, cannot be run by men of the
banking type of mind. The article continues:
"Here was, and is, an agency with daily influence on the life
of every member of the community, performing a service
essential to the nation's life. Yet it has few friends among
the people at large; more now than formerly, however, due to
the number of those whose pity has been excited at the
railroads' plight. The first of the railroads' plagues was the
type of management--manipulation, it would better be
called--which regarded the properties not as carriers but as
media for stock-jobbing operations. Consolidations with the
addition of water, and reconsolidations, with still more water,
were the order of the day; while those operating the properties
danced riotously over their territories waving insolently the
flag of 'The Public Be Damned.' Rebates, car-withholding
tyrannies, all manner of schemes were worked to aid the
favored few, while the purchasing methods honeycombed the
organization with rottenness.
"Then came the day for the people to have their say, and one
national and forty-eight State commissions began to bedevil the
carriers. What the stock-jobbers and the grafters had failed to
do the people in their vengeance helped to complete. The public
at large, which under intelligent management of the properties
would have been the railroads' best friend, had been alienated.
As a result we have had the drift into bankruptcy which has
been railroad history during the past decade. Instances need
not be cited. Each one can supply them from his own
neighborhood. Probably the mention of the New Haven will
furnish sufficient nausea to carry the right impression.
"And that _débâcle_ we attribute to the banking type of mind,
that type of mind that places personal profit ahead of all
other considerations. The engineering type of mind, we hold,
would have analyzed the purpose of the railroads--would have
seen that service to the public at large, and not to any
private interest, was the prime object, would have erected that
as the railroads' ideal and builded a machine for its
attainment."
BRITISH RAILWAY MANAGEMENT
Like American railways the railway system of Great Britain was under
private control prior to the war, but the experiment of Government
direction began to be applied as soon as the war was declared.
Government control did not mean Government ownership. The lines remained
the property of the companies. They retained the management of their own
concerns subject to the instructions of an executive committee appointed
by the Government and the whole machinery of administration went on as
before. At the beginning the sole purpose was to facilitate the movement
of troops, but as the war developed the scope of the railway executive
committee became greatly extended. Working in coöperation with the
acting chairman were twelve general managers of leading British lines.
Under the central body were groups of committees, each made up of
railway experts. The War Office and the Director General of Transport
were in touch with the Central Committee. A writer in the _Railway Age
Gazette_ for December, 1917, explains the arrangements as follows:
"Under the terms on which the railways were taken over for the
period of the war the Government guaranteed to the proprietors
of the railways that their net revenue should be the same as in
1913, except when the net receipts for the first half of 1914
were less than the first half of 1913; in that case the sum
payable was to be reduced in the same proportion. The entire
Government traffic--men and freight--was to be carried without
any direct charge being made for it or any accounts rendered.
This plan was considered satisfactory by both sides. In the
majority of cases there had been a reduction of earnings in the
first half of 1914 over the previous half-year, and companies
were contemplating a still further reduction. The interests of
their shareholders being assured, they were able to devote
themselves to the work of economical and efficient
distribution, quite apart from the usual financial problems.
The one weak side of this agreement was that it made no
allowance to cover increased interest payments on account of
new investments and new capital expenditure since the war
began. This point was afterward met by an arrangement that the
government should pay interest at 4 per cent. on all new
capital invested by the railways since August 4, 1914, on new
lines, branches, terminals, equipment, or other facilities put
into use since January 1, 1913.
"The conclusion of the financial agreement between the
Government and the companies automatically brought about a
great economy in the system of railway accounts. The reports of
the companies were cut down to a bare minimum, and in many
cases even these reduced reports were not sent to the
shareholders unless they specially asked for them."
RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION IN CANADA
A definite proposal to nationalize the railway systems of the Dominion
of Canada was made during the war. Canada has nearly one-sixth of the
railway mileage of the United States, although it has less than
one-fourteenth of the population. Canada has three trans-continental
systems. There is sufficient trade in the Dominion for two good systems.
A royal commission appointed to inquire into the subject reported that
the net returns of the railways were so low as to prove that more
railways had been built than could be justified on commercial grounds.
Large subsidies had been granted by the Government. In the case of the
Grand Trunk Pacific this public subsidy amounted to nearly two-thirds of
the total investment; in the case of the Canadian Northern to nearly
three-quarters. The Canadian Pacific was reported as the strongest
railway in Canada, economically built and well managed. The other
companies, such as the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific,
were facing heavy annual deficits.
[Illustration: Walker D. Hines
He succeeded William McAdoo as Director-General of Railroads after the
signing of the armistice.
Copyright Underwood & Underwood]
The commissioners recommended heroic measures. They did not consider
that operation by a Minister directly responsible to Parliament would be
in the public interest. It would not secure better service nor lower
rates. What the commissioners did recommend was to transfer the three
companies to a new body, a board of trustees to be incorporated as the
Dominion Railway Company and that the Canadian Northern, the Canadian
Pacific and the Grand Trunk Pacific be transferred to this body. The
Government-owned Intercolonial and Transcontinental Railways stretching
from Halifax to Winnipeg were to be transferred to the Dominion Company.
Under the scheme worked out by the commission, the Government would
assume responsibility to the Dominion Railway Company for the interest
on existing securities of the transferred companies. As to the
composition of the board of trustees, the commissioner recommended that
they be five; three railway members, one member selected on the ground
of business and financial experience and one as especially possessing
the confidence of the railway employees. The commissioners laid stress
on the importance of the board being non-political, permanent and
self-perpetuating, and in this connection pointed to the experience of
the Australian state railways.
FRENCH RAILWAYS IN WARTIME
The great strain on a country's railway system caused by war was
illustrated by the French mobilization. Four thousand seven hundred and
fifty trains were required. After mobilization was over the Army still
had a permanent need of railways for two purposes: for its
communications in the rear, and for its movements from place to place.
To bring supplies to one Army corps trainloads aggregating 200 tons a
day were required.
Mr. G. Blanchon in _New Warfare_ explained the situation as follows:
"The preparation of railways for war uses is not confined to
the planning of the system itself. It extends to the provision
and adaptation of stations, to the duplication of the lines, to
the defence of bridges and other structures, to the provision
of rolling-stock. Considerable extension may be looked for in
all these directions. However important the motor-car and the
aeroplane may be in military transport, it is probable that the
railways will always be the most satisfactory means of
conveying heavy material.
"The railway carriage itself can be adapted for military uses.
We have tank cars, cold-storage cars, hospital trains; above
all, we have armored trains and truck gun-carriages.
"Railways will perhaps render more effective service than ever
in the matter of bringing to the required spot huge guns too
heavy to be transported in any other way. These will be fired
without leaving the rails. The truck gun-carriage is so
arranged as to withstand the recoil; this result is obtained by
placing on the ground, once the carriage is stationary,
supports which take the load off the wheels. The recoil is
transferred to the ground so that the rails do not suffer.
"Whether the object is to organize a supply line, to transfer
reinforcements, or to carry heavy material to its destination,
it may be of service to provide for the absence of normal lines
by laying down rails along the road. Both the Germans and
ourselves have done this very frequently. A narrow gauge of
sixty centimeters is generally used. A team of skilled sappers
takes about three hours to lay down about one kilometer of
railway."
AMERICA'S SHIPPING PREPARATION
The two great means of transport--railways and ships--furnished in this
war the greatest examples of modified state socialism which America had
yet seen. As to the general way in which they were controlled these two
services show a fairly close family resemblance, though the forms of
organization were technically quite different. The larger railroads and
the larger ships were taken possession of by the Government and were
operated by the same people, in general, who operated them before, but
under orders of the Railroad Administration and the Shipping Board
respectively. New ships and new railroad equipment were built on plans
made under federal direction, and in both cases the output was being
largely standardized. The heads of the Shipping Board and the Emergency
Fleet Corporation were men drawn from private business, while the
regional directors of the railroad regions and the federal managers of
the separate roads were railroad men, usually managing their own roads,
under the government's direction. Thus in both cases private enterprise
furnished the traditions and training of the personnel that made this
experiment in socialism.
Besides the points of likeness there were differences between the two
services. In the case of ship-building, the industry was virtually
re-created, so great was the expansion and the revolution in methods. In
the case of railroads the emphasis was, as has been seen, on the task of
utilizing an existing and limited plant to its utmost capacity for war
purposes.
WAR'S EFFECT ON SHIPPING
The following table, taken from a pamphlet distributed by the Emergency
Fleet Corporation six months before the conclusion of the war, gives a
perspicuous view of the shipping situation at the opening of military
operations in the United States:
THE WAR AND WORLD SHIPPING
Gross Tons
World's shipping (except German and
Austrian) August 1, 1914 42,574,537
Additional ships built, August, 1914-
December 31, 1917 6,621,003
German and Austrian interned ships
available for use of Allies 875,000
----------
Total 50,070,540
Losses since 1914.
Due to ordinary causes. 1,600,000
Due to mines, raiders
and submarines:
Allies 8,900,119[17]
Norway 1,031,778
Other neutrals 400,000
Total 11,931,897
----------
Balance actual tonnage available 38,138,643
Net decrease since 1914 4,435,894
Add 2 tons constantly required to
maintain each man in France
(1,500,000 men × 2) 3,000,000
Shortage for merchant traffic, at least 7,435,894
[17] To October, 1917.
Another table gives a view of the rates between the building and sinking
of ships among the Allied, neutral, and British nations from the
beginning of the war to April, 1918:
"The world's shipping suffered a net loss of 2,632,279 tons
from the beginning of the war to April 1, 1918, the greater
part of this having occurred since the beginning of the
unrestricted submarine warfare which brought America into the
war. This loss is partly due to England's having increased her
naval building at the expense of merchant tonnage. While naval
construction must not be neglected, some building capacity can
be turned back to merchant ship-building in case of extreme
need. However, in April, 1918, Great Britain and the United
States built 40,000 tons more shipping than was lost, and
American construction is still rapidly increasing."
AMERICA'S SHIP-BUILDING PROGRAM
American ship-building was planned on grandiose lines, partly to make
good the losses by submarine, partly to provide transportation for
American troops to Europe, and partly for propaganda purposes in
friendly and in enemy countries. The American program was an ambitious
one. Inflated figures were offered for popular consumption and
undoubtedly they were consumed and had their influence in securing a
successful close to the struggle. While reports were coming from Great
Britain telling of constant labor troubles on the Clyde and other
ship-building localities, every item of news from Washington spoke of
the marvelous achievements of American ship-building. One message read
after eight months of the war had passed: "For the first time in history
America has outdistanced England in her ship-building output."
Foreign critics called attention to the fact that American figures of
ship-building (1918) had a different basis of valuation from those of
other countries. In one case there were vessels completed and entered
for service, and in another there were vessels launched. The situation
is presented by the London _Economist_:
"British shipping, still in magnitude far beyond that of any of
the Allies, is declining; it is still being sunk faster than it
is being replaced. American shipping, on the other hand, is
rapidly expanding, and has already turned the scale against the
U-boats. The American Army in France as it is reinforced must
become more and more dependent upon American ships for
transport and supply. Up to the end of July the net loss in
British shipping due to enemy action and marine risks since
August, 1914, had been 3,851,537 gross tons. During the current
year to July 31 we have lost 583,600 gross tons more than we
have built. British sea power, the power to use the sea as
measured in merchant shipping, is wasting. On the other hand,
the net gain since August, 1914, in Allied and neutral
shipping--to which the United States have largely
contributed--was nearly 1,100,000 tons at the end of June this
year, and was showing a very remarkable rate of expansion.
Thanks chiefly to the United States, the Allied and neutral
monthly gain now more than offsets the British loss. The
critical corner has been turned. To those whose eyes look
beyond the war, and who already anticipate a great American
mercantile marine in competition with depleted British lines,
we would point out that after all its losses British merchant
shipping still amounts to over 14,000,000 tons gross, and that
America's ocean-going tonnage built and completing--exclusive
of captures--is as yet little more than 4,000,000. What the
relative positions will be a year hence--or two years hence,
should the war last so long--we do not venture to predict."
THE FOURTH OF JULY SPLASH
Reports of the Shipping Board's activity led to expectations of an
unprecedented number of ships to be launched, fitted and ready for
transport and trade purposes within a very short interval. Much
enthusiasm was created by the Fourth of July splash, 1918, when,
according to the New York _Tribune_, in twelve hours steel and wooden
ships hit the water in clouds of smoke and spray, at the rate of one
every seven minutes. The era of Mr. Jefferson Brick had undoubtedly
returned, for the _Tribune_ went on to expatiate in poetical exuberance
that the shores of "Puget Sound, San Francisco Bay, Columbia river, the
Gulf of Mexico, the Delaware, Chesapeake Bay, New York Bay, and all the
coast of New England and the Great Lakes were laved by the backwash of
the great ships of the Liberty Fleet rushing to their proper element."
The Bureau of Navigation estimated that by the end of June, 1918, 1,622
ships of 1,430,793 gross tons would be launched--more than double the
output of German yards in times of peace. One article refers to the
actual event as follows:
[Illustration: Copyright by Charles Phillip Norton
Building a Steel Ship in Seattle, Washington
American ship-building during the war was planned on a gigantic scale to
make good the losses by submarines and to provide transportation for
American troops to Europe. The _West Lianga_, shown above, an 8,800-ton
cargo carrier was launched within 55 working days and delivered, ready
for cargo, in 67 days.]
AMERICAN LOSSES--NEW TONNAGE BUILT
"At San Francisco on July 4th, Mr. Charles M. Schwab,
Director-General of the Emergency Fleet Corporation, said to
the shipworkers: 'If you stand up to your job, we'll make the
Kaiser take his medicine lying down.' Mr. Schwab also ventured
the statement that this Fourth of July shows the greatest
record of launchings for a single day in the world's history,
and added:
"'Every time we launch a cargo or troopship or tanker we add to
the certainty that German submarines can not win this war.
Already we have the U-boats on the run, and if we keep up the
pace we will have them beaten by next year. And when we achieve
this victory it will be you who will deserve the credit.
"'In 1915 all the shipyards in America turned out 215,602
dead-weight tons of shipping. The next year our output jumped
to 520,847 tons. In 1917 the hot pace continued until we very
nearly doubled the output of the previous year, completing a
total of 901,223. I am confident now that if we pull together
and every man stays on the job, we will produce more than
3,000,000 dead-weight tons in 1918--the greatest output of any
nation in the world in a single year.'
"Premier Lloyd George sent a cable to President Wilson on the
launching of the ships, in which he extended 'heartfelt
congratulations on this magnificent performance,' and in an
Independence-day speech Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels
said in part:
"'We are launching this day far more tonnage than that of all
the American vessels sunk by submarines since the war began. We
are launching today more than the Germans sank of the ships of
all nations in the last month for which we have the official
figures. The recent enemy submarine activities off our coast
resulted in the loss of 25,411 dead-weight tons of American
shipping. During this same time 130,000 gross tons of shipping
were built.
"'To give some idea of the tonnage situation with reference to
American shipping, it may be of interest to know that the total
tonnage of American vessels lost prior to the entry of the
United States into the war was 67,815. The total American
tonnage sunk since the entry of the United States into the war
is 284,408, or a total of 352,223 tons sunk during the whole
period of the European War. As against this loss, the gross
tonnage of merchant ships built in the United States since the
commencement of the European War is 2,722,563 tons, 1,736,664
gross tons of which have been built since the entry of the
United States into the war. In addition to the tonnage thus
built 650,000 tons of German shipping have been taken over.
This does not include the tonnage acquired of Dutch, Japanese,
and other vessels. It will be of further interest to know that
today there will be launched in the great shipyards of this
country over 400,000 dead-weight tons. These figures are in
addition to those previously given.'"
A SHIP-BUILDING CAPACITY OF OVER 1,500,000 TONS A YEAR
The war program of the Shipping Board implied a multiplication by three
of existing outputs. This increased output signified the possibility of
labor difficulties, and in order to prevent these an agreement was
reached between representatives of the labor unions, the Navy
Department, the Shipping Board and the Emergency Fleet Corporation, to
the effect that all disputes concerning wages, hours or conditions in
shipyards in ship-building plants should be determined by a committee of
three, one representing the corporation, one nominated by the President
and the third selected by Mr. Samuel Gompers. When this agreement was
entered into the United States reported a ship-building capacity of over
one and one-half million gross tons a year. Two years previously the
ship-building capacity was only five hundred thousand tons, but
according to the London _Economist_, a rate of four million gross tons a
year would have to be supplied if the American Army was to have
sufficient means of transport.
When this forecast was made on both sides of the Atlantic, it was
realized that so far as the marine situation was concerned the war had
become simply a question of ship-building against the submarine.
Military operations intervened to prevent a full test of our
ship-building strength, but there was full confidence in the United
States that American ship-building would by increased production make
the German submarine program an inconsiderable factor in the question of
terminating the war.
TRANSPORTING THE AMERICAN ARMY
When there came a demand for an increase of man-power to be sent to the
battle front few appreciated what this effort meant in its effect on
increased shipping activities. Half a million American soldiers crossed
the Atlantic in the first thirteen months of the war, after our entrance
into the war, and a million and a half in the last six months of the
war. The shipment across the Atlantic was at first anything but rapid.
There were only a few American and British troop ships chartered
directly from their owners. Then the former German liners were brought
into service and with this addition embarkations greatly increased.
[Illustration: Hog Island Ship-building Yards
The expenditure of millions of dollars and the labor of thousands of
workmen transformed in a short time a tract of marsh lands near
Philadelphia into one of the greatest ship yards in the world.]
Early in 1918 increased shipping facilities were arranged for with the
British Government. The results of this arrangement became visible in
the growth of troop movements for March, 1918. Then there came the great
German drive; after this every ship that could be secured was pressed
into service. More British troop ships were used. Accordingly, in May,
1918, more than twice as many men were carried as in April. The June
record was greater than that of May and before the first of July one
million had been embarked. During the summer the number carried was more
than 10,000 men per day. This record has only been excelled by the
achievement in bringing back the same men to the shores of the United
States.[18]
[18] For complete official figures of the troop movement overseas, see
Volume IV.
In addition to the transatlantic fleet there was an American
cross-channel fleet carrying men and cargo from England to France. This
fleet consisted of more than a third of a million tons by the end of
1918. One-fourth of these vessels were Swedish or Norwegian, while the
rest were American. This fleet comprised large numbers of small wood and
steel vessels built by the Emergency Fleet Corporation at the yards of
the Great Lakes and along the coast.
ACCELERATED SHIPPING
The Emergency Fleet Corporation turned over nearly a million tons of new
ships for military purposes, and besides Scandinavian and Japanese
tonnage was chartered. By doing this and by taking over lake steamers
the large tonnage figures were secured, but it must be remembered that
the Allies were largely concerned in the American troop movement. Of
every 100 men who went over, 49 went in British ships, 45 in American,
three in Italian, two in French and one in Russian shipping under
British control. Moreover, a way was found to increase the loading of
transports by as much as 50 per cent.
The duration of the voyage round trip was considerably decreased. In the
spring of 1917 the average turn around for troop ships was 52 days. Some
of the fast ships averaged under 30. The _Leviathan_, for example,
landed the equivalent of a German division in France each month. Most of
the cargo ships were American and these ships carried thousands of
articles of the most varied sort. Nearly one-half of all the cargoes
consisted of food and clothing. Then came the engineering and ordnance
supplies. A large number of locomotives were shipped, set up on their
own wheels so that they could be unloaded on the tracks in France and
run off in a few hours under their own steam. These locomotives were of
the hundred-ton type. Shipments of this type had never been made before.
When the armistice was signed the Army was prepared to ship these set-up
locomotives at the rate of 200 a month. The actual record shows that
1,791 were sent to France on transports.
Nearly 27,000 standard-gauge freight cars were shipped abroad, and motor
trucks to the number of 47,000; rails and fittings were sent to France
aggregating in all 423,000 tons. Moreover, the Army shipped nearly
70,000 horses and mules. The increase in the shipping of cargo from the
United States was consistently maintained from the start of the war, and
at its cessation it was undergoing marked acceleration.
BRITISH SHIP-BUILDING
Ship-building in England was taken over by the government early in the
war. This plan was described by many as an example of a blundering
surrender to Socialism and a concession to bureaucratic tendencies.
These critics pointed to the fact that in 1914 British shipping tonnage
had reached the figure of 19 million tons, an increase of over 10
millions in 15 years; and this was done in spite of subsidized
competition from abroad and lack of reasonable encouragement at home.
The policy of government interference was regarded as simply a method of
discouraging English initiative in this industry. A writer in the London
_Outlook_, Mr. E. T. Good, described the project in a most unfavorable
light:
"On top of foreign subsidized competition our people are to be
subjected to Government competition at home, and their whole
position and prospects rendered uncertain, if not impossible.
This new government undertaking can have nothing but a
chilling, blighting effect upon our splendid ship-building and
engineering trades, and it will not give us one additional ton
of shipping. The government policy--or lack of policy--is such
that no one knows what to expect next. There is no certainty.
There is no continuity of policy. There is no encouragement.
There is no common justice for British enterprise. Whilst
Germany, France, Italy and other nations are preparing large
subsidization schemes for their shipping and ship-building
trades, our government excessively penalizes our industries and
enterprises, and gives no hint of any fair dealing in the
future. Before the war German subsidized liners were permitted
to come into our harbors and take on board British passengers
at 'blackleg' rates, and without paying even a due share for
the upkeep of our ports and lights. Now our government, whilst
paying neutral shipowners--our future rivals--freights up to as
much as 500 per cent. above the Bluebook rates paid to our own
vessels, is taxing our shipping people up to the eyes--doing
all that it can to render it difficult, if not impossible, for
our companies to increase their fleets and maintain British
supremacy after the war."
[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood
Launching the City of Portland on the Columbia River, near Portland,
Oregon
Most of the cargo ships that carried supplies to our troops after we
entered the war were American owned, and carried thousands of articles
of the most varied sort. The _City of Portland_, shown above, was a
three hundred foot wooden motor vessel.]
It must be remembered that Great Britain's shipping problem was a matter
of extreme complexity. There were first of all the submarine sinkings.
There was the lack of labour for ship-building. There was, besides, the
fact that the tonnage available for ordinary imports was considerably
lessened by the commandeering of merchant ships for the carriage of
government material. The following statement of the problem was
presented by the British Premier himself in August, 1917:
"In addition to this, the Shipping Controller has taken steps
for the quickening of ship-building. The tonnage built in this
country during peace times is, I think, on an average
something a little under 2,000,000. In 1915 the ship-building
came to 688,000 tons. In 1916 it was 538,000 tons. In this year
a little over a million tons, nearly 1,100,000 tons, will be
built in this country and 330,000 tons will be acquired abroad,
so that this year the tonnage which we shall acquire will be
1,900,000. This is purely mercantile marine. Bear in mind the
condition under which the tonnage is built. It is the fourth
year of the war. There is a difficulty in labor and great
difficulty in material. You require steel for guns and shells
for the Navy, because the ship-building program of the Navy has
gone up considerably in the course of the present year. In
spite of that fact the ship-building of the country in this
year will not be very far from what it was in the days of
peace.
"Even now we have not got enough tonnage for all essential
purposes. We have got to provide tonnage for France, Italy and
Russia, as well as for ourselves, and we need more ships
instead of fewer ships. And I am not going to pretend that
there will not be at best a rate of diminution of our shipping
which will embarrass us in the struggle, and therefore it is
essential, not merely that this country should build, but that
the only other countries which have a great ship-building
capacity should also build. If the United States of America
puts forth the whole of her capacity, and I have no doubt, from
what I hear, that she is preparing to do it in her own thorough
and enterprising way, I have no doubt at all that we shall have
sufficient tonnage not merely for this year but for the whole
of 1918 and, if necessary, for 1919 as well, because America
can expand very considerably her ship-building capacity if the
real need ever arises for her to do so."
BRITISH BUREAUCRATIC METHODS
On the whole it must be allowed that after the results were published
there was a great disappointment, particularly as the government had put
forth roseate plans for ship-building on a large scale. At the beginning
of the war there were 16 million tons gross of steamers of more than 600
tons each. A large part of this total was used in the service of the
Navy; and the balance, available for the carriage of food, materials and
exports, was lost during the submarine campaign. The government seemed
to show no ability to replace it. Sometimes it is contended that the
responsibility was to be charged up to the labor organizations.
According to the _Economist_ the situation was due to bureaucratic
methods of control.
In a debate in Parliament the whole subject was ventilated:
"From every quarter members with first-hand knowledge of
ship-building got up to tell the same story of
over-centralization, fussy control, conflicting orders, leading
all to the same result--discouragement of masters and men. Mr.
Mackinder, speaking for a Glasgow constituency, and Sir Walter
Runciman, speaking as a ship-owner--two men whose views on
economics are the poles apart--were in agreement here. The
fault, they declared, lay, not in the want of patriotism or the
inherent vice of the British workman, or even in the lethargy
of the British employer, but in the third and predominant
member of the ship-building partnership, the British
Government. Keeping the direction in its own hands, the
Government started with a preconceived theory of the standard
ship--a theory that might be of great value to a builder of
revolutionary ideas laying the foundations of a prosperity to
be enjoyed twenty years hence, but is of considerably less
value to a nation that is losing steamers at the rate of
fifteen or twenty a week, and wants new steamers now. When the
standard ship was first proposed, builders pointed out that in
practice each had a standard ship of his own, and they could
build most quickly by confining themselves to their own
familiar types. Mr. Macnamara told them that they were
Solomons, wise after the event, but that is less than fair.
They were wise from the beginning, and their predictions have
come true."
TRADE POLICY AS A WAR WEAPON
The building of ships under Government supervision and control was only
one side of Allied war shipping administration. Seaborne trade was
rigidly directed as a potent arm in bringing Germany's war power to
ruin. The industrial and economic effect of the marine blockade was
fully conceded by a number of German and Austrian newspapers.
_The Frankfurter Zeitung_ said:
"If the final peace does not return to us what our enemies have
taken and destroyed in the outside world, if it does not
restore to us freedom in our work and our spirit of enterprise
in the world, then the German people is crippled for an
immeasurable period. We demand restoration for all violation of
the law and for all acts of destruction. We demand
indemnification for all damages done, and we meet the plan of
differentiation with the demand for the most-favored-nation
treatment and equal rights; the plan of exclusion with the
demand for the open door and free seas; and the threat of a
blockade of raw materials with the demand for the delivery of
raw materials."
A true picture of the situation is given in the following passage from
the Vienna _Arbeiter Zeitung_:
"Even if Hindenburg's genius and German bravery won a complete
victory on land, even if the English Army fell into our hands
to the last man, and France was disarmed and had to submit to
Germany's terms, even then England and America could not be
compelled to the capitulation that the Pan-German word-heroes
prophesy daily. Even then they would blockade our coasts and
the war would continue at sea. And even if they could not or
would not do that, even if peace was concluded and all the
battles ended, they would still have a terrible weapon to use
against us. Our domestic economy can not exist permanently
without the wheat, the copper, and the cotton from America, the
nickel from Canada, the cotton from Egypt and India, the
phosphates from the North African coasts, the rubber from the
English tropical colonies, Indian jute, and the oilplants of
the South Sea Islands.
"There will be a scarcity of all these things after the war and
there will be great competition for them. If England and
America do not deliver to us these raw materials after the war,
then we as conquerors are conquered."
GERMANY'S POTASH BOYCOTT
Before we entered the war Germany viewed with great concern the effect
of the economic weight of the United States if added to the side of her
antagonists. She felt that if this country remained neutral she could
depend on us for raw materials. To be sure, German ingenuity had
produced ten thousand substitutes, due to the skill of German chemists,
ranging from bacteria fats to synthetic rubber. But even the War Office
in Berlin was under no illusion on this point. "We need copper and no
stripping of palace roofs, no raiding of door knockers or kitchen pans
can make up for the deficiency." Even the vision of economic
self-sufficiency in Central Europe had rifts in it. Raw material was so
important that, in the boot and shoe industry 1,400 factories in the
German Empire were amalgamated into 300. In the silk industry the spools
were reduced from 45,000 to 2,500. Out of 1,700 spinning and weaving
mills, only 70 were running at high pressure.
The plan, as outlined by German experts, to force the United States to
supply raw material was to cut off potash exports and certain
manufactured goods. "If America will sell us no cotton," was the threat
of the Berlin _Deutsche-Zeitung_, "she shall get no potash--the
indispensable fertilizer in which we have a world monopoly. If she
withholds her oil and grain, then she shall get no _dyes_, no drugs, no
glassware or optical instruments." But as a writer in the London
_Outlook_ stated, this threat could not be made an effective instrument
of trade control:
"There is potash in plenty in the great Republic, especially in
the alkali lakes of Nebraska and Southern California. Potash is
now obtained from the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and from the
vast kelp beds of the Pacific coast. American chemists are also
extracting potash (by the Cottrell process) from the dust of
cement-kilns and blast-furnaces. So the German monopoly will
pass, and many others with it. America will produce her own
dyes and optical instruments, though I may not linger on the
details of this supplanting.
"American genius has long been busy with these things; another
year or two will see her wholly independent of German supplies.
The potash monopoly--from the mines of Stassfurt in Saxony--was
undeniably a problem; there are still richer sources in Alsace,
as we all know Germany's resolve to hold that province through
thick and thin. America needs 500,000 tons of potash every
year, for the sandy soils of the Atlantic seaboard, and also
for the citrus fruits of Florida, the tobacco of Georgia and
the Carolinas, the potatoes and garden produce of Maryland."
SHUTTING OFF GERMAN TRADE
Pessimistic anticipations of German statesmen regarding the curtailing
of German trade were realized when the War Trade Board in the United
States began to deal with the question of American exports to neutrals.
The report of the Board, published in 1918, contains the following
passage:
"Neutral exports of foodstuffs to the Central Powers have
declined from last year's corresponding exports in amounts
estimated at from 65 to 85 per cent., depending on the neutral,
and there has been a decrease in the export of many other
important commodities.
"In November, 1917, we became party to Great Britain's
tentative agreement with Norway, as a result of which action on
our part 1,400,000 tons dead-weight of Norwegian shipping were
chartered into the service of the United States and Great
Britain for the period of the war. Shortly following, temporary
agreements were concluded with Holland and with Sweden. That
with Holland gives us the use, for periods up to 90 days, of
450,000 tons dead-weight of her shipping which had heretofore,
for a long period, lain idle. The agreement with Sweden gives
us the use for three months of tonnage estimated at 250,000
tons dead-weight which had not theretofore been employed in
services useful to us.
"Specific accomplishments of this character are, however, far
from constituting a full measure of the results achieved by the
War Trade Board. The elimination of enemy advantage from our
trade and, to a considerable extent, from that of the world,
the securing and conserving of commodities essential to
ourselves and those associated with us in the war, the bringing
of shipping generally into the services most useful to
us--these results can not be accurately stated or appraised at
the present time, nor have they been accomplished by any single
act or agreement."
[Illustration: Examining Cargoes for Contraband
An inspector is using the X-ray on a bale of cotton, it having been
found that smuggling of every conceivable sort was being carried by
German agents.]
THE TRADE LICENSE SYSTEM
The United States trade license system was extremely effective in
cutting off the business of firms whose controlling motive was the
advancement of German commercial interests. It was largely directed
against preventing pro-German firms in neutral countries from engaging
in the re-exportation process, a familiar practice in the earlier part
of the war. The policy of the War Trade Board is indicated in the March
(1918) issue of the _War Trade Journal_:
"To accomplish these results the War Trade Board, through its
Bureau of Imports, has adopted certain regulations in
connection with the importation of many of these raw materials,
to which it is the duty of every patriotic American citizen to
give complete and wholehearted support.
"Organizations have been voluntarily created in many of the
trades, such as rubber, wool, jute, tin, etc., to act as
consignees when required and to perform other duties in
connection with importations, under and by direction of the War
Trade Board.
"Every effort will be made to administer these regulations with
the slightest possible detriment to legitimate business
interests, but when it is considered that the transmittal of a
few pounds of rubber or copper to Germany may cost the lives of
scores of our men at the front, and that each day's supply of
wool, or food, or money to the enemy means another day's war,
with its accompanying toll of lives, the very thought of
hesitancy or weakness is inconceivable. The policy will be
'safety first' for our soldiers, regardless of every other
consideration. Persons and firms in this country, as well as
abroad, who before our entrance into the war had little
sympathy with the war-time commercial safeguards of the Allies
must be taught that these are now matters of the first
importance to this country, and violators of present
restrictions need expect no favors, regardless of how important
such individuals or firms may be in the business world. The
time has come when all must realize that the war is not limited
to combating the enemy on the battle fields of France, but must
be carried into our every-day transactions of life, and that
our business practices must be remolded, where necessary, to
meet existing conditions.
"It is unnecessary to mention other desirable results which may
be obtained by this import control, such as the gathering of
trade information or the conservation of tonnage by elimination
of non-essentials.
"No anxiety need be felt by importers that there will be any
serious restrictions of the importation of necessary articles
if the transaction does not involve dealing with an enemy or
ally of an enemy, or otherwise giving him aid or comfort."
THE ANTI-GERMAN TOY EPISODE
An example of the intense popular indignation against encouraging trade
with Germany was furnished when a Dutch boat arrived in New York in
1918, laden with 400 cases of toys made in Germany. The ship that
carried them had been guaranteed against submarines by the German
Government. Its arrival in America brought about a storm of indignation
strong enough to remind many editors of the famous Boston Tea-Party. One
of the consignees of the cargo refused to accept delivery of his share;
the _Manufacturers Record_ of Baltimore offered him its congratulations:
"It is none too soon to begin the campaign against the
importation of German-made goods. Imagine for one moment any
American mother giving to her baby toys made by Germany while
she thinks of tens of thousands of babies murdered by Germany
in this war. Every toy made in Germany and every other piece of
goods of every kind will for generations bear a bloody stain
which all the waters of all the oceans can never wash out."
Patriotic organizations passed resolutions on the subject. American
feeling as to German merchandise was well shown through the publication
of an editorial in the _Hardware Age_ against American use of German
toys. The paper received 4,000 letters on the subject and over 250,000
reprints of the editorial were sent out, all on request. On the subject
of German toys, it said, among other things:
"America has fed starving Belgium. We fed and clothed and cared
for her suffering people long before we became her proud ally
on the battlefields. Thousands of orphaned Belgian and French
children have been adopted into American homes. In the days to
come are we going to force these children to play with
German-made toys? God forbid! American toy manufacturers have
stripped us of the last vestige of an excuse for the purchase
of toys from the Huns. Our factories are making more toys than
we ever imported, and they are not the flimsy jim-cracks we
formerly bought from abroad. They are largely exercise toys
which develop a child's body, or mechanical or structural toys
which train the mind. Before the war we imported eight million
dollars' worth of toys from the Central Powers. Who will make
our kiddies' toys in the days to come? Once more, Mr. Buyer,
it's up to you."
SMUGGLING FROM NEUTRAL COUNTRIES
Considerable aid was afforded to Germany by her trade with neutral
countries. First, there was a good deal of direct re-exportation of
materials imported from abroad. Then there was an exportation of
domestic products, and the filling up of this deficit by importation
from abroad, mainly from the United States. Mr. J. L. Moore of Harvard
University, thought that smuggling deserved to be added to the source of
German supply from the outside, and he mentioned the fact that a member
of the Commerce Department of the Swiss Government was convicted of this
offense and served a prison sentence. His exposition of how neutrals
aided Germany is given in the following passage from the New York
_Times_:
"To direct and indirect re-exportation must be added, finally,
smuggling, which has always been a factor in the evasion of
blockades. In Switzerland a member of the Commerce Department
of the government was recently convicted of this offense and is
serving a prison sentence.
"That this aid was precious to the Central Powers and enabled
them to stave off starvation and consequent submission can be
corroborated in various ways. First, in spite of the enormous
volume of imports from the neutrals Germany was on the verge of
starvation during the last winter, the economic crisis reaching
its critical stage coincidentally with the political crisis in
the Reichstag at the beginning of July. The most potent cause
of this political upheaval was the economic destitution which
cast its melancholy shadow over the whole nation and increased
the desperation of people and Reichstag till it exploded in a
violent outburst of wrath against the government. Secondly, the
general impression of press and people in Germany and
Switzerland is that the most sensational part of the speech of
Erzberger, which brought the crisis into being, consisted of an
exposé proving the futility of the submarine policy and
impugning the judgment of the officials responsible for its
inauguration, inasmuch as the entrance of the United States
into the list of Germany's enemies, which resulted therefrom,
was likely to result in a curtailment of the imports obtained
through the neutrals, and without a continuance of these
imports Germany could not hold out long."
SURPRISING INCREASE OF NEUTRAL SHIPPING
The shutting off of the German commercial fleet from trade and the
employment of Allied shipping under government contract offered an
exceptional opportunity to small neutral countries to advance their
shipping business. This opportunity was eagerly seized. Norway reported
the establishment in 1915 of no fewer than 488 shipping firms. This was
followed in 1916 by an increase of 459. Some of these Norwegian firms
paid dividends as high as 400 per cent. Statistics from Sweden also show
a significant expansion. Swedish firms of inconsiderable capitalization
before the war became important companies, able to undertake
transatlantic trade on a large scale. It seems likely that these Swedish
transatlantic lines will constitute a formidable competitor to the old
established German companies--now that the war is over.
Corroborative evidence on the shipping situation in neutral powers is
found in the following passage taken from the New York _Journal of
Commerce_:
"Of great importance for an estimate of the future of our
shipping combines is the progress which the two largest Danish
lines--the Forenede, which sails to North America; and the
Estasiatisk Kompagni, which, as the name suggests, runs lines
to East Asia--have made during the war. The Forenede, for
instance, made in 1916, with a stock capital of 30,000,000
crowns, a net profit of no less than 40,000,000 crowns, of
which a good 10,500,000 crowns was allotted to the reserve and
emergency funds. The collective reserves of this company
amounted to more than 26,000,000 crowns at the end of 1916: and
its bank credits totaled 44,000,000 crowns.
"The large Dutch shipping firms have likewise made enormous
profits. The following table presents their results for 1916
(the Dutch florin, or guilder, is worth $0.402 United States
currency at normal exchange):
Reserve and
Stock Net Emergency
Shipping Firm Capital, Profits, Funds,
Florins Florins Florins
Holland-Amer. Line 12,000,000 26,500,000 10,200,000
Stoomvaart Mij. Nederland 19,000,000 18,600,000 8,800,000
Kon. Nederl. Stoomboot Mij 15,050,000 19,000,000 7,800,000
Rotterdamsche Lloyd 15,000,000 15,100,000 12,600,000
Kon. Holland Lloyd 10,000,000 10,900,000 2,000,000
"The example of the Holland-America Line shows best what
enormous progress took place in the inner consolidation of the
Dutch firms. The reserve of this company, which in 1913
amounted to 6,600,000 florins, grew to 24,800,000 by the end of
1916--in other words, the previous stock capital (which in the
meantime had been increased by 15,000,000 florins) by more than
double. In addition, the company has available funds amounting
in all to 21,700,000 florins. The reserves in the Nederland
Company, which have increased in the same period from 6,700,000
to 23,000,000 florins, exceed the capital by 4,000,000 florins.
The available funds of the Rotterdamsche Lloyd amounted at the
end of 1916 to about 25,000,000 florins, with a share capital
of 15,000,000 florins and a ready reserve of 16,000,000
florins.
"But the business successes of the neutral European shipping
firms are far surpassed by the earnings of the Japanese
overseas lines. Thus the largest Japanese shipping firm, Nippon
Yusen Kaisha, that sails from East Asia to all the important
shipping markets, had a net profit in the summer half-year 1916
of 19,780,000 yen (the Japanese yen is equivalent to $0.498
United States currency); in the winter half-year 1916--17
actually 22,150,000; in a single fiscal year it earned,
therefore, about 42,000,000 yen. The company's capital stock
amounted at the end of the fiscal year 1916--17, after a
previous increase through the distribution of free shares, to
27,500,000 yen, the net profits of this single company being
thus about 15,000,000 yen more than the amount of the capital.
"The company's fleet has grown considerably. The total
available reserves amount to nearly 63,000,000 yen. Of ready
money the company had at its disposal at the end of March,
1917, 55,300,000 yen."
GERMANS AT WORK IN SPAIN
Germany's astuteness in dealing with neutral countries was especially
marked in Spain. The country was filled with German propaganda and there
were skeleton German trade organizations ready to begin functioning at a
moment's notice. The extent to which this propaganda was carried on was
described by a correspondent of the _Saturday Evening Post_, Mr. I. F.
Marcosson, in an address to the National Machine Tool Builders'
Association at Atlantic City:
"The German propagandists have carried on a campaign on the
proposition of the Kaiser. It has been the finest selling
campaign that I have ever seen. They have organized it. Each
man had his territory, his selling territory; each man has his
line of samples, and that line of samples was the finest lot of
German gold and German 'hot air' that any propaganda has ever
produced.
"The Germans have sold Spain on the proposition of German trade
and German good-will, because they are giving the Spaniard, as
they did in business before the war, what the Spaniard had in
mind.
"Germany went into Spain to fill the Spaniard with 'hot air'
and to tell him he was the finest aristocrat in the world. And
he got it over. And if you had gone, as I have, from one end of
Spain to the other and looked into these great warehouses you
would have found hundreds of them jammed and packed with copper
and oil and cotton, and all the material with which to
re-establish a great industry. And today, whenever there is a
water-right for sale, whenever there is stock for sale, or
whenever anything can be leased, or a factory can be bought,
who buys it? =The Germans.=
"They have got the finest industrial secret service in Spain that I
have seen in my life. And to what end? All to the great end that
when the war is over, in Spain as in Holland and in Switzerland,
the wheels of German output will be going.... Germany will put on
the goods, as I have seen with my own eyes, 'Made in Spain,' 'Made
in Switzerland,' and 'Made in Holland.' Your own goods, machine
tools, are going out in the markets of the world now and
forevermore in competition with German-made stuff, made by German
hands, made by German capital, part with stuff that is marked
offensive, in competition with stuff that is marked as I have said
it would be marked."
[Illustration: Photo by Paul Thompson
An Antidote for the Submarine Pest
Quantity production of eighty-foot motor boats in a shipyard at Bayonne,
N. J., for use as scouts and submarine hunters.]
NO ECONOMIC BOYCOTT AFTER THE WAR
The official leaders of the Allied Governments soon found that the
scheme to start an economic war after peace had been negotiated had no
very strong support. President Wilson took a hand in subjecting the
Paris resolutions advocating this economic war to unfavorable criticism.
The British Trades Union by a large majority showed their disapproval of
them. The London _Economist_ also disapproved of the program of a
vindictive trade policy after the war, though it thought that an
economic boycott might be used as a threat to force Germany to make
peace. Lord Robert Cecil took the ground that it would not be wise to
attempt an economic war. The labor point of view was that an economic
war was bound to produce another outbreak of militarism. The Speaker of
the British House of Commons, who always occupies a non-partisan
position, in an address at Carlisle on war aims, showed no sympathy with
the proposal:
"We had heard of war after the war, and it had been suggested
that whatever the terms of peace might be we in England should
have no dealings with Germany, that we should boycott them
commercially, allow none of our raw materials to go to Germany,
that we should form a combination with our Allies, and that
together we should cut her off altogether and treat her as
though she were a leper. He did not believe in this idea. He
was out for peace, and when he said he wanted peace he meant a
lasting peace. He wanted peace founded on sound conditions,
which would stand wear and tear and last forever, if
possible--at all events, for many, many years, it might be
centuries; but a boycott of Germany would not be the way to
attain a peace of that kind. That would be a way of carrying on
the war, and although it would not be with the weapons we were
now using, there would be the same hatred and struggle between
one combination of nations and another, and it would leave the
world divided and engender seeds of hatred and dissent. In many
respects it would be almost as bad as the war at the present
time. He did not, therefore, accept that condition of things."
In explaining England's position as to war aims the Premier, Lloyd
George, made the following observations:
"Germany has occupied a great position in the world. It is not
our wish or intention to question or destroy that position for
the future, but rather to turn her aside from hopes and schemes
of military domination and to see her devote all her strength
to the great beneficent tasks of the world.... The economic
conditions at the end of the war will be in the highest degree
difficult. Owing to the diversion of human effort to warlike
pursuits, there must follow a world shortage of raw materials,
which will increase the longer the war lasts; and it is
inevitable that those countries which have control of the raw
materials will desire to help themselves and their friends
first."
AN IMPOSSIBLE PROGRAM
In the emotional atmosphere of the war period some astonishing economic
propositions were accepted as if they were axiomatic truths. Notably was
this the case in the discussion of Germany's program of peaceful
penetration in the economic sphere. It was undoubtedly linked up with
schemes of military aggression. There was wide discussion of the methods
to be used to guard against Germany's commercial policy. Sometimes these
proposals indicated the desire that those who opposed Germany should
take a leaf from her dog-in-the-manger policy. Strange conceptions of
international trade that suggest the mercantilism of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries were revived in order to guard against any attempt
on the part of Germany to secure a privileged industrial position after
the war. As early as 1916 there was the famous proposal of an
anti-German economic league contemplated in the Paris resolutions of
that date. In Great Britain the supporters of this policy also actively
advocated a system of imperial preference by which special advantages
would be given to countries within the bounds of the British Empire. The
result of upholding any double-barreled policy of this type is described
by the Edinburgh _Review_ as impossible of realization.
"Even if Belgium, France, and Italy alone took that course, the
whole policy of an economic boycott, or partial boycott, to
prevent German expansion or to punish German crimes would fall
to the ground. We cannot imprison Germany in an economic strait
jacket if her territorial neighbors are willing to trade with
her. As a matter of fact before the war the most important and
the most expansive portion of German export trade was with the
continent of Europe."
COMMERCIAL AVIATION
A great advance in aeroplane development was one of the most spectacular
results of war activity. The military side of this development must be
discussed in another place, but the fact that aeroplanes had to be
constructed substantial enough to carry a large amount of explosives
naturally brought up the whole question of the commercial side of
aeroplane employment. Although the aeroplane has been developed to a
remarkable extent for war purposes, it must not be taken for granted
that every type of aeroplane has its use for peace. In the military
machine regard has been paid rather to gun positions, bomb carrying
capacity and performance than to economy in operation and large cargo
space, which are the essential peace requirements. This aspect of the
problem was discussed by F. Handley-Page in an article in the
_Fortnightly Review_.
"The type of aeroplane for commercial work requires careful
consideration and design. In estimating the value of a
transport vehicle account must be taken of the respective
proportions of the load that are and are not remunerative. A
steam motor wagon that was only just able to transport the coke
for its own consumption would be useless for transport work.
The large quantity of fuel the aeroplane must carry makes this
point an important one regarding it. It affects very largely
the _type_ of aeroplane that must be chosen for each duty.
"The total lift of a large bombing aeroplane of medium speed is
about 20 lbs., while that of a small high-speed scout may not
be more than about 8 to 10 lbs. per horse-power. From these
lifts have to be deducted the weight per horse-power of the
aeroplane structure and engines. These leave a margin of about
11 pounds per horse-power in the case of the large machine and
of only about two to four pounds per horse-power in the case of
the smaller and higher speed machine. From these margins have
to be deducted the weight _per horse-power_ of the pilot and of
the fuel to be carried."
According to this expert's opinion there is little probability of using
for commercial purposes the small high-powered aeroplane. But if large
machines are used with a speed limit of 100 miles an hour and fitted
with twin engines, Mr. Page thinks that such machines will have economic
possibilities. Countries now far distant from one another can be brought
close together. For example Australia will be within a week of London,
and he thinks that passengers can be carried at the rate of about six
cents a mile. If air transport is to be systematized he is in favor of
strict state regulation:
"There must be no possible chance of the wildcat schemes of the
early railway days recurring, nor must aircraft or their pilots
be below a specified standard. The State must see that projects
doomed to failure owing to lack of financial or technical
backing are prevented from being placed before the public.
"Regulations must be drawn up which will insure that the
machines cannot be used for the public service until they have
received a certificate similar to that now issued by Lloyd's
for ships. Pilots must not be allowed to fly machines conveying
the public or mails, unless they have received a certificate
equivalent to that issued to the master of a ship by the Board
of Trade before he can take charge.
"The aeroplane will not compete with the telegraph system,
cable, or wireless, but will be a useful adjunct conveying
written signed statements, important documents, long reports,
and descriptive letters in the time of a week-end cable and at
a fraction of the cost.
"It will enable the business man to visit his overseas agencies
and friends, to discuss matters with them on the spot and
examine the requirements of their districts, at the cost of a
few _days_ instead of months of travel."
[Illustration: The Awkward Squad
"Left, right--one, two, three, four," was the slogan heard throughout
the National Army cantonments, such as this at Camp Dodge, Des Moines,
Ia., during the first days in teaching the recruits one of the first
lessons of the soldier; how to keep step.
Copyright International Film Service]
V--THE MONEY COST OF THE WAR
Over $210,000,000,000 Spent by the Belligerents--How This Stupendous
Sum Was Raised--What the War Cost Uncle Sam
By EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN
Professor of Political Economy and Finance in Columbia University
The cost of a war may mean several different things. It may mean, in the
first place, the actual money cost, or expenditure in dollars and cents,
directly involved in prosecuting the war. Or, secondly, it may mean the
war cost, both direct and indirect, from the economic point of view. The
real cost of a war from this latter point of view may mean either actual
loss of lives and property or the diminution of the annual social
production. The wealth of a country measured in its social income may be
reduced either by the actual loss of territory, as in Germany; by the
impairment of its natural resources like the coal mines and forests, as
in France; by the reduction of labor power, due to the wounded workmen
or the results of starvation or privation, as in many countries of
Europe; or by the loss of economic efficiency due to a reduction of the
standard of life or to a changed attitude toward habits of work. The
real costs of war, although often incalculable, are none the less of
profound significance.
The actual money costs or expenditures of government for war include not
only the actual outlays for military and naval purposes, but also the
whole range of expenditures incurred in industrial life to prepare the
wherewithal for the Army and Navy; and they also comprise the sums
devoted to the maintenance of the families of the soldiers. All these
items are far greater in modern times than they used to be. It is a far
cry from the meeting of two savage tribes armed only with bows and
arrows or javelins, to the modern 16-inch guns, the dreadnoughts, the
airplanes, the submarines, the poison gas and the innumerable technical
adjuncts of modern warfare. The consequence is that the money costs of
the World War have far transcended those of all previous conflicts.
The attempt to present in figures the costs of the war meets with
several difficulties. In the first place the question arises as to the
period at which we ought to stop. In one sense the war ceased when the
armistice was declared. In another sense the war did not actually stop
until the peace was declared--in this case a matter of many months
additional. But even when peace was declared the war expenses were by no
means over. The process of demobilization is a slow one: moreover it is
necessary to continue for some time the policing of the conquered
countries; and finally comes the question of the pensions to the wounded
soldiers or to the families of the dead. It will be seen, therefore, how
impossible it is to state with any accuracy at the present time the
costs of the war, when those are still being incurred. Furthermore, the
figures ordinarily given contain additional inaccuracies. The richer
countries make loans to the poorer countries and these expenditures are
consequently counted twice in the total,--a procedure legitimate only on
the assumption that the loans will not be repaid. Again, in a country
like the United States, which has substituted an insurance system for
the pension system, the nominal expenditures appear smaller than is
really the case, because of the receipt of vast insurance premiums which
will ultimately all be expended again. Finally the figures make no
allowances for the change in the price level or the alteration in the
value of money. In a great war like the present, prices have risen: in
some countries they have doubled, in some countries they have more than
tripled, for reasons which it is needless to discuss here. What appears,
therefore, to be a great and increasing outlay from year to year may be
in reality due in part, at least, to this cause.
After making all allowances for these difficulties we may proceed to
state some of the facts as to the actual outlays of various countries.
THE COST OF THE WAR DAY BY DAY
In all the belligerent countries it naturally took some time for them to
get into their stride. This is especially true of Great Britain. The
figures of the average daily expenditures, as given by the Chancellor of
the Exchequer, amounted to almost $10,000,000 in the opening months of
the war and reached a maximum of almost $36,000,000 by 1918. These
figures, however, are not exact because they include all of the
expenditures. The real war expenditures may be arrived at by deducting
in each case the amount of the expenditures in the last year of peace,
ending March 31, 1914. Making these corrections, it appears that the
average daily war expenditures in England rose from about $9,500,000
during the first eight months of the war to about $33,500,000 in 1918,
then slowly receding in 1919. In France the average daily expenditures
were naturally somewhat less, rising from about $8,500,000 during the
first three months of the war to over $21,000,000 during 1917, the last
full year of the war. In Germany the daily expenses were approximately
the same as in Great Britain, rising from about $13,000,000 in the first
nine months of the war to $34,500,000 during the last six months of
1918. In the case of both Germany and France, it is not known whether
the figures comprise the total expenditures or only the pure war
expenditures. In the former event the daily expenditures of Germany
would be a little less than those of Great Britain; in the latter, they
would be a little more. In Italy and Austria-Hungary the daily
expenditures were naturally smaller, amounting at the maximum to about
$10,500,000 and $20,000,000 respectively. In Russia the daily
expenditures rose in 1916 to about $20,000,000 and in 1917, just prior
to the October revolution, nominally to $47,000,000. But, owing to the
great depreciation of the ruble, the actual expenditures were much less.
OUR WAR EXPENSES MONTH BY MONTH
When the United States entered the war the scale of its operations
became so stupendous that its daily war expenditures soon far exceeded
those of any other belligerent. In the second month of the war the
average daily expenditures for pure war purposes were $15,000,000 and
little over a year later they had risen to almost $50,000,000. By the
end of 1918, the daily average war expenditures reached the staggering
figure of $64,500,000.
[Illustration: The Economic Conference in Paris
Mr. Bonar Law talking with M. Clementel (Minister of Commerce) and M.
Doumergue (Colonies) in the garden of the foreign ministry.]
If, now, we attempt to present the statistics of the total cost of the
war we must be mindful of the difficulties mentioned above. The figures
are not entirely accurate, and cannot be made entirely accurate for the
following reasons: In the first place, the last date in the official
return differs from country to country. They are, however, all
subsequent to the armistice, with the exception of Russia, where we
have no trustworthy figures after the advent of Bolshevism. In the
second place, we do not know, except in the case of the United States
and Great Britain, whether the figures comprise the total expenditures
or only the purely war expenditures. Even making allowance for these
differences it will be seen that the total war expenditures amount to
over $232,000,000,000. In Japan and some of the minor belligerents,
there were virtually no war expenses. Inasmuch, however, as most of the
countries will continue to have expenses attributable to the war for
some little time in the future, it is probable that the total war
expenditures will amount, by the end of 1920, to almost
$236,000,000,000. From this must, however, be deducted the sums counted
twice, because advanced to their allies by the United States, Great
Britain, France and Germany. Making allowance for this, it is safe to
say that the total net war expenditures will be about $210,000,000,000.
WAR EXPENDITURES OF ALL BELLIGERENTS
In Millions
====================================================================
| From entrance | To | |
| into war | | |
--------------+----------------+----------------+----------+--------
Great Britain | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | £ 8,601| $41,887
| | | |
Australia | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | £ 291| 1,461
| | | |
Canada (inc. | August 4, 1914 |August 31, 1919 | | 1,545
Newfoundland) | | | |
New Zealand | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | £ 76| 365
| | | |
South Africa | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | £ 33| 243
| | | |
India | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | £ 119| 584
| | | | -------
British Empire| | | | $46,083
| | | |
France | August 3, 1914 | March 31, 1919 |fr 169,000| $32,617
| | | |
Russia | August 1, 1914 |October 31, 1917| ru 51,500| 26,522
| | | |
Italy | May 23, 1915 |October 31, 1918| li 81,016| 15,636
| | | |
Belgium | August 2, 1914 |October 31, 1918| fr 5,900| 1,387
| | | |
Rumania |August 27, 1916 |October 31, 1918| | 907
| | | |
Serbia | July 28, 1914 |October 31, 1918| | 635
| | | |
United States | April 15, 1917 | June 30, 1919 | | 32,261
| | | |--------
Entente Powers| | | |$156,050
| | | |
Germany | August 1, 1914 |October 31, 1919|mk 204,268| 48,616
| | | |
Austria- | July 28, 1914 |October 31, 1919|kr 119,504| 24,858
Hungary | | | |
Turkey |November 3, 1914|October .., 1919| | 1,802
| | | |
Bulgaria |October 4, 1915 |October .., 1919| | 732
| | | | -------
Central Powers| | | | $76,008
| | | |
Total | | | In |$232,058
| | | Millions |
====================================================================
HOW MONEY FOR WAR WAS RAISED
The question now arises as to the steps taken by the various countries
to meet these stupendous outlays. Of the older expedients, such as war
treasures, or the sale of public property there was naturally no
question. In only one country, viz., Germany, was there a war treasure;
but this was so small as to be well-nigh negligible. The only two
available resources were accordingly taxation and borrowing.
When we compare these two expedients, we are struck not only by the
great difference in the theories of war finance followed by the various
countries, but also by the diversity in the economic conditions which
largely influenced the choice. In a general way, it may be said that all
countries were compelled to rely to an overwhelming extent on public
loans, but that Great Britain and the United States raised a far greater
share by taxation than did other countries. Italy was able to raise by
new taxation only just about enough to pay the interest on the new
loans; Germany accomplished this only in part; while France was not in a
position to defray any of her war expenditures from additional taxation.
The same is true of the other belligerents, with the exception of the
British colonies.
Proceeding now to take up this matter in detail, we shall first attempt
to set forth the facts as to war taxation.
UNITED STATES
----------------------------+-------------+-------------+------------
| Monthly | |
|Expenditures | |
|exclusive of | |
|the principal| |
| of the | Monthly | Average
| public debt | War | Daily
|and of postal|Expenditures |Expenditures
|expenditures | [19] |
----------------------------+-------------+-------------+------------
| Million $ | Million $ | Million $
April 6--30, 1917 | 279 | 219 | 8.
May, 1917 | 527 | 467 | 15.
June, 1917 | 410 | 350 | 11.7
| ------ | ------ |
Total April 6--June 30, 1917| 1,216 | 1,156 |
| | |
July 1917 | 662 | 602 | 19.4
August 1917 | 757 | 697 | 22.5
September 1917 | 746 | 686 | 22.9
October 1917 | 944 | 884 | 29.5
November 1917 | 986 | 926 | 30.9
December 1917 | 1,105 | 1,045 | 33.7
January 1918 | 1,090 | 1,030 | 33.2
February 1918 | 1,012 | 952 | 34.
March 1918 | 1,156 | 1,096 | 35.9
April 1918 | 1,215 | 1,155 | 38.5
May 1918 | 1,508 | 1,448 | 46.7
June 1918 | 1,512 | 1,452 | 48.4
| ------ | ------ |
Total for fiscal year, 1918 | 12,697 | 11,977 |
July 1918 | 1,608 | 1,548 | 49.9
August 1918 | 1,805 | 1,745 | 56.8
September 1918 | 1,557 | 1,497 | 49.9
October 1918 | 1,665 | 1,605 | 51.8
November 1918 | 1,935 | 1,875 | 62.5
December 1918 | 2,061 | 2,001 | 64.5
January 1919 | 1,962 | 1,902 | 61.4
February 1919 | 1,189 | 1,129 | 40.
March 1919 | 1,379 | 1,319 | 42.5
April 1919 | 1,429 | 1,369 | 45.6
May 1919 | 1,112 | 1,052 | 33.9
June 1919 | 809 | 749 | 24.9
| ------ | ------ |
Total for fiscal year 1919 | 18,505 | 17,785 |
| | |
Total April 6, 1914 to June | | |
30, 1919 | 32,428 | 30,918 |
----------------------------+-------------+-------------+------------
[19] Obtained by deducting 11/12 of the annual (peace) expenditures for
1915--1916 exclusive of postal expenditures, i. e. 11/12 of $1,008--287
millions--60 millions. Secretary Glass in his letter of July 9, 1919 to
the Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means excludes postal
expenditures in the first column, but fails to exclude them when making
the deduction for peace expenditures. He consequently arrives at the
figure of 30,177 billions as the cost of the war; making allowance for
this fact, and using the final corrected figures, we reach the figure of
$32,261,000,000 as the cost of the war to June 30, 1919.
WAR TAXATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES
Great Britain, as the wealthiest country at the outbreak of the war,
endeavored to raise as much as possible from taxation. From year to
year, as the expenses mounted up, more and more demands were made upon
the taxpayer. But the expenditures for the war were so enormous that it
soon turned out to be impracticable, even with the best of will, to
secure more than a comparatively small proportion of the total cost from
taxation. The figures usually advanced by the various Chancellors of the
Exchequer and repeated parrot-like by most commentators take the
proportion that total taxes bear to total expenditures. This method of
calculation, as will be seen from the table, shows that almost a quarter
of the total expenditures, or to be more exact, 24.9 per cent., was
derived from taxes. These figures, however, err doubly. In the first
place the significant problem is to ascertain the war expenditures, not
simply the total expenditures. These can naturally be obtained only by
deducting from the annual total expenditures the sums equal to the peace
expenditures, _i. e._, the expenditures for the last full year of peace.
In the second place, what is significant is not the total taxes, but the
war taxes; that is, the proceeds of the additional taxes raised during
the war. These again can be obtained only by deducting from the total
tax revenue the proceeds of the taxes during the last full year of
peace. If then we endeavor to ascertain how much of the war expenditures
were met by war taxes--and this is really the important problem--we find
that, immense as were the burdens resting upon the British taxpayer, the
percentage of war expenditures raised by war taxes is much smaller than
is usually stated. As a matter of fact, in the first year of war only a
little over 7 per cent. of the total war expenditures were raised from
taxes. With every succeeding year the percentage increased until the
last year of war, 1918--19, a little over one-quarter of the war
expenditures were met from war taxes. For the entire five years the
proportion of war taxes to war expenditures was slightly over 17 per
cent.
In the other belligerent countries the showing was by no means so good.
France struggled under a double difficulty. In the first place France
was invaded at the very outset of the war, and the territory occupied,
although relatively small in extent, represented the richest and the
most industrially developed part of the country. This operated largely
to reduce the ordinary revenues. In the second place the resultant
economic confusion, as well as the general political situation, made it
very difficult to impose any new taxes at all. The consequence was that
for the first three years of the war, the tax revenues of France did not
even suffice to defray the ordinary peace expenditures.
After a little while, indeed, France found it possible to levy some war
taxes; but these were exceedingly slight compared with what had been
accomplished in Great Britain. The result is that the new war taxes of
France were only just about sufficient to make up the deficit on the
ordinary peace budget--a deficit caused chiefly by the devastation of
the occupied territory. In France, therefore, we may say that as a
result no part of the expenditures was met by war taxes.
In Italy the situation was a little better. Italy had not been invaded
and its financial situation was not so desperate as that of France.
Moreover, Italy entered the war somewhat later and did not have to
endure a strain for so long a time. Italy consequently proceeded as soon
as possible to levy new war taxes; but as Italy had always been
relatively overtaxed, as compared with Great Britain, it was not
feasible to do as much. As a result, the war taxes levied by Italy were
just about sufficient to pay the interest on the war loans. While Italy,
therefore, did better than France, she also was not able to defray any
of the war expenditures proper out of war taxation.
The condition of Russia soon became worse than that of France and Italy,
and even before the October revolution, Russia was able to put very
little reliance upon revenues from war taxation.
Among the Central Powers the situation was much the same, but for a
different reason. Germany at the outset of the war had so confidently
counted upon victory and upon huge indemnities that it resolved to
defray its war expenses entirely from loans. It must, however, be
observed that in Germany a not insignificant part of the war expenses
were met by the separate states; and in these various states a
considerable increase of taxation was provided for at once. As the war
proceeded and the hopes of a speedy and complete victory gradually faded
away, Germany began to change her policy and decided, especially from
1916 on, to impose more and more taxes. The result was that by the end
of the war Germany had done a little better than France.
OUR WAR TAXES COMPARED WITH WAR EXPENDITURES
We come finally to the experience of the United States. When the United
States entered the war it was confronted by two rival theories of
public finances. One was to the effect that the war expenses should be
defrayed entirely by war loans, as had been the case in the early years
of the Civil War and as was true of many of the belligerents during this
war. The other theory was that the war expenditures ought to be defrayed
entirely out of war taxes. This was equally extreme and perilous as the
former theory, and labored under the additional disadvantage of being
impossible of achievement. The President went so far as to adopt the
fifty-fifty theory, namely, that half of the war expenditures ought to
be defrayed from taxation.
The prodigious profits made during the beginning years of the European
war and the resulting prosperity throughout the country enabled Congress
to levy taxes far higher than had before been attempted in our history.
Even with an immense addition to taxation, however, the proportion of
war expenses derived from war taxes was relatively small. Here, again,
we must observe the same caution as in the case of the British figures.
We must not compare total expenditures with total taxes, but war
expenditures with war taxes. War expenditures are easily ascertained by
deducting for each year the amount of the expenditures for the last year
of peace, the year ending June 30, 1916. In the case of war taxes,
however, it is more exact to deduct from the total revenues the tax
revenues for the year ending June 30, 1915. For during the year 1915--16
a number of taxes were already levied in preparation for our possible
entrance into the war.
As a matter of fact, during the first quarter of war ending June 30,
1917, the proportion of war expenditures derived from war taxes was less
than one-third or 30 per cent. If we exclude loans to Allies on the
assumption that they will all be repaid some day, the showing is
somewhat better--as two-thirds of the expenditures of that period
consisted of such loans.
As soon, however, as we struck our full gait the situation was less
satisfactory. The proportion of war expenditures derived from war taxes
during the year 1917--18 was less than one-quarter or more exactly only
24.8 per cent. and if we again exclude loans to Allies, only 30 per
cent. In the last year of the war the showing was still less favorable.
If we take the expenditures for the entire period of our participation
in the war the figures are respectively 21.7 per cent. and 27 per cent.
For the entire period of our participation in the war, less than
one-fourth (or exactly 23.3 per cent.) of the war expenditures were paid
out of war taxes. And if the loans to Allies are again excluded the
proportion is still under one third, or more exactly 32.5 per cent.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
=Lord Reading=
President of the Anglo-French loan mission to the United States in 1915,
and special envoy of the British Government to the United States in
1917.]
This compares favorably even with the British figures. But it
conclusively shows how impossible it is even with the best of will, to
raise more than a relatively small part of war expenses from war taxes;
especially during the early period of a war.
CHARACTER OF WAR TAXATION
The next point of interest is that of the character of the war taxes
imposed by the various countries. Here again we notice a very great
difference. In all of the European belligerents on the continent, at
least as much additional revenue was raised from direct, as from
indirect, taxation. In France about as much new revenue came from
indirect taxation or taxes on consumption as from direct taxation or
taxes on wealth.
The situation is still less satisfactory in the other continental
countries.
In England, on the other hand, a different path was pursued from the
beginning. While it is true that a considerable increase of revenue was
derived from indirect taxes like customs and excise, the chief reliance
was placed on the increase of the income tax, on a new war profits tax
and finally, although to a minor degree, on an increase in the
inheritance tax.
When we come, however, to the situation in the United States we find the
democratic movement so strong that the overwhelming proportion of the
new tax revenue was derived from direct taxation on wealth rather than
from indirect taxation on consumption. In the great Revenue Act of 1917
over 79 per cent. of the new tax revenue came from direct taxation,
principally the income tax and the excess profits tax. In the second
great Revenue Act of 1918, the proportions were still more favorable,
the amount ascribable to direct taxation in 1919 being almost 81 per
cent.
UNITED STATES
Internal Revenue Receipts
In millions of dollars
Per Per
Year ending June 30 1918 Cent. 1919 Cent.
Income and profits taxes 2,839 2,596[20]
Munition manufacturers tax 13 .....
Estate tax 47 82
Corporate capital stock tax 25 29
----- -----
Total taxes on wealth 2,924 79.1 2,707 70.5
Distilled spirits 318 365
Fermented liquors 126 118
Tobacco 158 206
Stamp taxes 19 37
Transportation 71 234
Insurance 6 15
Excise taxes 37 78
Soft drinks 2 7
Admissions 26 51
Miscellaneous 8 22
---- ----
Total taxes on consumption,
transactions and
commodities 771 20.9 1,133 29.5
Total 3,695 .... 3,840 ....
[20] As the new taxes are payable in instalments, about 2 millions
of the 1919 tax will not be received until the fiscal year 1920.
Making allowance for this the proportion of taxes on wealth
really ascribable to the year 1919 rises to 80.6 per cent.
With the impossibility of securing more than a comparatively small
proportion of the war expenditures from taxation, it accordingly became
necessary to resort to borrowing. This was consequently done by every
country on a gigantic scale; although here again the fiscal and economic
conditions in the various countries were so different that they employed
quite diverse expedients.
Great Britain provided at the outset of the war for immediate needs by
the selling of short time securities, principally Treasury Bills. Before
long these had amounted to such a sum that it became necessary to issue
long time bonds. Accordingly, subscriptions were invited to the first
war loan, which was issued on March 1, 1915, followed by the second war
loan on June 1, 1915. These bore interest at the rate of 3½ and 4½ per
cent. and the amount issued was $1,703,000,000 and $2,883,000,000
respectively. On February, 1916, a continuous issue of War Savings
Certificates was inaugurated. On April 15, 1917, the third war loan was
issued at 4 per cent., followed on June 1, by the issue of 5 per cent.
bonds. Of these $4,811,000,000 were issued.
Beginning on October 2, 1917, a continuous issue of 4 and 5 per cent.
National War Bonds was made, the difference in the rate of interest
being due to the tax exemption. The temporary and short time paper was
gradually funded into these bonds. In the meantime the Anglo-French loan
of $500,000,000, of which England had one-half, had been contracted in
the United States; and with the entrance of the United States into the
war on April 6, 1917, continually larger sums were borrowed from the
American Government. During the period of the war the British debt rose
from £650,000,000 to £7,643,000,000 or from $3,115,000,000 to
$37,221,000,000. It is expected that $250,000,000 will be borrowed
during the year 1919--20, so that in all probability the debt of Great
Britain at the end of 1920 will amount to almost £8,000,000,000, or
$38,500,000,000, meaning that the war debt probably will amount to about
£7,500,000,000, or $35,000,000,000.
France was in a far less favorable situation than England at the outset
of the war. The total debt of France at the close of 1913 amounted to
fr. 32,594,000,000, or $6,291,000,000, and the ordinary budget had
closed with a large deficit. So that it had been necessary to issue a
loan during the spring and summer of 1914. When the war suddenly broke
out, precipitating an economical and financial crash, it became
practically impossible to issue another loan. The government was
therefore compelled to rely upon advances from the Banque de France,
which was permitted correspondingly to increase its notes issue. It was
not until November, 1915, that France saw her way to issue her first war
loan of 5 per cent. bonds. This was followed on August 6, 1916, by the
second war loan, also of 5 per cent. bonds, on December 15, 1917, by the
third war loan of 4 per cent. bonds, and on Dec. 15, 1918, by the fourth
war loan, also at 4 per cent. The first war loan issued at 88 yielded
$1,894,000,000; the second, at 83.75, yielded $1,981,000,000; the third
at 68.60 yielded $2,914,000,000 and the fourth at 70.8 yielded
$5,382,000,000. Meanwhile National Defense Bonds were issued
continuously from February 25, 1915, and foreign loans had been
contracted in England, in the United States and in Japan. The result was
that at the close of the year 1918 the French debt amounted to fr.
167,469,000,000 or $32,322,000,000. This meant that the debt due to the
war amounted to fr. 134,875,000,000 or $26,031,000,000. It is expected,
however, that a considerable sum will still have to be borrowed during
the year 1919, thus bringing the total French debt to 27 or 28 billions
of dollars.
[Illustration: While the Men Fought, Those Left Behind Bought Bonds
Not all brave hearts beat under khaki during the war. More than
$20,000,000,000 was raised by the four Liberty Loans and the Fifth
Victory Loan. Among those who bought bonds were hundreds of thousands of
wives and children of the men at the front.
Courtesy McClure's Magazine]
Russia was the first of the Entente Powers to issue public loans. On
September 14, 1914, it issued a 5 per cent. loan at 94, yielding
$259,000,000. This was followed at regular intervals by six more loans
prior to the revolution of 1917. After the revolution there was
considerable confusion which, of course, was much accentuated by the
advent of Bolshevism. The consequence was that the public debt of
Russia, which amounted for July, 1914, to $4,623,000,000, increased by
the time of the October revolution in 1917 to 49,288 millions of rubles
or 25,383 millions of dollars. This would mean a war debt of almost
twenty-one billions of dollars. As a matter of fact of course it is very
uncertain whether the debt will ever be redeemed at these figures.
The debt of Italy before it entered the war amounted to lire
13,636,000,000 or $2,621,000,000. Italy started at once with a so-called
mobilization loan followed by its first war loan in July, 1915, and
successive war loans on the first of January of each of the following
years. The result was that on October 31, 1918, the total debt amounted
to lire 63,093,000,000 or $12,177,000,000. By the end of May, 1919, the
debt had grown to 77,763,000,000 lire or $15,009,000,000 leaving as the
war debt lire 64,127,000,000 or $12,388,000,000.
Of the Central Powers, Germany started at once on October 1, 1914, to
issue a war loan at 5 per cent., having from the outset decided to rely
upon comparatively long time bonds rather than upon temporary or short
time securities as was the case in England and in France. There followed
in regular succession eight war loans bearing 4½ and 5½ per cent.
interest. As a result, the debt of Germany, which before the war
amounted to Mk. 4,732,000,000 increased on October 31, 1919, to Mk.
204,000,000,000 or $48,552,000,000; the war debt proper in Germany would
therefore amount to $47,426,000,000.
TOTAL WAR DEBT, UNITED STATES
When the United States entered the war it depended, for the time being,
on temporary war certificates. But at the beginning of June, 1917,
Liberty Loans were issued in continually greater dimensions. In the
table below the details of the four Liberty Loans and the Fifth Victory
Loan are given, showing that over $20,000,000,000 were raised from bonds
alone. To these is to be added the unfunded loans. It appears that the
total net debt of the United States, which in April, 1917, was
$1,190,000,000, increased by June 30, 1919, to $24,232,000,000, making a
war debt of $23,042,000,000. Inasmuch, however, as somewhat over a
billion dollars from the Victory Loan will be paid in the course of the
year 1919--20, and as still more will have to be borrowed temporarily,
the total war debt of the United States by the end of 1920 will amount
to over $25,000,000,000, including the nine billions advanced to the
Allies.
UNITED STATES
In Millions
Debt Less Annual
Cash in Interest
Treasury Charge
April 5, 1917 $1,189 $23
June 30, 1917 1,909 84
June 30, 1918 10,924 466
June 30, 1919 24,233 619
DEBT ON JUNE 30, 1919
Bonds
Pre-war bonds 833
War loans
First Liberty Loan $1,985
Second Liberty Loan 3,566
Third Liberty Loan 3,959
Fourth Liberty Loan 6,795
Victory Loan (notes) 3,468 20,455
Treasury Certificates 3,634
Old debt on which interest increased 2
Non-interest bearing debt 236
------
Total gross debt 25,485
Cash on hand 1,252
-------
Net debt (In Millions) $24,233
The other belligerents need not be treated separately. The total pre-war
debt, including Japan, whose debt was increased only by the money raised
to loan to Great Britain and France, amounted to almost $28,000,000,000.
The debt at the close of the war amounted to over $224,000,000,000,
making the net war debt somewhat over $196,000,000,000. When we compare
this with the total cost of the war, which, as we have seen, will amount
to about $210,000,000,000, it appears that almost the entire cost of the
war will have been defrayed from loans, the difference of well-nigh
$15,000,000,000 derived from taxation being due almost entirely to the
efforts of Great Britain and the United States respectively.
PUBLIC DEBT OF THE BELLIGERENTS
000,000 omitted
==========================================================
|Before | | After | War debt |
|the war| |the war | |
---------+-------+----------+--------+-----------+
Great |Aug. 4,| £650 = |Mar. 31,|£7,643[21] | $34,056
Britain | 1914 | $3,165 | 1919 | = $37,221 |
| | | | |
Australia|Aug. 4,| 97 = 472 |Jan. 31,|[22] 336 = | 1,162
| 1914 | | 1919 | 1,634 |
| | | | |
Canada. |Aug. 4,| 332 |Mar. 31,| 1,584 | 1,250
| 1914 | | 1919 | |
| | | | |
New |Aug. 4,|100 = 487 |Mar. 31,| 170 = 828 | 341
Zealand | 1914 | | 1919 | |
| | | | |
South |Aug. 4,|126 = 614 |Mar. 31,| 175 = 846 | 332
Africa | 1914 | | 1919 | |
| | ------ | | ------- | -------
British | | $5,070 | | $42,213 | $37,143
Empire | | | | |
| | | | |
France | July |fr. 32,594|Dec. 31,|fr. 167,459| 26,031
| 1914 | = $6,291 | 1918 | = 32,322 |
| | | | |
Russia | July |ru. 8,800 |Jan. 1, |ru. 49,288 | 20,760
| 1914 | = 4,623 | 1918 | = 25,383 |
| | | | |
Italy | May |li. 13,636|Oct. 31,|li. 77,763 | 12,388
| 1915 | = 2,621 | 1918 | = 15,009 |
| | | | |
Belgium |Aug. 2,|fr. 3,743 |Apr. 30,|fr. 9,787 =| 1,166
| 1914 | = 722 | 1919 | 1,888 |
| | | | |
Rumania | Aug. | 292 |Oct. 31,| 1,020 | 728
| 1916 | | 1918 | |
| | | | |
Serbia | July | 271 |Oct. 31,| 730 | 459
| 1914 | | 1918 | |
| | | | |
Japan | July |yen 2,494 |July 31,|yen 2,530 =| 18
| 1914 | = 1,190 | 1918 | 1,265 |
| | | | |
United |Apr. 5,| 1,190 |June 30,| 24,232 | 23,042
States | 1917 | | 1919 | |
| | ------ | | ------- | -------
Entente | | $22,327 | | 144,062 | 121,735
Powers | | | | |
---------+-------+----------+--------+-----------+--------
Germany |Aug. 1,|mk. 4,732 |Dec. 31,|mk. 204,000| 47,426
| 1914 | = $1,126 | 1918 | = $48,352 |
| | | | |
Austria- |Aug. 1,| 3,726 |Oct. 31,|kr. 137,858| 24,858
Hungary | 1914 | | 1918 | = 25,584 | [23]
| | | | |
Turkey | Nov. | LT 112 = |Oct. 31,| LT 455 = | 1,517
| 1914 | 485 | 1918 | 2,002 |
| | | | |
Bulgaria |Oct. 4,| 219 |Oct. 31,| 974 | 755
| 1915 | | 1918 | |
| | ------ | | ------- | ------
Central | | $5,556 | | $80,112 | 74,556
Powers | | | | |
| | | | |
Total | | $27,883 | | $224,174 | 196,291
| |In Millions |In Millions|
==========================================================
[21] Counting on repayments of one half of the loans to the Allies (£816
millions).
[22] Not including the debts of the separate states.
[23] Obtained by considering the debt of the new Austria as representing
70 per cent of the debt of all the states which constituted the old
empire.
[Illustration: French School Children Waiting to Welcome General
Pétain]
VI--AMERICAN BUSINESS IN THE WAR
Voluntary Coöperation of Experts and Loyal Support of Labor Put Our
Industries on a War Basis
By GROSVENOR B. CLARKSON
Director of the U. S. Council of National Defense and of Its Advisory
Commission
Modern wars are not won by mere numbers. They are not won by
mere enthusiasm. They are not won by mere national spirit. They
are won by the scientific conduct of war, the scientific
application of irresistible force.
--WOODROW WILSON.
War today means that for every man on the fighting line there must be
approximately ten men--and women--behind him in the factories, mills,
and mines of the nation that enters the conflict. It is an enterprise to
which military men alone have ceased to be called, for it enlists the
specialists of every industry and every science from the fighting line
clear back to the last line of defense.
When the American Marines were thrown into the battle line at the Marne,
a French general officer rode up to headquarters.
"How deep is your front?" he asked.
"From here to San Francisco," was the reply; and in that statement lay
the story of America's industrial and economic mobilization for war.
For America the actual arena of the war was 3,000 miles oversea, and
into this arena the Government of the United States threw 2,000,000 of
the most superb troops that the drama of warfare has known; and, what is
more, got them there on time to make possible the final smashing blow.
The organization, transportation, and clocklike delivery at the eleventh
hour of these irresistible citizen armies of the great Republic of the
western world is an epic in itself.
But here at home there were armies too. They were created without
mandates; they were welded into cohesive form by suggestion rather than
by order; they were galvanized from beginning to end by the mighty force
of voluntary coöperation; and they went into the home stretch with a
power which nothing could have stopped. These were the armies of
production--production mainly, it is true, of guns and steel plates and
soldiers' shoes; but production as well of energy, of thought that made
the sword a flaming thing, of optimism to offset the stupid pessimism of
people who criticized but had nothing tangible to contribute, of the
immortal spirit of "carry on," of, above all, unification.
In all of this endeavor, in all of this uprooting of the static national
life of peace time, the business man of America reached his apotheosis
and surprised even himself in his ability to merge his heart and nerves
and brain into the national interest in the most emergent hour of the
country's history.
In effect, America went into the war unprepared. The will to war was a
dormant thing throughout the nation. The country was swollen with
material success almost to the point expressed in Lincoln's phrase: "A
fat hound won't hunt." The evolution of the Government of the United
States, enjoying profound peace for more than half a century, except for
the minor military operations of the Spanish-American conflict, into a
great war-making machine in mercilessly short time was a task to
challenge the ability of even the most resourceful nation of the earth.
There, broadly stated, was the national picture in the spring of 1917.
War came, and almost with every day grew the need for increased
participation on America's part.
COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE
The only federal agency in existence on April 7, 1917, capable of the
elasticity to mobilize industry, labor, and science for the national
defense was the United States Council of National Defense. This body,
composed of the Secretaries of War, Navy, Interior, Agriculture,
Commerce, and Labor, had providentially been created by Congress eight
months before. It was charged by Congress with "the coördination of
industries and resources for the national security and welfare" and "the
creation of relations which will render possible in time of need the
immediate concentration and utilization of the resources of the nation."
With it was to act an advisory commission of seven men, each to have
expert knowledge of some special industry, public utility, or the
development of some natural resource.
The Council was further charged with the following particular duties:
1. To supervise and direct investigations and make
recommendations to the President and the heads of Executive
Departments as to:
(_a_) The location of railroads with reference to the frontier
of the United States, so as to render possible expeditious
concentration of troops and supplies to points of defense.
(_b_) The coördination of military, industrial, and commercial
purposes in the location of extensive highways and branch lines
of railroads.
(_c_) The utilization of waterways.
(_d_) The mobilization of military and naval resources for
defense.
(_e_) The increase of domestic production of articles and
materials essential to the support of the armies and of the
people during the interruption of foreign commerce.
(_f_) The development of sea-going transportation.
(_g_) Data as to amounts, location, methods and means of
production and availability of military supplies.
(_h_) The giving of information to producers and manufacturers
as to the class of supplies needed by the military and other
services of the Government, the requirements relating thereto,
and the creation of relations which will render possible in
time of need the immediate concentration and utilization of the
resources of the nation.
2. To report to the President or to the heads of Executive
Departments upon special inquiries or subjects appropriate
thereto.
3. To submit an annual report to Congress, through the
President, giving as full a statement of the activities of the
Council and the agencies subordinate to it as is consistent
with the public interest, including an itemized account of the
expenditures made by the Council or authorized by it, in as
full detail as the public interest will permit, providing,
however, that when deemed proper the President may authorize,
in amounts stipulated by him, unvouchered expenditures and
report the gross so authorized not itemized.
PERSONNEL OF THE COUNCIL
Save for preliminary meetings late in the winter of 1916, the Council
and Advisory Commission did not get under way to any appreciable degree
until February, 1917, when both bodies began to meet separately and
jointly with the primary purpose of taking the national balance, chiefly
with regard to industrial resources. The permanent organization of both
bodies was made on March 3, 1917.
The Council of National Defense was composed as follows:
Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, Chairman.
Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels.
Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane.
Secretary of Agriculture David F. Houston.
Secretary of Commerce William C. Redfield.
Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson.
The members of the Advisory Commission were:
_Transportation and Communication_:
Daniel Willard, Chairman, President of the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad.
_Munitions and Manufacturing, including Standardization and
Industrial Relations_:
Howard E. Coffin, Vice-President of the Hudson Motor Car
Company.
_Supplies, including Food and Clothing_:
Julius Rosenwald, President of Sears, Roebuck & Company.
_Raw Materials, Minerals and Metals_:
Bernard M. Baruch, financier.
_Engineering and Education_:
Doctor Hollis Godfrey, President of the Drexel Institute.
_Labor, including Conservation of Health and Welfare of
Workers_:
Samuel Gompers, President of the American Federation of Labor.
_Medicine and Surgery, including General Sanitation_:
Doctor Franklin Martin, Secretary-General of the American
College of Surgeons.
The Director of the Council and the Advisory Commission during the
greater part of the war was Walter S. Gifford, now Vice-President of the
American Telephone and Telegraph Company, a most capable organizer, who
with the writer had been closely associated with Howard Coffin in a
pioneer industrial preparedness movement inaugurated in the spring of
1916 to examine into the capacity of industrial plants for military
purposes. This was an entirely volunteer movement of business men and
industrial engineers under the Naval Consulting Board of the United
States, acting with the full approval of the President and the War and
Navy Departments. Mr. Coffin's Committee on Industrial Preparedness did
a remarkable job in a very short space of time, and the creation of the
Council of National Defense was the logical sequence of the Committee's
work, its records being turned over to the Council. The writer was the
Secretary of the Council and the Advisory Commission throughout until
the early summer of 1918, when he became Acting Director, succeeding Mr.
Gifford shortly after the signing of the armistice.
[Illustration: Copyright by Harris & Ewing
=United States Council of National Defense and Its Advisory Commission=
Seated, left to right: David F. Houston, Secretary of Agriculture;
Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy; Newton D. Baker, Secretary of
War; Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Interior; William B. Wilson,
Secretary of Labor. Standing, left to right: Grosvenor B. Clarkson,
Secretary, later Director, of both Council and Advisory Commission;
Julius Rosenwald, Bernard M. Baruch, Daniel Willard, Chairman of the
Advisory Commission; Dr. Franklin Martin, Dr. Hollis Godfrey, Howard E.
Coffin and Walter S. Gifford, Director of the Council and Advisory
Commission.]
PROPOSALS OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Although the Council and Advisory Commission did not, as has been
stated, make permanent organization until March 3, 1917, the Advisory
Commission on December 7, 1916, determined on the following proposals of
action:
To begin immediately a study to determine the most effective
flexible organization and mechanism for the securing of all
necessary information and for the clarifying, recording, and
classifying of such information when secured.
To begin immediately a study as to what media now exist which
can aid in the carrying out of the purposes of the council.
This study to be made in three divisions--governmental media
in the departments, governmental media outside the departments,
and civil media. As this study progresses it is believed that
the council can aid materially in the development of such
media, and can from time to time define (_i. e._, delimit and
delineate) spheres of activity in which existing organizations
may operate intensively without duplication.
To assist in the advance of the physical well being of the
people of the nation.
To begin immediately a study of the possibility of the
coördination of transportation, communication and surveys.
To continue the work done on the inventory of manufactures, of
medical equipment and officers, of supplies, and of resources.
To assist in the development of the "Personal Index" already
begun.
To set a fixed date (a date three months after the beginning of
action is suggested) on which an inspection may be made of the
work accomplished to that date. This inspection to be made
through the submitting to the commission of an actual problem
by the Departments of War and Navy, with the intent to
determine at that time what needed information is or is not
available.
To form a temporary organization to put the above proposals or
any part of them or additional proposals into effect at the
earliest possible date, with the intention of changing from a
temporary organization to a permanent organization as the
progress of the work makes this possible.
To begin a study of the best methods of expression of the work
of the council to the people of the nation.
To scrutinize all legislative action touching national defense.
To do any other thing or take any other action necessary to
give effect to the law under which the council and commission
are organized.
PRE-WAR ACTIVITIES
At this time there was consideration of plans to enroll labor in an
industrial reserve, and the question of mobilization of American
railroads for military purposes was seriously discussed against future
need. At the same time Commissioner Baruch stated that he had been
making a study of the steel and metal industries in connection with the
national defense, and wished for authority to consult further with the
leaders in those trades. The Director was asked to establish relations
in the interest of the national defense with civic organizations,
patriotic associations, and chambers of commerce.
At a meeting on February 12, 1917, plans were discussed to call a series
of conferences with the leading men in each industry fundamental to the
defense of the country in the event of war, and at the same meeting a
plan was laid down and afterwards agreed upon to split the Advisory
Commission up into seven separate committees as detailed above, the
Chairman of each committee to be given power to select the members of
his committee from either governmental or civil life, or both.
At a meeting on February 14, 1917, E. S. Stettinius, who, acting for J.
P. Morgan and Company, was the purchasing agent of the Allies at that
time, was called before the Council to confer with it on the manufacture
of munitions. In the same way during this early period men of the
authority and standing of Herbert Hoover, Admiral Peary, and General
Kuhn, who had closely studied the German armies, were called into
consultation by the Council, Mr. Hoover of course, discussing the
mobilization, distribution, and conservation of food supplies, and
Admiral Peary the development of the aeroplane and seaplane for modern
war.
On February 15th the Advisory Commission, further to progress its work
then already under way, requested detailed lists of materials, with
specifications and detailed dimensioned blueprints covering all
equipment needed for a force of 1,000,000 men and for the assumed force
of the Navy and Marine Corps with its numbers increased to emergency
strength. It also called for estimates of reasonable accuracy covering
the maintenance of a force of the size mentioned in the field during
each ninety days of active service. The information was desired in order
that approximations might be made as to the amounts of both manufactured
and raw material for which it would be necessary to draw upon the
resources of the country. The Advisory Commission later furnished
estimates of its own.
On March 3rd Chairman Willard of the Advisory Commission read to the
Council a list of men nominated by the Commission to compose a munitions
standards board. It is highly significant to detail the names of these
men with their occupations, for they were typical of the cream of
American industry which from that time on was enlisted in the
Government's interest:
W. H. Vandervoort, builders of special machine tools, and
President of the Moline Automobile Co.
E. A. Deeds, formerly General Manager for the National Cash
Register Co., President of the Dayton Engineering Laboratories
Co., and interested in many industrial activities.
Frank A. Scott, Warner & Swasey Co., Cleveland, manufacturers
of automatic machinery and optical instruments.
Frank Pratt, General Electric Co., Schenectady.
Samuel Vauclain, Baldwin Locomotive Works, Remington and
Westinghouse Cos.
John E. Otterson, Vice-President, Winchester Arms Co.
The Council duly approved these nominations.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
Bernard M. Baruch
Known as the "Eye of Industry," because his task was to see that the raw
materials were brought to the factories and the finished products
shipped overseas.]
MEN OF VISION
It is impossible here to give more than a few instances such as the
foregoing of the way in which the Council and Commission, with
remarkable vision and perhaps even more remarkable disregard of
precedent when precedent got in the way of the national welfare, made
history in these pre-war days. Fully to tell the story of this period
would pack a large volume. I quote from a recent partisan criticism
directed by an American Congressman, as chairman of a congressional
committee to investigate war expenditures, against the Advisory
Commission particularly, which he characterized as the "secret
government of the United States" during this vital space of time:
It appears from the minutes of the advisory commission and the
council, which were kept separately, that practically all of
the measures which were afterwards considered as war measures,
were initiated by this advisory commission, adopted by the
council, and afterwards acted upon by Congress. In many cases,
a considerable period before the actual declaration of war with
Germany this advisory commission was discussing matters which
were thought to be new legislation, conceived by reason of the
necessities of war. For instance, on March 3rd, over a month
before the War declaration, the advisory commission indorsed to
the Council of National Defense a daylight-saving scheme, and
recommended a Federal censorship of the press. The question of
Federal censorship of the press was further discussed on March
24th, two weeks before the declaration of war.
On February 15th, about two months before the declaration of
war, Commissioners Coffin and Gompers made a report as to the
exclusion of labor from military service, and the draft was
discussed; the draft was also discussed on other occasions
before anyone in this country, except this advisory commission
and those who were closely affiliated with the administration,
knew that a declaration of war was to be made later. At a
meeting, on February 15th, this same commission of seven men
(none of whom had any official authority except as advisors),
recommended that Herbert Hoover be employed by the Government
in connection with food control. It was generally understood,
as appears from the minutes, that Mr. Hoover was to be in
control of this matter, although war was two months in the
future.
The advisory commission first met on December 6, 1916. Almost
the first thing the commission did was to take up the matter of
arranging an easy method of communication between the
manufacturers and the Government. On February 12th, for
example, Secretary Lane offered a resolution to the advisory
commission suggesting to them to call a series of conferences
of the leading men in various industries, so the industries
might organize and be able to do business with the council
through one man. In several meetings, long before the war was
declared, this advisory commission of seven men met with the
representatives of the manufacturing industries and formed an
organization of them for selling supplies to the Government,
which organization was well perfected before the war was
declared. This method consisted of having the representatives
of the various businesses, producing goods which the Government
would have to buy, form themselves into committees so that they
might be able to sell to the Government the goods direct, which
their industries produced. In almost every meeting that this
advisory commission had before the declaration of war, they
discussed and recommended to the council (which consisted of
six Cabinet members) these plans for fixing prices and selling
to the Government. When war was declared on April 6th, this
machinery began to move, headed by the advisory commission of
these minutes, the active Government of the seven men, who
were, in effect, as shown by United States, so far as the
purchase of supplies was concerned. So far as I can observe,
there was not an act of the so-called war legislation afterward
enacted that had not before the actual declaration of war been
discussed and settled upon by this advisory commission.
It should be said, of course, that no member of this Council
organization ever sold commodities to himself. But that is another
story.
MEN OF EXPERIENCE
I could not complete even a skeleton outline of the period in question
without certain other references.
Further to emphasize the quality of the business men being called to
Washington by the Council and Advisory Commission, I quote part of a
letter to Chairman Willard of the Commission from Commissioner Baruch of
March 23, 1917:
Mr. Daniel Willard,
Chairman, Advisory Commission, Council of
National Defense, Washington, D. C.
Dear Sir:
In pursuance of the authority given me and in order to be
prepared to meet the requests made of the advisory commission,
I have appointed the following committees. As the necessity
arises and the advisability becomes apparent, I shall add from
time to time other members to these committees, always bearing
in mind keeping them down to such a size that they will be
workable. It has been my endeavor to appoint on these
committees men of proved ability and undoubted integrity.
LEATHER.--Walter C. Garritt, U. S. Leather Co., Boston, Mass.;
George F. Johnson, Endicott, N. Y.; Theodore P. Haight,
American Hide & Leather Co., New York City.
RUBBER.--A. Marks, Diamond Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio; Fred Hood,
Hood Rubber Co., Watertown, Mass.; Stuart Hotchkiss, General
Rubber Co., New York City.
STEEL.--E. H. Gary, President, American Iron & Steel Institute,
New York.
WOOL.--J. F. Brown, Boston, Mass.; Sigmund Silberson, Chicago,
Ill.; Joseph R. Grundy, Bristol, Pa.; F. J. Hagenbarth,
President, National Association of Wool Growers, Salt Lake
City, Utah.
NICKEL.--Ambrose Monell, President, International Nickel Co.,
New York.
OIL.--I have asked Mr. A. C. Bedford, president of the Standard
Oil Co., to serve on the committee, but I shall probably add
another from the Middle West, whose name I have not yet
determined upon, and Mr. Ed. L. Doheny, of Los Angeles, Calif.
ZINC.--I have in the process of formation a committee
representing the zinc trade. There are certain difficulties in
the way of trade jealousies which we have to smooth away. The
same thing is occurring in other lines, but it will be
adjusted, and I shall report on them from time to time.
COAL.--I have been in consultation with the producers of coal,
both bituminous and anthracite, and am now studying that
situation as to the best method of covering coal.
SPRUCE WOOD.--I have also under consideration, but have come to
no conclusion, the employment through a committee of those best
fitted for obtaining the manufacture of aeroplanes for the
Government the proper amount of spruce wood which seems to be
needed.
LABOR PLEDGES SUPPORT
It will be long before the writer forgets the dramatic meeting of the
Advisory Commission as early as March 3, 1917, when Commissioner Gompers
reported that he had called an executive council meeting of the American
Federation of Labor for March 9, 1917, for the purpose of considering
the attitude of labor toward the preparedness plans of the government.
The labor leader spoke with great emotion. He referred to England's
difficulty in the first year of the war in enlisting the services of the
working people. He went on to say that in England unity was then lacking
between government and labor and that the same situation, if not
properly handled before hand, could arise in this country in even more
acute form, largely because of the racial diversity of our working
classes. He concluded by stating that he was now bending his efforts to
mobilizing good will in this direction, saying: [24] "I want the
workingmen to do their part if war comes to America." He forecasted the
meeting in Washington on March 12, 1917, of the officers of the National
and International Trade Unions of America, and said: "I am expecting a
definite response of support from every trade union in America." There
is no doubt in the writer's mind that Samuel Gompers kept the faith
throughout.
[24] I took Mr. Gompers' words verbatim.
On April 6, 1917, the Council and Advisory Commission approved a
declaration of the attitude of American labor toward the war presented
by Mr. Gompers' Committee on Labor of the Advisory Commission. This
action was directed toward the maintenance of existing standards of
employment, and provided, among other things, that the Council should
issue a statement to employers and employees in industrial plants and
transportation systems advising that neither employers nor employees
should endeavor to take advantage of the country's necessities to change
existing standards; and providing further that when economic or other
emergencies might arise requiring changes of standards, the same should
be made only after such proposed changes were investigated and approved
by the Council. It likewise provided that the Council urge upon the
legislatures of the States, as well as upon all administrative agencies
charged with the enforcement of labor and health laws, the great duty of
rigorously maintaining the existing safeguards as to the health and
welfare of workers, and that no departure from such standards in State
laws and State rulings affecting labor should be taken without a
declaration of the Council that such departure was essential for the
effective pursuit of the national defense.
MERGING THE RAILROADS
On April 7, 1917, the Council directed Chairman Willard of the Advisory
Commission to call upon the railroads so to organize their business as
to lead to the greatest expedition in the movement of freight and
troops. The response of the railroads was literally splendid. Their
executives came to Washington, conferred with Mr. Willard, and passed
the following resolution:
RESOLVED, That the railroads of the United States, acting
through their chief executive officers here and now assembled
and stirred by a high sense of their opportunity to be of the
greatest service to their country in the present national
crisis, do hereby pledge themselves, with the Government of the
United States, with the governments of the several States, and
one with another, that during the present war they will
coördinate their operations in a continental railway system,
merging during such period all their merely individual and
competitive activities in the effort to produce a maximum of
national transportation efficiency. To this end they hereby
agree to create an organization which shall have general
authority to formulate in detail and from time to time a policy
of operation of all or any of the railways, which policy, when
and as announced by such temporary organization, shall be
accepted and earnestly made effective by the several
managements of the individual railroad companies here
represented.
COÖPERATING COMMITTEES
The first of July, 1917, found the Council and Advisory Commission
directing the operation of the following boards and committees:
Aircraft Production Board.
Committee on Coal Production.
Commercial Economy Board.
Woman's Committee.
General Munitions Board with its sub-committees on Army
Vehicles, Armored Cars, Emergency Construction and Contracts,
Optical Glass, Storage Facilities, Machine Guns, Priority, and
Accounting.
Munitions Standards Board with its sub-committees on Gauges and
Dies, Army and Navy Artillery, Fuses and Detonators, Small Arms
and Munitions, Optical Instruments, and Army and Navy
Projectiles.
Section on Coöperation with States.
Committee on Inland Waterways.
Committee on Telegraphs and Telephones.
Committee on Railroad Transportation, with which acted an
executive committee made up of leading railroad presidents and
six departmental committees composed likewise of railroad
executives and paralleling the military departments over the
country, and sub-committees on Express, Car Service, Military
Equipment Standards, Military Transportation Accounting,
Military Passenger Tariffs, Military Freight Tariffs, and
Materials and Supplies.
Committees on Cars and Locomotives, with their personnel made
up of the high executives of such concerns as the Baldwin
Locomotive Works, the Pullman Company, and the American
Locomotive Company.
Committee on Electric Railroad Transportation, composed of
electric railway presidents.
Committee on Gas and Electric Service.
Committee on Automotive Transport.
Committee on Supplies, with its sub-committees on Cotton Goods,
Woolen Manufacturers, Shoe and Leather Industries, Knit Goods,
Leather Equipment, Mattresses and Pillows, and Canned Goods.
Committee on Raw Materials, with its sub-committees, popularly
known at the time as the "A to Z" committees, on Alcohol,
Aluminum, Asbestos, Magnesia and Roofing, Brass, Cement,
Chemicals, Acids, Alkalis, Electrochemicals, Fertilizers,
Miscellaneous Chemicals, Coal-Tar Products, Pyrites, Sulphur.
Sub-Committees on Copper, Lead, Lumber, Mica, Nickel, Steel
Products, with sub-committees on Alloys, Sheet Steel, Pig Tin,
Steel Distribution, Scrap Iron, Pig Iron, Iron Ore, and Lake
Transportation, Tubular Products, Tin Plate, Wire Rope, Wire
Products, and Cold Rolled and Cold Drawn Steel.
Sub-Committee on Oil, Rubber, Wool, and Zinc.
Committee on Engineering and Education, with its sub-committees
on General Engineering, Production Engineering, Universities
and Colleges, Secondary and Normal Schools, and Construction
Engineering.
Committee on Labor, with its sub-committees on Mediation and
Conciliation, Wages and Hours, Women in Industry, Welfare Work,
Sanitation with twelve subdivisions, Vocational Education with
nine subdivisions, Information and Statistics, Cost of Living
and Domestic Economy.
General Medical Board, with a long and active list of
sub-committees.
[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood
Daniel Willard
President of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
He was chairman of transportation and communication in the Council of
National Defense.]
SERVICE OF EXPERTS
On these boards and committees sat, almost without exception, the
American leaders of industry, science, and labor. Scattered through the
list one finds such names as:
Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, one of the world's leading naval
constructors.
F. S. Peabody, the great coal operator.
James J. Storrow, of Lee, Higginson & Co., of Boston.
A. W. Shaw, publisher of the _System_ magazine, who, as
Chairman of the Commercial Economy Board, preached with
remarkable success the gospel of conservation in business.
Dr. Anna Howard Shaw, who for her labors as Chairman of the
Woman's Committee received the Distinguished Service Medal.
Frank A. Scott, on whom was bestowed the same distinction for
his leadership of the General Munitions Board.
W. A. Starrett, constructing architect of New York, to whom in
great measure is due the credit for the building of the
cantonments in an incredibly short space of time.
Samuel Vauclain, President of the Baldwin Locomotive Works,
whose contribution in the matter of Army and Navy artillery was
monumental.
Theodore Vail, President of the American Telephone & Telegraph
Company, who brought the wire communication men of the country
to a common center in the national interest.
Charles Clifton, President of the National Automobile Chamber
of Commerce.
Gen. George H. Harries, the famous electric railway operator.
Samuel Insull, President of the Commonwealth Edison Co., of
Chicago.
Charles Eisenman, who, as active head of the Council's
Committee on Supplies, procured for the Government $800,000,000
of supplies in 200 days at an overhead cost of but $20,000,
involving the handling of 45,000 contracts, and who justly
received the Distinguished Service Medal.
A. F. Bemis, President of the National Association of Cotton
Manufacturers.
John P. Woods, the eminent woolen manufacturer.
J. F. McElwain, of the McElwain Shoe Company.
Lincoln Cromwell, of Wm. Iselin & Co., New York.
Arthur V. Davis, President of the Aluminum Co. of America.
Thomas F. Manville, President of H. W. Johns-Manville Co.
Charles F. Brooker, President of the American Brass Company.
John E. Morron, President of the Atlas Portland Cement Company.
John D. Ryan, President of the Anaconda Copper Company.
R. L. Agassiz, President of the Calumet & Hecla Mining
Company.
W. A. Clark, President of the United Verde Copper Company.
Murry M. Guggenheim.
R. H. Downman, President of the National Lumber Manufacturers'
Association.
Ambrose Monell, President of the International Nickel Company.
Gary, Farrell, Burden, Dinkey, King, Grace, Schwab, Topping,
Dalton, and Clarke, the great steel executives.
Bedford, Davison, Doheney, Lufkin, Markham, Sinclair, Van Dyke,
Muir, James, and Guffy, in whose hands lay almost the entire
oil output of America.
Stuart Hotchkiss, President of the General Rubber Company.
F. J. Hagenbarth, President of the National Association of Wool
Growers.
The Presidents of the leading zinc companies.
Then when we come to Engineering and Education:
Dr. Henry E. Crampton, of Columbia University.
Charles A. Stone, of Stone and Webster.
The heads of the great engineering societies.
The presidents of Harvard, Johns Hopkins, and other famous
universities and colleges.
Among labor leaders such persons as:
Warren S. Stone, Grand Chief of the Brotherhood of Locomotive
Engineers.
James W. Sullivan, Matthew Woll and Frank Morrison, all high in
the American Federation of Labor.
Such well-known men as:
V. Everit Macy, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, John H. Finley, August
Belmont, E. T. Stotesbury and Charles G. Dawes, afterwards a
brilliant figure as a General in France.
Such nationally and internationally known physicians as:
General Gorgas; Dr. William H. Welch, of Johns Hopkins; the
Mayos; Dr., afterwards Brigadier-General, Finney; Dr. George E.
Brewer; Dr. George W. Crile; Dr. Simon Flexner; and Dr.
Theodore Janeway.
Dr. George E. Hale, Chairman of the National Research Council,
which was and is the Council's Department of Science and
Research.
Thomas A. Edison, President of the Naval Consulting Board,
which was and is the Council's Board of Inventions.
The activities of these men and their hundreds of colleagues, nearly all
dollar-a-year workers and men whose time could not be bought, as a rule,
in days of peace, reached out and touched almost every town and village
in almost every part of the United States. They were moved and
stimulated by the philosophy of voluntary coöperation, which was first
and in a very daring way thrust into the consciousness of the nation by
the Council of National Defense. It was the policy that won the war. One
distinct benefit which the Government received from calling the
industrial intelligence of the country to its aid was the breadth of
view which industrial leaders possess. Their habit of mind to survey the
field as a whole, to take a bird's-eye view of the problem to be solved,
enabled the Government agencies to obtain a proper comprehension of the
task of building the war machine. The country will probably never know
the debt that it owes to these men and their like who came to Washington
and bent their backs throughout the hot Southern summer during a series
of endeavors in which absolutely no paths were charted.
NON-PARTISAN REPRESENTATION
It has been asked why a coalition government was not formed to wage the
war. That very thing was in effect done by the Council, though we were
all too busy to point it out at the time. A majority of the Advisory
Commission was made up of Republicans. Certainly Republicans were in the
huge preponderance in the Committee and Boards of the Council and
Advisory Commission. Speaking as one who was not affiliated with the
politics of the Administration of Woodrow Wilson, the writer never
perceived a trace of political flavor in the organization and operation
of the Council from first to last. Never did the six Democratic cabinet
officers forming the Council itself so much as inquire into the politics
of the hundreds of business men and experts nominated to them for
appointment. It was an amazing demonstration of non-partisanship in a
national crisis. The Council was an organization of specialists from
beginning to end, and the work was everywhere carried forward on the
most impersonal basis. The writer attributes this state of affairs to
the breadth of view, and the very genuine passion for national service,
of Secretary of War Baker, Chairman of the Council.
It should be plainly stated that, utilizing in the main dollar-a-year
experts, the Council made the preliminary mobilization of industry to
July 1, 1917, at the grotesquely small sum of $127,000. To May 1, 1919,
its total expenditures, including the operation of the war industries
for nearly a year, amounted to but $1,500,000, and this comprehended the
expenditure of $225,000 for the erection of a building. I doubt if there
is anything in governmental or commercial history to match those
figures, squared with results. The savings of the Council and Advisory
Commission to the Government and the people mounted literally into the
billions, as careful analysis of pre-war and war-time prices on certain
commodities will demonstrate. It was made possible by the Council's
course in commandeering to its side the business men of the United
States.
SOME RESULTS OF COÖPERATION
One of the practical results of voluntary coöperation was the agreement
made by Mr. Baruch and Mr. Ryan with the largest copper producers of the
country to furnish the Navy 20,000,000 pounds of copper and the Army
25,510,000 pounds at 16-2/3¢ a pound when the market price was 35¢ a
pound. This meant saving to the Government close to $10,000,000. The
copper men made this offer notwithstanding their increased cost for
labor, materials, etc., because, as they said: "We believe it to be our
duty to furnish the requirements of the Government in preparing the
nation for war with no more profit than we receive from our regular
production in normal times."
In the same way the steel makers of the country, represented in the
Steel Institute, agreed to furnish steel to the Government at the basic
price of 2.9¢ per pound as compared with the then market price of from
5¢ to 7¢ a pound. This represented an approximate saving to the
Government of $18,000,000.
THE FIELD DIVISION
The tremendous effort of the Council to mobilize and coalesce into a
fluid and powerful whole the industrial, economic and scientific forces,
was supplemented and to a great extent made possible by the Council's
Section on Coöperation with States, later known as the Field Division.
Through this subordinate body was created, guided and coördinated the
185,000 units of the state, county, community and municipal councils of
defense, which literally unified the citizenship of America for war. If
production was to win the war, it was elementary that the civilian
morale must be brought to the highest pitch of coöperation and
efficiency--and it was accomplished. In this vital task a noble part was
played by the Woman's Committee of the Council, which in the most
thorough-going and swift manner brought the services of the women of the
country to the Government. The director of this committee, Miss Hannah
J. Patterson, received the Distinguished Service Medal.
WAR INDUSTRIES BOARD
On August 1, 1917, the Council, with its fortunate power to create
subordinate bodies, brought into being the War Industries Board, of
which the first Chairman was Frank A. Scott, and of which some of the
other members up to the end of the war were:
Robert S. Brookings.
Brigadier-General Hugh S. Johnson.
Rear Admiral F. F. Fletcher.
Hugh Frayne, of the American Federation of Labor.
George N. Peek, a prominent Middle Western manufacturer.
J. L. Replogle, who became the very efficient Director of Steel
Supply.
L. L. Summers, an expert on explosives.
Alexander Legge, General Manager of the International Harvester
Company.
And Judge Edwin B. Parker.
Mr. Brookings was later placed in charge of price fixing and Judge
Parker in charge of priorities. The War Industries Board undoubtedly
accomplished a much better centralization of effort than was possible in
the hurried organization of the early days, when the imperative need was
to increase the sources of supply and get production going until the
executive departments of the Government could get into their full
stride. Mr. Scott was succeeded as Chairman of the War Industries by
Daniel Willard, who in turn was succeeded by B. M. Baruch, who, in his
leadership of this vital and powerful agency, duplicated the success
that Mr. Willard had made as Chairman of the pioneer Advisory
Commission.
CANTONMENT CONSTRUCTION
In indicating even an outline statement of the American industrial and
economic effort in the war, the writer feels helpless to paint the
picture within the space of a few thousand words. It simply cannot be
done. But to visualize what the measure of the task was, let one thing
be cited:
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
=John D. Ryan=
President of the Anaconda Copper Company. He was made chairman of the
Aircraft Production Board after we entered the war.]
At our entrance into the war there were one colonel and four men to
build the cantonments. The job involved the expenditure of $150,000,000
in about three months. The largest year's work on the Panama Canal
amounted to but some $50,000,000. The situation was heart-breaking. On
hearing of it Frank Scott, then Chairman of the General Munitions Board,
called up the Secretary of War and said that something had to be done,
with which the Secretary instantly agreed. The result was that the
Colonel, afterwards Brigadier-General Littell, had a civilian
organization built around him by the Council of National Defense,
notably by W. A. Starrett, later himself a colonel in the Army, which
functioned until the Army was in shape to carry on the job alone. The
building of the cantonments was the greatest job of the ages.
Incidentally it should be stated that the average profit to the
contractors was less than three per cent.
MEN LITTLE KNOWN
The writer likewise feels great reluctance in mentioning, as he has
mentioned, only a few of the men who waged the industrial side of the
war. Many business men little known to the country gave up their
businesses and came to Washington and did superhuman things--did them in
an impersonal, selfless way that was nothing less than stirring. Many of
them remain unknown to this day, and their chief reward must lie in the
satisfaction that they drew to their own souls by what they did, which
is, of course, the greatest satisfaction of all in such situations as
war-time Washington exemplified.
It has not even been possible to touch on the work of business men in
such great war agencies as the Food and Fuel Administration, the War
Trade Board, the Shipping Board, the Aircraft Production Board, the
Office of the Alien Property Custodian, the War Finance Corporation, and
those divisions of the War Department which called highly qualified
civilians to their aid. It would seem better to emphasize the initial
effort, when the Council, through force of circumstances, became the
great administrative laboratory for the examination, organization, and,
at the proper time, allocation of totally new and untried phases of
Federal action related to the prosecution of the war. It was in effect a
fecund mother, which, it is not the slightest exaggeration to say, gave
birth to and propelled the war machine which in the closing days of the
conflict overseas was reaching to the peak of its load, and which in
fact dealt the death blow to the Imperial German Government. It made, in
truth, its fair share of mistakes, but some day its part in sending out
the trumpet call to the business and labor and scientific leaders of
America to join in the national defense will be fully told. Then there
will be perceived in clear and true light the extent to which
peace-loving American civilians offered all they had and all they were
to the Government of the United States so that decency might again be
paramount upon the face of the earth.
VII--THE LIBERTY LOAN ARMY
Mobilizing Americans at Home to Pay for the War--A National Effort
Which Yielded $24,065,810,350
By GUY EMERSON
Vice-President of the National Bank of Commerce, formerly Director of
Publicity, Government Loan Organization
Our Army was our first line in the war against Germany. Our second line
of offense and defense was the Navy, and behind both stood another line
without which neither the Army nor the Navy could have "carried on."
This third force was the greatest unit ever marshalled in the history of
this or any other country--the Liberty Loan Army. Before a man in the
United States uniform entered a trench, before the first depth bomb had
been dropped on a U-boat, this Army, which finally carried a roster of
22,777,680 names, had entered the war.
Think of it! One person in every five in the immense population was in
the war!
True, their contribution to the eventual triumph of our arms was
measured in dollars while that of the men at the front or on the seas
was in lives or limbs. Yet it is a fact that dollars were as powerful
relatively as men in bringing the Boche to bay.
Various causes have been given to account for the startlingly sudden
collapse of the Kaiser's army. Some say that the Allies' superior
military strategy brought it to its knees. Others contend that success
against the U-boats broke it down. Both are partly right, for each
helped to undermine the German morale. But however great the
contribution of both was, it is safe to say that the front presented by
the Liberty Loan Army was a vital factor. The belated German
consciousness that the United States as a whole was in the war, as
tangibly represented in the strength of the Liberty Loan Army, helped to
shatter the Germans' will to victory. As much as the men in khaki or in
blue, this gigantic unit bore in upon his mind as an unyielding
opponent. He understood the futility of trying to defeat a people that
enlisted against him to the number of 22,777,680 at home, 4,000,000 in
the field and 300,000 on the water.
THE SPIRIT BEHIND THE DOLLAR
There is another angle to this important element of morale. In inverse
ratio to the weakening of the spirit of the Germans against this
resistless body there came a daily strengthening of the morale of our
own men and those of the Allies through this manifestation at home.
Where there are two opposing wills to victory in the field, the one that
has the greater backing at home is certain to overwhelm the other.
It was not the dollar that won the war, it was the spirit behind the
dollar. Before Prince Max asked for the armistice he had learned that
$9,978,835,800 had been subscribed in this country toward his defeat. It
is natural to assume that this fact did not impress him so much as the
related fact that millions of persons had participated in the
subscription.
Up to the end of the Fourth Loan, which coincided with the negotiations
for the Armistice, $16,971,909,050 had been paid in and this helped to
save life to an extent that we can only imagine. It was the confident
expectation when the Americans halted the German onslaught at
Château-Thierry that the end of the war would come in the following
spring. None dared to hope that it would come before Christmas. When the
crash came in November, even the Allied commanders were bewildered by
its suddenness. Had the war been prolonged to the spring of 1919, it is
certain that we would have paid a large toll in lives. Some have
estimated that 100,000 more of our young men would have been sacrificed.
That the war did not drag along for six months more may be ascribed in
part to the effect that the demonstrated loyalty of the Liberty Loan
Army had upon German morale. We know that the Germans fed lies to their
own troops and dropped pamphlets with these same falsehoods into our own
trenches. They tried to convince their own and our men that the Loans
had no support.
MOBILIZING THE LIBERTY LOAN ARMY
When at 11 o'clock on November 11, 1918, peace dawned upon a war-sick
world we had 2,000,000 men in Europe, and as many more on this side
putting themselves in readiness to go across. On the seas we had close
to 300,000 men. This tremendous force was welded into form in the
nineteen months we were in the war. Yet within a few months after our
entrance into the war there were more than this total in the Liberty
Loan Army. The list of subscribers to the First Liberty Loan which
closed two months after our entry had 4,500,000 names.
And this number remained for the duration of the war, giving every penny
they could spare, mortgaging their property, committing themselves to
personal privations. When the Second Loan books were totalled in
November the number had increased to 9,500,000, and it leaped to
17,000,000 in the Third. In the Fourth--the last loan of war-time--it
had grown to 22,777,680 and in the Fifth which closed six months after
the armistice, it finished with 12,000,000 names.
As in the Army, where organization is half the battle, it was through
organization of the enthusiasm and the deep fervor of the American
people that success came in this big venture. We had to create a state
of mind, we had to educate the American public in finance--which in
itself appeared an insuperable task--we had to marshal resources on a
scale such as never before had been attempted, and we had to map out a
sales campaign that would comprehend millions of persons. There were no
precedents to go by; the example set in Europe could not have
application in the United States because of temperamental and financial
differences; the flotation of the loans in the Civil War afforded no
practicable working basis. It was pioneering, and this fact was made
clear in the first conference held in Washington when Secretary of the
Treasury William G. McAdoo called together the financial leaders of the
country.
[Illustration: A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign]
Only three weeks were allowed to prepare for the First Loan Drive. As
soon as we had decided to get into the war, this decision carried with
it the determination to go in to the limit of our resources. The
Secretary of the Treasury informed the bankers that the first issue
would be for $2,000,000,000 and this would be merely the forerunner of a
succession of loans in larger amounts. The bonds were to be put on the
market at three and a half percent. and the campaigns were to be
conducted according to the territories of the Federal Reserve districts,
twelve in all.
"It is quite likely," said the Secretary of the Treasury, "that
we could induce a group of men to take up this loan but that
would compromise the country before the world. We must sell to
the public in such numbers that there shall exist no doubt
among our enemies that our people are back of the Government as
a unit in this war."
The men whom he addressed were all recognized as organizers, all had
been identified with big business. However, few of them had had the
general contact with the public so essential to popularizing the loan.
They knew how to sell, but not in small denominations or to millions of
purchasers. In an abstract sense they realized the value of advertising
and newspaper publicity, but not one of them had the remotest idea of
how the ideal of Secretary McAdoo could be realized.
ORGANIZING THE FIRST DRIVE
It was at this point that their resourcefulness came into play. Their
first move was the right one; they engaged specialists to undertake the
tasks of which they knew little. They addressed themselves to the public
through men skilled in establishing such contacts as are given through
advertising, publicity, and canvassing. In the brief time allotted to
them, they barely had time to surround themselves with this trained
talent.
Verily, it was shooting in the dark, a process of hit and miss. Some one
said that the campaign in the First Loan was planned as we went along,
and that is literally true. The patriotism was there--that was an
unquestionable fact; the problem was to make it manifest itself in
sacrifice of savings and earnings. The work of the whole three weeks was
experimental and the country was the laboratory. Let it be said that the
alchemy of patriotism transmuted the hearts and minds of the public into
pure gold. Once the people were informed of their duty toward the United
States they rallied instantly.
Newspapers turned over their columns, advertisers offered their precious
space--and it was precious in those days of paper shortage; stores and
banks opened booths for sales, public speakers cancelled every other
engagement that they might participate, factories strove to enlist every
person in their employment as purchasers, clubs responded in whole
memberships, women's committees were formed for the acceleration of
interest, churches consecrated themselves to the project, trade unions
abandoned all differences with employers and allied themselves
unselfishly, writers pleaded for a chance to exercise their influence,
foreign language groups demanded opportunity to prove their Americanism,
actors, singers, and lecturers begged for a place in the campaign.
Wholeheartedly and with utter disregard of personal sacrifice this vast
aggregation committed itself to the task. The initial momentum gave the
drive the force of an avalanche that swept everything else aside. There
came times during this first drive when the issue seemed in doubt, but
this was due more to an excess of enthusiasm than to a lack of support.
When the totals were in, it was realized that these misgivings were due
to the physical inability of the tabulators to keep abreast of the tide
of subscriptions. The subscriptions went to $3,035,226,850.
It had been said that the first campaign in its directive agencies was
largely hit and miss. When it was over the strikes were recorded and the
misses eliminated for the preliminary work of the Second Loan which was
to follow in October. Out of the mass was evolved a system of methods
that served as the groundwork of the real organization. The results
afforded a working basis that would have carried a dozen loans through,
granting that the people remained faithful to their patriotism.
THE APPEAL
Let it be admitted that in the first loan there was no defined appeal.
We were in the war and in to win, that was sufficient. It was foreseen
that the psychology of the public must have a central theme for the next
loan to which it must respond. The Second campaign began on October 1,
1917, after the embarkation of the nucleus of the vast army that
eventually was to overwhelm the foe. None of them yet had been called
into action. The keynote of this drive was the education of the people
on the meaning of a German victory. We had before us the ghastly stories
of what the Germans had done in Belgium and in France; we had to throw
ourselves into the conflict to keep our own homes safe.
The eyes of all Europe, our Allies and our enemies, were upon us. It was
clear that by the results at home we would be judged, as we had not yet
had the opportunity to show ourselves in the field. For four weeks and a
day the campaign went on, this time for $3,000,000,000. The appeal which
touched the heartstrings of all persons served a double purpose. Not
only did it carry the message of the Loan, but it knit closer the
sentiment of the whole American people to the purposes of the war.
Through its constant reiteration it had the effect of a prayer and like
a prayer gained added meaning with deeper thought.
Thought was compelled through its manifold repetitions. All the
functions of life were linked with it, all the recreations, all the
relaxations embodied it in part. It formed the backbone of conversation,
it became a part of every daily activity. It assailed the eye at every
turn, it smote the ear constantly, it crashed into consciousnesses in
every conceivable form. Through a strange paradox it linked a fear and a
hope. It embraced the whole gamut of emotions.
GROWING RESPONSE
Again there was a resounding response. In the First Loan the
subscriptions were limited to the actual amount of the issue, but in
the Second all subscriptions were accepted. The number of those who
took bonds was increased more than 100 percent.--it reached 9,500,000,
to be exact, and the $3,000,000,000 issue went to $3,808,766,150.
So it was in the Third, which was put before the public on the
anniversary of our entrance into the war. At this time our men had gone
into the trenches which in itself made the war our own in its most
serious meaning. This was intensified throughout the land by the
operation of the Selective Service Act. The draft had entered almost
every home; many of those who had qualified in the first call were at
that time in France. Casualty lists were beginning to appear in the
newspapers.
It needed only this fact--the fact in itself was its own appeal--to
bring out the finest in our people. All previous sentiment faded into
insignificance compared with the solemnity of the actual participation.
The resources that we had been led to believe had been plumbed to their
depths were now revealed to us as inexhaustible. Giving seemed to be the
poorest means of showing how the country was touched; the people gave as
if in despair because this was all they might do.
The campaign had been for $3,000,000,000 and it brought in returns of
$4,170,069,650 from 17,000,000 men, women and children in the United
States; men, who regretted that this was all they might give to their
country's need; women, who offered with each dollar a passionate prayer
that it might help the men now matching themselves against the foe, and
children, who realized with joy that they were becoming part of the
world's greatest war.
FOURTH LIBERTY LOAN
Before the Fourth Loan the Rolls of Honor in the daily newspapers were
carrying a lengthening list of those who had paid the supreme sacrifice.
In the training camps more and more hundreds of thousands of drafted men
were preparing themselves to take their places on the line; the sea
lanes were crowded with troopships, each bearing the best of our country
away. There had been a depressing period when Ludendorff's men seemed to
carry everything before them, when the coast ports of France seemed
menaced, but before the bugle called the non-combatants at home to
attention again our boys had turned the tide at Château-Thierry and now
were in full cry after the fugitive enemy.
[Illustration: A Poster for the Third Liberty Loan Campaign]
On September 27, 1918, the call for the Fourth Loan came and it seemed
at the time as if it had been postponed too long because the foe was
crumbling. President Wilson sounded the tocsin in the Metropolitan Opera
House in New York City. This time the appeal was to drive home the
finishing blows, to demonstrate to the crumbling empire of the
Hohenzollerns that here was a people undivided and unafraid.
The campaign was carried through in a veritable ecstasy of delight.
Where before there had been the spirit to give in order to wage the war
to any length, here was the spirit to bring the end swiftly and
splendidly, to crown the triumphs of our arms abroad with another
triumph at home. In truth, the prospect of impending triumph at first
almost defeated the need of a campaign. The enthusiasm during the period
of the drive transcended everything ever seen in this country before.
The result reflected it: In an issue of $6,000,000,000 there was an
oversubscription of $933,073,250 and the total number was the 22,777,680
which will stand as the high mark of Americanism for many generations to
come.
AROUSING THE HALF-HEARTED
It has been set forth here that all appeals were based on arousing the
emotions of the people. This was necessary because, had the offerings
gone before the public solely on their practical value as investments,
the results would have been considered abroad as another demonstration
of our sordidness. Had the people of the United States been sordid, it
is certain that they might have obtained better investment values. That
they were not touched by selfish instincts is further proved by the fact
that all through the drives the bonds of the previous issues had been
quoted below par, due to the machinations of a group that never could be
lifted above self-interest. The public, in full realization of this
apparent depreciation, fought it out and showed their utter contempt for
the manipulators by subscribing in greater force and for greater amounts
to each subsequent issue.
It has been said before that the feeling of the public toward the war
was made clear in the First Loan. It became the problem of the Second
and the succeeding drives to organize enthusiasm so that through
contagion the more resistant types might be affected. This compelled an
organization of psychology. Back of each demonstration there were stage
managers. These managers of psychology worked upon the public through
the newspapers, through advertising, through "stunts," and generated a
force of example which affected the whole community in which they were
expressed.
For instance, a parade always has the effect of stirring people;
feelings deep-hidden cannot be well concealed when, in war-time,
marching men stride past. Unconsciously there comes to the mind of
people the question: "What will become of these fine boys when they
reach France?" There is the wish to help them, and the means to help
them has been before their eyes for days in the Liberty Loan publicity.
That is what is meant by stage management.
Through all the Loans it was necessary to manipulate the emotions first,
to bring to the consciousness of the people in the news reports the
facts and purposes of the loans; secondly, to carry the "urge" to them
through the advertising; and thirdly to work upon their feelings through
spectacles, meetings, aeroplane flights, sham battles, motion pictures
of actual warfare, and like accelerants. It was necessary to infect them
in the mass so that as individuals they might infect others with the
fever to buy bonds.
All this work had to be carried through and was carried through with
brilliant success in the four war-time loans. The Army, the Navy, the
stage women's committees, police organizations, Boy Scouts, foreign
language groups, all played a part. When the call came for the Fifth
Loan, practically everything that had been done before had to be
scrapped. It was all part of the war equipment and would help little in
getting over another loan when people were striving with every fiber to
get away from the thought and the sacrifices of the war.
"FINISH THE JOB"
We had to deal, then, with a people who were beginning to adjust
themselves to peace, who were consoling themselves with the thought that
they had done their part and should not be called upon again. It looked
like a hopeless prospect from the vista presented at the close of the
Fourth campaign to expect the same response for a peace campaign. The
one optimistic fact that stood out was that the people had proved their
patriotism, and such patriotism never dies. The Fifth Loan based its
appeal solely upon patriotism's one expression in peace, duty.
[Illustration: Victory Way at Night
During the Victory Loan Drive, Park Avenue, just above the Grand Central
Station, was shut off and devoted to propaganda for the drive. The
photograph shows a pyramid of captured German helmets.]
"Finish the Job" was the slogan of the Fifth Loan. The country was told
that the war was not ended until its debts were paid, that we should
feel gratitude in the lives spared by its sudden end. The Liberty Loan
workers had to create a new state of mind, to begin a new education--for
this time the issue was in Victory notes instead of bonds--and to arouse
the people to new emotions through spectacles, parades and other
features. It may be mentioned here that the greatest parade of the
entire war was held in New York in this Fifth Loan, when the different
branches of the army showed in procession the men and weapons they had
employed to win victory.
The call was for $4,500,000,000 and the answer was subscribed in notes
by 12,000,000 persons, who paid in $5,249,908,300.
WAR SAVINGS CAMPAIGN
In between the drives there was a lesser drive constantly carried on
among people who were not able to participate in bond buying. This was
the War Savings campaign which was a part of the Government Loan
enterprise. Newsboys, bootblacks, shop-girls, clerks and others who had
been unable to participate in the Loan drives or who wanted to prove
again their devotion to their country answered this appeal. In these
savings there was collected for the country up to the date of the
armistice $932,339,000 and the number of persons hoarding in small sums
was far beyond a million.
LIBERTY LOAN FIGURES
Entire Country
| | | No. of
Quota |Am't Subscribed| Allotted |Subscribers
First Loan |$ 2,000,000,000|$ 3,035,226,850|$ 2,000,000,000| 4,500,000
Second Loan| 3,000,000,000| 4,617,532,300| 3,808,766,150| 9,500,000
Third Loan | 3,000,000,000| 4,170,069,650| 4,170,069,650|17,000,000
Fourth Loan| 6,000,000,000| 6,993,073,250| 6,993,073,250|22,777,680
Fifth Loan | 4,500,000,000| 5,249,908,300| 4,500,000,000|12,000,000
+---------------+---------------+---------------+----------
Totals | 18,500,000,000|$24,065,810,350|$21,471,909,050|65,777,680
Federal Reserve District of New York
First Loan |$ 600,000,000|$ 1,191,992,100|$ 617,831,650| 978,959
Second Loan| 900,000,000| 1,550,453,500| 1,164,366,950| 2,259,151
Third Loan | 900,000,000| 1,115,243,650| 1,115,243,650| 3,046,929
Fourth Loan| 1,800,000,000| 2,044,901,750| 2,044,901,750| 3,604,101
Fifth Loan | 1,350,000,000| 1,762,684,900| 1,318,098,450| 2,484,532
+---------------+---------------+---------------+----------
Totals |$ 5,550,000,000|$ 7,665,275,900|$ 6,260,442,450|12,373,672
BENEFITS DERIVED FROM LOAN CAMPAIGNS
The benefits derived from the Loan campaigns were many. Prominent among
them was the growth of thrift among the American people. The growth of
this habit will be an important factor in the future greatness of this
country.
A lasting monument to the war spirit of those who had to stay at home is
the fact that more than a million persons, men, women and children, were
engaged actively in the promotion of the five loans. In other words, one
person in every hundred in the United States was a part of the
organization, and each induced twenty other persons in that hundred to
buy bonds. This colossal force did not work in haphazard fashion nor
scatter its energy but acted under a definite plan of campaign in which
each had an assigned part and in which each worked according to a method
that would avoid duplication or extra expense.
The five campaigns which united such an aggregation of workers and which
produced such remarkable results were carried forward with a minimum of
expense. Never before in the history of finance had such widespread
exploitation been accomplished at so low a cost. Of the million workers
all but a small nucleus were volunteers; the resources of the country
were thrown open to the organizers with unexampled prodigality, mediums
of flotation in a veritable flood being contributed without cost to the
officers in the Liberty Loan Army.
A single purpose animated the whole nation. Party lines, race prejudice,
creed distinctions, social barriers, all were wiped out in these loan
drives. The whole country formed itself into an All-American team that
rushed onward irresistibly. The closest approximation to a common
brotherhood had been achieved. War, with its terrible losses, with its
impairment of lusty young men, with its heartbreaks and agonies, surely
had not been waged in vain when it brought about such a unity.
The United States in waging the war for democracy had won that democracy
for herself at home.
VIII--FOOD AND THE WAR
How Scientific Control and Voluntary Food-Saving Kept Belgium from
Starving and Enabled the Allies to Avert Famine
By VERNON KELLOGG
Member of the Commission for the Relief of Belgium
America was made familiar with a slogan during 1917 and 1918 which
declared that "Food Will Win the War." The European Allies became
familiar from the very beginning of the war with the fact that without
much more food than they could count on from their own resources they
could not hope to win the war. And it became equally obvious to Germany
and her associates that if their normal food resources were materially
impaired they also could not hope to win the war.
So there arose almost from the beginning of the great military struggle
an equally great struggle to get food and to keep food from being got.
The Allies, devoting their manpower to fighting and munitions-making,
saw their farms doomed to neglect and their food reduction doomed to
lessen. And they began their call on America for food in such quantities
as America had never dreamed of exporting before. In the last years
before the war we had been sending about five million tons of foodstuffs
a year to Europe. In 1918 we sent over fourteen million tons. Also the
Allies began trying, by their blockade, to prevent the Central Empires
from adding to their own inevitably lessened native production by
importations from without.
On the other hand, Germany and her associates began to husband carefully
their internal food supplies by instituting a rigid, or would-be rigid,
control of internal marketing and consumption, and to collect from any
outside sources still accessible to them, such as the contiguous neutral
lands, whatever food was possible. Also they had strong hopes of
preventing, by their submarine warfare, the provisioning of the Allies
from America and other overseas sources.
Thus, from the beginning of the war, and all through its long course,
food supply and food control were of the most vital importance. If our
epigrammatic slogan, "Food Will Win the War," was, like most epigrams,
not literally true, it was, nevertheless, literally true that there was
always possible to either side the loss of the war through lack of food,
and it is literally true that the food victory of the Allies was a great
element in the final war victory. Germany's military defeat was partly
due to food defeat, and if a military decision had not been reached in
the fall of 1918, Germany would have lost the war in the spring of 1919
anyway from lack of food and raw materials.
ECONOMIC SELF-SUFFICIENCY
The great struggle for food supply and food control involved so many and
such complex undertakings that it is hopeless to attempt a detailed
account of it in any space short of a huge volume. Yet the very
limitations of the present discussion may have its advantages in
compelling us to concentrate our attention on the most important aspects
of the struggle and to try to sum up the most important results of it.
Some of these at least should not be forgotten, for they have a bearing
on the peace-time food problem as well as the war-time one. Fortunately
the war-time food situation has developed in us a national and an
individual food consciousness that will certainly not disappear in this
generation at least.
The first important lesson that has been learned is that it is of great
value to a nation to be able to provide in its own land its own
necessary food supply. For although in times of peace and usual harvests
international food exchanges enable a country, such as England or
Belgium, highly industrialized and of large population in proportion to
area, to make up without much difficulty its deficit as between
production and consumption, the moment the great emergency arrives there
is the utmost danger for its people. The history of the "relief of
Belgium" during the war will illustrate this.
$600,000,000 WORTH OF FOOD SUPPLIED
This little country, famous through all past history as a battleground
and now famous for all future time for its heroic and pathetic rôle in
the World War, found itself at the very beginning of the war faced with
a food problem that seemed at first insoluble, and which, if not solved,
meant starvation for its people. It is a country highly industrialized,
and with an agriculture which, though more highly developed as to method
than that of almost any other country, was yet capable of providing but
little more than a third of the food necessary to its people. It
depended for its very life on a steady inflow of food from outside
sources. But with its invasion and occupation by the Germans this inflow
was immediately and completely shut off. Belgium was enclosed in a ring
of steel. What food it possessed inside this ring disappeared rapidly.
The terrible situation was met in a way of which Americans may be proud.
For the Commission for the Relief of Belgium, which was the agency that
solved Belgium's great problem, was an American organization with a
staff composed chiefly of young Americans, most of them from American
colleges and universities, headed by an American, Herbert Hoover, of
great organizing and diplomatic genius, and with the large heart of a
world philanthropist. In the four and a half years from November 1,
1914, to May 1, 1919, which was the period of activity of the
Commission, Belgium depended upon it for the supplying of three-fourths
of the food of its people, over seven million in number. This amounted
to about one million tons a year. In addition, the Commission supplied
the food through practically all this period for the maintenance of the
nearly two million unfortunate people in the German-occupied area of
France. This amounted to a total of about one million tons. The total
value of the food supplied to Belgium and occupied France was about six
hundred million dollars, which was provided by the Governments of
Belgium, France, England, and America, and the private charity of the
world.
THE FOOD PRODUCTION OF GERMANY
For another impressive war-time food problem--which did not have the
same solution as Belgium's--let us take that of Germany. In peace times
the Germans produce about 80 percent. of the total food annually
consumed by them. But their tremendous military effort necessarily
entailed some reduction in their capacity for food production, although
they also made a tremendous effort to stimulate and direct into most
effective channels the native production of food.
Although it is true, as already stated, that Germany normally produces
about 80 percent. of her food needs, making it seem possible for the
nation to meet the blockade emergency by repressing consumption by 10
per cent. and increasing production by 10 per cent. this does not mean
that they normally produce 80 per cent. of each kind of food consumed by
them. As a matter of fact, they produce more than their total needs of
certain kinds of food, as sugar, for example, and less than 80 per cent.
of certain other kinds. And while there is a possibility of
substituting, within certain limits, one kind of food for another, so
that a shortage of wheat might be made up by an abundance of rye, or a
shortage of bread-grains in general be made up, in some degree, by
increasing the ration of potatoes, if they are available, this
substitution cannot go to the extent of substituting pure carbo-hydrate
or starchy foods like potatoes, which simply produce heat or energy for
the body, for the protein foods like meat, fish, eggs and dairy
products which produce not only energy but new tissues. A child must
have protein food in order to grow; an adult must have it in order to
replace the tissues worn out by daily work. Also, there are certain
peculiar and so far little understood elements, called vitamines, found
only in certain kinds of food, notably fats, milk and the green
vegetables, which are essential to the proper metabolism of the body.
[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson
The Battle Scene at Home
During the war the Allies called on the United States for food in far
greater quantities than we had ever dreamed of exporting. For example,
in the last years before the war we had been sending yearly to Europe
about five million tons of food. In 1918 alone we shipped more than
fourteen million tons of foodstuffs overseas.]
GERMANY'S FOOD PROBLEM
Now in the light of these needs for proper feeding, and in the light of
the special conditions produced by the war, what was Germany's food
problem through the war? It was that of attempting to increase
production when the men and work animals had been sent to the fighting
lines, of repressing consumption when both men in the army and the men
in the war factories had to be well fed in order to fight well and work
well, of attempting to get in food from outside the country when a
blockade was steadily closing the borders ever and ever more tightly,
and finally, of trying to get the people to modify their food habits in
the way of accepting substitutes and using strange new semi-artificial
foods in place of the familiar staples.
In 1916 the potato crop of Germany was a failure--but the turnip crop
was enormous. So turnips were substituted largely for potatoes, and for
many other kinds of food as well. Even marmalade and coffee substitutes
were made from them, and turnip meal was mixed in the already too coarse
and too much mixed flour. The Germans will never forget that terrible
_kohl-rüben zeit_, or turnip time, of late 1916 and early 1917. And it
was just after this time that the effects of Germany's great food
difficulties began to show in a really serious way; they began to
undermine the strength and health of the people. Those diseases like
tuberculosis, which can rest in incipient or suppressed form for years
without becoming serious as long as the body is well nourished, began to
develop rapidly and dangerously. The birth rate decreased and the death
rate increased. The physical and mental and moral tone of the whole
nation dropped.
THE SUGAR SHORTAGE
Belgium and Germany illustrate a special food situation created by the
war, namely, one in which a country, which relied on outside sources for
a greater or lesser part of its food needs, had access to these sources
suddenly and almost completely shut off. But grave food problems also
confronted the countries which were not blockaded in so specific a way.
England and France, with full access to all the great food-producing
lands overseas (except to the extent that the submarines reduced this
freedom of access), nevertheless had food problems hardly less serious
than those of the more strictly blockaded countries. Their difficulties
arose primarily from the fact that there was only so much shipping in
the world and that the war conditions created suddenly a need for much
more shipping than existed. The transference of large numbers of troops
with their necessary equipment and munitions from the distant colonies
to the European seat of fighting, and of other numbers from the mother
countries to extra-European battlegrounds, made great demands on the
shipping available to these nations. At the same time, the reduction of
their native production increased largely their needs of food
importations.
Take, for example, the case of the sugar supply for England and France.
England is accustomed to use about 2,000,000 tons of sugar a year but
she does not produce, at home, a single ton. She had relied before the
war chiefly on importations from Germany and Austria with some little
from Belgium and France. But with the outbreak of the war, she could get
none from the Central Empires, and none from Belgium, while France,
instead of being able to export sugar, suddenly found herself with her
principal sugar-producing region invaded by the Germans and able to
produce hardly a third of her former output. In fact, France herself was
suddenly placed in the position of needing to import nearly two-thirds
of the supply needed for her own consumption. So England and France had
to turn to Cuba, the nearest great sugar-producing country, and ask for
large quantities of her output. But the United States has always
depended on Cuba for a large part of its own needs. Consequently there
was a sugar problem for our own country as well as for England and
France long before we entered the war.
The situation was serious; the demands on Cuba were much larger than she
could meet, although she was able under this stimulation of demand to
increase materially her sugar crop in the years following the first of
the war. One way of meeting this problem, which was promptly resorted
to, was to cut down the consumption of sugar in the countries involved.
In England and France sugar was strictly rationed; and in America the
people were called on to limit their use of sugar by voluntary
agreement. England cut her sugar allowance per capita from about seven
and a half pounds a month to two, and France from nearly four to one. In
America we reduced our per capita consumption by legally restricting the
making of soft drinks and candy and by the voluntary restriction of the
home use of sugar by about one-half. All this lessened the demand on
Cuba, and also the demand on shipping.
NATIONAL TASTES IN FOOD
In this discussion of the war-time sugar problem one may be struck by
the fact, as noted, that the people of France were normally accustomed
to eat much less sugar than the people of England, indeed only about
one-half as much. This introduces a subject of importance in any general
discussion of the world food problem. It is that of the varying food
habits of different peoples, even peoples living under very similar
climatic and general physical conditions. For example, the people of
Germany are accustomed to eat twice as many potatoes as the people of
England, who in turn use more than three times as many as the people of
Italy. On the other hand, England uses twice as much sugar as Germany,
although she produces no sugar and Germany produces much sugar. The
Italians eat only a third as much meat as the English and the French
only half as much. But the English eat only two-thirds as much bread as
the French.
These differences in food use, established by long custom, have to be
taken into account in all considerations of the world's food supply.
They are differences which cannot be easily or quickly changed, even
under circumstances which such great emergencies as war may produce. For
example, we in America are accustomed to eat corn as food in the form of
green corn, corn meal, corn flakes, etc. And in Italy one of the great
national dishes is _polenta_ (corn meal cooked in a certain way). But
when the Commission for the Relief of Belgium tried to introduce corn as
human food in Belgium, because of the large amount that could be
obtained from America when wheat and rye were scarce, it met with great
opposition and but little success. To the Belgians, corn is food for
animals.
SCIENTIFIC CONTROL OF FOOD
An important point brought out by the war-time food problem is that of
the "scientific" make-up of the personal ration. Not only are the
national food habits of a people often difficult to understand from a
point of view of taste, but they are often of such a character as to
lead to a most uneconomical use of food. The exigencies of a world food
shortage and a shortage of shipping for food transport have made it
necessary for food ministries and relief organizations to give careful
consideration to the most economical selection of foods for import and
distribution, both from the point of view of economy of space and weight
and lack of deterioration during shipping and storage, and from that of
concentrated nutritional values and proper balancing of the ration.
Food provides energy for bodily work and maintenance. It is the fuel for
the human machine. Scientific students of nutrition measure the amount
of energy thus provided, or the amount needed by the body, in units
termed calories. Physiologists have determined by experiment the
different amounts of calories produced by different kinds of foods and
the varying amounts needed by men at rest, at light work, at hard work,
by women and by children. By analyzing the make-up of a given population
as to proportions of men, women and children, and of work done by them,
it is possible to express the total food needs of the population in
calories and to arrange for the most economical provision of the total
calories necessary.
But the simple provision of the total sum of calories may by no means
satisfy the real food needs of the population. For example, all the
calories might be provided by potatoes alone, or grains alone, or meat
or fats alone. But the population would starve under such circumstances.
Food provides not merely the energy for the body, but the substances
from which the body adds new tissue to itself during growth and
reproduces its constantly breaking down tissues during all of life. Now
while all kinds of food produce energy in greater or less quantity, only
certain kinds are the source of new tissues. Hence there must be in the
personal or national ration a sufficient proportion of the
tissue-producing foods, the protein carriers, as well as a sufficient
amount of the more strictly energy-producing foods, such as the fats and
carbohydrates. And there is necessary, too, in any ration capable of
maintaining the body in properly healthy condition, the presence in it,
in very small quantities, of certain food substances called vitamines
which have an important regulatory effect on the functioning of the
body. These substances occur only in certain kinds of food.
All these things had to be taken into account in the war-time handling
of food. So important was a proper knowledge of scientific food use and
application of this knowledge, in connection with the efforts of the
various countries to feed themselves most economically and to best
effect in the light of their possibilities in the way of food supply,
that every country concerned called on its scientific men to advise and
help control the obtaining and distribution of its national food supply.
For example, America and the Allies (England, France, Belgium and Italy)
established an Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission composed of
experts who met at various times at London, Paris, and Rome, and on
whose advice the determination, both as to kind and quantity, of the
necessary importations of food from overseas to England, France, Belgium
and Italy was largely made. Thus the war has done more to popularize the
scientific knowledge of food, and to put into practice a scientific
control of food-use than all the efforts of colleges and scientific
societies and food reform apostles for years and years before. Calories,
proteins, carbohydrates, fats and vitamines have been taken out of the
dictionary and put into the kitchen.
[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson
A Community Conference on Food-Saving
The importance of work of this kind increased after the signing of the
armistice, because the Poles, the Belgians, and other peoples whom we
could not reach during the war needed every pound of food we could
spare.]
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
America's special relation to the world's war food problem was primarily
that of a provider of the Allies, but in order to insure that this
provision should be sufficient to keep the Allied soldiers and war
workers up to full fighting and working strength and their families in
full health, it was necessary for America to stimulate its own
production, repress considerably its consumption and cut out all
possible waste in food handling. To do this there was needed some form
of governmental food control and a nation-wide voluntary effort of the
people. Each of the Allied countries had established governmental food
control early in the war under the direction of a "food controller"
either attached to an already existing government department of
agriculture or commerce, or acting as an independent food minister.
On the actual entrance of America into the war in 1917, governmental
food control was vested in a "United States Food Administration" with
powers given it by Congress to control all exports of food and all
food-handling by millers, manufacturers, jobbers, wholesalers, and
large retail dealers. But no retail dealer doing a business of less than
$100,000 a year, nor any farmer or farmers' coöperative association came
under the Food Administration's control. Thus the American food
administration differed from that of most European countries in that it
had no authority to fix the prices at which the actual producers should
sell their products or the small retailers should charge the consumers.
But, indirectly, it was able to do, and did, a good deal in this
direction. By its direct control of exports, and of the millers,
manufacturers and large dealers, it was able to cut out a great part of
the middleman profits, and reduce wholesale prices for most staple
foodstuffs, especially that most important one, flour. By publicity of
prices and by indirect pressure through the wholesaler it was also able
to restrain the further sky-rocketing of retail prices.
NATION-WIDE FOOD SAVING
But if the Food Administration was limited in what it could effect by
legal authority, there was no limit to what it could do by calling on
the voluntary action of the people of the country, except by the
possible refusal of the people to help. So there was set in movement a
nation-wide propaganda for food-production and food-saving which
resulted in the voluntary acceptance of wheatless and meatless days,
voluntarily modified hotel and restaurant and dining-car meals, and the
adoption of household pledges, taken by more than 12,000,000 American
homes, to follow the Food Administration's suggestions for food-saving.
All this, and the many other things which the Food Administration asked
the people to do, and which the people did, resulted in accomplishing a
very necessary thing. It enabled America not only to meet all those
ever-increasing absolutely imperative calls of the Allies for food for
their armies and people through 1917 and 1918, but to supply its own
army and people sufficiently well to carry on the war effectively. The
more food sunk by submarines, or prevented from coming to Europe from
distant food sources, as Australia and Argentine and India, the more we
provided by saving and increasing our production.
A few figures will illustrate the actual results of the call for food
conservation. We entered the crop year of 1917 (July 1, 1917, to July 1,
1918), with a wheat supply which gave us only about 20,000,000 bushels
available for export. By December 1, 1917, our surplus had gone overseas
and an additional 36,000,000 bushels had been shipped to the Allies. In
January we learned of the further imperative need of the Allies of
75,000,000 bushels. We responded by sending 85,000,000 bushels between
the first of the year and the advent of the new crop. When the crop year
ended we had sent in all about 136,000,000 bushels of wheat to Europe.
We were assisted in these operations by the importation of 28,000,000
bushels of wheat from Australia and the Argentine to supplement our
domestic supply, but the outstanding fact was the saving in our domestic
consumption, most of which was accomplished in the six-months' period
from January 1 to July 1, 1918.
AMERICAN RELIEF ADMINISTRATION
But the cessation of the war did not produce food for the war-ravaged
countries of Europe. The newly liberated peoples of Central and Eastern
Europe found themselves, at the time of the Armistice, facing a period
of starvation until their 1918 harvest could come in. Something to save
these peoples had to be done quickly and on a large scale. The situation
was met by the establishment of a new American governmental organization
called the American Relief Administration which, with Mr. Hoover as
director-general, worked in connection with the Inter-Allied Supreme
Economic Council. Representatives of the A. R. A. were sent at once into
all the countries crying for help to find out the exact food situation,
and to arrange with the respective governments for the immediate
beginning of the importation and distribution of staple foodstuffs.
Programs for a food supply sufficient to last until the 1919 harvest
were determined on a basis of minimum necessity, and provision for
sufficient shipping and rail transportation was arranged by
international agreement.
Modern war has thrown the spotlight on food. It has partly realized that
famous prophecy of the Polish economist, Jean Bloch, who wrote, twenty
years ago: "That is the future of war, not fighting, but famine." In
the World War of 1914--18 there was fighting on a scale never before
reached, but there was also famine, as never before dreamed of.
IX THE HIGH COST OF LIVING
A Study of the Extraordinary Conditions Subsequent to the Armistice
By THE DIRECTOR OF THE COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE
On August 9, 1919, Grosvenor B. Clarkson, Director of the Council of
National defense, submitted to the Secretary of War, a report entitled
"An Analysis of the High Cost of Living Problem." This report was the
result of much careful study and investigation. It is non-academic in
form and by omitting details presents a "panoramic view of the problem."
It laid chief stress upon conditions since the armistice.
In the report the problem of the high cost of living is viewed as a
permanent one. It was, in other words, not peculiar to past war
conditions. Careful investigation by the Council has resulted in the
following analysis of the problem.
THE ESSENCE OF THE HIGH COST OF LIVING SITUATION
"1. The only complaints of the high cost of living which have
justification are those which are based upon inability of the
present income to maintain previous or reasonable standards of
living at present prices--such well-founded complaints mean
that increase of income has not kept pace with increased cost
of living, and therefore imply enforced reduction in standards
of living.
AMERICA'S PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY
"2. America's industrial and economic achievements during the
war, notwithstanding depleted man power and diversion of
productive effort to war purposes, demonstrate the ample
ability of the Nation to sustain its population according to a
standard of living equal to or above standards of living which
obtained previous to or during the war.
"3. The fundamental basis for the maintenance of national
standards of living is adequate production, economical
distribution, and fair apportionment among the various economic
groups which constitute our society. With the exception of
agricultural activity, production since the armistice has shown
evidence of curtailment, and has in general been abnormally
low. Normal consumption can not continue unless an adequate
rate of production is maintained.
FOOD SITUATION AND READJUSTMENT
"4. Food production and the facilities for food production were
improved rather than injured during the war. Moreover, the
program with respect to food production since the signing of
the armistice has been one of vigorous expansion of the means
of providing raw food products. The actual consumption of
wheat, as shown by the Grain Corporation's report of May 25,
1919, had for the previous ten months averaged 37,700,000
bushels per month, as against 39,000,000 bushels for the
previous twelve months. This does not necessarily imply reduced
consumption of cereals.
"The number of cattle slaughtered in the period January to May,
1919, was 3,803,000, as against 4,204,000 for the corresponding
period of 1918, though the national reserve of cattle on farms
had increased during the war. The swine slaughtered January to
May increased from 18,260,000 in 1918 to 20,500,000 in 1919.
CLOTHING SITUATION
"5. The production of civilian cloths and clothing suffered
some reduction during the war, and has suffered heavy
curtailment for many months since the signing of the armistice.
"Boot and shoe production for civilian use was unfavorably
affected by the war and has likewise undergone extreme
curtailment since the signing of the armistice.
HOUSING PROBLEM
"6. Housing facilities developed acute shortage through
curtailment of building during the war and, due to curtailment,
for many months following the armistice, of the production of
building material and of building construction, housing is
still far below normal. Rents continue to rise.
PROVISION OF NEW CAPITAL
"7. The first half of 1919 shows diminished production of raw
materials and subnormal construction of new capital, and thus
indicates failure to utilize an adequate proportion of our
productive forces in the preliminary processes of provision to
meet future requirements. In fact, due to business uncertainty
and hesitation and tendencies to disagreement between
productive groups, retailers, wholesalers, manufacturers,
labor, etc., there ensued after the armistice a disuse of a
large proportion of America's productive capacity. Unless this
slump in production is atoned for by consistent future
activity, and unless production is constantly maintained on an
adequate scale, reduced standards of living will become
inescapable, regardless of prices, whether they rise or fall.
"8. The very fact that prices of finished commodities,
consumption goods, so called, have risen to an extent out of
proportion to the rise in prices of raw materials and perhaps
out of proportion to the rise in general wages, indicates that
production and distribution carried on under these conditions
is, in general, yielding profits abnormally high."
In corroboration of the preceding analysis, the report cites statistical
data gathered from various sources. The relation of currency and credit
to prices is admirably epitomized in the following extract:
CURRENCY AND CREDIT
"The manner in which the volume of circulating credit and
currency is related to the war-time rise in prices is about as
follows:
"The outbreak of the war brought to America urgent government
orders for munitions and supplies. Inasmuch as the belligerent
governments could not brook delay they were obliged to pay the
increased prices which American producers found it possible to
demand, and thus the wave of war prices was started in America.
When America entered the war it required, in order to perform
its part, almost boundless quantities of equipment and man
power. Producers naturally took advantage of the extremely
urgent character of these demands in order to increase their
prices, and, as a natural sequence, wages began to advance.
These increased prices and wages of course necessitated larger
expenditures by the government.
"Increased prices also necessitate the employment of larger
funds in the conduct of a business. A larger volume of credit
is required at higher prices to take care of bills for raw
materials, and more money is necessary to meet increased
payrolls. As a consequence, therefore, of increased prices,
business men required increased credit if they were to avoid
curtailment of operations and reduced production. Due to higher
prices, therefore, the banks were under the necessity of
meeting the business demand for expansion of credit."
INFLATION
The inflation process is described as follows:
"In pre-war times every dollar finding its way to the market
was supposedly the counterpart of some commodity or part of a
commodity also appearing in the market. Funds expended for the
purchase of food, clothing, and for the payment of rentals
were assumed to have been earned by some productive
contribution to the general supply of commodities. With the
outbreak of war there began to appear in the market, funds
derived from wages, profits, etc., which had been paid out in
connection with nonproductive activities of war, and which
therefore implied no corresponding contribution to the market
supply of commodities. The producers of, and the dealers in,
the decreased quantity of commodities brought to market
increased the prices of these commodities to the point where
they might absorb all the purchase money that became available.
These increased prices and wages have required increased
circulating medium. This requirement has been met primarily by
increased credit and the increased use of bank checks as an
instrument of payment. As to the currency situation, the total
money in the United States in 1900 amounted to $2,340,000,000.
According to a statement issued by Governor W. P. G. Harding,
of the Federal Reserve Board, the amount of money in
circulation has varied during the last five years as follows:
July 1, 1914, $3,419,108,368, or $34.53 per capita.
April 1, 1917, $4,100,976,000, or $37.88 per capita.
December 1, 1918, $5,129,985,000, or $48.13 per capita.
August 1, 1919, $4,796,890,000, or $45.16 per capita.
"This shows an increase during our war period of $7.28 per
capita. The amount of money in the Treasury and in Federal
Reserve Banks is not in circulation, and is, therefore not
included in the figures quoted from Governor Harding's
statement.
"In regard to the part played by national credit in meeting the
situation growing out of the extraordinary requirements of the
government and the rise in prices which the urgency of demands
made possible, it is to be noted that government bonds had to
be sold to pay for a large proportion of the goods which war
activities were consuming. In consequence the national debt up
to August 1, 1919, had been increased by $24,518,000,000, or
approximately $230 per capita. Of course, government bonds are
always good security for bank credit."
FOOD SUPPLY--WHEAT, CORN AND SUGAR
Despite the fact that we sent large shipments of food to our Allies, our
supply at the close of the war was not seriously diminished. The 1919
crop, while not expected to be large, was amply sufficient to prevent a
real shortage. This is supported by the following extract from Mr.
Clarkson's report:
"The wheat crop for 1918 amounted to 917,000,000 bushels, as
compared to an average for 1910--14 of 728,000,000 bushels; and
the probable harvest in 1919 is 1,236,000,000 bushels. Our
supply of wheat in elevators, mills, etc., on May 9, 1919, was
96,000,000 bushels, as against 34,000,000 bushels the year
before. Our flour mills, whose capacity is estimated at
something like double their usual output, were milling week by
week during 1919 considerably more flour than the year before.
They produced for the week ending May 9, 1919, for example,
2,553,000 barrels as against 1,569,000 barrels for the
corresponding week of 1918. Notwithstanding large exports, our
wheat supply is obviously adequate. In 1918, a record year, we
exported 21,000,000 barrels of flour. In 1915 our wheat exports
reached their maximum--206,000,000 bushels.
[Illustration: McCutcheon in the Chicago Tribune
Will There Be Enough to Go Around?]
"The corn crop of 1918 was likewise sufficient. The supply of
corn on hand on May 1, 1919, was 23,000,000 bushels, as
compared with 16,000,000 bushels May 1, 1918, and 7,000,000
bushels on May 1 of both 1917 and 1913. Though the 1919 corn
crop is not expected to be unusually large, there is no
prospect of real shortage. And the situation with respect to
the other cereals is generally very good.
"The sugar industry of the United States passed through the
period of the war with a tendency to increased production,
notwithstanding shipping difficulties. Though present stocks
are somewhat low in the United States, our exports during 1919
have been unusually large. The future is normally provided
for."
THE MEAT SUPPLY
The meat situation is described as follows:
"America emerged from the war producing meat at a rate far
above pre-war figures, and yet possessing in reserve a larger
number of animals on the farms than we had before the heavy war
drafts upon our supplies began. The number of cattle
slaughtered in 1918 was 11,000,000, as compared with 6,978,000
in 1913. Swine slaughtered were 41,214,000 in 1918 and
34,163,000 in 1913. The cattle slaughtered in 1919,
January--May, were 3,803,000, as against 4,204,000, January--May,
1918. The swine slaughtered January--May, 1919, made an increase
over the 1918 record, the figures being 20,500,000 for the
present year, as against 18,260,000 for the corresponding
interval last year. Although exports of hams and shoulders for
1918 approximately doubled previous records, amounting to
518,000,000 pounds, as against 172,000,000 pounds for 1913, and
exports have continued large during 1919, there is no doubt
that our productive capacity is vastly more than ample to meet
our requirements."
HIGH PRICE OF FOOD
In view of the apparent abundance of food it is interesting to know the
reason for the high price of foodstuffs. The Council of National Defense
is of the opinion that the probability that the production of garden
products in war gardens had fallen far below that of 1918, when, it is
estimated, to have reached the value of $525,000,000, would not account
for the high prices. Exportation and storage had not depleted our stock
sufficiently to affect prices abnormally. In regard to the question of
exports the report gives the following illuminating figures:
"Present food prices are not to be accounted for largely on the
basis of heavy exports. Exports of beef, canned, fresh, and
pickled, for example, have been less for 1919 than in the
previous year, the quantity amounting to 23,499,000 pounds in
May, 1919, as compared with 82,787,000 pounds in May, 1918. The
May figures for exports of hog products show 125,937,000 pounds
in 1919, as against 201,279,000 pounds in May, 1918. The
monthly exports of beef and pork show a declining tendency
during the first five months of 1919, contrary to the tendency
in 1918, the total amounting to 1,090,000,000 pounds in 1919,
as against 1,122,000,000 pounds for the corresponding period of
1918--less than the amount of all meats in cold storage on July
1, 1919, which was 1,336,000,000 pounds."
Concerning storage the same report states that:
"Even the fact that the report of goods in cold storage shows
an increase of over 9 per cent. in the quantity of all meats
held on July 1, 1919 (1,336,000,000 pounds), as compared with
the figures for July 1, 1918, is, though very important, not a
matter of significance for any considerable period of time.
Storage poultry July 1, 1919, was 48,895,704 pounds, or 181 per
cent. above last year; cheese, about 25 per cent.; butter,
about 75 per cent.; and eggs, about 25 per cent. above July 1
last year. There was a decrease of frozen fish of about 13 per
cent. from last year. Taken in connection with the evidence of
relatively abundant reserves of live animals and large crops
for the current year, it would seem that some relief from high
prices of food should be possible."
WHY FOOD PRICES WERE HIGH
The explanation of the post-war high prices of food is given as follows:
"It is true that food is, by comparison, plentiful. But it is
also true that money or other circulating medium is
unprecedently plentiful. The fact that food prices are
relatively high and that the prices of chemicals, metals,
lumber, etc., are relatively low, though their supply is
relatively small, may be due to a concentration of purchasing
power upon food, and the general direction of the flow of
currency toward the purchase of immediate consumables. Some
relatively minor luxuries such as jewelry (and perhaps
automobiles should also be included here as the semi-luxury of
greater magnitude) find favor with purchasers, but the main
trend of purchase seems to bear toward demand for the
necessities of life now in a finished state or nearly so, with
a relatively weaker tendency toward demand of capital goods. If
the supply, and also the production, of raw materials has been
relatively small, and if the prices at which they have
exchanged have also been relatively low, it seems obvious that
the proportionate amount of currency and credit engaged in
their purchase must be abnormally small, thus accounting for
the ability of the producers and purveyors of food to demand
abnormally high prices regardless of the relative plentifulness
of their goods."
CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO PROFITEERING
"The conditions just described are highly favorable to both
speculative profiteering and wasteful distribution, through the
intervention of supernumerary middlemen and caterers. In fact,
the statistics published by the New York Industrial Relations
Commission seem to indicate an unusually large increase of
persons engaging in certain kinds of salesmanship after the
armistice. It should, however, be remembered that even though
it may smack of profiteering to produce a very large crop and
sell it at abnormally high prices, this is a kind of
profiteering which deserves unstinted praise as compared with
that other species of profiteering which deliberately reduces
output in the expectation that the extortionate prices which
the reduced product will command may more than make up to the
producer or speculator for the portion of production withheld
or the percentage of hoarded goods condemned to spoil and be
lost to the nation."
OTHER COMMODITIES
The price of commodities other than foodstuffs was influenced in 1919 by
the inadequacy of supply and the curtailment of production. This was
especially true of woolens, as stated by the Council:
"The most obvious explanation of the high prices of woolens is
the glaring fact of the extreme reduction in output which
ensued after the signing of the armistice and the completion of
Army orders, which practically ended in January, 1919.
"The war came to an end with the supply of civilian woolens
unprecedentedly low. The total quantity of wool available for
civilian fabrics between April and November, 1918, was probably
somewhere in the neighborhood of 75,000,000 pounds, an amount
perhaps a little more than sufficient to meet the demands of
normal manufacture for civilian consumption for one and
one-half months.
* * * * *
"In consequence of the general situation the total consumption
of wool in manufacture during first five months of the year
1919 amounted to but little more than one-half the amount
consumed during the corresponding months of the previous year.
The proportion of looms, 50-inch reed space and over, idle
increased from 21 per cent. in November, 1918, to 52 per cent.
idle in February, 1919, and these looms were still 39 per cent.
idle in May, 1919. Of worsted spindles, 27 per cent. were
reported idle in December, 1918, and 52 per cent. idle in
March, 1919, and 26 per cent. were still idle in May. In the
meantime an extraordinary number of textile workers were
condemned to idleness, their productive capacity perishing day
by day and week by week, while the deficiency in the supply of
clothing was developing to such a point that it became possible
for the wholesale index number of the prices of cloths and
clothing to rise to 250 in June."
The production of cotton and cotton goods also was far below normal. To
quote again from the report:
"When the war ended the world's cotton supply was understood to
be below normal. The supplies of cotton goods were also
reported low. The acreage planted to cotton was in 1919
approximately 9 per cent. less than for 1918. The present
prospects are that the cotton crop will be small, and published
articles are appearing expressing gratification over the
prospectively large commercial returns which the cotton
producers may be able to command because of the high prices
which may be had for the reduced cotton output. The forecast of
the cotton crop for 1919 is 10,900,000 bales--about 10 per
cent. below that of recent years and but little over two-thirds
as large as the record crop of 1914."
"OUTPUT AND MORE OUTPUT" ABANDONED
"In regard to cotton manufacture, it may be recorded that the
situation is less unsatisfactory than as regards wool
manufacture. In this industry, as in most of our industries,
the economic watchword of war-time, which was 'Output, and more
output' (the necessary condition of full prosperity in peace,
as well as of success during war), was not heard after the
armistice. There soon developed, on the contrary, groundless
doubts about future demand, and hints of unhealthy fears of
'overproduction.'
"Notwithstanding the release of labor, if it were needed, by
demobilization, and notwithstanding adequate supplies of raw
cotton to meet the season's requirements and the lack of any
important difficulties in the way of reconversion to peace-time
products, and with low supplies of finished goods in stock, the
cotton industry kept more spindles idle during the first five
months of 1919 than were idle during the corresponding period
for 1918. The amount of cotton consumed in the United States
during the nine months ending with April, 1919, was
approximately 12 per cent. less than for the corresponding nine
months of 1918. The prices of cloths and clothing, as above
mentioned, show in June, 1919, an increase of 150 per cent.
over 1913 prices."
The boot and show industry showed a marked decline after the signing of
the armistice. This, too, was borne out by the investigations of the
Council.
"The production of boots and shoes for the first quarter of
1919 was reported as about 60 per cent. below the production
for the last quarter of 1918. Plants were partially closed and
in some cases it is reported that machinery was returned to the
Shoe Machinery Co. All in all, there were 75,000,000 less pairs
of shoes produced in the first quarter of 1919 than in the last
quarter of 1918.
"The census report shows a reduction of more than 25 per cent.
in the output of civilian men's shoes in the quarter ending
with March, 1919, as compared with production in the quarter
ending with December, 1918, and nearly 25 per cent. reduction
as compared with the quarter ending with September, 1918. The
reduction in output of women's shoes amounted to approximately
30 and 25 per cent., respectively, in comprising corresponding
periods. The reduction in the output of shoes for youths, boys
and misses was even more marked."
COAL AND IRON
What has been said of the production of cotton and woolen goods applied
equally to the mining of coal and to the output of iron and steel.
During the war we increased our coal production. In 1918 it amounted to
"685,000,000 short tons, almost 50 per cent. of the world's estimated
output for that year. Production for 1913 was 571,000,000 short tons."
The coal situation since the armistice is stated as follows:
"Coal, the source of a vast proportion of our industrial power
as well as our chief source of heat and light, is a commodity
the production of which is itself an index of our economic
life. Coal output since the armistice has been greatly reduced,
the weekly production of anthracite for the first half of 1919
being from 1,200,000 to 1,800,000 net tons, as against
1,800,000 net tons to 3,000,000 net tons for the corresponding
period of 1918. Bituminous production was 9,147,000 net tons
for a typical week in 1919, as against 12,491,000 net tons for
the corresponding week in 1918. Coke production for the week
ending June 28, 1919, amounted to only 287,000 net tons, as
compared with 627,000 net tons for the week ending June 29,
1918. The total amount of coal produced up to July 5, 1919, was
261,000,000 long tons, as compared with 364,000,000 long tons
for the corresponding period of 1918."
The production of iron and steel which was greatly stimulated by the war
was allowed to decline as soon as the concentrated effort of the nation
to win the war was abandoned. The resulting condition is succinctly
described by the Council:
"The record of our after-war steel and iron output furnishes us
with another warning that we have been neglecting to keep pace
with the established American rate of industrial improvement
and expansion and foresighted preparation for future
requirements and progress.
"The iron and steel business was considerably stimulated by
war-time requirements. There was a governmental agency whose
business it was to for see the war needs and to place orders so
that those productive forces which are wrapped up in the steel
industry might be utilized to capacity. The steel industry's
activity has, however, since the armistice greatly declined.
Pig-iron production for April, 1919, was 82,607 tons per day,
as against 109,607 tons in April, 1918. Birmingham properties
are reported to have been working in April, 1919, at about 50
per cent. of the 1918 production. For the period January to
May, 1919, pig-iron production was only 2,114,000 tons, as
against 3,446,000 tons during the same period in 1918.
Steel-ingot production fell in the spring of 1919 to lower
figures than had been reached in more than two years. In fact,
a regular decline in production was in evidence after December,
1918.
"The figures representing the unfilled orders of the United
States Steel Corporation at the end of May, 1919, were smaller
than they had been since 1915."
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
Women Doing Night Farming
Girls running a tractor plow and harrow at Farmingdale, Long Island.]
RECOMMENDATIONS
The Council summarized its findings and recommends remedial measures as
follows:
"The findings of the Reconstruction Research Division Council
of National Defense, indicate that the high cost of living is
primarily due to curtailment in the production of nearly all
commodities except raw food products, to hoarding of storage
food products, to profiteering, conscious and unconscious, and
to inflation of circulating credit. The findings indicate that
the situation may be most advantageously met by:
"1. Stimulated production.
"2. Some readjustment of incomes to the basis of higher price
levels.
"3. The repression of hoarding and profiteering.
"4. Improvement and standardization of methods and facilities
for distributing and marketing goods.
"5. The perfecting of means of keeping the nation frequently,
promptly, and adequately informed regarding probable national
requirements and of current production and stocks of the more
important commodities.
"The findings emphasize the fact that high standards of living
can not be maintained upon a basis of reduced production,
regardless of whether price levels be high or low."
[Illustration: The Ore Market--Cleveland]
_PART II_
I--THE PEACE CONFERENCE AT WORK
A Vivid Account from the Inside of the Machinery Which Produced the
Peace Treaty. How the Crises with Japan, Italy and Belgium Were Averted
By THOMAS W. LAMONT
Financial and Economic Adviser at Paris to the American Commission to
Negotiate Peace
When we finally gain an historic perspective of the work of the Peace
Conference we shall realize that, instead of being unduly delayed, it
was accomplished in an astonishingly brief period. The Treaty of Vienna,
back in 1815, took eleven months, and the factors to be dealt with were
nothing like so numerous nor so complex. The Paris Conference occupied
only about six months, and the earlier weeks were largely given over to
questions relating to the renewal of the Armistice, rather than to the
actual framing of the Peace Treaty. The Treaty text itself--aside from
the League of Nations Covenant--was whipped through in a little over
three months; for the active work of the Commissions which were to draft
the various chapters did not get under way until February 1st; and the
Treaty was presented to the German delegates at Versailles on May 7th.
COVENANTS "OPENLY ARRIVED AT"
No adequate history of the Peace Conference can be written until years
have elapsed--until it is possible, as it is not now possible, to make
public a multitude of intimate details. Hundreds of important documents
were woven into the completed text of the Treaty. Such documents must
eventually be made available to the chroniclers of history, who must
finally have access to the official records, so that in course of time
they can acquaint the world with the details of those momentous
conferences which were held among the Chiefs of State, where the
ultimate decisions settling every important question were made. There
have been complaints that the covenants of the Treaty were not as
President Wilson had promised, "openly arrived at." In point of fact, as
far as lay within the bounds of possibility, the covenants of the Treaty
_were_ "openly arrived at," inasmuch as their essence was made public
just as soon as an understanding upon them had been reached, and in many
cases, long before the final agreement. Nothing was held back which the
public had any legitimate interest in knowing. It would, of course, have
been quite out of the question for the Chiefs of State to discuss in
public all the highly delicate and complex situations which were bound
to, and which did, arise at Paris. Every man of strong character and
powerful conviction has a view of his own upon any given subject, and
naturally maintains that view with vigor and tenacity--even at times, if
he be bitterly opposed--with acrimony.
To take a familiar instance, it is an open secret that M. Clemenceau's
first solution of the question of the Saar Basin did not at all suit
President Wilson. Not unnaturally, M. Clemenceau simply wanted in effect
to annex the Saar Basin, on the grounds that the Germans had destroyed
the coal mines of Northern France. Mr. Wilson was in entire accord--to
this extent, that France should, until her coal mines had been repaired,
enjoy the entire output of the Saar coal fields; but to have France
permanently annex the Basin was contrary to his profoundest convictions,
as expressed in the well-known Fourteen Points.
In the course of the discussion between M. Clemenceau and Mr. Wilson,
their ideas at the start being so divergent, vigorous views were
undoubtedly expressed; quite possibly tart language was used, at any
rate by the French Premier, who was feeling all the distress of German
frightfulness and war weariness. But to what possible good end could the
detail of such intimate conversations have been made public? I allude to
the possible conversations on the Saar Basin not as an historical fact,
but as an example of what might have taken place, and very likely did
take place; and if such temporary disagreements existed on that
question, undoubtedly, among so many Chiefs of State as were gathered
together at Paris, they existed on others. But in all cases amicable and
cordial agreements were finally reached.
Whenever agreements were even in sight, the press was informed; so that,
when the Treaty of Peace and the summary of it finally came out, there
were no surprises for the public. Every covenant, every clause, had been
already foreshadowed and accurately pictured.
THE "BIG THREE"
Naturally, the question is often asked: Who were the peacemakers at
Paris? Were they two or three powerful Chiefs of State? The answer is
both "Yes" and "No." The final decision on every important matter lay in
the hands of the so-called Big Four, and after Premier Orlando's
defection and return to Italy, it narrowed down to the Big Triumvirate,
Messrs. Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau. Yet while they made the
final decisions, these were almost invariably based upon reports and
opinions expressed to this trio, or to the quartet, by their advisers
and experts. The actual text of the Treaty was, of course, written by
the technicians, and there is hardly a phrase in the whole of it that
can claim as its original author any one of the Chiefs of State. In
every true sense, then, the Treaty of Peace has been the product, not of
three men, not even of three-score, nor of three hundred, but of
thousands; for quite aside from the official delegations at Paris, which
comprised several hundred persons, we must remember that the data and
the various suggested solutions on most of the questions had been
canvassed at home for each delegation by large groups of office and
technical experts.
Of course it sounds well to say that the Treaty was written by three
men: the picture of those few Chiefs of State sitting in conference day
after day is dramatic in the extreme. That is, I must confess, the
picture which comes back oftenest to my mind. I see them today, as I saw
them for months at Paris, sitting in that large but cosy salon in the
house allotted to President Wilson on the Place des États Unis; for, by
common consent, it was there that the Supreme Council finally held all
its meetings. It is in that theatre, with the three or four Chiefs of
State taking the leading rôles, that we saw the other characters in the
great drama moving slowly on the stage, playing their parts, and then
disappearing into the wings. Today it might be Paderewski, pleading with
all his earnestness and sincerity, to have Danzig allotted to the
sovereignty of Poland. To-morrow it might be Hymans, the Belgian
Secretary for Foreign Affairs, begging that there should be a prompt
realization of those pledges to Belgium, which Belgium felt had been
made by all the Allies; or it might even be word brought by special
aeroplane from the King of the Belgians at Brussels, with fresh and
important instructions to his delegation in the matter of Reparation. Or
it might be a group of the representatives of those newer nationalities,
Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Jugoslavia, arguing some burning question of
boundary rights. Or it might be the British shipping experts,
maintaining that the captured German ships should be restored to the
various Allies upon a basis dividing the ships _pro rata_ to the losses
sustained by submarines, and contending against the American claim that
the United States should have all the German ships finding lodgment in
American harbors. Or it might be Herbert Hoover, that brilliant
American, come to describe to the Big Four starvation conditions in
Vienna, and to emphasize his belief that, enemy or no enemy, those
conditions must be relieved or Bolshevism would march into Austria and
directly on west until it reached France--and beyond.
THE PLACE OF MEETING
The stage for this world drama was originally set at the Ministry of
War, behind the Chamber of Deputies and across the Seine; and here
Premier Clemenceau--who, it will be remembered, was Minister of War as
well as President of the Council of French Ministers--was the presiding
genius. But eventually, as the result of an interesting trend of
circumstances, the all important conferences took place at President
Wilson's house.
[Illustration: Copyright Walter Adams & Sons
=David Lloyd George=
Ray Standard Baker, who attended the Peace Conference, wrote in his
book, "What Wilson Did at Paris": "Lloyd George personally was one of
the most charming and amiable figures at Paris, full of Celtic
quicksilver, a torrential talker in the conference, but no one was ever
quite sure, having heard him express an unalterable determination on one
day, that he would not be unalterably determined some other way the day
following."]
The original theatre of operations at the War Ministry had been so
large, and there was such an enormous chorus brought into play, that
progress was interminably slow. There were usually present all five of
the plenipotentiaries of each of the five great powers, including Japan,
and very frequently Marshal Foch as well. His presence automatically
commanded the attendance of the chief military experts of the other
delegates. With the innumerable secretaries who had to attend the
plenipotentiaries, with the interpreters and whatnot, the Supreme
Council came to look like a legislative chamber, in the midst of which
sat Clemenceau, presiding with his usual incisiveness. At such meetings
progress could be made only upon rather formal matters which had been
threshed out beforehand. When it came to a point of great delicacy,
where the discussions could be only on a most intimate basis, it became
quite impossible to "carry on." Nobody would feel like speaking out in
meeting and calling the other fellow names--as was necessary at times in
order to clear the atmosphere--if there were half a hundred other people
around, to hear those names, and promptly to babble them to an expectant
throng outside.
So finally the Supreme Council was boiled down to the four Chiefs of
State, including Japan's representative on any questions not strictly
confined to Western Europe; and the small Council began to meet
alternately at Clemenceau's office in the War Ministry, at Mr. Lloyd
George's house, and at Mr. Wilson's, which was just around the corner
from the British Premier's. Then in March, shortly after President
Wilson's second coming from the United States, he fell ill with the
grippe. After a rather severe attack he was able to get on his feet
again and to do business, but was warned by his vigilant friend and
physician, Admiral Grayson, to keep within doors for a time. Mr. Lloyd
George, M. Clemenceau, and Signor Orlando were glad to accommodate
themselves to Mr. Wilson's necessities, and formed the habit of meeting
regularly at his house. His large salon was much better adapted for
these conferences than the room at Mr. Lloyd George's. So there it was
they met during all the final weeks of the Conference, leading up to the
very end.
A DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNCIL CHAMBER
In the middle of the salon, facing the row of windows looking out upon
the Place, was a large yet most inviting fireplace. On the left of this,
a little removed from it, President Wilson usually ensconced himself on
a small sofa, where he made room for some one member of his delegation,
whom, for the particular subject under discussion, he desired to have
most available. On the other side of the fireplace sat Mr. Lloyd George
in a rather high, old-fashioned chair of carved Italian maple, and at
his left sat his experts. Opposite the fireplace, to the right of it,
and about half-way across the room, sat M. Clemenceau, with such of his
Ministers as he needed, and then between him and President Wilson was
Signor Orlando with the Italians. This made a semi-circle around the
fireplace, and whenever Viscount Chinda of the Japanese delegation was
present, the circle was usually enlarged so as to give him a seat in the
middle of it. Behind this first semi-circle was a second one, made up of
secretaries and various technical experts, but the conference was always
a limited one, and was not allowed to grow so large as to become
unwieldy.
Directly in front of the fireplace, almost scorching his coat-tails, sat
Professor Mantou, the official interpreter for the Big Four. Mantou is a
Frenchman, Professor of French in the University of London, so he had a
perfect mastery of both French and English, with a good working
knowledge of Italian. Mantou was quite an extraordinary character, and
the most vivid interpreter I have ever heard, or rather seen; for at
times he entered into the spirit of the discussions more vigorously than
the original actors. M. Clemenceau, for instance, might make a quiet,
moderate statement, in French, of course; and when it became Mantou's
time to interpret it into English, he would enliven and embellish it
with his own unique gestures.
The Secretary of the Council was Sir Maurice Hankey, a British Army
officer of great skill and tact, who had a marvelous aptitude for
keeping everything straight, for taking perfectly adequate, and yet not
too voluminous minutes, for seeing that no topic was left in the air
without further reference, and in the last analysis, for holding the
Chiefs of State with their noses to the grindstone. He knew French and
Italian well, and was a distinct asset to the Council. I note that, in
the honors and money-grants disbursed by Parliament to Marshal Haig,
Admiral Beatty and others, Hankey received £25,000. Everybody who worked
with him at Paris will be glad of this just recognition. I have
described this Council Chamber in the President's house rather minutely
because, as I have said, it formed the stage for all of the momentous
decisions which went to make up the final peace settlement. At these
conferences there was no formal presiding officer, but to President
Wilson was usually accorded the courtesy of acting as moderator.
HOW THE TREATY WAS COMPOUNDED
What, then, is the Treaty? The answer is that it is a human document, a
compound of all the qualities possessed by human beings at their
best--and at their worst. People might expect a Treaty of Peace to be a
formal, legal, mechanical sort of document; and undoubtedly an effort
was made by some of the drafting lawyers, who bound all the different
clauses together, to throw the Treaty into the mold of formality. But
all the same, it is a compound quivering with human passion--virtue,
entreaty, fear, sometimes rage, and above all, I believe, justice.
The reason fear enters into the Treaty must be manifest. Take, for
instance, the case of France. France had lived under the German menace
for half a century. Finally the sword of Damocles had fallen, and almost
one-sixth of beautiful France had been laid waste. Her farms, her
factories, her villages, had been destroyed; her women ravished and led
captive; her children made homeless; her men folk killed. Do we realize
that almost 60 per cent. of all the French soldiers under thirty-one
years of age were killed in the war? Is it any wonder France could not
believe that the German menace was gone forever, and that the world
would never again allow German autocracy to overwhelm her? She could not
believe it, and for that reason she felt it essential that the terms of
the Treaty should be so severe as to leave Germany stripped for
generations of any power to wage aggression against beautiful France. If
her Allies pointed out that to cripple Germany economically was to make
it impossible for Germany to repair the frightful damage she had wrought
in France, France would in effect reply that this might be so, but never
again could she endure such a menace as had threatened her eastern
border for the previous half century. If certain of the Treaty clauses
appear to some minds as unduly severe, it must be remembered that the
Allies, little more than France, could bear the thought of letting
Germany off so easily that within a few years she might again prepare
for war.
There was fear, too, on the part of those new nations, which had been
largely split off from the effete and outworn Austro-Hungarian Empire,
that in some way their ancient oppressors would once more gain sway over
them. And, every nation, great and small, was overshadowed with the
constant terror of Bolshevism,--that dread specter which seemed to be
stalking, with long strides, from eastern Europe west towards the
Atlantic. Unless peace were hastened that evil might overtake all the
Allies. Such apprehensions as these, far more than imperial ambition or
greed, were factors in the Treaty decisions. Judgments that might take
many months in the ripening could not with safety be awaited.
THE PROTECTION DEMANDED BY FRANCE
France, I say, was thoroughly shocked at the frightful fate which had
come upon so great a portion of her land and population. She seemed to
have real fear that out of the ground, or from the sky, or from the
waters of the earth, at the waving of the devil's wand, there would
spring into being a fresh German army, ready to overwhelm her. It was
this fear that led France to ask for a special Treaty by which England
and America would pledge themselves to come to her aid in case of
Germany's unprovoked attack against her. Those Americans who object to
this have no conception of the real terror in France which led her to
entreat her two most powerful Allies to make such a special treaty with
her. France maintained, and with some reason, that during the formative
period of the League of Nations, before it might become an effective
instrument, if she did not have the psychological and practical
protection of England and America, she must look to her own defense, and
the only real defense she could conceive was to make the Rhine her
eastern boundary. This suggestion of Marshal Foch, based upon sound
military concept, was rejected by President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd George
on the theory that it would mean the annexation of German territory,
would change Germany's ancient boundary line of the Rhine, and
inevitably lead to future trouble.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
President Poincaré With the Swiss President, M. Gustave Ador, Driving to
the Peace Conference in Paris.]
"Very well," in effect answered M. Clemenceau, "we see your point, but
if you will not allow us to fix this natural boundary for defense, then
we must beg you to guarantee us by treaty your coöperation against
German aggression. That coöperation you will never be called upon to
render with military force, because if Germany knows you are pledged to
come to our defense, that very fact will act as a complete deterrent to
any aggression."
This was the sound reasoning which led President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd
George to agree to submit respectively to Congress and Parliament this
special French Treaty; this is the reasoning which ought to lead
Congress, as it has led Parliament, to ratify the French Treaty
promptly. My belief is that after five years, this special Treaty will
be abrogated by mutual consent, because by that time the League of
Nations will be built up into such an effective instrument for the
prevention of future wars, any special treaties will be deemed
unnecessary.
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS COVENANT
If, in the foregoing paragraphs, I have given some idea as to how the
Treaty of Peace was compounded, how it was made up of a mixture of
virtue, selfishness, fear and justice, then perhaps I can proceed to
describe briefly how the document was actually evolved. First, then, we
deal with the drafting of the League of Nations Covenant:
The world has come to regard President Wilson as the special promoter
and sponsor for the League of Nations. It is perfectly true that Mr.
Wilson went to Paris with a fixed determination, above all else, to
bring about some definite arrangement which would tend to prevent future
wars. It is also true, however, that English statesmen had, for an even
longer time than President Wilson, been giving this same subject earnest
thought and study. Some of the more enlightened French statesmen, like
Leon Bourgeois, had also been sketching out plans for a League of Free
Nations. In England Viscount Grey of Falloden, England's really great
Minister of Foreign Affairs for almost a decade prior to the war, the
man who did everything that human intelligence and wisdom could devise
to prevent the war, and now happily named as British Ambassador to the
United States, had long worked for a League of Nations. Lord Robert
Cecil, a worthy son of a noble father, was another British statesman who
had given his mind to the same subject. General Smuts of South Africa,
recently made Premier in succession to the late General Botha, was
another. So that President Wilson, Colonel House, and the other
delegates, upon their arrival in Paris, found themselves in a not
uncongenial atmosphere. To be sure, on the part of Clemenceau and of
course of the militarists, there was great scepticism. Nevertheless the
French joined in, and early in January the Covenant for the League of
Nations began to evolve. It was built up step by step, President Wilson
taking a most active part in the work.
Finally the Covenant was adopted in a preliminary way and made public
late in February. It was subject to amendment, and those who drafted the
document welcomed amendments and urged that they be offered. An especial
effort was made to secure suggestions from various Republican
statesmen. No amendments, so far as I have been able to learn, were
offered by any of the Republican Senators, but ex-President Taft
suggested certain changes, some of which were adopted. President Lowell
of Harvard contributed one or two which were taken over almost verbatim.
Ex-Senator Elihu Root also made valuable suggestions, some of which were
utilized in the final drafting of the Covenant, made public early in
April.
ESSENCE AND SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE
Roughly, as the situation developed, the purpose of the League of
Nations became two-fold. The initial purpose, of course, was to set up
the machinery for a body, representative of the nations, keeping in such
close contact and guided by such general principles as would tend to
make it impossible for one nation to begin war upon another. Elsewhere
in this volume ex-Attorney General Wickersham has described in detail
the clauses of the Covenant; but even in this brief allusion it is
proper to set down the essence and spirit of the League. It is this: No
two peoples, if they come to know each other and each other's motives
sufficiently well, and if by certain machinery they are maintained in
close personal and ideal contact, can conceivably fly at each other's
throats. Now no machinery can be devised that will absolutely prevent
war, but a carrying out of the spirit and principles set forth in the
present Covenant ought to make war well-nigh impossible. The machinery
that was thus set up at Paris was deemed at the time to be of course
imperfect and subject to constant improvement.
The second purpose of the League was to act as the binder, and in a way,
the administrative force of the present existing Treaty. That is to say,
we found as time went on there were many situations so complex that
human wisdom could not devise an immediate formula for their solution.
Hence, it became necessary for the Peace Conference to establish certain
machinery which, if necessary, should function over a series of years,
and thus work out permanently the problems involved. Therefore, as it
fell out, there were established under the Treaty, almost a score of
Commissions, most of them to act under the general supervision of a
League of Nations. Here, then, is another great function that the League
of Nations is immediately called upon to fulfil.
WORK OF THE COMMISSIONS
With the Covenant of the League of Nations more or less complete, the
next business of the Conference was the setting up of the Treaty proper.
The method for this work was roughly as follows: About the first of
February there was appointed a large number of special Commissions, made
up of members of the various delegations. These Commissions, which were
each to treat of separate topics, having arrived at a solution of the
special subject, were then to draft their reports in such language that
they could readily be embodied in the final Treaty of Peace itself.
Thus, for instance, there was appointed a Commission on Reparations, a
Commission on Economic Phases of the Treaty, a Commission on Finance, a
Commission on Boundaries, a Commission on Military and Naval Armament, a
Commission on German Colonies, a Commission on the Saar Basin Coal
Fields, a Commission on Inland Waterways, and so on to the number of
perhaps twenty. These Commissions immediately organized, and if the
subject were particularly complex and many-sided, resolved themselves
into sub-commissions. These sub-commissions in turn organized, each with
its chairman and vice-chairman, its secretariat, and its interpreters,
together with experts called into attendance.
DELAYS TO THE TREATY
The sittings of all these Commissions began, as I say, about February
1st, and at that time the plan was that the work of the Commissions
should be concluded in the form of a report to the Supreme Council six
weeks later, or about March 15th. The plan, further, was for the Supreme
Council to pass upon these various reports, amend them if need be, and
then have them drafted in such form as together would go to make up the
Treaty, which, under this scheme, would be presented to the Germans on
or about April 1st. The Germans would presumably sign within a
fortnight, and we should all be going home about April 15th. As a matter
of fact, the Germans signed the Treaty at Versailles at three o'clock on
the afternoon of June 28th, two and one-half months later than the time
originally planned.
This delay was, however, not at all unreasonable, if one stops to
consider the number of questions involved, their magnitude, and the
difficulty of dealing with them promptly. In the first place, each
Commission was supposed to present the Supreme Council a unanimous
report. The Council had ruled that the Commissions should not report by
majority vote, for if in any given instance the majority overruled the
minority, the minority might have such bitter complaint that there would
be left in the situation the seed for future trouble. Therefore the
Council determined that in the case of divergence of opinion in the same
Commission, the two or more groups in the Commission should make
separate reports to the Council, each having its own day in court. The
Council would act as judges of the last resort, and no delegation would
go away feeling that it had not had ample opportunity to present its
case. Inevitable and sharp differences of opinion did arise, so that at
least half the reports, I should say, as presented to the Big Four had
to be thrashed out there in considerable detail.
The second handicap to rapid progress, of course, lay in the composition
of the various Commissions. Each of the large five powers had to be
represented on each Commission, and in most instances smaller powers
also demanded representation. On some of the important Commissions the
larger powers had two or more delegates sitting. Owing to the fact that
Paris was full of influenza, each delegate had to have his alternate so
as to keep the ball rolling. When they first met these delegates were
not well acquainted with each other. They did not know how to get along
together. It took weeks for them to shake down, so as to understand
each other's methods and points of view; so as to be prepared to make
the necessary give and take, certain meetings of views which are always
essential where people are gathered from the four corners of the earth
with a single aim, but with vastly different ideas for attaining it.
[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood
Where the Peace Treaty Was Signed
This was the table and chair at which the delegates sat and signed the
peace document.]
POLITICS AT THE CONFERENCE
Still another difficulty was the question of politics which could not be
eliminated. It is easy enough to say, "cut out politics," but in any
international gathering it is never possible to do it. I must say right
here, however, that--as it seemed to me--the American delegation
well-nigh attained that ideal, and be it to President Wilson's credit, I
never once saw him throughout the length of the conference, "play"
politics. But some of the other delegations naturally felt that at home
there was a "list'ning senate" to applaud or to condemn, and many of
these delegates, being members of their respective parliaments or
ministries, naturally had their ear to the ground for the effect that
their course at Paris was producing. Then if, at the sittings of a
Commission, one delegate made a particularly eloquent speech, his fellow
delegate might feel it incumbent upon him to make another equally long.
Some of the delegates deemed it their duty to make an extended speech
every day and seemed to feel that they were lacking in patriotism if
they failed each morning to cover several pages of the record with their
views.
THE DIFFICULTY OF LANGUAGE
Then the final difficulty, uniting with the other troubles to prevent
rapid progress, was that of language. The Paris Conference was, of
course, a regular Tower of Babel. There were two official
languages--French and English. Each delegation used the language with
which its delegates were most familiar, and every word uttered by those
delegates had to be translated into the vernacular of the others. Not
only did this interpretation consume a vast amount of time, but of
course it frequently proved most unsatisfactory. Both the English and
French languages are so idiomatic that the finer shades of meaning can
never be well transmuted from one to the other. Hence, frequent and
sometimes serious mistakes arose. For instance, a Serbian delegate who
knew not a word of English would misunderstand something said by the
British delegate, poorly translated into French. As the Serbian
delegate's knowledge of French was also very limited he could not
readily understand. So he would fly into a towering rage, and for an
hour a heated argument would volley back and forth. Perhaps, at the end
of that time, some cool-headed delegate (frequently an American), would
point out that neither of the honorable delegates had any conception of
what the other had said, and at bottom their views were precisely
similar. Each of the competitors would then listen to reason, the
situation would clear up, and things move on more happily.
I use here as an example a Serbian delegate, not that the Serbian
delegates were more prone to passion than anybody else. We were all
fighting like mad to make peace. We realized that though fundamentally
we all had the same aim, yet as to methods our views were so divergent,
that when we entered into conference at ten o'clock in the morning we
should probably have one continuous struggle, with interludes for
luncheon and dinner, until perhaps late in the evening. These struggles
never ceased altogether, but as we got to know one another better, they
of course let up materially, and we got on amicably and effectively.
THE COMMISSION ON REPARATIONS
No sketch of the Peace Conference, even one as cursory and superficial
as this, could give any idea of the picture without a more detailed
reference to the workings of some particular Commission that played an
important part in the building up of the Peace Treaty. Hence I may be
permitted to mention the Commission on Reparations. All things
considered, this was perhaps the most important Commission at work.
The original Commission on Reparations was divided into three
sub-commissions. Commission Number One was to determine upon what
principles reparation should be demanded from Germany, that is to say,
what items of damage should be included. In addition to physical damage
inflicted by Germany upon the Allies, by reason of her aggression on
land or sea, and from the air, should the cost of pensions for dead
French soldiers be claimed? Was the entire cost of the war as waged by
England, for instance, to be included as a charge against Germany? In
other words, just what categories should be adopted in order to define
Germany's liability?
This Commission Number One sat for weeks, and it was only towards the
very end that it succeeded in establishing the categories. At the start
there was a sharp divergence of opinion among the various delegations.
The American delegation pointed out that under President Wilson's
Fourteen Points costs of war would have to be excluded. The British
delegation maintained otherwise. The French thought the costs of war
ought to be included, but deemed the matter academic, inasmuch as
Germany could never pay the total war costs. And so the argument ran.
Sub-commission Number Two on reparations had for its object to determine
what Germany's capacity to pay was, and what the proper method of
payment should be. Sub-commission Number Three was to devise sanctions
or guarantees by which the Allies should be assured of receiving the
payments finally determined upon.
For weeks I was active upon Sub-commission Number Two, and in fact was
charged with the duty of drawing up the initial report covering the
question of Germany's capacity to pay. Early in the deliberations of
this Sub-commission it became apparent that its work was of momentous
import, for whatever the Sub-commission determined as Germany's capacity
to pay, undoubtedly that sum would be fixed as what Germany should be
obligated to pay. Theoretically, as the French had pointed out, it did
not make a great difference what categories of damage were included,
because Germany would probably be unable to pay even the extent of
material damage she had wrought. It was equally evident that she would
be compelled by the Allies to pay to the utmost extent of her capacity.
Therefore Sub-commission Number Two was in effect, naming the amount of
the German "indemnity."
AN ESTIMATE OF GERMANY'S CAPACITY TO PAY
This knowledge rendered the work of the delegates on Sub-commission
Number Two considerably more difficult. To estimate Germany's capacity
to pay over a series of years was by no means a purely scientific
matter. No banker, or economist, or financier, whatever his experience,
could look far enough into the future to be able to say what Germany
could or could not pay, in ten, twenty, or thirty years. The initial
estimate made by one of the delegations, as representing Germany's
capacity to pay, was one thousand million of francs. Another estimate
was twenty-four billion sterling, about one hundred twenty billion of
dollars. Now Germany's entire wealth was estimated at not over eighty
billion dollars, so it was inconceivable how it could be possible, even
over a series of years, for Germany to pick up her entire commonwealth
and transfer it to the Allies. Most of Germany's property consists of
the soil, railroads, factories, dwellings, and none of those things can
be transported, none can be made available for the payment of
reparation. Hence the question arose as to how much liquid wealth
Germany could export year after year and still maintain her own economic
life. This was the estimate upon which the British, French and American
delegations wrangled pleasantly for weeks. Whenever we reached too tense
a point, tea and toast was served, with jam to sweeten the atmosphere a
bit, and then we would start afresh.
As a matter of fact, as we encouraged newspaper reporters to surmise, we
had nearly arrived upon a basis of agreement for demanding a fixed sum
from Germany. That sum would not have exceeded forty or forty-five
billion dollars, with interest added. The American delegation believed
it to be far sounder economically to name a fixed sum and thus limit
Germany's liability, so that all nations could address themselves to a
definite end and arrange their fiscal and taxation policies accordingly.
But both Mr. Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau urged that public opinion in
both their countries would not acquiesce in any sum that fell far below
previous expectations; that, therefore, inasmuch as it was difficult
anyway to arrive at once upon the exact amount of damage caused, it
would be wiser to leave the amount of reparation open, to be determined
by a commission which should examine into the damage sustained, and fix
the total amount within two years. America's material interest in the
question was so limited that President Wilson finally did not oppose Mr.
Lloyd George's and M. Clemenceau's judgment. This, in brief, is the
history of the Reparation clauses in the Treaty. As I have already said,
if we realize that in almost every one of the other chapters similar
complex courses of procedure had to be followed, we shall not be
surprised at the time which the Treaty took for drafting.
THE ITALIAN CRISIS
The world is already familiar with the several crises which arose during
the course of the Peace Conference. The so-called Fiume crisis, when the
Italian delegation walked out and returned to Rome, was regarded as the
most serious. I am not sure it was, although it was generally so
considered. I believe most of Italy's warmest friends maintain that her
action in going home was a mistake. The question of putting Fiume under
Italian sovereignty was not covered nor even touched upon in the Treaty
of London. In face, the question of Fiume arose long after the Peace
Conference was under way. Signor Orlando, the Italian Premier, was
accused of fostering Italian feeling on Fiume and of fanning it into
flame. I believe there is no truth in this. At any rate, if the Italians
had been wise, they would have prevented the matter of Fiume from
becoming such a _cause celèbre_. I think that by judicious work they
could have prevented it. Then, too, probably the difficulty would have
been lessened if President Wilson's statement to the Italian people had
previously met Signor Orlando's approval. Mr. Wilson made his statement
with the best will in the world, with the intent to allay and not
inflame Italian public opinion. It should have been possible to
coördinate his idealism with Signor Orlando's position.
Later on the Italian delegation returned to Paris, realizing that the
question of Fiume, which was formerly an Austrian port, did not bear one
way or another upon the Treaty with Germany. But the Italians had lost a
certain tactical position which was important to them, and in my
judgment the move cost Italy much more than the whole question of Fiume
amounted to.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
Awaiting the Decision of the German Peace Delegates.
President Clemenceau is shown standing. Next to him from right to left
are: President Wilson, Secretary of State Robert Lansing, Commissioner
Henry White, Colonel House, Gen. Tasker H. Bliss, Stephen Pichon, French
Minister of Foreign Affairs; Louis Klotz, French Minister of Finance,
and André Tardieu, French High Commissioner. From Clemenceau, left to
right: Premier Lloyd George, Bonar Law and A. J. Balfour.]
THE QUESTION OF SHANTUNG
The Shantung crisis was another serious one. It was so realized at the
time by the conferees at Paris. The Japanese delegation considered that
it had already suffered one or two rebuffs. Their clause to embody race
equality in the League of Nations Covenant had not been accepted. They,
as the leading Far Eastern Power, were being urged to take an active
part in the organization and development of the League of Nations, yet
they could see nothing for Japan in the idea except a chance to help the
other fellow. It was at this time that the Treaty clause was being
drafted covering the disposition of German rights in the Far East,
including those on the Shantung Peninsula. It will be remembered that at
the outbreak of the war Germany, by reason of treaty rights with China,
had possession of Kiauchau, upon the neck of the Shantung Peninsula.
Back in 1916, at a time when the war was going badly, after Japan had
driven the Germans out of the Far East and had prevented German
submarines from getting a base there to prey upon British troop ships
from Australia, Japan had demanded from England and France that she
become the inheritor of whatever rights Germany had in Shantung. England
and France readily granted this request, as America probably would have
done if she had been in the war at the time. Later on, according to the
record, China confirmed Japan in these rights.
President Wilson's idea, however, was "China for Chinamen"; therefore
Shantung should be turned over to China. This was a proper point of
view. It was a great pity that it could not be made to prevail. The
difficulty, however, was two-fold: first, the agreement which I have
just cited between England and France on one hand, and Japan on the
other; second, Japan's statement to President Wilson that if he began
his League of Nations by forcing England and France to break a solemn
agreement with Japan, then Japan would have no use for such a faithless
confederation and would promptly withdraw. At the same time, however,
Japan reiterated that her inheritance of Shantung was largely a formal
matter, and that if the Allies gave her that recognition, she would feel
in honor bound to withdraw from Shantung in the near future. This
statement, made repeatedly by the Japanese delegates to President
Wilson, finally led him to refrain from forcing Great Britain and France
to break their agreement, as he might perhaps otherwise have done. The
climax, of course, came when Japan gave her ultimatum and said that
unless she had her rights she would retire from the Conference.
DEMANDS OF BELGIUM
Then came the third and last crisis--the Belgians threatened to withdraw
and go home. They had, as they claimed, been promised by their Allies,
as well as by their enemies, including specifically Germany, that their
country, trampled over and devastated in order to defend France and
England from attack, was to be fully restored and reimbursed for its
expenditures. Early in the Conference Colonel House projected a plan to
Mr. Balfour of the British delegation and Mr. Klotz of the French
delegation, granting Belgium a priority of $500,000,000 on the German
reparation, this sum being sufficient to set Belgium well on her way to
recovery. There was, however, great delay in getting the final assent to
this priority. The American delegation worked hard to bring it about and
to push the plan on every occasion, but it still hung fire.
The Belgian delegation, finally becoming alarmed, insisted on formally
taking up the question with the Council of Four. The Belgian delegation,
under the leadership of Mr. Hymans, Minister of Foreign Affairs, made
two chief demands, one for the priority already mentioned, and one for
reimbursement for what the war had cost her. To this latter item there
was vigorous objection on the ground that it was inadmissible to provide
for Belgium's "costs of war" and not for those of England, France, Italy
and the other Allies. As a compromise to meet the situation, a formula
was finally proposed in a phrase to the effect that Germany was to be
obligated especially "to reimburse Belgium for all the sums borrowed by
Belgium from the Allies as a necessary consequence of the violation of
the Treaty of 1839." Inasmuch as all such sums borrowed by Belgium were
used for the prosecution of the war, this phrase was simply a euphemism
for granting to Belgium the war costs which she had demanded. But it was
finally agreed to on all hands, and the crisis was averted.
[Illustration: Copyright by Press Illustrating Service
The George Washington
It was on this ship that President and Mrs. Wilson made their two trips
across the Atlantic and back during the Peace Conference.]
THE TREATY PRESENTED TO THE GERMANS AT VERSAILLES
The Treaty in its final form was presented to the Germans at Versailles
May 7th. The Germans were hoping they would be permitted to discuss
certain phases of the Treaty in person with the Allied delegates, and in
fact repeatedly requested the opportunity. Some of us believed such
conversations might be advantageous if they were held; not between the
chiefs of the Allied states and the heads of the German delegation, but
between technical experts on both sides. Mr. Wilson favored this view,
as tending to enlighten the Germans on certain phases of the Treaty,
which from their written communications it was evident they did not
understand. We thought that some weeks of delay might possibly be
averted by sitting around the table with the Germans, distasteful as
that task might be, and holding a kind of miniature peace conference.
This suggestion, however, was strongly opposed by M. Clemenceau,
although it was favored by some of his ministers. In fact, some of the
latter, as well as many of the British, were for a time convinced that
the terms of the Treaty were such that Germany would never sign them.
Again and again Clemenceau was urged to give way on this point, but he
sturdily opposed the view and declared positively that he knew the
German character; that the only way to secure a German signature to the
Treaty was to insist upon purely formal and written communications.
Clemenceau had his way, and then began the laying of a good many wagers
as to whether the Germans would sign. This was after the original German
delegation, or at least the chiefs of it, had returned to Berlin and
declared that they would not come back again to Versailles. My own
opinion was, that after making as great a kick as possible the Germans
would undoubtedly sign. The logic of the situation was all for their
signing, the reasoning being this: If the Treaty were a just Treaty,
then they ought to sign any way; if it were an unjust Treaty, then, even
if signed, it would eventually fall of its own weight, and the Germans
would run no risk in signing it. I felt that the German psychology of
the situation would be acute enough to see these points and to lead to a
signature.
GERMANY SIGNS THE TREATY
This proved to be the case, and on Saturday, the 21st of June, after
questionings and misgivings, we finally got the word that the Germans
were to sign. I shall never forget the moment that the news came. Some
of us were in session with the Council of Four at the President's house.
Mr. Wilson sat on the right of the fireplace, Mr. Lloyd George on the
left, and M. Clemenceau in the middle. Mr. Orlando was in Italy but his
foreign minister, Baron Sonnino, was there in his place. The afternoon
was a tense one, for the time was growing short and the Germans had, as
I say, not yet signified their intention of signing the treaty. In the
mind of every one of us there lurked the question as to the terrible
steps that would have to be taken in the event the Germans refused to
sign. Late in the afternoon an orderly slipped into the room and
whispered into M. Clemenceau's ear. He struggled to his feet, marched up
to President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd George, and, drawing himself up, said
in solemn tones, "I have the honor to announce to you that the Germans
will sign the treaty."
And then a moment later the cannon boomed forth to the expectant
populace the news that the Germans would sign, and M. Clemenceau,
turning to me, breathed: "Ah, that is the sound that I have been waiting
to hear for forty-eight years."
II--WILSON'S FOURTEEN POINTS
An Attempt to Raise International Morality to the Level of
Private Morality
On January 8, 1918, President Wilson outlined the fourteen points on the
basis of which the Allies should make peace. This program was the
startling climax of a whole series of peace proposals which had kept
coming from both camps of belligerents, from neutrals, Socialists, and
the Pope. It is without doubt one of the greatest and most inspiring
State documents in the history of the world. It struck a vital and
telling blow at the basic causes of modern wars. For that reason it
electrified into complete unity the masses of the Allied countries.
Liberal, radical and pacifist opponents of the war rallied around it as
the last great hope of civilization. Its most important effect was to
give a democratic basis to the weary and disillusioned masses of the
Central Powers who were longing for peace. It was on the basis of the
fourteen points that the enemy surrendered.
THE WILSON PROGRAM
We entered this war because violations of right had occurred
which touched us to the quick and made the life of our own
people impossible unless they were corrected and the world
secured once for all against their recurrence. What we demand
in this war, therefore, is nothing peculiar to ourselves. It is
that the world be made fit and safe to live in; and
particularly that it be made safe for every peace-loving nation
which, like our own, wishes to live its own life, determine its
own institutions, be assured of justice and fair dealings by
the other peoples of the world, as against force and selfish
aggression. All the peoples of the world are in effect partners
in this interest and for our own part we see very clearly that
unless justice be done to others it will not be done to us. The
programme of the world's peace, therefore, is our programme,
and that programme, the only possible programme, as we see it,
is this:
I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which
there shall be no private international understandings of any
kind, but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the
public view.
II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside
territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the
seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action
for the enforcement of international covenants.
III. The removal, as far as possible, of all economic barriers
and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among
all the nations consenting to the peace and associating
themselves for its maintenance.
IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments
will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic
safety.
V. A free, open minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of
all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the
principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty
the interests of the populations concerned must have equal
weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title
is to be determined.
[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood
Paris Crowds Greeting President Wilson
A general holiday was declared to welcome the President of the United
States. This photograph was taken in the Place dé la Concorde.]
VI. The evacuation of Russian territory and such a settlement
of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and
freest coöperation of the other nations of the world in
obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity
for the independent determination of her own political
development and national policy and assure her of a sincere
welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of
her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of
every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The
treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months
to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their
comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own
interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.
VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and
restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which
she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other
single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence
among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set
and demanded for the government of their relations with one
another. Without this healing act the whole structure and
validity of international law is forever impaired.
VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded
portions restored, and the wrong done France by Prussia in 1871
in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace
of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in
order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest
of all.
IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected
along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the
nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be
accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development.
XI. Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro should be evacuated;
occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure
access to the sea, and the relations of the several Balkan
States to one another determined by friendly counsel along
historically established lines of allegiance and nationality,
and international guarantees of the political and economic
independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan
States should be entered into.
XII. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should
be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities
which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted
security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of
autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be
permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce
of all nations under international guarantees.
XIII. An independent Polish State should be erected which
should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish
population, which should be assured a free and secure access to
the sea and whose political and economic independence and
territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international
covenant.
XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under
specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual
guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity
to great and small States alike.
III--HOW THE PEACE TREATY WAS SIGNED
A Description of the Historic Ceremony in the Hall of Mirrors at the
Palace of Versailles, June 8, 1919
(Reprinted from the New York _Times_.)
No nobler and more eloquent setting could have been found for this
greatest of all modern events, the signing of the Peace of Versailles,
after five years of terrific struggle on whose outcome the fate of the
whole world had hung, than the palace of the greatest of French Kings on
the hillcrest of the Paris suburb that gave its name to the treaty. To
reach it, says the correspondent of _The New York Times_, the
plenipotentiaries and distinguished guests from all parts of the world
motored to Versailles that day, and drove down the magnificent
tree-lined Avenue du Château, then across the huge square--the famous
Place d'Armes of Versailles--and up through the gates and over the
cobblestones of the Court of Honor to the entrance, where officers of
the Republican Guard, whose creation dates back to the French
Revolution, in picturesque uniform, were drawn up to receive them.
All day the crowd had been gathering. It was a cloudy day; not till noon
did the sky clear. By noon eleven regiments of French cavalry and
infantry had taken position along the approaches to the palace, while
within the court on either side solid lines of infantry in horizon blue
were drawn up at attention.
Hours before the time set for the ceremony an endless stream of
automobiles began moving out of Paris up the cannon-lined hill of the
Champs Elysées, past the massive Arc de Triomphe, bulking somberly
against the leaden sky, and out through the Bois de Boulogne. This whole
thoroughfare was kept clear by pickets, dragoons, and mounted gendarmes.
In the meantime thousands of Parisians were packing regular and special
trains on all the lines leading to Versailles, and contending with
residents of the town for places in the vast park where the famous
fountains would rise in white fleur-de-lis to mark the end of the
ceremony.
A MEMORABLE SCENE
Past the line of gendarmes thrown across the approaches to the square
reserved for ticket holders, the crowd surged in a compact and
irresistible wave, while hundreds of the more fortunate ones took up
positions in the high windows of every wing of the palace. Up the broad
boulevard of the Avenue de Paris the endless chain of motor cars rolled
between rows of French soldiers; and a guard of honor at the end of the
big court presented arms to the plenipotentiaries and delegates as they
drove through to the entrance, which for the Allied delegates only was
by the marble stairway to the "Queen's Apartments" and the Hall of
Peace, giving access to the Hall of Mirrors. A separate route of entry
was prescribed for the Germans, an arrangement which angered and
disconcerted them when they discovered it, through the park and up the
marble stairway through the ground floor.
The delegates and plenipotentiaries began to arrive shortly after 2 p.
m., their automobiles rolling between double lines of infantry with
bayonets fixed--it was estimated that there were 20,000 soldiers
altogether guarding the route--that held back the cheering throngs. The
scene from the Court of Honor was impressive. The Place d'Armes was a
lake of white faces, dappled everywhere by the bright colors of flags
and fringed with the horizon blue of troops whose bayonets flamed
silverly as the sun emerged for a moment from behind heavy clouds. At
least a dozen airplanes wheeled and curvetted above.
Up that triumphal passage, leading for a full quarter of a mile from the
wings of the palace to the entrance to the Hall of Mirrors,
representatives of the victorious nations passed in flag-decked
limousines--hundreds, one after another, without intermission, for fifty
minutes. Just inside the golden gates, which were flung wide, they
passed the big bronze statue of Louis XIV., the "Sun-King," on
horseback, flanked by statues of the Princes and Governors, Admirals and
Generals who had made Louis the Grand Monarque of France. And on the
façade of the twin, temple-like structures on either side of the great
statue they could read as they passed an inscription symbolic of the
historic ceremony just about to occur: "To All the Glories of France."
NOTABILITIES ARRIVE
One of the earliest to arrive was Marshal Foch, amid a torrent of
cheering, which burst out even louder a few moments later when the
massive head of Premier Clemenceau was seen through the windows of a
French military car. To these and other leaders, including President
Wilson, General Pershing, and Premier Lloyd George, the troops drawn up
all around the courtyard presented arms. After Clemenceau the unique
procession continued, diplomats, soldiers, Princes of India in gorgeous
turbans and swarthy faces, dapper Japanese in immaculate Western dress,
Admirals, aviators, Arabs; one caught a glimpse of the bright colors of
French, British, and Colonial uniforms. British Tommies and American
doughboys also dashed up on crowded camions, representing the blood and
sweat of the hard-fought victory; they got an enthusiastic reception. It
was 2:45 when Mr. Balfour, bowing and smiling, heralded the arrival of
the British delegates. Mr. Lloyd George was just behind him, for once
wearing the conventional high hat instead of his usual felt. At 2:50
came President Wilson in a black limousine with his flag, a white eagle
on a dark blue ground; he received a hearty welcome.
By 3 o'clock the last contingent had arrived, and the broad ribbon road
stretched empty between the lines of troops from the gates of the palace
courtyard. The Germans had already entered; to avoid any unpleasant
incident they had been quietly conveyed from their lodgings at the Hotel
des Reservoirs Annex through the park.
THE SCENE INSIDE
The final scene in the great drama was enacted in the magnificent Hall
of Mirrors. Versailles contains no more splendid chamber than this royal
hall, whose three hundred mirrors gleam from every wall, whose vaulted
and frescoed ceiling looms dark and high, in whose vastness the
footfalls of the passer re-echo over marble floors and die away
reverberatingly. It was no mere matter of convenience or accident that
the Germans were brought to sign the Peace Treaty in this hall. For this
same hall, which saw the German peace delegates of 1919, representing a
beaten and prostrate Germany, affix their signatures to the Allied terms
of peace, had witnessed in the year 1871 a very different ceremony. It
was in the Hall of Mirrors that the German Empire was born. Forty-nine
years ago, on a January morning, while the forts of beleaguered Paris
were firing their last defiant shots, in that mirror-gleaming hall was
inaugurated the reign of that German Empire the virtual end of which, so
far as the concept held by its originators is concerned, was signalized
in Versailles in the same spot on Saturday, June 28. And in 1871
President Thiers had signed there the crushing terms of defeat imposed
by a victorious and ruthless Germany.
In anticipation of the present ceremony carpets had been laid and the
ornamental table, with its eighteenth century gilt and bronze
decorations, had been placed in position on the daïs where the
plenipotentiaries were seated. Fronting the chair of M. Clemenceau was
placed a small table, on which the diplomatic instruments were laid. It
was to this table that each representative was called, in alphabetical
order by countries, to sign his name to the treaty and affix to it his
Governmental seal. The four hundred or more invited guests were given
places in the left wing of the Hall of Mirrors, while the right wing was
occupied by about the same number of press representatives. Sixty seats
were allotted to the French press alone. Besides the military guards
outside the palace, the grand stairway up which the delegates came to
enter the hall was controlled by the Republican Guards in their most
brilliant gala uniform.
THE PEACE TABLE
The peace table--a huge hollow rectangle with its open side facing the
windows in the hall--was spread with tawny yellow coverings blending
with the rich browns, blues, and yellows of the antique hangings and
rugs; these, and the mellow tints of the historical paintings, depicting
scenes from France's ancient wars, in the arched roof of the long hall,
lent bright dashes of color to an otherwise austere scene. Against the
sombre background also stood out the brilliant uniforms of a few French
guards, in red plumed silver helmets and red, white, and blue uniforms,
and a group of Allied Generals, including General Pershing, who wore the
scarlet sash of the Legion of Honor.
But all the diplomats and members of the parties who attended the
ceremony of signing wore conventional civilian clothes. All gold lace
and pageantry was eschewed, the fanciful garb of the Middle Ages was
completely absent as representative of traditions and practices sternly
condemned in the great bound treaty-volume of Japanese paper, covered
with seals and printed in French and English, which was signed by
twenty-seven nations that afternoon.
As a contrast with the Franco-German peace session of 1871, held in the
same hall, there were present some grizzled French veterans of the
Franco-Prussian war. They took the place of the Prussian guardsmen of
the previous ceremony, and gazed with a species of grim satisfaction at
the disciples of Bismarck, who sat this time in the seats of the lowly,
while the white marble statue of Minerva looked stonily on.
ENTRANCE OF CHIEF ACTORS
The ceremony of signing was marked only by three minor incidents: a
protest by the German delegation at the eleventh hour over the
provision of separate entrance, the filing of a document of protest by
General Jan Smuts of the South African delegation, and the deliberate
absence of the Chinese delegates from the ceremony, due to
dissatisfaction over the concessions granted to Japan in Shantung.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
Henry White
Former Ambassador to France and Italy and one of the United States
delegates to the Peace Conference.]
The treaty was deposited on the table at 2:10 p.m. by William Martin of
the French Foreign Office; it was inclosed in a stamped leather case,
and bulked large. Because of the size of the volume and the fragile
seals it bore, the plan to present it for signing to Premier Clemenceau,
President Wilson, and Premier Lloyd George had been given up. A box of
old-fashioned goose quills, sharpened by the expert pen pointer of the
French Foreign Office, was placed on each of the three tables for the
use of plenipotentiaries who desired to observe the conventional
formalities.
Secretary Lansing, meanwhile, had been the first of the American
delegation to arrive in the palace--at 1:45 p.m. Premier Clemenceau
entered at 2:20. Three detachments each consisting of fifteen private
soldiers--from the American, British, and French forces--just before 3
o'clock and took their places in the embrasures of the windows
overlooking the château park, a few feet from Marshal Foch, who was
seated with the French delegation at the peace table. Marshal Foch was
present only as a spectator, and did not participate in the signing.
These forty-five soldiers of the three main belligerent nations were
present as the real "artisans of peace" and stood within the inclosure
reserved for plenipotentiaries and high officials of the conference as a
visible sign of their rôle in bringing into being a new Europe. These
men had been selected from those who bore honorable wounds. Premier
Clemenceau stepped up to the poilus of the French detachment and shook
the hand of each, expressing his pleasure at seeing them, and his
regrets for the suffering they had endured for France.
PRESIDENT WILSON ENTERS
Delegates of the minor powers made their way with difficulty through the
crowd to their places at the table. Officers and civilians lined the
walls and filled the aisles. President Wilson entered the Hall of
Mirrors at 2:50. All the Allied delegates were then seated, except the
Chinese representatives, who were conspicuous by their absence. The
difficulty of seeing well militated against demonstrations on the
arrival of prominent statesmen. The crowd refused to be seated and
thronged toward the center of the hall, which is so long that a good
view was impossible from any distance, even with the aid of opera
glasses. German correspondents were ushered into the hall just before 3
o'clock and took standing room in a window at the rear of the
correspondents' section.
At 3 o'clock a hush fell over the hall. There were a few moments of
disorder while the officials and the crowd took their places. At 3:07
the German delegates, Dr. Hermann Müller, German Secretary for Foreign
Affairs, and Dr. Johannes Bell, Colonial Secretary, were shown into the
hall; with heads held high they took their seats. The other delegates
remained seated, according to a prearranged plan reminiscent of the
discourtesy displayed by von Brockdorff-Rantzau, who at the ceremony of
delivery of the peace treaty on May 7th, had refused to rise to read his
address to the Allied delegates. The seats of the German delegates
touched elbows with the Japanese on the right and the Brazilians on the
left. They were thus on the side nearest the entrance, and the program
required them to depart by a separate exit before the other delegates at
the close of the ceremony. Delegates from Ecuador, Peru, and Liberia
faced them across the narrow table.
THE GERMANS SIGN
M. Clemenceau, as President of the Peace Conference, opened the
ceremony. Rising, he made the following brief address, amid dead
silence:
"The session is open. The allied and associated powers on one
side and the German Reich on the other side have come to an
agreement on the conditions of peace. The text has been
completed, drafted, and the President of the Conference has
stated in writing that the text that is about to be signed now
is identical with the 200 copies that have been delivered to
the German delegation. The signatures will be given now, and
they amount to a solemn undertaking faithfully and loyally to
execute the conditions embodied by this treaty of peace. I now
invite the delegates of the German Reich to sign the treaty.'
There was a tense pause for a moment. Then in response to M.
Clemenceau's bidding the German delegates rose without a word, and,
escorted by William Martin, master of ceremonies, moved to the signatory
table, where they placed upon the treaty the sign-manuals which German
Government leaders had declared over and over again, with emphasis and
anger, would never be appended to this treaty. They also signed a
protocol covering changes in the documents, and the Polish undertaking.
All three documents were similarly signed by the Allied delegates who
followed.
WILSON SIGNS NEXT
When the German delegates regained their seats after signing, President
Wilson immediately rose and, followed by the other American
plenipotentiaries, moved around the sides of the horseshoe to the
signature tables. It was thus President Wilson, and not M. Clemenceau,
who was first of the Allied delegates to sign. This, however, was purely
what may be called an alphabetical honor, in accordance with which the
nations were named in the prologue to the treaty. Premier Lloyd George,
with the British delegation, came next. The British dominions followed.
M. Clemenceau with the French delegates, was next in line; then came
Baron Saionji and the other Japanese delegates, and they in turn were
followed by the representatives of the smaller powers.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau
Foreign Minister of Germany and President of the German Peace
delegates.]
During the attaching of the signatures of the great powers and the
Germans a battery of moving picture cameras clicked away so audibly that
they could be heard above the general noise and disorder of the throng.
The close of the ceremony came so quickly and quietly that it was
scarcely noticed until it was all over. M. Clemenceau arose almost
unremarked, and in a voice half lost amid the confusion and the hum of
conversation which had sprung up while the minor powers were signing
declared the conference closed, and asked the Allied and associated
delegates to remain in their seats for a few moments--this to permit the
German plenipotentiaries to leave the building before the general
exodus.
THE GERMANS DEPART
None arose as the Germans filed out, accompanied by their suite of
secretaries and interpreters, just as all the plenipotentiaries had kept
their seats when Dr. Müller and Dr. Bell entered. The Germans went forth
evidently suffering strong emotion. Outside an unsympathetic crowd
jammed close to the cars which took them away. There was no aggression,
but the sentiment of the throng was unmistakable.
Meanwhile the great guns that announced the closing of the ceremony were
booming, and their concussion shook the old palace of Versailles to its
foundations. Amid confusion the assembly dispersed, and the most
momentous ceremony of the epoch was at an end.
The great war which for five long years had shaken Europe and the world
was formally ended at last. It was a war which had cost the belligerents
over $200,000,000,000; which had caused the deaths of 8,000,000 human
beings, and which had left the world a post-war burden of debt amounting
to $135,000,000,000. It was a war which had changed the whole face of
Europe, which had brought many new nations into existence, which had
revolutionized the organization of all national and international life.
It was a war which had brought the world the consciousness of its common
obligation to unite against all war. The booming of the great guns of
Versailles seemed to proclaim a new epoch.
IV--THE PEACE TREATY--ITS MEANING
TO AMERICA
America's "Place in the Sun" Due to Her Efforts to Secure a Just Peace
By GEORGE W. WICKERSHAM
Formerly Attorney-General of the United States.
"The cause of our entrance into the great war," declares Dr. David Jayne
Hill in a recent essay, "being the violation by the German Imperial
Government of our legal rights as a nation, our object in the war was to
make our rights respected. The one clear duty of the treaty-making power
in concluding peace with Germany, therefore, is to secure this
result."[25]
[25] "Americanizing the Treaty."--_North American Review_, August, 1919.
In these words, one of the most distinguished and accomplished of the
opponents of the treaty of Paris reveals the profound abyss which
separates those who oppose from those who are urging the approval of the
Treaty of Versailles. Dr. Hill, perhaps unconsciously, gives expression
to a sordid, narrow, selfish view of the issues of the war, which would
transmute into the most elemental act of self-defense one of the
greatest crusades of high idealism ever conducted by any people in the
history of nations. If, in fact, the cause of our participation in the
war was merely to repel attacks upon our legal rights as a nation, then
indeed, that end being attained, and the aggressor reduced to impotence
for the future, we may return within our own borders, withdraw unto
ourselves, disclaim all responsibility for the condition of the world
elsewhere and plunge into the selfish exploitation of our national
resources, "the world forgetting, by the world forgot." It is a strange
perversion of the facts of recent history that leads to such a
conception of America's responsibility for the future of civilization.
There were undoubtedly, as Mr. Wilson said, "violations of right which
touched us to the quick." Was it merely violations of our own national
rights that roused this peace-loving nation to array itself for battle;
that sent two million of our young men across three thousand miles of
ocean to take their places beside the heroes of Verdun and the Marne,
the veterans of Cambrai and Arras, Ypres and the Somme; infused the
weary defenders of civilization with new courage; converted their
defense into an irresistible offensive which shattered the greatest
military machine of history, overthrew the Kaiser and his government,
and brought the German nation to its knees? No! It was not the German
attacks upon our rights as a nation; it was the German challenge of the
whole basis of modern Christian civilization. It was her cynical
disclaimer of the binding character of treaties; her inhuman method of
warfare; her brutal cruelties of non-combatant men, women and children;
her ruthless destruction of monuments of art--the possessions of not
merely one nation, but of the entire world of men and women in every
land who love beauty and revere art. It was the growing conviction that
a government which ordered the sinking of the _Lusitania_ and the
_Sussex_; that destroyed the priceless literary treasures of Louvain;
that separated families in Belgium and France, and deported great
companies of men to work in German munition factories; that ruthlessly
cut up by the roots the fruit trees and shrubs of the occupied regions
of France; that sought to destroy not merely the men, but the souls of
nations, so that its own horrid philosophy of Force might reign over
them--that such a government must no longer exist; that its pestilential
influence was more noxious than tuberculosis or the bubonic plague.
THE BASIS OF PEACE
Therefore, the Youth of America joyously leaped to arms and crowded
overseas in the greatest of all crusades, insuring victory and promising
the opening of a new and better epoch of human history. It was the
recognition of human kinship; the perception of human brotherhood, that
inspired them to the great endeavor. Our proud sense of American
nationality took on a deeper and holier significance as we joined
forces with the older peoples in defense of the great principles of
human right which had been formulated by our fathers and upon which was
reared the American State. We were no less Americans that we had
accepted a common responsibility with Great Britain, France and Italy
for the preservation of the ideals of human freedom for which Washington
fought and Lincoln died. Nay! better Americans, as we realized that the
war was being fought in defense of those principles upon which our own
institutions were founded and by which we had become the great, strong,
free nation we are.
And as the hideous carnage went on, and we saw a whole generation of the
youth of the free nations of Europe butchered because the German people
had become so obsessed with their own sense of superiority that they
were determined to rule the world and impose upon all other peoples
subservience to their Moloch-like gospel of efficiency, another feeling
began to struggle for expression in Europe and America alike--a
determination that all wars of aggression must cease; that disputes
between nations must be settled like those between individuals, by
peaceful arbitration or conciliation; that the causes of war must be
examined and, so far as possible, removed, and that no such war as this
ever again should desolate the earth. This was the meaning of the phrase
one came to hear on many lips, that it was "a war against war." How
could such a result be attained? Obviously, only by the continued
association in peace of those powers whose close coöperation in war was
compelling the overthrow of German militarism, and the widening of that
association to include all the other nations who should accept its
program and give an earnest of adherence to its ideals. There was also
the hope that some time--when they should have offered up that ancient
sacrifice, "an humble and a contrite heart"--even the German people,
enfranchised and regenerated, might be admitted into the society of Free
Peoples and with new significance become entitled to be called a
civilized nation.
These were the principles that underlay Mr. Wilson's program of
peace--the fourteen points of January 8, 1918, and subsequent addresses;
the only definite formulation of the basis of peace which was laid
before the world, a program concerning which the American Congress
expressed no definite criticism and for which it offered no substitute;
a program which was accepted by Allies and opponents alike, and which
constituted the Chart by which the Conference of Paris was required to
endeavor to formulate the terms of the Treaty of Peace.
The work of that Conference now has been submitted to the judgment of
mankind. It was accepted by the new government of Germany with a wry
face, as the judgment of the victors naturally would be taken by the
vanquished. It has been ratified by the Parliament of Great Britain, by
Italy, by France and by Japan. It has been for weeks under debate in the
Senate of the United States. Daily efforts have been made to create a
partisan political issue over it, and to visit upon it party resentment
against the past actions of the President.[26]
[26] This article by Mr. Wickersham was prepared prior to the Senate
deadlock and the rejection of the Treaty with the Lodge reservations.
Dr. Hill again sums up the case against the treaty--the final basis
which the confused gropings after some means of making it unpopular with
the people finally have evolved--in these words:
"The League of Nations, as proposed, includes not only
obligations not related to the reasons for engaging in the war,
but also obligations opposed to the traditions, the
time-honored policies, and even the constitutional provisions
of the United States. It commits the whole future policy of
this country to the decisions of an international body in which
it would have only a single voice; it permits that body to
intrude its judgments, and thereby its policies into a sphere
hitherto regarded as exclusively American, and, in addition, it
demands that the territories held by each of the members of the
League under this treaty shall receive the permanent protection
of the United States as integral parts of the Nations that now
claim them."
Is it true? What is the real meaning of the Peace Treaty and its effect
upon the people of the United States? The answer to these questions, and
indeed to most of the criticism of the Covenant, is conclusively met by
a reading of the treaty. But first let us turn for a moment to the
fourteen points of Mr. Wilson's address of January 8, 1918. The basis of
the territorial readjustment of Europe which he then proposed, was the
giving of national expression to racial aspiration. Alien imperial rule
such as that of Austria over Hungary and Bohemia, and that of Germany,
Austria or Russia over Poland, was to end, and the Poles, the Croats,
Serbs, Hungarians, Bohemians, and the Czechoslavs and Jugoslavs each
were to be allowed national existence, with the right of
self-determination. Whatever may now be thought of the wisdom of this
theory, it was accepted by all of the Allies, who thereby were committed
to a responsibility for the protection, certainly in the early years of
their existence, of the new nations they united to call into being.
Recognizing this fact, the fourteenth of the Wilson points provided for
the creation of an Association of the Allied Nations to protect the work
of their arms. Aside from that practical purpose, the League of Nations
was recognized by many in every land as furnishing the only practicable
machinery for the removal of causes of war and the prevention of new
assaults upon civilization, such as that which Germany had launched in
August, 1914.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
=Victoria Hall at Geneva=
Selected by the Council of the Powers as the meeting place of the League
of Nations.]
The first Chapter of the Peace Treaty, therefore, is a Covenant or
Compact forming a League of Nations, whose purpose, as expressed in the
Preamble, is "to promote international coöperation and to achieve
international peace and security." Worthy objects, these: how are they
to be attained? The Preamble answers,
"by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the
prescription of open, just and honorable relations between
nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of
international law as to actual rule of conduct among
governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous
respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organized
peoples with one another."
Are not these methods such as America has made her own? Have we not in
many treaties accepted obligations not to make war until all peaceful
methods of settling disputes shall have been exhausted; have we not
striven to make the principles of international law rules for the
government of nations; and was not one of the main points in the
indictment of Germany on which we prosecuted the war against her that
she had flouted the sanctity of treaties and made them mere scraps of
paper?
The objects of the League therefore, as set forth in the Covenant, are
expressive only of policies and principles to which the United States
has given a consistent and unbroken adherence from the days of the Jay
Treaty to the present hour. How are these objects proposed to be
attained in the text of the Covenant? What is there in its provisions to
justify the frantic abuse that has been heaped upon it by its opponents
and to sustain the final accusation that it is "un-American?"
MACHINERY OF THE LEAGUE
First, as to the Machinery of the League. There is an Assembly of its
members to which each Sovereign State may send delegates. There is an
Assembly of its members to which each nation necessarily has one vote.
In the United States Senate, Rhode Island and New York have equal
representation, despite disparity in wealth and population. The
principle of sovereignty requires this recognition of equality. But the
powers of the Assembly are restricted to voting upon the admission of
new members to the League, the addition of members to the Council, the
disposition of international disputes which may be referred to it by the
Council under Article XV, and the general consideration at its meetings
of "any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting
the peace of the world." This general authority only can embrace the
right of discussion, save in very exceptional cases, as by Article V,
"decisions at any meeting of the Assembly or of the Council shall
require the agreement of all the members of the League represented at
the meeting."
The actual governing body of the League is the Council, which is to
consist of representatives of the five greater powers,--the United
States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, together with
representatives of four other members of the League selected by the
Assembly from time to time. These numbers may be increased, but only by
the unanimous vote of the Council, approved by a majority of the
Assembly.
As noted above, save in the very few expressly expected cases, the
Council can reach decisions only by unanimous vote. What are to be its
functions? They need not be enumerated in detail here. Briefly, they
deal with the reduction of armaments, the control by governments of the
private manufacture of munitions and implements of war, the
consideration of any war or threat of war--"of any circumstance whatever
affecting international relations which threatens to disturb either the
peace or the good understanding between nations upon which peace
depends." They require the formulation and submission to the members of
the League for adoption of plans for the establishment of a permanent
Court of International Justice. They empower the Council to endeavor to
effect a settlement of any international dispute which shall not be
submitted to arbitration by the parties; to investigate, consider and
report upon any such dispute, and to publish its conclusions.
The parties to the League solemnly covenant and agree that if any
dispute shall arise between them likely to lead to a rupture they will
submit it either to arbitration or inquiry by the Council, and that in
no case will they resort to war until three months after the award by
the arbitrators or the report by the Council. They agree also to carry
out in good faith any award that may be rendered, and not to make war
against any member of the League that complies therewith. If a report by
the Council is unanimously agreed to by its members, other than the
representatives of the disputants, the members agree not to go to war
with any party to the dispute which complies with the recommendations of
the report.
OBJECTIONS TO THE PLAN
It is objected by some that the decision of questions between nations by
these provisions is left to a body of delegates composing the Council
who are not bound to decide according to rules of international law, but
may reach conclusions merely as political expediency. This seems a
strained interpretation. The members of the League agree to submit
either (1) to arbitration or (2) to investigation by the Council, every
dispute which may arise between them likely to lead to a rupture and in
no case to resort to war until three months after the award by
arbitrators or the report by the Council. They declare (by Article XIII)
"Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any
question of international law, as to the existence of any fact
which, if established, would constitute a breach of any
international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the
reparation to be made for any such breach," to be among those
which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration.
Disputes of the character thus enumerated are what are known as
justiciable, _i. e._, subject to be decided by a Court by the
application of the recognized principles of international law.
Mr. Root recommended that such disputes should be required to be
arbitrated. The Conference at Paris, like those at the two Hague
Conferences, would not agree to that. But in view of the declaration
just quoted, any power which should bring before the Council a dispute
of the character mentioned, but which it was unwilling to submit to
arbitration, would have the burden of showing convincing reason for such
attitude.
When the first draft of the Covenant was before the country, American
critics objected that it would compel the United States to submit to
arbitration on inquiry by the Council purely domestic questions such as
tariff, immigration and coastwise traffic. To meet this objection, there
was inserted in Art. XV the following paragraph:
"If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them,
and is found by the Council to arise out of a matter which by
international law is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of
that party, the Council shall so report, and shall make no
recommendation as to its settlement."
To this it is objected that the determination of the question whether or
not a matter of dispute is by the rules of international law solely with
the domestic jurisdiction of a member is left to the Council and not to
the member. Surely, it requires no explanation to demonstrate, that if a
member State may oust the Council of jurisdiction to inquire into a
given dispute which threatens the peace of the world merely by itself
asserting that it arises out of a matter within its exclusive domestic
jurisdiction, a very imperfect means of averting war will have been
provided, and the League Covenant will hardly have more efficacy than
the second Hague Convention. Remember too, that the reports of the
Council must be unanimous, and the unreasonableness of the objection to
the provisions cited will appear.
MEANS TO PREVENT WAR
Articles XI to XVI constitute the heart of the Covenant, the most
effective means ever formulated to prevent war. The agreements of the
nations not to resort to war until the processes of arbitration or
inquiry are exhausted, are buttressed by the provision that should any
member violate these agreements it shall _ipso facto_ be deemed to have
committed an act of war against all the other members of the League,
entailing as a consequence commercial boycott, expulsion and the
application of armed force, if the members shall so determine. The
employment of force in this case, as in every other contemplated by the
Covenant, is not left to the decision of Council or Assembly. They can
only recommend. The member States agree _not to go_ to war. There is
nowhere in the document any provision compelling them _to go_ to war.
Even where one State in violation of its Covenant threatens the peace of
the world, the utmost the Council can do is
"To recommend to the several governments concerned what
effective military or naval forces the members of the League
shall severally contribute to the armaments of forces to be
used to protect the covenants of the League."
Much heated objection has been directed against Article X, which reads
as follows:
"The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as
against external aggression the territorial integrity and
existing political independence of all members of the League.
In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or
danger of such aggression, the Council shall advise upon the
means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.'
Again, it is left to the determination of each State what force it shall
employ to enforce this provision. As a matter of fact, this article adds
little, if anything, to the provisions of Article XI, which declares
that "Any war or threat of war ... is hereby declared a matter of
concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action that
may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations." Any
external aggression against the territorial integrity or political
independence of a member of the League would amount to a war or threat
of war, and would invoke action under Article XI, if not under Article
X. But the guaranty of Article X is very necessary as affording a moral
protection to the new nations brought into being through the peace
Conference. The United States of America, whose President formulated the
principles of peace to which these Nations owe their existence, can not
afford to shirk responsibility for their protection. The Covenant
abolishes the evil of secret treaties between the nations composing the
League, while preserving the effectiveness of existing treaties of
arbitration.
[Illustration: Copyright Harris & Ewing
=William Howard Taft=
An earnest supporter of the President and his administration throughout
the war, though of the opposite party.]
THE MONROE DOCTRINE
To meet the objection that the Covenant would deprive us of the Monroe
Doctrine--a national policy adopted by the United States as its own and
maintained for its own protection--Article XXI of the amended Covenant
provides that--
"Nothing in this Covenant shall be deemed to affect the
validity of international engagements such as treaties of
arbitration or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine
for securing the maintenance of peace."
The phrase "regional understanding," as applied to the Monroe Doctrine,
is not a happy one. But the article certainly excludes the Monroe
Doctrine from modification or effect by the treaty. It secures from
every one of the thirty-two original members and the thirteen other
states which shall be invited to join the League, a recognition of the
existence of the Monroe Doctrine and an agreement that it is not to be
affected by anything contained in the Covenant. Certainly _that_ is not
an un-American result to accomplish, and when one reads Dr. Hill's
statement that the Covenant "does not embody our traditional American
ideals," one wonders in what museum of forgotten lore the learned doctor
has found those "traditional ideals" preserved. Dr. Hill's so-called
ideals conflict with the expression in this great treaty of the
peculiarly American ideal of averting war by providing peaceful methods
of settling disputes among nations, with the express recognition by all
the other nations of the doctrine that "was proclaimed in 1823 to
prevent America from becoming a theater for the intrigues of European
absolutism," and with the official commentary of the Delegates of Great
Britain which says that--
"At first a principle of American foreign _policy_, it (Monroe
Doctrine) has become an international _understanding_, and it
is not illegitimate for the people of the United States to ask
that the Covenant should recognize this fact."
GERMAN COLONIES
One of the most difficult problems presented to the Peace Conference was
the disposition of the former colonies of Germany in Asia, Africa and
Australasia, and of the communities formerly belonging to the Turkish
Empire. It was recognized that the victors in the war shared a common
responsibility for the just and wise treatment of these peoples, who
were utterly unable to stand alone. The method adopted declared all of
them to be wards of the League of Nations and provided that they should
be governed by Mandatory Powers willing to undertake the task and
appointed by the League under charters framed by the Council. These
Powers would be answerable to the League for the right exercise of their
powers, and subject to inspection and report. A great deal of
impassioned rhetoric has been expended over these provisions, upon the
false assumption that thereby the United States was committed to a
responsibility for the government of remote regions of the earth. The
Covenant commits us to nothing. Our participation in the war has
entailed upon us a common responsibility with our Allies for the
protection and wise government of these communities. We no more can
escape that responsibility with honor than we could after the Spanish
War escape responsibility for the Philippine Islands.
But it is for the American Congress to determine the extent of
recognition of our duty and the means by which we shall discharge it.
In the case of the Philippine Islands, the United States set for the
world a great moral example in the government of colonies, not in its
own interest, but for the benefit and exclusively in the interest of the
inhabitants of possessions which fell into our hands as a consequence of
the war with Spain. The principle thus proclaimed and practiced has been
followed in the case of the colonies and territories which the World War
has left at the disposition of the Allied and Associated Nations. This
principle, in the words of the Covenant, is "that the well-being and
development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization." The
best method yet devised for giving practicable effect to this principle
undoubtedly is,
"That the tutelage of such peoples be intrusted to advanced
nations who, by reason of their resources, their experience or
their geographical position, can best undertake this
responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this
tutelage should be exercised by them as mandatories on behalf
of the League."
This is the American attitude toward undeveloped peoples. To remove
these provisions from the Peace Treaty would be to _de_-Americanize the
Treaty.
MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS
The Covenant brings within the cognizance of the League the regulation
of international relations affecting (1) efforts to secure and maintain
fair and humane conditions of labor for men, women and children--a
subject elaborated and provided for in great detail in Part XIII of the
Peace Treaty; (2) the execution of international agreements with regard
to traffic in women and children, and in opium and other dangerous
drugs; (3) the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which
the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest; (4) the
prevention and control of disease.
The members of the League further agree (1)
"To make provision to secure and maintain freedom of
communication and of transit and _equitable_ treatment for the
commerce of all members of the League,"
and (2)
"to encourage and promote the establishment and coöperation of
duly authorized voluntary national Red Cross organizations
having as purposes improvement of health, the prevention of
disease and the mitigation of suffering throughout the world."
All these are subjects customarily dealt with in international
agreements. These provisions are designed to bring into coördination
with the League and make more effective all provisions concerning such
matters.
The framers of this great program recognized that it was, necessarily,
an experiment, and that experience doubtless would develop defects and
suggest needed changes. Provision is therefor made for amendments which
should take effect when ratified by the members of the League whose
representatives compose the Council, and by a majority of the members
whose representatives compose the Assembly. But, preserving the theory
that the League is to be an alliance of Sovereign Powers, it also is
provided that no member shall be bound against his will by any such
amendment. It may dissent, and thereby cease to be a member of the
League.
Finally, any member may, at will, after two years' notice, withdraw from
the League,
"provided that all its international obligations and all its
obligations under this Covenant shall have been fulfilled at
the time of its withdrawal."
No jurisdiction is vested in any organ of the League to determine
whether or not in any instance this condition has been complied with. It
is conceivable that pending some arbitration or inquiry by the Council,
the application of a commercial boycott or other disciplinary process
for violation of a provision of the Covenant, the offending power should
seek to escape the jurisdiction of the League, by exercising the right
of withdrawal. The period of notice probably is too long to allow of
this, and yet the slow process of international procedure might require
more than two years to reach a conclusion. Does it not seem fair that
before a nation should withdraw from this great association it should be
required to fulfil its obligations under the treaty?
PROBABILITY OF WAR MINIMIZED
The treaty of peace with Germany deals with many questions of vital
import to European nations, but with which America has but little direct
concern. Part I, the Covenant, is the section which touches us most
nearly. It is the part which embodies the idealism of our people, and
through which we are enabled to discharge the responsibilities we
assumed by formulating for friend and foe the conditions of peace. Human
nature changes but little from century to century, but the highest and
purest aspirations of the human heart find expression from age to age
with greater force and with wider acceptance. Doubtless, in the future,
the passions of man will again flare up in bloody wars, but the
creation of an adequate machinery for discussion and cooling reflection,
must tend to minimize the probabilities of war. The spirits of millions
of slaughtered youth who sleep in the fields of France and Flanders call
out to us, for whom they died, to consecrate their sacrifice by a new
and greater endeavor to safeguard the future peace of the world.
The conferees of Paris have formulated a measure for this purpose. It is
not perfect. Experience may develop even greater imperfections than
study has revealed. But it contains much of hope and promise. It is
practical; it is subject to amendment. It commits no one irrevocably to
its provisions. It is instinct with American idealism. It is in accord
with the best American traditions. Washington, Lincoln, McKinley, and
Roosevelt--each has contributed to the establishment of some of its main
provisions. No partisan, no provincial prejudice should be permitted to
influence or control the judgment of our people concerning it.
* * * * *
=When Peace Came to Verdun=
It was 10:45 on the morning of November 11th in Verdun. The Germans had
thrown a barrage over the little French city, now immortal; and shells
were falling, plowing up the earth that had been turned over and over,
ground to powder by four years of artillery fire. Would the Germans stop
at 11 o'clock? Reason said "yes." Everyone in Verdun knew that at that
hour the armistice would go into effect.
It was 10:50. The guns continued bellowing. A feeling deeper than reason
came over those in the city that the Germans would not stop. Verdun had
lived through four years of fire, smoke, thunder, blood, and ruin.
Sometimes for days there would be a lull, but the guns were never quiet
long. The Germans never forgave the "they-shall-not-pass" spirit that
had hurled them back just as the prize--this military key to the West
front--seemed within their grasp.
It was 10:55. Men were crouching between buildings. They kept
coming--doughboys, Morrocans, English soldiers, more doughboys. Even the
general and his aids began to look anxious.
"Then," says B. C. Edworthy in _Association Men_, "as suddenly as though
God himself had dropped a wet blanket over the crackling flames of hell
and at one blow had extinguished them all, the firing ceased. There was
an instant's pause, in which it seemed as though the world had come to
an end. Then from the forty bells, high in the still untouched towers of
that old cathedral at Verdun, which had witnessed the most heroic
sacrifice of life and love save that on Calvary alone, pealed forth as
did the voices over the Bethlehem hills those silver tones that once
again were saying, 'Peace on Earth.' The men were joyously and
deliriously leaping about, yelling and shouting and singing and kissing
one another. Slowly those heavy cathedral doors opened and in rushed
about six hundred of the Allied soldiers."
There were Mohammedans, Catholics, Jews, and Protestants. They pressed
forward into the choir space, the roofs above them open to heaven. A
simple impromptu service of thanksgiving followed. An English soldier
led the Doxology, and all who knew the hymn joined in. Six hundred
worshipers knelt, each soldier praying according to his faith.
Mohammedans bowed to the stones, Catholics crossed themselves, Jews and
Protestants with moving lips bent their heads or lifted their faces to
heaven. Dr. Oscar E. Maurer, of New Haven, Conn., led the _Lord's
Prayer_. As the strange congregation rose, the Americans began "My
Country 'tis of Thee," the English joining in with "God Save the King."
There could be only one closing hymn in that battered shell of Verdun
Cathedral. Now, as though it had been arranged, the French pushed
forward and began the "Marseillaise." It was the singing of the soul of
a nation, a soul redeemed:
_Allons, enfants de la patrie
Le jour de gloire est arrivé_
Peace had come to Verdun, deliverance to France, safety to the world.
With the last words of the national hymn of France, the service was
finished, and the worshipers turned and reverently left the building.
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES AND THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
(Signed June 28, 1919, Rejected by the United States, November 19, 1919
and Again Rejected, with the Lodge Reservations, March 19, 1920)
The preamble contains the names of the plenipotentiaries that took part
in the negotiations and signed the treaty, with a few exceptions: Dr.
Hermann Müller and Dr. Johannes Bell were substituted for
Brockdorff-Rantzau and his associates, China's delegates refused to sign
on account of the Shantung concessions to Japan, and Italy was
represented by a new commission headed by Signor Tittoni, the new
Foreign Minister.
The text here reproduced is the revised edition of the treaty
distributed in French and English among the delegates at the time of the
signing. The copy actually signed is deposited in the archives of the
Republic of France in Paris.
PREAMBLE
The United States of America, the British Empire, France,
Italy, and Japan, these powers being described in the present
treaty as the principal Allied and Associated Powers; Belgium,
Bolivia, Brazil, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala,
Haiti, the Hedjaz, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru,
Poland, Portugal, Rumania, the Serb-Croat-Slovene State; Siam,
Czechoslovakia, and Uruguay, these powers constituting with the
principal powers mentioned above the Allied and Associated
Powers of the one part; and Germany, of the other part: Bearing
in mind that on the request of the Imperial German Government
an armistice was granted on Nov. 11, 1918, to Germany by the
principal Allied and Associated Powers in order that a treaty
of peace might be concluded with her, and the Allied and
Associated Powers being equally desirous that the war in which
they were successively involved directly or indirectly, and
which originated in the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary
on July 28, 1914, against Serbia; the declaration of war by
Germany against Russia on Aug. 1, 1914, and against France on
Aug. 3, 1914, and in the invasion of Belgium, should be
replaced by a firm, just, and durable peace;
For this purpose the high contracting parties represented as
follows:
THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, by:
The Honorable Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States,
acting in his own name and by his own proper authority;
The Honorable Robert Lansing, Secretary of State;
The Honorable Henry White, formerly Ambassador Extraordinary
and Plenipotentiary of the United States at Rome and Paris;
The Honorable Edward M. House;
General Tasker H. Bliss, Military Representative of the United
States on the Supreme War Council;
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND
IRELAND AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS, EMPEROR
OF INDIA, by:
The Right Honorable David Lloyd George, M. P., First Lord of
his Treasury and Prime Minister;
The Right Honorable Andrew Bonar Law, M. P., his Lord Privy
Seal;
The Right Honorable Viscount Milner, G. C. B., G. C. M. G., his
Secretary of State for the Colonies;
The Right Honorable Arthur James Balfour, O. M., M. P., his
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs;
The Right Honorable George Nicoll Barnes, M. P., Minister
without portfolio; and
FOR THE DOMINION OF CANADA, by:
The Right Honorable Sir George Eulas Foster, G. C. M. G.,
Minister of Trade and Commerce;
The Right Honorable Charles Joseph Doherty, Minister of
Justice;
FOR THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, by:
The Right Honorable William Morris Hughes, Attorney General and
Prime Minister;
The Right Honorable Sir Joseph Cook, G. C. M. G., Minister for
the Navy;
FOR THE DOMINION OF SOUTH AFRICA, by:
General the Right Honorable Louis Botha, Prime Minister;
Lieut. General the Right Honorable Jan Christiaan Smuts, K. C.,
Minister of Defense;
FOR THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND, by:
The Right Honorable William Ferguson Massey, Minister of Labor
and Prime Minister;
FOR INDIA, by:
The Right Honorable Edwin Samuel Montagu, M. P., his Secretary
of State for India;
Major General his Highness Maharaja Sir Ganga Singh Bahadur,
Maharaja of Bikanir, G. C. S. I., G. C. I. E., G. C. V. O., K.
C. B., A. D. C.;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC, by:
Mr. Georges Clemenceau, President of the Council, Minister of
War;
Mr. Pichon, Minister of Foreign Affairs;
Mr. L. L. Klotz, Minister of Finance;
Mr. André Tardieu, Commissary General for Franco-American
Military Affairs;
Mr. Jules Cambon, Ambassador of France;
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF ITALY,[27] by:
Mr. V. E. Orlando, President of the Council of Ministers;
[27] On account of the overthrow of the Orlando Ministry and the
formation of the Nitti Ministry, the treaty was signed by a delegation
headed by Signor Tittoni, the New Foreign Minister.
Baron S. Sonnino, Minister of Foreign Affairs;
Mr. S. Crespi, Deputy, Minister of Supplies;
Marquis G. Imperiali, Senator of the Kingdom, Ambassador of his
Majesty the King of Italy at London;
Mr. S. Barzilai, Deputy, formerly Minister;
HIS MAJESTY THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN, by:
Marquis Saionji, formerly President of the Council of
Ministers;
Baron Makino, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs, member of
the Diplomatic Council;
Viscount Chinda, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary
of H. M. the Emperor of Japan at London;
Mr. K. Matsui, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of
H. M. the Emperor of Japan at Paris;
Mr. H. Ijuin, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of
H. M. the Emperor of Japan at Rome;
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE BELGIANS, by:
Mr. Hymans, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of State;
Mr. Van Den Heuvel, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of H. M. the King of the Belgians, Minister of
State;
Mr. Vandervelde, Minister of Justice, Minister of State;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA, by:
Mr. Ismael Montes, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of Bolivia at Paris;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL, by:
Mr. Epitacio Pessoa, formerly Minister of State, formerly
member of the Supreme Court of Justice, Federal Senator;
Mr. Pandiá Calogeras, Deputy, formerly Minister of Finance;
Mr. Raul Ferdnandes;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE CHINESE REPUBLIC,[28] by;
Mr. Lou Tseng-Tsiang, Minister of Foreign Affairs;
Mr. Chengting Thomas Wang, formerly Minister of Agriculture and
Commerce;
[28] Refused to sign on account of Shantung concessions to Japan.
THE PRESIDENT OF THE CUBAN REPUBLIC, by:
Mr. Antonio Sanchez de Bustamante, Dean of The Faculty of Law
in the University of Havana, President of the Cuban Society of
International Law;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR, by:
Mr. Enrique Dorn y de Alsua, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of Ecuador at Paris;
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE HELLENES, by:
Mr. Eleftherios Venizelos, President of the Council of
Ministers;
Mr. Nicolas Politis, Minister of Foreign Affairs;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA, by:
Mr. Joaquin Mendez, formerly Minister of State for Public Works
and Public Instruction, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of Guatemala at Washington, Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary on Special Mission at Paris;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HAITI, by:
Mr. Tertullien Guilbaud, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of Haiti at Paris;
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE HEDJAZ, by:
Mr. Rustem Haidar;
Mr. Abdul Hadi Aouni;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS, by:
Dr. Policarpe Bonilla, on special mission to Washington,
formerly President of the Republic of Honduras, Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF LIBERIA, by:
The Honorable C. D. B. King, Secretary of State;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA, by:
Mr. Salvador Chamorro, President of the Chamber of Deputies;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA, by:
Mr. Antonio Burgos, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of Panama at Madrid;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PERU, by:
Mr. Carlos G. Candamo, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of Peru at Paris;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE POLISH REPUBLIC, by:
Mr. Roman Dmowski, President of the Polish National Committee;
Mr. Ignace Paderewski, President of the Council of Ministers,
Minister of Foreign Affairs;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE PORTUGESE REPUBLIC, by:
Dr. Affonso Costa, formerly President of the Council of
Ministers;
Mr. Augusto Soares, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs;
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF RUMANIA, by:
Mr. Jean J. C. Bratiano, President of the Council of Ministers,
Minister of Foreign Affairs;
General Constantin Coanda, Corps Commander, A. D. C. to the
King, formerly President of the Council of Ministers;
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE SERBS, THE CROATS, AND THE
SLOVENES, by:
Mr. N. P. Pachitch, formerly President of the Council of
Ministers;
Mr. Ante Trumbic, Minister of Foreign Affairs; Mr. Milenko R.
Vesnitch, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of
H. M. the King of the Serbs, the Croats, and the Slovenes at
Paris;
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF SIAM, by:
Prince Charoon, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of H. M. the King of Siam at Paris;
Prince Traidos Prabandhu, Under Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE CZECHO-SLOVAK REPUBLIC, by:
Mr. Charles Kramar, President of the Council of Ministers;
Mr. Edouard Benes, Minister of Foreign Affairs;
THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY, by:
Mr. Juan Antonio Buero, Minister of Industry, formerly Minister
of Foreign Affairs;
[Illustration: Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States
On January 8, 1918, President Wilson outlined the fourteen points on the
basis of which the Allies should make peace.]
GERMANY,[29] by;
Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the
Empire;
[29] Treaty Signed by Dr. Hermann Müller, Minister for Foreign Affairs
of the Empire, and Dr. Johannes Bell, Minister of the Empire.
Dr. Landsberg, Minister of Justice of the Empire;
Mr. Giesberts, Minister of Posts of the Empire;
Oberbürgermeister Leinert, President of the Prussian National
Assembly;
Dr. Schücking;
Dr. Karl Melchior; Acting in the name of the German Empire and
of each and every component State.
WHO having communicated their full powers found in good and due form
HAVE AGREED AS FOLLOWS:
From the coming into force of the present treaty the state of war will
terminate. From that moment and subject to the provisions of this treaty
official relations with Germany and with any of the German States will
be resumed by the Allied and Associated Powers.
PART I
The Covenant of the League of Nations
The high contracting parties, in order to promote international
coöperation and to achieve international peace and security by the
acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of
open, just, and honorable relations between nations, by the firm
establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual
rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and
a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of
organized peoples with one another, agree to this covenant of the League
of Nations.
=ARTICLE 1.=--The original members of the League of Nations shall be
those of the signatories which are named in the annex to this covenant
and also such of those other States named in the annex as shall accede
without reservation to this covenant. Such accession shall be effected
by a declaration deposited with the secretariat within two months of the
coming into force of the covenant. Notice thereof shall be sent to all
other members of the League.
Any fully self-governing State, dominion, or colony not named in the
annex may become a member of the League if its admission is agreed to by
two-thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective
guarantees of its sincere intention to observe its international
obligations, and shall accept such regulations as may be prescribed by
the League in regard to its military, naval and air forces and
armaments.
Any member of the League may, after two years' notice of its intention
so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that all its international
obligations and all its obligations under this covenant shall have been
fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal.
=ARTICLE 2.=--The action of the League under this covenant shall be
effected through the instrumentality of an assembly and of a council,
with a permanent secretariat.
=ARTICLE 3.=--The assembly shall consist of representatives of the
members of the League.
The assembly shall meet at stated intervals and from time to time as
occasion may require at the seat of the League or at such other place as
may be decided upon.
The assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere
of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world.
At meetings of the assembly each member of the League shall have one
vote, and may have not more than three representatives.
=ARTICLE 4.=--The council shall consist of representatives of the
principal Allied and Associated Powers, together with representatives of
four other members of the League. These four members of the League shall
be selected by the assembly from time to time in its discretion. Until
the appointment of the representatives of the four members of the League
first selected by the assembly, representatives of Belgium, Brazil,
Spain, and Greece shall be members of the council.
With the approval of the majority of the assembly, the council may name
additional members of the League whose representatives shall always be
members of the council; the council with like approval may increase the
number of members of the League to be selected by the assembly for
representation on the council.
The council shall meet from time to time as occasion may require, and at
least once a year, at the seat of the League, or at such other place as
may be decided upon.
The council may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere
of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world.
Any member of the League not represented on the council shall be invited
to send a representative to sit as a member at any meeting of the
council during the consideration of matters specially affecting the
interests of that member of the League.
At meetings of the council, each member of the League represented on the
council shall have one vote, and may have not more than one
representative.
=ARTICLE 5.=--Except where otherwise expressly provided in this covenant
or by the terms of the present treaty, decisions at any meeting of the
assembly or of the council shall require the agreement of all the
members of the League represented at the meeting.
All matters of procedure at meetings of the assembly or of the council,
including the appointment of committees to investigate particular
matters, shall be regulated by the assembly or by the council and may be
decided by a majority of the members of the League represented at the
meeting.
The first meeting of the assembly and the first meeting of the council
shall be summoned by the President of the United States of America.
=ARTICLE 6.=--The permanent secretariat shall be established at the seat
of the League. The secretariat shall comprise a Secretary General and
such secretaries and staff as may be required.
The first Secretary General shall be the person named in the annex;
thereafter the Secretary General shall be appointed by the council with
the approval of the majority of the assembly.
The secretaries and staff of the secretariat shall be appointed by the
Secretary General with the approval of the council.
The Secretary General shall act in that capacity at all meetings of the
assembly and of the council.
The expenses of the secretariat shall be borne by the members of the
League in accordance with the apportionment of the expenses of the
International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union.
=ARTICLE 7.=--The seat of the League is established at Geneva.
The council may at any time decide that the seat of the League shall be
established elsewhere.
All positions under or in connection with the League, including the
secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women.
Representatives of the members of the League and officials of the League
when engaged on the business of the League shall enjoy diplomatic
privileges and immunities.
The buildings and other property occupied by the League or its officials
or by representatives attending its meetings shall be inviolable.
=ARTICLE 8.=--The members of the League recognize that the maintenance
of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest
point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common
action of international obligations.
The council, taking account of the geographical situation and
circumstances of each State, shall formulate plans for such reduction
for the consideration and action of several Governments.
Such plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at least
every ten years.
After these plans shall have been adopted by the several Governments,
the limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be exceeded without the
concurrence of the council.
The members of the League agree that the manufacture by private
enterprise of munitions and implements of war is open to grave
objections. The council shall advise how the evil effects attendant upon
such manufacture can be prevented, due regard being had to the
necessities of those members of the League which are not able to
manufacture the munitions and implements of war necessary for their
safety.
The members of the League undertake to interchange full and frank
information as to the scale of their armaments, their military and naval
programs and the condition of such of their industries as are adaptable
to warlike purposes.
=ARTICLE 9.=--A permanent commission shall be constituted to advise the
council on the execution of the provisions of Articles 1 and 8 and on
military and naval questions generally.
=ARTICLE 10.=--The members of the League undertake to respect and
preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and
existing political independence of all members of the League. In case of
any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such
aggression the council shall advise upon the means by which this
obligation shall be fulfilled.
=ARTICLE 11.=--Any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting
any of the members of the League or not, is hereby declared a matter of
concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action that
may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations. In
case any such emergency should arise the Secretary General shall on the
request of any member of the League forthwith summon a meeting of the
council.
It is also declared to be the friendly right of each member of the
League to bring to the attention of the assembly or of the council any
circumstance whatever affecting international relations which threatens
to disturb international peace or the good understanding between nations
upon which peace depends.
=ARTICLE 12.=--The members of the League agree that if there should
arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, they will
submit the matter either to arbitration or to inquiry by the council,
and they agree in no case to resort to war until three months after the
award by the arbitrators or the report by the council.
In any case under this article the award of the arbitrators shall be
made within a reasonable time, and the report of the council shall be
made within six months after the submission of the dispute.
=ARTICLE 13.=--The members of the League agree that whenever any dispute
shall arise between them which they recognize to be suitable for
submission to arbitration and which cannot be satisfactorily settled by
diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject-matter to arbitration.
Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of
international law, as to the existence of any fact which if established
would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the
extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are
declared to be among those which are generally suitable for submission
to arbitration.
For the consideration of any such dispute the Court of Arbitration to
which the case is referred shall be the court agreed on by the parties
to the dispute or stipulated in any convention existing between them.
The members of the League agree that they will carry out in full good
faith any award that may be rendered, and that they will not resort to
war against a member of the League which complies therewith. In the
event of any failure to carry out such an award, the council shall
propose what steps should be taken to give effect thereto.
=ARTICLE 14.=--The council shall formulate and submit to the members of
the League for adoption plans for the establishment of a Permanent Court
of International Justice.
The court shall be competent to hear and determine any dispute of an
international character which the parties thereto submit to it. The
court may also give an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question
referred to it by the council or by the assembly.
=ARTICLE 15.=--If there should arise between members of the League any
dispute likely to lead to a rupture, which is not submitted to
arbitration in accordance with Article 13, the members of the League
agree that they will submit the matter to the council. Any party to the
dispute may effect such submission by giving notice of the existence of
the dispute to the Secretary General, who will make all necessary
arrangements for a full investigation and consideration thereof.
For this purpose the parties to the dispute will communicate to the
Secretary General, as promptly as possible, statements of their case
with all the relevant facts and papers, and the council may forthwith
direct the publication thereof.
The council shall endeavor to effect a settlement of the dispute, and if
such efforts are successful, a statement shall be made public giving
such facts and explanations regarding the dispute and the terms of
settlement thereof as the council may deem appropriate.
If the dispute is not thus settled, the council either unanimously or by
a majority vote shall make and publish a report containing a statement
of the facts of the dispute and the recommendations which are deemed
just and proper in regard thereto.
Any member of the League represented on the council may make public a
statement of the facts of the dispute and of its conclusions regarding
the same.
If a report by the council is unanimously agreed to by the members
thereof other than the representatives of one or more of the parties to
the dispute, the members of the League agree that they will not go to
war with any party to the dispute which complies with the
recommendations of the report.
If the council fails to reach a report which is unanimously agreed to by
the members thereof, other than the representatives of one or more of
the parties to the dispute, the members of the League reserve to
themselves the right to take such action as they shall consider
necessary for the maintenance of right and justice.
If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, and is
found by the council to arise out of a matter which by international law
is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that party, the council
shall so report, and shall make no recommendation as to its settlement.
The council may in any case under this article refer the dispute to the
assembly. The dispute shall be so referred at the request of either
party to the dispute, provided that such request be made within fourteen
days after the submission of the dispute to the council.
In any case referred to the assembly all the provisions of this article
and of Article 12 relating to the action and powers of the council shall
apply to the action and powers of the assembly, provided that a report
made by the assembly, if concurred in by the representatives of those
members of the League represented on the council and of a majority of
the other members of the League, exclusive in each case of the
representatives of the parties to the dispute, shall have the same force
as a report by the council concurred in by all the members thereof other
than the representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute.
=ARTICLE 16.=--Should any member of the League resort to war in
disregard of its covenants under Articles 12, 13, or 15, it shall =ipso
facto= be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other
members of the League, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it
to the severance of all trade or financial relations, the prohibition of
all intercourse between their nationals and the nationals of the
covenant-breaking State and the prevention of all financial, commercial,
or personal intercourse between the nationals of the covenant-breaking
State and the nationals of any other State, whether a member of the
League or not.
It shall be the duty of the council in such case to recommend to the
several Governments concerned what effective military, naval or air
force the members of the League shall severally contribute to the armed
forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League.
The members of the League agree, further, that they will mutually
support one another in the financial and economic measures which are
taken under this article, in order to minimize the loss and
inconvenience resulting from the above measures, and that they will
mutually support one another in resisting any special measures aimed at
one of their number by the covenant-breaking State, and that they will
take the necessary steps to afford passage through their territory to
the forces of any of the members of the League which are coöperating to
protect the covenants of the League.
Any member of the League which has violated any covenant of the League
may be declared to be no longer a member of the League by a vote of the
council concurred in by the representatives of all the other members of
the League represented thereon.
=ARTICLE 17.=--In the event of a dispute between a member of the League
and a State which is not a member of the League, or between States not
members of the League, the State or States not members of the League
shall be invited to accept the obligations of membership in the League
for the purposes of such dispute, upon such conditions as the council
may deem just. If such invitation is accepted, the provisions of
Articles 12 to 16 inclusive shall be applied with such modifications as
may be deemed necessary by the council.
Upon such invitation being given the council shall immediately institute
an inquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and recommend such
action as may seem best and most effectual in the circumstances.
If a State so invited shall refuse to accept the obligations of
membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, and shall
resort to war against a member of the League, the provisions of Article
16 shall be applicable as against the State taking such action.
If both parties to the dispute when so invited refuse to accept the
obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such
dispute, the council may take such measures and make such
recommendations as will prevent hostilities and will result in the
settlement of the dispute.
=ARTICLE 18.=--Every treaty or international engagement entered into
hereafter by any member of the League shall be forthwith registered with
the secretariat and shall as soon as possible be published by it. No
such treaty or international engagement shall be binding until so
registered.
=ARTICLE 19.=--The assembly may from time to time advise the
reconsideration by members of the League of treaties which have become
inapplicable and the consideration of international conditions whose
continuance might endanger the peace of the world.
=ARTICLE 20.=--The members of the League severally agree that this
covenant is accepted as abrogating all obligations or understandings
inter se which are inconsistent with the terms thereof, and solemnly
undertake that they will not hereafter enter into any engagements
inconsistent with the terms thereof.
In case any member of the League shall, before becoming a member of the
League, have undertaken any obligations inconsistent with the terms of
this covenant, it shall be the duty of such member to take immediate
steps to procure its release from such obligations.
=ARTICLE 21.=--Nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect the
validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbitration
or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for securing the
maintenance of peace.
=ARTICLE 22.=--To those colonies and territories which as a consequence
of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States
which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet
able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern
world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and
development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization and that
securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied in this
covenant.
The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the
tutelage of such peoples should be intrusted to advanced nations who by
reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical
position can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to
accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as
mandatories on behalf of the League.
The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of
development of the people, the geographical situation of the territory,
its economic conditions and other similar circumstances.
Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have
reached a stage of development where their existence as independent
nations can be provisionally recognized subject to rendering of
administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as
they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a
principal consideration in the selection of the mandatory.
Other peoples, especially those of Central Africa, are at such a stage
that the mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the
territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience
and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and
morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms
traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment
of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training
of the natives for other than police purposes and the defense of
territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and
commerce of other members of the League.
There are territories such as Southwest Africa and certain of the South
Pacific Islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population or
their small size, or their remoteness from the centers of civilization;
or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the mandatory, and
other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the
mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the
safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous
population.
In every case of mandate the mandatory shall render to the council an
annual report in reference to the territory committed to its charge.
The degree of authority, control, or administration to be exercised by
the mandatory shall, if not previously agreed upon by the members of the
League, be explicitly defined in each case by the council.
A permanent commission shall be constituted to receive and examine the
annual reports of the mandatories and to advise the council on all
matters relating to the observance of the mandates.
=ARTICLES 23.=--Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of
international conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the
members of the League:
(a) will endeavor to secure and maintain fair and humane
conditions of labor for men, women and children, both in their
own countries and in all countries to which their commercial
and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will
establish and maintain the necessary international
organizations;
(b) undertake to secure just treatment of the native
inhabitants of territories under their control;
(c) will intrust the League with the general supervision over
the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in women
and children and the traffic in opium and other dangerous
drugs;
(d) will intrust the League with the general supervision of the
trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which the
control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest;
(e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of
communications and of transit and equitable treatment for the
commerce of all members of the League. In this connection the
special necessities of the regions devastated during the war of
1914--1918 shall be borne in mind;
(f) will endeavor to take steps in matters of international
concern for the prevention and control of disease.
=ARTICLE 24.=--There shall be placed under the direction of the League
all international bureaus already established by general treaties if the
parties to such treaties consent. All such international bureaus and all
commissions for the regulation of matters of international interest
hereafter constituted shall be placed under the direction of the League.
In all matters of international interest which are regulated by general
conventions but which are not placed under the control of international
bureaus or commissions, the secretariat of the League shall, subject to
the consent of the council and if desired by the parties, collect and
distribute all relevant information and shall render any other
assistance which may be necessary or desirable.
The council may include as part of the expenses of the secretariat the
expenses of any bureau or commission which is placed under the direction
of the League.
=ARTICLE 25.=--The members of the League agree to encourage and promote
the establishment and co-operation of duly authorized voluntary national
Red Cross organizations having as purposes the improvement of health,
the prevention of disease, and the mitigation of suffering throughout
the world.
=ARTICLE 26.=--Amendments to this covenant will take effect when
ratified by the members of the League whose representatives compose the
council and by a majority of the members of the League whose
representatives compose the assembly.
No such amendment shall bind any member of the League which signifies
its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease to be a member of
the League.
ANNEX
I. Original members of the League of Nations signatories of the treaty
of peace.
United States of America.
Belgium.
Bolivia.
Brazil.
British Empire.
Canada.
Australia.
South Africa.
New Zealand.
India
China.[30]
Cuba.
Ecuador.
France.
Greece.
Guatemala.
Uruguay.
Haiti.
Hedjaz.
Honduras.
Italy.
Japan.
Liberia.
Nicaragua.
Panama.
Peru.
Poland.
Portugal.
Rumania.
Serb-Croat-Slovene State.
Siam.
Czecho-Slovakia.
States invited to accede to the covenant.
Argentine Republic
Chile.
Colombia.
Denmark.
Netherlands.
Norway.
Paraguay
Persia.
Salvador.
Spain.
Sweden.
Switzerland.
Venezuela.
[30] Refused to sign.
II. First Secretary General of the League of Nations. The Honorable Sir
James Eric Drummond, K. C. M. G., C. B.
PART II.
Boundaries of Germany
=ARTICLE 27.=--The boundaries of Germany will be determined as follows:
1. With Belgium: From the point common to the three frontiers of
Belgium, Holland, and Germany, and in a southerly direction; the
northeastern boundary of the former territory of neutral Moresnet, then
the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Eupen, then the frontier between
Belgium and the Kreis of Montjoie, then the northeastern and eastern
boundary of the Kreis of Malmédy to its junction with the frontier of
Luxemburg.
2. With Luxemburg: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, to its junction
with the frontier of France of the 18th July, 1870.
3. With France: The frontier of the 18th July, 1870, from Luxemburg to
Switzerland, with the reservations made in Article 48 of Section 4
(Sarre Basin) of Part III.
4. With Switzerland: The present frontier.
5. With Austria: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, from Switzerland
to Czechoslovakia is hereinafter defined.
6. With Czechoslovakia: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, between
Germany and Austria from its junction with the old administrative
boundary separating Bohemia and the Province of Upper Austria to the
point north of the salient of the old Province of Austrian Silesia
situated at about eight kilometers east of Neustadt.
7. With Poland: From the point defined above to a point to be fixed on
the ground about 2 kilometers east of Lorzendorf: the frontier as it
will be fixed in accordance with Article 88 of the present treaty;
thence in a northerly direction to the point where the administrative
boundary of Posnania crosses the river Bartsch; a line to be fixed on
the ground leaving the following places in Poland: Skorischau,
Reichthal, Trembatschau, Kunzendorf, Schleise, Gross Kosel,
Schreibersdorf, Rippin, Fürstlich-Niefken, Pawelau, Tscheschen,
Konradau, Johannisdorf, Modzenowe, Bogdaj, and in Germany: Lorzendorf,
Kaulwitz, Glausche, Dalbersdorf, Reesewitz, Stradam, Gross Wartenberg
Kraschen, Neu Mittelwalde, Domaslawitz, Wodelsdorf, Tscheschen Hammer;
thence the boundary of Posnania northwestward to the point where it cuts
the Rawitsch-Herrnstadt railway; thence to the point where the
administrative boundary of Posnania cuts the Reisen-Tschirnau road: a
line to be fixed on the ground passing west of Triebusch and Gabel and
east of Saborwitz; thence the administrative boundary of Posnania to its
junction with the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Fraustadt;
Thence in a northwesterly direction to a point to be chosen on the road
between the villages of Unruhstadt and Kophitz: a line to be fixed on
the ground passing west of Geyersdorf, Brenno, Fehlen, Altkloster,
Klebel, and east of Ulbersdorf, Buchwald, Ilgen, Weine, Lupitze,
Schwenten; thence in a northerly direction to the northernmost point of
Lake Chlop: a line to be fixed on the ground following the median line
of the lakes; the town and the station of Bentschen, however, (including
the junction of the lines Schwiebus-Bentschen and Züllichau-Bentschen,)
remaining in Polish territory;
Thence in a northeasterly direction to the point of junction of the
boundaries of the Kreise of Schwerin, Birnbaum, and Meseritz: a line to
be fixed on the ground passing east of Betsche; thence in a northerly
direction the boundary separating the Kreise of Schwerin and Birnbaum,
then in an easterly direction the northern boundary of Posnania and to
the point where it cuts the river Netze; thence upstream to its
confluence with the Küddow: the course of the Netze; thence upstream to
a point to be chosen about 6 kilometers southeast of Schneidemühl; the
course of the Küddow;
Thence northeastward to the most southern point of the re-entrant of the
northern boundary of Posnania about 5 kilometers west of Stahren: a line
to be fixed on the ground leaving the Schneidemühl-Konitz railway in
this area entirely in German territory; thence the boundary of Posnania
northeastward to the point of the salient it makes about 15 kilometers
east of Flatow; thence northeastward to the point where the river
Kamionka meets the southern boundary of the Kreis of Konitz about 3
kilometers northeast of Grunau: a line to be fixed on the ground leaving
the following places to Poland: Jasdrowo, Gr. Lutau, Kl. Lutau and
Wittkau, and to Germany: Gr. Butzig, Cziskowo, Battow, Böch, and Grunau;
Thence in a northerly direction the boundary between the Kreise of
Konitz and Schlochau to the point where this boundary cuts the river
Brahe; thence to a point on the boundary of Pomerania 15 kilometers east
of Rummelsburg: a line to be fixed on the ground leaving the following
localities in Poland: Konarzin, Kelpin, Adl. Briesen, and in Germany:
Sampohl, Neuguth, Steinfort, and Gr. Peterkau; then the boundary of
Pomerania in an easterly direction to its junction with the boundary
between the Kreis of Konitz and Schlochau;
[Illustration: Copyright Press Illustrating Service
President and Mrs. Wilson Waving Good Bye
This picture was taken as they were starting out for their first trip to
the Peace Conference.]
Thence northward the boundary between Pomerania and West Prussia to the
point on the river Rheda about 3 kilometers northwest of Gohra, where
that river is joined by a tributary from the northwest; thence to a
point to be selected in the bend of the Piasnitz River about 1½
kilometers northwest of Warschkau: a line to be fixed on the ground;
thence this river downstream, then the median line of Lake Zarnowitz,
then the old boundary of West Prussia to the Baltic Sea.
8. With Denmark: The frontier as it will be fixed in accordance with
Articles 109 and 110 of Part III., Section XII., (Schleswig.)
=ARTICLE 28.=--The boundaries of East Prussia, with the reservations
made in Section IX. (East Prussia) of Part III. will be determined as
follows:
From a point on the coast of the Baltic Sea about 1½ kilometers north of
Pröbbernau Church in a direction of about 159 degrees east from true
north: A line to be fixed on the ground for about 2 kilometers, thence
in a straight line to the light at the bend of the Elbinger Channel in
approximately latitude 54.19½ north, longitude 19.26 east of Greenwich;
Thence to the easternmost mouth of the Nogat River at a bearing of
approximately 209 degrees east from true north;
Thence up the course of the Nogat River to the point where the latter
leaves the Vistula, (Weichsel;)
Thence up the principal channel of navigation of the Vistula, then the
southern boundary of the Kreis of Marienwerder, then that of the Kreis
of Rosenberg, eastward to the point where it meets the old boundary of
East Prussia;
Thence the old boundary between East and West Prussia, then the boundary
between the Kreise of Osterode and Neidenburg, then the course of the
River Skoppau down stream, then the course of the Neide up stream to a
point situated about 5 kilometers west of Bialutten, being the nearest
point to the old frontier of Russia, thence in an easterly direction to
a point immediately south of the intersection of the road
Neidenburg-Mlava with the old frontier of Russia;
A line to be fixed on the ground passing north of Bialutten;
Thence the old frontier of Russia to a point east of Schmalleningken,
then the principal channel of navigation of the Niemen (Memel) down
stream, then the Skierwieth arm of the delta to the Kurisches Haff;
Thence a straight line to the point where the eastern shore of the
Kurische Nehrung meets the administrative boundary about 4 kilometers
southwest of Nidden;
Thence this administrative boundary to the western shore of the Kurische
Nehrung.
=ARTICLE 29.=--The boundaries as described above are drawn in red on a
one-in-a-million map which is annexed to the present treaty. (Map No.
1.)
In the case of any discrepancies between the text of the treaty and this
map or any other map which may be annexed, the text will be final.
=ARTICLE 30.=--In the case of boundaries which are defined by a
waterway, the terms "course" and "channel" used in the present treaty
signify: in the case of non-navigable rivers, the median line of the
waterway or of its principal arm, and in the case of navigable rivers
the median line of the principal channel of navigation. It will rest
with the boundary commissions provided by the present treaty to specify
in each case whether the frontier line shall follow any changes of the
course or channel which may take place or whether it shall be definitely
fixed by the position of the course or channel at the time when the
present treaty comes into force.
PART III
Political Clauses for Europe
SECTION I.--_Belgium_
=ARTICLE 31.=--Germany, recognizing that the treaties of April 19, 1839,
which established the status of Belgium before the war, no longer
conform to the requirements of the situation, consents to the abrogation
of the said treaties and undertakes immediately to recognize and to
observe whatever conventions may be entered into by the principal allied
and associated powers, or by any of them in concert with the Governments
of Belgium and of the Netherlands, to replace the said treaties of 1839.
If her formal adhesion should be required to such conventions or to any
of their stipulations, Germany undertakes immediately to give it.
=ARTICLE 32.=--Germany recognizes the full sovereignty of Belgium over
the whole of the contested territory of Moresnet, (called Moresnet
Neutre.)
=ARTICLE 33.=--Germany renounces in favor of Belgium all rights and
title over the territory of Prussian Moresnet situated on the west of
the road from Liége to Aix-la-Chapelle: the road will belong to Belgium
where it bounds this territory.
=ARTICLE 34.=--Germany renounces in favor of Belgium all rights and
title over the territory comprising the whole of the Kreise of Eupen and
of Malmédy.
During the six months after the coming into force of this treaty,
registers will be opened by the Belgian authorities at Eupen and Malmédy
in which the inhabitants of the above territory will be entitled to
record in writing a desire to see the whole or part of it remain under
German sovereignty.
The results of this public expression of opinion will be communicated by
the Belgian Government to the League of Nations, and Belgium undertakes
to accept the decision of the League.
=ARTICLE 35.=--A commission of seven persons, five of whom will be
appointed by the principal allied and associated powers, one by Germany
and one by Belgium, will be set up fifteen days after the coming into
force of the present treaty to settle on the spot the new frontier line
between Belgium and Germany, taking into account the economic factors
and the means of communication.
Decisions will be taken by a majority and will be binding on the parties
concerned.
=ARTICLE 36.=--When the transfer of the sovereignty over the territories
referred to above has become definitive, German nationals habitually
resident in the territories will definitively acquire Belgian
nationality ipso facto, and will lose their German nationality.
Nevertheless German nationals who become resident in the territories
after the 1st August, 1914, shall not obtain Belgian nationality without
a permit from the Belgian Government.
=ARTICLE 37.=--Within the two years following the definitive transfer of
the sovereignty over the territories assigned to Belgium under the
present treaty, German nationals over 18 years of age habitually
resident in those territories will be entitled to opt for German
nationality.
Option by a husband will cover his wife, and option by parents will
cover their children under 18 years of age.
Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must within the
ensuing twelve months transfer their place of residence to Germany.
They will be entitled to retain their immovable property in the
territories acquired by Belgium. They may carry with them their movable
property of every description. No export or import duties may be imposed
upon them in connection with the removal of such property.
=ARTICLE 38.=--The German Government will hand over without delay to the
Belgian Government the archives, registers, plans, title deeds and
documents of every kind concerning the civil, military, financial,
judicial or other administrations in the territory transferred to
Belgian sovereignty.
The German Government will likewise restore to the Belgian Government
the archives and documents of every kind carried off during the war by
the German authorities from the Belgian public administrations, in
particular from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at Brussels.
=ARTICLE 39.=--The proportion and nature of the financial liabilities of
Germany and of Prussia which Belgium will have to bear on account of the
territories ceded to her shall be fixed in conformity with Articles 254
and 256 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present treaty.
SECTION II.--_Luxemburg_
=ARTICLE 40.=--With regard to the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, Germany
renounces the benefit of all the provisions inserted in her favor in the
treaties of Feb. 8, 1842; April 2, 1847; Oct. 20--25, 1865; Aug. 18,
1866; Feb. 21 and May 11, 1867; May 10, 1871; June 11, 1872, and Nov.
11, 1902, and in all conventions consequent upon such treaties.
Germany recognizes that the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg ceased to form part
of the German Zollverein as from January 1, 1919; renounces all right to
the exploitation of the railways, adheres to the termination of the
régime of neutrality of the Grand Duchy, and accepts in advance all
international arrangements which may be concluded by the Allied and
Associated Powers relating to the Grand Duchy.
=ARTICLE 41.=--Germany undertakes to grant to the Grand Duchy of
Luxemburg, when a demand to that effect is made to her by the principal
Allied and Associated Powers, the rights and advantages stipulated in
favor of such powers or their nationals in the present treaty, with
regard to economic questions, to questions relative to transport and to
aerial navigation.
SECTION III.--_Left Bank of the Rhine_
=ARTICLE 42.=--Germany is forbidden to maintain or construct any
fortifications either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the right bank
to the west of a line drawn fifty kilometers to the east of the Rhine.
=ARTICLE 43.=--In the area defined above the maintenance and the
assembly of armed forces either permanently or temporarily, and military
maneuvers of any kind, as well as the upkeep of all permanent works for
mobilization, are in the same way forbidden.
=ARTICLE 44.=--In case Germany violates in any manner the provisions of
Article 42 and 43 she shall be regarded as committing a hostile act
against the powers signatory of the present treaty and as calculated to
disturb the peace of the world.
SECTION IV.--_Sarre Basin_
=ARTICLE 45.=--As compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in
the North of France and as part payment toward the total reparation due
from Germany for the damage resulting from the war, Germany cedes to
France in full and absolute possession, with exclusive rights of
exploitation, unincumbered and free from all debts and charges of any
kind, the coal mines situated in the Sarre Basin as defined in Article
48.
=ARTICLE 46.=--In order to assure the rights and welfare of the
population and to guarantee to France complete freedom in working the
mines, Germany agrees to the provisions of Chapters 1 and 2 of the annex
hereto.
=ARTICLE 47.=--In order to make in due time permanent provision for the
government of the Sarre Basin in accordance with the wishes of the
population, France and Germany agree to the provisions of Chapter 3 of
the annex hereto.
=ARTICLE 48.=--The boundaries of the territory of the Sarre Basin, as
dealt with in the present stipulations, will be fixed as follows:
On the south and southwest: By the frontier of France as fixed by the
present treaty.
On the northwest and north: By a line following the northern
administrative boundary of the Kreise of Merzig from the point where it
leaves the French frontier to the point where it meets the
administrative boundary, separating the commune of Saarhölzbach from the
commune of Britten; following this communal boundary southward and
reaching the administrative boundary of the Canton of Merzig so as to
include in the territory of the Sarre Basin the Canton of Mettlach, with
the exception of the commune of Britten: following successively the
northern administrative limits of the Cantons of Merzig and Haustadt,
which are incorporated in the aforesaid Sarre Basin, then successively
the administrative boundaries separating the Kreise of Saare Louis,
Ottweiler, and Saint-wendel from the Kreise of Merzig, Treves, (Trier.)
and the principality of Birkenfeld as far as a point situated about 500
meters north of the village of Furschweiler, (viz.: The highest point of
the Metzelberg.)
On the northeast and east: From the last point defined above to a point
about 3½ kilometers east-northeast of Saint Wendel:
A line to be fixed on the ground passing east of Furschweiler, west of
Roschberg, east of points 418, 329, (south of Roschberg,) west of
Leitersweiler, northeast of point 46'4, and following the line of the
crest southward to its junction with the administrative boundary of the
Kreis of Kusel;
Thence in a southerly direction the boundary of the Kreis of Kusel, then
the boundary of the Kreis of Homburg toward the south-southeast to a
point situated about 1,000 meters west of Dunzweiler;
Thence to a point about one kilometer south of Hornbach: a line to be
fixed on the ground passing through point 424, (about 1,000 meters
southeast of Dunzweiler,) point 363, (Fuchsberg,) point 322, (southwest
of Waldmohr,) then east of Jagersburg and Erbach, then encircling
Homburg, passing through the points 361, (about 2½ kilometers northeast
by east of that town,) 342, (about 2 kilometers southeast of that town,)
347, (Schreinersberg,) 356, 350, (about 1½ kilometers southeast of
Schwarzenbach,) then passing east of Einöd, southeast of points 322 and
333, about 2 kilometers east of Webenheim, about 2 kilometers east of
Mimbach, passing east of the plateau which is traversed by the road from
Mimbach to Böckweiler, (so as to include this road in the territory of
the Sarre Basin,) passing immediately north of the junction of the roads
from Böckweiler and Altheim, situated about 2 kilometers north of
Altheim, then passing south of Ringweilderhof and north of point 322,
rejoining the frontier of France at the angle which it makes about 1
kilometer south of Hornbach, (see Map No. 2, scale 1-100,000, annexed to
the present treaty.)
A commission composed of five members, one appointed by France, one by
Germany, and three by the Council of the League of Nations, which will
select nationals of other powers, will be constituted within fifteen
days from the coming into force of the present treaty, to trace on the
spot the frontier line described above. In those parts of the preceding
line which do not coincide with administration boundaries, the
commission will endeavor to keep to the line indicated, while taking
into consideration, so far as is possible local economic interests and
existing communal boundaries.
The decisions of this commission will be taken by a majority and will be
binding on the parties concerned.
=ARTICLE 49.=--Germany renounces in favor of the League of Nations, in
the capacity of trustee, the government of the territory defined above.
At the end of fifteen years from the coming into force of the present
treaty the inhabitants of the said territory shall be called upon to
indicate the sovereignty under which they desire to be placed.
=ARTICLE 50.=--The stipulations under which the cession of the mines in
the Sarre Basin shall be carried out, together with the measures
intended to guarantee the rights and the well-being of the inhabitants
and the government of the territory, as well as the conditions in
accordance with which the plebiscite hereinbefore provided for is to be
made, are laid down in the annex hereto. This annex shall be considered
as an integral part of the present treaty, and Germany declares her
adherence to it.
ANNEX
In accordance with the provisions of Articles 45 to 50 of the present
treaty, the stipulations under which the cession by Germany to France of
the mines of the Sarre Basin will be effected, as well as the measures
intended to insure respect for the rights and well-being of the
population and the government of the territory, and the conditions in
which the inhabitants will be called upon to indicate the sovereignty
under which they may wish to be placed, have been laid down as follows:
CHAPTER 1.--CESSION AND EXPLOITATION OF MINING PROPERTY
1. From the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, all the
deposits of coal situated within the Sarre Basin, as defined in Article
48 of the said treaty, become the complete and absolute property of the
French State.
The French State will have the right of working or not working the said
mines or of transferring to a third party the right of working them,
without having to obtain any previous authorization or to fulfill any
formalities.
The French State may always require that the German mining laws and
regulations referred to below shall be applied in order to insure the
determination of its rights.
2. The right of ownership of the French State will apply not only to the
deposits which are free, and for which concessions have not yet been
granted, but also to the deposits for which concessions have already
been granted, whoever may be the present proprietors, irrespective of
whether they belong to the Prussian State, to the Bavarian State, to
other States or bodies, to companies or to individuals, whether they
have been worked or not, or whether a right of exploitation distinct
from the right of the owners of the surface of the soil has or has not
been recognized.
3. As far as concerns the mines which are being worked, the transfer of
the ownership to the French State will apply to all the accessories and
subsidiaries of the said mines, in particular to their plant and
equipment both on and below the surface, to their extracting machinery,
their plants for transforming coal into electric power, coke and
by-products, their workshops, means of communication, electric lines,
plant for catching and distributing water, land, buildings, such as
offices, managers', employes', and workmen's dwellings, schools,
hospitals, and dispensaries, their stocks and supplies of every
description, their archives and plans, and in general everything which
those who own or exploit the mines possess or enjoy for the purpose of
exploiting the mines and their accessories and subsidiaries.
The transfer will apply also to the debts owing for products delivered
before the entry into possession by the French State, and after the
signature of the present treaty, and to deposits of money made by
customers, whose rights will be guaranteed by the French State.
4. The French State will acquire the property free and clear of all
debts and charges. Nevertheless the rights acquired, or in course of
being acquired, by the employes of the mines and their accessories and
subsidiaries at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty,
in connection with pensions for old age or disability, will not be
affected. In return, Germany must pay over to the French State a sum
representing the actuarial amounts to which the said employes are
entitled.
5. The value of the property thus ceded to the French State will be
determined by the Reparation Commission referred to in Article 233 of
Part VIII. (Reparations) of the present treaty.
This value shall be credited to Germany in part payment of the amount
due for reparation.
It will be for Germany to indemnify the proprietors or parties
concerned, whoever they may be.
6. No tariff shall be established on the German railways and canals
which may directly or indirectly discriminate to the prejudice of the
transport of the personnel or products of the mines and their
accessories or subsidiaries, or of the material necessary to their
exploitation. Such transport shall enjoy all the rights and privileges
which any international railway conventions may guarantee to similar
products of French origin.
7. The equipment and personnel necessary to insure the dispatch and
transport of the products of the mines and their accessories and
subsidiaries, as well as the carriage of workmen and employes, will be
provided by the local railway administration of the basin.
8. No obstacle shall be placed in the way of such improvements of
railways or waterways as the French State may judge necessary to assure
the dispatch and transport of the products of the mines and their
accessories and subsidiaries, such as double trackage, enlargement of
stations, and construction of yards and appurtenances.
The distribution of expenses will, in the event of disagreement, be
submitted to arbitration.
The French State may also establish any new means of communication, such
as roads, electric lines, and telephone connections, which it may
consider necessary for the exploitation of the mines.
It may exploit freely and without any restrictions the means of
communication of which it may become the owner, particularly those
connecting the mines and their accessories and subsidiaries with the
means of communication situated in French territory.
9. The French State shall always be entitled to demand the application
of the German mining laws and regulations in force on the 11th of
November, 1918, excepting provisions adopted exclusively in view of the
state of war, with a view to the acquisition of such land as it may
judge necessary for the exploitation of the mines and their accessories
and subsidiaries.
The payment for damage caused to immovable property by the working of
the said mines and their accessories and subsidiaries shall be made in
accordance with the German mining laws and regulations above referred
to.
10. Every person whom the French State may substitute for itself as
regards the whole or part of its rights to the exploitation of the mines
and their accessories and subsidiaries shall enjoy the benefit of the
privileges provided in this annex.
11. The mines and other immovable property which become the property of
the French State may never be made the subject of measures of
forfeiture, forced sale, expropriation or requisition, nor of any other
measure affecting the right of property.
The personnel and the plant connected with the exploitation of these
mines or their accessories and subsidiaries, as well as the product
extracted from the mines or manufactured in their accessories and
subsidiaries, may not at any time be made the subject of any measures of
requisition.
12. The exploitation of the mines and their accessories and
subsidiaries, which become the property of the French State, will
continue, subject to the provisions of Paragraph 23 below, to be subject
to the régime established by the German laws and regulations in force on
the 11th November, 1918, excepting provisions adopted exclusively in
view of the state of war.
The rights of the workmen shall be similarly maintained, subject to the
provisions of the said Paragraph 23, as established on the 11th
November, 1918, by the German laws and regulations above referred to. No
impediment shall be placed in the way of the introduction or employment
in the mines and their accessories and subsidiaries of workmen from
without the basin.
The employes and workmen of French nationality shall have the right to
belong to French labor unions.
13. The amount contributed by the mines and their accessories and
subsidiaries, either to the local budget of the territory of the Sarre
Basin or to the communal funds, shall be fixed with due regard to the
ratio of the value of the mines to the total taxable wealth of the
basin.
14. The French State shall always have the right of establishing and
maintaining, as incidental to the mines, primary or technical schools
for its employes and their children, and of causing instruction therein
to be given in the French language, in accordance with such curriculum
and by such teachers as it may select.
It shall also have the right to establish and maintain hospitals,
dispensaries, workmen's houses and gardens, and other charitable and
social institutions.
15. The French State shall enjoy complete liberty with respect to the
distribution, dispatch and sale prices of the products of the mines and
their accessories and subsidiaries.
Nevertheless, whatever may be the total product of the mines, the French
Government undertakes that the requirements of local consumption for
industrial and domestic purposes shall always be satisfied in the
proportion existing in 1913 between the amount consumed locally and the
total output of the Sarre Basin.
CHAPTER II.--GOVERNMENT OF THE TERRITORY OF THE SARRE BASIN
16. The government of the territory of the Sarre Basin shall be
intrusted to a commission representing the League of Nations. This
commission shall sit in the territory of the Sarre Basin.
17. The Governing Commission provided for by Paragraph 16 shall consist
of five members chosen by the Council of the League of Nations, and will
include one citizen of France, one native inhabitant of the Sarre Basin
not a citizen of France, and three members belonging to three countries
other than France or Germany.
The members of the Governing Commission shall be appointed for one year
and may be reappointed. They can be removed by the Council of the League
of Nations, which will provide for their replacement. The members of the
Governing Commission will be entitled to a salary which will be fixed by
the Council of the League of Nations, and charged on the local revenues.
18. The Chairman of the Governing Commission shall be appointed for one
year from among the members of the commission by the Council of the
League of Nations and may be reappointed. The Chairman will act as the
executive of the commission.
19. Within the territory of the Sarre Basin the Governing Commission
shall have all the powers of government hitherto belonging to the German
Empire, Prussia or Bavaria, including the appointment and dismissal of
officials, and the creation of such administrative and representative
bodies as it may deem necessary. It shall have full powers to administer
and operate the railways, canals, and the different public services.
Its decisions shall be taken by a majority.
20. Germany will place at the disposal of the Governing Commission all
official documents and archives under the control of Germany, of any
German State, or of any local authority, which relate to the territory
of the Sarre Basin or to the rights of the inhabitants thereof.
21. It will be the duty of the Governing Commission to insure, by such
means and under such conditions as it may deem suitable, the protection
abroad of the interests of the inhabitants of the territory of the Sarre
Basin.
22. The Governing Commission shall have the full right of user of all
property, other than mines belonging, both in public and in private
domain, to the Imperial German Government, or the Government of any
German State, in the territory of the Sarre Basin.
As regards the railways, an equitable apportionment of rolling stock
shall be made by a mixed commission on which the government of the
territory of the Sarre Basin and the German railways will be
represented.
Persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails, coming from or
going to the Sarre Basin, shall enjoy all the rights and privileges
relating to transit and transport which are specified in the provisions
of Part XII. (ports, waterways, railways) of the present treaty.
23. The laws and regulations in force n Nov. 11, 1918, in the territory
of the Sarre Basin, (except those enacted in consequence of the state of
war,) shall continue to apply. If, for general reasons or to bring
these laws and regulations into accord with the provisions of the
present treaty, it is necessary to introduce modifications, these shall
be decided on, and put into effect by the Governing Commission, after
consultation with the elected representatives of the inhabitants in such
a manner as the commission may determine. No modification may be made in
the legal régime for the exploitation of the mines, provided for in
Paragraph 12, without the French State being previously consulted,
unless such modification results from a general regulation respecting
labor adopted by the League of Nations.
In fixing the conditions and hours of labor for men, women, and
children, the Governing Commission is to take into consideration the
wishes expressed by the local labor organizations, as well as the
principles adopted by the League of Nations.
24. Subject to the provisions of Paragraph 4, no rights of the
inhabitants of the Sarre Basin acquired or in process of acquisition at
the date of the coming into force of this treaty, in respect of any
insurance system of Germany, or in respect of any pension of any kind,
are affected by any of the provisions of the present treaty.
Germany and the Government of the territory of the Saare Basin will
preserve and continue all the aforesaid rights.
25. The civil and criminal courts existing in the territory of the Sarre
Basin shall continue.
A civil and criminal court will be established by the Governing
Commission to hear appeals from the decisions of the said courts, and to
decide matters for which these courts are not competent.
The Governing Commission will be responsible for settling the
organization and jurisdiction of the said court.
Justice will be rendered in the name of the Governing Commission.
26. The Governing Commission will alone have the power of levying taxes
and dues in the territory of the Sarre Basin.
These taxes and dues will be exclusively applied to the needs of the
territory.
The fiscal system existing on Nov. 11, 1918, will be maintained as far
as possible, and no new tax except customs duties may be imposed without
previously consulting the elected representatives of the inhabitants.
27. The present stipulations will not affect the existing nationality of
the inhabitants of the territory of the Sarre Basin. No hindrance shall
be placed in the way of those who wish to acquire a different
nationality, but in such case the acquisition of the new nationality
will involve the loss of any other.
28. Under the control of the Governing Commission the inhabitants will
retain their local assemblies, their religious liberties, their schools,
and their language. The right of voting will not be exercised for any
assemblies other than the local assemblies, and will belong to every
inhabitant over the age of 20 years without distinction of sex.
29. Any of the inhabitants of the Sarre Basin who may desire to leave
the territory will have full liberty to retain in it their immovable
property or to sell it at fair prices and to remove their movable
property free of any charge.
30. There will be no military service, whether compulsory or voluntary,
in the territory of the Sarre Basin, and the construction of
fortifications therein is forbidden. Only a local gendarmerie for the
maintenance of order may be established. It will be the duty of the
Governing Commission to provide in all cases for the protection of
persons and property in the Sarre Basin.
31. The territory of the Sarre Basin as defined by Article 48 of the
present treaty shall be subjected to the French customs régime. The
receipts from the customs duties on goods intended for local consumption
shall be included in the budget of the said territory after deduction of
all costs of collection. No export tax shall be imposed upon
metallurgical products or coal exported from the said territory to
Germany, nor upon German exports for the use of the industries of the
territory of the Sarre Basin. Natural or manufactured products
originating in the basin in transit over German territory and similarly
German products in transit over the territory of the basin shall be free
of all customs duties.
Products which both originate in and pass from the basin into Germany
shall be free of import duties for a period of five years from the date
of the coming into force of the present treaty, and during the same
period articles imported from Germany into the territory of the basin
for local consumption shall likewise be free of import duties.
During these five years the French Government reserves to itself the
right of limiting to the annual average of the quantities imported into
Alsace-Lorraine and France in the years 1911 to 1913 the quantities
which may be sent into France of all articles coming from the basin,
which include raw materials and semi-manufactured goods imported duty
free from Germany. Such average shall be determined after reference to
all available official information and statistics.
32. No prohibition or restriction shall be imposed upon the circulation
of French money in the territory of the Sarre Basin. The French State
shall have the right to use French money in all purchases, payments, and
contracts connected with the exploitation of the mines or their
accessories and subsidiaries.
33. The Governing Commission shall have power to decide all questions
arising from the interpretation of the preceding provisions. France and
Germany agree that any dispute involving a difference of opinion as to
the interpretation of the said provisions shall in the same way be
submitted to the Governing Commission, and the decision of a majority of
the commission shall be binding on both countries.
CHAPTER III.--PLEBISCITE
34. At the termination of a period of fifteen years from the coming into
force of the present treaty, the population of the territory of the
Sarre Basin will be called upon to indicate their desires in the
following manner:
A vote will take place, by communes or districts, on the three following
alternatives: (a) Maintenance of the régime established by the present
treaty and by this annex; (b) union with France; (c) union with Germany.
All persons without distinction of sex, more than 20 years old at the
date of the voting, resident in the territory at the date of the
signature of the present treaty, will have the right to vote.
The other conditions, methods, and the date of the voting shall be fixed
by the Council of the League of Nations in such a way as to secure the
liberty, secrecy, and trustworthiness of the voting.
35. The League of Nations shall decide on the sovereignty under which
the territory is to be placed, taking into account the wishes of the
inhabitants as expressed by the voting.
(a) If, for the whole or part of the territory, the League of Nations
decides in favor of the maintenance of the régime established by the
present treaty and this annex, Germany hereby agrees to make such
renunciation of her sovereignty in favor of the League of Nations as the
latter shall deem necessary. It will be the duty of the League of
Nations to take appropriate steps to adapt the régime definitely adopted
to the permanent welfare of the territory and the general interests.
(b) If for the whole or part of the territory the League of Nations
decides in favor of union with France, Germany hereby agrees to cede to
France in accordance with the decision of the League of Nations all
rights and title over the territory specified by the League.
(c) If for the whole or part of the territory the League of Nations
decides in favor of union with Germany, it will be the duty of the
League of Nations to cause the German Government to be re-established in
the government of the territory specified by the League.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
=President Wilson's Welcome in Paris=
A general view of the Place de l'Etoile, showing the President's
carriage, passing the triumphant arch on its way to the Murat Castle,
where President Wilson established his home during his stay in the
French Capitol.]
36. If the League of Nations decides in favor of the union of the whole
or part of the territory of the Sarre Basin with Germany, France's
rights of ownership in the mines situated in such part of the territory
will be repurchased by Germany in their entirety at a price payable in
gold. The price to be paid will be fixed by three experts, one nominated
by Germany, one by France, and one, who shall be neither a Frenchman nor
a German, by the Council of the League of Nations. The decision of the
experts will be given by a majority.
The obligation of Germany to make such payment shall be taken into
account by the Reparation Commission, and for the purpose of this
payment Germany may create a prior charge upon her assets or revenues
upon such detailed terms as shall be agreed to by the Reparation
Commission.
If, nevertheless, Germany after a period of one year from the date on
which the payment becomes due shall not have effected the said payment,
the Reparation Commission shall do so in accordance with such
instructions as may be given by the League of Nations, and, if
necessary, by liquidating that part of the mines which is in question.
37. If, in consequence of the repurchase provided for in Paragraph 36,
the ownership of the mines or any part of them is transferred to
Germany, the French State and French nationals shall have the right to
purchase such amount of coal of the Sarre Basin as their industrial and
domestic needs are found at that time to require. An equitable
arrangement regarding amounts of coal, duration of contract, and prices
will be fixed in due time by the Council of the League of Nations.
38. It is understood that France and Germany may, by special agreements
concluded before the time fixed for the payment of the price for the
repurchase of the mines, modify the provisions of Paragraphs 36 and 37.
39. The Council of the League of Nations shall make such provisions as
may be necessary for the establishment of the régime which is to take
effect after the decisions of the League of Nations mentioned in
Paragraph 35 have become operative, including an equitable apportionment
of any obligations of the Government of the territory of the Sarre Basin
arising from loans raised by the commission or from other causes.
From the coming into force of the new régime, the powers of the
Governing Commission will terminate, except in the case provided for in
Paragraph 35. (a)
40. In all matters dealt with in the present annex, the decisions of the
Council of the League of Nations will be taken by a majority.
SECTION V.--_Alsace-Lorraine_
The high contracting powers, recognizing the moral obligation to redress
the wrong done by Germany in 1871, both to the rights of France and to
the wishes of the population of Alsace and Lorraine, which were
separated from their country in spite of solemn protests of their
representatives of the Assembly of Bordeaux, agree upon the following
articles:
=ARTICLE 51.=--The territories which were ceded to Germany in accordance
with the preliminaries of peace signed at Versailles on the 26th
February, 1871, and the treaty of Frankfort on the 10th May, 1871, are
restored to French sovereignty as from the date of the armistice of the
11th November, 1918.
The provisions of the treaties establishing the delimination of the
frontiers before 1871 shall be restored.
=ARTICLE 52.=--The German Government shall hand over without delay to
the French Government all archives, registers, plans, titles, and
documents of every kind concerning the civil, military, financial,
judicial, or other administrations of the territories restored to French
sovereignty. If any of these documents, archives, registers, titles, or
plans have been misplaced, they will be restored by the German
Government on the demand of the French Government.
=ARTICLE 53.=--Separate agreements shall be made between France and
Germany dealing with the interests of the inhabitants of the territories
referred to in Article 51, particularly as regards their civil rights,
their business and the exercise of their professions, it being
understood that Germany undertakes as from the present date to recognize
and accept the regulations laid down in the annex hereto regarding the
nationality of the inhabitants or natives of the said territories, not
to claim at any time or in any place whatsoever as German nationals
those who shall have been declared on any ground to be French, to
receive all others in her territory, and to conform, as regards the
property of German nationals in the territories indicated in Article 51,
with the provisions of Article 297, and the Annex to Section 4 of Part
X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.
Those German nationals who without acquiring French nationality shall
receive permission from the French Government to reside in the said
territories shall not be subjected to the provisions of the said
article.
=ARTICLE 54=.--Those persons who have regained French nationality in
virtue of Paragraph 1 of the annex hereto, will be held to be
Alsace-Lorrainers for the purposes of the present section.
The persons referred to in Paragraph 2 of the said annex will, from the
day on which they have claimed French nationality, be held to be
Alsace-Lorrainers with retroactive effect as from the 11th November,
1918. From those whose application is rejected, the privilege will
terminate at the date of the refusal.
Such juridical persons will also have the status of Alsace-Lorrainers as
have been recognized as possessing this quality, whether by the French
administrative authorities or by a judicial decision.
=ARTICLE 55.=--The territories referred to in Article 51 shall return to
France, free and quit of all public debts under the conditions laid down
in Article 255 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 56.=--In conformity with the provisions of Article 256 of Part
IX. (financial clauses) of the present treaty, France shall enter into
possession of all property and estate within the territories referred to
in Article 51, which belong to the German Empire or German States,
without any payment or credit on this account to any of the States
ceding the territories.
This provision applies to all movable or immovable property of public or
private domain, together with all rights whatsoever belonging to the
German Empire or the German States or to their administrative areas.
Crown property and the property of the former Emperor or other German
sovereigns shall be assimilated to property of the public domain.
=ARTICLE 57.=--Germany shall not take any action, either by means of
stamping or by any other legal or administrative measures not applying
equally to the rest of her territory, which may be to the detriment of
the legal value or redeemability of German monetary instruments or
moneys which at the date of the signature of the present treaty are
legally current, and at that date are in the possession of the French
Government.
=ARTICLE 58.=--A special convention will determine the conditions for
repayment in marks of the exceptional war expenditure advanced during
the course of the war by Alsace-Lorraine or by public bodies in
Alsace-Lorraine on account of the empire in accordance with German law,
such as payment to the families of persons mobilized, requisitions,
billeting of troops, and assistance to persons who have been expelled.
In fixing the amount of these sums Germany shall be credited with that
portion which Alsace-Lorraine would have contributed to the empire to
meet the expenses resulting from these payments, this contribution being
calculated according to the proportion of the imperial revenue derived
from Alsace-Lorraine in 1913.
=ARTICLE 59.=--The French Government will collect for its own account
the imperial taxes, duties, and dues of every kind leviable in the
territories referred to in Article 51 and not collected at the time of
the armistice of the 11th November, 1918.
=ARTICLE 60.=--The German Government shall without delay restore to
Alsace-Lorrainers, (individuals, juridical persons, and public
institutions,) all property, rights, and interests belonging to them on
the 11th November, 1918, in so far as these are situated in German
territory.
=ARTICLE 61.=--The German Government undertakes to continue and complete
without delay the execution of the financial clauses regarding
Alsace-Lorraine contained in the armistice conventions.
=ARTICLE 62.=--The German Government undertakes to bear the expense of
all civil and military pensions which had been earned in Alsace-Lorraine
on the date of the 11th November, 1918, and the maintenance of which was
a charge on the budget of the German Empire.
The German Government shall furnish each year the funds necessary for
the payment in francs, at the average rate of exchange for that year, of
the sums in marks to which persons resident in Alsace-Lorraine would
have been entitled if Alsace-Lorraine had remained under German
jurisdiction.
=ARTICLE 63.=--For the purposes of the obligation assumed by Germany in
Part VIII. (reparations) of the present treaty to give compensation for
damages caused to the civil populations of the Allied and Associated
countries in the form of lines, the inhabitants of the territories
referred to in Article 51 shall be assimilated to the above mentioned
populations.
=ARTICLE 64.=--The regulations concerning the control of the Rhine and
of the Moselle are laid down in Part XII. (ports, waterways, and
railways) of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 65.=--Within a period of three weeks after the coming into
force of the present treaty the Port of Strasbourg and the Port of Kehl
shall be constituted, for a period of seven years, a single unit from
the point of view of exploitation.
The administration of this single unit will be carried on by a manager
named by the Central Rhine Commission, which shall also have power to
remove him. He shall be of French nationality. He will reside in
Strasbourg and will be subject to the supervision of the Central Rhine
Commission.
There will be established in the two ports free zones in conformity with
Part XII. (ports, waterways, and railways) of the present treaty.
A special convention between France and Germany, which shall be
submitted to the approval of the Central Rhine Commission, will fix the
details of this organization, particularly as regards finance.
It is understood that for the purpose of the present article the Port of
Kehl includes the whole of the area necessary for the movements of the
port and the trains which serve it, including the harbor, quays and
railroads, platforms, cranes, sheds and warehouses, silos, elevators and
hydro-electric plants, which make up the equipment of the port.
The German Government undertakes to carry out all measures which shall
be required of it in order to assure that all the making up and
switching of trains arriving at or departing from Kehl, whether for the
right bank or the left bank of the Rhine, shall be carried on in the
best conditions possible.
All property rights shall be safeguarded. In particular, the
administration of the ports shall not prejudice any property rights of
the French or Baden railroads.
Equality of treatment as respects traffic shall be assured in both ports
to the nationals, vessels, and goods of every country.
In case at the end of the sixth year France shall consider that the
progress made in the improvement of the Port of Strasbourg still
requires a prolongation of this temporary régime, she may ask for such
prolongation from the Central Rhine Commission, which may grant an
extension for a period not exceeding three years.
Throughout the whole period of any such extension the free zones above
provided for shall be maintained.
Pending appointment of the first manager by the Central Rhine
Commission, a provisional manager, who shall be of French nationality,
may be appointed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, subject
to the foregoing provisions.
For all purposes of the present article the Central Rhine Commission
will decide by a majority of votes.
=ARTICLE 66.=--The railway and other bridges across the Rhine now
existing within the limits of Alsace-Lorraine shall, as to all their
parts and their whole length, be the property of the French State, which
shall insure their upkeep.
=ARTICLE 67.=--The French Government is substituted in all the rights of
the German Empire over all the railways which were administered by the
Imperial Railway Administration, and which are actually working or under
construction.
The same shall apply to the rights of the empire with regard to railway
and tramway concessions within the territories referred to in Article
51.
This substitution shall not entail any payment on the part of the French
State.
The frontier railway stations shall be established by a subsequent
agreement, it being stipulated in advance that on the Rhine frontier
they shall be situated on the right bank.
=ARTICLE 68.=--In accordance with the provisions of Article 268 of
Chapter 1. of Section I. of Part X. (economic clause) of the present
treaty, for a period of five years from the coming into force of the
present treaty, natural or manufactured products originating in and
coming from the territories referred to in Article 51 shall, on
importation into German customs territory, be exempt from all customs
duty. The French Government shall fix each year, by decree communicated
to the German Government, the nature and amount of the products which
shall enjoy this exemption.
The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany
shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years
1911--1913.
Further, during the period of five years above mentioned, the German
Government shall allow the free export from Germany and the free
reimportation into Germany, exempt from all customs duties and other
charges (including internal charges), of yarns, tissues, and other
textile materials or textile products of any kind, and in any condition,
sent from Germany into the territories referred to in Article 51, to be
subjected there to any finishing process, such as bleaching, dyeing,
printing, mercerization, gassing, twisting, or dressing.
=ARTICLE 69.=--During a period of ten years from the coming into force
of the present treaty, central electric supply works situated in German
territory, and formerly furnishing electric power to the territories
referred to in Article 51, or to any establishment the working of which
passes permanently or temporarily from Germany to France, shall be
required to continue such supply up to the amount of consumption
corresponding to the undertakings and contracts current on the 11th
November, 1918.
Such supply shall be furnished according to the contracts in force and
at a rate which shall not be higher than that paid to the said works by
German nationals.
=ARTICLE 70.=--It is understood that the French Government preserves its
right to prohibit in the future in the territories referred to in
Article 51 all new German participation:
1. In the management or exploitation of the public domain and of public
services, such as railways, navigable waterways, water works, gas works,
electric power, &c.
2. In the ownership of mines and quarries of every kind and in
enterprises connected therewith;
3. In metallurgical establishments, even though their working may not be
connected with that of any mine.
=ARTICLE 71.=--As regards the territories referred to in Article 51,
Germany renounces on behalf of herself and her nationals as from the
11th November, 1918, all rights under the law of the 25th May, 1910,
regarding the trade in potash salts and generally under any stipulations
for the intervention of German organizations in the working of the
potash mines. Similarly she renounces on behalf of herself and her
nationals all rights under any agreements, stipulations or laws, which
may exist to her benefit with regard to other products of the aforesaid
territories.
=ARTICLE 72.=--The settlement of the questions relating to debts
contracted before the 11th November, 1918, between the German Empire and
the German States or their nationals residing in Germany on the one
part, and Alsace-Lorrainers residing in Alsace-Lorraine on the other
part, shall be effected in accordance with the provisions of Section
III. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, the expression
"before the war" therein being replaced by the expression "before the
11th November, 1918." The rate of exchange applicable in the case of
such settlement shall be the average rate quoted on the Geneva Exchange
during the month preceding the 11th November, 1918. There may be
established in the territories referred to in Article 51, for the
settlement of the aforesaid debts under the conditions laid down in
Section III. of Part X (economic clauses) of the present treaty, a
special clearing office, it being understood that this office shall be
regarded as a "central office" under the provisions of Paragraph 1 of
the annex to the said section.
=ARTICLE 73.=--The private property rights and interests of
Alsace-Lorrainers in Germany will be regulated by the stipulations of
Section IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 74.=--The French Government reserves the right to retain and
liquidate all the property, rights and interests which German nationals
or societies controlled by Germany possessed in the territories referred
to in Article 51 on Nov. 11, 1918, subject to the conditions laid down
in the last paragraph of Article 53 above.
Germany will directly compensate its nationals who may have been
dispossessed by the aforesaid liquidations.
The product of these liquidations shall be applied in accordance with
the stipulations of Sections III. and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses)
of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 75.=--Notwithstanding the stipulations of Section V. of Part X.
(economic clauses) of the present treaty, all contracts made before the
date of the promulgation in Alsace-Lorraine of the French decree of 30th
November, 1918, between Alsace-Lorrainers (whether individuals or
juridical persons) or others resident in Alsace-Lorraine on the one
part, and the German Empire or German States and their nationals
resident in Germany on the other part, the execution of which has been
suspended by the armistice or by subsequent French legislation, shall be
maintained.
Nevertheless, any contract of which the French Government shall notify
the cancellation to Germany in the general interest within a period of
six months from the date of the coming into force of the present treaty
shall be annulled except in respect of any debt or other pecuniary
obligation arising out of any act done or money paid thereunder before
the 11th November, 1918. If this dissolution would cause one of the
parties substantial prejudice, equitable compensation, calculated solely
on the capital employed without taking account of loss of profits, shall
be accorded to the prejudiced party.
With regard to prescriptions, limitations, and forfeitures in
Alsace-Lorraine, the provisions of Articles 300 and 301 of Section V.,
Part X. (economic clauses) shall be applied, with the substitution for
the expression "outbreak of war" of the expression "11th November,
1918," and for the expression "duration of the war" of the expression
"period from the 11th November, 1918, to date of the coming into force
of the present treaty."
=ARTICLE 76.=--Questions concerning rights in industrial, literary, or
artistic property of Alsace-Lorrainers shall be regulated in accordance
with the general stipulations of Section VII. of Part X. (economic
clauses) of the present treaty, it being understood that
Alsace-Lorrainers holding rights of this nature under German legislation
will preserve full and entire enjoyment of those rights on German
territory.
=ARTICLE 77.=--The German Government undertakes to pay over to the
French Government such proportion of all reserves accumulated by the
empire or by public or private bodies dependent upon it, for the
purposes of disability and old age insurance, as would fall to the
disability and old age insurance fund at Strasbourg.
The same shall apply in respect of the capital and reserves accumulated
in Germany falling legitimately to other serial insurance funds, to
miners' superannuation funds, to the fund of the railways of
Alsace-Lorraine, to other superannuation organizations established for
the benefit of the personnel of public administrations and institutions
operating in Alsace-Lorraine, and also in respect of the capital and
reserves due by the insurance fund of private employes at Berlin by
reason of engagements entered into for the benefit of insured persons of
that category resident in Alsace-Lorraine.
A special convention shall determine the conditions and procedure of
these transfers.
=ARTICLE 78.=--With regard to the execution of judgments, orders and
prosecutions, the following rules shall be applied:
1. All civil and commercial judgments which shall have been given since
Aug. 3, 1914, by the courts of Alsace-Lorraine between
Alsace-Lorrainers, or between Alsace-Lorrainers and foreigners, or
between foreigners, and which shall not have been appealed from before
the 11th November, 1918, shall be regarded as final and capable of being
fully executed.
When the judgment has been given between Alsace-Lorrainers and Germans,
or between Alsace-Lorrainers and subjects of the allies of Germany, it
shall only be capable of execution after the issue of an exequatur by
the corresponding new tribunal in the restored territory referred to in
Article 51.
2. All judgments given by German courts since the 3d August, 1914,
against Alsace-Lorrainers for political crimes or misdemeanors shall be
regarded as null and void.
3. All sentences passed since the 11th November, 1918, by the Imperial
Court of Leipzig on Appeals against the decisions of the courts of
Alsace-Lorraine shall be regarded as null and void and shall be so
pronounced. The papers in regard to the cases in which such sentences
have been given shall be returned to the courts of Alsace-Lorraine
concerned.
All appeals to the Imperial Court against decisions of the courts of
Alsace-Lorraine shall be suspended. In the cases referred to above, the
papers shall be returned under the aforesaid conditions for transfer
without delay to the French Cour de Cassation which shall be competent
to decide them.
4. All prosecutions of Alsace-Lorraine for offenses committed during the
period between the 11th November, 1918, and the coming into force of the
present treaty will be conducted under German law except in so far as
this has been modified by decrees duly published on the spot by the
French authorities.
All other questions as to competence, procedure or administration of
justice, shall be determined by a special convention between France and
Germany.
=ARTICLE 79.=--The stipulations as to nationality contained in the annex
hereto shall be considered as of equal force with the provisions of the
present section.
All other questions concerning Alsace-Lorraine which are not regulated
by the present section and the annex thereto, or by the general
provisions of the present treaty, will form the subject of further
conventions between France and Germany.
ANNEX
1. As from the 11th November, 1918, the following persons are ipso facto
reinstated in French nationality:
First--Persons who lost French nationality by the application of the
Franco-German treaty of the 10th May, 1871, and who have not since that
date acquired any nationality other than German;
Second--The legitimate or natural descendants of the persons referred to
the immediately preceding paragraph, with the exception of those whose
ascendants in the paternal line include a German who migrated into
Alsace-Lorraine after the 15th July, 1870;
Third--All persons born in Alsace-Lorraine of unknown parents or whose
nationality is unknown.
2. Within the period of one year from the coming into force of the
present treaty, persons included in any of the following categories may
claim French nationality:
First--All persons not restored to French nationality under Paragraph 1,
above, whose ascendants include a Frenchman or French woman who lost
French nationality under the conditions referred to in the said
paragraph;
Second--All foreigners not nationals of a German State who acquired the
status of a citizen of Alsace-Lorraine before the 3d August, 1914;
Third--All Germans domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine, if they have been so
domiciled since a date previous to 15th July, 1870, or if one of their
ascendants was at that date domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine;
Fourth--All Germans born or domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine who have served
in the allied or associated armies during the present war and their
descendants;
Fifth--All persons born in Alsace-Lorraine before 10th May, 1871, of
foreign parents, and the descendants of such persons;
Sixth--The husband or wife of any person whose French nationality may
have been restored under Paragraph 1 or who may have claimed and
obtained French nationality in accordance with the preceding previsions.
The legal representatives of a minor may exercise on behalf of that
minor the right to claim French nationality; and if that right has not
been exercised, the minor may claim French nationality within the year
following his majority.
Except in the case provided in No. 6 of the present paragraph, the
French authorities reserve to themselves the right in individual cases
to reject the claim to French nationality.
3. Subject to the provisions of Paragraph 2, Germans born or domiciled
in Alsace-Lorraine shall not acquire French nationality by reason of the
restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France, even though they may have the
status of citizens of Alsace-Lorraine.
They may acquire French nationality only by naturalization, on condition
of having been domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine from a date previous to the
3d August, 1914, and of submitting proof of unbroken residence within
the restored territory for a period of three years from the 11th
November, 1918.
France will be solely responsible for their diplomatic and consular
protection from the date of their application for French naturalization.
4. The French Government shall determine the procedure by which
reinstatement in French nationality as of right shall be effected, and
the conditions under which decisions shall be given upon claims to such
nationality and applications for naturalization, as provided by the
present annex.
SECTION VI.--_Austria_
=ARTICLE 80.=--Germany acknowledges and will respect strictly the
independence of Austria. Within the frontiers which may be fixed by a
treaty between that State and the principal Allied and Associated Powers
she agrees that this independence shall be inalienable, except with the
consent of the Council of the League of Nations.
SECTION VII.--_Czechoslovak State_
=ARTICLE 81.=--Germany, in conformity with the action already taken by
the Allied and Associated Powers, recognizes the complete independence
of the Czechoslovak State, which will include the autonomous territory
of the Ruthenians to the south of the Carpathians. Germany hereby
recognizes the frontier of this State as determined by the principal
Allied and Associated Powers and the other interested States.
=ARTICLE 82.=--The old frontier as it existed on Aug. 3, 1914, between
Austria-Hungary and the German Empire will constitute the frontier
between Germany and the Czechoslovak State.
=ARTICLE 83.=--Germany renounces in favor of the Czechoslovak State all
rights and title over the portion of Silesian territory defined as
follows:
Starting from a point about 2 kilometers southeast of Katscher, on the
boundary between the Circles (Kreise) of Loebschütz and Ratibor: the
boundary between the two Kreise; then, the former boundary between
Germany and Austria-Hungary up to a point on the Oder immediately to the
south of the Ratibor-Oderberg railway; thence, toward the northwest and
up to a point about 2 kilometers to the southeast of Katscher: a line to
be fixed on the spot passing to the west of Kranowitz.
A commission composed of seven members, five nominated by the Principal
Allied and Associated Powers, one by Poland, and one by the Czechoslovak
State, will be appointed fifteen days after the coming into force of the
present treaty to trace on the spot the frontier line between Poland and
the Czechoslovak State.
The decisions of this commission will be taken by a majority and shall
be binding on the parties concerned.
Germany hereby agrees to renounce in favor of the Czechoslovak State all
rights and title over the part of the Kreise of Loebschütz comprised
within the following boundaries in case after the determination of the
frontier between Germany and Poland the said part of that circle should
become isolated from Germany: from the southeastern extremity of the
salient of the former Austrian frontier at about 5 kilometers to the
west of Loebschütz southward and up to a point of junction with the
boundary between the Kreise of Loebschütz and Ratibor: the former
frontier between Germany and Austria-Hungary; then, northward, the
administrative boundary between the Kreise of Loebschütz and Ratibor up
to a point situated about 2 kilometers to the southeast of Katscher;
thence, northwestward and up to the starting point of this definition: a
line to be fixed on the spot passing to the east of Katscher.
=ARTICLE 84.=--German nationals habitually resident in any of the
territories recognized as forming part of the Czechoslovak State will
obtain Czechoslovak nationality ipso facto and lose their German
nationality.
=ARTICLE 85.=--Within a period of two years from the coming into force
of the present treaty German nationals over 18 years of age habitually
resident in any of the territories recognized as forming part of the
Czechoslovak State will be entitled to opt for German nationality.
Czechoslovaks who are habitually resident in Germany will have a similar
right to opt for Czechoslovak nationality.
Option by a husband will cover his wife, and option by parents will
cover their children under 18 years of age. Persons who have exercised
the above right to opt must within the succeeding twelve months transfer
their place of residence to the State for which they have opted. They
will be entitled to retain their landed property in the territory of the
other State where they had place of residence before exercising the
right to opt. They may carry with them their movable property of every
description. No export or import duties may be imposed upon them in
connection with the removal of such property. Within the same period
Czechoslovaks who are German nationals and are in a foreign country will
be entitled, in the absence of any provisions to the contrary in the
foreign law, and if they have not acquired the foreign nationality, to
obtain Czechoslovak nationality and lose their German nationality by
complying with the requirements laid down by the Czechoslovak State.
=ARTICLE 86.=--The Czechoslovak State accepts and agrees to embody in a
treaty with the principal Allied and Associated Powers such provisions
as may be deemed necessary by the said powers to protect the interests
of inhabitants of that State who differ from the majority of the
population in race, language or religion.
The Czechoslovak State further accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty
with the said powers such provisions as they may deem necessary to
protect freedom of transit and equitable treatment of the commerce of
other nations.
The proportion and nature of the financial obligations of Germany and
Prussia, which the Czechoslovak State will have to assume on account of
the Silesian territory placed under its sovereignty will be determined
in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the
present treaty.
Subsequent agreements will decide all questions not decided by the
present treaty which may arise in consequence of the cession of the said
territory.
SECTION VIII.--_Poland_
=ARTICLE 87.=--Germany, in conformity with the action already taken by
the Allied and Associated Powers, recognizes the complete independence
of Poland and renounces in her favor all rights and title over the
territory bounded by the Baltic Sea; the eastern frontier of Germany as
laid down in Article 27 of Part II. (boundaries of Germany) of the
present treaty, up to a point situated about two kilometers to the east
of the Lorzendorf, then a line to the acute angle which the northern
boundary of Upper Silesia makes about three kilometers northwest of
Simmenau, then to where the boundary of Upper Silesia has its meeting
point with the old frontier between Germany and Russia, then this
frontier to the point where it crosses the course of the Niemen, and
then the northern frontier of East Prussia, as laid down in Article 28,
Part II. aforesaid.
The terms of this article do not, however, apply to the territories of
East Prussia and the free city of Danzig, as defined in Article 28, of
Part II. (boundaries of Germany,) and in Article 100 of Section XI.
(Danzig) of this part.
The boundaries of Poland not laid down in the present treaty will be
subsequently determined by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. A
commission consisting of seven members, five of whom shall be nominated
by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, one by Germany, and one
by Poland, shall be constituted fifteen days after the coming into force
of the present treaty to delimit on the spot the frontier line between
Poland and Germany. The decision of the commission will be taken by a
majority of votes and shall be binding upon the parties concerned.
=ARTICLE 88.=--In the portion of Upper Silesia included within the
boundaries described below the inhabitants will be called upon to
indicate by a vote whether they wish to be attached to Germany or to
Poland:
Starting from the northern point of the salient of the old province of
Austrian Silesia, situated about eight kilometers east of Neustadt, the
former frontier between Germany and Austria, to its junction with the
boundary between the Kreise of Loebschütz and Ratibor; thence in a
northerly direction to a point about two kilometers southeast of
Katscher; the boundary between the Kreise of Loebschütz and Ratibor;
thence in a southeasterly direction to a point on the course of the Oder
immediately south of the Ratibor-Oderberg railway: a line to be fixed on
the ground passing south of Karanowitz;
Thence the old boundary between Germany and Austria, thence the old
boundary between Germany and Russia to its junction with the
administrative boundary between Posnania and Upper Silesia; thence this
administrative boundary to its junction with the administrative boundary
between Upper and Middle Silesia; thence westward to the point where the
administrative boundary turns in an acute angle to the southwest about
three kilometers northwest of Simmenau;
The boundary between Upper and Middle Silesia; thence in a westerly
direction to a point to be fixed on the ground about two kilometers east
of Orzendorf: a line to be fixed on the ground passing north of Kein
Hennersdorf; thence southward to the point where the boundary between
Upper and Middle Silesia cuts the Stadtel-Karlsruhe road: a line to be
fixed on the ground passing west of Hennersdorf, Polkowitz, Noldau,
Steamersdorf and Dammer, and east of Strehlitz, Nassadel, Eckersdorf,
Schwirz, and Stadtel; thence the boundary between Upper and Middle
Silesia to its junction with the eastern boundary of the Kreise of
Falkenberg; thence the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Falkenberg to
the point of the salient which is three kilometers east of Puschine;
thence to the northern point of the salient of the old province of
Austrian Silesia, situated about eight kilometers east of Neustadt: a
line to be fixed on the ground, passing east of Zulls.
The régime under which this plebiscite will be taken and given effect to
is laid down in the annex hereto.
The Polish and German Governments hereby respectively bind themselves to
conduct no prosecutions on any part of their territory and to take no
exceptional proceedings for any political action performed in Upper
Silesia during the period of the régime laid down in the annex hereto,
and up to the settlement of the final status of the country Germany
hereby renounces in favor of Poland all rights and title over the
portion of Upper Silesia lying beyond the frontier line fixed by the
principal Allied and Associated Powers as this result of the plebiscite.
ANNEX
1. Within fifteen days from the coming into force of the present treaty
the German troops and such officials as may be designated by the
commission set up under the provisions of Paragraph 2 shall evacuate the
plebiscite area. Up to the moment of the completion of the evacuation
they shall refrain from any form of requisitioning in money or in kind
and from all acts likely to prejudice the material interest of the
country.
Within the same period the workmen's and soldiers' councils which have
been constituted in this area shall be dissolved. Members of such
councils who are natives of another region and are exercising their
functions at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, or
who have gone out of office since the 1st March, 1919, shall be
evacuated.
All military and semi-military unions formed in the said area by the
inhabitants of the district shall be immediately disbanded. All members
of such military organizations who are not domiciled in the said area
shall be required to leave it.
2. The plebiscite area shall be immediately placed under the authority
of an international commission of four members to be designated by the
following powers: The United States of America, France, the British
Empire, and Italy. It shall be occupied by troops belonging to the
Allied and Associated Powers, and the German Government undertakes to
give facilities for the transference of troops to Upper Silesia.
3. The commission shall enjoy all the powers exercised by the German or
by the Prussian Government; except those of legislation or taxation. It
shall also be substituted for the Government of the Province and the
Regierungsbezirk.
It shall be within the competence of the commission to interpret the
powers hereby conferred upon it, and to determine to what extent it
shall exercise them and to what extent they shall be left in the hands
of the existing authorities.
Changes in the existing laws and the existing taxation shall only be
brought into force with the consent of the commission.
The commission will maintain order with the help of the troops which
will be at its disposal and to the extent which it may deem necessary by
means of gendarmerie recruited among the inhabitants of the country. The
commission shall provide immediately for the replacement of the
evacuated German officials, and, if occasion arises, shall itself order
the evacuation of such authorities and proceed to the replacement of
such local authorities as may be required. It shall take all steps which
it thinks proper to insure the freedom, fairness, and secrecy of the
vote. In particular, it shall have the right to order the expulsion of
any person who may in any way have attempted to distort the result of
the plebiscite by methods of corruption or intimidation.
The commission shall have full power to settle all questions arising
from the execution of the present clauses. It shall be assisted by
technical advisers, chosen by it from among the local populations. The
decision of the commission shall be taken by a majority vote.
4. The vote shall take place at such date as may be determined by the
principal Allied and Associated Powers, but not sooner than six months
or later than eighteen months after the establishment of the commission
in the area.
The right to vote shall be given to all persons, without distinction of
sex, who:
(a) Have completed their twentieth year on the 1st of January of the
year in which the plebiscite takes place;
(b) Were born in the plebiscite area or have been domiciled there since
a date to be determined by the commission, which shall not be subsequent
to January 1, 1919, or who have been expelled by the German authorities
and have not retained their domicile there.
Persons convicted of political offenses shall not exercise their right
of voting. Every person will vote in the commune where he is domiciled,
or in which he was born, if he has not retained his domicile in the
area.
The result of the vote will be determined by the communes according to
the majority of votes in each commune.
5. On the conclusion of the voting the number of votes cast in each
commune will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied
and Associated Powers with a full report as to the taking of the vote
and a recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the
frontier of Germany in Upper Silesia. In this recommendation regard will
be paid to the wishes of the inhabitants, as shown by the vote, and to
the geographical and economic conditions of the locality.
6. As soon as the frontier has been fixed by the principal Allied and
Associated Powers the German authorities will be notified by the
International Commission that they are free to take over the
administration of the territory which it is recognized should be German;
the said authorities must proceed to do so within one month of such
notification and in the manner prescribed by the commission. Within the
same period and in the manner prescribed by the commission, the Polish
Government must proceed to take over the administration of the
territory which it is recognized should be Polish.
When the administration of the territory has been provided for by the
German and Polish authorities respectively the powers of the commission
will terminate.
The cost of the Army of Occupation and expenditure by the commission,
whether in discharge of its own functions or in the administration of
the territory, will be a charge on the area.
=ARTICLE 89.=--Poland undertakes to accord freedom of transit to
persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails in transit between
East Prussia and the rest of Germany over Polish territory, including
territorial waters, and to treat them at least as favorably as the
persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails, respectively, of
Polish or of any other most-favored nationality, origin, importation
starting point, or ownership, as regards facilities, restrictions, and
all other matters.
Goods in transit shall be exempt from all customs or other similar
duties.
Freedom of transit will extend to telegraphic and telephonic services
under the conditions laid down by the conventions referred to in Article
98.
=ARTICLE 90.=--Poland undertakes to permit, for a period of fifteen
years, the exportation to Germany of the products of the mines in any
part of Poland in accordance with the present treaty. Such export shall
be subject to duties or other charges or restrictions on exportation.
Poland agrees to take such steps as may be necessary to secure that such
products shall be available for sale to purchasers in Germany on terms
as favorable as are applicable to like products sold under similar
conditions to purchasers in Poland or in any other country.
=ARTICLE 91.=--German nationals habitually resident in territories
recognized as forming part of Poland will acquire Polish nationality
ipso facto and will lose their German nationality. German nationals,
however, or their descendants who became resident in these territories
after January 1, 1908, will not acquire Polish nationality without a
special authorization from the Polish State.
Within a period of two years after the coming into force of the present
treaty, German nationals over 18 years of age, habitually resident in
any of the territories recognized as forming part of Poland, will be
entitled to opt for German nationality. Poles who are German nationals
over 18 years of age, and habitually resident in Germany, will have a
similar right to opt for Polish nationality. Option by a husband will
cover his wife and option by parents will cover their children under 18
years of age. Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must
within the succeeding twelve months transfer their place of residence to
the State for which they have opted. They will be entitled to retain
their immovable property in the territory of the other State, where they
had their place of residence before exercising the right to opt. They
may carry with them their movable property of every description. No
export or import duties or charges may be imposed upon them in
connection with the removal of such property.
Within the same period Poles who are German nationals and are in a
foreign country will be entitled, in the absence of any provisions to
the contrary in the foreign law, and if they have not acquired foreign
nationality, to obtain Polish nationality and to lose their German
nationality by complying with the requirements laid down by the Polish
State.
In this portion of Upper Silesia submitted to a plebiscite the
provisions of this article should only come into force as from the
definite attribution of the territory.
=ARTICLE 92.=--The proportion and the nature of the financial
liabilities of Germany and Prussia to be borne by Poland will be
determined in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial
clauses) of the present treaty. There shall be excluded from the share
of such financial liabilities assumed by Poland that portion of the debt
which, according to the finding of the Reparation Commission referred to
in the above mentioned article, arises from measures adopted by the
German and Prussian Governments with a view to German colonization in
Poland. In fixing under Article 256 of the present treaty the value of
the property and possessions belonging to the German Empire and to the
German states which pass to Poland, with the territory transferred
above, the Reparation Commission shall exclude from the valuation
buildings, forests, and other State property which belonged to the
former kingdom of Poland; Poland shall acquire these properties free of
all costs and charges.
In all the German territory transferred in accordance with the present
treaty and recognized as forming definitely a part of Poland, the
property rights and interests of German nationals shall not be
liquidated under Article 297 by the Polish Government except in
accordance with the following provisions:
1. The proceeds of the liquidation shall be paid direct to the owner;
2. If, on his application, the mixed arbitral tribunal provided for by
the Section 6 of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, or an
arbitrator appointed by that tribunal, is satisfied that the conditions
of the sale or measures taken by the Polish Government outside of its
general legislation were unfairly prejudicial to the price obtained,
they shall have discretion to award to the owner equitable compensation
to be paid by the Polish Government.
Further agreements will regulate all questions arising out of the
cession of the above territory, which are not regulated by the present
treaty.
=ARTICLE 93.=--Poland accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty with the
principal Allied and Associated Powers such provisions as may be deemed
necessary by the said powers to protect the interests of inhabitants of
Poland who differ from the majority of the population in race, language
or religion.
Poland further accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty with the said
powers such provisions as they may deem necessary to protect freedom of
transit and equitable treatment of the commerce of other nations.
SECTION IX.--_East Prussia._
=ARTICLE 94.=--In the area between the southern frontier of East
Prussia, as described in Article 28 of Part II. (frontiers of Germany)
of the present treaty, and the line described below, the inhabitants
will be called upon to indicate by a vote the State to which they wish
to belong:
The western and northern boundary of Regierungsbezirk Allenstein to its
junction with the boundary between the Kreise of Oletsko and Angerburg,
thence, the northern boundary of the Kreise of Oletsko to its junction
with the old frontier of East Prussia.
=ARTICLE 95.=--The German troops and authorities will be withdrawn from
the area defined above within a period not exceeding fifteen days after
the coming into force of the present treaty. Until the evacuation is
completed they will abstain from all requisitions in money or in kind
and from all measures injurious to the economic interests of the
country.
On the expiration of the above-mentioned period the said area will be
placed under the authority of an International Commission of five
members appointed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. This
commission will have general powers of administration and, in
particular, will be charged with the duty of arranging for the vote, and
of taking such measures as it may deem necessary to insure its freedom,
fairness, and secrecy. The commission will have all necessary authority
to decide any questions to which the execution of these provisions may
give rise. The commission will make such arrangements as may be
necessary for assistance in the exercise of its functions by officials
chosen by itself from the local population; its decisions will be taken
by a majority.
Every person, irrespective of sex, will be entitled to vote who:
(a) Is 20 years of age at the date of the coming into force of the
present treaty, and
(b) Was born within the area where the vote will take place, or has been
habitually resident there from a date to be fixed by the commission.
Every person will vote in the commune where he is habitually resident
or, if not habitually resident in the area, in the commune where he was
born.
The result of the vote will be determined by commune, (Gemeinde,)
according to the majority of the votes in each commune.
On the conclusion of the voting the number of votes cast in each commune
will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied and
Associated Powers with a full report as to the taking of the vote and a
recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the boundary
of East Prussia in this region.
In this recommendation, regard will be paid to the wishes of the
inhabitants as shown by the vote, and to the geographical and economic
conditions of the locality. The principal Allied and Associated Powers
will then fix the frontier between East Prussia and Poland in this
region. If the line fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers
is such as to exclude from East Prussia any part of the territory
defined in Article 94, the renunciation of its rights by Germany in
favor of Poland, as provided in Article 87, above, will extend to the
territories so excluded. As soon as the line has been fixed by the
principal Allied and Associated Powers, the authorities administering
East Prussia will be notified by the International Commission that they
are free to take over the administration of the territory to the north
of the line so fixed, which they shall proceed to do within one month of
such notification and in the manner prescribed by the commission. Within
the same period, and as prescribed by the commission, the Polish
Government must proceed to take over the administration of the territory
to the south of the line. When the administration of the territory by
the East Prussian and Polish authorities, respectively, has been
provided for, the powers of the commission will terminate.
Expenditure by the commission, whether in the discharge of its own
functions or in the administration of the territory, will be borne by
the local revenues. East Prussia will be required to bear such
proportion of any deficit as may be fixed by the principal Allied and
Associated Powers.
=ARTICLE 96.=--In the area comprising the Kreise of Stuhm and Rosenberg,
and the portion of the Kreise of Marienburg which is situated east of
the Nogat, and that of Marienwerder east of the Vistula, the inhabitants
will be called upon to indicate by a vote, to be taken in each commune,
(Gemeinde,) whether they desire the various communes situated in this
territory to belong to Poland or to East Prussia.
=ARTICLE 97.=--The German troops and authorities will be withdrawn from
the area defined in Article 96 within a period not exceeding fifteen
days after the coming into force of the present treaty. Until the
evacuation is completed they will abstain from all requisitions in money
or in kind and from all measures injurious to the economic interests of
the country. On the expiration of the above-mentioned period the said
area will be placed under the authority of an International Commission
of five members appointed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers.
This commission, supported, if occasion arises, by the necessary forces,
will have general powers of administration, and, in particular, will be
charged with the duty of arranging for the vote and of taking such
measures as it may deem necessary to insure its freedom, fairness, and
secrecy. The commission will conform as far as possible to the
provisions of the present treaty relating to the plebiscite in the
Allenstein area. Its decision will be taken by a majority. Expenditure
by the commission, whether in the discharge of its own functions or in
the administration of the territory, will be borne by the local
revenues.
On the conclusion of the voting, the number of votes cast in each
commune will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied
and Associated Powers, with a full report as to the taking of the vote
and a recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the
boundary of East Prussia in this region. In this recommendation regard
will be paid to the wishes of the inhabitants as shown by the vote and
to the geographical and economic conditions of the locality. The
principal Allied and Associated Powers will then fix the frontier
between East Prussia and Poland in this region, leaving in any case to
Poland for the whole of the section bordering on the Vistula full and
complete control of the river, including the east bank as far east of
the river as may be necessary for its regulation and improvement.
Germany agrees that in any portion of the said territory which remains
German no fortifications shall at any time be erected.
The principal Allied and Associated Powers will at the same time draw up
regulations for assuring to the population of East Prussia to the
fullest extent, and under equitable conditions, access to the Vistula,
and the use of it for themselves, their commerce, and their boats. The
determination of the frontier and the foregoing regulations shall be
binding upon all the parties concerned. When the administration of the
territory has been taken over by the East Prussian and Polish
authorities, respectively, the powers of the commission will terminate.
=ARTICLE 98.=--Germany and Poland undertake, within one year of the
coming into force of this treaty, to enter into conventions of which the
terms, in case of difference, shall be settled by the Council of the
League of Nations, with the object of securing on the one hand to
Germany full and adequate railroad, telegraphic, and telephonic
facilities for communication between the rest of Germany and East
Prussia over the intervening Polish territory, and Anthe other hand to
Poland full and adequate railroad, telegraphic, and telephonic
facilities for communication between Poland and the free city of Danzig
over any German territory that may, on the right bank of the Vistula,
intervene between Poland and the free city of Danzig.
[Illustration: _Copyright Harris and Ewing_
Sir Eric Drummond
The first Secretary of the League of Nations. Sir Eric joined the
British Foreign Office in 1900, and later served as confidential
secretary to Sir Edward (Viscount) Grey, Herbert H. Asquith, and Arthur
J. Balfour. In 1917 he accompanied Mr. Balfour to the United States as a
member of the British High Commission.]
SECTION X.--_Memel_
=ARTICLE 99.=--Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied and
Associated Powers all rights and title over the territories included
between the Baltic, the northeastern frontier of East Prussia as defined
in Article 28 of Part II. (frontiers of Germany) of the present treaty
and the former frontier between Germany and Russia.
Germany undertakes to accept the settlement made by the principal Allied
and Associated Powers in regard to these territories, particularly in so
far as concerns the nationality of the inhabitants.
SECTION XI.--_Free City of Danzig_
=ARTICLE 100.=--Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied and
Associated Powers all rights and title over the territory comprised
within the following limits:
From the Baltic Sea southward to the point where the principal channels
of navigation of the Nogat and Vistula (Weichsel) meet;
The boundary of East Prussia as described in Article 28 of Part II.
(boundaries of Germany) of the peace treaty;
Thence the principal channel of navigation of the Vistula downstream to
a point about 6½ kilometers north of the bridge of Dirschau;
Thence northwest to point 5, 1½ kilometers southeast of the Church of
Güttland, a line to be fixed on the ground;
Thence in a general westerly direction to the salient of the Kreise of
Berent, 8½ kilometers northeast of Schöneck;
A line to be fixed on the ground passing between Mühlbanz on the south
and Rambeltsch on the north;
Thence the boundary of the Kreise of Berent, westward to the re-entrant
which it forms 6 kilometers north-northwest of Schöneck;
Thence to a point on the median line of Lonkener See; a line to be fixed
on the ground passing north of Neu Fietz and Schatarpi and south of
Barenhütte and Lonken; thence the median line of the Lonkener See to its
northernmost point; thence to the southern end of Pollenziner See; a
line to be fixed on the ground;
Thence the median line of Pollenziner See to its northernmost point;
Thence in a northeasterly direction to a point about one kilometer south
of Koliebken Church, where the Danzig-Neustadt Railway crosses a stream;
A line to be fixed on the ground passing southeast of Kamehlen, Krissau,
Fidlin, Sulmin, (Richthof,) Mattern, Schaferei, and to the northwest of
Neuendorf, Marschau, Czapielken, Hoch and Klein Kelpin, Pulvermühl,
Renneberg, and the towns of Oliva and Zoppot;
Thence the course of this stream to the Baltic Sea.
The boundaries described above are drawn on a German map scale
1-100,000, attached to the present treaty, (Map No. 4.)
=ARTICLE 101.=--A commission composed of three members appointed by the
principal Allied and Associated Powers, including a High Commissioner as
President, one member appointed by Germany, and one member appointed by
Poland, shall be constituted within fifteen days of the coming into
force of the present treaty for the purpose of delimiting on the spot
the frontier of the territory as described above, taking into account as
far as possible the existing communal boundaries.
=ARTICLE 102.=--The principal Allied and Associated Powers undertake to
establish the town of Danzig, together with the rest of the territory
described in Article 100, as a free city. It will be placed under the
protection of the League of Nations.
=ARTICLE 103.=--A constitution for the free city of Danzig shall be
drawn up by the duly appointed representatives of the free city in
agreement with a High Commissioner to be appointed by the League of
Nations. The constitution shall be placed under the guarantee of the
League of Nations.
The High Commissioner will also be intrusted with the duty of dealing in
the first instance with all differences arising between Poland and the
free city of Danzig in regard to this treaty or any arrangements or
agreements made thereunder.
The High Commissioner shall reside at Danzig.
=ARTICLE 104.=--The principal Allied and Associated Powers undertake to
negotiate a treaty between the Polish Government and the free city of
Danzig which shall come into force at the same time as the establishment
of said free city, with the following objects:
1. To effect the inclusion of the free city of Danzig within the Polish
customs frontiers and to establish a free area in the port.
2. To insure to Poland without any restriction the free use and service
of all waterways, docks, basins, wharves, and other works within the
territory of the free city necessary for Polish imports and exports.
3. To insure to Poland the control and administration of the Vistula and
of the whole railway system within the free city; except such street and
other railways as serve primarily the needs of the free city and of
postal, telegraphic, and telephonic communication between Poland and the
Port of Danzig.
4. To insure to Poland the right to develop and improve the waterways,
docks, basins, wharves, railways, and other works and means of
communication mentioned in this article, as well as to lease or purchase
through appropriate processes such land and other property as may be
necessary for these purposes.
5. To provide against any discrimination within the free city of Danzig
to the detriment of citizens of Poland and other persons of Polish
origin or speech.
6. To provide that the Polish Government shall undertake the conduct of
the foreign relations of the free city of Danzig as well as the
diplomatic protection of citizens of that city when abroad.
=ARTICLE 105.=--On the coming into force of the present treaty German
nationals ordinarily resident in the territory described in Article 100
will ipso facto lose their German nationality, in order to become
nationals of the free city of Danzig.
=ARTICLE 106.=--Within a period of two years from the coming into force
of the present treaty German nationals over 18 years of age ordinarily
resident in the territory described in Article 100 will have the right
to opt for German nationality.
Option by a husband will cover his wife and option by parents will cover
their children less than 18 years of age.
All persons who exercise the right of option referred to above must
during the ensuing twelve months transfer their place of residence to
Germany.
These persons will be entitled to preserve the immovable property
possessed by them in the territory of the free city of Danzig. They may
carry with them their movable property of every description. No export
or import duties shall be imposed upon them in this connection.
=ARTICLE 107.=--All property situated within the territory of the free
city of Danzig belonging to the German Empire or any German State shall
pass to the principal Allied and Associated Powers for transfer to the
free city of Danzig or to the Polish State as they may consider
equitable.
=ARTICLE 108.=--The proportion and nature of the financial liabilities
of Germany and of Prussia to be borne by the free city of Danzig shall
be fixed in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial clauses)
of the present treaty.
All other questions which may arise from the cession of the territory
referred to in Article 100 shall be settled by further agreements.
SECTION XII.--_Schleswig_
=ARTICLE 109.=--The frontier between Germany and Denmark shall be fixed
in conformity with the wishes of the population.
For this purpose the population inhabiting the territories of the former
German Empire situated to the north of a line from east to west, (shown
by a brown line on the Map No. 3 annexed to the present treaty;)
Leaving the Baltic coast about thirteen kilometers east-northeast of
Flensburg, running southwest so as to pass southeast of Sygum,
Ringsberg, Munkbrarup, Adelby, Tastrup, Jarplund, Oversee, and northwest
of Langballigholz, Langballig, Bönstrup, Rüllschau, Weseby,
Kleinwolstrup, Gross-Solt; thence westward passing south of Frörup and
north of Wanderup; thence in a southwesterly direction passing southeast
of Oxlund, Stieglund, and Ostenau and northwest of the villages on the
Wanderup-Kollund road; thence in a northwesterly direction passing
southwest of Löwenstedt, Joldelund, Goldelund and northeast of
Kalkerheide and Högel to the bend of the Soholmer Au, about one
kilometer east of Soholm, where it meets the southern boundary of the
Kreise of Tondern; thence following this boundary to the North Sea;
thence passing south of the islands of Fohr and Amrum and north of the
islands of Oland and Langeness shall be called upon to pronounce by a
vote which will be taken under the following conditions:
1. Within a period not exceeding ten days from the coming into force of
the present treaty, the German troops and authorities (including the
Oberprasidenten, Regierungs-Prasidenten, Landrathe, Amtsvorsteher,
Oberbürgermeister) shall evacuate the zone lying to the north of the
line above fixed.
Within the same period the Workmen's and Soldiers' Councils which have
been constituted in this zone shall be dissolved; members of such
councils who are natives of another region and are exercising their
functions at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, or
who have gone out of office since the 1st March, 1919, shall also be
evacuated.
The said zone shall immediately be placed under the authority of an
international commission, composed of five members, of whom three will
be designated by the principal Allied and Associated Powers; the
Norwegian and Swedish Governments will each be requested to designate a
member. In the event of their failing to do so, these two members will
be chosen by the principal Allied and Associated Powers.
The commission, assisted in case of need by the necessary forces, shall
have general powers of administration. In particular, it shall at once
provide for filling the places of the evacuated German authorities, and,
if necessary, shall itself give orders for their evacuation and proceed
to fill the places of such local authorities as may be required. It
shall take all steps which it thinks proper to insure the freedom,
fairness, and secrecy of the vote. It shall be assisted by German and
Danish technical advisers chosen by it from among the local population.
Its decisions will be taken by a majority.
One-half of the expenses of the International Commission and of the
expenditure occasioned by the plebiscite shall be paid by Germany.
2. The right to vote shall be given all persons, without distinction of
sex, who:
(a) Have completed their twentieth year at the date of the coming into
force of the present treaty; and
(b) Were born in the zone in which the plebiscite is taken, or had been
domiciled there since a date before the 1st January, 1900, or had been
expelled by the German authorities without having retained their
domicile there.
Every person will vote in the commune (Gemeinde) where he is domiciled
or of which he is a native.
Military persons, officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers of
the German Army, who are natives of the zone of Schleswig, in which the
plebiscite is taken, shall be given the opportunity to return to their
native place in order to take part in the voting there.
3. In the section of the evacuated zone lying to the north of a line
from east to west (shown by a red line on Map No. 3, which is annexed to
the present treaty):
Passing south of the Island of Alsen and following the median line of
Flensburg Fjord;
Thence leaving the fjord about six kilometers north of Flensburg, and
following the course of the stream flowing past Kupfermühle upstream to
a point north of Niehuus;
Thence passing north of Pattburg and Ellund and south of Fröslee to meet
the eastern boundary of the Kreise of Tondern at its junction with the
boundary between the old jurisdiction of Slogs and Kjaer, (Slogs Herred
and Kjaer Herred;)
Thence the latter boundary to where it meets the Scheidebek;
Thence the course of the Scheidebek, (Alte Au), Süder Au, and Wied Au
downstream successively to the point where the latter bends northward,
about 1,500 meters west of Ruttebüll;
Thence in a west-northwesterly direction to meet the North Sea north of
Sieltoft;
Thence passing north of the Island of Sylt.
The vote above provided for shall be taken within a period not exceeding
three weeks after the evacuation of the country by the German troops and
authorities.
The result will be determined by the majority of votes cast in the whole
of this section. This result will be immediately communicated by the
commission to the principal Allied and Associated Governments and
proclaimed.
If the vote results in favor of the reincorporation of this territory in
the Kingdom of Denmark, the Danish Government, in agreement with the
commission will be entitled to effect its occupation with their military
and administrative authorities immediately after the proclamation.
4. In the section of the evacuated zone situated to the south of the
preceding section and to the north of the line which starts from the
Baltic Sea thirteen kilometers from Flensburg and ends north of the
islands of Oland and Langeness, the vote will be taken within a period
not exceeding five weeks after the plebiscite shall have been held in
the first section.
The result will be determined by communes (Gemeinden) in accordance with
the majority of the votes cast in each commune, (Gemeinde.)
=ARTICLE 110.=--Pending a delimination on the spot, a frontier line will
be fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers according to a
line based on the result of the voting, and proposed by the
International Commission, and taking into account the particular
geographical and economic conditions of the localities in question.
From that time the Danish Government may effect the occupation of these
territories which the Danish civil and military authorities, and the
German Government may reinstate up to the said frontier line the German
civil and military authorities whom it has evacuated.
Germany hereby renounced definitively in favor of the principal Allied
and Associated Powers all rights of sovereignty over the territories
situated to the north of the frontier line fixed in accordance with the
above provisions. The principal Allied and Associated Powers will hand
over the said territories to Denmark.
=Article 111.=--A commission composed of seven members, five of whom
shall be nominated by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, one by
Denmark, and one by Germany, shall be constituted within fifteen days
from the date when the final result of the vote is known, to trace the
frontier line on the spot.
The decisions of the commission will be taken by a majority of votes,
and shall be binding on the parties concerned.
=ARTICLE 112.=--All the inhabitants of the territory which is returned
to Denmark will acquire Danish nationality ipso facto, and will lose
their German nationality. Persons, however, who had become habitually
resident in this territory after the 1st October, 1918, will not be able
to acquire Danish nationality without permission from the Danish
Government.
=ARTICLE 113.=--Within two years from the date on which the sovereignty
over the whole or part of the territory of Schleswig subjected to the
plebiscite is restored to Denmark:
Any person over 18 years of age, born in the territory restored to
Denmark, not habitually resident in this region and possessing German
nationality, will be entitled to opt for Denmark.
Any person over 18 years of age habitually resident in the territory
restored to Denmark will be entitled to opt for Germany.
Option by a husband will cover his wife and option by parents will cover
their children less than 18 years of age.
Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must within the
ensuing twelve months transfer their place of residence to the State in
favor of which they have opted.
They will be entitled to retain the immovable property which they own in
the territory of the other State in which they were habitually resident
before opting. They may carry with them their movable property of every
description. No export or import duties may be imposed upon them in
connection with the removal of such property.
=ARTICLE 114.=--The proportion and nature of the financial or other
obligations of Germany and Prussia which are to be assumed by Denmark
will be fixed in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial
clauses) of the present treaty.
Further stipulations will determine any other questions arising out of
the transfer to Denmark of the whole or part of the territory of which
she was deprived by the treaty of Oct. 30, 1864.
SECTION XIII.--_Heligoland_
=ARTICLE 115.=--The fortifications, military establishments, and harbors
of the islands of Heligoland and Dune shall be destroyed under the
supervision of the principal Allied Governments by German labor and at
the expense of Germany within a period to be determined by the said
Governments.
The term "harbors" shall include the Northeast Mole, the West Wall, the
outer and inner breakwaters and reclaimed land within them, and all
naval and military works, fortifications, and buildings, constructed or
under construction, between lines connecting the following positions
taken from the British Admiralty Chart No. 126 of 19 April, 1918:
(A) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 49 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes
39 seconds E.;
(B) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 35 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 54 minutes
18 seconds E.;
(C) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 14 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 54 minutes
0 seconds E.;
(D) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 17 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes
37 seconds E.;
(E) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 44 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes
26 seconds E.
These fortifications, military establishments, and harbors shall not be
reconstructed nor shall any similar works be constructed in future.
SECTION XIV.--_Russia and Russian States_
=ARTICLE 116.=--Germany acknowledges and agrees to respect as permanent
and inalienable the independence of all the territories which were part
of the former Russian Empire on Aug. 1, 1914.
In accordance with the provisions of Article 259 of Part IX. (financial
clauses,) and Article 292 of Part X. (economic clauses,) Germany accepts
definitely the abrogation of the Brest-Litovsk Treaties and of all
treaties, conventions, and agreements entered into by her with the
Maximalist Government in Russia.
The Allied and Associated Powers formally reserve the rights of Russia
to obtain from Germany restitution and reparation based on the
principles of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 117.=--Germany undertakes to recognize the full force of all
treaties or agreements which may be entered into by the Allied and
Associated Powers with States now existing or coming into existence in
future in the whole or part of the former Empire of Russia as it existed
on August 1, 1914, and to recognize the frontiers of any such States as
determined therein.
PART IV
German Rights and Interests Outside Germany
=ARTICLE 118.=--In territory outside her European frontiers as fixed by
the present treaty, Germany renounces all rights, titles, and privileges
whatever in or over territory which belonged to her or to her allies,
and all rights, titles, and privileges, whatever their origin, which she
held as against the Allied and Associated Powers.
Germany undertakes immediately to recognize and to conform to the
measures which may be taken now or in the future by the principal Allied
and Associated Powers, in agreement where necessary with third powers,
in order to carry the above stipulation into effect.
In particular, Germany declares her acceptance of the following articles
relating to certain special subjects:
SECTION I.--_German Colonies_
=ARTICLE 119.=--Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied and
Associated Powers all her rights and titles over her overseas
possessions.
=ARTICLE 120.=--All movable and immovable property in such territories
belonging to the German Empire or to any German State shall pass to the
Government exercising authority over such territories on the terms laid
down in Article 257 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present
treaty. The decision of the local courts in any dispute as to the nature
of such property shall be final.
=ARTICLE 121.=--The provisions of Section I. (commercial relations) and
Section IV. (property, rights, and interests) of Part X. (economic
clauses) of the present treaty shall apply in the case of these
territories whatever be the form of government adopted for them.
=ARTICLE 122.=--The Government exercising authority over such
territories may make such provisions as it thinks fit with reference to
the repatriation from them of German nationals, and to the conditions
upon which German subjects of European origin shall, or shall not, be
allowed to reside, hold property, trade, or exercise a profession in
them.
=ARTICLE 123.=--The provisions of Article 260 of Part IX. (financial
clauses) of the present treaty shall apply in the case of all agreements
concluded with German nationals for the construction or exploitation of
public works in the German overseas possessions, as well as any
sub-concessions or contracts resulting therefrom which may have been
made to or with such nationals.
=ARTICLE 124.=--Germany hereby undertakes to pay in accordance with the
estimate to be presented by the French Government, and approved by the
Reparation Commission, reparation for damage suffered by French
nationals in the Cameroons or the frontier zone by reason of the acts of
the German civil and military authorities and of German private
individuals during the period from Jan. 1, 1900, to Aug. 1, 1914.
=ARTICLE 125.=--Germany renounces all rights under the conventions and
agreements with France of Nov. 4, 1911, and Sept. 28, 1912, relating to
equatorial Africa. She undertakes to pay to the French Government, in
accordance with the estimate to be presented by the Government and
approved by the Reparation Commission, all the deposits, credits,
advances, &c., effected by virtue of these instruments in favor of
Germany.
=ARTICLE 126.=--Germany undertakes to accept and observe the agreements
made or to be made by the Allied and Associated Powers or some of them
with any other power with regard to the trade in arms and spirits, and
to the matters dealt with in the general act of Berlin of Feb. 26, 1885,
the general act of Brussels of July 2, 1890, and the conventions
completing or modifying the same.
=ARTICLE 127.=--The native inhabitants of the former German overseas
possessions shall be entitled to the diplomatic protection of the
Governments exercising authority over those territories.
SECTION II.--_China_
=ARTICLE 128.=--Germany renounces in favor of China all benefits and
privileges resulting from the provisions of the final protocol signed at
Peking on Sept. 7, 1901, and from all annexes, notes, and documents
supplementary thereto. She likewise renounces in favor of China any
claim to indemnities accruing thereunder subsequent to March 14, 1917.
=ARTICLE 129.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the
high contracting parties shall apply in so far as concerns them
respectively:
1. The arrangement of Aug. 29, 1902, regarding the new Chinese customs
tariff.
2. The arrangement of Sept. 27, 1905, regarding Whang-Poo, and the
provisional supplementary arrangement of April 4, 1912. China, however,
will no longer be bound to grant to Germany the advantages of privileges
which she allowed Germany under these arrangements.
=ARTICLE 130.=--Subject to the provisions of Section VIII. of this part,
Germany cedes to China all the buildings, wharves and pontoons,
barracks, forts, arms and munitions of war, vessels of all kinds,
wireless telegraphy installations and other public property belonging to
the German Government, which are situated or may be in the German
concessions at Tientsin and Hankow or elsewhere in Chinese territory.
It is understood, however, that premises used as diplomatic or consular
residences or offices are not included in the above cession, and,
furthermore, that no steps shall be taken by the Chinese Government to
dispose of the German public and private property situated within the
so-called legation quarter at Peking without the consent of the
diplomatic representatives of the powers which, on the coming into force
of the present treaty, remain parties to the final protocol of Sept. 7,
1901.
=ARTICLE 131.=--Germany undertakes to restore to China within twelve
months from the coming into force of the present treaty all the
astronomical instruments which her troops in 1900--1901 carried away from
China, and to defray all expenses which may be incurred in affecting
such restoration, including the expenses of dismounting, packing,
transporting, insurance, and installation in Peking.
[Illustration: From Around the World
_Copyright Paul Thompson_
Lord Robert Cecil
A son of Lord Salisbury and one of the most influential statesmen in
Great Britain during the war and an enthusiastic advocate of a League of
Nations.]
=ARTICLE 132.=--Germany agrees to the abrogation of the leases from the
Chinese Government under which the German concessions at Hankow and
Tientsin are now held.
China, restored to the full exercise of her sovereign rights in the
above areas, declares her intention of opening them to international
residence and trade. She further declares that the abrogation of the
leases under which these concessions are now held shall not affect the
property rights of nationals or Allied and Associated Powers who are
holders of lots in these concessions.
=ARTICLE 133.=--Germany waives all claims against the Chinese Government
or against any Allied or Associated Government arising out of the
internment of German nationals in China and their repatriation. She
equally renounces all claims arising out of the capture and condemnation
of German ships in China or the liquidation, sequestration or control of
German properties, rights, and interests in that country since Aug. 14,
1917. This provision, however, shall not affect the rights of the
parties interested in the proceeds of any such liquidation, which shall
be governed by the provisions of Part X. (economic clauses) of the
present treaty.
=ARTICLE 134.=--Germany renounces, in favor of the Government of his
Britannic Majesty, the German State property in the British concession
at Shameen at Canton. She renounces, in favor of the French and Chinese
Governments conjointly, the property of the German school situated in
the French concession at Shanghai.
SECTION III.--_Siam_
=ARTICLE 135.=--Germany recognizes that all treaties, conventions, and
agreements between her and Siam, and all rights, titles and privileges
derived therefrom, including all rights of extra territorial
jurisdiction, terminated as from July 22, 1917.
=ARTICLE 136.=--All goods and property in Siam belonging to the German
Empire or to any German State, with the exception of premises used as
diplomatic or consular residences or offices, pass ipso facto and
without compensation to the Siamese Government.
The goods, property, and private rights of German nationals in Siam
shall be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of Part X.
(economic clauses) of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 137.=--Germany waives all claims against the Siamese Government
on behalf of herself or her nationals arising out of the seizure or
condemnation of German ships, the liquidation of German property, or the
internment of German nationals in Siam. This provision shall not affect
the rights of the parties interested in the proceeds of any such
liquidation, which shall be governed by the provisions of Part X.
(economic clauses) of the present treaty.
SECTION IV.--_Liberia_
=ARTICLE 138.=--Germany renounces all rights and privileges arising from
the arrangements of 1911 and 1912 regarding Liberia, and particularly
the right to nominate a German receiver of customs in Liberia. She
further renounces all claim to participate in any measures whatsoever
which may be adopted for the rehabilitation of Liberia.
=ARTICLE 139.=--Germany recognizes that all treaties and arrangements
between her and Liberia terminated as from Aug. 4, 1917.
=ARTICLE 140.=--The property, rights, and interests of Germans in
Liberia shall be dealt with in accordance with Part X. (economic
clauses) of the present treaty.
SECTION V.--_Morocco_
=ARTICLE 141.=--Germany renounces all rights, titles, and privileges
conferred on her by the general act of Algeciras of April 7, 1906, and
by the Franco-German agreements of Feb. 9, 1909, and Nov. 4, 1911. All
treaties, agreements, arrangements, and contracts concluded by her with
the Sherifian Empire are regarded as abrogated as from Aug. 3, 1914.
In no case can Germany take advantage of these instruments, and she
undertakes not to intervene in any way in negotiations relating to
Morocco which may take place between France and the other powers.
=ARTICLE 142.=--Germany having recognized the French Protectorate in
Morocco, hereby accepts all consequences of its establishment, and she
renounces the régime of the capitulations therein.
This renunciation shall take effect as from Aug. 3, 1914.
=ARTICLE 143.=--The Sherifian Government shall have complete liberty of
action in regulating the status of German nationals in Morocco and the
conditions in which they may establish themselves there.
German-protected persons, semsars, and "associés agricoles" shall be
considered as having ceased, as from Aug. 3, 1914, to enjoy the
privileges attached to their status and shall be subject to the ordinary
law.
=ARTICLE 144.=--All property and possessions in the Sherifian Empire of
the German Empire and the German States pass to the Maghzen without
payment.
For the purposes of this clause, the property and possessions of the
German Empire and States shall be deemed to include all the property of
the crown, the empire, or States, and the private property of the former
German Emperor and other royal personages.
All movable and immovable property in the Sherifian Empire belonging to
German nationals shall be dealt with in accordance with Sections III.
and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.
Mining rights which may be recognized as belonging to German nationals
by the Court of Arbitration set up under the Moroccan mining regulations
shall form the subject of a valuation, which the arbitrators shall be
requested to make, and these rights shall then be treated in the same
way as property in Morocco belonging to German nationals.
=ARTICLE 145.=--The German Government shall insure the transfer to a
person nominated by the French Government of the shares representing
Germany's portion of the capital of the State Bank of Morocco. The value
of these shares, as assessed by the Reparation Commission, shall be paid
to the Reparation Commission for the credit of Germany on account of the
sums due for reparation. The German Government shall be responsible for
indemnifying its nationals so dispossessed.
This transfer will take place without prejudice to the repayment of
debts which German nationals may have contracted toward the State Bank
of Morocco.
=ARTICLE 146.=--Moroccan goods entering Germany shall enjoy the
treatment accorded to French goods.
SECTION VI.--_Egypt_
=ARTICLE 147.=--Germany declares that she recognizes the protectorate
proclaimed over Egypt by Great Britain on Dec. 18, 1914, and that she
renounces the régime of the capitulations in Egypt. This renunciation
shall take effect as from Aug. 4, 1914.
=ARTICLE 148.=--All treaties, agreements, arrangements, and contracts
concluded by Germany with Egypt are regarded as abrogated as from Aug.
4, 1914.
In no case can Germany avail herself of these instruments, and she
undertakes not to intervene in any way in negotiations relating to Egypt
which may take place between Great Britain and the other powers.
=ARTICLE 149.=--Until an Egyptian law of judicial organization
establishing courts with universal jurisdiction comes into force,
provision shall be made, by means of decrees issued by his Highness the
Sultan for the exercise of jurisdiction over German nationals and
property by the British consular tribunals.
=ARTICLE 150.=--The Egyptian Government shall have complete liberty of
action in regulating the status of German nationals and the conditions
under which they may establish themselves in Egypt.
=ARTICLE 151.=--Germany consents to the abrogation of the decree issued
by his Highness the Khédive on Nov. 28, 1904, relating to the commission
of the Egyptian public debt, or to such changes as the Egyptian
Government may think it desirable to make therein.
=ARTICLE 152.=--Germany consents, in so far as she is concerned, to the
transfer to his Britannic Majesty's Government of the powers conferred
on his Imperial Majesty the Sultan, by the convention signed at
Constantinople on Oct. 29, 1888, relating to the free navigation of the
Suez Canal.
She renounces all participation in the Sanitary, Maritime, and
Quarantine Board of Egypt, and consents, in so far as she is concerned,
to the transfer to the Egyptian authorities of the powers of that board.
=ARTICLE 153.=--All property and possessions in Egypt of the German
Empire and the German States pass to the Egyptian Government without
payment.
For this purpose the property and possessions of the German Empire and
States shall be deemed to include all the property of the crown, the
empire, or the States, and the private property of the former German
Emperor and other royal personages.
All movable and immovable property in Egypt belonging to German
nationals shall be dealt with in accordance with Sections III. and IV.
of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 154.=--Egyptian goods entering Germany shall enjoy the
treatment accorded to British goods.
SECTION VII.--_Turkey and Bulgaria_
=ARTICLE 155.=--Germany undertakes to recognize and accept all
arrangements which the Allied and Associated Powers may make with Turkey
and Bulgaria, with reference to any rights, interests, and privileges
whatever which might be claimed by Germany or her nationals in Turkey
and Bulgaria and which are not dealt with in the provisions of the
present treaty.
SECTION VIII.--_Shantung_
=ARTICLE 156.=--Germany renounces in favor of Japan, all her rights,
titles, and privileges--particularly those concerning the territory of
Kiao-Chau, railways, mines, and submarine cables--which she acquired in
virtue of the treaty concluded by her with China on 6th March, 1898, and
of all other arrangements relative to the Province of Shantung.
All German rights in the Tsing-tao-Tsinan-Fu railway, including its
branch lines, together with its subsidiary property of all kinds,
stations, shops, fixed and rolling stock, mines, plant, and material for
the exploitation of the mines are and remain acquired by Japan, together
with all rights and privileges attaching thereto.
The German State submarine cables from Tsing-tao to Shanghai and from
Tsing-tao to Che Foo, with all the rights, privileges, and properties
attaching thereto, are similarly acquired by Japan, free and clear of
all charges and incumbrances.
=ARTICLE 157.=--The movable and immovable property owned by the German
State in the territory of Kiao-Chau, as well as all the rights which
Germany might claim in consequence of the works or improvements made or
of the expenses incurred by her, directly or indirectly, in connection
with this territory, are and remain acquired by Japan, free and clear of
all charges and incumbrances.
=ARTICLE 158.=--Germany shall hand over to Japan within three months
from the coming into force of the present treaty the archives,
registers, plans, title deeds, and documents of every kind, wherever
they may be, relating to the administration, whether civil, military,
financial, judicial or other, of the territory of Kiao-Chau.
Within the same period Germany shall give particulars to Japan of all
treaties, arrangements or agreements relating to the rights, title or
privileges referred to in the two preceding articles.
PART V
Military, Naval, and Aerial Clauses
In order to render possible the initiation of a general limitation of
the armaments of all nations, Germany undertakes strictly to observe the
military, naval, and air clauses which follow:
SECTION I.--_Military Clauses_
CHAPTER I.--EFFECTIVES AND CADRES OF THE GERMAN ARMY
=ARTICLE 159=--The German military forces shall be demobilized and
reduced as prescribed hereinafter.
=ARTICLE 160=--1. By a date which must not be later than March 31, 1920,
the German Army must not comprise more than seven divisions of infantry
and three divisions of cavalry. After that date the total number of
effectives in the army of the States constituting Germany must not
exceed 100,000 men, including officers and establishments of depots. The
army shall be devoted exclusively to the maintenance of order within the
territory and to the control of the frontiers.
The total effective strength of officers, including the personnel of
staffs, whatever their composition, must not exceed 4,000.
2. Divisions and army corps headquarters staffs shall be organized in
accordance with Table No. 1 annexed to this section.
The number and strength of the units of infantry, artillery, engineers,
technical services, and troops laid down in the aforesaid table
constitute maxima which must not be exceeded.
The following units may each have their own depot:
An infantry regiment; a cavalry regiment; a regiment of field artillery;
a battalion of pioneers.
3. The divisions must not be grouped under more than two army corps
headquarters staff.
The maintenance or formation of forces differently grouped or of other
organizations for the command of troops or for preparation for war is
forbidden.
The Great German General Staff and all similar organizations shall be
dissolved and may not be reconstituted in any form.
The officers, or persons in the position of officers, in the Ministries
of War in the different States in Germany and in the administrations
attached to them, must not exceed three hundred in number and are
included in the maximum strength of four thousand laid down in the third
sub-paragraph of the first paragraph of this article.
=ARTICLE 161.=--Army administrative services consisting of civilian
personnel not included in the number of effectives prescribed by the
present treaty will have such personnel reduced in each class to
one-tenth of that laid down in the budget of 1913.
=ARTICLE 162.=--The number of employes or officials of the German
States, such as customs officers, forest guards, and coast guards shall
not exceed that of the employes or officials functioning in these
capacities in 1913.
The number of gendarmes and employes or officials of the local or
municipal police may only be increased to an extent corresponding to the
increase of population since 1913 in the districts or municipalities in
which they are employed.
These employes and officials may not be assembled for military training.
=ARTICLE 163.=--The reduction of the strength of the German military
forces as provided for in Article 160 may be effected gradually in the
following manner:
Within three months from the coming into force of the present treaty the
total number of effectives must be reduced to 200,000 and the number of
units must not exceed twice the number of those laid down in Article
160.
At the expiration of this period, and at the end of each subsequent
period of three months, a conference of military experts of the
principal Allied and Associated Powers will fix the reductions to be
made in the ensuing three months, so that by the 31st of March, 1920, at
the latest, the total number of German effectives does not exceed the
maximum number of 100,000 men laid down in Article 160. In these
successive reductions the same ratio between the number of officers and
of men, and between the various kinds of units shall be maintained as is
laid down in that article.
CHAPTER II.--ARMAMENT, MUNITIONS, AND MATERIAL
=ARTICLE 164.=--Up till the time at which Germany is admitted as a
member of the League of Nations the German Army must not possess an
armament greater than the amounts fixed in Table No. 2, annexed to this
section, with the exception of an optional increase not exceeding
one-twenty-fifth part for small arms and one-fiftieth part for guns,
which shall be exclusively used to provide for such eventual
replacements as may be necessary.
Germany agrees that after she has become a member of the League of
Nations the armaments fixed in the said table shall remain in force
until they are modified by the Council of the League. Furthermore she
hereby agrees strictly to observe the decisions of the Council of the
League on this subject.
=ARTICLE 165.=--The maximum number of guns, machine guns, trench
mortars, rifles, and the amount of ammunition and equipment which
Germany is allowed to maintain during the period between the coming into
force of the present treaty and the date of March 31, 1920, referred to
in Article 160, shall bear the same proportion to the amount authorized
in Table No. 3 annexed to this section as the strength of the German
Army as reduced from time to time in accordance with Article 163 bears
to the strength permitted under Article 160.
=ARTICLE 166.=--At the date of March 31, 1920, the stock of munitions
which the German Army may have at its disposal shall not exceed the
amounts fixed in Table No. 3 annexed to this section.
Within the same period the German Government will store these stocks at
points to be notified to the Governments of the principal Allied and
Associated Powers. The German Government is forbidden to establish any
other stocks, depots, or reserves of munitions.
=ARTICLE 167.=--The number and calibre of the guns constituting at the
date of the coming into force of the present treaty the armament of the
fortified works, fortresses, and any land or coast forts which Germany
is allowed to retain, must be notified immediately by the German
Government to the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated
Powers, and will constitute maximum amounts which may not be exceeded.
Within two months from the coming into force of the present treaty the
maximum stock of ammunition for these guns will be reduced to, and
maintained at, the following uniform rates: Fifteen hundred rounds per
piece for those the calibre of which is 10.5 cm. and under; 500 rounds
per piece for those of higher calibre.
=ARTICLE 168.=--The manufacture of arms, munitions, or any war material
shall only be carried out in factories or works the locations of which
shall be communicated to and approved by the Governments of the
principal Allied and Associated Powers, and the number of which they
retain the right to restrict.
Within three months from the coming into force of the present treaty all
other establishments for the manufacture, preparation, storage, or
design of arms, munitions, or any war material whatever shall be closed
down. The same applies to all arsenals except those used as depots for
the authorized stocks of munitions. Within the same period the personnel
of these arsenals will be dismissed.
=ARTICLE 169.=--Within two months from the coming into force of the
present treaty, German arms, munitions, and war materials, including
anti-aircraft material, existing in Germany in excess of the quantities
allowed must be surrendered to the Governments of the principal Allied
and Associated Powers, to be destroyed or rendered useless. This will
also apply to any special plant intended for the manufacture of military
material, except such as may be recognized as necessary for equipping
the authorized strength of the German Army.
The surrender in question will be effected at such points in German
territory as may be selected by the said Governments.
Within the same period, arms, munitions, and war material, including
anti-aircraft material, of origin other than German, in whatever state
they may be, will be delivered to the said Governments, who will decide
as to their disposal.
Arms and munitions which on account of the successive reductions in the
strength of the German Army become in excess of the amounts authorized
by Tables 2 and 3 of the annex must be handed over in the manner laid
down above within such periods as may be decided by the conferences
referred to in Article 163.
=ARTICLE 170.=--Importation into Germany of arms, munitions, and war
material of every kind shall be strictly prohibited.
The same applies to the manufacture for and export to foreign countries
of arms, munitions, and war material of every kind.
=ARTICLE 171.=--The use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and
all analogous liquids, materials or devices being prohibited, their
manufacture and importation are strictly forbidden in Germany.
The same applies to materials specially intended for the manufacture,
storage, and use of the said products or devices.
The manufacture and the importation into Germany of armored cars, tanks,
and all similar constructions suitable for use in war are also
prohibited.
=ARTICLE 172.=--Within a period of three months from the coming into
force of the present treaty the German Government will disclose to the
Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers the nature and
mode of manufacture of all explosives, toxic substances or other like
chemical preparations used by them in the war or prepared by them for
the purpose of being so used.
CHAPTER III.--RECRUITING AND MILITARY TRAINING
=ARTICLE 173.=--Universal compulsory military service shall be abolished
in Germany.
The German Army may only be constituted and recruited by means of
voluntary enlistment.
=ARTICLE 174.=--The period of enlistment for non-commissioned officers
and privates must be twelve consecutive years.
The number of men discharged for any reason before the expiration of
their term of enlistment must not exceed in any year 5 per cent. of the
total effectives as fixed by the second sub-paragraph of Paragraph 1 of
Article 160 of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 175.=--The officers who are retained in the army must undertake
the obligation to serve in it up to the age of forty-five years, at
least.
Officers newly appointed must undertake to serve on the active list for
twenty-five consecutive years, at least.
Officers who have previously belonged to any formation whatever of the
army and who are not retained in the units allowed to be maintained must
not take part in any military exercise, whether theoretical or
practical, and will not be under any military obligations whatever.
The number of officers discharged for any reason before the expiration
of their term of service must not exceed in any year 5 per cent. of the
total effectives of officers provided for in the third sub-paragraph of
Paragraph 1 of Article 100 of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 176.=--On the expiration of two months from the coming into
force of the present treaty there must only exist in Germany the number
of military schools which is absolutely indispensable for the
recruitment of the officers of the units allowed. These schools will be
exclusively intended for the recruitment of officers of each arm, in the
proportion of one school per arm.
The number of students admitted to attend the courses of the said
schools will be strictly in proportion to the vacancies to be filled in
the cadres of officers. The students and the cadres will be reckoned in
the effectives fixed by the second and third sub-paragraphs of Paragraph
1 of Article 160 of the present treaty.
Consequently, and during the period fixed above, all military academies
or similar institutions in Germany, as well as the different military
schools for officers, student officers (aspiranten), cadets
non-commissioned officers, or student non-commissioned officers
(aspiranten), other than the schools above provided for, will be
abolished.
=ARTICLE 177.=--Educational establishments, the universities, societies
of discharged soldiers, shooting or touring clubs, and, generally
speaking, associations of every description, whatever be the age of
their members, must not occupy themselves with any military matters. In
particular they will be forbidden to instruct or exercise their members,
or to allow them to be instructed or exercised, in the profession or use
of arms.
These societies, associations, educational establishments, and
universities must have no connection with the Ministries of War or any
other military authority.
=ARTICLE 178.=--All measures of mobilization or appertaining to
mobilization are forbidden.
In no case must formations, administrative services, or general staffs
include supplementary cadres.
=ARTICLE 179.=--Germany agrees, from the coming into force of the
present treaty, not to accredit nor to send to any foreign country any
military, naval, or air mission, nor to allow any such missions to leave
her territory, and Germany further agrees to take appropriate measures
to prevent German nationals from leaving her territory to become
enrolled in the army, navy, or air service of any foreign power, or to
be attached to such army, navy, or air service for the purpose of
assisting in the military, naval, or air training thereof, or otherwise
for the purpose of giving military, naval, or air instruction in any
foreign country.
The Allied and Associated Powers agree, so far as they are concerned,
from the coming into force of the present treaty, not to enroll in nor
to attach to their armies or naval or air forces any German national for
the purpose of assisting in the military training of such armies or
naval or air forces, or otherwise to employ any such German national as
military, naval, or aeronautic instructor.
The present provision, however, does not affect the right of France to
recruit for the Foreign Legion in accordance with French military laws
and regulations.
CHAPTER IV.--FORTIFICATIONS
=ARTICLE 180.=--All fortified works, fortresses, and field works
situated in German territory to the west of a line drawn fifty
kilometers to the east of the Rhine shall be disarmed and dismantled.
Within a period of two months from the coming into force of the present
treaty such of the above fortified works, fortresses, and field works as
are situated in territory not occupied by Allied and Associated troops
shall be disarmed and within a further period of four months they shall
be dismantled. Those which are situated in territory occupied by Allied
and Associated troops shall be disarmed and dismantled within such
periods as may be fixed by the Allied High Command.
The construction of any new fortification, whatever its nature and
importance, is forbidden in the zone referred to in the first paragraph
above.
The system of fortified works of the southern and eastern frontiers of
Germany shall be maintained in its existing state.
=TABLE NO. 1.=
=State and Establishment of Army Corps Headquarters Staffs and of
Infantry and Cavalry Divisions.=
These tabular statements do not form a fixed establishment to be imposed
on Germany, but the figures contained in them (number of units and
strengths) represent maximum figures, which should not in any case be
exceeded.
+----------------------+----------+----------------------------+
|Unit | Maximum| Max. Strength of Each Unit |
| | No.| |
| +----------+----------------------------+
| |Authorized| Officers.| N.C.O.'s|
| | Division.| | Men.|
+----------------------+----------+---------------+------------+
|Army corps hdq. staffs| 2| 30| 150|
|Total for hdq. staffs | ..| 60| 300|
+----------------------+----------+---------------+------------+
2. ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INFANTRY DIVISION.
+--------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
| |Maximum No.| |
| | of Such | |
| |Units in a | Max. Strength of Each Unit |
| | Single +-----------+-----------------+
| Unit | Division | Officers| N.C.O.'s and Men|
+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
|Hdqrs. of inf. div. | 1| 25| 70|
| | | | |
|Hdqrs. of divisional inf. | 1| 4| 30|
| | | | |
|Hdqrs. of divisional art. | 1| 4| 30|
| | | | |
|Regiment of inf. | 3| 70| 2,300|
| | | | |
|(Each regiment comprises 3| | | |
|battalions of infantry. | | | |
|Each battalion comprises 3| | | |
|companies of infantry and | | | |
|1 machine-gun company.) | | | |
| | | | |
|Trench mortar company | 3| 6| 150|
| | | | |
|Divisional squadron | 1| 6| 150|
| | | | |
|Field artillery regiment | 1| 85| 1,300|
| | | | |
|(Each regiment comprises 3| | | |
|groups of artillery. Each | | | |
|group comprises 3 | | | |
|batteries.) | | | |
| | | | |
|Pioneer battalion | 1| 12| 400|
| | | | |
|(This battalion comprises | | | |
|2 companies of pioneers, 1| | | |
|pontoon detachment, 1 | | | |
|searchlight section.) | | | |
| | | | |
|Signal detachment\ | 1| 12| 300|
| | | | |
|(This detachment comprises| | | |
|1 telephone detachment, 1 | | | |
|listening section, 1 | | | |
|carrier pigeon section.) | | | |
| | | | |
|Divisional Med. Service | 1| 20| 400|
| | | | |
|Parks and convoys | ..| 14| 800|
| | | | |
|Total for infantry div. | ..| 410| 10,830|
+--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+
3. ESTABLISHMENT OF A CAVALRY DIVISION.
+------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+
| | Maximum Strength |
| | of Each Unit |
| +----------+------------------+
| |[31]Units.|Officers.|N.C.O.'s|
| | | |and Men.|
| | | | |
|Headquarters of a cavalry division | 1| 15| 50|
| | | | |
|Cavalry regiment | 6| 40| 800|
| | | | |
|(Each regiment comprises four | | | |
|squadrons.) | | | |
| | | | |
|Horse artillery group (three | 1| 20| 400|
|batteries) | | | |
| | | | |
|Total for cavalry division | ..| 275| 5,250|
+------------------------------------+----------+---------+--------+
[31] Maximum number of such units in single division.
=TABLE NO. 2.=
=Tabular statement of armament establishment for a maximum of seven
infantry divisions, three cavalry divisions, and two army corps
headquarters staffs.=
+--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+
|Materials. | Inft.| For 7| Cav.| For 3| Total|
| | Div.| Inft.| Div.| Cav.|Columns|
| | | Divs.| | Divs.| 2 & 4|
+--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+
|Rifles | 12,000| 84,000| ...| ...| 84,000|
| | | | | | |
|Carbines | ...| ...| 6,000|18,000| 18,000|
| | | | | | |
|Heavy machine guns | 108| 756| 12| 36| 792|
| | | | | | |
|Light machine guns | 162| 1,134| ...| ...| 1,134|
| | | | | | |
|Medium trench mortars | 9| 63| ...| ...| 63|
| | | | | | |
|Light trench mortars | 27| 189| ...| ...| 189|
| | | | | | |
|7.7 cm. guns | 24| 168| 12| 36| 204|
| | | | | | |
|10.5 cm. howitzers | 12| 84| ...| ...| 84|
+--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+
Army corps headquarters staff establishment
must be drawn from the increased armaments of
the divisional infantry.
=TABLE NO. 3.=
=Maximum Stocks Authorized.=
+----------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+
|Material. | Maximum | Estab- | Maximum|
| | Number of |lishment | Totals,|
| | Arms |Per Unit,| Rounds.|
| |Authorized.| Rounds. | |
+----------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+
|Rifles | 84,000 } | 40 | 40,800,000|
| | | | |
|Carbines | 18,000 } | | |
| | | | |
|Heavy machine guns | 792 } | 8,000 | 15,408,000|
| | | | |
|Light machine guns | 1,134 } | | |
| | | | |
|Medium trench mortars | 63 | 40 | 25,200|
| | | | |
|Light trench mort's | 189 | 800 | 151,200|
| | | | |
|Field artillery-- | | | |
| | | | |
|7.7 cm. guns | 204 | 1,000 | 204,000|
| | | | |
|10.5 cm. howitzers | 84 | 800 | 67,200|
+----------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+
SECTION II.--_Naval Clauses_
=ARTICLE 181.=--After the expiration of a period of two months from the
coming into force of the present treaty the German naval forces in
commission must not exceed: Six battleships of the Deutschland or
Lothringen type, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, twelve torpedo
boats, or an equal number of ships constructed to replace them as
provided in Article 190.
No submarines are to be included. All other warships except where there
is provision to the contrary in the present treaty must be placed in
reserve or devoted to commercial purposes.
=ARTICLE 182.=--Until the completion of the minesweeping prescribed by
Article 193, Germany will keep in commission such number of minesweeping
vessels as may be fixed by the Governments of the principal Allied and
Associated Powers.
=ARTICLE 183.=--After the expiration of a period of two months from the
coming into force of the present treaty the total personnel of the
German Navy, including the manning of the fleet, coast defenses, signal
stations, administration, and other land services, must not exceed
15,000, including officers and men of all grades and corps. The total
strength of officers and warrant officers must not exceed 1,500. Within
two months from the coming into force of the present treaty the
personnel in excess of the above strength shall be demobilized. No naval
or military corps or reserve force in connection with the navy may be
organized in Germany without being included in the above strength.
=ARTICLE 184.=--From the date of the coming into force of the present
treaty all the German surface warships which are not in German ports
cease to belong to Germany, who renounces all rights over them. Vessels
which, in compliance with the armistice of Nov. 11, 1918, are now
interned in the ports of the Allied and Associated Powers, are declared
to be finally surrendered. Vessels which are now interned in neutral
ports will be there surrendered to the Governments of the principal
Allied and Associated Powers. The German Government must address a
notification to that effect to the neutral powers on the coming into
force of the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 185.=--Within a period of two months from the coming into force
of the present treaty the German surface warships enumerated below will
be surrendered to the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated
Powers in such allied ports as the said powers may direct. These
warships will have been disarmed as provided in Article 23 of the
armistice, dated Nov. 11, 1918. Nevertheless, they must have all their
guns on board.
Battleships--Oldenburg, Thuringen, Ostfriesland, Heligoland, Posen,
Westfalen, Rheinland, and Nassau.
Light Cruisers--Stettin, Danzig, München, Lübeck, Stralsund, Augsburg,
Kolberg, and Stuttgart.
And in addition forty-two modern destroyers and fifty modern torpedo
boats, as chosen by the Governments of the principal Allied and
Associated Powers.
=ARTICLE 186.=--On the coming into force of the present treaty the
German Government must undertake, under the supervision of the
Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers, the breaking
up of all the German surface warships now under construction.
=ARTICLE 187.=--The German auxiliary cruisers and fleet auxiliaries
enumerated below will be disarmed and treated as merchant ships.
Ships interned in neutral countries: Berlin, Santa Fé, Seydlitz, Yorck.
Ships interned in Germany: Ammon, Fürst Bülow, Answald, Gertrud, Bosnia,
Kigoma, Cordoba, Rugia, Cassel, Santa Elena, Dania, Schleswig, Rio
Negro, Möwe, Rio Pardo, Sierra Ventana, Santa Cruz, Chemnitz, Schwaben,
Emil Georg von Strauss, Solingen, Habsburg, Steigerwald, Meteor,
Franken, Waltraute, Gundomar, Scharnhorst.
=ARTICLE 188.=--On the expiration of one month from the coming into
force of the present treaty all German submarines, salvage vessels, and
docks for submarines, including the tubular dock, must have been handed
over to the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers.
Such of these submarines, vessels, and docks as are considered by said
Governments to be fit to proceed under their own power or to be towed
shall be taken by the German Government into such allied ports as have
been indicated. The remainder, and also those in course of construction,
shall be broken up entirely by the German Government under the
supervision of the said Governments. The breaking up must be completed
within three months at the most after the coming into force of the
present treaty.
=ARTICLE 189.=--Articles, machinery, and material arising from the
breaking up of German warships of all kinds, whether surface vessels or
submarines, may not be used except for purely industrial or commercial
purposes. They may not be sold or disposed of to foreign countries.
=ARTICLE 190.=--Germany is forbidden to construct or acquire any
warships other than those intended to replace the units in commission
provided for in Article 181 of the present treaty. The warships intended
for replacement purposes as above shall not exceed the following
displacement: Armored ships, 10,000 tons; light cruisers, 6,000 tons;
destroyers, 800 tons; torpedo boats, 200 tons. Except where a ship has
been lost, units of the different classes shall only be replaced at the
end of a period of twenty years in the case of battleships and cruisers,
and fifteen years in the case of destroyers and torpedo boats, counting
from the launching of the ship.
=ARTICLE 191.=--The construction or acquisition of any submarine, even
for commercial purposes, shall be forbidden in Germany.
=ARTICLE 192.=--The warships in commission of the German fleet must only
have on board or in reserve the allowance of arms, munitions, and war
material fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. Within a
month from the fixing of the quantities as above, arms, munitions and
war material of all kinds, including mines and torpedoes now in the
hands of the German Government and in excess of the said quantities,
shall be surrendered to the Governments of the said powers at places to
be indicated by them. Such arms, munitions and war material will be
destroyed or rendered useless. All other stocks, depots or reserves of
arms, munitions or naval war material of all kinds are forbidden. The
manufacture of these articles in German territory for, and their export
to, foreign countries shall be forbidden.
=ARTICLE 193.=--On the coming into force of the present treaty Germany
will forthwith sweep up the mines in the following areas in the North
Sea to the eastward of longitude 4 degrees 00 minutes east of Greenwich:
(1) Between parallels of latitude 53 degrees 00 minutes N. and 59
degrees 00 minutes N.; (2) to the northward of latitude 60 degrees 30
minutes N. Germany must keep these areas free from mines. Germany must
also sweep and keep free from mines such areas in the Baltic as may
ultimately be notified by the Governments of the principal Allied and
Associated Powers.
=ARTICLE 194.=--The personnel of the German Navy shall be recruited
entirely by voluntary engagements entered into for a minimum period of
twenty-five consecutive years for officers and warrant officers, and
twelve consecutive years for petty officers, and men. The number engaged
to replace those discharged for any reason before the expiration of
their term of service must not exceed 5 per cent. per annum of the
totals laid down in this section. (Article 183.)
The personnel discharged from the navy must not receive any kind of
naval or military training or undertake any further service in the navy
or army. Officers belonging to the German Navy and not demobilized must
engage to serve till the age of 45 unless discharged for sufficient
reasons. No officer or man of the German mercantile marine shall receive
any training in the navy.
=ARTICLE 195.=--In order to insure free passage into the Baltic to all
nations, Germany shall not erect any fortifications in the area
comprised between latitudes 55.27 north and 54.00 north and longitudes
9.00 east and 16.00 east of the meridian of Greenwich, nor install any
guns commanding the maritime routes between the North Sea and the
Baltic. The fortifications now existing in this area shall be demolished
and the guns removed under the supervision of the Allied Governments and
in periods to be fixed by them. The German Government shall place at the
disposal of the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated
Powers all hydrographical information now in its possession concerning
the channels and adjoining waters between the Baltic and the North Sea.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
=Berlin Demonstrations Against The Peace Treaty=]
=ARTICLE 196.=--All fortified works and fortifications other than those
mentioned in Article 195 and in Part III. (political clauses for
Europe), Section XIII. (Heligoland), now established within fifty
kilometers of the German coast or on German islands off that coast,
shall be considered of a defensive nature and may remain in their
existing condition. No new fortifications shall be constructed within
these limits. The armament of these defenses shall not exceed, as
regards the number and calibre of guns, those in position at the date of
the coming into force of the present treaty. The German Government shall
communicate forthwith particulars thereof to all the European
Governments. On the expiration of a period of two months from the coming
into force of the present treaty the stocks of ammunition for these guns
shall be reduced to and maintained at a maximum figure of fifteen
hundred rounds per piece for calibres of 4.1-inch and under, and five
hundred rounds per piece for higher calibres.
=ARTICLE 197.=--During the three months following the coming into force
of the present treaty the German high-power wireless telegraphy stations
at Nauen, Hanover, and Berlin shall not be used for the transmission of
messages concerning naval, military, or political questions of interest
to Germany or any State which has been allied to Germany in the war,
without the assent of the Governments of the principal Allied and
Associated Powers. These stations may be used for commercial purposes,
but only under the supervision of the said Governments, who will decide
the wave length to be used. During the same period Germany shall not
build any more high-power wireless telegraphy stations in her own
territory or that of Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey.
SECTION III.--_Air Clauses_
=ARTICLE 198.=--The armed forces of Germany must not include any
military or naval air forces. Germany may, during a period not extending
beyond Oct. 1, 1919, maintain a maximum number of 100 seaplanes or
flying boats, which shall be exclusively employed in searching for
submarine mines, shall be furnished with the necessary equipment for
this purpose, and shall in no case carry arms, munitions, or bombs of
any nature whatever. In addition to the engines installed in the
seaplanes or flying boats above mentioned, one spare engine may be
provided for each engine of each of these craft. No dirigible shall be
kept.
=ARTICLE 199.=--Within two months from the coming into force of the
present treaty the personnel of the air forces on the rolls of the
German land and sea forces shall be demobilized. Up to the 1st October,
1919, however, Germany may keep and maintain a total number of 1,000
men, including officers, for the whole of the cadres and personnel,
flying and nonflying, of all formations and establishments.
=ARTICLE 200.=--Until the complete evacuation of German territory by the
Allied and Associated troops, the aircraft of the Allied and Associated
Powers shall enjoy in Germany freedom of passage through the air,
freedom of transit and of landing.
=ARTICLE 201.=--During the six months following the coming into force of
the present treaty the manufacture and importation of aircraft, parts of
aircraft, engines for aircraft, and parts of engines for aircraft shall
be forbidden in all German territory.
=ARTICLE 202.=--On the coming into force of the present treaty all
military and naval aeronautical material, except the machines mentioned
in the second and third paragraphs of Article 198, must be delivered to
the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers. Delivery
must be effected at such places as the said Governments may select, and
must be completed within three months. In particular, this material will
include all items under the following heads, which are or have been in
use or were designed for warlike purposes:
Complete airplanes and seaplanes, as well as those being manufactured,
repaired, or assembled.
Dirigibles able to take the air being manufactured, repaired, or
assembled.
Plant for the manufacture of hydrogen.
Dirigible sheds and shelters of every kind for aircraft.
Pending their delivery, dirigibles will, at the expense of Germany, be
maintained inflated with hydrogen; the plant for the manufacture of
hydrogen, as well as the sheds for dirigibles, may, at the discretion of
said powers, be left to Germany until the time when the dirigibles are
handed over.
Engines for aircraft.
Nacelles and fuselages.
Armament (guns, machine guns, light machine guns, bomb-dropping
apparatus, torpedo-dropping apparatus, synchronization apparatus, aiming
apparatus).
Munitions (cartridges, shells, bombs, loaded or unloaded, stocks of
explosives or of material for their manufacture).
Instruments for use on aircraft.
Wireless apparatus and photographic or cinematograph apparatus for use
on aircraft.
Component parts of any of the items under the preceding heads.
The material referred to above shall not be removed without special
permission from the said Governments.
SECTION IV.--_Interallied Commissions of Control_
=ARTICLE 203.=--All the military, naval, and air clauses contained in
the present treaty, for the execution of which a time limit is
prescribed, shall be executed by Germany under the control of
interallied commissions specially appointed for this purpose by the
principal Allied and Associated Powers.
=ARTICLE 204.=--The Interallied Commissions of Control will be specially
charged with the duty of seeing to the complete execution of the
delivery, destruction, demolition, and rendering things useless to be
carried out at the expense of the German Government in accordance with
the present treaty. They will communicate to the German authorities the
decisions which the principal Allied and Associated Powers have reserved
the right to take, or which the execution of the military, naval, and
air clauses may necessitate.
=ARTICLE 205.=--The Interallied Commissions of Control may establish
their organizations at the seat of the Central German Government. They
shall be entitled as often as they think desirable to proceed to any
point whatever in German territory, or to send sub-commissions, or to
authorize one or more of their members to go, to any such point.
=ARTICLE 206.=--The German Government must give all necessary facilities
for the accomplishment of their missions to the Interallied Commissions
of Control and to their members. It shall attach a qualified
representative to each Interallied Commission of Control for the purpose
of receiving the communications which the commission may have to address
to the German Government, and of supplying or procuring for the
commission all information or documents which may be required. The
German Government must in all cases furnish at its own cost all labor
and material required to effect the deliveries and the work of
destruction, dismantling, demolition, and of rendering things useless,
provided for in the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 207.=--The upkeep and cost of the Commissions of Control and
the expenses involved by their work shall be borne by Germany.
=ARTICLE 208.=--The Military Interallied Commission of Control will
represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers
in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning the
execution of the military clauses. In particular it will be its duty to
receive from the German Government the notifications relating to the
location of the stocks and depots of munitions, the armament of the
fortified works, fortresses and forts which Germany is allowed to
retain, and the location of the works or factories for the production of
arms, munitions and war material and their operations. It will take
delivery of the arms, munitions, and war material, will select the
points where such delivery is to be effected, and will supervise the
works of destruction and demolition and of rendering things useless
which are to be carried out in accordance with the present treaty. The
German Government must furnish to the Military Interallied Commission of
Control all such information and documents as the latter may deem
necessary to insure the complete execution of the military clauses, and
in particular all legislative and administrative documents and
regulations.
=ARTICLE 209.=--The Naval Interallied Commission of Control will
represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers
in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning the
execution of the naval clauses. In particular it will be its duty to
proceed to the building yards and to supervise the breaking up of the
ships which are under construction there, to take delivery of all
surface ships or submarines, salvage ships, docks and the tubular dock,
and to supervise the destruction and breaking up provided for. The
German Government must furnish to the Naval Interallied Commission of
Control all such information and documents as the commission may deem
necessary to insure the complete execution of the naval clauses, in
particular the designs of the warships, the composition of their
armaments, the details and models of the guns, munitions, torpedoes,
mines, explosives, wireless telegraphic apparatus and in general
everything relating to naval war material, as well as all legislative or
administrative documents or regulations.
=ARTICLE 210.=--The Aeronautical Interallied Commission of Control will
represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers
in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning the
execution of the air clauses. In particular it will be its duty to make
an inventory of the aeronautical material existing in German territory,
to inspect airplane, balloon, and motor manufactories, and factories
producing arms, munitions, and explosives capable of being used by
aircraft, to visit all aerodromes, sheds, landing grounds, parks, and
depots, to authorize, where necessary, a removal of material, and to
take delivery of such material. The German Government must furnish to
the Aeronautical Interallied Commission of Control all such information
and legislative, administrative or other documents which the commission
may consider necessary to insure the complete execution of the air
clauses, and, in particular, a list of the personnel belonging to all
the German air services, and of the existing material as well as of that
in process of manufacture or on order, and a list of all establishments
working for aviation, of their positions, and of all sheds and landing
grounds.
SECTION V.--_General Articles_
=ARTICLE 211.=--After the expiration of a period of three months from
the coming into force of the present treaty the German laws must have
been modified and shall be maintained in conformity with this part of
the present treaty. Within the same period all the administrative or
other measures relating to the execution of this part of the treaty must
have been taken.
=ARTICLE 212.=--The following portions of the armistice of Nov. 11,
1918: Article VI., the first two and the sixth and seventh paragraphs of
Article VII, Article IX, Clauses I., II., and V. of Annex No. 2 and the
protocol, dated April 4, 1919, supplementing the armistice of Nov. 11,
1918, remain in force so far as they are not inconsistent with the above
stipulations.
=ARTICLE 213.=--So long as the present treaty remains in force, Germany
undertakes to give every facility for any investigation which the
Council of the League of Nations, acting if need be by a majority vote,
may consider necessary.
PART VI
Prisoners of War and Graves
SECTION I.--_Prisoners of War_
=ARTICLE 214.=--The repatriation of prisoners of war and interned
civilians shall take place as soon as possible after the coming into
force of the present treaty and shall be carried out with the greatest
rapidity.
=ARTICLE 215.=--The repatriation of German prisoners of war and interned
civilians shall, in accordance with Article 214, be carried out by a
commission composed of representatives of the Allied and Associated
Powers on the one part, and of the German Government on the other part.
For each of the Allied and Associated Powers a sub-commission composed
exclusively of representatives of the interested powers and of delegates
of the German Government shall regulate the details of carrying into
effect the repatriation of the prisoners of war.
=ARTICLE 216.=--From the time of their delivery into the hands of the
German authorities the prisoners of war and interned civilians are to be
returned without delay to their homes by the said authorities. Those
among them who before the war were habitually resident in territory
occupied by the troops of the Allied and Associated Powers are likewise
to be sent to their homes, subject to the consent and control of the
military authorities of the Allied and Associated Armies of Occupation.
=ARTICLE 217.=--The whole cost of repatriation from the moment of
starting shall be borne by the German Government, who shall also provide
the land and sea transport and staff considered necessary by the
commission referred to in Article 215.
=ARTICLE 218.=--Prisoners of war and interned civilians awaiting
disposal or undergoing sentences for offenses against discipline shall
be repatriated irrespective of the completion of their sentence or of
the proceedings pending against them.
This stipulation shall not apply to prisoners of war and interned
civilians punished for offenses committed subsequent to May 1, 1919.
During the period pending their repatriation all prisoners of war and
interned civilians shall remain subject to the existing regulations,
more especially as regards work and discipline.
=ARTICLE 219.=--Prisoners of war and interned civilians who are awaiting
disposal or undergoing sentence for offenses other than those against
discipline may be detained.
=ARTICLE 220.=--The German Government undertakes to admit to its
territory without distinction all persons liable to repatriation.
Prisoners of war or other German nationals who do not desire to be
repatriated may be excluded from repatriation; but the Allied and
Associated Governments reserve to themselves the right either to
repatriate them or to take them to a neutral country or to allow them to
reside in their own territories.
The German Government undertakes not to institute any exceptional
proceedings against these persons or their families nor to take any
repressive or vexatious measures of any kind whatsoever against them on
this account.
=ARTICLE 221.=--The Allied and Associated Governments reserve the right
to make the repatriation of German prisoners of war or German nationals
in their hands conditional upon the immediate notification and release
by the German Government of any prisoners of war who are nationals of
the Allied and Associated Powers and may still be in Germany.
=ARTICLE 222.=--Germany undertakes:
1. To give every facility to the commissions to inquire into the cases
of those who cannot be traced; to furnish such commissions with all
necessary means of transport; to allow them access to camps, prisons,
hospitals, and all other places; and to place at their disposal all
documents, whether public or private, which would facilitate their
inquiries.
2. To impose penalties upon any German officials or private persons who
have concealed the presence of any nationals of any of the Allied and
Associated Powers, or have neglected to reveal the presence of any such
after it had come to their knowledge.
=ARTICLE 223.=--Germany undertakes to restore without delay from the
date of the coming into force of the present treaty all articles, money,
securities, and documents which have belonged to nationals of the Allied
and Associated Powers and which have been retained by the German
authorities.
=ARTICLE 224.=--The high contracting parties waive reciprocally all
repayment of sums due for the maintenance of prisoners of war in their
respective territories.
SECTION II.--_Graves_
=ARTICLE 225.=--The Allied and Associated Governments and the German
Government will cause to be respected and maintained the graves of the
soldiers and sailors buried in their respective territories.
They agree to recognize any commission appointed by an Allied or
Associated Government for the purpose of identifying, registering,
caring for, or erecting suitable memorials over the said graves and to
facilitate the discharge of its duties.
Furthermore, they agree to afford, so far as the provisions of their
laws and the requirements of public health allow, every facility for
giving effect to requests that the bodies of their soldiers and sailors
may be transferred to their own countries.
=ARTICLE 226.=--The graves of prisoners of war and interned civilians
who are nationals of the different belligerent States and have died in
captivity shall be properly maintained in accordance with Article 225 of
the present treaty.
The Allied and Associated Governments on the one part, and the German
Government on the other part, reciprocally, undertake also to furnish to
each other:
1. A complete list of those who have died, together with all information
useful for identification.
2. All information as to the number and position of the graves of all
those who have been buried without identification.
PART VII
Penalties
=ARTICLE 227.=--The Allied and Associated Powers publicly arraign
William II. of Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, for a supreme
offense against international morality and the sanctity of treaties.
A special tribunal will be constituted to try the accused, thereby
assuring him the guarantees essential to the right of defense. It will
be composed of five judges, one appointed by each of the following
powers: The United States of America, Great Britain, France, Italy, and
Japan.
In its decision, the tribunal will be guided by the highest motives of
international policy with a view to vindicating the solemn obligations
of international undertakings and the validity of international
morality. It will be its duty to fix the punishment which it considers
should be imposed.
The Allied and Associated Powers will address a request to the
Government of the Netherlands for the surrender to them of the
ex-Emperor in order that he may be put on trial.
=ARTICLE 228.=--The German Government recognizes the right of the Allied
and Associated Powers to bring before military tribunals persons accused
of having committed acts in violation of the laws and customs of war.
Such persons shall, if found guilty, be sentenced to punishments laid
down by law. This provision will apply, notwithstanding any proceedings
or prosecution before a tribunal in Germany or in the territory of her
allies.
The German Government shall hand over to the Allied and Associated
Powers or to such one of them as shall so request, all persons accused
of having committed an act in violation of the laws and customs of war
who are specified either by name or by the rank, office, or employment
which they held under the German authorities.
=ARTICLE 229.=--Persons guilty of criminal acts against the nationals of
one of the Allied and Associated Powers will be brought before the
military tribunals of that power.
Persons guilty of criminal acts against the nationals of more than one
of the Allied and Associated Powers will be brought before military
tribunals composed of members of the military tribunals of the powers
concerned.
In every case the accused will be entitled to name his own counsel.
=ARTICLE 230.=--The German Government undertakes to furnish all
documents and information of every kind, the production of which may be
considered necessary to insure the full knowledge of the incriminating
acts, the discovery of offenders, and the just appreciation of
responsibility.
PART VIII
Reparation
SECTION I.--_General Provisions_
=ARTICLE 231.=--The Allied and Associated Governments affirm, and
Germany accepts, the responsibility of Germany and her allies for
causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated
Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of
the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.
=ARTICLE 232.=--The Allied and Associated Governments recognize that the
resources of Germany are not adequate, after taking into account
permanent diminutions of such resources which will result from other
provisions of the present treaty, to make complete reparation for all
such loss and damage.
The Allied and Associated Governments, however, require, and Germany
undertakes, that she will make compensation for all damage done to the
civilian population of the Allied and Associated Powers and to their
property during the period of the belligerency of each as an Allied or
Associated Power against Germany by such aggression by land, by sea, and
from the air, and in general all damage as defined in Annex I. hereto.
In accordance with Germany's pledges, already given as to complete
restoration for Belgium, Germany undertakes, in addition to the
compensation for damage elsewhere in this chapter provided for, as a
consequence of the violation of the treaty of 1839, to make
reimbursement of all sums which Belgium has borrowed from the Allies and
Associated Governments up to Nov. 11, 1918, together with interest at
the rate of 5 per cent. per annum on such sums. This amount shall be
determined by the Reparation Commission, and the German Government
undertakes thereupon forthwith to make a special issue of bearer bonds
to an equivalent amount payable in marks gold, on May 1, 1926, or, at
the option of the German Government, on the 1st of May in any year up to
1926. Subject to the foregoing, the form of such bonds shall be
determined by the Reparation Commission. Such bonds shall be handed over
to the Reparation Commission, which has authority to take and
acknowledge receipt thereof on behalf of Belgium.
=ARTICLE 233.=--The amount of the above damage for which compensation is
to be made by Germany shall be determined by an interallied commission,
to be called the Reparation Commission, and constituted in the form and
with the power set forth hereunder and in Annexes II. to VII. inclusive
hereto.
This commission shall consider the claims and give to the German
Government a just opportunity to be heard.
The findings of the commission as to the amount of damage defined as
above shall be concluded and notified to the German Government on or
before the 1st May, 1921, as representing the extent of that
Government's obligations.
The commission shall concurrently draw up a schedule of payments
prescribing the time and manner for securing and discharging the entire
obligation within a period of thirty years from the 1st May, 1921. If,
however, within the period mentioned, Germany fails to discharge her
obligations, any balance remaining unpaid may, within the discretion of
the commission, be postponed for settlement in subsequent years, or may
be handled otherwise in such manner as the Allied and Associated
Governments, acting in accordance with the procedure laid down in this
part of the present treaty, shall determine.
=ARTICLE 234.=--The Reparation Commission shall after the 1st May, 1921,
from time to time, consider the resources and capacity of Germany and,
after giving her representatives a just opportunity to be heard, shall
have discretion to extend the date and to modify the form of payments,
such as are to be provided for in accordance with Article 233; but not
to cancel any part, except with the specific authority of the several
Governments represented upon the commission.
=ARTICLE 235.=--In order to enable the Allied and Associated Powers to
proceed at once to the restoration of their industrial and economic
life, pending the full determination of their claims, Germany shall pay
in such installments and in such manner (whether in gold, commodities,
ships, securities, or otherwise) as the Reparation Commission may fix,
during 1919, 1920, and the first four months of 1921, the equivalent of
20,000,000,000 gold marks.
Out of this sum the expenses of the armies of occupation subsequent to
the armistice of the 11th November, 1918, shall first be met, and such
supplies of food and raw materials as may be judged by the Governments
of the principal Allied and Associated Powers to be essential to enable
Germany to meet her obligations for reparation may also, with the
approval of the said Governments, be paid for out of the above sum. The
balance shall be reckoned toward liquidation of the amounts due for
reparation.
Germany shall further deposit bonds as prescribed in Paragraph 12 (c) of
Annex II. hereto.
=ARTICLE 236.=--Germany further agrees to the direct application of her
economic resources to reparation as specified in Annexes III., IV., V.,
and VI., relating respectively to merchant shipping, to physical
restoration, and to coal and derivatives of coal, and to dyestuffs and
other chemical products; provided always that the value of the property
transferred and any services rendered by her under these annexes,
assessed in the manner herein prescribed, shall be credited to her
toward liquidation of her obligations under the above articles.
=ARTICLE 237.=--The successive installments, including the above sum,
paid over by Germany in satisfaction of the above claims, will be
divided by the Allied and Associated Governments in proportions which
have been determined upon by them in advance on a basis of general
equity and of the rights of each.
For the purposes of this division the value of property transferred and
services rendered under Article 243 and under Annexes III., IV., VI.,
and VII. shall be reckoned in the same manner as cash payments effected
in that year.
=ARTICLE 238.=--In addition to the payments mentioned above, Germany
shall effect, in accordance with the procedure laid down by the
Reparation Commission, restitution in cash of cash taken away, seized,
or sequestrated, and also restitution of animals, objects of every
nature, and securities taken away, seized, or sequestrated, in the cases
in which it proves possible to identify them in territory belonging to
Germany or her allies.
Until this procedure is laid down restitution will continue in
accordance with the provisions of the armistice of 11th November, 1918,
and its renewals and the protocols thereto.
=ARTICLE 239.=--Germany undertakes to make forthwith the restitution
contemplated by Article 238 and to make the payments and deliveries
contemplated by Articles 233, 234, 235, and 236.
=ARTICLE 240.=--Germany recognizes the commission provided for by
Article 233 as the same may be constituted by the Allied and Associated
Governments in accordance with Annex II. and agrees irrevocably to the
possession and exercise by such commission of the power and authority
given to it under the present treaty. The German Government will supply
to the commission all the information which the commission may require
relative to the financial situation and operations and to the property,
productive capacity, and stocks and current production of raw materials
and manufactured articles of Germany and her nationals, and, further,
any information relative to military operations which in the judgment of
the commission may be necessary for the assessment of Germany's
liability for reparation as defined in Annex I.
The German Government will accord to the members of the commission and
its authorized agents the same rights and immunities as are enjoyed in
Germany by duly accredited diplomatic agents of friendly powers. Germany
further agrees to provide for the salaries and expenses of the
commission, and of such staff as it may employ.
=ARTICLE 241.=--Germany undertakes to pass, issue, and maintain in force
any legislation, orders, and decrees that may be necessary to give
complete effect to these provisions.
=ARTICLE 242.=--The provisions of this part of the present treaty do not
apply to the property, rights, and interests referred to in Sections
III. and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, nor to
the product of their liquidation, except so far as concerns any final
balance in favor of Germany under Article 243 (a).
=ARTICLE 243.=--The following shall be reckoned as credits to Germany in
respect of her reparation obligations:
(a) Any final balance in favor of Germany under Sections III. and IV. of
Part X. (economic clauses) and Section V. (Alsace-Lorraine) of Part III.
(political clauses for Europe).
(b) Amounts due to Germany in respect of transfers under Part IX.
(financial clauses), Part XII. (ports, waterways, and railways), and
Section IV. (Sarre Basin) of Part III. (political clauses for Europe).
(c) Amounts which in the judgment of the Reparation Commission should be
credited to Germany on account of any other transfers under the present
treaty of property, rights, concessions, or other interests.
In no case, however, shall credit be given for property restored in
accordance with Article 238.
=ARTICLE 244.=--The transfer of the German submarine cables which do not
form the subject of particular provisions of the present treaty as
regulated by Annex VII. hereto.
ANNEX I.
Compensation may be claimed from Germany under Article 232 above in
respect of the total damage under the following categories:
1. Damage to injured persons and to surviving dependents by personal
injury to or death of civilians caused by acts of war, including
bombardments or other attacks on land, on sea, or from the air, and all
the direct consequences thereof, and of all operations of war by the two
groups of belligerents wherever arising.
2. Damage caused by Germany or her allies to civilian victims of acts of
cruelty, violence, or maltreatment, (including injuries to life or
health as a consequence of imprisonment, deportation, internment, or
evacuation, of exposure at sea, or of being forced to labor by Germany
or her allies,) wherever arising, and to the surviving dependents of
such victims.
3. Damage caused by Germany or her allies in their own territory or in
occupied or invaded territory to civilian victims of all acts injurious
to health or capacity to work, or to honor, as well as to the surviving
dependents of such victims.
4. Damage caused by any kind of maltreatment of prisoners of war.
5. As damage caused to the peoples of the Allied and Associated Powers,
all pensions and compensations in the nature of pensions to naval and
military victims of war, (including members of the air forces,) whether
mutilated, wounded, sick or invalided, and to the dependents of such
victims, the amount due to the Allied and Associated Governments being
calculated for each of them as being the capitalized costs of such
pensions and compensations at the date of the coming into force of the
present treaty, on the basis of the scales in force in France at such
date.
6. The cost of assistance by the Governments of the Allied and
Associated Powers to prisoners of war and to their families and
dependents.
7. Allowances by the Governments of the Allied and Associated Powers to
the families and dependents of mobilized persons or persons serving with
the forces, the amount due to them for each calendar year in which
hostilities occurred being calculated for each Government on the basis
of the average scale for such payments in force in France during that
year.
8. Damage caused to civilians by being forced by Germany or her allies
to labor without just remuneration.
9. Damage in respect of all property, wherever situated, belonging to
any of the Allied or Associated States or their nationals, with the
exception of naval and military works or materials, which have been
carried off, seized, injured, or destroyed by the acts of Germany or her
allies on land, on sea, or from the air, or damage directly in
consequence of hostilities or of any operations of war.
10. Damage in the form of levies, fines and other similar exactions
imposed by Germany or her allies upon the civilian population.
ANNEX II.
1. The commission referred to in Article 233 shall be called "The
Reparation Commission," and is hereinafter referred to as "the
commission."
2. Delegates to the commission shall be nominated by the United States
of America, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, and the
Serb-Croat-Slovene State. Each of these powers will appoint one delegate
and also one assistant delegate, who will take his place in case of
illness or necessary absence, but at other times will only have the
right to be present at proceedings without taking any part therein. On
no occasion shall the delegates of more than five of the above powers
have the right to take part in the proceedings of the commission and to
record their votes. The delegates of the United States, Great Britain,
France, and Italy shall have this right on all occasions. The delegates
of Belgium shall have this right on all occasions other than those
referred to below. The delegate of Japan shall have this right on
occasions when questions relating to damage at sea and questions arising
under Article 260 of Part IX. (financial clauses) in which Japanese
interests are concerned are under consideration. The delegate of the
Serb-Croat-Slovene State shall have this right when questions relating
to Austria, Hungary, or Bulgaria are under consideration.
Each Government represented on the commission shall have the right to
withdraw therefrom upon twelve months' notice, filed with the commission
and confirmed in the course of the sixth month after the date of the
original notice.
3. Such of the other Allied and Associated Powers as may be interested
shall have the right to appoint a delegate to be present and act as
assessor only while their respective claims and interests are under
examination or discussion, but without the right to vote.
4. In case of the death, resignation or recall of any delegate,
assistant delegate, or assessor, a successor to him shall be nominated
as soon as possible.
5. The commission will have its principal permanent bureau in Paris and
will hold its first meeting in Paris as soon as practicable after the
coming into force of the present treaty, and thereafter will meet in
such place or places and at such time as it may deem convenient and as
may be necessary for the most expeditious discharge of its duties.
6. At its first meeting the commission shall elect from among the
delegates referred to above a Chairman and a Vice Chairman, who shall
hold office for one year and shall be eligible for re-election. If a
vacancy in the Chairmanship or Vice Chairmanship should occur during the
annual period the commission shall proceed to a new election for the
remainder of the said period.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
German Press Representatives in Versailles
These men who are shown in their work room in the Hotel Des Reservoirs,
Versailles, sent the news of the progress of the Peace Treaty throughout
Germany]
7. The commission is authorized to appoint all necessary officers,
agents, and employees who may be required for the execution of its
functions, and to fix their remuneration; to constitute committees,
whose members need not necessarily be members of the commission, and to
take all executive steps necessary for the purpose of discharging its
duties, and to delegate authority and discretion to officers, agents,
and committees.
8. All proceedings of the commission shall be private unless, on
particular occasions, the commission shall otherwise determine for
special reasons.
9. The commission shall be required, if the German Government so desire,
to hear, within a period which it will fix from time to time, evidence
and arguments on the part of Germany on any question connected with her
capacity to pay.
10. The commission shall consider the claims and give to the German
Government a just opportunity to be heard, but not to take any part
whatever in the decisions of the commission. The commission shall afford
a similar opportunity to the allies of Germany when it shall consider
that their interests are in question.
11. The commission shall not be bound by any particular code or rules of
law or by any particular rule of evidence or of procedure, but shall be
guided by justice, equity, and good faith. Its decisions must follow the
same principles and rules in all cases where they are applicable. It
will establish rules relating to methods of proof of claims. It may act
on any trustworthy modes of computation.
12. The commission shall have all the powers conferred upon it, and
shall exercise all the functions assigned to it by the present treaty.
The commission shall in general have wide latitude as to its control and
handling of the whole reparation problem as dealt with in this part of
the present treaty, and shall have authority to interpret its
provisions. Subject to the provisions of the present treaty, the
commission is constituted by the several Allied and Associated
Governments referred to in Paragraphs 2 and 3 above as the exclusive
agency of the said Governments respectively for receiving, selling,
holding, and distributing the reparation payments to be made by Germany
under this part of the present treaty. The commission must comply with
the following conditions and provisions:
(a) Whatever part of the full amount of the proved claims is not paid in
gold, or in ships, securities, and commodities or otherwise, Germany
shall be required, under such conditions as the commission may
determine, to cover by way of guarantee by an equivalent issue of bonds,
obligations, or otherwise, in order to constitute an acknowledgment of
the said part of the debt;
(b) In periodically estimating Germany's capacity to pay, the commission
shall examine the German system of taxation, first to the end that the
sums for reparation which Germany is required to pay shall become a
charge upon all her revenues prior to that for the service or discharge
of any domestic loan, and, secondly, so as to satisfy itself that, in
general, the German scheme of taxation is fully as heavy proportionately
as that of any of the powers represented on the commission.
(c) In order to facilitate and continue the immediate restoration of the
economic life of the Allied and Associated countries, the commission
will, as provided in Article 235, take from Germany by way of security
for and acknowledgment of her debt a first installment of gold bearer
bonds free of all taxes or charges of every description established or
to be established by the Government of the German Empire or of the
German States, or by any authority subject to them; these bonds will be
delivered on account and in three portions, the marks gold being payable
in conformity with Article 262 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the
present treaty, as follows:
First. To be issued forthwith, 20,000,000,000 marks gold bearer bonds,
payable not later than May 1, 1921, without interest. There shall be
specially applied toward the amortization of these bonds the payments
which Germany is pledged to make in conformity with Article 235, after
deduction of the sums used for the reimbursement of expenses of the
armies of occupation and for payment of foodstuffs and raw materials.
Such bonds as have not been redeemed by May 1, 1921, shall then be
exchanged for new bonds of the same type as those provided for below,
(Paragraph 12, c. second.)
Second. To be issued forthwith, further 40,000,000,000 marks gold bearer
bonds, bearing interest at 2½ per cent. per annum between 1921 and 1926,
and thereafter at 5 per cent. per annum, with an additional 1 per cent
for amortization beginning in 1926 on the whole amount of the issue.
Third. To be delivered forthwith a covering undertaking in writing, to
issue when, but not until, the commission is satisfied that Germany can
meet such interest and sinking fund obligations, a further installment
of 40,000,000,000 marks gold 5 per cent. bearer bonds, the time and mode
of payment of principal and interest to be determined by the commission.
The dates for payment of interest, the manner of applying the
amortization fund, and all other questions relating to the issue,
management, and regulation of the bond issue shall be determined by the
commission from time to time.
Further issues by way of acknowledgment and security may be required as
the commission subsequently determines from time to time.
(d) In the event of bonds, obligations, or other evidence of
indebtedness issued by Germany by way of security for or acknowledgment
of her reparation debt being disposed of outright, not by way of pledge,
to persons other than the several Governments in whose favor Germany's
original reparation indebtedness was created, an amount of such
reparation indebtedness shall be deemed to be extinguished
corresponding to the nominal value of the bonds, &c., so disposed of
outright, and the obligation of Germany in respect for such bonds shall
be confined to her liabilities to the holders of the bonds, as expressed
upon their face.
(e) The damage for repairing, reconstructing, and rebuilding property in
the invaded and devastated districts, including reinstallation of
furniture, machinery and other equipment, will be calculated according
to the cost at the dates when the work is done.
(f) Decisions of the commission relating to the total or partial
cancellation of the capital or interest of any verified debt of Germany
must be accompanied by a statement of its reasons.
13. As to voting, the commission will observe the following rules:
When a decision of the commission is taken, the votes of all the
delegates entitled to vote, or in the absence of any of them, of their
assistant delegates, shall be recorded. Abstention from voting is to be
treated as a vote against the proposal under discussion. Assessors have
no vote.
On the following questions unanimity is necessary:
(a) Questions involving the sovereignty of any of the Allied and
Associated Powers, or the cancellation of the whole or any part of the
debt or obligations of Germany.
(b) Questions of determining the amount and conditions of bonds or other
obligations to be issued by the German Government and of fixing the time
and manner for selling, negotiating, or distributing such bonds.
(c) Any postponement, total or partial, beyond the end of 1930, of the
payment of installments falling due between the 1st May, 1921, and the
end of 1926 inclusive.
(d) Any postponement, total or partial, of any installment falling due
after 1926 for a period exceeding three years.
(e) Questions of applying in any particular case a method of measuring
damages different from that which has been previously applied in a
similar case.
(f) Questions of the interpretation of the provisions of this part of
the present treaty.
All other questions shall be decided by the vote of a majority.
In case of any difference of opinion among the delegates, which cannot
be solved by reference to their Governments, upon the question whether a
given case is one which requires a unanimous vote for its decision or
not, such difference shall be referred to the immediate arbitration of
some impartial person to be agreed upon by the Governments, whose award
the Allied and Associated Governments agree to accept.
14. Decisions of the commission, in accordance with the powers conferred
upon it, shall forthwith become binding and may be put into immediate
execution without further proceedings.
15. The commission will issue to each of the interested powers, in such
form as the commission shall fix:
First. A certificate stating that it holds for the account of the said
power bonds of the issues mentioned above, the said certificate, on the
demand of the power concerned, being divisible in a number of parts not
exceeding five;
Second. From time to time certificates stating the goods delivered by
Germany on account of her reparation debt which it holds for the account
of the said power.
The said certificates shall be registered, and, upon notice to the
commission, may be transferred by indorsement.
When bonds are issued for sale or negotiation, and when goods are
delivered by the commission, certificates to an equivalent value must be
withdrawn.
16. Interest shall be debited to Germany as from 1st May, 1921, in
respect of her debt as determined by the commission, after allowing for
sums already covered by cash payments or their equivalent, or by bonds
issued to the commission, or under Article 243. The rate of interest
shall be 5 per cent., unless the commission shall determine at some
future time that circumstances justify a variation of this rate.
The commission, in fixing on 1st May, 1921, the total amount of the debt
of Germany, may take account of interest due on sums arising out of the
reparation of material damage, as from 11th November, 1918, up to 1st
May, 1921.
17. In case of default by Germany in the performance of any obligation
under this part of the present treaty, the commission will forthwith
give notice of such default to each of the interested powers and may
make such recommendations as to the action to be taken in consequence of
such default as it may think necessary.
18. The measures which the Allied and Associated Powers shall have the
right to take, in case of voluntary default by Germany, and which
Germany agrees not to regard as acts of war, may include economic and
financial prohibitions and reprisals and in general such other measures
as the respective Governments may determine to be necessary in the
circumstances.
19. Payments required to be made in gold or its equivalent on account of
the proved claims of the Allied and Associated Powers may at any time be
accepted by the commission in the form of chattels, properties,
commodities, businesses, rights, concessions, within or without German
territory, ships, bonds, shares, or securities of any kind, or
currencies of Germany or other States, the value of such substitutes for
gold being fixed at a fair and just amount by the commission itself.
20. The commission, in fixing or accepting payment in specified
properties or rights, shall have due regard for any legal or equitable
interests of the Allied and Associated Powers or of neutral powers or of
their nationals therein.
21. No member of the commission shall be responsible, except to the
Government appointing him, for any action or omission as such member. No
one of the Allied or Associated Governments assumes any responsibility
in respect of any other Government.
22. Subject to the provisions of the present treaty this annex may be
amended by the unanimous decision of the Governments represented from
time to time upon the commission.
23. When all the amounts due from Germany and her allies under the
present treaty or the decisions of the commission have been discharged
and all sums received, or their equivalents, shall have been distributed
to the powers interested, the commission shall be dissolved.
ANNEX III.
1. Germany recognizes the right of the Allied and Associated Powers to
the replacement, ton for ton (gross tonnage) and class for class, of all
merchant ships and fishing boats lost or damaged owing to the war.
Nevertheless, and in spite of the fact that the tonnage of German
shipping at present in existence is much less than that lost by the
Allied and Associated Powers, in consequence of the German aggression,
the right thus recognized will be enforced on German ships and boats
under the following conditions:
The German Government on behalf of themselves and so as to bind all
other persons interested, cede to the Allied and Associated Governments
the property in all the German merchant ships which are of 1,600 tons
gross and upward; in one-half, reckoned in tonnage, of the ships which
are between 1,000 tons and 1,600 tons gross; in one-quarter, reckoned in
tonnage, of the steam trawlers, and in one-quarter, reckoned in tonnage,
of the other fishing boats.
2. The German Government will, within two months of the coming into
force of the present treaty, deliver to the Reparation Commission all
the ships and boats mentioned in Paragraph 1.
3. The ships and boats mentioned in Paragraph 1 include all ships and
boats which (a) fly, or may be entitled to fly, the German merchant
flag; or (b) are owned by any German national, company, or corporation
or by any company or corporation belonging to a country other than an
Allied or Associated country and under the control or direction of
German nationals; or (c) which are now under construction (1) in
Germany, (2) in other than Allied or Associated countries for the
account of any German national, company, or corporation.
4. For the purpose of providing documents of title for the ships and
boats to be handed over as above mentioned, the German Government will:
(a) Deliver to the Reparation Commission in respect of each vessel a
bill of sale or other document of title evidencing the transfer to the
commission of the entire property in the vessel free from all
incumbrances, charges, and liens of all kinds, as the commission may
require:
(b) Take all measures that may be indicated by the Reparation Commission
for insuring that the ships themselves shall be placed at its disposal.
5. As an additional part of reparation, Germany agrees to cause merchant
ships to be built in German yards for the account of the Allied and
Associated Governments as follows:
(a) Within three months of the coming into force of the present treaty,
the Reparation Commission will notify to the German Government the
amount of tonnage to be laid down in German shipyards in each of the two
years next succeeding the three months mentioned above:
(b) Within twenty-four months of the coming into force of the present
treaty, the Reparation Commission will notify to the German Government
the amount of tonnage to be laid down in each of the three years
following the two years mentioned above;
(c) The amount of tonnage to be laid down in each year shall not exceed
200,000 tons, gross tonnage;
(d) The specifications of the ships to be built, the conditions under
which they are to be built and delivered, the price per ton at which
they are to be accounted for by the Reparation Commission, and all other
questions relating to the accounting, ordering, building and delivery of
the ships, shall be determined by the commission.
6. Germany undertakes to restore in kind and in normal condition of
upkeep to the Allied and Associated Powers, within two months of the
coming into force of the present treaty, in accordance with procedure to
be laid down by the Reparation Commission, any boats and other movable
appliances belonging to inland navigation which since the 1st August,
1914, have by any means whatever come into her possession or into the
possession of her nationals, and which can be identified.
With a view to make good the loss in inland navigation tonnage, from
whatever cause arising, which has been incurred during the war by the
Allied and Associated Powers, and which cannot be made good by means of
the restitution prescribed above, Germany agrees to cede to the
Reparation Commission a portion of the German river fleet up to the
amount of the loss mentioned above, provided that such cession shall not
exceed 20 per cent. of the river fleet as it existed on the 11th
November, 1918.
The condition of this session shall be settled by the arbitrators
referred to in Article 339 of Part XII. (ports, waterways and railways)
of the present treaty, who are charged with the settlement of
difficulties relating to the apportionment of river tonnage resulting
from the new international régime applicable to certain river systems or
from the territorial changes affecting those systems.
7. Germany agrees to take any measures that may be indicated to her by
the Reparation Commission for obtaining the full title to the property
in all ships which have been during the war transferred, or are in
process of transfer, to neutral flags, without the consent of the Allied
and Associated Governments.
8. Germany waives all claims of any description against the Allied and
Associated Governments and their nationals in respect of the detention,
employment, loss or damage of any German ships or boats, except when
being made of payments due in respect of the employment of ships in
conformity with the armistice agreement of the 13th January, 1919, and
subsequent agreements.
The handing over of the ships of the German mercantile marine must be
continued without interruption in accordance with the said agreement.
9. Germany waives all claims to vessels or cargoes sunk by or in
consequence of naval action and subsequently salved, in which any of the
Allied or Associated Governments or their nationals may have any
interest, either as owners, charterers, insurers or otherwise,
notwithstanding any decree of condemnation which may have been made by a
prize court of Germany or of her allies.
ANNEX IV.
1. The Allied and Associated Powers require, and Germany undertakes,
that, in part satisfaction of her obligations expressed in this part of
the present treaty, she will, as hereinafter provided, devote her
economic resources directly to the physical restoration of the invaded
areas of the Allied and Associated Powers, to the extent that these
powers may determine.
2. The Allied and Associated Governments may file with the Reparation
Commission lists showing:
(a) Animals, machinery, equipment, tools, and like articles of
commercial character, which have been seized, consumed, or destroyed by
Germany or destroyed in direct consequence of military operations, and
which such Governments, for the purpose of meeting immediate and urgent
needs, desire to have replaced by animals and articles of the same
nature which are being in German territory at the date of the coming
into force of the present treaty;
(b) Reconstruction materials, (stones, bricks, refractory bricks, tiles,
wood, window glass, steel, lime, cement, &c.,) machinery, heating
apparatus, furniture, and like articles of a commercial character which
the said Governments desire to have produced and manufactured in Germany
and delivered to them to permit of the restoration of the invaded areas.
3. The lists relating to the articles mentioned in 2 (a), above, shall
be filed within sixty days after the date of the coming into force of
the present treaty. The lists relating to the articles in 2 (b), above,
shall be filed on or before Dec. 31, 1919. The lists shall contain all
such details as are customary in commercial contracts dealing with the
subject matter, including specifications, dates of delivery, (but not
extending over more than four years,) and places of delivery, but not
price or value, which shall be fixed as hereinafter provided by the
commission.
4. Immediately upon the filing of such lists with the commission, the
commission shall consider the amount and number of the materials and
animals mentioned in the lists provided for above which are to be
required of Germany. In reaching a decision on this matter the
commission shall take into account such domestic requirements of Germany
as it deems essential for the maintenance of Germany's social and
economic life, and the prices and dates at which similar articles can be
obtained in the Allied and Associated countries as compared with those
to be fixed for German articles, and the general interest of the Allied
and Associated Governments that the industrial life of Germany be not so
disorganized as to affect adversely the ability of Germany to perform
the other acts of reparation stipulated for. Machinery, equipment,
tools, and like articles of a commercial character in actual industrial
use are not, however, to be demanded of Germany unless there is no free
stock of such articles respectively which is not in use and is
available, and then not in excess of 30 per cent. of the quantity of
such articles in use in any one establishment or undertaking.
The commission shall give representatives of the German Government an
opportunity and a time to be heard as to their capacity to furnish the
said materials, articles, and animals. The decision of the commission
shall thereupon and at the earliest possible moment be communicated to
the German Government and to the several interested Allied and
Associated Governments. The German Government undertakes to deliver the
materials, articles, and animals as specified in the said communication,
and the interested Allied and Associated Governments severally agree to
accept the same, provided they conform to the specification given, or
are not, in the judgment of the commission, unfit to be utilized in the
work of reparation.
5. The commission shall determine the value to be attributed to the
materials, articles, and animals to be delivered in accordance with the
foregoing, and the Allied or Associated Power receiving the same agrees
to be charged with such value, and the amount thereof shall be treated
as a payment by Germany to be divided in accordance with Article 237 of
this part of the present treaty.
In cases where the right to require physical restoration as above
provided is exercised the commission shall insure that the amount to be
credited against the reparation obligation of Germany shall be the fair
value of work done or materials supplied by Germany and that the claim
made by the interested power in respect of the damage so repaired by
physical restoration shall be discharged to the extent of the
proportion which the damage thus repaired bears to the whole of the
damage thus claimed for.
6. As an immediate advance on account of the animals referred to in
Paragraph 2 (a) above, Germany undertakes to deliver in equal monthly
installments in the three months following the coming into force of the
present treaty the following quantities of live stock:
First. To the French Government, 500 stallions, (3 to 7 years,) 30,000
fillies and mares, (18 months to 7 years,) type: Ardennais, Boulonnais,
or Belgian; 2,000 bulls, (18 months to 3 years); 90,000 milch cows, (2
to 6 years); 1,000 rams, 100,000 sheep, 10,000 goats.
Second. To the Belgian Government, 200 stallions, (3 to 7 years) large
Belgian type; 5,000 mares, (3 to 7 years) large Belgian type; 5,000
fillies, (18 months to 3 years); large Belgian type; 2,000 bulls, (18
months to 3 years) 50,000 milch cows, (2 to 6 years) 40,000 heifers, 200
rams, 20,000 sheep, 15,000 sows.
The animals delivered shall be of average health and condition. To the
extent that animals so delivered cannot be identified as animals taken
away or seized, the value of such animals shall be credited against the
reparation obligations of Germany in accordance with Paragraph 5 of this
annex.
7. Without waiting for the decisions of the commission, referred to in
Paragraph 4 of this annex, to be taken, Germany must continue the
delivery to France of the agricultural material referred to in Article 3
of the renewal of the armistice of 16th January, 1919.
ANNEX V.
1. Germany accords the following options for the delivery of coal and
derivatives of coal to the under-mentioned signatories of the present
treaty.
2. Germany undertakes to deliver to France 7,000,000 tons of coal per
year for ten years. In addition, Germany undertakes to deliver to France
annually for a period not exceeding ten years an amount of coal equal to
the difference between the annual production before the war of the coal
mines of the Nord and Pas de Calais, destroyed as a result of the war,
and the production of the mines of the same area during the years in
question; such delivery not to exceed 20,000,000 tons in any one year of
the first five years, and 8,000,000 tons in any one year of the
succeeding five years.
It is understood due diligence will be exercised in the restoration of
the destroyed mines in the Nord and Pas de Calais.
3. Germany undertakes to deliver to Belgium 8,000,000 tons of coal
annually for ten years.
4. Germany undertakes to deliver to Italy up to the following quantities
of coal:
July, 1919, to June, 1920, 4,500,000 tons.
July, 1920, to June, 1921, 6,000,000 tons.
July, 1921, to June, 1922, 7,500,000 tons.
July, 1922, to June, 1923, 8,000,000 tons.
July, 1923, to June, 1924, 8,500,000 tons.
and each of the following five years, 8,500,000 tons.
At least two-thirds of the actual deliveries to be land borne.
5. Germany further undertakes to deliver annually to Luxemburg, if
directed by the Reparation Commission, a quantity of coal equal to the
pre-war annual consumption of German coal in Luxemburg.
6. The prices to be paid for coal delivered under these options shall be
as follows:
(a) For overland delivery, including delivery by barge, the German
pithead price to German nationals, plus the freight to French, Belgian,
Italian, or Luxemburg frontiers, provided the pithead price does not
exceed the pithead price of British coal for export. In case of Belgian
bunker coal, the price shall not exceed the Dutch bunker price. Railroad
and barge tariffs shall not be higher than the lowest similar rates paid
in Germany.
(b) For sea delivery, the German export price f. o. b. the German ports,
or the British export price f. o. b. British ports, whichever may be
lower.
7. The Allied and Associated Governments interested may demand the
delivery in place of coal of metallurgical coke in the proportion of
three tons of coke to four tons of coal.
8. Germany undertakes to deliver to France and to transport to the
French frontier by rail or by water the following products during each
of the three years following the coming into force of this treaty:
Benzol--35,000 tons.
Coal tar--50,000 tons.
Sulphate of ammonia--30,000 tons.
All or part of the coal tar may, at the option of the French Government,
be replaced by corresponding quantities of products of distillation,
such as light oils, heavy oils, anthracine, naphthaline, or pitch.
9. The price paid for coke and for the articles referred to in the
preceding paragraphs shall be the same as the price paid by German
nationals under the same conditions of shipment to the French frontier
or to the German ports, and shall be subject to any advantages which may
be accorded similar products furnished to German nationals.
10. The foregoing options shall be exercised through the intervention of
the Reparation Commission, which, subject to the specific provisions
hereof, shall have power to determine all questions relative to
procedure and the qualities and quantities of products, the quantity of
coke which may be substituted for coal, and the times and modes of
delivery and payment. In giving notice to the German Government of the
foregoing options the commission shall give at least 120 days' notice of
deliveries to be made after 1st January, 1920, and at least thirty days'
notice of deliveries to be made between the coming into force of this
treaty and the 1st January, 1920. Until Germany has received the demands
referred to in this paragraph the provisions of the protocol of the 25th
December, 1918, (execution of Article 6 of the armistice of the 11th
November, 1918,) remain in force.
The notice to be given to the German Government of the exercise of the
right of substitution accorded by Paragraphs 7 and 8 shall be such as
the Reparation Commission may consider sufficient.
If the commission shall determine that the full exercise of the
foregoing options would interfere unduly with the industrial
requirements of Germany, the commission is authorized to postpone or to
cancel deliveries, and in so doing to settle all questions of priority,
but the coal to replace coal from destroyed mines shall receive priority
over other deliveries.
ANNEX VI.
1. Germany accords to the Reparation Commission an option to require as
part of reparation the delivery by Germany of such quantities and kinds
of dyestuffs and chemical drugs as the commission may designate, not
exceeding 50 per cent. of the total stock of each and every kind of
dyestuff and chemical drug in Germany or under German control at the
date of the coming into force of the present treaty.
This option shall be exercised within sixty days of the receipt by the
commission of such particulars as to stocks as may be considered
necessary by the commission.
2. Germany further accords to the Reparation Commission an option to
require delivery during the period from the date of the coming into
force of the present treaty until Jan. 1, 1920, and during each period
of six months thereafter until Jan. 1, 1925, of any specified kind of
dyestuff and chemical drug up to an amount not exceeding 25 per cent. of
the German production of such dyestuffs and chemical drugs during the
previous six months' period. If in any case the production during such
previous six months was, in the opinion of the commission, less than
normal, the amount required may be 25 per cent. of the normal
production.
Such option shall be exercised within four weeks after the receipt of
such particulars as to production and in such form as may be considered
necessary by the commission; these particulars shall be furnished by the
German Government immediately after the expiration of each six months'
period.
3. For dyestuffs and chemical drugs delivered under Paragraph 1 the
price shall be fixed by the commission, having regard to pre-war net
export prices and to subsequent increases of cost.
For dyestuffs and chemical drugs delivered under Paragraph 2 the price
shall be fixed by the commission, having regard to pre-war net export
prices and subsequent variations of cost or the lowest net selling price
of similar dyestuffs and chemical drugs to any other purchaser.
4. All details, including mode and times of exercising the options and
making delivery, and all other questions arising under this arrangement
shall be determined by the Reparation Commission; the German Government
will furnish to the commission all necessary information and other
assistance which it may require.
5. The above expression "dyestuffs and chemical drugs" includes all
synthetic dyes and drugs and intermediate or other products used in
connection with dyeing, so far as they are manufactured for sale. The
present arrangement shall also apply to cinchona bark and salts of
quinine.
ANNEX VII.
Germany renounces on her own behalf and on behalf of her nationals in
favor of the principal Allied and Associated Powers all rights, titles
or privileges of whatever nature in the submarine cables set out below,
or in any portions thereof:
Emden-Vigo: from the Straits of Dover to off Vigo;
Emden-Brest: from off Cherbourg to Brest;
Emden-Teneriffe: from off Dunkirk to off Teneriffe;
Emden-Azores (1): from the Straits of Dover to Fayal;
Emden-Azores (2): from the Straits of Dover to Fayal;
Azores-New York (1): from Fayal to New York;
Azores-New York (2): from Fayal to the longitude of Halifax;
Teneriffe-Monrovia: from off Teneriffe to off Monrovia;
Monrovia-Lome: from about latitude 2 degrees 30 minutes north,
and longitude 7 degrees 40 minutes west of Greenwich, to about
latitude 2 degrees 20 minutes north, and longitude 5 degrees 30
minutes west of Greenwich, and from about latitude 3 degrees 48
minutes north, and longitude 0 degrees 0 minutes to Lome;
Lome-Duala: from Lome to Duala;
Monrovia-Pernambuco: from off Monrovia to off Pernambuco;
Constantinople-Constanza: from Constantinople to Constanza;
Yap-Shanghai, Yap-Guam, and Yap-Menado (Celebes): from Yap
Island to Shanghai, from Yap Island to Guam Island, and from
Yap Island to Menado.
The value of the above-mentioned cables or portions thereof in so far as
they are privately owned, calculated on the basis of the original cost
less a suitable allowance for depreciation, shall be credited to Germany
in the reparation account.
SECTION II.--_Special Provisions_
=ARTICLE 245.=--Within six months after coming into force of the present
treaty the German Government must restore to the French Government the
trophies, archives, historical souvenirs, or works of art carried away
from France by the German authorities in the course of the war of
1870--71 and during this last war, in accordance with a list which will
be communicated to it by the French Government; particularly the French
flags taken in the course of the war of 1870--71, and all the political
papers taken by the German authorities on Oct. 10, 1870, at the Château
of Cercay, near Brunoy, (Seine-et-Oise,) belonging at the time to M.
Rouher, formerly Minister of State.
=ARTICLE 246.=--Within six months of the coming into force of the
present treaty Germany will restore to his Majesty the King of the
Hedjaz the original Koran of the Caliph Othman, which was removed from
Medina by the Turkish authorities and is stated to have been presented
to the ex-Emperor William II.
Within the same period Germany will hand over to his Britannic Majesty's
Government the skull of the Sultan Mkwawa, which was removed from the
protectorate of German East Africa and taken to Germany.
The delivery of the articles above referred to will be effected in such
place and in such conditions as may be laid down by the Governments to
which they are to be restored
=ARTICLE 247.=--Germany undertakes to furnish to the University of
Louvain, within three months after a request made by it and transmitted
through the intervention of the Reparation Commission, manuscripts,
incunabula, printed books, maps, and objects of collection corresponding
in number and value to those destroyed in the burning by Germany of the
library of Louvain. All details regarding such replacement will be
determined by the Reparation Commission.
Germany undertakes to deliver to Belgium, through the Reparation
Commission, within six months of the coming into force of the present
treaty, in order to enable Belgium to reconstitute her two great
artistic works:
(a) The leaves of the triptych of the Mystic Lamb painted by the Van
Eyck Brothers, formerly in the Church of St. Bavon at Ghent, now in the
Berlin Museum.
(b) The leaves of the triptych of the Last Supper, painted by Dierick
Bouts, formerly in the Church of St. Peter at Louvain, two of which are
now in the Berlin Museum and two in the old Pinakothek at Munich.
PART IX
Financial Clauses
=ARTICLE 248.=--Subject to such exceptions as the Reparation Commission
may approve, a first charge upon all the assets and revenues of the
German Empire and its constituent States shall be the cost of reparation
and all other costs arising under the present treaty or any treaties or
agreements supplementary thereto or under arrangements concluded between
Germany and the Allied and Associated Powers during the armistice or its
extensions.
Up to May 1, 1921, the German Government shall not export or dispose of,
and shall forbid the export or disposal of, gold without the previous
approval of the Allied and Associated Powers acting through the
Reparation Commission.
=ARTICLE 249.=--There shall be paid by the German Government the total
cost of all armies of the Allied and Associated Governments in occupied
German territory from the date of the signature of the armistice of the
11th November, 1918, including the keep of men and beasts, lodging and
billeting, pay and allowances, salaries and wages, bedding, heating,
lighting, clothing, equipment, harness and saddlery, armament and
rolling stock, air services, treatment of sick and wounded, veterinary
and remount services, transport service of all sorts, (such as by rail,
sea, river, or motor lorries,) communications and correspondence, and in
general the cost of all administrative or technical services, the
working of which is necessary for the training of troops and for keeping
their numbers up to strength and preserving their military efficiency.
The cost of such liabilities under the above heads, so far as they
relate to purchases or requisitions by the Allied and Associated
Governments in the occupied territories, shall be paid by the German
Government to the Allied and Associated Governments in marks at the
current or agreed rate of exchange. All other of the above costs shall
be paid in gold marks.
=ARTICLE 250.=--Germany confirms the surrender of all material handed
over to the Allied and Associated Powers in accordance with the
armistice agreement of the 11th November, 1918, and subsequent armistice
agreements, and recognizes the title of the Allied and Associated Powers
to such material.
There shall be credited to the German Government against the sums due
from it to the Allied and Associated Powers for reparation, the value,
as assessed by the Reparation Commission referred to in Article 233 of
Part VIII. (reparation) of the present treaty, of the material handed
over in accordance with Article 7 of the armistice agreement of the 11th
November, 1918, Article 3 of the armistice agreement of the 16th
January, 1919, as well as of any other material handed over in
accordance with the armistice agreement of the 11th November, 1918, and
of subsequent armistice agreements, for which, as having non-military
value, credit should, in the judgment of the Reparation Commission, be
allowed to the German Government.
Property belonging to the Allied and Associated Governments or their
nationals restored or surrendered under the armistice agreements in
specie shall not be credited to the German Government.
=ARTICLE 251.=--The priority of the charges established by Article 248
shall, subject to the qualifications made below, be as follows:
(a) The cost of the armies of occupation as defined under Article 249
during the armistice and its extensions;
(b) The cost of any armies of occupation as defined under Article 249
after the coming into force of the present treaty;
(c) The cost of reparation arising out of the present treaty or any
treaties or conventions supplementary thereto;
(d) The cost of all other obligations incumbent on Germany under the
armistice conventions or under this treaty or any treaties or
conventions supplementary thereto.
The payment for such supplies of food and raw material for Germany and
such other payments as may be judged by the Allied and Associated Powers
to be essential to enable Germany to meet her obligations in respect of
reparation will have priority to the extent and upon the conditions
which have been or may be determined by the Governments of the said
powers.
=ARTICLE 252.=--The right of each of the Allied and Associated Powers to
dispose of enemy assets and property within its jurisdiction at the date
of the coming into force of the present treaty is not affected by the
foregoing provisions.
=ARTICLE 253.=--Nothing in the foregoing provisions shall prejudice in
any manner charges or mortgages lawfully effected in favor of the Allied
and Associated Powers or their nationals respectively, before the date
at which a state of war existed between Germany and the Allied and
Associated Powers concerned, by the German Empire or its constituent
States, or by German nationals on assets in their ownership at that
date.
=ARTICLE 254.=--The powers to which German territory is ceded shall,
subject to the qualifications made in Article 255, undertake to pay:
1. A portion of the debt of the German Empire as it stood on the 1st
August, 1914, calculated on the basis of the ratio between the average
for the three financial years 1911, 1912, 1913, of such revenues of the
ceded territory and the average for the same years of such revenues of
the whole German Empire as in the judgment of the Reparation Commission
are best calculated to represent the relative ability of the respective
territories to make payments.
2. A portion of the debt as it stood on the 1st August, 1914, of the
German State to which the ceded territory belonged, to be determined in
accordance with the principle stated above.
Such portions shall be determined by the Reparation Commission.
The method of discharging the obligation both in respect of capital and
of interest, so assumed, shall be fixed by the Reparation Commission.
Such method may take the form, inter alia, of the assumption by the
power to which the territory is ceded of Germany's liability for the
German debt held by her nationals. But in the event of the method
adopted involving any payments to the German Government, such payments
shall be transferred to the Reparation Commission on account of the sums
due for reparation so long as any balance in respect of such sums
remains unpaid.
=ARTICLE 255.=--1. As an exception to the above provision and inasmuch
as in 1871 Germany refused to undertake any portion of the burden of
the French debt, France shall be, in respect of Alsace-Lorraine, exempt
from any payment under Article 254.
2. In the case of Poland that portion of the debt which, in the opinion
of the Reparation Commission is attributable to the measures taken by
the German and Prussian Governments for the German colonization of
Poland shall be excluded from the apportionment to be made under Article
254.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
Dreadnoughts Welcoming President Wilson Home
This photograph taken from the Fighting Top of the _Pennsylvania_, shows
American Warships in the North River, firing a salute in honor of the
President's return from France on the _George Washington_.]
3. In the case of all ceded territories other than Alsace-Lorraine that
portion of the debt of the German Empire or German States which in the
opinion of the Reparation Commission represents expenditure by the
Governments of the German Empire or States upon the Government
properties referred to in Article 256 shall be excluded from the
apportionment to be made under Article 254.
=ARTICLE 256.=--Powers to which German territory is ceded shall acquire
all property and possessions situated therein belonging to the German
Empire or to the German States, and the value of such acquisitions shall
be fixed by the Reparation Commission, and paid by the State acquiring
the territory to the Reparation Commission for the credit of the German
Government on account of the sums due for reparation.
For the purposes of this article the property and possessions of the
German Empire and States shall be deemed to include all the property of
the Crown, the Empire or the States, and the private property of the
former German Emperor and other royal personages.
In view of the terms on which Alsace-Lorraine was ceded to Germany in
1871--France shall be exempt in respect thereof from making any payment
or credit under this article for any property or possessions of the
German Empire or States situated therein. Belgium also shall be exempt
from making any payment or any credit under this article for any
property or possessions of the German Empire or States situated in
German territory ceded to Belgium under the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 257.=--In the case of the former German territories, including
colonies, protectorates, or dependencies, administered by a mandatory
under Article 22 of Part I. (League of Nations) of the present treaty,
neither the territory nor the mandatory power shall be charged with any
portion of the debt of the German Empire or States.
All property and possessions belonging to the German Empire or to the
German States situated in such territory shall be transferred with the
territories to the Mandatory Power in its capacity as such, and no
payment shall be made nor any credit given to those Governments in
consideration of this transfer.
For the purpose of this article the property and possessions of the
German Empire and of the German States shall be deemed to include all
the property of the crown, the empire or the States and the private
property of the former German Emperor and other royal personages.
=ARTICLE 258.=--Germany renounces all rights accorded to her or her
nationals by treaties, conventions or agreements, of whatsoever kind, to
representation upon or participation in the control or administration of
commissions, state banks, agencies or other financial or economic
organizations of an international character, exercising powers of
control or administration, and operating in any of the Allied or
Associated States, or in Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria or Turkey, or in the
dependencies of these States, or in the former Russian Empire.
=ARTICLE 259.=--1. Germany agrees to deliver within one month from the
date of the coming into force of the present treaty, to such authority
as the principal Allied and Associated Powers may designate, the sum in
gold which was to be deposited in the Reichsbank in the name of the
Council of the Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt as security for
the first issue of Turkish Government currency notes.
2. Germany recognizes her obligation to make annually for the period of
twelve years the payments in gold for which provision is made in the
German Treasury bonds deposited by her from time to time in the name of
the Council of the Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt as security
for the second and subsequent issues of Turkish Government currency
notes.
3. Germany undertakes to deliver, within one month from the coming into
force of the present treaty, to such authority as the principal Allied
and Associated Powers may designate, the deposit gold constituted in the
Reichsbank or elsewhere, representing the residue of the advance in gold
agreed to on the 5th of May, 1915, by the Council of the Administration
of the Ottoman Public Debt to the Imperial Ottoman Government.
4. Germany agrees to transfer to the principal Allied and Associated
Powers any title that she may have to the sum in gold and silver
transmitted by her to the Turkish Ministry of Finance in November, 1918,
in anticipation of the payment to be made in May, 1919, for the service
of the Turkish internal loan.
5. Germany undertakes to transfer to the principal Allied and Associated
Powers within a period of one month from the coming into force of the
present treaty, any sums in gold transferred as pledge or as collateral
security to the German Government or its nationals in connection with
loans made by them to the Austro-Hungarian Government.
6. Without prejudice to Article 292 of Part X. (economic clauses) of the
present treaty, Germany confirms the renunciation provided for in
Article XV. of the armistice convention of the 11th November, 1918, of
any benefit disclosed by the treaties of Bucharest and of Brest-Litovsk,
and by the treaties supplementary thereto.
Germany undertakes to transfer, either to Rumania or to the principal
Allied and Associated Powers, as the case may be, all monetary
instruments, specie, securities and negotiable instruments or goods
which she has received under the aforesaid treaties.
7. The sums of money and all securities, instruments and goods of
whatever nature, to be delivered, paid and transferred under the
provisions of this article, shall be disposed of by the principal Allied
and Associated Powers in a manner hereafter to be determined by these
powers.
=ARTICLE 260.=--Without prejudice to the renunciation of any rights by
Germany on behalf of herself or of her nationals in the other provisions
of the present treaty, the Reparation Commission may, within one year
from the coming into force of the present treaty, demand that the German
Government become possessed of any rights and interests of the German
nationals in any public utility undertaking or in any concession
operating in Russia, China, Turkey, Austria, Hungary, and Bulgaria, or
in the possessions or dependencies of these States or in any territory
formerly belonging to Germany or her allies, to be ceded by Germany or
her allies to any power, or to be administered by a mandatary under the
present treaty, and may require that the German Government transfer,
within six months of the date of demand, all such rights and interests
and any similar rights and interests the German Government may itself
possess, to the Reparation Commission.
Germany shall be responsible for indemnifying her nationals so
dispossessed and the Reparation Commission shall credit Germany on
account of sums due for reparation with such sums in respect of the
value of the transferred rights and interests as may be assessed by the
Reparation Commission, and the German Government shall, within six
months from the coming into force of the present treaty, communicate to
the Reparation Commission all such rights and interests, whether already
granted, contingent, or not yet exercised, and shall renounce on behalf
of itself and its nationals in favor of the Allied and Associated Powers
all such rights and interests which have not been so communicated.
=ARTICLE 261.=--Germany undertakes to transfer to the Allied and
Associated Powers any claims she may have to payment or repayment by the
Governments of Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, and, in particular
any claims which may arise, now or hereafter, from the fulfillment of
undertakings made by Germany during the war to those Governments.
=ARTICLE 262.=--Any monetary obligation due by Germany arising out of
the present treaty and expressed in terms of gold marks shall be payable
at the option of the creditors in pounds sterling payable in London;
gold dollars of the United States of America payable in New York; gold
francs payable in Paris, or gold lire payable in Rome.
For the purpose of this article, the gold coins mentioned above shall be
defined as being of the weight and fineness of gold as enacted by law on
the 1st January, 1914.
=ARTICLE 263.=--Germany gives a guarantee to the Brazilian Government
that all sums representing the sale of coffee belonging to the State of
Sao Paolo in the Ports of Hamburg, Bremen, Antwerp, and Trieste, which
were deposited with the Bank of the Bleichröder at Berlin, shall be
reimbursed, together with interest at the rate or rates agreed upon.
Germany, having prevented the transfer of the sums in question to the
State of Sao Paolo at the proper time, guarantees also that the
reimbursements shall be effected at the rate of exchange of the day of
the deposit.
PART X
Economic Clauses
SECTION I.--_Commercial Relations_
CHAPTER I.--CUSTOMS REGULATIONS, DUTIES, AND RESTRICTIONS
=ARTICLE 264.=--Germany undertakes that goods the produce or manufacture
of any one of the Allied or Associated States imported into German
territory, from whatsoever place arriving, shall not be subjected to
other or higher duties or charges (including internal charges) than
those to which the like goods the produce or manufacture of any other
such State or of any other foreign country are subject.
Germany will not maintain or impose any prohibition or restriction on
the importation into German territory of any goods the produce or
manufacture of the territories of any one of the Allied or Associated
States, from whatsoever place arriving, which shall not equally extend
to the importation of the like goods the produce or manufacture of any
other such State or of any other foreign country.
=ARTICLE 265.=--Germany further undertakes that, in the matter of the
régime applicable on importation, no discrimination against the commerce
of any of the Allied and Associated States as compared with any other of
the said States or any other foreign country shall be made, even by
indirect means, such as customs regulations or procedure, methods of
verification or analysis, conditions of payment of duties, tariff
classification or interpretation, or the operation of monopolies.
=ARTICLE 266.=--In all that concerns exportation Germany undertakes that
goods, natural products or manufactured articles, exported from German
territory to the territories of any one of the Allied or Associated
States shall not be subjected to other or higher duties or charges
(including internal charges) than those paid on the like goods exported
to any other such State or to any other foreign country.
Germany will not maintain or impose any prohibition or restriction on
the exportation of any goods sent from her territory to any one of the
Allied or Associated States which shall not equally extend to the
exportation of the like goods, natural products or manufactured
articles, sent to any other such State or to any other foreign country.
=ARTICLE 267.=--Every favor, immunity, or privilege in regard to the
importation, exportation, or transit of goods granted by Germany to any
Allied or Associated State or to any other foreign country whatever
shall simultaneously and unconditionally, without request and without
compensation, be extended to all the Allied and Associated States.
=ARTICLE 268.=--The provisions of Article 264 to 267 inclusive of this
chapter and of Article 323 of Part XII. (ports, waterways, and railways)
of the present treaty are subject to the following exceptions:
(a) For a period of five years from the coming into force of the present
treaty, natural or manufactured products which both originate in and
come from the territories of Alsace and Lorraine reunited to France
shall, on importation into German customs territory, be exempt from all
customs duty.
The French Government shall fix each year by decree communicated to the
German Government, the nature and amount of the products which shall
enjoy this exemption.
The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany
shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years
1911--1913.
Further, during the period above mentioned the German Government shall
allow the free export from Germany, and the free reimportation into
Germany, exempt from all customs duties and other charges, (including
internal charges,) of yarns, tissues, and other textile materials or
textile products of any kind and in any condition sent from Germany into
the territories of Alsace or Lorraine, to be subjected there to any
finishing process, such as bleaching, dyeing, printing, mercerization,
gassing, twisting, or dressing.
(b) During a period of three years from the coming into force of the
present treaty natural or manufactured products which both originate in
and come from Polish territories which before the war were part of
Germany shall, on importation into German customs territory, be exempt
from all customs duty.
The Polish Government shall fix each year, by decree communicated to the
German Government, the nature and amount of the products which shall
enjoy this exemption.
The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany
shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years
1911--1913.
(c) The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to require
Germany to accord freedom from customs duty, on importation into German
customs territory, to natural products and manufactured articles which
both originate in and come from the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, for a
period of five years from the coming into force of the present treaty.
The nature and amount of the products which shall enjoy the benefits of
this régime shall be communicated each year to the German Government.
The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany
shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years
1911--1913.
=ARTICLE 269.=--During the first six months after the coming into force
of the present treaty, the duties imposed by Germany on imports from
Allied and Associated States shall not be higher than the most favorable
duties which were applied to imports into Germany on the 31st July,
1914.
During a further period of thirty months after the expiration of the
first six months, this provision shall continue to be applied
exclusively with regard to products which, being comprised in Section A
of the First Category of the German Customs Tariff of the 25th December,
1902, enjoyed at the above-mentioned date (31st July, 1914,) rates
conventionalized by treaties with the Allied and Associated Powers, with
the addition of all kinds of wine and vegetable oils, of artificial silk
and of washed or scoured wool, whether or not they were the subject of
special conventions before the 31st July, 1914.
=ARTICLE 270.=--The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to
apply to German territory occupied by their troops a special customs
régime as regards imports and exports, in the event of such a measure
being necessary in their opinion in order to safeguard the economic
interests of the population of these territories.
CHAPTER II.--SHIPPING
=ARTICLE 271.=--As regards sea fishing, maritime coasting trade, and
maritime towage, vessels of the Allied and Associated Powers shall
enjoy, in German territorial waters, the treatment accorded to vessels
of the most-favored nation.
=ARTICLE 272.=--Germany agrees that, notwithstanding any stipulation to
the contrary contained in the conventions relating to the North Sea
fisheries and liquor traffic, all rights of inspection and police shall,
in the case of fishing boats of the Allied Powers, be exercised solely
by ships belonging to those powers.
=ARTICLE 273.=--In the case of vessels of the Allied or Associated
Powers, all classes of certificates or documents relating to the vessel,
which were recognized as valid by Germany before the war, or which may
hereafter be recognized as valid by the principal maritime States, shall
be recognized by Germany as valid and as equivalent to the corresponding
certificates issued to German vessels.
A similar recognition shall be accorded to the certificates and
documents issued to their vessels by the Governments of new States,
whether they have a seacoast or not, provided that such certificates and
documents shall be issued in conformity with the general practice
observed in the principal maritime States.
The high contracting parties agree to recognize the flag flown by the
vessels of an Allied or Associated Power having no seacoast which are
registered at some one specified place situated in its territory; such
place shall serve as the port of registry of such vessels.
CHAPTER III.--UNFAIR COMPETITION
=ARTICLE 274.=--Germany undertakes to adopt all the necessary
legislative and administrative measures to protect goods the produce or
manufacture of any one of the Allied and Associated Powers from all
forms of unfair competition in commercial transactions.
Germany undertakes to prohibit and repress by seizure and by other
appropriate remedies the importation, exportation, manufacture,
distribution, sale or offering for sale in its territory of all goods
bearing upon themselves or their usual get-up or wrappings any marks,
names, devices, or descriptions whatsoever which are calculated to
convey directly or indirectly a false indication of the origin, type,
nature, or special characteristics of such goods.
=ARTICLE 275.=--Germany undertakes on condition that reciprocity is
accorded in these matters to respect any law, or any administrative or
judicial decision given in conformity with such law, in force in any
Allied or Associated State and duly communicated to her by the proper
authorities, defining or regulating the right to any regional
appellation in respect of wine or spirits produced in the State to which
the region belongs or the conditions under which the use of any such
appellation may be permitted; and the importation, exportation,
manufacture, distribution, sale or offering for sale of products or
articles bearing regional appellations inconsistent with such law or
order shall be prohibited by the German Government and repressed by the
measures prescribed in the preceding article.
CHAPTER IV.--TREATMENT OF NATIONALS OF ALLIED AND ASSOCIATED POWERS
=ARTICLE 276.=--Germany undertakes:
(a) not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers to
any prohibition in regard to the exercise of occupations, professions,
trade, and industry, which shall not be equally applicable to all aliens
without exception;
(b) not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers in
regard to the rights referred to in Paragraph (a) to any regulation or
restriction which might contravene directly or indirectly the
stipulations of the said paragraph, or which shall be other or more
disadvantageous than those which are applicable to nationals of the
most-favored nation;
(c) not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers,
their property, rights, or interests, including companies and
associations in which they are interested, to any charge, tax, or
impost, direct or indirect, other or higher than those which are or may
be imposed on her own nationals or their property, rights, or interests;
(d) not to subject the nationals of any one of the Allied and Associated
Powers to any restriction which was not applicable on July 1, 1914, to
the nationals of such powers unless such restriction is likewise imposed
on her own nationals.
=ARTICLE 277.=--The nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers shall
enjoy in German territory a constant protection for their persons and
for their property, rights, and interests, and shall have free access to
the courts of law.
=ARTICLE 278.=--Germany undertakes to recognize any new nationality
which has been or may be acquired by her nationals under the laws of the
Allied and Associated Powers, and in accordance with the decisions of
the competent authorities of these powers pursuant to naturalization
laws or under treaty stipulations, and to regard such persons as having,
in consequence of the acquisition of such new nationality, in all
respects severed their allegiance to their country of origin.
=ARTICLE 279.=--The Allied and Associated Powers may appoint Consuls
General, Consuls, Vice Consuls, and Consular Agents in German towns and
ports. Germany undertakes to approve the designation of the Consuls
General, Consuls, Vice Consuls, and Consular Agents, whose names shall
be notified to her, and to admit them to the exercise of their functions
in conformity with the usual rules and customs.
CHAPTER V.--GENERAL ARTICLES
=ARTICLE 280.=--The obligations imposed on Germany by Chapter I. and by
Articles 271 and 272 of Chapter II. above shall cease to have effect
five years from the date of the coming into force of the present treaty,
unless otherwise provided in the text, or unless the Council of the
League of Nations shall, at least twelve months before the expiration of
that period, decide that these obligations shall be maintained for a
further period with or without amendment.
Article 276 of Chapter IV. shall remain in operation, with or without
amendment, after the period of five years for such further period, if
any, not exceeding five years, as may be determined by a majority of the
Council of the League of Nations.
=ARTICLE 281.=--If the German Government engages in international trade,
it shall not in respect thereof have or be deemed to have any rights,
privileges, or immunities of sovereignty.
SECTION II.--_Treaties_
=ARTICLE 282.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty and
subject to the provisions thereof the multilateral treaties,
conventions, and agreements of an economic or technical character
enumerated below and in the subsequent articles shall alone be applied
as between Germany and those of the Allied and Associated Powers party
thereto:
1. Conventions of March 14, 1884; Dec. 1, 1886, and March 23, 1887, and
final protocol of July 7, 1887, regarding the protection of submarine
cables.
2. Convention of Oct. 11, 1909, regarding the international circulation
of motor cars.
3. Agreement of May 15, 1886, regarding the sealing of railway trucks
subject to customs inspection, and protocol of May 18, 1907.
4. Agreement of May 15, 1886, regarding the technical standardization of
railways.
5. Convention of July 5, 1890, regarding the publication of customs
tariffs and the organization of an international union for the
publication of customs tariffs.
6. Convention of Dec. 31, 1913, regarding the unification of commercial
statistics.
7. Convention of April 25, 1907, regarding the raising of the Turkish
customs tariff.
8. Convention of March 14, 1857, for the redemption of toll dues on the
Sound and Belts.
9. Convention of June 22, 1861, for the redemption of the Stade Toll on
the Elbe.
10. Convention of July 16, 1863, for the redemption of toll dues on the
Scheldt.
11. Convention of Oct. 29, 1888, regarding the establishment of a
definite arrangement guaranteeing the free use of the Suez Canal.
12. Convention of Sept. 23, 1910, respecting the unification of certain
regulations regarding collisions and salvage at sea.
13. Convention of Dec. 21, 1904, regarding the exemption of hospital
ships from dues and charges in ports.
14. Convention of Feb. 4, 1898, regarding the tonnage measurement of
vessels for inland navigation.
15. Convention of Sept. 26, 1906, for the suppression of nightwork for
women.
16. Convention of Sept. 26, 1906, for the suppression of the use of
white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches.
17. Conventions of May 18, 1904, and May 4, 1910, regarding the
suppression of the white slave traffic.
18. Convention of May 4, 1910, regarding the suppression of obscene
publications.
19. Sanitary conventions of January, 1892; April 15, 1893; April 3,
1894; April 19, 1897, and Dec. 3, 1903.
20. Convention of May 20, 1875, regarding the unification and
improvement of the metric system.
21. Convention of Nov. 29, 1906, regarding the unification of
pharmacopoeial formulae for potent drugs.
22. Convention of Nov. 16 and 19, 1885, regarding the establishment of a
concert pitch.
23. Convention of June 7, 1905, regarding the creation of an
International Agricultural Institute at Rome.
24. Conventions of Nov. 3, 1881, and April 15, 1889, regarding
precautionary measures against phylloxera.
25. Convention of March 19, 1902, regarding the protection of birds
useful to agriculture.
26. Convention of June 12, 1902, as to the protection of minors.
=ARTICLE 283.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the
high contracting parties shall apply the conventions and agreements
hereinafter mentioned, in so far as concerns them, on condition that the
special stipulations contained in this article are fulfilled by Germany.
=Postal Conventions:=
Conventions and agreements of the Universal Postal Union concluded at
Vienna, July 4, 1891.
Conventions and agreements of the Postal Union signed at Washington,
June 15, 1897.
Conventions and agreements of the Postal Union signed at Rome May 26,
1906.
=Telegraphic Conventions:=
International Telegraphic Conventions signed at St. Petersburg July 10,
(22,) 1875.
Regulations and tariffs drawn up by the International Telegraphic
Conference, Lisbon, June 11, 1908.
Germany undertakes not to refuse her assent to the conclusion by the new
States of the special arrangements referred to in the conventions and
agreements relating to the Universal Postal Union and to the
International Telegraphic Union, to which the said new States have
adhered or may adhere.
=ARTICLE 284.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the
high contracting parties shall apply, in so far as concerns them, the
International Radio-Telegraphic Convention of July 5, 1912, on condition
that Germany fulfills the provisional regulations which will be
indicated to her by the Allied and Associated Powers.
If within five years after the coming into force of the present treaty a
new convention regulating international radio-telegraphic communications
should have been concluded to take the place of the convention of July
5, 1912, this new convention shall bind Germany even if Germany should
refuse either to take part in drawing up the convention or to subscribe
thereto.
This new convention will likewise replace the provisional regulations in
force.
=ARTICLE 285.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the
high contracting parties shall apply in so far as concerns them and
under the conditions stipulated in Article 272 the conventions
hereinafter mentioned:
1. The conventions of May 6, 1882, and Feb. 1, 1889, regulating the
fisheries in the North Sea outside territorial waters.
2. The conventions and protocols of Nov. 16, 1887, Feb. 14, 1893, and
April 11, 1894, regarding the North Sea liquor traffic.
=ARTICLE 286.=--The International Convention of Paris of March 20, 1883,
for the protection of industrial property, revised at Washington on June
2, 1911; the International Convention of Berne of Sept. 9, 1886, for the
protection of literary and artistic works, revised at Berlin on Nov. 13,
1908, and completed by the additional protocol signed at Berne on March
20, 1914, will again come into effect as from the coming into force of
the present treaty, in so far as they are not affected or modified by
the exceptions and restrictions resulting therefrom.
=ARTICLE 287.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the
high contracting parties shall apply, in so far as concerns them, the
Convention of the Hague of July 17, 1905, relating to civil procedure.
This renewal, however, will not apply to France, Portugal and Rumania.
=ARTICLE 288.=--The special rights and privileges granted to Germany by
Article 3 of the convention of Dec. 2, 1899, relating to Samoa shall be
considered to have terminated on Aug. 4, 1914.
=ARTICLE 289.=--Each of the Allied or Associated Powers, being guided by
the general principles or special provisions of the present treaty,
shall notify to Germany the bilateral treaties or conventions which such
Allied or Associated Power wishes to revive with Germany.
The notification referred to in the present article shall be made either
directly or through the intermediary of another power. Receipt thereof
shall be acknowledged in writing by Germany. The date of the revival
shall be that of the notification.
The Allied and Associated Powers undertake among themselves not to
revive with Germany any conventions or treaties which are not in
accordance with the terms of the present treaty.
The notification shall mention any provisions of the said conventions
and treaties which, not being in accordance with the terms of the
present treaty, shall not be considered as revived. In case of any
difference of opinion, the League of Nations will be called on to
decide.
A period of six months from the coming into force of the present treaty
is allowed to the Allied and Associated Powers within which to make the
notification.
Only those bilateral treaties and conventions which have been the
subject of such a notification shall be revived between the Allied and
Associated Powers and Germany; all the others are and shall remain
abrogated.
The above regulations apply to all bilateral treaties or conventions
existing between all the Allied and Associated Powers signatories to the
present treaty and Germany, even if the said Allied and Associated
Powers have not been in a state of war with Germany.
=ARTICLE 290.=--Germany recognizes that all the treaties, conventions,
or agreements which she has concluded with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria,
or Turkey since Aug. 1, 1914, until the coming into force of the present
treaty are and remain abrogated by the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 291.=--Germany undertakes to secure to the Allied and
Associated Powers, and to the officials and nationals of the said
powers, the enjoyment of all the rights and advantages of any kind which
she may have granted to Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey, or to the
officials and nationals of these States by treaties, conventions, or
arrangements concluded before Aug. 1, 1914, so long as those treaties,
conventions, or arrangements remain in force.
The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to accept or not the
enjoyment of these rights and advantages.
=ARTICLE 292.=--Germany recognizes that all treaties, conventions, or
arrangements which she concluded with Russia or with any State or
Government of which the territory previously formed a part of Russia, or
with Rumania before Aug. 1, 1914, or after that date until the coming
into force of the present treaty, are and remain abrogated.
=ARTICLE 293.=--Should an Allied or Associated Power, Russia, or a State
or Government of which the territory formerly constituted a part of
Russia have been forced since Aug. 1, 1914, by reason of military
occupation or by any other means or for any other cause, to grant or to
allow to be granted by the act of any public authority, concessions,
privileges, and favors of any kind to Germany or to a German nation,
such concessions, privileges, and favors are _ipso facto_ annulled by
the present treaty.
No claims or indemnities which may result from this annulment shall be
charged against the Allied or Associated Powers or the powers, States,
Governments, or public authorities which are released from their
engagements by the present article.
=ARTICLE 294.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty Germany
undertakes to give the Allied and Associated Powers and their nationals
the benefit _ipso facto_ of the rights and advantages of any kind which
she has granted by treaties, conventions or arrangements to
non-belligerent States or their nationals since Aug. 1, 1914, until the
coming into force of the present treaty so long as those treaties,
conventions, or arrangements remain in force.
=ARTICLE 295.=--Those of the high contracting parties who have not yet
signed, or who have signed but not yet ratified, the Opium Convention
signed at The Hague on Jan. 23, 1912, agree to bring the said convention
into force, and for this purpose to enact the necessary legislation
without delay and in any case within a period of twelve months from the
coming into force of the present treaty.
Furthermore, they agree that ratification of the present treaty should
in the case of powers which have not yet ratified the Opium Convention
be deemed in all respects equivalent to the ratification of that
convention and to the signature of the special protocol which was opened
at The Hague in accordance with the resolutions adopted by the Third
Opium Conference in 1914 for bringing the said convention into force.
For this purpose the Government of the French Republic will communicate
to the Government of the Netherlands a certified copy of the protocol of
the deposit of ratifications of the present treaty, and will invite the
Government of the Netherlands to accept and deposit the said certified
copy as if it were a deposit of ratifications of the Opium Convention
and a signature of the additional protocol of 1914.
SECTION III.--_Debts._
=ARTICLE 296.=--There shall be settled through the intervention of
clearing offices to be established by each of the high contracting
parties within three months of the notification referred to in paragraph
(e) hereafter the following classes of pecuniary obligations:
1. Debts payable before the war and due by a national of one of the
contracting powers, residing within its territory, to a national of an
opposing power, residing within its territory.
2. Debts which became payable during the war to nationals of one
contracting power residing within its territory and arose out of
transactions or contracts with the nationals of an opposing power,
resident within its territory, of which the total or partial execution
was suspended on account of the declaration of war.
3. Interest which has accrued due before and during the war to a
national of one of the contracting powers in respect of securities
issued by an opposing power, provided that the payment of interest on
such securities to the nationals of that power or to neutrals has not
been suspended during the war.
4. Capital sums which have become payable before and during the war to
nationals of one of the contracting powers in respect of securities
issued by one of the opposing powers, provided that the payment of such
capital sums to nationals of that power or to neutrals has not been
suspended during the war.
[Illustration: Copyright Harris & Ewing
M. Stephen Pichon
Chosen Chairman of the provisional organization of the League of Nations
in recognition of his long leadership, not only in France but
internationally, in the work of bringing about a world-wide organization
to preserve peace.]
The proceeds of liquidation of enemy property, rights, and interests
mentioned in Section IV. and in the annex thereto will be accounted for
through the clearing offices, in the currency and at the rate of
exchange hereinafter provided in Paragraph (d), and disposed of by them
under the conditions provided by the said section and annex.
The settlements provided for in this article shall be effected according
to the following principles and in accordance with the annex to this
section:
(a) Each of the high contracting parties shall prohibit, as from the
coming into force of the present treaty, both the payment and the
acceptance of payment of such debts, and also all communications between
the interested parties with regard to the settlement of the said debts
otherwise than through the clearing offices.
(b) Each of the high contracting parties shall be respectively
responsible for the payment of such debts due by its nationals, except
in the cases where before the war the debtor was in a state of
bankruptcy or failure, or had given formal indication of insolvency or
where the debt was due by a company whose business has been liquidated
under emergency legislation during the war. Nevertheless, debts due by
the inhabitants of territory invaded or occupied by the enemy before the
armistice will not be guaranteed by the States of which those
territories form part.
(c) The sums due to the nationals of one of the high contracting parties
by the nationals of an opposing State will be debited to the clearing
office of the country of the debtor, and paid to the creditor by the
clearing office of the country of the creditor.
(d) Debts shall be paid or credited in the currency of such one of the
Allied and Associated Powers, their colonies or protectorates, or the
British Dominions or India, as may be concerned. If the debts are
payable in some other currency they shall be paid or credited in the
currency of the country concerned, whether an Allied or Associated
Power, colony, protectorate, British Dominion, or India, at the pre-war
rate of exchange.
For the purpose of this provision the pre-war rate of exchange shall be
defined as the average cable transfer rate prevailing in the Allied or
Associated country concerned during the month immediately preceding the
outbreak of war between the said country concerned and Germany.
If a contract provides for a fixed rate of exchange governing the
conversion of the currency in which the debt is stated into the currency
of the Allied or Associated country concerned, then the above provisions
concerning the rate of exchange shall not apply.
In the case of new States the currency in which and the rate of exchange
at which debts shall be paid or credited shall be determined by the
Reparation Commission provided for in Part VIII. (Reparation.)
(e) The provisions of this article and of the annex thereto shall not
apply as between Germany on the one hand and any one of the Allied and
Associated Powers, their colonies or protectorates, or any one of the
British Dominions or India on the other hand, unless within a period of
one month from the deposit of the ratifications of the present treaty by
the power in question, or of the ratification on behalf of such dominion
or of India, notice to that effect is given to Germany by the
Government of such Allied or Associated Power or of such Dominion or of
India as the case may be.
(f) The Allied and Associated Powers who have adopted this article and
the annex hereto may agree between themselves to apply them to their
respective nationals established in their territory so far as regards
matters between their nationals and German nationals. In this case the
payments made by application of this provision will be subject to
arrangements between the allied and associated clearing offices
concerned.
ANNEX
1. Each of the high contracting parties will, within three months from
the notification provided for in Article 296, Paragraph (e), establish a
clearing office for the collection and payment of enemy debts.
Local clearing offices may be established for any particular portion of
the territories of the high contracting parties. Such local clearing
offices may perform all the functions of a central clearing office in
their respective districts, except that all transactions with the
clearing office in the opposing State must be effected through the
central clearing office.
2. In this annex the pecuniary obligations referred to in the first
paragraph of Article 296 are described as "enemy debts," the persons
from whom the same are due as "enemy debtors," the persons to whom they
are due as "enemy creditors," the clearing office in the country of the
creditor is called the "Creditor Clearing Office," and the clearing
office in the country of the debtor is called the "Debtor Clearing
Office."
3. The high contracting parties will subject contraventions of Paragraph
(a) of Article 296 to the same penalties as are at present provided by
their legislation for trading with the enemy. They will similarly
prohibit within their territory all legal process relating to payment of
enemy debts, except in accordance with the provisions of this annex.
4. The Government guarantee specified in Paragraph (b) of Article 296
shall take effect whenever, for any reason, a debt shall not be
recoverable, except in a case where at the date of the outbreak of war
the debt was barred by the laws of prescription in force in the country
of the debtor, or where the debtor was at that time in a state of
bankruptcy or failure or had given formal indication of insolvency, or
where the debt was due by a company whose business has been liquidated
under emergency legislation during the war. In such case the procedure
specified by this annex shall apply to payment of the dividends.
The terms "bankruptcy" and "failure" refer to the application of
legislation providing for such juridical conditions. The expression
"formal indication of insolvency" bears the same meaning as it has in
English law.
5. Creditors shall give notice to the Creditor Clearing Office within
six months of its establishment of debts due to them, and shall furnish
the Clearing Office with any documents and information required of them.
The high contracting parties will take all suitable measures to trace
and punish collusion between enemy creditors and debtors. The clearing
offices will communicate to one another any evidence and information
which might help the discovery and punishment of such collusion.
The high contracting parties will facilitate as much as possible postal
and telegraphic communication at the expense of the parties concerned
and through the intervention of the clearing offices between debtors and
creditors desirous of coming to an agreement as to the amount of their
debt.
The Creditor Clearing Office will notify the Debtor Clearing Office of
all debts declared to it. The Debtor Clearing Office will, in due
course, inform the Creditor Clearing Office which debts are admitted and
which debts are contested. In the latter case the Debtor Clearing Office
will give the grounds for the non-admission of debt.
6. When a debt has been admitted, in whole or in part, the Debtor
Clearing Office will at once credit the Creditor Clearing Office with
the amount admitted, and at the same time notify it of such credit.
7. The debt shall be deemed to be admitted in full and shall be credited
forthwith to the Creditor Clearing Office unless within three months
from the receipt of the notification or such longer time as may be
agreed to by the Creditor Clearing Office notice has been given by the
Debtor Clearing Office that it is not admitted.
8. When the whole or part of a debt is not admitted the two clearing
offices will examine into the matter jointly, and will endeavor to bring
the parties to an agreement.
9. The Creditor Clearing Office will pay to the individual creditor the
sums credited to it out of the funds placed at its disposal by the
Government of its country and in accordance with the conditions fixed by
the said Government, retaining any sums considered necessary to cover
risks, expenses, or commissions.
10. Any person having claimed payment of an enemy debt which is not
admitted in whole or in part shall pay to the clearing office by way of
fine interest at 5 per cent. on the part not admitted. Any person having
unduly refused to admit the whole or part of a debt claimed from him
shall pay by way of fine interest at 5 per cent. on the amount with
regard to which his refusal shall be disallowed.
Such interest shall run from the date of expiration of the period
provided for in Paragraph 7 until the date on which the claim shall have
been disallowed or the debt paid.
Each clearing office shall in so far as it is concerned take steps to
collect the fines above provided for, and will be responsible if such
fines cannot be collected.
The fines will be credited to the other clearing office, which shall
retain them as a contribution toward the cost of carrying out the
present provisions.
11. The balance between the clearing offices shall be struck monthly,
and the credit balance paid in cash by the debtor State within a week.
Nevertheless, any credit balances which may be due by one or more of the
Allied and Associated Powers shall be retained until complete payment
shall have been effected of the sums due to the Allied or Associated
Powers or their nationals on account of the war.
12. To facilitate discussion between the clearing offices each of them
shall have a representative at the place where the other is established.
13. Except for special reasons all discussions in regard to claims will,
so far as possible, take place at the Debtor Clearing Office.
14. In conformity with Article 296, Paragraph (b), the high contracting
parties are responsible for the payment of the enemy debts owing by
their nationals.
The Debtor Clearing Office will therefore credit the Creditor Clearing
Office with all debts admitted, even in case of inability to collect
them from the individual debtor. The Governments concerned will,
nevertheless, invest their respective clearing offices with all
necessary powers for the recovery of debts which have been admitted.
As an exception the admitted debts owing by persons having suffered
injury from acts of war shall only be credited to the Creditor Clearing
Office when the compensation due to the person concerned in respect of
such injury shall have been paid.
15. Each Government will defray the expenses of the clearing office set
up in its territory, including the salaries of the staff.
16. Where the two clearing offices are unable to agree whether a debt
claimed is due, or in case of a difference between an enemy debtor and
an enemy creditor, or between the clearing offices, the dispute shall
either be referred to arbitration if the parties so agree under
conditions fixed by agreement between them, or referred to the mixed
arbitral tribunal provided for in Section VI. hereafter.
At the request of the Creditor Clearing Office the dispute may, however,
be submitted to the jurisdiction of the courts of the place of domicile
of the debtor.
17. Recovery of sums found by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, the court, or
the arbitration tribunal to be due shall be effected through the
clearing offices as if these sums were debts admitted by the Debtor
Clearing Office.
18. Each of the Governments concerned shall appoint an agent who will be
responsible for the presentation to the mixed arbitral tribunal of the
cases conducted on behalf of its clearing office. This agent will
exercise a general control over the representatives or counsel employed
by its nationals.
Decisions will be arrived at on documentary evidence, but it will be
open to the tribunal to hear the parties in person, or, according to
their preference, by their representatives approved by the two
Governments, or by the agent referred to above, who shall be competent
to intervene along with the party or to reopen and maintain a claim
abandoned by the same.
19. The clearing offices concerned will lay before the mixed arbitral
tribunal all the information and documents in their possession, so as to
enable the tribunal to decide rapidly on the cases which are brought
before it.
20. Where one of the parties concerned appeals against the joint
decision of the two clearing offices he shall make a deposit against the
costs, which deposit shall only be refunded when the first judgment is
modified in favor of the appellant and in proportion to the success he
may attain, his opponent in case of such a refund being required to pay
an equivalent proportion of the costs and expenses. Security accepted by
the tribunal may be substituted for a deposit.
A fee of 5 per cent. of the amount in dispute shall be charged in
respect of all cases brought before the tribunal. This fee shall, unless
the tribunal directs otherwise, be borne by the unsuccessful party. Such
fee shall be added to the deposit referred to. It is also independent of
the security.
The tribunal may award to one of the parties a sum in respect of the
expenses of the proceedings.
Any sum payable under this paragraph shall be credited to the clearing
office of the successful party as a separate item.
21. With a view to the rapid settlement of claims, due regard shall be
paid in the appointment of all persons connected with the clearing
offices or with the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal to their knowledge of the
language of the other country concerned. Each of the clearing offices
will be at liberty to correspond with the other, and to forward
documents in its own language.
22. Subject to any special agreement to the contrary between the
Governments concerned, debts shall carry interest in accordance with the
following provisions:
Interest shall not be payable on sums of money due by way of dividend,
interest, or other periodical payments which themselves represent
interest on capital.
The rate of interest shall be 5 per cent. per annum except in cases
where, by contract, law, or custom, the creditor is entitled to payment
of interest at a different rate. In such cases the rate to which he is
entitled shall prevail.
Interest shall run from the date of commencement of hostilities (or, if
the sum of money to be recovered fell due during the war, from the date
at which it fell due) until the sum is credited to the clearing office
of the creditor.
Sums due by way of interest shall be treated as debts admitted by the
clearing offices and shall be credited to the Creditor Clearing Office
in the same way as such debts.
23. Where by decision of the clearing offices or the Mixed Arbitral
Tribunal a claim is held not to fall within Article 296, the creditor
shall be at liberty to prosecute the claim before the courts or to take
such other proceedings as may be open to him.
The presentation of a claim to the clearing office suspends the
operation of any period of prescription.
24. The high contracting parties agree to regard the decisions of the
Mixed Arbitral Tribunal as final and conclusive, and to render them
binding upon their nationals.
25. In any case where a Creditor Clearing Office declines to notify a
claim to the Debtor Clearing Office, or to take any step provided for in
this annex, intended to make effective in whole or in part a request of
which it has received due notice, the enemy creditor shall be entitled
to receive from the clearing office a certificate setting out the amount
of the claim, and shall then be entitled to prosecute the claim before
the courts or to take such other proceedings as may be open to him.
SECTION IV.--_Property, Rights, and Interests_
=ARTICLE 297.=--The question of private property, rights, and interests
in an enemy country shall be settled according to the principles laid
down in this section and to the provisions of the annex hereto:
(a) The exceptional war measures and measures of transfer (defined in
Paragraph 3 of the annex hereto) taken by Germany with respect to the
property, rights, and interests of nationals of Allied or Associated
Powers, including companies and associations in which they are
interested, when liquidation has not been completed, shall be
immediately discontinued or stayed and the property, rights, and
interests concerned restored to their owners, who shall enjoy full
rights therein in accordance with the provisions of Article 298.
(b) Subject to any contrary stipulations which may be provided for in
the present treaty, the Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right
to retain and liquidate all property, rights, and interests belonging at
the date of the coming into force of the present treaty to German
nationals, or companies controlled by them, within their territories,
colonies, possessions, and protectorates including territories ceded to
them by the present treaty.
The liquidation shall be carried out in accordance with the laws of the
Allied or Associated State concerned, and the German owner shall not be
able to dispose of such property, rights, or interests nor to subject
them to any charge without the consent of that State.
German nationals who acquire _ipso facto_ the nationality of an Allied
or Associated Power in accordance with the provisions of the present
treaty will not be considered as German nationals within the meaning of
this paragraph.
(c) The price of the amount of compensation in respect of the exercise
of the right referred to in the preceding Paragraph (b) will be fixed in
accordance with the methods of sale or valuation adopted by the laws of
the country in which the property has been retained or liquidated.
(d) As between the Allied and Associated Powers or their nationals on
the one hand and Germany or her nationals on the other hand, all the
exceptional war measures, or measures of transfer, or acts done or to be
done in execution of such measures as defined in Paragraphs 1 and 3 of
the annex hereto shall be considered as final and binding upon all
persons except as regards the reservations laid down in the present
treaty.
(e) The nationals of Allied and Associated Powers shall be entitled to
compensation in respect of damage or injury inflicted upon their
property, rights, or interests including any company or association in
which they are interested, in German territory as it existed on Aug. 1,
1914, by the application either of the exceptional war measures or
measures of transfer mentioned in Paragraphs 1 and 3 of the annex
hereto. The claims made in this respect by such nationals shall be
investigated, and the total of the compensation shall be determined by
the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI, or by an
arbitrator appointed by that tribunal. This compensation shall be borne
by Germany, and may be charged upon the property of German nationals,
within the territory or under the control of the claimant's State. This
property may be constituted as a pledge for enemy liabilities under the
conditions fixed by Paragraph 4 of the annex hereto. The payment of this
compensation may be made by the Allied or Associated State, and the
amount will be debited to Germany.
(f) Whenever a national of an Allied or Associated Power is entitled to
property which has been subjected to a measure of transfer in German
territory and expresses a desire for its restitution, his claim for
compensation in accordance with Paragraph (e) shall be satisfied by the
restitution of the said property if it still exists in specie.
In such case Germany shall take all necessary steps to restore the
evicted owner to the possession of his property, free from all
incumbrances or burdens with which it may have been charged after the
liquidation, and to indemnify all third parties injured by the
restitution.
If the restitution provided for in this paragraph cannot be effected,
private agreements arranged by the intermediation of the powers
concerned or the clearing offices provided for in the Annex to Section
III. may be made, in order to secure that the national of the Allied or
Associated Power may secure compensation for the injury referred to in
Paragraph (e) by the grant of advantages or equivalents which he agrees
to accept in place of the property, rights or interests of which he was
deprived.
Through restitution in accordance with this article the price or the
amount of compensation fixed by the application of Paragraph (e) will be
reduced by the actual value of the property restored, account being
taken of compensation in respect of loss of use or deterioration.
(g) The rights conferred by Paragraph (f) are reserved to owners who are
nationals of Allied or Associated Powers within whose territory
legislative measures prescribing the general liquidation of enemy
property, rights or interests were not applied before the signature of
the armistice.
(h) Except in cases where, by application of Paragraph (f), restitutions
in specie have been made, the net proceeds of sales of enemy property,
rights or interests wherever situated carried out either by virtue of
war legislation, or by application of this article, and in general all
cash assets of enemies, shall be dealt with as follows:
(1) As regards powers adopting Section III. and the annex thereto, the
said proceeds and cash assets shall be credited to the power of which
the owner is a national, through the clearing office established
thereunder; any credit balance in favor of Germany resulting therefrom
shall be dealt with as provided in Article 243.
(2) As regards powers not adopting Section III. and the annex thereto,
the proceeds of the property, rights and interests, and the cash assets,
of the nationals or Allied or Associated Powers held by Germany shall be
paid immediately to the person entitled thereto or to his Government;
the proceeds of the property, rights and interests, and the cash assets,
of German nationals received by an Allied or Associated Power shall be
subject to disposal by such power in accordance with its laws and
regulations and may be applied in payment of the claims and debts
defined by this article or Paragraph 4 of the annex hereto. Any
property, rights and interests or proceeds thereof or cash assets not
used as above provided may be retained by the said Allied or Associated
Power and if retained the cash value thereof shall be dealt with as
provided in Article 243.
In the case of liquidations effected in new States, which are
signatories of the present treaty as Allied and Associated Powers, or in
States which are not entitled to share in the reparation payments to be
made by Germany, the proceeds of liquidations effected by such States
shall, subject to the rights of the Reparation Commission under the
present treaty, particularly under Articles 235 and 260, be paid direct
to the owner. If on the application of that owner the Mixed Arbitral
Tribunal, provided for by Section VI. of this part or an arbitrator
appointed by that tribunal, is satisfied that the conditions of the sale
or measures taken by the Government of the State in question outside its
general legislation were unfairly prejudicial to the price obtained,
they shall have discretion to award to the owner equitable compensation
to be paid by that State.
(i) Germany undertakes to compensate its nationals in respect of the
sale or retention of their property, rights or interests in Allied or
Associated States.
(j) The amount of all taxes and imposts upon capital levied or to be
levied by Germany on the property, rights, and interests of the
nationals of the Allied or Associated Powers from the 11th of November,
1918, until three months from the coming into force of the present
treaty, or, in the case of property, rights or interests which have been
subjected to exceptional measures of war, until restitution in
accordance with the present treaty, shall be restored to the owners.
=ARTICLE 298.=--Germany undertakes, with regard to the property, rights
and interests, including companies and associations in which they were
interested, restored to nationals of Allied and Associated Powers in
accordance with the provisions of Article 297, Paragraph (a) or (f):
(a) to restore and maintain, except as expressly provided in the present
treaty, the property, rights, and interests of the nationals of Allied
or Associated Powers in the legal position obtaining in respect of the
property, rights, and interests of German nationals under the laws in
force before the war.
(b) not to subject the property, rights, or interests of the nationals
of the Allied or Associated Powers to any measures in derogation of
property rights which are not applied equally to the property, rights,
and interests of German nationals, and to pay adequate compensation in
the event of the application of these measures.
ANNEX
1. In accordance with the provisions of Article 297, Paragraph (d), the
validity of vesting orders and of orders for the winding up of
businesses or companies, and of any other orders, directions, decisions,
or instructions of any court or any department of the Government of any
of the high contracting parties made or given, or purporting to be made
or given, in pursuance of war legislation with regard to enemy property,
rights, and interests is confirmed. The interests of all persons shall
be regarded as having been effectively dealt with by any order,
direction, decision, or instruction dealing with property in which they
may be interested, whether or not such interests are specifically
mentioned in the order, direction, decision, or instruction. No question
shall be raised as to the regularity of a transfer of any property,
rights, or interests dealt with in pursuance of any such order,
direction, decision, or instruction. Every action taken with regard to
any property, business, or company, whether as regards its
investigation, sequestration, compulsory administration, use,
requisition, supervision, or winding up, the sale or management of
property, rights, or interests, the collection or discharge of debts,
the payment of costs, charges or expenses, or any other matter
whatsoever, in pursuance of orders, directions, decisions, or
instructions of any court or of any department of the Government of any
of the high contracting parties, made or given, or purporting to be made
or given in pursuance of war legislation with regard to enemy property,
rights or interests, is confirmed. Provided that the provisions of this
paragraph shall not be held to prejudice the titles to property
heretofore acquired in good faith and for value and in accordance with
the laws of the country in which the property is situated by nationals
of the Allied and Associated Powers.
The provisions of this paragraph do not apply to such of the
above-mentioned measures as have been taken by the German authorities in
invaded or occupied territory, nor to such of the above mentioned
measures as have been taken by Germany or the German authorities since
Nov. 11, 1918, all of which shall be void.
2. No claim or action shall be made or brought against any Allied or
Associated Power or against any person acting on behalf of or under the
direction of any legal authority or department of the Government of such
a power by Germany or by any German national wherever resident in
respect of any act or omission with regard to his property, rights, or
interests during the war or in preparation for the war. Similarly no
claim or action shall be made or brought against any person in respect
of any act or omission under or in accordance with the exceptional war
measures, laws, or regulations of any Allied or Associated Power.
3. In Article 297 and this Annex the expression "exceptional war
measures" includes measures of all kinds, legislative, administrative,
judicial, or others, that have been taken or will be taken hereafter
with regard to enemy property, and which have had or will have the
effect of removing from the proprietors the power of disposition over
their property, though without affecting the ownership, such as measures
of supervision, of compulsory administration, and of sequestration; or
measures which have had or will have as an object the seizure of, the
use of, or the interference with enemy assets, for whatsoever motive,
under whatsoever form or in whatsoever place. Acts in the execution of
these measures include all detentions, instructions, orders or decrees
of Government departments or courts applying these measures to enemy
property, as well as acts performed by any person connected with the
administration or the supervision of enemy property, such as the payment
of debts, the collecting of credits, the payment of any costs, charges,
or expenses, or the collecting of fees.
Measures of transfer are those which have affected or will affect the
ownership of enemy property by transferring it in whole or in part to a
person other than the enemy owner, and without his consent, such as
measures directing the sale, liquidation, or devolution of ownership in
enemy property, or the canceling of titles or securities.
4. All property, rights, and interests of German nationals within the
territory of any Allied or Associated Power and the net proceeds of
their sale, liquidation or other dealing therewith may be charged by
that Allied or Associated Power in the first place with payment of
amounts due in respect of claims by the nationals of that Allied or
Associated Power with regard to their property, rights, and interests,
including companies and associations in which they are interested, in
German territory, or debts owing to them by German nationals, and with
payment of claims growing out of acts committed by the German Government
or by any German authorities since July 31, 1914, and before that Allied
or Associated Power entered into the war. The amount of such claims may
be assessed by an arbitrator appointed by Gustave Ador, if he is
willing, or if no such appointment is made by him by an arbitrator
appointed by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI.
They may be charged in the second place with payment of the amounts due
in respect of claims by the nationals of such Allied or Associated Power
with regard to their property, rights, and interests in the territory of
other enemy powers, or debts owing to them by nationals of such powers
in so far as those claims or debts are otherwise unsatisfied.
5. Notwithstanding the provisions of Article 297, where immediately
before the outbreak of war a company incorporated in an Allied or
Associated State had rights in common with a company controlled by it
and incorporated in Germany to the use of trade-marks in third
countries, or enjoyed the use in common with such company of unique
means of reproduction of goods or articles for sale in third countries,
the former company shall alone have the right to use these trade-marks
in third countries to the exclusion of the German company, and these
unique means of reproduction shall be handed over to the former company,
notwithstanding any action taken under German war legislation with
regard to the latter company or its business, industrial property or
shares. Nevertheless, the former company, if requested, shall deliver to
the latter company derivative copies permitting the continuation of
reproduction of articles for use within German territory.
6. Up to the time when restitution is carried out in accordance with
Article 297, Germany is responsible for the conservation of property,
rights, and interests of the nationals of Allied or Associated Powers,
including companies and associations in which they are interested, that
have been subjected by her to exceptional war measures.
7. Within one year from the coming into force of the present treaty the
Allied or Associated Powers will specify the property, rights and
interests over which they intend to exercise the right provided in
Article 297, Paragraph (f).
8. The restriction provided in Article 297 will be carried out by order
of the German Government or of the authorities which have been
substituted for it. Detailed accounts of the action of administrators
shall be furnished to the interested persons by the German authorities
upon request, which may be made at any time after the coming into force
of the present treaty.
9. Until completion of the liquidation provided for by Article 297,
Paragraph (b), the property, rights and interests of German nationals
will continue to be subject to exceptional war measures that have been
or will be taken with regard to them.
10. Germany will within six months from the coming into force of the
present treaty, deliver to each Allied or Associated Power all
securities, certificates, deeds, or other documents of title held by its
nationals and relating to property, rights or interests situated in the
territory of that Allied or Associated Power, including any shares,
stock, debentures, debenture stock, or other obligations of any company
incorporated in accordance with the laws of that power.
Germany will at any time on demand of any Allied or Associated Power
furnish such information as may be required with regard to the property,
rights, and interests of German nationals within the territory of such
Allied or Associated Power, or with regard to any transactions
concerning such property, rights or interests effected since July 1,
1914.
11. The expression "cash assets" includes all deposits or funds
established before or after the declaration of war, as well as all
assets coming from deposits, revenues, or profits collected by
administrators, sequestrators, or others from funds placed on deposit or
otherwise, but does not include sums belonging to the Allied or
Associated Powers or to their component States, provinces, or
municipalities.
[Illustration: Copyright Harris & Ewing
Henry Cabot Lodge
Republican Senator from Massachusetts.
One of the most earnest opponents of the peace treaty as originally
drawn up.]
12. All investments wheresoever effected with the cash assets of
nationals of the high contracting parties, including companies and
associations in which such nationals were interested, by persons
responsible for the administration, of enemy properties or having
control over such administration, or by order of such persons or of any
authority whatsoever shall be annulled. These cash assets shall be
accounted for irrespective of any such investment.
13. Within one month from the coming into force of the present treaty,
or on demand at any time, Germany will deliver to the Allied and
Associated Powers all accounts, vouchers, records, documents, and
information of any kind which may be within German territory, and which
concern the property, rights and interests of the nationals of those
powers, including companies and associations in which they are
interested, that have been subjected to an exceptional war measure, or
to a measure of transfer either in German territory or in territory
occupied by Germany or her allies.
The controllers, supervisors, managers, administrators, sequestrators,
liquidators, and receivers shall be personally responsible under
guarantee of the German Government for the immediate delivery in full of
these accounts and documents, and for their accuracy.
14. The provisions of Article 297 and this annex relating to property,
rights and interests in an enemy country, and the proceeds of the
liquidation thereof, apply to debts, credits and accounts, Section III.
regulating only the method of payment.
In the settlement of matters provided for in Article 297 between Germany
and the Allied or Associated States, their colonies or protectorates, or
any one of the British Dominions or India, in respect of any of which a
declaration shall not have been made that they adopt Section III., and
between their respective nationals, the provisions of Section III.
respecting the currency in which payment is to be made and the rate of
exchange and of interest shall apply unless the Government of the Allied
or Associated Power concerned shall within six months of the coming into
force of the present treaty notify Germany that the said provisions are
not to be applied.
15. The provisions of Article 297 and this annex apply to industrial,
literary, and artistic property which has been or will be dealt with in
the liquidation of property, rights, interests, companies, or businesses
under war legislation by the Allied or Associated Powers, or in
accordance with the stipulations of Article 297, Paragraph (b).
SECTION V.--_Contracts, Prescriptions, Judgments_
=ARTICLE 299.=--(a) Any contract concluded between enemies shall be
regarded as having been dissolved as from the time when any two of the
parties become enemies, except in respect of any debt or other pecuniary
obligation arising out of any act done or money paid thereunder, and
subject to the exceptions and special rules with regard to particular
contracts or classes of contracts contained herein or in the annex
hereto.
(b) Any contract of which the execution shall be required in the general
interest, within six months from the date of the coming into force of
the present treaty, by the Allied or Associated Governments of which one
of the parties is a national, shall be excepted from dissolution under
this article.
When the execution of the contract thus kept alive would, owing to the
alteration of trade conditions, cause one of the parties substantial
prejudice the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for by Section VI. shall
be empowered to grant to the prejudiced party equitable compensation.
(c) Having regard to the provisions of the Constitution and law of the
United States of America, of Brazil, and of Japan, neither the present
Article, nor Article 300, nor the Annex hereto shall apply to contracts
made between nationals of these States and German nationals; nor shall
Article 305 apply to the United States of America or its nationals.
(d) The present Article and the Annex hereto shall not apply to
contracts the parties to which became enemies by reason of one of them
being an inhabitant of territory of which the sovereignty has been
transferred, if such party shall acquire under the present Treaty the
nationality of an Allied or Associated Power, nor shall they apply to
contracts between nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers between
whom trading has been prohibited by reason of one of the parties being
in allied or associated territory in the occupation of the enemy.
(e) Nothing in the present Article or the Annex hereto shall be deemed
to invalidate a transaction lawfully carried out in accordance with a
contract between enemies if it has been carried out with the authority
of one of the belligerent Powers.
=ARTICLE 300.=--(a) All periods of prescription, or limitation of right
of action, whether they began to run before or after the outbreak of
war, shall be treated in the territory of the High Contracting Parties,
so far as regards relations between enemies, as having been suspended
for the duration of the war. They shall begin to run again at earliest
three months after the coming into force of the present Treaty. This
provision shall apply to the period prescribed for the presentation of
interest or dividend coupons or for the presentation for repayment of
securities drawn for repayment or repayable on any other ground.
(b) Where, on account of failure to perform any act or comply with any
formality during the war, measures of execution have been taken in
German territory to the prejudice of a national of an Allied or
Associated Power, the claim of such national shall, if the matter does
not fall within the competence of the courts of an Allied or Associated
Power, be heard by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for by Section
VI.
(c) Upon the application of any interested person who is a national of
an Allied or Associated Power, the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall order
the restoration of the rights which have been prejudiced by the measures
of execution referred to in Paragraph (b), wherever, having regard to
the particular circumstances of the case, such restoration is equitable
and possible.
If such restoration is inequitable or impossible the Mixed Arbitral
Tribunal may grant compensation to the prejudiced party to be paid by
the German Government.
(d) Where a contract between enemies has been dissolved by reason either
of failure on the part of either party to carry out its provisions or of
the exercise of a right stipulated in the contract itself the party
prejudiced may apply to the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal for relief. The
tribunal will have the powers provided for in Paragraph (c).
(e) The provisions of the preceding paragraphs of this article shall
apply to the nationals of Allied and Associated Powers who have been
prejudiced by reason of measures referred to above taken by Germany in
invaded or occupied territory, if they have not been otherwise
compensated.
(f) Germany shall compensate any third party who may be prejudiced by
any restitution or restoration ordered by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal
under the provisions of the preceding paragraphs of this Article.
(g) As regards negotiable instruments, the period of three months
provided under paragraph (a) shall commence as from the date on which
any exceptional regulations applied in the territories of the interested
power with regard to negotiable instruments shall have definitely ceased
to have force.
=ARTICLE 301.=--As between enemies, no negotiable instrument made before
the war shall be deemed to have become invalid by reason only of failure
within the required time to present the instrument for acceptance or
payment or to give notice of non-acceptance or non-payment to drawers or
indorsers or to protest the instrument, nor by reason of failure to
complete any formality during the war.
Where the period within which a negotiable instrument should have been
presented for acceptance or for payment, or within which notice of
non-acceptance or non-payment should have been given to the drawer or
indorser within which the instrument should have been protested, has
elapsed during the war, and the party who should have presented or
protested the instrument or have given notice of non-acceptance or
non-payment has failed to do so during the war, a period of not less
than three months from the coming into force of the present treaty shall
be allowed within which presentation, notice of non-acceptance or
non-payment or protest may be made.
=ARTICLE 302.=--Judgments given by the courts of an Allied or Associated
Power in all cases which, under the present treaty, they are competent
to decide, shall be recognized in Germany as final, and shall be
enforced without it being necessary to have them declared executory.
If a judgment in respect of any dispute which may have arisen has been
given during the war by a German court against a national of an Allied
or Associated State in a case in which he was not able to make his
defense, the allied and associated national who has suffered prejudice
thereby shall be entitled to recover compensation, to be fixed by the
Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI.
At the instance of the national of the Allied or Associated Power the
compensation above mentioned may, upon order to that effect of the Mixed
Arbitral Tribunal, be effected where it is possible by replacing the
parties in the situation which they occupied before the judgment was
given by the German court.
The above compensation may likewise be obtained before the Mixed
Arbitral Tribunal by the nationals of Allied or Associated Powers who
have suffered prejudice by judicial measures taken in invaded or
occupied territories, if they have not been otherwise compensated.
=ARTICLE 303.=--For the purpose of Sections III., IV., V., and VII., the
expression "during the war" means for each Allied or Associated Power
the period between the commencement of the state of war between that
power and Germany and the coming into force of the present treaty.
ANNEX
I. _General Provisions_
1. Within the meaning of Articles 299, 300 and 301, the parties to a
contract shall be regarded as enemies when trading between them shall
have been prohibited by or otherwise became unlawful under laws, orders
or regulations to which one of those parties was subject. They shall be
deemed to have become enemies from the date when such trading was
prohibited or otherwise became unlawful.
2. The following classes of contracts are excepted from dissolution by
Article 299 and, without prejudice to the rights contained in Article
297 (b) of Section IV., remain in force subject to the application of
domestic laws, orders or regulations made during the war by the Allied
and Associated Powers and subject to the terms of the contracts:
(a) Contracts having for their object the transfer of estates or of real
or personal property where the property therein had passed or the object
had been delivered before the parties became enemies;
(b) Leases and agreements for leases of land and houses;
(c) Contracts of mortgage, pledge, or lien;
(d) Concessions concerning mines, quarries or deposits;
(e) Contracts between individuals or companies and States, provinces,
municipalities, or other similar juridical persons charged with
administrative functions, and concessions granted by States, provinces,
municipalities, or other similar juridical persons charged with
administrative functions.
3. If the provisions of a contract are in part dissolved under Article
299, the remaining provisions of that contract shall, subject to the
same application of domestic laws as is provided for in Paragraph 2,
continue in force if they are severable, but where they are not
severable the contract shall be deemed to have been dissolved in its
entirety.
II. _Provisions Relating to Certain Classes of Contracts_
_Stock Exchange and Commercial Exchange Contracts_
4. (a) Rules made during the war by any recognized exchange of
commercial association providing for the closure of contracts entered
into before the war by an enemy are confirmed by the high contracting
parties, as also any action taken thereunder, provided:--
(i.) That the contract was expressed to be made subject to the rules of
the exchange or association in question;
(ii.) That the rules applied to all persons concerned;
(iii.) That the conditions attaching to the closure were fair and
reasonable.
(b) The preceding paragraph shall not apply to rules made during the
occupation by exchange or commercial associations in the districts
occupied by the enemy.
(c) The closure of contracts relating to cotton "futures," which were
closed as on the 31st July, 1914, under the decision of the Liverpool
Cotton Association, is also confirmed.
_Security_
(5) The sale of a security held for an unpaid debt owing by an enemy
shall be deemed to have been valid irrespective of notice to the owner
if the creditor acted in good faith and with reasonable care and
prudence, and no claim by the debtor on the ground of such sale shall be
admitted.
This stipulation shall not apply to any sale of securities effected by
an enemy during the occupation in regions invaded or occupied by the
enemy.
_Negotiable Instruments_
6. As regards powers which adopt Section III. and the Annex thereto the
pecuniary obligations existing between enemies and resulting from the
issue of negotiable instruments shall be adjusted in conformity with the
said Annex by the instrumentality of the Clearing Offices, which shall
assume the rights of the holder as regards the various remedies open to
him.
7. If a person has either before or during the war become liable upon a
negotiable instrument in accordance with an undertaking given to him by
a person who has subsequently become an enemy, the latter shall remain
liable to indemnify the former in respect of his liability,
notwithstanding the outbreak of war.
III. _Contracts of Insurance_
8. Contracts of insurance entered into by any person with another person
who subsequently became an enemy will be dealt with in accordance with
the following paragraphs:
_Fire Insurance_
9. Contracts for the insurance of property against fire entered into by
a person interested in such property with another person who
subsequently became an enemy shall not be deemed to have been dissolved
by the outbreak of war, or by the fact of the person becoming an enemy,
or on account of the failure during the war and for a period of three
months thereafter to perform his obligations under the contract, but
they shall be dissolved at the date when the annual premium becomes
payable for the first time after the expiration of a period of three
months after the coming into force of the present treaty.
A settlement shall be effected of unpaid premiums which became due
during the war, or of claims for losses which occurred during the war.
10. Where by administrative or legislative action an insurance against
fire effected before the war has been transferred during the war from
the original to another insurer, the transfer will be recognized and the
liability of the original insurer will be deemed to have ceased as from
the date of the transfer. The original insurer will, however, be
entitled to receive on demand full information as to the terms of the
transfer, and if it should appear that these terms were not equitable
they shall be amended so far as may be necessary to render them
equitable.
Furthermore, the insured shall, subject to the concurrence of the
original insurer, be entitled to retransfer the contract to the original
insurer as from the date of the demand.
_Life Insurance_
11. Contracts of life insurance entered into between an insurer and a
person who subsequently became an enemy shall not be deemed to have been
dissolved by the outbreak of war, or by the fact of the person becoming
an enemy.
Any sum which during the war became due upon a contract deemed not to
have been dissolved under the preceding provision shall be recoverable
after the war with the addition of interest of five per cent. per annum
from the date of its becoming due up to the day of payment.
Where the contract has lapsed during the war owing to non-payment of
premiums, or has become void from breach of the conditions of the
contract, the assured or his representatives or the persons entitled
shall have the right at any time within twelve months of the coming into
force of the present treaty to claim from the insurer the surrender
value of the policy at the date of its lapse or avoidance.
Where the contract has lapsed during the war owing to non-payment of
premiums the payment of which has been prevented by the enforcement of
measures of war, the assured or his representative or the persons
entitled shall have the right to restore the contract on payment of the
premiums with interest at five per cent. per annum within three months
from the coming into effect of the present treaty.
12. Any Allied or Associated Power may within three months of the coming
into force of the present treaty cancel all the contracts of insurance
running between a German insurance company and its nationals under
conditions which shall protect its nationals from any prejudice.
To this end the German insurance company will hand over to the allied or
associated Government concerned, the proportion of its assets
attributable to the policies so canceled and will be relieved from all
liability in respect of such policies. The assets to be handed over
shall be determined by an actuary appointed by the Mixed Arbitral
Tribunal.
13. Where contracts of life insurance have been entered into by a local
branch of an insurance company established in a country which
subsequently became an enemy country, the contract shall, in the absence
of any stipulation to the contrary in the contract itself, be governed
by the local law, but the insurer shall be entitled to demand from the
insured or his representatives the refund of sums paid on claims made or
enforced under measures taken during the war, if the making or
enforcement of such claims was not in accordance with the terms of the
contract itself or was not consistent with the laws or treaties existing
at the time when it was entered into.
14. In any case where by the law applicable to the contract the insurer
remains bound by the contract notwithstanding the non-payment of
premiums until notice is given to the insured of the termination of the
contract, he shall be entitled where the giving of such notice was
prevented by the war to recover the unpaid premiums with interest at
five per cent. per annum from the insured.
15. Insurance contracts shall be considered as contracts of life
assurance for the purpose of Paragraphs 11 to 14 when they depend on the
probabilities of human life combined with the rate of interest for the
calculation of the reciprocal engagements between the two parties.
_Marine Insurance_
16. Contracts of marine insurance including time policies and voyage
policies entered into between an insurer and a person who subsequently
became an enemy, shall be deemed to have been dissolved on his becoming
an enemy, except in cases where the risk undertaken in the contract had
attached before he became an enemy.
Where the risk had not attached, money paid by way of premium or
otherwise shall be recoverable from the insurer.
Where the risk had attached, effect shall be given to the contract
notwithstanding the party becoming an enemy, and sums due under the
contract either by way of premiums or in respect of losses shall be
recoverable after the coming into force of the present treaty.
In the event of any agreement being come to for the payment of interest
on sums due before the war to or by the nationals of States which have
been at war and recovered after the war, such interest shall in the case
of losses recoverable under contracts of marine insurance run from the
expiration of a period of one year from the date of the loss.
17. No contract of marine insurance with an insured person who
subsequently became an enemy shall be deemed to cover losses due to
belligerent action by the power of which the insurer was a national or
by the allies or associates of such power.
18. Where it is shown that a person who had before the war entered into
a contract of marine insurance with an insurer who subsequently became
an enemy entered after the outbreak of war into a new contract covering
the same risk with an insurer who was not an enemy, the new contract
shall be deemed to be substituted for the original contract as from the
date when it was entered into, and the premiums payable shall be
adjusted on the basis of the original insurer having remained liable on
the contract only up till the time when the new contract was entered
into.
_Other Insurances_
19. Contracts of insurance entered into before the war between an
insurer and a person who subsequently became an enemy other than
contracts dealt with in Paragraphs 9 to 18 shall be treated in all
respects on the same footing as contracts of fire insurance between the
same persons would be dealt with under the said paragraphs.
_Re-Insurance_
20. All treaties of re-insurance with a person who became an enemy shall
be regarded as having been abrogated by the person becoming an enemy,
but without prejudice in the case of life or marine risks which had
attached before the war to the right to recover payment after the war
for sums due in respect of such risks.
Nevertheless, if, owing to invasion, it has been impossible for the
re-insured to find another re-insurer, the treaty shall remain in force
until three months after the coming into force of the present treaty.
Where a re-insurance treaty becomes void under this paragraph, there
shall be an adjustment of accounts between the parties in respect both
of premiums paid and payable and of liabilities for losses in respect of
life or marine risk which had attached before the war. In the case of
risks other than those mentioned in Paragraphs 11 to 18 the adjustment
of accounts shall be made as at the date of the parties becoming enemies
without regard to claims for losses which may have occurred since that
date.
21. The provisions of the preceding paragraph will extend equally to
re-insurances existing at the date of the parties becoming enemies of
particular risks undertaken by the insurer in a contract of insurance
against any risks other than life or marine risks.
22. Re-insurance of life risks effected by particular contracts and not
under any general treaty remain in force.
The provisions of Paragraph 12 apply to treaties of re-insurance of life
insurance contracts in which enemy companies are the re-insurers.
23. In case of a re-insurance effected before the war of a contract of
marine insurance the cession of a risk which had been ceded to the
re-insurer shall, if it had attached before the outbreak of war, remain
valid and effect be given to the contract notwithstanding the outbreak
of war; sums due under the contract of re-insurance in respect either of
premiums or of losses shall be recoverable after the war.
24. The provisions of Paragraphs 17 and 18 and the last part of
Paragraph 16 shall apply to contracts for the re-insurance of marine
risks.
SECTION VI.--_Mixed Arbitral Tribunal_
=ARTICLE 304.=--(a) Within three months from the date of the coming into
force of the present treaty, a Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall be
established between each of the Allied and Associated Powers on the one
hand and Germany on the other hand. Each such tribunal shall consist of
three members. Each of the Governments concerned shall appoint one of
these members. The President shall be chosen by agreement between the
two Governments concerned.
In case of failure to reach agreement, the President of the tribunal and
two other persons either of whom may in case of need take his place,
shall be chosen by the Council of the League of Nations, or, until this
is set up, by M. Gustave Ador if he is willing. These persons shall be
nationals of Powers that have remained neutral during the war.
If any Government does not proceed within a period of one month in case
there is a vacancy to appoint a member of the tribunal, such member
shall be chosen by the other Government from the two persons mentioned
above other than the President.
The decision of the majority of the members of the tribunal shall be the
decision of the tribunal.
(b) The Mixed Arbitral Tribunals established pursuant to Paragraph (a)
shall decide all questions within their competence under Sections III.,
IV., V., and VII.
In addition, all questions, whatsoever their nature, relating to
contracts concluded before the coming into force of the present treaty
between nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers and German
nationals shall be decided by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, always
excepting questions which, under the laws of the Allied, Associated or
neutral powers, are within the jurisdiction of the national courts of
those powers. Such questions shall be decided by the national courts in
question, to the exclusion of the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal. The party who
is a national of an Allied or Associated Power may nevertheless bring
the case before the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal if this is not prohibited by
the laws of his country.
(c) If the number of cases justifies it, additional members shall be
appointed and each Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall sit in divisions. Each
of these divisions will be constituted as above.
(d) Each Mixed Arbitral Tribunal will settle its own procedure except in
so far as it is provided in the following Annex, and is empowered to
award the sums to be paid by the loser in respect of the costs and
expenses of the proceedings.
(e) Each Government will pay the remuneration of the member of the Mixed
Arbitral Tribunal appointed by it and of any agent whom it may appoint
to represent it before the Tribunal. The remuneration of the President
will be determined by special agreement between the Governments
concerned, and this remuneration and the joint expenses of each
tribunal will be paid by the two Governments in equal moieties.
(f) The high contracting parties agree that their courts and authorities
shall render to the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal direct all the assistance in
their power, particularly as regards transmitting notices and collecting
evidence.
(g) The high contracting parties agree to regard the decisions of the
Mixed Arbitral Tribunal as final and conclusive, and to render them
binding upon their nationals.
ANNEX
1. Should one of the members of the Tribunal either die, retire, or be
unable for any reason whatever to discharge his functions, the same
procedure will be followed for filling the vacancy as was followed for
appointing him.
2. The tribunal may adopt such rules of procedure as shall be in
accordance with justice and equity and decide the order and time at
which each party must conclude its arguments, and may arrange all
formalities required for dealing with the evidence.
3. The agent and counsel of the parties on each side are authorized to
present orally and in writing to the tribunal arguments in support or in
defense of each case.
4. The tribunal shall keep record of the questions and cases submitted
and the proceedings thereon, with the dates of such proceedings.
5. Each of the Powers concerned may appoint a secretary. These
secretaries shall act together as joint secretaries of the tribunal and
shall be subject to its direction. The tribunal may appoint and employ
any other necessary officer or officers to assist in the performance of
its duties.
6. The tribunal shall decide all questions and matters submitted upon
such evidence and information as may be furnished by the parties
concerned.
7. Germany agrees to give the tribunal all facilities and information
required by it for carrying out its investigations.
8. The language in which the proceedings shall be conducted shall,
unless otherwise agreed, be English, French, Italian, or Japanese, as
may be determined by the Allied or Associated Power concerned.
9. The place and time for the meetings of each tribunal shall be
determined by the President of the tribunal.
=ARTICLE 305.=--Whenever a competent court has given or gives a decision
in a case covered by Sections III., IV., V. or VII., and such decision
is inconsistent with the provisions of such sections, the party who is
prejudiced by the decision shall be entitled to obtain redress which
shall be fixed by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal. At the request of the
national of an Allied or Associated Power, the redress may, whenever
possible, be effected by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal directing the
replacement of the parties in the position occupied by them before the
judgment was given by the German Court.
SECTION VII.--_Industrial Property_
=ARTICLE 306.=--Subject to the stipulations of the present treaty,
rights of industrial, literary, and artistic property, as such property
is defined by the International Conventions of Paris and of Berne,
mentioned in Article 286, shall be re-established or restored, as from
the coming into force of the present treaty in the territories of the
high contracting parties, in favor of the persons entitled to the
benefit of them at the moment when the state of war commenced, or their
legal representatives. Equally, rights which, except for the war, would
have been acquired during the war in consequence of an application made
for the protection of industrial property, or the publication of a
literary or artistic work, shall be recognized and established in favor
of those persons who would have been entitled thereto, from the coming
into force of the present treaty.
Nevertheless, all acts done by virtue of the special measures taken
during the war under legislative, executive or administrative authority
of any Allied or Associated Power in regard to the rights of German
nationals in industrial, literary or artistic property shall remain in
force and shall continue to maintain their full effect.
No claim shall be made or action brought by Germany or German nationals
in respect of the use during the war by the Government of any Allied or
Associated Power, or by any persons acting on behalf or with the assent
of such Government of any rights in industrial, literary or artistic
property, nor in respect of the sale, offering for sale, or use of any
products, articles, or apparatus whatsoever to which such rights
applied.
Unless the legislation of any one of the Allied or Associated Powers in
force at the moment of the signature of the present treaty otherwise
directs, sums due or paid in virtue of any act or operation resulting
from the execution of the special measures mentioned in Paragraph 1 of
this article shall be dealt with in the same way as other sums due to
German nationals are directed to be dealt with by the present treaty;
and sums produced by any special measures taken by the German Government
in respect of rights in industrial, literary or artistic property
belonging to the nationals of the Allied or Associated Powers shall be
considered and treated in the same way as other debts due from German
nationals.
Each of the Allied and Associated Powers reserves to itself the right to
impose such limitations, conditions or restrictions on rights of
industrial, literary or artistic property (with the exception of
trade-marks) acquired before or during the war, or which may be
subsequently acquired in accordance with its legislation, by German
nationals, whether by granting licenses, or by the working, or by
preserving control over their exploitation, or in any other way as may
be considered necessary for national defense or in the public interest,
or for assuring the fair treatment by Germany of the rights of
industrial, literary, and artistic property held in German territory by
its nationals, or for securing the due fulfillment of all the
obligations undertaken by Germany in the present treaty.
As regards rights of industrial, literary and artistic property acquired
after the coming into force of the present treaty, the right so reserved
by the Allied and Associated Powers shall only be exercised in cases
where these limitations, conditions or restrictions may be considered
necessary for national defense or in the public interest.
In the event of the application of the provisions of the preceding
paragraph by any of the Allied or Associated Powers, there shall be paid
reasonable indemnities or royalties which shall be dealt with in the
same way as other sums due to German nationals are directed to be dealt
with by the present treaty.
Each of the Allied or Associated Powers reserves the right to treat as
void and of no effect any transfer in whole or in part of or other
dealing with rights of or in respect of industrial, literary or
artistic property effected after Aug. 1, 1914, or in the future, which
would have the result of defeating the objects of the provisions of this
article.
The provisions of this article shall not apply to rights in industrial,
literary or artistic property which have been dealt with in the
liquidation of businesses or companies under war legislation by the
Allied or Associated Powers, or which may be so dealt with by virtue of
Article 297, Paragraph (b).
=ARTICLE 307.=--A minimum of one year after the coming into force of the
present treaty shall be accorded to the nationals of the high
contracting parties, without extension fees or other penalty, in order
to enable such persons to accomplish any act, fulfill any formality, pay
any fees, and generally satisfy any obligation prescribed by the laws or
regulations of the respective States relating to the obtaining,
preserving or opposing rights to, or in respect of, industrial property
either acquired before the 1st of August, 1914, or which, except for the
war, might have been acquired since that date as a result of an
application made before the war or during its continuance, but nothing
in this article shall give any right to reopen interference proceedings
in the United States of America where a final hearing has taken place.
All rights in, or in respect of, such property which may have lapsed by
reason of any failure to accomplish any act, fulfill any formality, or
make any payment, shall revive, but subject in the case of patents and
designs to the imposition of such conditions as each Allied or
Associated Power may deem reasonably necessary for the protection of
persons who have manufactured or made use of the subject matter of such
property while the rights had lapsed. Further, where rights to patents
or designs belonging to German nationals are revived under this article,
they shall be subject in respect of the grant of licenses to the same
provisions as would have been applicable to them during the war, as well
as to all the provisions of the present treaty.
The period from the 1st August, 1914, until the coming into force of the
present treaty shall be excluded in considering the time within which a
patent should be worked or a trade mark or design used, and it is
further agreed that no patent, registered trade mark or design in force
on the 1st of August, 1914, shall be subject to revocation or
cancellation by reason only of the failure to work such patent or use
such trade mark or design for two years after the coming into force of
the present treaty.
=ARTICLE 308.=--The rights of priority, provided by Article IV. of the
International Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of
Paris, of the 20th March, 1883, revised at Washington in 1911, or by any
other convention or statute, for the filing or registration of
applications for patents or models of utility, and for the registration
of trade marks, designs, and models which had not expired on the 1st
August, 1914, and those which have arisen during the war, or would have
arisen but for the war, shall be extended by each of the high
contracting parties in favor of all nationals of the other high
contracting parties for a period of six months after the coming into
force of the present treaty.
Nevertheless, such extension shall in no way affect the right of any of
the high contracting parties or of any person who before the coming into
force of the present treaty was _bona fide_ in possession of any rights
of industrial property conflicting with rights applied for by another
who claims rights of priority in respect of them, to exercise such
rights by itself or himself personally, or by such agents or licensees
as derived their rights from it or him before the coming into force of
the present treaty; and such persons shall not be amenable to any action
or other process of law in respect of infringement.
=ARTICLE 309.=--No action shall be brought and no claim made by persons
residing or carrying on business within the territories of Germany on
the one part and of the Allied or Associated Powers on the other, or
persons who are nationals of such powers, respectively, or by any one
deriving title during the war from such persons, by reason or any action
which has taken place within the territory of the other party between
the date of the declaration of war and that of the coming into force of
the present treaty, which might constitute an infringement of the rights
of industrial property or rights of literary and artistic property,
either existing at any time during the war or revived under the
provisions of Articles 307 and 308.
[Illustration: America's Peace Capitol in Paris
The Hotel Crillon, facing upon the Place de la Concorde, was
requisitioned to serve during the Peace Conference as the office and
living quarters of President Wilson's staff.
Copyright Underwood & Underwood]
Equally, no action for infringement of industrial, literary or artistic
property rights by such persons shall at any time be permissible in
respect of the sale or offering for sale for a period of one year after
the signature of the present treaty in the territories of the Allied or
Associated Powers on the one hand or Germany on the other, of products
or articles manufactured, or of literary or artistic works published,
during the period between the declaration of war and the signature of
the present treaty, or against those who have acquired and continue to
use them. It is understood, nevertheless, that this provision shall not
apply when the possessor of the rights was domiciled or had an
industrial or commercial establishment in the districts occupied by
Germany during the war.
This article shall not apply as between the United States of America on
the one hand and Germany on the other.
=ARTICLE 310.=--Licenses in respect of industrial, literary, or artistic
property concluded before the war between nationals of the Allied or
Associated Powers or persons residing in their territory or carrying on
business therein, on the one part, and German nationals, on the other
part, shall be considered as canceled as from the date of the
declaration of war between Germany and the Allied or Associated Powers.
But, in any case, the former beneficiary of a contract of this kind
shall have the right, within a period of six months after the coming
into force of the present treaty, to demand from the proprietor of the
rights the grant of a new license, the conditions of which, in default
of agreement between the parties, shall be fixed by the duly qualified
tribunal in the country under whose legislation the rights had been
acquired, except in the case of licenses held in respect of rights
acquired under German law. In such cases the conditions shall be fixed
by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal referred to in Section VI. of this Part.
The tribunal may, if necessary, fix also the amount which it may deem
just should be paid by reason of the use of the rights during the war.
No license in respect of industrial, literary, or artistic property,
granted under the special war legislation of any Allied or Associated
Power, shall be affected by the continued existence of any license
entered into before the war, but shall remain valid and of full effect,
and a license so granted to the former beneficiary of a license entered
into before the war shall be considered as substituted for such license.
Where sums have been paid during the war by virtue of a license or
agreement concluded before the war in respect of rights of industrial
property or for the reproduction or the representation of literary,
dramatic, or artistic works, these sums shall be dealt with in the same
manner as other debts or credits of German nationals, as provided by the
present treaty.
This Article shall not apply as between the United States of America on
the one hand and Germany on the other.
=ARTICLE 311.=--The inhabitants of territories separated from Germany by
virtue of the present treaty shall, notwithstanding this separation and
the change of nationality consequent thereon, continue to enjoy in
Germany all the rights in industrial, literary, and artistic property to
which they were entitled under German legislation at the time of the
separation.
Rights of industrial, literary and artistic property which are in force
in the territories separated from Germany under the present treaty at
the moment of the separation of these territories from Germany, or which
will be re-established or restored in accordance with the provisions of
Article 306 of the present treaty, shall be recognized by the State to
which the said territory is transferred and shall remain in force in
that territory for the same period of time given them under the German
law.
SECTION VIII.--_Social and State Insurance in Ceded Territory_
=ARTICLE 312.=--Without prejudice to the provisions contained in other
articles of the present treaty, the German Government undertakes to
transfer to any power to which German territory in Europe is ceded, and
to any power administering former German territory as a mandatory under
Article 22 of Part I. (League of Nations), such portion of the reserves
accumulated by the Government of the German Empire or of German States,
or by public or private organizations under their control, as is
attributable to the carrying on of social or State insurance in such
territory.
The powers to which these funds are transferred must apply them to the
performance of the obligations arising from such insurances.
The conditions of the transfer will be determined by special conventions
to be concluded between the German Government and the Governments
concerned.
In case these special conventions are not concluded in accordance with
the above paragraph within three months after the coming into force of
the present treaty, the conditions of transfer shall in each case be
referred to a commission of five members, one of whom shall be appointed
by the German Government, one by the other interested Government, and
three by the governing body of the International Labor Office from the
nationals of other States. This commission shall by majority vote within
three months after appointment adopt recommendations for submission to
the Council of the League of Nations, and the decisions of the council
shall forthwith be accepted as final by Germany and the other Government
concerned.
PART XI
Aerial Navigation
=ARTICLE 313.=--The aircraft of the Allied and Associated Powers shall
have full liberty of passage and landing over and in the territory and
territorial waters of Germany, and shall enjoy the same privileges as
German aircraft, particularly in case of distress by land or sea.
=ARTICLE 314.=--The aircraft of the Allied and Associated Powers shall,
while in transit to any foreign country whatever, enjoy the right of
flying over the territory and territorial waters of Germany without
landing subject always to any regulations which may be made by Germany,
and which shall be applicable equally to the aircraft of Germany and
those of the Allied and Associated Countries.
=ARTICLE 315.=--All aerodromes in Germany open to national public
traffic shall be open for the aircraft of the Allied and Associated
Powers, and in any such aerodrome such aircraft shall be treated on a
footing of equality with German aircraft as regards charges of every
description, including charges for landing and accommodation.
=ARTICLE 316.=--Subject to the present provisions, the rights of
passage, transit and landing provided for in Articles 313, 314 and 315
are subject to the observation of such regulations as Germany may
consider it necessary to enact, but such regulations shall be applied
without distinction to German aircraft and to those of Allied and
Associated Countries.
=ARTICLE 317.=--Certificates of nationality, airworthiness, or
competency, and licenses, issued or recognized as valid by any of the
Allied or Associated Powers, shall be recognized in Germany as valid and
as equivalent to the certificates and licenses issued by Germany.
=ARTICLE 318.=--As regards internal commercial air traffic, the aircraft
of the Allied and Associated Powers shall enjoy in Germany most favored
nation treatment.
=ARTICLE 319.=--Germany undertakes to enforce the necessary measures to
insure that all German aircraft flying over her territory shall comply
with the rules as to lights and signals, rules of the air and rules for
air traffic on and in the neighborhood of aerodromes, which have been
laid down in the convention relative to aerial navigation concluded
between the Allied and Associated Powers.
=ARTICLE 320.=--The obligations imposed by the preceding provisions
shall remain in force until the 1st January, 1923, unless before that
date Germany shall have been admitted into the League of Nations or
shall have been authorized, by consent of the Allied and Associated
Powers, to adhere to the convention relative to aerial navigation
concluded between those powers.
PART XII
Ports, Waterways, and Railways
SECTION I.--_General Provisions_
=ARTICLE 321.=--Germany undertakes to grant freedom of transit through
her territories on the routes most convenient for international transit,
either by rail, navigable waterway, or canal, to persons, goods,
vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails coming from or going to the
territories of any of the Allied and Associated Powers (whether
contiguous or not); for this purpose the crossing of territorial waters
shall be allowed. Such persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and
mails shall not be subjected to any transit duty or to any undue delays
or restrictions, and shall be entitled in Germany to national treatment
as regards charges, facilities, and all other matters.
Goods in transit shall be exempt from all customs or other similar
duties.
All charges imposed on transport in transit shall be reasonable, having
regard to the conditions of the traffic. No charge, facility, or
restriction shall depend directly or indirectly on the ownership or on
the nationality of the ship or other means of transport on which any
part of the through journey has been, or is to be, accomplished.
=ARTICLE 322.=--Germany undertakes neither to impose nor to maintain any
control over transmigration traffic through her territories beyond
measures necessary to insure that passengers are _bona fide_ in transit;
nor to allow any shipping company or any other private body,
corporation, or person interested in the traffic to take any part
whatever in, or to exercise any direct or indirect influence over, any
administrative service that may be necessary for this purpose.
=ARTICLE 323.=--Germany undertakes to make no discrimination or
preference, direct or indirect, in the duties, charges, and prohibitions
relating to importations into or exportations from her territories, or,
subject to the special engagements contained in the present treaty, in
the charges and conditions of transport of goods or persons entering or
leaving her territories, based on the frontier crossed; or on the kind,
ownership, or flag of the means of transport (including aircraft)
employed; or on the original or immediate place of departure of the
vessel, wagon, or aircraft or other means of transport employed, or its
ultimate or intermediate destination; or on the route of or places of
transshipment on the journey; or on whether any port through which the
goods are imported or exported is a German port or a port belonging to
any foreign country or on whether the goods are imported or exported by
sea, by land, or by air.
Germany particularly undertakes not to establish against the ports and
vessels of any of the Allied and Associated Powers any surtax or any
direct or indirect bounty for export or import by German ports of
vessels, or by those of another power, for example by means of combined
tariffs. She further undertakes that persons or goods passing through a
port or using a vessel of any of the Allied and Associated Powers shall
not be subjected to any formality or delay whatever to which such
persons or goods would not be subjected if they passed through a German
port or a port of any other power, or used a German vessel or a vessel
of any other power.
=ARTICLE 324.=--All necessary administrative and technical measures
shall be taken to shorten, as much as possible, the transmission of
goods across the German frontiers and to insure their forwarding and
transport from such frontiers, irrespective of whether such goods are
coming from or going to the territories of the Allied and Associated
Powers or are in transit from or to those territories, under the same
material conditions in such matters as rapidity of carriage and care en
route as are enjoyed by other goods of the same kind carried on German
territory under similar conditions of transport.
In particular, the transport of perishable goods shall be promptly and
regularly carried out, and the customs formalities shall be effected in
such a way as to allow the goods to be carried straight through by
trains which make connection.
=ARTICLE 325.=--The seaports of the Allied and Associated Powers are
entitled to all favors and to all reduced tariffs granted on German
railways or navigable waterways for the benefit of German ports or of
any port of another power.
=ARTICLE 326.=--Germany may not refuse to participate in the tariffs or
combinations of tariffs intended to secure for ports of any of the
Allied and Associated Powers advantages similar to those granted by
Germany to her own ports or the ports of any other power.
SECTION II.--_Navigation_
CHAPTER I.--FREEDOM OF NAVIGATION
=ARTICLE 327.=--The nationals of any of the Allied and Associated Powers
as well as their vessels and property shall enjoy in all German ports
and in the inland navigation routes of Germany, the same treatment in
all respects as German nationals, vessels and property.
In particular the vessels of any one of the Allied or Associated Powers
shall be entitled to transport goods of any description, and passengers,
to or from any ports or places in German territory to which German
vessels may have access, under conditions which shall not be more
onerous than those applied in the case of national vessels; they shall
be treated on a footing of equality with national vessels as regards
port and harbor facilities and charges of every description, including
facilities for stationing, loading and unloading, and duties and charges
of tonnage, harbor, pilotage, lighthouse, quarantine, and all analogous
duties and charges of whatsoever nature, levied in the name of or for
the profit of the Government, public functionaries, private individuals,
corporations or establishments of any kind.
In the event of Germany granting a preferential régime to any of the
Allied or Associated Powers or to any other foreign power, this régime
shall be extended immediately and unconditionally to all the Allied and
Associated Powers.
There shall be no impediment to the movement of persons or vessels other
than those arising from prescriptions concerning customs, police,
sanitation, emigration and immigration and those relating to the import
and export of prohibited goods. Such regulations must be reasonable and
uniform and must not impede traffic unnecessarily.
CHAPTER II.--FREE ZONES IN PORTS
=ARTICLE 328.=--The free zones existing in German ports on the 1st
August, 1914, shall be maintained. These free zones and any other free
zones which may be established in German territory by the present treaty
shall be subject to the régime provided for in the following articles.
Goods entering or leaving a free zone shall not be subjected to any
import or export duty, other than those provided for in Article 330.
Vessels and goods entering a free zone may be subjected to the charges
established to cover expenses of administration, upkeep and improvement
of the port, as well as to the charges for the use of various
installations, provided that these charges shall be reasonable, having
regard to the expenditure incurred, and shall be levied in the
conditions of equality provided for in Article 327.
Goods shall not be subjected to any other charge except a statistical
duty which shall not exceed 1 per mille ad valorem, and which shall be
devoted exclusively to defraying the expenses of compiling statements of
the traffic in the port.
=ARTICLE 329.=--The facilities granted for the erection of warehouses,
for packing and for unpacking goods, shall be in accordance with trade
requirements for the time being. All goods allowed to be consumed in the
free zone shall be exempt from duty, whether of excise or of any other
description, apart from the statistical duty provided for in Article 328
above.
There shall be no discrimination in regard to any of the provisions of
the present article between persons belonging to different nationalities
or between goods of different origin or destination.
=ARTICLE 330.=--Import duties may be levied on goods leaving the free
zone for consumption in the country on the territory of which the port
is situated. Conversely, export duties may be levied on goods coming
from such country and brought into the free zone. These import and
export duties shall be levied on the same basis and at the same rates as
similar duties levied at the other customs frontiers of the country
concerned. On the other hand, Germany shall not levy, under any
denomination, any import, export, or transit duty on goods carried by
land or water across her territory to or from the free zone from or to
any other State.
Germany shall draw up the necessary regulations to secure and guarantee
such freedom of transit over such railways and waterways in her
territory as normally give access to the free zone.
CHAPTER III.--CLAUSES RELATING TO THE ELBE, THE ODER, THE NIEMEN
(RUSSTROM-MEMEL-NIEMEN), AND THE DANUBE
(I)--_General Clauses_
=ARTICLE 331.=--The following rivers are declared international:
The Elbe (Labe) from its confluence with the Vitava (Moldau)
and the Vitava (Moldau) from Prague;
the Oder (Odra) from its confluence with the Oppa;
the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) from Grodno,
the Danube from Ulm;
and all navigable parts of these river systems which naturally provide
more than one State with access to the sea, with or without
transshipment from one vessel to another; together with lateral canals
and channels constructed either to duplicate or to improve naturally
navigable sections of the specified river system, or to connect two
naturally navigable sections of the same river.
The same shall apply to the Rhine-Danube navigable waterway, should such
a waterway be constructed under the conditions laid down in Article 353.
=ARTICLE 332.=--On the waterways declared to be international in the
preceding article, the nationals, property and flags of all powers shall
be treated on a footing of perfect equality, no distinction being made
to the detriment of the nationals, property or flag of any power between
them and the nationals, property or flag of the riparian State itself or
of the most favored nation.
Nevertheless, German vessels shall not be entitled to carry passengers
or goods by regular services between the ports of any Allied or
Associated Power, without special authority from such power.
=ARTICLE 333.=--Where such charges are not precluded by any existing
conventions, charges varying on different sections of a river may be
levied on vessels using the navigable channels or their approaches,
provided that they are intended solely to cover equitably the cost of
maintaining in a navigable condition, or of improving, the river and its
approaches, or to meet expenditure incurred in the interests of
navigation. The schedule of such charges shall be calculated on the
basis of such expenditure and shall be posted up in the ports. These
charges shall be levied in such a manner as to render any detailed
examination of cargoes unnecessary, except in cases of suspected fraud
or contravention.
=ARTICLE 334.=--The transit of vessels, passengers, and goods on these
waterways shall be effected in accordance with the general conditions
prescribed for transit in Section I., above.
When the two banks of an international river are within the same State,
goods in transit may be placed under seal or in the custody of customs
agents. When the river forms a frontier, goods and passengers in transit
shall be exempt from all customs formalities; the loading and unloading
of goods, and the embarkation and disembarkation of passengers, shall
only take place in the ports specified by the riparian State.
=ARTICLE 335.=--No dues of any kind other than those provided for in the
present part shall be levied along the course or at the mouth of these
rivers.
This provision shall not prevent the fixing by the riparian States of
customs, local octroi, or consumption duties, or the creation of
reasonable and uniform charges levied in the ports, in accordance with
public tariffs, for the use of cranes, elevators, quays, warehouses, &c.
=ARTICLE 336.=--In default of any special organization for carrying out
the works connected with the upkeep and improvement of the international
portion of a navigable system, each riparian State shall be bound to
take suitable measures to remove any obstacle or danger to navigation
and to insure the maintenance of good conditions of navigation.
If a State neglects to comply with this obligation any riparian State,
or any State represented on the International Commission, if there is
one, may appeal to the tribunal instituted for this purpose by the
League of Nations.
=ARTICLE 337.=--The same procedure shall be followed in the case of a
riparian State undertaking any works of a nature to impede navigation in
the international section. The tribunal mentioned in the preceding
article shall be entitled to enforce the suspension or suppression of
such works, making due allowance in its decisions for all rights in
connection with irrigation, waterpower, fisheries, and other national
interests, which, with the consent of all the riparian States or of all
the States represented on the International Commission, if there be one,
shall be given priority over the requirements of navigation.
Appeal to the tribunal of the League of Nations does not require the
suspension of the works.
=ARTICLE 338.=--The régime set out in Articles 332 to 337 above shall be
superseded by one to be laid down in a General Convention drawn up by
the Allied and Associated Powers, and approved by the League of Nations,
relating to the waterways recognized in such Convention as having an
international character. This Convention shall apply in particular to
the whole or part of the above-mentioned river systems of the Elbe
(Labe), the Oder (Odra), the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen), and the
Danube, and such other parts of these river systems as may be covered by
a general definition.
Germany undertakes, in accordance with the provisions of Article 379, to
adhere to the said General Convention as well as to all projects
prepared in accordance with Article 343 below for the revision of
existing international agreements and regulations.
=ARTICLE 339.=--Germany shall cede to the Allied and Associated Powers
concerned, within a maximum period of three months from the date on
which notification shall be given her, a proportion of the tugs and
vessels remaining registered in the ports of the river systems referred
to in Article 331 after the deduction of those surrendered by way of
restitution or reparation. Germany shall in the same way cede material
of all kinds necessary to the Allied and Associated Powers concerned for
the utilization of those river systems.
The number of the tugs and boats and the amount of the material so
ceded, and their distribution, shall be determined by an arbitrator or
arbitrators nominated by the United States of America, due regard being
had to the legitimate needs of the parties concerned, and particularly
to the shipping traffic during the five years preceding the war.
All craft so ceded shall be provided with their fittings and gear, shall
be in a good state of repair and in condition to carry goods, and shall
be selected from among those most recently built.
The cessions provided for in the present article shall entail a credit
of which the total amount, settled in a lump sum by the arbitrator or
arbitrators, shall not in any case exceed the value of the capital
expended in the initial establishment of the material ceded, and shall
be set off against the total sums due from Germany; in consequence, the
indemnification of the proprietors shall be a matter for Germany to deal
with.
(2) _Special Clauses Relating to the Elbe, the Oder, and the Niemen
(Russtrom-Memel-Niemen)_
=ARTICLE 340.=--The Elbe (Labe) shall be placed under the administration
of an International Commission which shall comprise:
4 representatives of the German States bordering on the river;
2 representatives of the Czechoslovak State;
1 representative of Great Britain;
1 representative of France;
1 representative of Italy;
1 representative of Belgium;
Whatever be the number of members present, each delegation shall have
the right to record a number of votes equal to the number of
representatives allotted to it.
If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of
the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the
commission shall nevertheless be valid.
=ARTICLE 341.=--The Oder (Odra) shall be placed under the administration
of an International Commission, which shall comprise:
1 representative of Poland;
3 representatives of Prussia;
1 representative of the Czechoslovak State;
1 representative of Great Britain;
1 representative of France;
1 representative of Denmark;
1 representative of Sweden.
If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of
the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the
commission shall nevertheless be valid.
=ARTICLE 342.=--On a request being made to the League of Nations by any
riparian State, the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) shall be placed under
the administration of an International Commission, which shall comprise
one representative of each riparian State, and three representatives of
other States specified by the League of Nations.
=ARTICLE 343.=--The International Commissions referred to in Articles
340 and 341 shall meet within three months of the date of the coming
into force of the present treaty, The International Commission referred
to in Article 342 shall meet within three months from the date of the
request made by a riparian State. Each of these commissions shall
proceed immediately to prepare a project for the revision of the
existing international agreements and regulations, drawn up in
conformity with the General Convention referred to in Article 338,
should such convention have been already concluded. In the absence of
such convention, the project for revision shall be in conformity with
the principles of Articles 332 to 337, above.
=ARTICLE 344.=--The projects referred to in the preceding article shall,
_inter alia_:
(a) Designate the headquarters of the International Commission, and
prescribe the manner in which its President is to be nominated;
(b) Specify the extent of the commission's powers, particularly in
regard to the execution of works of maintenance, control, and
improvement on the river system, the financial régime the fixing and
collection of charges, and regulations for navigation;
(c) Define the sections of the river or its tributaries to which the
international régime shall be applied.
=ARTICLE 345.=--The international agreements and regulations at present
governing the navigation of the Elbe (Labe), the Oder (Odra), and the
Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) shall be provisionally maintained in
force until the ratification of the above-mentioned projects.
Nevertheless, in all cases where such agreements and regulations in
force are in conflict with the provisions of Articles 332 to 337 above,
or of the General Convention to be concluded, the latter provisions
shall prevail.
(3) _Special Clauses Relating to the Danube_
=ARTICLE 346.=--The European Commission of the Danube reassumes the
powers it possessed before the war. Nevertheless, as a provisional
measure, only representatives of Great Britain, France, Italy, and
Rumania shall constitute this commission.
=ARTICLE 347.=--From the point where the competence of the European
Commission ceases, the Danube system referred to in Article 331 shall be
placed under the administration of an international commission composed
as follows:
2 representatives of German riparian States;
1 representative of each other riparian State;
1 representative of each non-riparian State represented in the
future on the European Commission of the Danube.
If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of
the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the
commission shall nevertheless be valid.
=ARTICLE 348.=--The International Commission provided for in the
preceding article shall meet as soon as possible after the coming into
force of the present treaty, and shall undertake provisionally the
administration of the river in conformity with the provisions of
Articles 332 to 337, until such time as a definitive statute regarding
the Danube is concluded by the powers nominated by the Allied and
Associated Powers.
=ARTICLE 349.=--Germany agrees to accept the régime which shall be laid
down for the Danube by a conference of the powers nominated by the
Allied and Associated Powers, which shall meet within one year after the
coming into force of the present treaty, and at which German
representatives may be present.
=ARTICLE 350.=--The mandate given by Article 57 of the Treaty of Berlin
of the 13th July, 1878, to Austria-Hungary, and transferred by her to
Hungary, to carry out works at the Iron Gates, is abrogated. The
commission intrusted with the administration of this part of the river
shall lay down provisions for the settlement of accounts subject to the
financial provisions of the present treaty. Charges which may be
necessary shall in no case be levied by Hungary.
=ARTICLE 351.=--Should the Czechoslovak State, the Serb-Croat-Slovene
State, or Rumania, with the authorization of or under mandate from the
International Commission undertake maintenance, improvement, weir or
other works on a part of the river system which forms a frontier, these
States shall enjoy on the opposite bank, and also on the part of the bed
which is outside their territory, all necessary facilities for the
survey, execution and maintenance of such works.
=ARTICLE 352.=--Germany shall be obliged to make to the European
Commission of the Danube all restitutions, reparations, and indemnities
for damages inflicted on the commission during the war.
=ARTICLE 353.=--Should a deep-draught Rhine-Danube navigable waterway be
constructed, Germany undertakes to apply thereto the régime prescribed
in Articles 332 to 338.
CHAPTER IV.--CLAUSES RELATING TO THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE
=ARTICLES 354.=--As from the coming into force of the present treaty,
the Convention of Mannheim of 17th October, 1868, together with the
Final Protocol thereof, shall continue to govern navigation on the
Rhine, subject to the conditions hereinafter laid down.
In the event of any provisions of the said Convention being in conflict
with those laid down by the General Convention referred to in Article
338 (which shall apply to the Rhine), the provisions of the General
Convention shall prevail.
Within a maximum period of six months from the coming into force of the
present treaty, the Central Commission referred to in Article 355 shall
meet to draw up a project of revision of the Convention of Mannheim.
This project shall be drawn up in harmony with the provisions of the
General Convention referred to above, should this have been concluded by
that time, and shall be submitted to the powers represented on the
Central Commission. Germany hereby agrees to adhere to the project so
drawn up.
Further, the modifications set out in the following articles shall
immediately be made in the Convention of Mannheim.
The Allied and Associated Powers reserve to themselves the right to
arrive at an understanding in this connection with Holland, and Germany
hereby agrees to accede if required to any such understanding.
=ARTICLE 355.=--The Central Commission provided for in the Convention of
Mannheim shall consist of nineteen members, viz.:
Two representatives of the Netherlands;
Two representatives of Switzerland;
Four representatives of German riparian States;
Four representatives of France, which in addition shall appoint
the President of the Commission;
Two representatives of Great Britain;
Two representatives of Italy;
Two representatives of Belgium.
[Illustration: Drawing by Georges Scott in L'illustration
The White Flags That Meant Defeat for the German Cause and Marked the
Beginning of the End of the War
German delegates on their way to the armistice conference with Marshal
Foch reaching the first French lines near Haudroy, November 7, 1918.]
The headquarters of the Central Commission shall be at Strasbourg.
Whatever be the number of members present, each delegation shall have
the right to record a number of votes equal to the number of
representatives allotted to it.
If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of
the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the
Commission shall nevertheless be valid.
=ARTICLE 356.=--Vessels of all nations, and their cargoes, shall have
the same rights and privileges as those which are granted to vessels
belonging to the Rhine navigation, and to their cargoes.
None of the provisions contained in Articles 15 to 20 and 26 of the
above-mentioned Convention of Mannheim, in Article 4 of the Final
Protocol thereof, or in later Conventions, shall impede the free
navigation of vessels and crews of all nations on the Rhine and on
waterways to which such Conventions apply, subject to compliance with
the regulations concerning pilotage and other police measures drawn up
by the Central Commission.
The provisions of Article 22 of the Convention of Mannheim and of
Article 5 of the Final Protocol thereof shall be applied only to vessels
registered on the Rhine. The Central Commission shall decide on the
steps to be taken to insure that other vessels satisfy the conditions of
the general regulations applying to navigation on the Rhine.
=ARTICLE 357.=--Within a maximum period of three months from the date on
which notification shall be given Germany shall cede to France tugs and
vessels, from among those remaining registered in German Rhine ports
after the deduction of those surrendered by way of restitution or
reparation, or shares in German Rhine navigation companies.
When vessels and tugs are ceded, such vessels and tugs, together with
their fittings and gear, shall be in good state of repair, shall be in
condition to carry on commercial traffic on the Rhine, and shall be
selected from among those most recently built.
The same procedure shall be followed in the matter of the cession by
Germany to France of--
(1) the installations, berthing, and anchorage accommodation, platforms,
docks, warehouses, plant, &c., which German subjects or German companies
owned on the 1st August, 1914, in the port of Rotterdam, and
(2) the shares or interests which Germany or German nationals possessed
in such installations at the same date.
The amount and specifications of such cessions shall be determined
within one year of the coming into force of the present treaty by an
arbitrator or arbitrators appointed by the United States of America, due
regard being had to the legitimate needs of the parties concerned.
The cessions provided for in the present article shall entail a credit
of which the total amount, settled in a lump sum by the arbitrator, or
arbitrators mentioned above, shall not in any case exceed the value of
the capital expended in the initial establishment of the ceded material
and installations, and shall be set off against the total sums due from
Germany; in consequence, the indemnification of the proprietors shall be
a matter for Germany to deal with.
=ARTICLE 358.=--Subject to the obligation to comply with the provisions
of the Convention of Mannheim or of the convention which may be
substituted therefor, and to the stipulations of the present treaty,
France shall have on the whole course of the Rhine included between the
two extreme points of the French frontiers--
(a) the right to take water from the Rhine to feed navigation
and irrigation canals (constructed or to be constructed) or for
any other purpose, and to execute on the German bank all works
necessary for the exercise of this right;
(b) the exclusive right to the power derived from works of
regulation on the river, subject to the payment to Germany of
the value of half the power actually produced, this payment,
which will take into account the cost of the works necessary
for producing the power, being made either in money or in power
and in default of agreement being determined by arbitration.
For this purpose France alone shall have the right to carry out
in this part of the river all works of regulation (weirs or
other works) which she may consider necessary for the
production of power. Similarly, the right of taking water from
the Rhine is accorded to Belgium to feed the Rhine-Meuse
navigable waterway provided for below.
The exercise of the rights mentioned under (a) and (b) of the present
article shall not interfere with navigability nor reduce the facilities
for navigation, either in the bed of the Rhine or in the derivations
which may be substituted therefor, nor shall it involve any increase in
the tolls formerly levied under the convention in force. All proposed
schemes shall be laid before the Central Commission in order that the
commission may assure itself that these conditions are complied with.
To insure the proper and faithful execution of the provisions contained
in (a) and (b) above, Germany:
(i) binds herself not to undertake or to allow the construction of any
lateral canal or any derivation on the right bank of the river opposite
the French frontiers;
(ii) recognizes the possession by France of the right of support on and
the right of way over all lands situated on the right bank which may be
required in order to survey, to build, and to operate weirs which
France, with the consent of the Central Commission, may subsequently
decide to establish. In accordance with such consent, France shall be
entitled to decide upon and fix the limits of the necessary sites, and
she shall be permitted to occupy such lands after a period of two months
after simple notification, subject to the payment by her to Germany of
indemnities of which the total amount shall be fixed by the Central
Commission. Germany shall make it her business to indemnify the
proprietors whose property will be burdened with such servitudes or
permanently occupied by the works.
Should Switzerland so demand, and if the Central Commission approves,
the same rights shall be accorded to Switzerland for the part of the
river forming her frontier with other riparian States;
(iii) shall hand over to the French Government, during the month
following the coming into force of the present treaty, all projects,
designs, drafts of concessions and of specifications concerning the
regulation of the Rhine for any purpose whatever which have been drawn
up or received by the Governments of Alsace-Lorraine or of the Grand
Duchy of Baden.
=ARTICLE 359.=--Subject to the preceding provisions, no works shall be
carried out in the bed or on either bank of the Rhine where it forms the
boundary of France and Germany without the previous approval of the
Central Commission or of its agents.
=ARTICLE 360.=--France reserves the option of substituting herself as
regards the rights and obligations resulting from agreements arrived at
between the Government of Alsace-Lorraine and the Grand Duchy of Baden
concerning the works to be carried out on the Rhine; she may also
denounce such agreements within a term of five years dating from the
coming into force of the present treaty.
France shall also have the option of causing works to be carried out
which may be recognized as necessary by the Central Commission for the
upkeep or improvement of the navigability of the Rhine above Mannheim.
=ARTICLE 361.=--Should Belgium, within a period of 25 years from the
coming into force of the present treaty, decide to create a deep-draught
Rhine-Meuse navigable waterway, in the region of Ruhrort, Germany shall
be bound to construct, in accordance with plans to be communicated to
her by the Belgian Government, after agreement with the Central
Commission, the portion of this navigable waterway situated within her
territory.
The Belgian Government shall, for this purpose, have the right to carry
out on the ground all necessary surveys.
Should Germany fail to carry out all or part of these works, the Central
Commission shall be entitled to carry them out instead; and, for this
purpose, the commission may decide upon and fix the limits of the
necessary sites and occupy the ground after a period of two months after
simple notification, subject to the payment of indemnities to be fixed
by it and paid by Germany.
This navigable waterway shall be placed under the same administrative
régime as the Rhine itself, and the division of the cost of initial
construction, including the above indemnities, among the States crossed
thereby shall be made by the Central Commission.
=ARTICLE 362.=--Germany hereby agrees to offer no objection to any
proposals of the Central Rhine Commission for extending its
jurisdiction:
(1) to the Moselle below the Franco-Luxemburg frontier down to the
Rhine, subject to the consent of Luxemburg;
(2) to the Rhine above Basle up to the Lake of Constance, subject to the
consent of Switzerland;
(3) to the lateral canals and channels which may be established either
to duplicate or to improve naturally navigable sections of the Rhine or
the Moselle, or to connect two naturally navigable sections of these
rivers, and also any other parts of the Rhine River system which may be
covered by the General Convention provided for in Article 338 above.
CHAPTER V.--CLAUSES GIVING TO THE CZECHO-SLOVAK STATE THE USE OF
NORTHERN PORTS
=ARTICLE 363.=--In the ports of Hamburg and Stettin, Germany shall lease
to the Czechoslovak State, for a period of ninety-nine years, areas
which shall be placed under the general régime of free zones and shall
be used for the direct transit of goods coming from or going to that
State.
=ARTICLE 364.=--The delimitation of these areas, and their equipment,
their exploitation, and in general all conditions for their utilization,
including the amount of the rental, shall be decided by a commission
consisting of one delegate of Germany, one delegate of the Czechoslovak
State and one delegate of Great Britain. These conditions shall be
susceptible of revision every ten years in the same manner.
Germany declares in advance that she will adhere to the decisions so
taken.
SECTION III.--_Railways_
CHAPTER I.--CLAUSES RELATING TO INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT
=ARTICLE 365.=--Goods coming from the territories of the Allied and
Associated Powers, and going to Germany, or in transit through Germany
from or to the territories of the Allied and Associated Powers, shall
enjoy on the German railways as regards charges to be collected (rebates
and drawbacks being taken into account) facilities, and all other
matters, the most favorable treatment applied to goods of the same kind
carried on any German lines, either in internal traffic, or for export,
import or in transit, under similar conditions of transport, for example
as regards length of route. The same rule shall be applied, on the
request of one or more of the Allied and Associated Powers, to goods
specially designated by such power or powers coming from Germany and
going to their territories.
International tariffs established in accordance with the rates referred
to in the preceding paragraph and involving through waybills shall be
established when one of the Allied and Associated Powers shall require
it from Germany.
=ARTICLE 366.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the
high contracting parties shall renew, in so far as concerns them and
under the reserves indicated in the second paragraph of the present
Article, the conventions and arrangements signed at Berne on the 14th of
October, 1890, the 20th September, 1893, the 16th July, 1895, the 16th
June, 1898, and the 19th September, 1906, regarding the transportation
of goods by rail.
If within five years from the date of the coming into force of the
present treaty a new convention for the transportation of passengers,
luggage and goods by rail shall have been concluded to replace the Berne
convention of the 14th October, 1890, and the subsequent additions
referred to above, this new convention and the supplementary provisions
for international transport by rail which may be based on it shall bind
Germany even if she shall have refused to take part in the preparation
of the convention or to subscribe to it. Until a new convention shall
have been concluded, Germany shall conform to the provisions of the
Berne Convention and the subsequent additions referred to above, and to
the current supplementary provisions.
=ARTICLE 367.=--Germany shall be bound to co-operate in the
establishment of through ticket services (for passengers and their
luggage) which shall be required by any of the Allied and Associated
Powers to insure their communication by rail with each other and with
all other countries by transit across the territories of Germany; in
particular Germany shall, for this purpose, accept trains and carriages
coming from the territories of the Allied and Associated Powers and
shall forward them with a speed at least equal to that of her best
long-distance trains on the same lines. The rates applicable to such
through services shall not in any case be higher than the rates
collected on German internal services for the same distance, under the
same conditions of speed and comfort.
The tariffs applicable under the same conditions of speed and comfort to
the transportation of emigrants going to or coming from ports of the
Allied and Associated Powers and using the German railways, shall not be
at a higher kilometric rate than the most favorable tariffs (drawbacks
and rebates being taken into account) enjoyed on the said railways by
emigrants going to or coming from any other ports.
=ARTICLE 368.=--Germany shall not apply specially to such through
services or to the transportation of emigrants going to or coming from
the ports of the Allied and Associated Powers, any technical, fiscal or
administrative measures, such as measures of customs examination,
general police, sanitary police, and control, the result of which would
be to impede or delay such services.
=ARTICLE 369.=--In case of transport partly by rail and partly by
internal navigation, with or without through way-bill, the preceding
Articles shall apply to the part of the journey performed by rail.
CHAPTER II.--ROLLING STOCK
=ARTICLE 370.=--Germany undertakes that German wagons shall be fitted
with apparatus allowing:
(1) of their inclusion in goods trains on the lines such of the Allied
and Associated Powers as are parties to the Berne Convention of May 15,
1886, as modified on May 18, 1907, without hampering the action of the
continuous brake which may be adopted in such countries within ten years
of the coming into force of the present treaty, and
(2) of the acceptance of wagons of such countries in all goods trains on
the German lines.
The rolling stock of the Allied and Associated Powers shall enjoy on the
German lines the same treatment as German rolling stock as regards
movement, upkeep and repairs.
CHAPTER III.--CESSIONS OF RAILWAY LINES
=ARTICLE 371.=--Subject to any special provisions concerning the cession
of ports, waterways and railways situated in the territories over which
Germany abandons her sovereignty, and to the financial conditions
relating to the concessionaires and the pensioning of the personnel, the
cession of railways will take place under the following conditions:
1. The works and installations of all the railroads shall be handed over
complete and in good condition.
2. When a railway system possessing its own rolling-stock is handed over
in its entirety by Germany to one of the Allied and Associated Powers,
such stock shall be handed over complete, in accordance with the last
inventory before November 11th, 1918, and in a normal state of upkeep.
3. As regards lines without any special rolling-stock, commissions of
experts designated by the Allied and Associated Powers, on which Germany
shall be represented, shall fix the proportion of the stock existing on
the system to which those lines belong to be handed over. These
commissions shall have regard to the remount of material registered on
these lines in the last inventory before November 11th, 1918, the length
of track (sidings included), and the nature and amount of traffic. These
commissions shall also specify the locomotives, carriages and wagons to
be handed over in each case; they shall decide upon the conditions of
their acceptance, and shall make the provisional arrangements necessary
to insure their repair in German workshops.
4. Stocks of stores, fittings and plant shall be handed over under the
same conditions as the rolling-stock.
The provisions of paragraphs 3 and 4 above shall be applied to the lines
of former Russian Poland converted by Germany to the German gauge, such
lines being regarded as detached from the Prussian State System.
CHAPTER IV.--PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN RAILWAY LINES
=ARTICLE 372.=--When as a result of the fixing of new frontiers a
railway connection between two parts of the same country crosses another
country, or a branch line from one country has its terminus in another,
the conditions of working, if not specifically provided for in the
present treaty, shall be laid down in a convention between the railway
administrations concerned. If the administrations cannot come to an
agreement as to the terms of such convention, the points of difference
shall be decided by commissions of experts composed as provided in the
preceding Article.
=ARTICLE 373.=--Within a period of five years from the coming into force
of the present treaty the Czechoslovak State may require the
construction of a railway line in German territory between the stations
of Schlauney and Nachod. The cost of construction shall be borne by the
Czechoslovak State.
=ARTICLE 374.=--Germany undertakes to accept, within ten years of the
coming into force of the present treaty, on request being made by the
Swiss Government after agreement with the Italian Government, the
denunciation of the International Convention of the 13th October, 1909,
relative to the St. Gothard railway. In the absence of agreement as to
the conditions of such denunciation, Germany hereby agrees to accept the
decision of an arbitrator designated by the United States of America.
CHAPTER V.--TRANSITORY PROVISIONS
=ARTICLE 375.=--Germany shall carry out the instructions given her, in
regard to transport, by an authorized body acting on behalf of the
Allied and Associated Powers:
1. For the carriage of troops under the provisions of the present
treaty, and of material, ammunition and supplies for army use.
2. As a temporary measure, for the transportation of supplies for
certain regions, as well as for the restoration, as rapidly as possible,
of the normal conditions of transport, and for the organization of
postal and telegraphic services.
SECTION IV.--_Disputes and Revision of Permanent Clauses_
=ARTICLE 376.=--Disputes which may arise between interested powers with
regard to the interpretation and application of the preceding articles
shall be settled as provided by the League of Nations.
=ARTICLE 377.=--At any time the League of Nations may recommend the
revision of such of these Articles as relate to a permanent
administrative régime.
=ARTICLE 378.=--The stipulations in Articles 321 to 330, 332, 365, and
367 to 369 shall be subject to revision by the Council of the League of
Nations at any time after five years from the coming into force of the
present treaty.
Failing such revision, no Allied or Associated Power can claim after the
expiration of the above period of five years the benefit of any of the
stipulations in the Articles enumerated above on behalf of any portion
of its territories in which reciprocity is not accorded in respect of
such stipulations. The period of five years during which reciprocity
cannot be demanded may be prolonged by the Council of the League of
Nations.
SECTION V.--_Special Provision_
=ARTICLE 379.=--Without prejudice to the special obligations imposed on
her by the present treaty for the benefit of the Allied and Associated
Powers, Germany undertakes to adhere to any general conventions
regarding the international régime of transit, waterways, ports or
railways which may be concluded by the Allied and Associated Powers,
with the approval of the League of Nations, within five years of the
coming into force of the present treaty.
SECTION VI.--_Clauses Relating to the Kiel Canal_
=ARTICLE 380.=--The Kiel Canal and its approaches shall be maintained
free and open to the vessels of commerce and of war of all nations at
peace with Germany on terms of entire equality.
=ARTICLE 381.=--The nationals, property, and vessels of all powers
shall, in respect to charges, facilities, and in all other respects, be
treated on a footing of perfect equality in the use of the canal, no
distinction being made to the detriment of nationals, property, and
vessels of any power between them and the nationals, property, and
vessels of Germany or of the most favored nations.
No impediment shall be placed on the movement of persons or vessels
other than those arising out of police, customs, sanitary, emigration or
immigration regulations, and those relating to the import or export of
prohibited goods. Such regulations must be reasonable and uniform and
must not unnecessarily impede traffic.
=ARTICLE 382.=--Only such charges may be levied on vessels using the
canal or its approaches as are intended to cover in an equitable manner
the cost of maintaining in a navigable condition, or if improving, the
canal or its approaches, or to meet expenses incurred in the interests
of navigation. The schedule of such charged shall be calculated on the
basis of such expenses, and shall be posted up in the ports.
These charges shall be levied in such a manner as to render any detailed
examination of cargoes unnecessary, except in the case of suspected
fraud or contravention.
=ARTICLE 383.=--Goods in transit may be placed under seal or in the
custody of customs agents; the loading and unloading of goods, and the
embarkation and disembarkation of passengers, shall only take place in
the ports specified by Germany.
=ARTICLE 384.=--No charge of any kind other than those provided for in
the present treaty shall be levied along the course or at the approaches
of the Kiel Canal.
=ARTICLE 385.=--Germany shall be bound to take suitable measures to
remove any obstacle or danger to navigation, and to insure the
maintenance of good conditions of navigation. She shall not undertake
any works of a nature to impede navigation on the canal or its
approaches.
=ARTICLE 386.=--In the event of violation of any of the conditions of
Articles 380 to 386, or of disputes as to the interpretation of these
articles, any interested power can appeal to the jurisdiction instituted
for the purpose by the League of Nations.
In order to avoid reference of small questions to the League of Nations,
Germany will establish a local authority at Kiel qualified to deal with
disputes in the first instance and to give satisfaction so far as
possible to complaints which may be presented through the consular
representatives of the interested powers.
PART XIII
Labor
SECTION I.--_Organization of Labor_
Whereas the League of Nations has for its object the establishment of
universal peace and such a peace can be established only if it is based
upon social justice;
And whereas conditions of labor exist involving such injustice,
hardship, and privation to large numbers of people as to produce unrest
so great that the peace and harmony of the world are imperiled; and an
improvement of those conditions is urgently required: as, for example,
by the regulations of the hours of work, including the establishment of
a maximum working day and week, the regulation of the labor supply, the
prevention of unemployment, the provision of an adequate living wage,
the protection of the worker against sickness, disease, and injury
arising out of his employment, the protection of the children, young
persons, and women, provision for old age and injury, protection of the
interests of workers when employed in countries other than their own,
recognition of the principle of freedom of association, the organization
of vocational and technical education, and other measures:
Whereas also the failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of
labor is an obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve
the conditions in their own countries;
The high contracting parties, moved by sentiments of justice and
humanity as well as by the desire to secure the permanent peace of the
world, agree to the following.
CHAPTER I.--ORGANIZATION
=ARTICLE 387.=--A permanent organization is hereby established for the
promotion of the objects set forth in the preamble.
The original members of the League of Nations shall be the original
members of this organization, and hereafter membership of the League of
Nations shall carry with it membership of the said organization.
=ARTICLE 388.=--The permanent organization shall consist of:
(i) a General Conference of Representatives of the Members, and,
(ii) an International Labor Office controlled by the governing body
described in Article 393.
=ARTICLE 389.=--The meetings of the General Conference of
Representatives of the Members shall be held from time to time as
occasion may require, and at least once in every year. It shall be
composed of four representatives of each of the members, of whom two
shall be Government delegates and the two others shall be delegates
representing respectively the employers and the workpeople of each of
the members.
Each delegate may be accompanied by advisers, who shall not exceed two
in number for each item on the agenda of the meeting. When questions
specially affecting women are to be considered by the conference, one at
least of the advisers should be a woman.
The members undertake to nominate non-Government delegates and advisers
chosen in agreement with the industrial organizations, if such
organizations exist, which are most representative of employers or
workpeople, as the case may be, in their respective countries.
Advisers shall not speak except on a request made by the delegate whom
they accompany and by special authorization of the President of the
conference, and may not vote.
A delegate may by notice in writing addressed to the President appoint
one of his advisers to act as his deputy, and the adviser, while so
acting, shall be allowed to speak and vote.
The names of the delegates and their advisers will be communicated to
the International Labor Office by the Government of each of the members.
The credentials of delegates and their advisers shall be subject to
scrutiny by the conference, which may, by two-thirds of the votes cast
by the delegates present, refuse to admit any delegate or adviser whom
it deems not to have been nominated in accordance with this article.
=ARTICLE 390.=--Every delegate shall be entitled to vote individually on
all matters which are taken into consideration by the conference.
If one of the members fails to nominate one of the non-Government
delegates whom it is entitled to nominate, the other non-Government
delegates shall be allowed to sit and speak at the conference, but not
to vote.
If, in accordance with Article 389, the conference refuses admission to
a delegate of one of the members, the provisions of the present article
shall apply as if that delegate had not been nominated.
=ARTICLE 391.=--The meetings of the conference shall be held at the seat
of the League of Nations, or at such other place as may be decided by
the conference at a previous meeting by two-thirds of the votes cast by
the delegates present.
=ARTICLE 392.=--The International Labor Office shall be established at
the seat of the League of Nations as part of the organization of the
League.
=ARTICLE 393.=--The International Labor Office shall be under the
control of a governing body consisting of twenty-four persons, appointed
in accordance with the following provisions:
The governing body of the International Labor Office shall be
constituted as follows:
Twelve persons representing the Governments:
Six persons elected by the delegates to the conference representing the
employers:
Six persons elected by the delegates to the conference representing the
workers.
Of the twelve persons representing the Governments, eight shall be
nominated by the members which are of the chief industrial importance,
and four shall be nominated by the members selected for the purpose by
the Government delegates to the conference, excluding the delegates of
the eight members mentioned above.
Any question as to which are the members of the chief industrial
importance shall be decided by the council of the League of Nations.
The period of office of the members of the governing body will be three
years. The method of filling vacancies and other similar questions may
be determined by the governing body, subject to the approval of the
conference.
The governing body shall, from time to time, elect one of its members to
act as its Chairman, shall regulate its own procedure, and shall fix its
own times of meeting. A special meeting shall be held if a written
request to that effect is made by at least ten members of the governing
body.
=ARTICLE 394.=--There shall be a Director of the International Labor
Office, who shall be appointed by the governing body, and, subject to
the instructions of the Governing Body, shall be responsible for the
efficient conduct of the International Labor Office and for such other
duties as may be assigned to him.
The Director or his deputy shall attend all meetings of the governing
body.
=ARTICLE 395.=--The staff of the International Labor Office shall be
appointed by the Director, who shall, as far as is possible with due
regard to the efficiency of the work of the Office, select persons of
different nationalities. A certain number of these persons shall be
women.
=ARTICLE 396.=--The functions of the International Labor Office shall
include the collection and distribution of information on all subjects
relating to the international adjustment of conditions of industrial
life and labor, and particularly the examination of subjects which it is
proposed to bring before the conference with a view to the conclusion of
international conventions, and the conduct of such special
investigations as may be ordered by the conference.
It will prepare the agenda for the meetings of the conference.
It will carry out the duties required of it by the provisions of this
part of the present treaty in connection with international disputes.
It will edit and publish in French and English, and in such other
languages as the governing body may think desirable, a periodical paper
dealing with problems of industry and employment of international
interest.
Generally, in addition to the functions set out in this Article, it
shall have such other powers and duties as may be assigned to it by the
conference.
=ARTICLE 397.=--The Government departments of any of the members which
deal with questions of industry and employment may communicate directly
with the Director through the representative of their Government on the
governing body of the International Labor Office, or, failing any such
representative, through such other qualified official as the Government
may nominate for the purpose.
=ARTICLE 398.=--The International Labor Office shall be entitled to the
assistance of the Secretary-General of the League of Nations in any
matter in which it can be given.
=ARTICLE 399.=--Each of the members will pay the traveling and
subsistence expenses of its delegates and their advisers and of its
representatives attending the meetings of the conference or governing
body, as the case may be.
All the other expenses of the International Labor Office and of the
meetings of the conference or governing body shall be paid to the
Director by the Secretary-General of the League of Nations out of the
general funds of the League.
The Director shall be responsible to the Secretary-General of the League
for the proper expenditure of all moneys paid to him in pursuance of
this Article.
CHAPTER II.--PROCEDURE
=ARTICLE 400.=--The agenda of all meetings of the conference will be
settled by the governing body, who shall consider any suggestion as to
the agenda that may be made by the Government of any of the members or
by any representative organization recognized for the purpose of Article
389.
=ARTICLE 401.=--The Director shall act as the Secretary of the
Conference, and shall transmit the agenda so as to reach the members
four months before the meeting of the conference, and, through them, the
non-Government delegates when appointed.
=ARTICLE 402.=--Any of the Governments of the members may formally
object to the inclusion of any item or items in the agenda. The grounds
for such objection shall be set forth in a reasoned statement addressed
to the Director, who shall circulate it to all the members of the
permanent organization.
Items to which such objection has been made shall not, however, be
excluded from the agenda if at the conference a majority of two-thirds
of the votes cast by delegates present is in favor of considering them.
If the conference decides (otherwise than under the preceding paragraph)
by two-thirds of the votes cast by the delegates present that any
subject shall be considered by the conference, that subject shall be
included in the agenda for the following meeting.
=ARTICLE 403.=--The conference shall regulate its own procedure, shall
elect its own President, and may appoint committees to consider and
report on any matter.
Except as otherwise expressly provided in this part of the present
treaty, all matters shall be decided by a simple majority of the votes
cast by the delegates present.
The voting is void unless the total number of votes cast is equal to
half the number of the delegates attending the conference.
=ARTICLE 404.=--The conference may add to any committees which it
appoints technical experts, who shall be assessors without power to
vote.
=ARTICLE 405.=--When the conference has decided on the adoption of
proposals with regard to an item in the agenda, it will rest with the
conference to determine whether these proposals should take the form:
(a) of a recommendation to be submitted to the members for consideration
with a view to effect being given to it by national legislation or
otherwise, or (b) of a draft international convention for ratification
by the members.
In either case a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast by the
delegates present shall be necessary on the final vote for the adoption
of the recommendation or draft convention, as the case may be, by the
conference.
In framing any recommendation or draft convention of general application
the conference shall have due regard to those countries in which
climatic conditions, the imperfect development of industrial
organization or other special circumstances make the industrial
conditions substantially different and shall suggest the modifications,
if any, which it considers may be required to meet the case of such
countries.
A copy of the recommendation or draft convention shall be authenticated
by the signature of the President of the conference and of the Director
and shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the League of
Nations. The Secretary-General will communicate a certified copy of the
recommendation or draft convention to each of the members.
Each of the members undertakes that it will, within the period of one
year at most from the closing of the session of the conference, or if it
is impossible owing to exceptional circumstances to do so within the
period of one year, then at the earliest practicable moment and in no
case later than eighteen months from the closing of the session of the
conference, bring the recommendation or draft convention before the
authority or authorities within whose competence the matter lies, for
the enactment of legislation or other action.
In the case of a recommendation the members will inform the
Secretary-General of the action taken.
In the case of a draft convention, the member will, if it obtains the
consent of the authority or authorities within whose competence the
matter lies, communicate the formal ratification of the convention to
the Secretary-General and will take such action as may be necessary to
make effective the provisions of such convention.
If on a recommendation no legislative or other action is taken to make a
recommendation effective, or if the draft convention fails to obtain the
consent of the authority or authorities within whose competence the
matter lies, no further obligation shall rest upon the member.
In the case of a federal state, the power of which to enter into
conventions on labor matters is subject to limitations, it shall be in
the discretion of that Government to treat a draft convention to which
such limitations apply as a recommendation only, and the provisions of
this article with respect to recommendations shall apply in such case.
The above Article shall be interpreted in accordance with the following
principle:
In no case shall any member be asked or required, as a result of the
adoption of any recommendation or draft convention by the conference to
lessen the protection afforded by its existing legislation to the
workers concerned.
=ARTICLE 406.=--Any convention so ratified shall be registered by the
Secretary-General of the League of Nations, but shall only be binding
upon the members which ratify it.
[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood
Paris in War Time
A wonderful photograph made from the top platform of the Eiffel Tower.
Hovering over the city is a French dirigible, a guardian against the
dreaded Zeppelins. Paris in war time pursued the even tenor of its way,
but it was a saddened city where frivolous tourists were not wanted.]
=ARTICLE 407.=--If any convention coming before the conference for final
consideration fails to secure the support of two-thirds of the votes
cast by the delegates present, it shall nevertheless be within the right
of any of the members of the permanent organization to agree to such
convention among themselves.
Any convention so agreed to shall be communicated by the Governments
concerned to the Secretary-General of the League of Nations, who shall
register it.
=ARTICLE 408.=--Each of the members agrees to make an annual report to
the International Labor office on the measures which it has taken to
give effect to the provisions of conventions to which it is a party.
These reports shall be made in such form and shall contain such
particulars as the governing body may request. The Directors shall lay a
summary of these reports before the next meeting of the conference.
=ARTICLE 409.=--In the event of any representation being made to the
International Labor Office by an industrial association of employers or
of workers that any of the members has failed to secure in any respect
the effective observance within its jurisdiction of any convention to
which it is a party, the Governing Body may communicate this
representation to the Government against which it is made and may invite
that Government to make such statement on the subject as it may think
fit.
=ARTICLE 410.=--If no statement is received within a reasonable time
from the Government in question, or if the statement when received is
not deemed to be satisfactory by the Governing Body, the latter shall
have the right to publish the representation and the statement, if any,
made in reply to it.
=ARTICLE 411.=--Any of the members shall have the right to file a
complaint with the International Labor Office if it is not satisfied
that any other member is securing the effective observance of any
convention which both have ratified in accordance with the foregoing
articles.
The Governing Body may, if it thinks fit, before referring such a
complaint to a Commission of inquiry, as hereinafter provided for,
communicate with the Government in question in the manner described in
Article 409.
If the Governing Body does not think it necessary to communicate the
complaint to the Government in question, or if, when they have made such
communication, no statement in reply has been received within a
reasonable time which the Governing Body considers to be satisfactory,
the Governing Body may apply for the appointment of a Commission of
inquiry to consider the complaint and to report thereon.
The Governing Body may adopt the same procedure either of its own motion
or on receipt of a complaint from a Delegate to the Conference.
When any matter arising out of Articles 410 or 411 is being considered
by the Governing Body, the Government in question shall, if not already
represented thereon, be entitled to send a representative to take part
in the proceedings of the Governing Body while the matter is under
consideration. Adequate notice of the date on which the matter will be
considered shall be given to the Government in question.
=ARTICLE 412.=--The Commission of Inquiry shall be constituted in
accordance with the following provisions:
Each of the members agrees to nominate within six months of the date on
which the present Treaty comes into force three persons of industrial
experience, of whom one shall be a representative of employers, one a
representative of workers, and one a person of independent standing, who
shall together form a panel from which the members of the Commission of
Inquiry shall be drawn.
The qualifications of the persons so nominated shall be subject to
scrutiny by the Governing Body, which may by two-thirds of the votes
cast by the representatives present refuse to accept the nomination of
any person whose qualifications do not in its opinion comply with the
requirements of the present article.
Upon the application of the Governing Body, the Secretary-General of the
League of Nations shall nominate three persons, one from each section of
this panel, to constitute the Commission of Inquiry, and shall designate
one of them as the President of the commission. None of these three
persons shall be a person nominated to the panel by any member directly
concerned in the complaint.
=ARTICLE 413.=--The members agree that, in the event of the reference of
a complaint to a commission of inquiry under Article 411, they will
each, whether directly concerned in the complaint or not, place at the
disposal of the commission all the information in their possession which
bears upon the subject-matter of the complaint.
=ARTICLE 414.=--When the Commission of Inquiry has fully considered the
complaint, it shall prepare a report embodying its findings on all
questions of fact relevant to determining the issue between the parties
and containing such recommendations as it may think proper as to the
steps which should be taken to meet the complaint and the time within
which they should be taken.
It shall also indicate in this report the measures, if any, of an
economic character against a defaulting Government which it considers to
be appropriate, and which it considers other Governments would be
justified in adopting.
=ARTICLE 415.=--The Secretary-General of the League of Nations shall
communicate the report of the Commission of Inquiry to each of the
Governments concerned in the complaint, and shall cause it to be
published.
Each of these Governments shall within one month inform the
Secretary-General of the League of Nations whether or not it accepts the
recommendations contained in the report of the Commission; and if not,
whether it proposes to refer the complaint to the Permanent Court of
International Justice of the League of Nations.
=ARTICLE 416.=--In the event of any member failing to take the action
required by Article 405, with regard to a recommendation or draft
convention, any other member shall be entitled to refer the matter to
the Permanent Court of International Justice.
=ARTICLE 417.=--The decision of the Permanent Court of International
Justice in regard to a complaint or matter which has been referred to it
in pursuance of Article 415 or Article 416 shall be final.
=ARTICLE 418.=--The Permanent Court of International Justice may affirm,
vary or reverse any of the findings or recommendations of the Commission
of Inquiry, if any, and shall in its decision indicate the measures, if
any, of an economic character which it considers to be appropriate, and
which other Governments would be justified in adopting against a
defaulting Government.
=ARTICLE 419.=--In the event of any member failing to carry out within
the time specified the recommendations, if any, contained in the report
of the Commission of Inquiry, or in the decision of the Permanent Court
of International Justice, as the case may be, any other member may take
against that member the measures of an economic character indicated in
the report of the Commission or in the decision of the Court as
appropriate to the case.
=ARTICLE 420.=--The defaulting Government may at any time inform the
Governing Body that it has taken the steps necessary to comply with the
recommendations of the Commission of Inquiry or with those in the
decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice, as the case
may be, and may request it to apply to the Secretary-General of the
League to constitute a commission of Inquiry to verify its contention.
In this case the provisions of Articles 412, 413, 414, 415, 417 and 418
shall apply, and if the report of the Commission of Inquiry or the
decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice is in favor of
the defaulting Government, the other Governments shall forthwith
discontinue the measures of an economic character that they have taken
against the defaulting Government.
CHAPTER III.--GENERAL
=ARTICLE 421.=--The members engage to apply conventions which they have
ratified in accordance with the provisions of this part of the present
treaty to their colonies, protectorates, and possessions which are not
fully self-governing:
1. Except where owing to the local conditions the convention is
inapplicable, or
2. Subject to such modifications as may be necessary to adapt the
convention to local conditions.
And each of the members shall notify to the International Labor Office
the action taken in respect of each of its colonies, protectorates, and
possessions which are not fully self-governing.
=ARTICLE 422.=--Amendments to this part of the present treaty which are
adopted by the Conference by a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast
by the delegates present shall take effect when ratified by the States
whose representatives compose the Council of the League of Nations and
by three-fourths of the members.
=ARTICLE 423.=--Any question or dispute relating to the interpretation
of this part of the present treaty or of any subsequent convention
concluded by the members in pursuance of the provisions of this part of
the present treaty shall be referred for decision to the Permanent Court
of International Justice.
CHAPTER IV.--TRANSITORY PROVISIONS
=ARTICLE 424.=--The first meeting of the Conference shall take place in
October, 1919. The place and agenda for this meeting shall be as
specified in the Annex hereto.
Arrangements for the convening and the organization of the first meeting
of the Conference will be made by the Government designated for the
purpose in the said Annex. That Government shall be assisted in the
preparation of the documents for submission to the Conference by an
International Committee constituted as provided in the said Annex.
The expenses of the first meeting and of all subsequent meetings held
before the League of Nations has been able to establish a general fund,
other than the expenses of delegates and their advisers, will be borne
by the members in Accordance with the apportionment of the expenses of
the International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union.
=ARTICLE 425.=--Until the League of Nations has been constituted all
communications which under the provisions of the foregoing articles
should be addressed to the Secretary-General of the League will be
preserved by the Director of the International Labor Office, who will
transmit them to the Secretary-General of the League.
=ARTICLE 426.=--Pending the creation of a Permanent Court of
International Justice, disputes which in accordance with this part of
the present treaty would be submitted to it for decision will be
referred to a tribunal of three persons appointed by the Council of the
League of Nations.
ANNEX
_First Meeting of Annual Labor Conference, 1919_
The place of meeting will be Washington.
The Government of the United States of America is requested to convene
the conference.
The International Organizing Committee will consist of seven members,
appointed by the United States of America, Great Britain, France, Italy,
Japan, Belgium, and Switzerland. The committee may, if it thinks
necessary, invite other members to appoint representatives.
Agenda:
1. Application of principle of the 8-hours day or of the 48-hours week.
2. Question of preventing or providing against unemployment.
3. Women's employment.
(a) Before and after childbirth, including the question of
maternity benefit.
(b) During the night.
(c) In unhealthy processes.
4. Employment of children:
(a) Minimum age of employment.
(b) During the night.
(c) In unhealthy processes.
5. Extension and application of the International Conventions adopted at
Berne in 1906 on the prohibition of night work for women employed in
industry and the prohibition of the use of white phosphorus in the
manufacture of matches.
SECTION II.--_General Principles_
=ARTICLE 427.=--The High Contracting Parties, recognizing that the
well-being, physical, moral, and intellectual, of industrial wage
earners is of supreme international importance, have framed, in order to
further this great end, the permanent machinery provided for in Section
I, and associated with that of the League of Nations.
They recognize that differences of climate, habits, and customs, of
economic opportunity and industrial tradition, make strict uniformity in
the conditions of labor difficult of immediate attainment. But, holding
as they do, that labor should not be regarded merely as an article of
commerce, they think that there are methods and principles for
regulating labor conditions which all industrial communities should
endeavor to apply, so far as their special circumstances will permit.
Among these methods and principles, the following seem to the High
Contracting Parties to be of special and urgent importance:
First--The guiding principle above enunciated that labor should not be
regarded merely as a commodity or article of commerce.
Second--The right of association for all lawful purposes by the employed
as well as by the employers.
Third--The payment to the employed of a wage adequate to maintain a
reasonable standard of life as this is understood in their time and
country.
Fourth--The adoption of an eight hours day or a forty-eight hours week
as the standard to be aimed at where it has not already been attained.
Fifth--The adoption of a weekly rest of at least twenty-four hours,
which should include Sunday wherever practicable.
Sixth--The abolition of child labor and the imposition of such
limitations on the labor of young persons as shall permit the
continuation of their education and assure their proper physical
development.
Seventh--The principle that men and women should receive equal
remuneration for work of equal value.
Eighth--The standard set by law in each country with respect to the
conditions of labor should have due regard to the equitable economic
treatment of all workers lawfully resident therein.
Ninth--Each State should make provision for a system of inspection in
which women should take part in order to insure the enforcement of the
laws and regulations for the protection of the employed.
Without claiming that these methods and principles are either complete
or final, the High Contracting Parties are of opinion that they are well
fitted to guide the policy of the League of Nations; and that, if
adopted by the industrial communities who are members of the League, and
safeguarded in practice by an adequate system of such inspection, they
will confer lasting benefits upon the wage earners of the world.
PART XIV
Guarantees
SECTION I.--_Western Europe_
=ARTICLE 428.=--As a guarantee for the execution of the present treaty
by Germany, the German territory situated to the west of the Rhine,
together with the bridgeheads, will be occupied by Allied and Associated
troops for a period of fifteen years from the coming into force of the
present treaty.
=ARTICLE 429.=--If the conditions of the present treaty are faithfully
carried out by Germany, the occupation referred to in Article 428 will
be successively restricted as follows:
(i) At the expiration of five years there will be evacuated:--the
bridgehead of Cologne and the territories north of a line running along
the Ruhr, then along the railway Jülich, Duren, Euskirchen, Rheinbach,
thence along the road Rheinbach to Sinzig, and reaching the Rhine at the
confluence with the Ahr; the roads, railways and places mentioned above
being excluded from the area evacuated.
(ii) At the expiration of ten years, there will be evacuated:--the
bridgehead of Coblenz and the territories north of a line to be drawn
from the intersection between the frontiers of Belgium, Germany and
Holland, running about 4 kilometers south of Aix-la-Chapelle, then to
and following the crest of Forst Gremünd, then east of the railway of
the Urft Valley, then along Blankenheim, Valdorf, Dreis, Ulmen to and
following the Moselle from Bremm to Nehren, then passing by Kappel and
Simmern, then following the ridge of the heights between Simmern and the
Rhine and reaching this river at Bacharach; all the places, valleys,
roads and railways mentioned above being excluded from the area
evacuated.
(iii) At the expiration of fifteen years there will be evacuated:--the
bridgehead of Mainz, the bridgehead of Kehl and the remainder of the
German territory under occupation.
If at that date the guarantees against unprovoked aggression by Germany
are not considered sufficient by the Allied and Associated Governments
the evacuation of the occupying troops may be delayed to the extent
regarded as necessary for the purpose of obtaining the required
guarantees.
=ARTICLE 430.=--In case either during the occupation or after the
expiration of the fifteen years referred to above, the Reparation
Commission finds that Germany refuses to observe the whole or part of
her obligations under the present treaty with regard to reparation, the
whole or part of the areas specified in Article 429 will be re-occupied
immediately by the Allied of the employed.
=ARTICLE 431.=--If before the expiration of the period of fifteen years
Germany complies with all the undertakings resulting from the present
treaty, the occupying forces will be withdrawn immediately.
=ARTICLE 432.=--All matters relating to the occupation and not provided
for by the present treaty shall be regulated by subsequent agreements,
which Germany hereby undertakes to observe.
SECTION II.--_Eastern Europe_
=ARTICLE 433.=--As a guarantee for the execution of the provisions of
the present treaty, by which Germany accepts definitely the abrogation
of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, and of all treaties, conventions and
agreements entered into by her with the Maximalist Government in Russia,
and in order to insure the restoration of peace and good government in
the Baltic Provinces and Lithuania, all German troops at present in the
said territories shall return to within the frontiers of Germany as soon
as the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers shall
think the moment suitable, having regard to the internal situation of
these territories. These troops shall abstain from all requisitions and
seizures and from any other coercive measures, with a view to obtaining
supplies intended for Germany, and shall in no way interfere with such
measures for national defense as may be adopted by the provisional
Governments of Esthonia, Letvia, and Lithuania.
No other German troops shall, pending the evacuation or after the
evacuation is complete, be admitted to the said territories.
PART XV
Miscellaneous Provisions
=ARTICLE 434.=--Germany undertakes to recognize the full force of the
treaties of peace and additional conventions which may be concluded by
the Allied and Associated Powers with the powers who fought on the side
of Germany, and to recognize whatever disposition may be made concerning
the territories of the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, of the Kingdom
of Bulgaria, and of the Ottoman Empire, and to recognize the new States
within their frontiers as there laid down.
=ARTICLE 435.=--The high contracting parties, while they recognize the
guarantees stipulated by the treaties of 1815, and especially by the Act
of 20th November, 1815, in favor of Switzerland, the said guarantees
constituting international obligations for the maintenance of peace,
declare nevertheless that the provisions of these treaties, conventions,
declarations and other supplementary acts concerning the neutralized
zone of Savoy, as laid down in paragraph 1 of Article 92 of the Final
Act of the Congress of Vienna, and in paragraph 2 of Article 3 of the
Treaty of Paris of 20th November, 1815, are no longer consistent with
present conditions. For this reason the high contracting parties take
note of the agreement reached between the French Government and the
Swiss Government for the abrogation of the stipulations relating to this
zone which are and remain abrogated.
The high contracting parties also agree that the stipulations of the
treaties of 1815 and of the other supplementary acts concerning the free
zones of Upper Savoy and the Gex district are no longer consistent with
present conditions, and that it is for France and Switzerland to come to
an agreement together with a view to settling between themselves the
status of these territories under such conditions as shall be considered
suitable by both countries.
ANNEX
1. The Swiss Federal Council has informed the French Government on the
5th May, 1919, that after examining the provisions of Article 435 in a
like spirit of sincere friendship it has happily reached the conclusion
that it was possible to acquiesce in it under the following conditions
and reservations:
First--The neutralized zone of Haute-Savoie:
(a) It will be understood that as long as the Federal Chambers have not
ratified the agreement come to between the two Governments concerning
the abrogation of the stipulations in respect of the neutralized zone of
Savoy nothing will be definitely settled, on one side or the other, in
regard to this subject.
(b) The assent given by the Swiss Government to the abrogation of the
above-mentioned stipulations presupposes, in conformity with the text
adopted, the recognition of the guarantees formulated in favor of
Switzerland by the treaties of 1815 and particularly by the declaration
of 20th November, 1815.
(c) The agreement between the Governments of France and Switzerland for
the abrogation of the above-mentioned stipulations will only be
considered as valid if the treaty of peace contains this article in its
present wording. In addition, the parties to the treaty of peace should
endeavor to obtain the assent of the signatory powers of the treaties of
1815 and of the declaration of 20th November, 1815, which are not
signatories of the present treaty of peace.
Second--Free zone of Haute-Savoie and the district of Gex.
(a) The Federal Council makes the most express reservations to the
interpretation to be given to the statement mentioned in the last
paragraph of the above article for insertion in the treaty of peace,
which provides that "the stipulations of the treaties of 1815 and other
supplementary acts concerning the free zones of Haute-Savoie and the Gex
district are no longer consistent with the present conditions." The
Federal Council would not wish that its acceptance of the above wording
should lead to the conclusion that it would agree to the suppression of
a system intended to give neighboring territory the benefit of a special
régime which is appropriate to the geographical and economical situation
and which has been well tested.
In the opinion of the Federal Council the question is not the
modification of the customs system of the zones as set up by the
treaties mentioned above, but only the regulation in a manner more
appropriate to the economic conditions of the present day of the terms
of the exchange of goods between the regions in question. The Federal
Council has been led to make the preceding observations by the perusal
of the draft convention concerning the future constitution of the zones,
which was annexed to the note of April 26 from the French Government.
While making the above reservations the Federal Council declares its
readiness to examine in the most friendly spirit any proposals which the
French Government may deem it convenient to make on the subject.
(b) It is conceded that the stipulations of the treaties of 1815 and
other supplementary acts relative to the free zones will remain in force
until a new arrangement is come to between France and Switzerland to
regulate matters in this territory.
2. The French Government have addressed to the Swiss Government, on May
18, 1919, the following note in reply to the communication set out in
the preceding paragraph:
In a note dated May 5 the Swiss Legation in Paris was good enough to
inform the Government of the French Republic that the Federal Government
adhered to the proposed article to be inserted in the Treaty of Peace
between the Allied and Associated Governments and Germany.
The French Government have taken note with much pleasure of the
agreement thus reached, and, at their request, the proposed article,
which had been accepted by the Allied and Associated Governments, has
been inserted under No. 435 in the peace conditions presented to the
German plenipotentiaries.
The Swiss Government, in their note of May 5, on this subject, have
expressed various views and reservations.
Concerning the observations relating to the free zones of Haute-Savoie
and the Gex district, the French Government have the honor to observe
that the provisions of the last paragraph of Article 435 are so clear
that their purport cannot be misapprehended, especially where it implies
that no other power but France and Switzerland will in future be
interested in that question.
The French Government, on their part, are anxious to protect the
interests of the French territories concerned, and, with that object,
having their special situation in view, they bear in mind the
desirability of assuring them a suitable customs régime and determining,
in a manner better suited to present conditions, the methods of
exchanges between these territories and the adjacent Swiss territories,
while taking into account the reciprocal interests of both regions.
It is understood that this must in no way prejudice the right of France
to adjust her customs line in this region in conformity with her
political frontier, as is done on the other portions of her territorial
boundaries, and as was done by Switzerland long ago on her own
boundaries in this region.
The French Government are pleased to note on this subject in what a
friendly disposition the Swiss Government take this opportunity of
declaring their willingness to consider any French proposal dealing with
the system to be substituted for the present régime of the said free
zones, which the French Government intend to formulate in the same
friendly spirit.
Moreover, the French Government have no doubt that the provisional
maintenance of the régime of 1815 as to the free zones referred to in
the above-mentioned paragraph of the note from the Swiss Legation of May
5, whose object is to provide for the passage from the present régime to
the conventional régime, will cause no delay whatsoever in the
establishment of the new situation which has been found necessary by the
two Governments. This remark applies also to the ratification by the
Federal Chambers, dealt with in Paragraph 1 (a), of the Swiss note of
May 5, under the heading "Neutralized Zone of Haute-Savoie."
=ARTICLE 436.=--The high contracting parties declare and place on record
that they have taken note of the treaty signed by the Government of the
French Republic on July 17th, 1918, with His Serene Highness the Prince
of Monaco defining the relations between France and the Principality.
=ARTICLE 437.=--The high contracting parties agree that, in the absence
of a subsequent agreement to the contrary, the Chairman of any
commission established by the present treaty shall, in the event of an
equality of votes, be entitled to a second vote.
=ARTICLE 438.=--The Allied and Associated Powers agree that where
Christian religious missions were being maintained by German societies
or persons in territory belonging to them, or of which the government is
intrusted to them in accordance with the present treaty, the property
which these missions or missionary societies possessed, including that
of trading societies whose profits were devoted to the support of
missions, shall continue to be devoted to missionary purposes. In order
to insure the due execution of this undertaking the Allied and
Associated Governments will hand over such property to boards of
trustees appointed by or approved by the Governments and composed of
persons holding the faith of the mission whose property is involved.
The Allied and Associated Governments, while continuing to maintain full
control as to the individuals by whom the missions are conducted, will
safeguard the interests of such missions.
Germany, taking note of the above undertaking, agrees to accept all
arrangements made or to be made by the Allied or Associated Government
concerned for carrying on the work of the said missions or trading
societies and waives all claims on their behalf.
=ARTICLE 439.=--Without prejudice to the provisions of the present
treaty, Germany undertakes not to put forward directly or indirectly
against any Allied or Associated Power, signatory of the present treaty,
including those which without having declared war, have broken off
diplomatic relations with the German Empire, any pecuniary claim based
on events which occurred at any time before the coming into force of the
present treaty.
The present stipulation will bar completely and finally all claims of
this nature, which will be thenceforward extinguished, whoever may be
the parties in interest.
=ARTICLE 440.=--Germany accepts and recognizes as valid and binding all
decrees and orders concerning German ships and goods and all orders
relating to the payment of costs made by any prize court of any of the
Allied or Associated Powers, and undertakes not to put forward any claim
arising out of such decrees or orders on behalf of any German national.
The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to examine in such
manner as they may determine all decisions and orders of German Prize
Courts, whether affecting the property rights of nationals of those
powers or of neutral powers. Germany agrees to furnish copies of all the
documents constituting the record of the cases, including the decisions
and orders made, and to accept and give effect to the recommendations
made after such examination of the cases.
The present treaty, of which the French and English texts are both
authentic, shall be ratified.
The deposit of ratifications shall be made at Paris as soon as possible.
Powers of which the seat of the Government is outside Europe will be
entitled merely to inform the Government of the French Republic through
their diplomatic representative at Paris that their ratification has
been given; in that case they must transmit the instrument of
ratification as soon as possible.
A first procès-verbal of the deposit of ratifications will be drawn up
as soon as the treaty has been ratified by Germany on the one hand, and
by three of the principal Allied and Associated Powers on the other
hand.
From the date of the first procès-verbal the treaty will come into force
between the high contracting parties who have ratified it. For the
determination of all periods of time provided for in the present treaty
this date will be the date of the coming into force of the treaty.
In all other respects the treaty will enter into force for each power at
the date of the deposit of its ratification.
The French Government will transmit to all the signatory powers a
certified copy of the procès-verbaux of the deposit of ratifications.
IN FAITH WHEREOF the above-named plenipotentiaries (1) except as
indicated in the footnotes to the preamble, have signed the present
treaty.
DONE AT VERSAILLES, in a single copy which will remain deposited in the
archives of the French Republic, and of which authenticated copies will
be transmitted to each of the signatory powers.
REJECTION OF THE PEACE TREATY
The Senate Fails to Ratify the Treaty of Versailles With the Revised
Lodge Reservations by a Vote of 49 to 35
The Treaty of Versailles with the Covenant of The League of Nations was
signed on June 28, 1919, by Germany and by the representatives of the
Allied and Associated Powers, with the exception of China.
It was ratified by the German National Assembly on July 10th; by the
British Parliament on July 25th, and by King George on July 31st, by the
King of Italy on October 7th, by France on October 13th and by Japan on
October 27th.
On the day the Treaty was signed President Wilson sailed for New York,
and on July 10th he addressed the Senate and submitted the Treaty to
that body, which under the Constitution is empowered to give its "advice
and consent" to treaties negotiated by the Chief Executive. Opposition
to the Covenant of the League of Nations had previously developed in the
Senate, especially on the part of the Republican majority. The Foreign
Affairs Committee, of which Senator Lodge of Massachusetts was Chairman,
was from the start unalterably opposed to the Treaty unless it contained
as amendments or as reservations clauses which, it was claimed, would
safeguard American interests and institutions. In February the
President, who had made a hurried trip from Paris in order to acquaint
the American people with the details of the Treaty as it affected this
country, conferred at the White House with the Foreign Relations
Committee of the Senate and the Foreign Affairs Committee of the House,
on which occasion there was a frank and comprehensive discussion, a
complete stenographic report of which was published in the press. On
March 3rd Senator Lodge presented a resolution signed by 39 Republican
Senators and Senators-elect protesting against the Covenant of The
League of Nations, as it stood. As it required a two-thirds vote of the
Senate to ratify, these 39 opponents of the treaty would be sufficient
to reject it, and the virtual effect of this resolution was to give
warning to the President that the Treaty unless it were to be
"Americanized" would fail of ratification.
The President on March 5th sailed from New York and returned to Paris to
take up his work at the Peace Conference, remaining there until the
Treaty was signed.
On July 15th, the Foreign Relations Committee took the Treaty under
consideration and conducted hearings on it. One of these, continuing for
several days, was for the purpose of exposing what the Committee
regarded as the unjust treatment of China in respect of the cession to
Japan, under the Treaty, of the German rights in Shantung (Kiauchau).
On August 19th, the Foreign Relations Committee again conferred at the
White House with the President, and on September 3rd the President
started on a tour of the country to win support for the Treaty and The
League of Nations.
On September 10th the Foreign Relations Committee reported the Treaty to
the Senate with 45 amendments and four reservations.
On September 26th, owing to a nervous breakdown, the President at
Wichita, Kansas, gave up his tour of the country and returned to
Washington.
What were known as the Fall amendments to the Treaty were defeated in
the Senate on October 2nd by 58 to 30, and as this vote indicated the
unlikelihood of amendments being passed, the Republicans of the Foreign
Relations Committee changed their tactics, abandoning amendments and
considering reservations instead. It had been pointed out that American
amendments to the Treaty would require ratification by Germany and that
this might nullify the whole Treaty and necessitate the re-opening of
negotiations, thereby delaying peace indefinitely.
On October 4th the Massachusetts Republican State Convention, before
which Senator Lodge spoke in defense of his attitude on the Treaty,
urged prompt ratification of the Peace Treaty with "reasonable and
effective" reservations.
On October 15th by a vote of 55 to 35 the Senate rejected a proposed
amendment of the Foreign Relations Committee to the clause affecting the
German rights in Shantung by virtue of which these would be transferred
to China.
The deadlock in the Senate had meanwhile aroused widespread criticism
throughout the country, the attitude of the Republican majority being
vigorously objected to by influential members of that party. Public
opinion both in and out of the Republican party was generally in favor
of ratification with reservations, as was repeatedly indicated by
"straw" votes among the people.
RATIFICATION, WITH ORIGINAL LODGE RESERVATIONS, DEFEATED NOV. 19, 1919.
On November 6th Senator Lodge presented 14 reservations which had been
agreed to by the majority members of the Foreign Relations Committee. On
November 19th, they were voted on by the Senate, being coupled with the
following resolution of ratification:
_Resolved (two-thirds of the Senators present concurring therein)_, That
the Senate advise and consent to the ratification of the Treaty of Peace
with Germany concluded at Versailles on the 28th day of June, 1919
subject to the following reservations and understandings, which are
hereby made a part and condition to this resolution of ratification,
which ratification is not to take effect or bind the United States until
the said reservations and understandings adopted by the Senate have been
accepted by an exchange of notes as a part and a condition of this
resolution of ratification by at least three of the four principal
allied and associated powers, to wit, Great Britain, France, Italy, and
Japan.
1. The United States so understands and construes Article I that in case
of notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations, as provided in said
article, the United States shall be the sole judge as to whether all its
international obligations and all its obligations under the said
covenant have been fulfilled, and notice of withdrawal by the United
States may be given by a concurrent resolution of the Congress of the
United States.
2. The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the territorial
integrity or political independence of any other country or to
interfere in controversies between nations--whether members of the
League or not--under the provisions of Article 10, or to employ the
military or naval forces of the United States under any article of the
Treaty for any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress,
which, under the Constitution, has the sole power to declare war or
authorize the employment of the military or naval forces of the United
States, shall by act or joint resolution so provide.
3. No mandate shall be accepted by the United States under Article 22,
Part 1, or any other provision of the Treaty of Peace with Germany,
except by action of the Congress of the United States.
4. The United States reserves to itself exclusively the right to decide
what questions are within its domestic jurisdiction and declares that
all domestic and political questions relating wholly or in part to its
internal affairs, including immigration, labor, coastwise traffic, the
tariff, commerce, the suppression of traffic in women and children, and
in opium and other dangerous drugs, and all other domestic questions,
are solely within the jurisdiction of the United States and are not
under this Treaty to be submitted in any way either to arbitration or to
the consideration of the Council or of the Assembly of the League of
Nations, or any agency thereof, or to the decision or recommendation of
any other power.
5. The United States will not submit to arbitration or to inquiry by the
Assembly or by the Council of the League of Nations, provided for in
said Treaty of Peace, any questions which in the judgment of the United
States depend upon or relate to its long-established policy, commonly
known as the Monroe Doctrine; said doctrine is to be interpreted by the
United States alone and is hereby declared to be wholly outside the
jurisdiction of said League of Nations and entirely unaffected by any
provision contained in the said Treaty of Peace with Germany.
6. The United States withholds its assent to Articles 156, 157, and 158,
and reserves full liberty of action with respect to any controversy
which may arise under said articles between the Republic of China and
the Empire of Japan.
7. The Congress of the United States will provide by law for the
appointment of the representatives of the United States in the Assembly
and the Council of the League of Nations, and may in its discretion
provide for the participation of the United States in any commission,
committee, tribunal, court, council, or conference, or in the selection
of any members thereof and for the appointment of members of said
commissions, committees, tribunals, courts, councils, or conferences, or
any other representatives under the Treaty of Peace, or in carrying out
its provisions, and until such participation and appointment have been
so provided for and the powers and duties of such representatives have
been defined by law, no person shall represent the United States under
either said League of Nations or the Treaty of Peace with Germany, or be
authorized to perform any act for or on behalf of the United States
thereunder, and no citizen of the United States shall be selected or
appointed as a member of said commissions, committees, tribunals,
courts, councils, or conferences except with the approval of the Senate
of the United States.
8. The United States understands that the Reparation Commission will
regulate or interfere with exports from the United States to Germany, or
from Germany to the United States, only when the United States by act or
joint resolution of Congress approves such regulation or interference.
9. The United States shall not be obligated to contribute to any
expenses of the League of Nations, or of the secretariat, or of any
commission, or committee, or conference, or other agency, organized
under the League of Nations or under the Treaty or for the purpose of
carrying out the Treaty provisions, unless and until an appropriation of
funds available for such expenses shall have been made by the Congress
of the United States.
10. If the United States shall at any time adopt any plan for the
limitation of armaments proposed by the Council of the League of
Nations, under the provisions of Article 8, it reserves the right to
increase such armaments without the consent of the Council whenever the
United States is threatened with invasion or engaged in war.
11. The United States reserves the right to permit, in its discretion,
the nationals of a covenant-breaking State, as defined in Article 16 of
the covenant of the League of Nations, residing within the United States
or in countries other than that violating said Article 16, to continue
their commercial, financial, and personal relations with the nationals
of the United States.
12. Nothing in Articles 296, 297, or in any of the annexes thereto or in
any other article, section, or annex of the Treaty of Peace with Germany
shall, as against citizens of the United States, be taken to mean any
confirmation, ratification, or approval of any act otherwise illegal or
in contravention of the right of citizens of the United States.
13. The United States withholds its assent to Part XIII. (Articles 387
to 427, inclusive) unless Congress by act or joint resolution shall
hereafter make provision for representation in the organization
established by said Part XIII, and in such event the participation of
the United States will be governed and conditioned by the provisions of
such act or joint resolution.
14. The United States assumes no obligation to be bound by any election,
decision, report, or finding of the council, or assembly in which any
member of the League and its self-governing dominions, colonies, or
parts of empire, in the aggregate have cast more than one vote, and
assumes no obligation to be bound by any decision, report, or finding of
the council or assembly arising out of any dispute between the United
States and any member of the League if such member, or any
self-governing dominion, colony, empire, or part of empire united with
it politically has voted.
Ratification of the above resolution required a two-thirds vote. The
resolution was lost 55 to 39, the votes of 13 Republican
"irreconcilables" being cast against the resolution. On a motion to
reconsider, the resolution was again voted on, this time the vote being
51 to 41. Senator Underwood's motion for unconditional ratification of
the Treaty without reservation was then lost 53 to 38.
The crux of the opposition to the Treaty was Article X. In President
Wilson's view, the Lodge reservation to this article cut the heart out
of the League of Nations, and nullified its whole structure and
practical operation. For a time it looked as if the Peace Treaty was
dead. Public opinion, however, insisted that the Treaty must not be
allowed to die and that the United States was morally obligated to the
rest of the world to take its place in the family of nations as a
signatory to the Treaty with such interpretative reservations as would
protect America's interests, and at the same time not antagonize other
nations.
Early in January, 1920, the President in a letter to Senator Hitchcock
declared against "strong" reservations, and on January 15th, with a view
to reaching a compromise, there began a series of bi-partisan
conferences among Senators at which were discussed the various
reservations that had been a stumbling block, but no agreement could be
reached. As before, the phraseology and intent of Article X was the
principal bone of contention.
THE TREATY AGAIN BEFORE THE SENATE
On February 10th Senator Lodge reported the Treaty a second time to the
Senate, and with the original set of reservations. After another month
of debate and of organized efforts on the part of public spirited
citizens to exert pressure on the Senators to settle their differences
and give the nation what it demanded--a Treaty of Peace--the lines were
again drawn preparatory to another vote. The Senate, sitting in
Committee of the Whole, took up the Lodge reservations, one after
another, accepting some virtually without change, modifying or
amplifying others, until all but Article X had been agreed upon.
Various new drafts of this reservation were suggested, both by Senators
and by private citizens; some of these were voted on, but none could
muster the votes necessary for adoption.
Early in March a compromise reservation was worked out by Republicans
and Democrats, and this was made the occasion of an effort to induce the
President to give his views on Article X. For convenience in comparison,
Article X of the League of Nations, the original Lodge reservation, and
the proposed compromise reservation, are reproduced herewith:
ARTICLE X OF THE LEAGUE
The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as
against external aggression the territorial integrity and
existing political independence of all members of the League.
In case of any such aggression the Council shall advise upon
the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.
THE ORIGINAL LODGE RESERVATION
The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the
territorial integrity or political independence of any other
country or to interfere in controversies between
nations--whether members of the League or not--under the
provision of Article X., or to employ the military or naval
forces of the United States under any article of the Treaty for
any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, which
under the Constitution has the sole power to declare war or
authorize the employment of the military or naval forces of the
United States, shall by act or joint resolution so provide.
THE PROPOSED COMPROMISE RESERVATION
The United States assumes no obligation to employ its military
or naval forces, its resources, or the economic boycott to
preserve the territorial integrity or political independence of
any other country under the provisions of Article X., or to
employ the military or naval forces of the United States under
any other article of the Treaty for any purpose, unless in any
particular case the Congress, which, under the Constitution,
has the sole power to declare war, shall, by act or joint
resolution, so provide.
ARTICLE X, SAYS WILSON, NULLIFIES A SACRED OBLIGATION
The President expressed his views on Article X and the proposed
reservations to it in a letter to Senator Hitchcock under date of March
8th, in which he said:
"There is no escaping the moral obligations which are expressed
in positive terms in this article of the covenant. We won a
moral victory over Germany, far greater even than the military
victory won on the field of battle, because the opinion of the
whole world swung to our support and the support of the nations
associated with us in the great struggle. It did so because of
our common profession and promise that we meant to establish
'an organization of peace which should make it certain that the
combined power of free nations would check every invasion of
right, and serve to make peace and justice the more secure by
affording a definite tribunal of opinion to which all must
submit and by which every international readjustment that
cannot be amicably agreed upon by the peoples directly
concerned shall be sanctioned.'
"This promise and assurance were written into the preliminaries
of the armistice and into the preliminaries of the peace itself
and constitute one of the most sacred obligations ever assumed
by any nation or body of nations. It is unthinkable that
America should set the example of ignoring such a solemn moral
engagement.
"For myself, I feel that I could not look the soldiers of our
gallant armies in the face again if I did not do everything in
my power to remove every obstacle that lies in the way of the
adoption of this particular article of the covenant, because we
made these pledges to them as well as to the rest of the world,
and it was to this cause they deemed themselves devoted in a
spirit of crusaders. I should be forever unfaithful to them if
I did not do my utmost to fulfill the high purpose for which
they fought."
"A NEW DOCTRINE IN THE WORLD'S AFFAIRS"
The President said he regarded the stipulations as to constitutional
methods required by the proposed compromise reservation as superfluous,
because it was understood at Paris that whatever duties any nation
undertook under the Treaty would as a matter of course "have to be
fulfilled by its usual and established constitutional methods of
action." He said further:
"Any reservation which seeks to deprive the League of Nations
of the force of Article X. cuts at the very heart and life of
the covenant itself. Any League of Nations which does not
guarantee as a matter of incontestable right the political
independence and integrity of each of its members might be
hardly more than a futile scrap of paper, as ineffective in
operation as the agreement between Belgium and Germany which
the Germans violated in 1914.
"Article X. as written into the Treaty of Versailles represents
the renunciation by Great Britain and Japan, which before the
war had begun to find so many interests in common in the
Pacific; by France, by Italy, by all the great fighting powers
of the world, of the old pretensions of political conquest and
territorial aggrandisement. It is a new doctrine in the world's
affairs and must be recognized or there is no secure basis for
the peace which the whole world so desperately needs.
"If Article X. is not adopted and acted upon, the Governments
which reject it will, I think, be guilty of bad faith to their
people, whom they induced to make the infinite sacrifices of
the war by the pledge that they would be fighting to redeem the
world from the old order of force and aggression. They will be
acting also in bad faith to the opinion of the world at large,
to which they appealed for support in a concerted stand against
the aggressions and pretensions of Germany.
"If we were to reject Article X. or so to weaken it as to take
its full force out of it, it would mark us as desiring to
return to the old world of jealous rivalry and
misunderstandings from which our gallant soldiers have rescued
us and would leave us without any vision or new conception of
justice and peace. We would have learned no lesson from the
war, but gained only the regret that it had involved us in its
maelstrom of suffering. If America has awakened, as the rest of
the world has, to the vision of a new day in which the mistakes
of the past are to be corrected, it will welcome the
opportunity to share the responsibilities of Article X.
"It must not be forgotten, Senator, that the article
constitutes a renunciation of all ambition on the part of
powerful nations with whom we were associated in the war. It is
by no means certain that without this article any such
renunciation will take place. Militaristic ambitions and
imperialistic policies are by no means dead, even in counsels
of the nations whom we most trust and with whom we most desire
to be associated in the tasks of peace.
DEMOCRACY VERSUS IMPERIALISM
"The choice is between two ideals; on the one hand, the ideal
of democracy, which represents the rights of free peoples
everywhere to govern themselves, and on the other hand the
ideal of imperialism which seeks to dominate by force and
unjust power, an ideal which is by no means dead and which is
earnestly held in many quarters still.
"Every imperialistic influence in Europe was hostile to the
embodiment of Article X. in the covenant of the League of
Nations, and its defeat now would mark the complete
consummation of their efforts to nullify the Treaty. I hold the
doctrine of Article X. as the essence of Americanism. We cannot
repudiate it or weaken it without at the same time repudiating
our own principles.
"The imperialist wants no League of Nations, but if, in
response to the universal cry of the masses everywhere, there
is to be one, he is interested to secure one suited to his own
purposes, one that will permit him to continue the historic
game of pawns and peoples--the juggling of provinces, the old
balances of power, and the inevitable wars attendant upon these
things.
"The reservation proposed would perpetuate the old order. Does
any one really want to see the old game played again? Can any
one really venture to take part in reviving the old order? The
enemies of a League of Nations have by every true instinct
centered their efforts against Article X., for it is
undoubtedly the foundation of the whole structure. It is the
bulwark, and the only bulwark, of the rising democracy of the
world against the forces of imperialism and reaction.
"Either we should enter the League fearlessly, accepting the
responsibility and not fearing the rôle of leadership, which we
now enjoy, contributing our efforts toward establishing a just
and permanent peace, or we should retire as gracefully as
possible from the great concert of powers, by which the world
was saved. For my own part, I am not willing to trust to the
counsel of diplomats the working out of any salvation of the
world from the things which it has suffered."
ARTICLE X AS FINALLY ADOPTED
The Article X reservation was again rewritten and when finally adopted
on March 15 by a vote of 56 to 26, read as follows:
The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the
territorial integrity or political independence of any other
country by the employment of its military or naval forces, its
resources, or any form of economic discrimination, or to
interfere in any way in controversies between nations,
including all controversies relating to territorial integrity
or political independence, whether members of the League or
not, under the provisions of Article X., or to employ the
military or naval forces of the United States, under any
article of the Treaty for any purpose, unless in any particular
case the Congress, which, under the Constitution, has the sole
power to declare war or authorize the employment of the
military or naval forces of the United States, shall, in the
exercise of full liberty of action, by act or joint resolution
so provide.
THE TREATY AGAIN REJECTED
All of the 14 reservations having been debated and adopted in the
Senate, sitting in Committee of the Whole, a fifteenth reservation
expressing sympathy with the aspirations of the Irish people having been
added, the resolution of ratification was introduced by Senator Lodge on
March 19th. The vote stood: in favor of ratification, 49; against, 35.
By this vote, the Treaty of Versailles was for the second time rejected.
The resolution was supported by 28 Republicans and 21 Democrats, and
opposed by 23 Democrats and 12 Republicans. The resolution lacked seven
votes of the necessary two-thirds, and although it was a Republican
measure, the opposition of the Republican "irreconcilables" or
"bitter-enders" was sufficient to defeat it.
THE RESERVATIONS WHICH FAILED
Text of the Preamble and Fifteen Reservations as Adopted by the Senate
Before the Final Vote on Ratification
Resolved (two-thirds of the Senators present concurring therein), That
the Senate advise and consent to the ratification of the Treaty of Peace
with Germany concluded at Versailles on the 28th day of June, 1919,
subject to the following reservations and understandings, which are
hereby made a part and condition of this resolution of ratification,
which ratification is not to take effect or bind the United States until
the said reservations and understandings adopted by the Senate have been
accepted as a part and a condition of this resolution of ratification by
the Allied and Associated Powers, and a failure on the part of the
Allied and Associated Powers to make objection to said reservations and
understandings prior to the deposit of ratification by the United States
shall be taken as a full and final acceptance of such reservations and
understandings by said powers:
1. The United States so understands and construes Article I. that in
case of notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations, as provided in
said article, the United States shall be the sole judge as to whether
all its international obligations and all its obligations under the said
covenant have been fulfilled, and notice of withdrawal by the United
States may be given by a concurrent resolution of the Congress of the
United States.
2. The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the territorial
integrity or political independence of any other country by the
employment of its military or naval forces, its resources, or any form
of economic discrimination, or to interfere in any way in controversies
between nations, including all controversies relating to territorial
integrity or political independence, whether members of the League or
not, under the provisions of Article X., or to employ the military or
naval forces of the United States, under any article of the treaty for
any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, which under the
Constitution has the sole power to declare war or authorize the
employment of the military or naval forces of the United States, shall,
in the exercise of full liberty of action, by act or joint resolution so
provide.
3. No mandate shall be accepted by the United States under Article
XXII., Part 1, or any other provision of the Treaty of Peace with
Germany, except by action of the Congress of the United States.
4. The United States reserves to itself exclusively the right to decide
what questions are within its domestic jurisdiction and declares that
all domestic and political questions relating wholly or in part to its
internal affairs, including immigration, labor, coastwise traffic, the
tariff, commerce, the suppression of traffic in women and children and
in opium and other dangerous drugs, and all other domestic questions,
are solely within the jurisdiction of the United States and are not
under this Treaty to be submitted in any way either to arbitration or to
the consideration of the council or of the Assembly of the League of
Nations, or any agency thereof, or to the decision or recommendation of
any other power.
5. The United States will not submit to arbitration or to inquiry by the
Assembly or by the Council of the League of Nations, provided for in
said Treaty of Peace, any questions which in the judgment of the United
States depend upon or relate to its long established policy, commonly
known as the Monroe Doctrine; said doctrine is to be interpreted by the
United States alone and is hereby declared to be wholly outside the
jurisdiction of said League of Nations and entirely unaffected by any
provision contained in the said Treaty of Peace with Germany.
6. The United States withholds its assent to Articles 156, 157, and 158,
and reserves full liberty of action with respect to any controversy
which may arise under said articles.
7. No person is or shall be authorized to represent the United States,
nor shall any citizen of the United States be eligible, as a member of
any body or agency established or authorized by said Treaty of Peace
with Germany except pursuant to an act of the Congress of the United
States providing for his appointment and defining his powers and duties.
8. The United States understands that the Reparation Commission will
regulate or interfere with exports from the United States to Germany, or
from Germany to the United States, only when the United States by act or
joint resolution of Congress approves such regulation or interference.
9. The United States shall not be obligated to contribute to any
expenses of the League of Nations, or of the Secretariat or of any
commission, or committee, or conference, or other agency, organized
under the League of Nations or under the Treaty or for the purpose of
carrying out the Treaty provisions, unless and until an appropriation of
funds available for such expenses shall have been made by the Congress
of the United States; provided, that the foregoing limitation shall not
apply to the United States' proportionate share of the expense of the
office force and salary of the Secretary General.
10. No plan for the limitation of armaments as reported by the Council
of the League of Nations under the provisions of Article 8 shall be held
as binding the United States until the same shall have been accepted by
Congress, and the United States reserves the right to increase its
armament without the consent of the Council whenever the United States
is threatened with invasion or engaged in war.
11. The United States reserves the right to permit, in its discretion,
the nationals of a covenant-breaking state as defined in Article XVI. of
the covenant of the League of Nations, residing within the United States
or in countries other than such covenant-breaking state, to continue
their commercial, financial and personal relations with the nationals of
the United States.
12. Nothing in Articles 296, 297, or in any of the annexes thereto or in
any other article, section, or annex of the Treaty of Peace with Germany
shall, as against citizens of the United States be taken to mean any
confirmation, ratification or approval of any act otherwise illegal or
in contravention of the rights of citizens of the United States.
13. The United States withholds its assent to Part XIII. (Articles 337
to 427 inclusive), unless Congress by act or joint resolution shall
hereafter make provision for representation in the organization
established by said Part XIII., and in such event the participation of
the United States will be governed and conditioned by the provisions of
such act or joint resolution.
14. Until Part 1, being the covenant of the League of Nations, shall be
so amended as to provide that the United States shall be entitled to
cast a number of votes equal to that which any member of the League and
its self-governing dominions, colonies or parts of empire, in the
aggregate, shall be entitled to cast, the United States assumes no
obligation to be bound, except in cases where Congress has previously
given its consent, by any election, decision, report, or finding of the
Council or Assembly in which any member of the League and its
self-governing dominions, colonies, or parts of empire, in the
aggregate, have cast more than one vote.
The United States assumes no obligation to be bound by any decision,
report, or finding of the Council or Assembly arising out of any dispute
between the United States and any member of the League if such member or
any self-governing dominion, colony, empire, or part of empire united
with it politically has voted.
15. In consenting to the ratification of the Treaty with Germany the
United States adheres to the principle of self-determination and to the
resolution of sympathy with the aspirations of the Irish people for a
government of their own choice adopted by the Senate June 6, 1919, and
declares that when such government is attained by Ireland, a
consummation which it is hoped is at hand, it should promptly be
admitted as a member of the League of Nations.
The First Meeting of the Council of the League of Nations
Representatives of France, Great Britain, Italy, Greece, Belgium, Spain,
Japan and Brazil, members of the Council of the League of Nations, met
on January 16, 1920, in the "cloak room" of the French Foreign Office
for the first meeting in the history of the League.
The Council organized by electing Leon Bourgeois Chairman and confirming
the choice of Sir Eric Drummond of Great Britain as General Secretary.
The first official act of the League Council was the appointment of a
commission to trace upon the spot the frontiers of the territory of the
Saar Basin.
All the members of the Council called for by the covenant of the League,
with the exception of the representative of the United States, were
present. Beside M. Bourgeois, the members were Earl Curzon, the British
Foreign Secretary, for Great Britain; Premier Venizelos, for Greece;
Carlo Ferraris, Italian Minister of Industry, Commerce, Labor and Food,
for Italy; Paul Hymans, the Belgian Foreign Minister, for Belgium; Baron
Matsui, Ambassador to France, for Japan; Dr. Gastoa da Cunha, Ambassador
to France, for Brazil; Count Quinones de Leon, Ambassador to France, for
Spain.
PEACE BY CONGRESSIONAL ENACTMENT FAILS
President Wilson Vetoes Knox Resolution Declaring State of War Ended
The failure of the Peace Treaty of ratification for the second time on
March 19, 1920, with the Lodge reservations attached, and the determined
refusal of the Republican majority to ratify it in the form desired by
President Wilson, showed quite conclusively that under existing
political alignment no peace might be expected for the country through
the Treaty of Versailles. The Republicans, therefore, turned their
efforts in a new direction to bring about peace without yielding to the
President.
On April 1st the Foreign Affairs Committee of the House of
Representatives reported favorably a joint resolution declaring the
state of war between Germany and the United States at an end and
terminating the operation of all Congressional acts and Presidential
proclamations dependent for their duration on the termination of the war
or of the "present or existing emergency." It gave Germany forty-five
days in which similarly to declare the ending of the war with the United
States, and to waive all claims against this country, which she would
not have had the right to assert had the United States ratified the
Treaty of Versailles. For failure to comply with this provision, all
commercial intercourse and the furnishing of loans and other financial
assistance by this country to Germany were prohibited, except by license
of the President. In answer to Democratic criticisms that the resolution
was not only insincere, but also unconstitutional in arrogating to
Congress the treaty-making power of the President, the Republican
leaders conceded that, while the negotiation of peace terms rested with
the President, the declaration of a status of peace was quite within the
proper functions of Congress.
TEXT OF HOUSE RESOLUTION
The original resolution, as introduced in the House, read as follows:
WHEREAS the President of the United States, in the performance
of his constitutional duty to give to Congress information of
the state of the Union, has advised Congress that the war with
the Imperial German Government has ended;
_Resolved_, by the Senate and the House of Representatives of
the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the
state of war declared to exist between the Imperial German
Government and the people of the United States by a joint
resolution of Congress, approved April 6, 1917, is hereby
declared at an end.
Section 2--That in the interpretation of any provision relating
to the date of the termination of the present war, or of the
present or existing emergency in any acts of Congress, joint
resolutions or proclamations of the President containing
provisions contingent upon the date of the termination of the
war, or of the present or existing emergency, the date when
this resolution becomes effective shall be construed and
treated as the date of the termination of the war, or of the
present or existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision in
any act of Congress or joint resolution providing any other
mode of determination of the date of the termination of the
war, or of the present or existing emergency.
Section 3--That, with a view to securing reciprocal trade with
the German Government and its nationals, and for this purpose,
it is hereby provided that unless within forty-five days from
the date when this resolution becomes effective the German
Government shall duly notify the President of the United States
that it has declared a termination of the war with the United
States and that it waives and renounces on behalf of itself and
its nationals any claim, demand, right or benefit against the
United States, or its nationals, that it or they would not have
the right to assert had the United States ratified the Treaty
of Versailles, the President of the United States shall have
the power, and it shall be his duty, to proclaim the fact that
the German Government has not given the notification
hereinbefore mentioned, and thereupon, and until the President
shall have proclaimed the receipt of such notification,
commercial intercourse between the United States and Germany
and the making of loans or credits, and the furnishing of
financial assistance or supplies to the German Government or
the inhabitants of Germany, directly or indirectly, by the
Government or the inhabitants of the United States, shall,
except with the license of the President, be prohibited.
Section 4--That whoever shall willfully violate the foregoing
prohibition, whenever the same shall be in force, shall upon
conviction be fined not more than $10,000, or, if a natural
person, imprisoned for not more than two years, or both; and
the officer, director or agent of any corporation who knowingly
participates in such violation shall be punished by a like
fine, imprisonment, or both, and any property, funds,
securities, papers, or other articles or documents, or any
vessel, together with her tackle, apparel, furniture, and
equipment, concerned in such violation, shall be forfeited to
the United States.
Section 5--That nothing herein contained shall be construed as
a waiver by the United States of its rights, privileges,
indemnities, reparations or advantages to which the United
States has become entitled under the terms of the armistice
signed November 11, 1918, or which were acquired by or are in
the possession of the United States by reason of its
participation in the war or otherwise; and all fines,
forfeitures, penalties, and seizures imposed or made by the
United States are hereby ratified, confirmed, and maintained.
MINORITY OPPOSITION
The Democratic members of the Foreign Affairs Committee presented a
minority report severely arraigning the Republican majority both for the
spirit and the provisions of the resolution, which, the report
contended, "outrageously surrendered" American rights and, by the spirit
in which it was conceived, laid open its authors to the charge of "sharp
practice." The chief points made in the minority report were:
"The preamble states that the President of the United States,
in the performance of his constitutional duty to give to
Congress information of the state of the Union, has advised
Congress that the war with the Imperial German Government has
ended. At no time and under no circumstances has the President
made any such assertion.
"It is true that, on the signing of the armistice, the
President, in the course of an address to Congress, used the
words, 'the war thus comes to an end.' But he spoke of actual
hostilities, as every one knew, and not of the technical state
of war.
"It takes a treaty to end a war. Hostilities had ceased, but
the war had not ended, and will not end until it is terminated
in a constitutional manner. The drafters of the resolution and
the members of the Committee on Foreign Affairs who voted for
it knew that this was the case.
"By quoting this statement of the President as the basis for
this resolution the authors of the resolution lay themselves
open to the charge of insincerity and sharp practice. The
President never declared that the technical state of war which
this resolution undertakes to declare at an end had come to an
end, and the Supreme Court of the United States has recently
declared that what the President had done did not announce the
termination of the war.[32]
[32] The reference is to the Supreme Court decision on the question
of war-time prohibition in the Kentucky distilleries case.
"This resolution contains some provisions that are within the
power of Congress, and others that are not. So far as it seeks
to declare peace, and so far as it seeks to direct the
President to issue a proclamation to the German Government, it
trenches upon the treaty-making powers and is not within the
power of Congress.
"So far as it prohibits the United States citizens and
residents from commercial intercourse with Germany or its
nationals, and provides penalties for the violation of such
restriction, it is valid. So far as it attempts to repeal war
legislation, it is, of course, within the power of Congress."
With regard to Section 2, which fixed the date of the termination of the
war as the date when the resolution shall become effective, the report
said:
"There is much war and emergency legislation that should be
repealed. This section does not repeal this legislation,
however, and it gives no relief from the burdens,
inconveniences, extravagances and losses which come from the
existence of this legislation. Much of this legislation is
burdensome, and oppressive in time of peace.
"Congress has the power to repeal it, and it should address
itself to this task instead of frittering away its time in
attempting to pass unconstitutional legislation for the purpose
of embarrassing the executive department of the Government, or
for some other political purpose."
Objection was raised against Section 3 for not adequately protecting
American rights. The report, which was presented by Representative
Flood, observed on this subject:
"The first thought which comes to one's mind in connection with
this section is that it gives to Germany and her nationals all
the rights they would have had if the United States had
ratified the Treaty of Versailles. Without the provisions of
the treaty great uncertainty prevails as to the title to and
right to use German ships. The Versailles Treaty contains
Germany's assent to the use of the property seized by the Alien
Property Custodian, amounting to more than $500,000,000, to pay
claims of the United States against Germany. This resolution
does not pretend to accomplish this result.
"If we are dependent for a status of peace upon this
resolution, I fail to see how we could be able to demand
reimbursement for the cost of our army of occupation.
"Under the treaty Germany can become a League of Nations
member, and, having under this resolution all the rights it
would have had under the treaty when it became a member of the
League, it would be entitled to assert against the United
States the same rights which any other nation could assert, had
our country ratified the treaty. We would thus be in the
position of being compelled to protect the independence and
territorial integrity of Germany against the aggressions of any
or all of our allies.
"Section 5 is an attempt to preserve something out of the wreck
of American rights which have been so outrageously surrendered
in former sections of the resolution."
RESOLUTION PASSES HOUSE, 242 TO 150
The first test of strength between the supporters and the opponents of
the resolution came on April 8th, when a rule limiting debate was
adopted by a nearly strict party vote of 214 to 155, the Republicans, as
were to be expected, supporting, and the Democrats opposing the rule.
The vote on the resolution itself came next day, April 9th, when, after
a flow of oratory characterized chiefly by bitterly partisan attacks
from both sides of the House, the resolution was adopted by a vote of
242 to 150. Twenty-two Democrats joined the Republicans in voting for
it, and two Republicans broke party lines in opposing it. Despite the
comfortable majority, however, the result showed that without the
President's approval efforts to declare peace by Congressional action
would prove futile, since the vote lacked twenty of the two-thirds
majority necessary to override a veto.
SENATE TAKES UP FIGHT TO FORCE PEACE
The scene now shifted to the Senate. Here the fortunes of the resolution
were placed in the hands of Senator Philander C. Knox, of Pennsylvania,
Secretary of State in President Taft's cabinet and a recognized
authority on international law. Senator Knox redrafted the House
resolution so as to repeal specifically the joint resolutions of war
against Germany on April 6, 1917, and against Austria-Hungary on
December 7, 1917, and thus, by annulling Congressional action declaring
a state of war, to re-establish _status quo ante bellum_.
Such a solution of the problem, it was felt, did not encroach at all
upon the President's right of making treaties. In fact, the resolution
specifically requested the President to open negotiations for the
purpose of establishing friendly relations and commercial intercourse
between the United States and Germany, and the United States and the
successors of the Austro-Hungarian government. The resolution also
provided for the retention by the United States government of all enemy
property seized during the war until all American claims against enemy
governments had been settled, and declared further that, although the
United States had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles, nevertheless it
did not waive any of the "rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations
or advantages" stipulated for its benefit in the terms of that document.
TEXT OF ORIGINAL KNOX RESOLUTION
The text of the Knox resolution, as favorably reported to the Senate on
April 30th by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, read:
Joint resolution repealing the joint resolution of April 6,
1917, declaring a state of war to exist between the United
States and Germany, and the joint resolution of December 7,
1917, declaring that a state of war exists between the United
States and the Austro-Hungarian Government.
_Resolved_ by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America, in Congress assembled, that the joint
resolution of Congress passed April 6, 1917, declaring a state
of war to exist between the Imperial German Government and the
Government and people of the United States, and making
provisions to prosecute the same, be, and the same is hereby
declared at an end.
Provided, however, that all property of the Imperial German
Government or its successor or successors, and of all German
nationalists which was on April 6, 1917, in or has since that
date come into the possession or under control of the
Government of the United States or of any of its officers,
agents, or employees, from any source or by any agency
whatsoever, shall be retained by the United States and no
disposition thereof made, except as shall specifically be
hereafter provided by Congress, until such time as the German
Government has by treaty with the United States, ratification
whereof is to be made by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, made suitable provisions for the satisfaction of all
claims against the German Government of all persons wheresoever
domiciled, who owe permanent allegiance to the United States,
whether such persons have suffered through the acts of the
German Government or its agents since July 31, 1914, loss,
damage or injury to persons or property, directly or
indirectly, through the ownership of shares of stock in German,
American, or other corporations, or otherwise, and until the
German Government has given further undertakings and made
provisions by treaty, to be ratified by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, for granting to persons owing permanent
allegiance to the United States, most favored nation treatment,
whether the same be national or otherwise, in all matters
affecting residence, business, profession, trade, navigation,
commerce, and industrial property rights, and confirming to the
United States all fines, forfeitures, penalties, and seizures
imposed or made by the United States during the war, whether in
respect to the property of the German government or German
nationalists, and waiving any pecuniary claim based on events
which occurred at any time before the coming into force of such
treaty, any existing treaty between the United States and
Germany to the contrary notwithstanding.
To these ends, and for the purpose of establishing fully
friendly relations and commercial intercourse between the
United States and Germany, the President is hereby requested
immediately to open negotiations with the Government of
Germany.
Section 2--That in the interpretation of any provision relating
to the date of the termination of the present war or of the
present or existing emergency in any acts of Congress, joint
resolutions or proclamations of the President containing
provisions contingent upon the date of the termination of the
war or of the present or existing emergency, the date when this
resolution becomes effective, shall be construed and treated as
the date of the termination of the war or of the present or
existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision in any act of
Congress or joint resolution providing any other mode of
determining the date of the termination of the war or of the
present or existing emergency.
Section 3--That until by treaty or act or joint resolution of
Congress it shall be determined otherwise, the United States,
although it has not ratified the Treaty of Versailles, does not
waive any of the rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations,
or advantages to which it and its nationals have become
entitled under the terms of the armistice signed November 11,
1918, or any extensions or modifications thereof or which,
under the Treaty of Versailles, have been stipulated for its
benefit as one of the principal allied and associated powers
and to which it is entitled.
Section 4--That the joint resolution of Congress, approved
December 7, 1917, declaring that a state of war exists between
the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Government and the
Government and people of the United States, and making
provisions to prosecute the same, be and the same is hereby
repealed, and said state of war is hereby declared at an end,
and the President is hereby requested immediately to open
negotiations with the successor or successors of said
Government for the purpose of establishing fully friendly
relations and commercial intercourse between the United States
and the Governments and peoples of Austria and Hungary.
A DEMOCRAT PAYS HIS RESPECTS TO REPUBLICANS
The attitude of leaders of the Democratic party on Republican maneuvers
to force peace by Congressional action was indicated by a statement
issued by Homer S. Cummings, chairman of the Democratic National
Committee, in which the Knox resolution was characterized as "renewed
evidence of the moral leprosy which is eating out the heart of the
Republican party," and which, according to Mr. Cummings, proposed
dishonor in the name of peace. As reported in the press, the statement
said:
"The so-called Knox peace resolution, which has just been
reported by the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, is
renewed evidence of the moral leprosy which is eating out the
heart of the Republican party. In the name of peace it proposes
dishonor.
"An analysis of the resolution discloses that:
"First, it recognizes the defect in the recent House
resolution, which attempted to make a separate treaty with
Germany by act of Congress.
[Illustration: Senator Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania
A former United States Attorney-General and Secretary of State, and one
of the "irreconcilable" opponents of the League of Nations and Treaty of
Versailles. He was the author of the peace resolution declaring war with
Germany ended which was passed by Congress but vetoed by President
Wilson.]
"Second, as an alternative proposition, it requests the
President to commence negotiations for a separate peace with
Germany.
"Third, it seeks to terminate, by a paper resolution, a state
of war without protecting American rights.
"Fourth, it attempts to take advantage of the provisions of the
Treaty of Versailles without becoming a party to that treaty
and,
"Fifth, it requests the President to negotiate a separate peace
with Austria.
"These are the outstanding features of the resolution. If any
group of leaders a year ago had dared to suggest that we should
abandon our allies and negotiate a separate treaty of peace,
they would have found themselves isolated and discredited.
Republican leaders have lost their moral sense in their mad
lust for power.
"There has not been one moment since November, 1918, during
which America has not suffered in honor, prestige, and power,
as the result of the elections of that year. Since that time
everything has been in confusion, and the frantic attempt of
Republican leaders to find a legal method in which to do the
dishonorable thing merely adds to the confusion. There is but
one clear path of duty. It is likewise the path of honor and of
peace and of permanent security.
"The path lies straight before us, and consists simply in
ratifying the treaty of peace which our companions in arms have
already ratified. The more the matter is debated the more it
will become apparent that there are no substitutes for the
requirements of plain duty and American honor."
KNOX URGES SEPARATE PEACE WITH GERMANY
On May 5th the debate on the resolution was opened in the Senate with a
carefully prepared speech by Senator Knox, which outlined in detail
arguments not only for the propriety and validity of the resolution, but
for the absolute necessity of its adoption. Senator Knox contended that
the war had ended, in fact and in law; that the objects for which the
United States had entered the struggle had been achieved; that a
"power-maddened administration" was continuing the technical state of
war solely for the purpose of coercing the Senate into ratifying the
Versailles Treaty, which had been universally discredited in all its
parts; and that, since there was no hope of co-operation from the
President, Congress must find means of ending the technical state of
war independently of him. Said Senator Knox:
"The welfare and safety of the nation imperatively demands that
we know we have peace. The whole world seethes with revolution.
Our own nation is in ferment and turmoil. Force and strife are
rampant and threaten the destruction not only of our property,
but of our free institutions and even of our very lives. And
yet we stand, and have stood for months, as a rudderless ship
foundering in the trough of tremendous seas. We must not dare
longer to delay a return to the ordered government of peace. As
a preliminary step, the Executive must be returned to his
peace-time powers and prerogatives. Need, propriety, wisdom,
cannot question this. The resolution before us is designed to
bring us to this.
WILSON TO BLAME
"The course of the President ever since he cruised to Europe to
participate in the Peace Conference leaves no chance for doubt
that he will continue hereafter as heretofore to thwart, so far
as he is able, every attempt on the part of the Senate, the
Congress, or the people, to take any action immediately or
remotely affecting, in however slight a degree, through change
or modification, the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles as
it came to us fresh from his signature. He preferred to keep
the country in an alleged state of war for now almost a year
rather than abate one jot or tittle of the full measure his
isolated will had set for the nation. Constitutional order,
lawful functions, rights and duties of position, oaths of
office as affecting the members of this body, he has noticed
only to bring into contempt. He has conjured up every power
within the whole vast executive domain in his efforts to compel
this Senate to surrender its will and judgment to him, to
become mere automatons to register his mandate--to approve this
treaty in its last minutiæ of detail as he sent it to us.
"Now, in the face of this situation, it will be idle for us to
pass any resolution looking to the immediate establishment of
peace that does not contemplate the unqualified acceptance of
the treaty, if that resolution requires from the President the
performance of any act or duty in order to secure peace,
because if we do, he will, if the statements of his
representatives are accepted, so delay or ignore that act or
duty as to defeat the end and purpose of our action, for in his
opinion wisdom lies only in following the behests of his will.
Therefore, if the resolution is to be effective, it must be
self-operative. Nothing necessary to the bringing of peace must
be left for his accomplishment.
WHY UNITED STATES WENT TO WAR
"Our purposes, as stated by the President, were three-fold:
"First, the defeat and elimination of the Imperial German Government and
Prussian autocracy;
"Next, the liberation from their yoke of despotism of the Germans
themselves--for whom we had nothing but sympathy and friendship--to the
end that they might be masters of their own fates and fortunes; and
"Lastly, the establishment, as sincere friends of the German people, of
intimate relations of mutual advantage between them and us.
"In so far as my information goes, the German Government never declared
war against the United States. They merely accepted the status which
this declaration recognized and probably created; for it must be
remembered that while we interpreted, and rightly so, that German
submarine warfare, as directed against the United States, was illegal,
constituting acts of war, the German Government never acquiesced in that
view and, on the contrary, maintained the legality of all general
measures taken.
"The Imperial German Government, against whom we declared war, did cease
to exist at the time of the signing of the armistice, leaving us from
thence on without any titular enemy against which to wage a war unless
we were warring with the German people, and we have clearly estopped
ourselves to make such a contention.
"Thus from this point of view also the armistice brought us not alone
the end of hostilities, but the actual peace. There remained only the
making of arrangements covering the ordinary peace-time intercourse.
WAR AT END, IN FACT AND IN LAW
"As a matter of law and of fact we are at peace with Germany; first,
because of the terms of the armistice of November 11, 1918, its
amendments and renewals; second, because of the 'silent ceasing' of
hostilities; third, because of the disappearance, the extinction of the
Government against which we declared war, and fourth, because of the
negotiation by us and our allies or associates in the war with the
people who were lately our enemies, and the ratification by our allies
or associates and our enemies, of a treaty of peace which specifically
provides both for the termination of hostilities to be followed by a
resumption of diplomatic relations, and also for the status that should
exist during our future peace-time intercourse; which treaty is now in
force and observed everywhere except in the United States, and has in
fact and in international law brought peace to the whole world,
including ourselves.
"Having thus in law and in fact international peace, having
nothing left but a domestic status of war created by a
legislative declaration of war, with no hostilities heretofore
or now existent or possible in the territory over which this
paper-war status exists, it is not only legally sound, but
economically, morally, and patriotically necessary and
indispensable that we at once repeal the declaration of war and
so immediately end the despotic war powers with which a
power-maddened administration continues to misrule this great
people.
VERSAILLES TREATY IMPOSSIBLE
"To what end has all this juggling with obvious facts and universally
recognized principles been maintained? The answer is easy and known to
all. The purpose has been to coerce the Senate to approve the Treaty of
Versailles--a treaty that is almost universally discredited in all its
parts. The majority of its negotiators concede this. Its economic terms
are impossible; its League of Nations is an aggravated imitation of the
worst features of the ill-fated and foolish Holy Alliance of a century
ago. It promises little but mischief unless recast on such radical lines
as will entirely obliterate its identity.
"Wisdom requires the negotiation of a separate treaty between the United
States and Germany, which should provide reciprocal rights and
obligations between us and that country alone."
KNOX RESOLUTION PASSES BOTH HOUSES
In the course of its consideration in the Senate, the provision of the
resolution requesting the President to negotiate a separate treaty with
Germany was eliminated, but the request for a treaty with the successors
of the Austro-Hungarian government was retained. In its amended form the
resolution was brought to a decision in the Senate on May 15th, and
adopted by a vote of 43 to 38, three Democrats voting with its
supporters and one Republican with the opposition.
As the text of the Knox resolution adopted by the Senate differed from
the measure which had been passed by the House of Representatives on
April 9th, the House, to expedite matters, dropped its own resolution,
and passed, on May 21st, the Senate draft by a vote of 228 to 139,
seventeen short of the two-thirds majority necessary to override the
expected Presidential veto.
TEXT OF AMENDED RESOLUTION
The text of the peace resolution as passed by the Senate and later
concurred in by the House of Representatives, read as follows:
The joint resolution of Congress, passed April 6, 1917,
declaring a state of war to exist between the Imperial German
Government and the Government and people of the United States,
and making provisions to prosecute the same, be, and the same
is hereby repealed and said state of war is hereby declared at
an end.
Provided, however, that all property of the Imperial German
Government, or its successor or successors, and of all German
nationals which was on April 6, 1917, is or has since that date
come into the possession or under control of the Government of
the United States or any of its officers, agents or employees
from any source or by any agency whatsoever, shall be retained
by the United States and no disposition thereof made, except as
shall specifically be hereafter provided by Congress, until
such time as the German Government has, by treaty with the
United States, ratification whereof is to be made by and with
the advice and consent of the Senate, made suitable provisions
for the satisfaction of all claims against the German
Government of all persons, wheresoever domiciled, who owe
permanent allegiance to the United States, whether such persons
have suffered through the acts of the German Government or its
agents since July 31, 1914, loss, damage, or injury to their
persons or property, directly or indirectly, through the
ownership of shares of stock in German, American, or other
corporations, or have suffered damage directly in consequence
of hostilities or any operations of war, or otherwise, or until
the German Government has given further undertakings and made
provisions by treaty, to be ratified by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, for granting to persons owing permanent
allegiance to the United States, most favored nation treatment,
whether the same be national or otherwise, in all matters
affecting residence, business, profession, trade, navigation,
commerce and industrial property rights, and confirming to the
United States all fines, forfeitures, penalties, and seizures
imposed or made by the United States during the war, whether in
respect to the property of the German Government or German
nationals, and waiving any pecuniary claim based on events
which occurred at any time before the coming into force of such
treaty, any existing treaty between the United States and
Germany to the contrary notwithstanding.
That in the interpretation of any provision relating to the date of
the termination of the war or of the present or existing emergency
in any acts of Congress, joint resolutions or proclamations of the
President containing provisions contingent upon the date of the
termination of the war or of the present or existing emergency, the
date when this resolution becomes effective shall be construed and
treated as the date of the termination of the war or of the present
or existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision in any act of
Congress or joint resolution, providing any other mode of
determining the date of the termination of the war or of the
present or existing emergency.
That until by treaty or act or joint resolution of Congress it
shall be determined otherwise, the United States, although it
has not ratified the Treaty of Versailles, does not waive any
of the rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations or
advantages to which it and its nationals have become entitled
under the terms of the armistice signed November 11, 1918, or
any extensions or modifications thereof or which under the
Treaty of Versailles have been stipulated for its benefit as
one of the principal allied and associated powers and to which
it is entitled.
That the joint resolution of Congress approved December 7,
1917, declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial
and Royal Austro-Hungarian Government and the Government and
the people of the United States and making provisions to
prosecute the same, be, and the same is hereby repealed, and
said state of war is hereby declared at an end, and the
President is hereby requested immediately to open negotiations
with the successor or successors of said Government for the
purpose of establishing fully friendly relations and commercial
intercourse between the United States and the Governments and
peoples of Austria and Hungary.
PRESIDENT'S VETO
The resolution now came before the President for his signature. On May
27th he returned it to the House without his approval, and in an
accompanying message explained the reasons for his veto. The President
did not touch upon the question of constitutionality which had been
raised frequently during the debates, but gave as his chief reason
refusal to become party to an action which, he felt, would place
"ineffaceable stain upon the gallantry and honor of the United States."
Following is the text of President Wilson's message vetoing the peace
resolution:
"_To the House of Representatives:_
"I return herewith, without my signature, House Joint
Resolution 327, intended to repeal the Joint Resolution of
April 6, 1917, declaring a state of war to exist between the
United States and Germany, and the Joint Resolution of December
7, 1917, declaring a state of war to exist between the United
States and the Austro-Hungarian Government, and to declare a
state of peace. I have not felt at liberty to sign this
resolution because I cannot bring myself to become party to an
action which would place ineffaceable stain upon the gallantry
and honor of the United States.
"The resolution seeks to establish peace with the German Empire
without exacting from the German Government any action by way
of setting right the infinite wrongs which it did to the
peoples whom it attacked and whom we professed it our purpose
to assist when we entered the war. Have we sacrificed the lives
of more than one hundred thousand Americans and ruined the
lives of thousands of others and brought upon thousands of
American families an unhappiness that can never end for
purposes which we do not now care to state or take further
steps to attain?
"The attainment of these purposes is provided for in the Treaty
of Versailles by terms deemed adequate by the leading statesmen
and experts of all the great peoples who were associated in the
war against Germany. Do we now not care to join in the effort
to secure them?
"We entered the war most reluctantly. Our people were
profoundly disinclined to take part in a European war, and at
last did so, only because they became convinced that it could
not in truth be regarded as only a European war, but must be
regarded as a war in which civilization itself was involved and
human rights of every kind as against a belligerent Government.
Moreover, when we entered the war we set forth very definitely
the purposes for which we entered, partly because we did not
wish to be considered as merely taking part in a European
contest. This Joint Resolution which I return does not seek to
accomplish any of these objects, but in effect makes a complete
surrender of the rights of the United States so far as the
German Government is concerned.
"A treaty of peace was signed at Versailles on the
twenty-eighth of June last which did seek to accomplish the
objects which we had declared to be in our minds, because all
the great Governments and peoples which united against Germany
had adopted our declarations of purpose as their own and had in
solemn form embodied them in communications to the German
Government preliminary to the armistice of November 11, 1918.
But the treaty, as signed at Versailles, has been rejected by
the Senate of the United States, though it has been ratified by
Germany. By that rejection and by its methods we had in effect
declared that we wish to draw apart and pursue objects and
interests of our own, unhampered by any connections of interest
or of purpose with other Governments and peoples.
"Notwithstanding the fact that upon our entrance into the war
we professed to be seeking to assist in the maintenance of
common interests, nothing is said in this resolution about the
freedom of navigation upon the seas, or the reduction of
armaments, or the vindication of the rights of Belgium, or the
rectification of wrongs done to France, or the release of the
Christian populations of the Ottoman Empire from the
intolerable subjugation which they have had for so many
generations to endure, or the establishment of an independent
Polish State, or the continued maintenance of any kind of
understanding among the great powers of the world which would
be calculated to prevent in the future such outrages as Germany
attempted and in part consummated.
"We have now, in effect, declared that we do not care to take
any further risks or to assume any further responsibilities
with regard to the freedom of nations or the sacredness of
international obligations or the safety of independent peoples.
Such a peace with Germany--a peace in which none of the
essential interests which we had at heart when we entered the
war is safeguarded--_is_, or ought to be, inconceivable, as
inconsistent with the dignity of the United States, with the
rights and liberties of her citizens, and with the very
fundamental conditions of civilization.
"I hope that in these statements I have sufficiently set forth
the reasons why I have felt it incumbent upon me to withhold my
signature.
WOODROW WILSON.
THE WHITE HOUSE, _May 27, 1920._"
Next day, May 28th, the resolution was brought before the House in an
attempt to repass it over the veto, but the vote, 219 to 152, lacked
twenty-nine of the necessary two-thirds majority. On the original House
resolution, passed April 9th, the vote had been 242 to 150, and on the
Knox resolution, passed by the House on May 21st, 228 to 139. A few days
later Congress adjourned until the winter session in December.
THE MAP OF EUROPE REMADE
Proposed Form of Government, Countries from Which Formed and Ethnic or
Racial Stock of Newly Established Political Units Resulting from the
World War.
(From a paper prepared in January, 1920, by O. P. Austin, Statistical
Department, National City Bank.)
=========================================================================
|[33]Area | [33] | Date |Form of |Countries |Ethnic or
| |Population|estab-|Govern- |from which | Racial
| | |lished|ment |formed | Stock
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Poland | 141,854|36,000,000|Nov., |Republic |Russia, | Slavic,
| | | 1916 | |Germany, | Semitic
| | | | |Austria- |
| | | | |Hungary |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Czecho- | 60,000|13,000,000|Oct., |Republic |Austria- | Slavic
Slovakia | | | 1918 | |Hungary |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Jugo-Slavia | 85,000|10,500,000|Oct., |Kingdom |Hung, | Slavic,
| | | 1918 | |Serbia, | Serbs,
| | | | |Bosnia, | Croats
| | | | |Herzegovina,
| | | | |Mont. |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Ukrainia | 215,000|30,000,000|Nov., |Republic |Russia, | Slavic
| | | 1917 | |Austria- |
| | | | |Hungary |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Esthonia | 7,300| 1,750,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Slavic
| | | 1918 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Livonia | 17,000| 1,650,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Slavic
| | | 1918 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Courland | 10,000| 600,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Slavic
| | | 1918 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Letvia | 9,000| 1,500,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Letts
| | | 1918 | | | (Balto-
| | | | | | Slavs)
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Lithuania | 90,000|10,000,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Slavic,
| | | 1918 | | |Germania
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
White Russia| 140,000| 5,000,000| May, |Republic |Russia | Slavic
| | | 1918 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
North Russia| 275,000| 400,000|Nov., |Military |Russia | Slavic,
| | | 1918 |Gov | | Finns
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Rus. Fed. | Undet'd | Undet'd |Nov., |Soviet Rep|Russia | Slavic
Soviet Rep | | | 1917 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Don Rep | 63,000| 4,000,000|Jan., |Military |Russia | Slavic,
| | | 1918 |Gov | | Cossack
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Kuban Rep | 36,000| 3,000,000|Nov., |Republic |Russia | Slavic
| | | 1918 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Tauride Rep | 23,000| 1,800,000|Mar., |Republic |Russia | Slavic,
| | | 1918 | | | Tartar
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Terek Rep | 28,000| 1,300,000|Sept.,|Republic |Russia | Turko-
| | | 1918 | | | Tartar
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Tatar- | 175,000| 9,000,000|Oct., |Military |Russia | Turko-
Bashkir Rep | | | 1918 | | | Tartar
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Yakutsk Rep |1,000,000| 400,000| May, |Military |Siberian | Yakuts,
| | | 1918 | |Russia | Cossack
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Rep. of | Undet'd | Undet'd |Dec., |Military |Siberian | Slav,
Siberia | | 1917 | |Russia | Mongol,
| | | | | | Tartar
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Rep. of | 40,000| 2,500,000|Jan., |Republic |Russia, |Georgian,
Georgia | | | 1918 | |Turkey | Armenian
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Rep. of | 400,000| 6,500,000|Jan., |Military |Russia | Turko-
Turkestan | | | 1918 | | | Tartar
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Eastern | 68,000| 250,000| May, |Military |Russia | Balto-
Karelia | | | 1919 | | | Slavic
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Finland | 125,000| 3,500,000|Dec., |Republic |Russia | Finns
| | | 1917 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Murman | 35,000| 100,000|July, |Military |Russian | Finns
Region | | | 1918 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
German Rep | 175,000|60,000,000|Nov., |Republic |Germany | Germanic
| | | 1918 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Rep of | 28,000|10,000,000|Oct., |Republic |Austria | Germanic
German | | | 1918 | | |
Austria | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Hungarian | 32,000| 9,000,000|Nov., |Soviet |Hungary | Magyar
Rep | | | 1918 |Rep. | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
[34]Rumania | 110,000|12,500,000| |Kingdom |Rumania, |Rumanian,
| | | 1919 | |Hungary, | Magyar
| | | | |Bessarabia |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Turkey in | 10,000| 1,900,000| |Undet'd |Turkey | Turkish
Europe | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Anatolia, | 145,000| 5,000,000| |Undet'd |Turkey | Turkish
Asia Minor | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Armenia, | 75,000| 2,500,000|Aug., |Undet'd |Turkey |Armenians
Asia Minor | | | 1918 | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Mesopotamia,| 143,000| 2,000,000| 1917 |British |Turkey | Turks,
Asia Minor | | | |Admin. | | Arabs,
| | | | | | Persian
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Syria, Asia | 37,000| 1,000,000| 1919 |Undet'd |Turkey | Syrian,
Minor | | | | | | Turkish
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Palestine, | 16,000| 500,000| 1917 |British |Turkey | Turks,
Asia Minor | | | |Admin. | | Arabs,
| | | | | | Jews
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Kingdom of | 96,500| 300,000|June, |Kingdom |Turkey | Arabs,
Hejaz | | | 1916 | | | Turks
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Nejd & Hasa,| No data | No data | 1913 |Emirate |Turkey | Arabs
Arabia | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Jebel | No data | No data | 1918 |Emirate |Turkey | Bedouin
Shammar, | | | | | |
Arabia | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Asir, Arabia| No data | No data | 1918 |Principate|Turkey | Arabs
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Yemen, | No data | No data | 1918 |Imamate |Turkey | Arabs
Arabia | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Koweit, | No data | No data | 1918 |Sultanate |Turkey | Arabs
Arabia | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Oman, Arabia| 82,000| 500,000| 1913 |G. Brit & |Turkey | Arabs
| | | |France | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Egypt | 350,000|12,000,000| 1914 |Great |Turkey | Egyptian
| | | |Britain | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
German East | 384,000| 8,000,000| 1918 |Great |German | Bantu
Africa | | | |Britain |Colony |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
German S. W.| 322,000| 200,000| 1915 |British S.|German Hottentots
Africa | | | |Africa |Colony |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Kamerun | 191,000| 2,500,000| 1916 |British & |German | Sudanese
| | | |French |Colony |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Togo | 33,000| 1,000,000| 1914 |Allied Mil|German | Hamitic
| | | | |Colony |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Kaiser | 70,000| 250,000| 1918 |Australia |German | Malay
Wilhelm Land| | | | |Colony |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Ger. Samoan | 1,200| 40,000| 1918 |Australia |German | Samoan
Islands | | | | |Colony |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Nauru | [35] | | 1918 |Mandate-- |German | Samoan
Islands | | | |British |Colony |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Ger. S. | 15,000| 350,000| 1918 |Australia |German | Malay
Pacific | | | |Japan |Colony |
Islands | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Ger. N. | 5,000| 600,000| 1918 |Mandate-- |German | Malay
Pacific | | | |Japan |Colony |
Islands | | | | | |
------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+---------
Kiau Chau | 200| 200,000| 1918 |Mandate-- |German | Chinese
| | | |Japan |Colony |
=========================================================================
[33] Latest available estimate.
[34] Enlarged by absorption of Hungarian territory.
[35] A small island in the Marshall Group occupied as a wireless
station; also known as Pleasant Island.
OUR PART IN WINNING THE WAR
Official Figures That Reveal the Enormous Contribution of This
Country in Men, Money and Supplies
FIGURES OF AMERICAN PARTICIPATION IN THE WAR[36]
Revised to August 1, 1919
Total armed forces, including
Army, Navy, Marine Corps, etc. 4,800,000
Total men in the Army 4,000,000
Men who went overseas 2,086,000
Men who fought in France 1,390,000
Greatest number sent in one month 306,000
Greatest number returning in one month 333,000
Tons of supplies shipped from America to France 7,500,000
Total registered in draft 24,234,021
Total draft inductions 2,810,296
Greatest number inducted in one month 400,000
Graduates of Line Officers' Training Schools 80,568
Cost of war to April 30, 1919 $21,850,000,000
Cost of Army to April 30, 1919 $13,930,000,000
Battles fought by American troops 13
Months of American participation in the war 19
Days of battle 200
Days of duration of Meuse-Argonne battle 47
Americans in Meuse-Argonne battle 1,200,000
American casualties in Meuse-Argonne battle 120,000
American battle deaths in war 50,300
American wounded in war 205,690
American deaths from disease 57,500
Total deaths in the Army 115,500
[36] From the _War with Germany_--A STATISTICAL SUMMARY, by Leonard P.
Ayres, Colonel, General Staff, U. S. A. (For statistics of American
casualties revised to the end of 1919, see Vol. III, pp. 403-6.)
The part played by the United States in the war is statistically and
graphically summarized in a compact little book prepared by Colonel
Leonard P. Ayres of the Statistical Staff of the War Department.
Attentively as the public may have followed the published reports of the
many progressive steps and stages of our preparation for and
participation in the war, much of the matter in _The War With Germany--A
Statistical Summary_ will have surprising interest. It is the first time
a comprehensive view of the character and magnitude of our war
activities has been made possible through anything so concrete and
authoritative. The data were obtained from official reports, during the
war, to the President, Secretary of War and Chief-of-Staff from the
American Peace Commission in Paris, from the files of the Supreme War
Council in Versailles, and other sources; and though, as Colonel Ayres
states, it was still impossible to get final figures on some points or
wholly reliable ones on others, care was taken to insure the degree of
reliability reasonably practicable. The diagrams, figures and other
information presented here and elsewhere in this volume are reproduced
from Colonel Ayres' _Summary_, second edition, revised to August 1,
1919.
[Illustration: Official Government Statistics.
Male Population Registered and Not Registered]
THE SELECTIVE SERVICE
"The willingness," Colonel Ayres says, "with which the American people
accepted the universal draft was the most remarkable feature in the
history of our preparation for war. It is a noteworthy evidence of the
enthusiastic support given the war program that, despite the previous
hostility to the principle of universal liability for military service,
a few months after the selective service law was passed, the standing of
the drafted soldier was fully as honorable in the estimation of his
companions and of the country in general as was that of the man who
enlisted voluntarily. Moreover, the record of desertions from the Army
shows that the total was smaller than in previous wars and a smaller
percentage occurred among drafted men than among those who volunteered.
The Selective Service Law was passed on May 19, 1917, and as
subsequently amended, it mobilized all the man power of the nation from
the ages of 18 to 45 inclusive. Under this act, 24,234,021 men were
registered and slightly more than 2,800,000 were inducted into the
military service on the first draft. But during the war, from April 6,
1917, to November 11, 1918, about 4,000,000 served in the Army of the
United States." The total number serving the armed forces of the
country, including Army, Navy, Marine Corps and other services, amounted
to 4,800,000. Approximately five men out of every 100 citizens were in
arms. Of these, 2,086,000, constituting the American Expeditionary
Force, were in service on the Western front. Those who saw actual
fighting were 1,390,000.
It is interesting in this connection to record the fact that in our
greatest previous war, the Civil War, 2,400,000 men served in the
Northern Armies and in the Navy. In that struggle 10 men in each 100
inhabitants of the Northern States served as soldiers or sailors.
The fact is pointed out by Colonel Ayres that though the British sent to
France more men in their first year than we did in our first year, it
took England three years to reach a strength of 2,000,000 men in France
whereas the United States reached that strength in France in a year and
a half. But as an offset, it must be borne in mind that the British had
to use men from the beginning to fill terrible casualty gaps, which was
not the case with the American steadily building forces, and that the
British also were sending men to several other battle fronts than those
of France.
HOW THE DRAFT WAS MADE UP
Under the draft, registrants were subjected to a preliminary examination
by the local boards to determine who were not of sufficient soundness
and vigor for military life. Those accepted as qualified for service
were sent to training camps where they underwent a second examination
and rejections were made of those in any serious way defective. The not
surprising result of the examinations was the demonstration that men
representing the highest order of physical condition came from
agricultural districts, the country bred boys far excelling those reared
in the city. Taken by States it is noteworthy that men from the Middle
West and those from Kentucky and Arkansas of the Southern States had the
highest record, their physical condition enabling 70 to 80 percent. to
pass the two examinations. The lowest percentage was in the New England
States, in New York, in Michigan and in Western States that have for
years been health resorts, where subnormal persons from all over the
country resort. The percentage of men from those states who passed the
two examinations was but 50 to 59. The intermediate ranges were 60 to
69. Under the two examinations not only did country boys make a better
showing than city boys (100,000 country boys would furnish for military
service 4,700 more soldiers than would an equal number of city boys),
but the white registrants were better than the colored, the native-born
better than the alien-born. Under the analysis 100,000 whites would
furnish 1,240 more soldiers than would an equal number of colored; and
100,000 native-born would yield 3,500 more soldiers than would the like
number of foreign-born. As 3,500 men are equivalent to an infantry
regiment at full war strength, the value of these differences can be
appreciated.
[Illustration: Official Government Statistics.
Comparative Losses of Merchant Shipping During the War]
About 200,000 commissioned officers were required for the Army. Less
than 9,000 were in the Federal Service at the beginning of the
war,--5,791 were Regulars and 3,199 were officers of the National Guard
in Federal Service. Thus out of every six officers one had had previous
training in the army, Guard or ranks; three trained for their
commissions in officers' training camps; two went from civil life into
the army with little or no military training--the latter being in the
majority physicians, ministers or technical men.
CAMPS AND TRAINING
Shelter was constructed in a few months for the accommodation of
1,800,000 men under training. For the National Guard and National Army
divisions there were 16 camps and 16 cantonments, chiefly in the North.
For National Guard Units organized during the summer of 1917 there were
canvas camps in the South. One division, the Rainbow, required no
training field, as it was assembled directly at Camp Mills for early
transportation to France. The average American soldier who went to
France received six months' training before he sailed and two months
more in a quiet sector after reaching France, before entering the battle
line.
The infantry soldier was trained in the division, the American typical
unit, composed of about 1,000 officers and 27,000 men. Before the
signing of the armistice there had been trained and sent overseas 42
divisions, the training of 12 more was well advanced and 4 others were
being organized. Had the war continued this country would have had 80
divisions overseas before July, 1919, and 100 by the end of that year.
This country had the benefit in its training camps of 547 of the ablest
French and English officers who had seen service on the Western front
and were sent over to bring to the training of our men the approved
methods developed in the experiences of the war. There were besides 226
non-commissioned British officers detailed as instructors. Colonel Ayres
says they rendered services out of all proportion to their number, being
a significant contribution to our training program.
GETTING THE TROOPS OVER
Especially impressive are the figures dealing with troop movements:
"During our nineteen months of war more than 2,000,000 American
soldiers were carried to France. Half a million of these went
over in the first thirteen months, the others in the last six
months.
"The highest troop-carrying records are those of July, 1918,
when 306,000 soldiers were carried to Europe, and June, 1919,
when 364,000 were brought home to America.
"Most of the troops who sailed for France left from New York.
Half of them landed in England and the other half landed in
France.
"Among every 100 Americans who went over forty-nine went in
British ships, forty-five in American ships, three in Italian,
two in French, and one in Russian shipping under English
control.
"Our cargo ships averaged one complete trip every seventy days
and our troopships one complete trip every thirty-five days.
"The cargo fleet was almost exclusively American. It reached
the size of 2,700,000 dead-weight tons and carried to Europe
about 7,500,000 tons of cargo.
"The greatest troopship among all the ships has been the
_Leviathan_, which landed 12,000 men (the equivalent of a
German division) in France every month.
"The fastest transports have been the _Great Northern_ and the
_Northern Pacific_, which have made complete turn-arounds,
taken on new troops and started back again in nineteen days."
TRANSPORTATION EXTRAORDINARY
_Apropos_ of the rapid transportation Colonel Ayres says:
"In June (1918) with the German drives in full swing, the
Allies called on us to continue the extraordinary
transportation of troops begun in April. The early movement had
been met by filling up the divisions that sailed with the best
trained men wherever they could be found. Divisions embarked
after July 1 had to meet shortages with men called to the
colors in the spring. By November the average period of
training in the United States had been shortened to close to
four months, and the average for the period July 1 to Nov. 11
was probably five months.
"In the last months of the war, the induction of men was
carried forward at top speed and every device was used for
hastening training. The result fully justified the effort. Into
the great Meuse-Argonne offensive we were able to throw a force
of 1,200,000 men, while we had many thousands of troops engaged
in other parts of the line. Our training camp officers stood up
to the test; our men with their intensive drilling in
open-order fighting, which has characterized American
training, routed the best of the German divisions from the
Argonne Forest and the Valley of the Meuse."
FEEDING AND CLOTHING PROBLEMS
When an army is 3,000 or 4,000 miles from its sources of supply the
amounts of supplies in reserve and in transit are enormous as compared
with the quantities actually consumed each month. As an example the army
purchases of blankets in 1918 were two and one-quarter times as great as
the entire American production in 1914. Put differently, the blankets
bought in one year for the use of 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 soldiers would
have been sufficient to make good the normal consumption of blankets by
100,000,000 American civilians for two and a quarter years. So
proportionately with other things, the rule for clothing was that for
every man at the front there must be a three months' reserve in France,
another two or three months' reserve in the United States and a third
three months' supply continuously in transit.
The same thing was true of other supplies and munitions. The need for
reserves and the time required for transportation called for the supply
of enormous quantities and called for it at once.
An indication of the quartermaster problem may be obtained from
the fact that between April 6, 1917, and May 31, 1918, there
was delivered to the army 131,800,000 pairs of wool stockings,
85,000,000 undershirts, 83,600,000 drawers, 30,700,000 pairs of
shoes, 26,500,000 flannel shirts, 21,700,000 blankets,
21,700,000 wool breeches, 13,900,000 wool coats, and 8,300,000
overcoats. When the troop movement was speeded up in 1918
Colonel Ayres states that the margin of woolen clothing was
dangerously narrow, and to secure these and other articles in
sufficient quantity it was found necessary to take control of
all states of the manufacturing process, from assembling the
raw material to inspecting the finished product.
At no time was there a shortage of food in the expeditionary
forces. Soldiers sometimes went hungry in this as in all other
wars, but the condition was local and temporary. It occurred
because of transportation difficulties during periods of active
fighting or rapid movement when the units outran their rolling
kitchens.
In France American engineers built seventeen new ship berths
and 1,000 miles of standard and 125 miles of narrow gauge
railroads. The Signal Corps strung 100,000 miles of telephone
wires, and 40,000 American made motor trucks were shipped
overseas. In this country army construction projects cost
twice as much as the Panama Canal and were on nearly as large a
scale overseas.
The storage space constructed in France was more than nine-tenths as
large as that built at home. The amount of food on hand from the time
the American troops entered active fighting never fell below a 45 days'
supply, and at the time of the submarine scare, was kept at 59 to 72
days' supply.
Likewise the supply of clothing arose to the emergency of combat.
"The records of the quartermaster show that during the six
months of hard fighting, from June to November, the enlisted
man in the A. E. F. received on the average:
"Slicker and overcoat, every 5 months; blanket, flannel shirt,
and breeches, every 2 months; coat, every 79 days; shoes and
puttees, every 51 days; drawers and undershirt, every 34 days;
woolen socks, every 23 days."
GUNS AND MUNITIONS
When war was declared we had on hand nearly 600,000 Springfield rifles.
The American Enfield rifle was designed and manufactured. The total
production of the two up to the signing of the armistice was over
2,500,000. The production of rifle ammunition amounted to 3,500,000,000,
of which half was shipped overseas, in addition to the 200,000,000
rounds secured from the French and British.
During the war the Browning automatic rifle and the Browning
machine gun were developed, put into quantity production and
used in large numbers in the final battles in France. Before
the war the allowance of machine guns in the American Army was
four guns to a regiment; the allowance now is 336 to a
regiment, testimony to the demonstrated importance in war of
that effective weapon. The Browning machine guns are believed
to be more effective than the corresponding weapons used in any
other army.
The total number of machine guns produced in America up to the
end of 1918 was 226,557, of these 69,960 being of the light
Browning and 56,612 of the heavy Browning type. The Vickers
field machine guns produced totaled 12,125, the other field
guns 6,366, the Lewis aircraft guns, 39,200, the Browning
aircraft 580, the Marlin aircraft 38,000, and the Vickers
aircraft 3,714. Before Nov. 1, 1918, 29,000 light Brownings,
27,000 heavy Brownings, and 1,500,000,000 rounds of rifle and
machine-gun ammunition were shipped.
When war was declared the United States had sufficient light
artillery to equip an army of 500,000 men, and shortly found
itself confronted with the problem of preparing to equip
5,000,000 men. To meet the situation, it was decided in June,
1917, to allot our guns to training purposes and to equip our
forces in France with artillery conforming to the French and
British standard calibers. It was arranged that we should
purchase from the French and British the artillery needed for
our first divisions and ship them in return equivalent amounts
of steel, copper and other raw materials so that they could
either manufacture guns for us in their own factories or give
us guns out of their stocks and replace them by new ones made
from our materials.
Up to the end of April, 1919, the number of complete artillery
units produced in American plants was more than 3,000, or equal
to all those purchased from the French and British during the
war. The number of rounds of complete artillery ammunition
produced in American plants was in excess of 20,000,000, as
compared with 10,000,000 rounds secured from the French and
British. In the first twenty months after the declaration of
war by each country, the British did better than we did in the
production of light artillery, and we excelled them in
producing heavy artillery and both light and heavy shells.
THE ARTILLERY SUPPLY
Colonel Ayres says:
"The most important single fact about our artillery in France
is that we always had a sufficient supply of light artillery
for the combat divisions that were ready for front-line
service. This does not mean that when the divisions went into
the battle line they always had their artillery with them, for
in a number of cases they did not.
"The result of the compilation is to show that in every 100
days that our combat divisions were in line they were supported
by their own artillery for seventy-five days, by British
artillery for five days, by French for one and one-half days,
and were without artillery for eighteen and one-half days out
of the 100. Of these eighteen and one-half days, however,
eighteen days were in quiet sectors and only one-half of one
day in each hundred was in active sectors. There are only three
records of American divisions being in an active sector without
artillery support. The total of these three cases amounts to
one-half of 1 per cent., or about fourteen hours out of the
typical 100 days just analyzed.
"The facts can be summarized in round numbers with approximate
accuracy by saying that we had in France 3,500 pieces of
artillery of which nearly 500 were made in America, and we used
on the firing line 2,250, of which over 100 were made in
America."
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1919
At the conclusion of his chapter on rifles and machine guns Colonel
Ayres has an interesting bit of semi-critical comment on the question
of foresight, of which some desk-experts have been inclined to doubt the
United States authorities were possessed. He says:
"At this point it is appropriate to comment on the fact that
there are many articles of munitions in which American
production reached great amounts by the fall of 1918 but which
were not used in large quantities at the front because the
armistice was signed before big supplies of them reached
France. In the main, these munitions are articles of ordnance
and aviation equipment, involving such technical difficulties
of manufacture that their production could not be improvised or
even greatly abbreviated in time.
"As the production figures are scrutinized in retrospect, and
it is realized that many millions of dollars were spent on army
equipment that was never used at the front, it seems fair to
question whether prudent foresight could not have avoided some
of this expense.
"Perhaps the best answer to the question is to be found in the
record of a conference that took place in the little French
town of Trois Fontaines on October 4, 1918, between Marshal
Foch and the American Secretary of War.
"In that conference the Allied Commander-in-Chief made final
arrangements with the American Secretary as to the shipment of
American troops and munitions in great numbers during the fall
and winter preparatory for the campaign of 1919.
"This was one day before the first German peace note and 38
days before the end of the war, but Marshal Foch was then
calling upon America to make her great shipments of munitions
and her supreme contribution of man-power for the campaign of
the following year."
GAS AND EXPLOSIVES
One of the striking contributions to the cause of the Allies was the
enormous quantity of smokeless powder and high explosives produced. From
April 1, 1917, to November 11, 1918, the production of smokeless powder
in the United States was 632,000,000 pounds, which was almost equal to
the combined production of France and Great Britain. But by the time the
war ended the production of smokeless powder in this country was 45 per
cent. greater than that of France and Great Britain combined.
The output of high explosives, T.N.T. and others, increased rapidly from
its pre-war status to a quantity 40 percent. greater than that of Great
Britain, and nearly double the French production at the close of the
war.
"The result of the high rate of production of both smokeless
powder and high explosives was that the artillery ammunition
program was never held up for lack of either the powder which
hurls the bullet or the shell from the gun, or the high
explosive which makes the shell effective when it reaches its
destination."
Colonel Ayres says of toxic gases:
"When the clouds of chlorine suddenly enveloped the British and
French lines in the Ypres salient, early in 1915, a new weapon
was introduced into the war. That it was a powerful weapon is
evidenced by the fact that during the year 1918 from 20 to 30
percent. of all our battle casualties were due to gas.
"At the time we entered the war we had practically no
experience in manufacturing toxic gases, and no existing
facilities which could be readily converted to such use. At the
signing of the armistice we were equipped to produce gas at a
more rapid rate than France, England, or Germany."
THE AIR SERVICE
"On the declaration of war the United States had fifty-five
training airplanes, of which fifty-one were classified as
obsolete and the other four as obsolescent. When we entered the
war the Allies made the designs of their planes available to us
and before the end of hostilities furnished us from their own
manufacture 3,800 service planes.
"Aviation training schools in the United States graduated 8,602
men from elementary courses and 4,028 from advanced courses.
More than 5,000 pilots and observers were sent overseas. The
total personnel of the Air Service, officers, students, and
enlisted men, increased from 1,200 at the outbreak of the war
to nearly 200,000 at its close.
"There were produced in the United States to Nov. 30, 1918,
more than 8,000 training planes and more than 16,000 training
engines.
"The De Haviland-4 observation and day bombing plane was the
only plane the United States put into quantity production.
Before the signing of the armistice 3,227 had been completed
and 1,885 shipped overseas. The plane was successfully used at
the front for three months.
"The production of the 12-cylinder Liberty engine was America's
chief contribution to aviation. Before the armistice 13,574 had
been completed, 4,435 shipped to the expeditionary forces, and
1,025 delivered to the Allies.
"The first fliers in action wearing the American uniforms were
members of the Lafayette Escadrille, who were transferred to
the American service in December, 1917.
"The American air force at the front grew from 3 squadrons in
April to 45 in November, 1918. On Nov. 11 the 45 squadrons had
an equipment of 740 planes.
"Of 2,698 planes sent to the zone of the advance for American
aviators 667, or nearly one-fourth, were of American
manufacture.
"American air squadrons played important rôles in the battles of
Château-Thierry, St. Mihiel, and the Meuse-Argonne. They brought
down in combat 755 enemy planes, while their own losses of planes
numbered only 357."
"The squadrons were of four types: Observation squadrons, whose
business it is to make observations, take photographs, and
direct artillery fire; pursuit squadrons, using light fighting
planes to protect the observation planes at their work, to
drive the enemy from the air, or to _strafe_ marching columns
by machine-gun fire; the day bombers, whose work was the
dropping of bombs on railways or roads; and the night bombers,
carrying heavier bomb loads for the destruction of strategic
enemy works."
[Illustration: _Official Government Statistics_
Production of Training Planes and Engines to the End of Each Month]
At the armistice there were on the front 20 pursuit squadrons, 18
observation squadrons and 7 bomber squadrons with 1,238 flying officers
and 740 service planes, in addition to which there were 23 balloon
companies.
CARGO SHIPMENTS
Altogether, from our entrance into the war through April, 1919, the Army
shipped from this side of the Atlantic nearly seven and a half million
tons (7,500,000) of cargo.
Included in the cargo shipment were 1,791 consolidation locomotives of
the 100-ton type. Of these, 650 were shipped, set up on their own wheels
so that they could be unloaded in France and run off in a few hours
under their own steam.
The Army also shipped 26,994 standard-gauge freight cars; motor car
trucks to the number of 47,018, and rails and fittings for the
reinforcing of French railways and for the construction of our own lines
of communications to the aggregate of 423,000 tons. The Army also
shipped 68,694 horses and mules.
SIGNAL CORPS STATISTICS
In order to operate the transportation of supplies in France the Signal
Corps strung its wires over nearly every part of that country. At the
end of the war the Signal Corps was operating 282 telephone exchanges
and 133 complete telegraph stations. The telephone lines numbered
14,956, reaching 8,959 stations. More than 100,000 miles of wire had
been strung. The peak load of operation reached was 47,555 telegrams a
day, averaging 60 words each.
[Illustration: _Official Government Statistics_
Number of Battle Aeroplanes in Each Army at the Date of the Armistice]
CONSTRUCTION STATISTICS
In building factories and storage warehouses for supplies as well as
housing for troops, 200,000 workmen in the United States were kept
continuously occupied for the period of the war.
The operations of the Construction Division constituted what was
probably the largest contracting business ever handled in one office.
The total expenditures in this enterprise to November 11, 1918, were
about $800,000,000.
Construction projects were conducted in France by the Corps of Engineers
under the services of supplies. Up to the signing of the armistice these
projects had been undertaken to the number of 831, distributed all over
France. To economize tonnage, materials were obtained in Europe as far
as possible. The Engineer Corps ran its own quarries, and its own
logging camps and saw-mills. The labor force consisted largely of
American soldiers and German prisoners, though French and English
civilians and Chinese coolies were used wherever available.
TWO HUNDRED DAYS OF BATTLE
Of our combat forces Colonel Ayres says:
"Two out of every three American soldiers who reached France
took part in battle. The number who reached France was
2,086,000, and of these 1,390,000 saw active service in the
front line.
"American combat forces were organized into divisions, which
consisted of some 28,000 officers and men. These divisions were
the largest on the Western front, since the British division
numbered about 15,000 and those of the French and Germans about
12,000 each. There were sent overseas 42 American divisions and
several hundred thousand supplementary artillery and service of
supply troops.
"Of the 42 divisions that reached France 29 took part in active
combat service, while the others were used for replacements or
were just arriving during the last month of hostilities. The
battle record of the United States Army in this war is largely
the history of these 29 combat divisions. Seven of them were
Regular Army divisions, 11 were organized from the National
Guard, and 11 were made up of National Army troops.
"American combat divisions were in battle for 200 days, from
the 25th of April, 1918, when the first Regular division after
long training in quiet sectors, entered an active sector on the
Picardy front, until the signing of the armistice. During these
200 days they were engaged in 13 major operations, of which 11
were joint enterprises with the French, British, and Italians,
and 2 were distinctively American.
"At the time of their greatest activity in the second week of
October all 29 American divisions were in action. They then
held 101 miles of front, or 23 percent. of the entire allied
battle line. From the middle of August until the end of the war
they held, during the greater part of the time a front longer
than that held by the British. Their strength tipped the
balance of man-power in favor of the Allies, so that from the
middle of June, 1918, to the end of the war the Allied forces
were superior in numbers to those of the enemy."
[Illustration: Our Flag in Alsace
A scene in Alsace after the armistice when American doughboys occupied a
small town. They were welcomed there by the inhabitants.]
The total battle advances of the American divisions amounted to 782
kilometers, or 485 miles, an average advance for each division of 17
miles, nearly all of it against desperate enemy resistance. They
captured 63,000 prisoners, 1,378 pieces of artillery, 708 trench
mortars, and 9,650 machine guns. In June and July they helped to shatter
the enemy advance toward Paris, and to turn retreat into a triumphant
offensive.
It is stated in reference to the part played by the American divisions
in the Argonne-Meuse that it was the 77th Division of New York selective
draft men that achieved the greatest advance against the enemy--71½
kilometers, or nearly 45 miles.
In that battle the American Army captured 16,059 prisoners, liberated
150 French towns and villages, and as an army penetrated 34 miles into
territory previously held by the Germans.
THE DEADLIEST WAR
In his chapter on "Health and Casualties," Colonel Ayres reminds us that
"the war was undoubtedly the bloodiest that has ever been fought." The
total battle deaths is given as 7,450,200. Russia led the death list
with 1,700,000; Germany came next with 1,600,000; France next with
1,385,300; Great Britain next with 900,000; Austria, 800,000; Italy,
364,000; Turkey, 250,000; Serbia and Montenegro, 125,000; Belgium,
102,000; Rumania and Bulgaria 100,000 each; the United States, 50,300;
Greece, 7,000; Portugal, 2,000.
Of every 100 American soldiers and sailors who took part, 2 were killed
or died of disease during the period of hostilities. Among the other
nations between 20 and 25 in every 100 were killed or died.
The total deaths were greater than all the deaths in all wars for more
than one hundred years previous. In the above figures only deaths
resulting directly from action are included. The total deaths from all
causes is very much larger. Some of the armies lost more heavily through
disease and privation than from battle. With regard to civilians' deaths
due to the war, see Volume XII.
[Illustration: Secretary of War Baker Drawing Registration Numbers
The head of the War Department is drawing for the first capsule after
the registration of young men who have become of age in the past year.
All told 24,000,000 names were registered in the draft.
National Service Magazine]
INDEX
A
Abbas Hilmi, Khédive of Egypt, pro-Turkish attitude, vi: 68.
Abbatiale Farm, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 239.
Abbeville agreement,
on U. S. military participation in War, v: 128, 284;
text, v: 378.
Abi Dinas, Sudanese leader, defeated at Eli Tasher, iii: 191.
Abo, occupied by Germans, Mar. 16, '18, i: 395.
_Aboukir_, British cruiser,
sunk by _U-9_, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280, xi: 234.
Absinthe, sale forbidden in France, Jan. 7, '15, i: 378.
Acceleration, in projectiles, viii: 111.
Achi Baba,
key to southern Gallipoli, iii: 170;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Acre, taken by British, Sept. 23, '18, iii: 199.
Activism, Swedish pro-German movement, vi: 394.
Adana, British objective in Turkish campaigns, ii: 90.
Adler, Friedrich,
kills Austrian Premier, Count Carl Stürgkh, Oct. 21, '16, vi: 312.
Adkinson, Sgt. Joseph B., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
_Admiral Charner_,
French cruiser torpedoed, Feb. 13, '16, i: 384.
Ador, Gustave, becomes head of Swiss Foreign Office, vi: 380.
Adramyti, Gulf of, British bombard Turks, Mar. 3, '15, iv: 44.
Adrian barracks, description, v: 8.
Adriatic coast, disputed territory between Latin and Slav, vi: 359.
Advisory Labor Council, U. S., activities, xii: 71.
A. E. G. bombing airplanes, viii: 221.
Aerial photography,
in range-finding, ii: 126, viii: 14;
gun cameras, description, viii: 216;
value, viii: 226, 331;
difficulties, viii: 228;
U. S. photographers in War, viii: 228-235;
future, viii: 234;
_see also_ Photography.
Aeronautics:
Airplanes,
conditions for effectiveness, ii: 123;
use of depth bombs by, iv: 332;
torpedo planes, iv: 335;
number shot down by U. S. pilots, v: 309;
as war weapon, viii: _Intro._, xi: 214;
detection by sound-rangers, viii: 20;
machine-gun mountings on, types, viii: 86, 189-192, 196, 208-216;
Allied and German equipment at start of War, viii: 189;
Farman plane, viii: 189;
utility in scouting, viii: 189;
Albatross pursuit planes, viii: 192;
Nieuport scout planes, viii: 192;
Allied and German types compared, viii: 194;
Spad biplanes, viii: 194;
general utility planes, viii: 196;
Gotha biplanes, viii: 196;
Handley-Page bombers, viii: 196, 204, 223;
aero engines, development of, viii: 198-200;
Liberty motor, viii: 199;
construction, essentials in, viii: 200;
maneuvering, types of, viii: 200;
Allied strength at end of war, viii: 201;
French types, viii: 202, 206;
British types, viii: 203-206;
British planes, viii: 203;
D. H. 10 British bombers, viii: 204;
German equipment, viii: 206;
pre-War record flights, viii: 206;
national supremacy, viii: 207;
machine-gun fire synchronizer, viii: 208;
aerial marksmanship, viii: 210;
"C. C. Gear," for timing gunfire through propeller blades,
viii: 214-216;
navigating instruments, viii: 217-221;
bombing planes, types, viii: 221-224;
A. E. G. bombing planes, viii: 221;
Gotha bombers, viii: 221;
Lizenz bombing planes, viii: 222;
Caproni triplanes, viii: 223;
Caudron bombers, viii: 223;
Letord bombers, viii: 223;
Voisin bombers, viii: 223;
Breguet bombers, viii: 224;
spruce in aircraft construction, viii: 308;
signals for landing in dark, viii: 335;
value in directing artillery fire, viii: 337, xi: 277;
ambulance planes, viii: 379;
U. S., in War, xi: 218;
development, xi: 219;
use against submarines, xi: 239;
commercial uses, xii: 103.
Aviators,
duties, iii: 392;
kinds of patrol, iii: 392;
fitness test by orientator, viii: 356-358;
qualifications, xi: 215.
Balloons,
development for war use, iv: 288;
in naval operations, iv: 289;
number shot down by U. S. pilots, v: 309;
functions and handling of captive balloons, viii: 257-264;
parachutes, use by military balloonists, viii: 260-263;
hydrogen, use in inflation of, viii: 263.
Dirigibles,
use in coast patrol, iv: 290;
compared with airplanes, viii: 241-245;
in long-distance transportation, viii: 243-245;
British types, viii: 245;
_R-34_, description, viii: 245, 254;
_R-34_, crosses Atlantic, viii: 245;
U. S. types, viii: 245, 255-257;
U. S. "Blimps," viii: 245, 255-257;
U. S. C-class, viii: 245, 255-257;
mooring masts, viii: 245;
development in different countries, viii: 254;
_R-33_, sister ship of _R-34_, viii: 254;
Zeppelins, _see below_ under Aeronautics.
Navigation,
rules for, Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 246.
Observation,
in range-finding, ii: 126, viii: 13, 337, xi: 277;
uses of captive balloons, viii: 257-264;
utility in War, xi: 216.
Seaplanes,
in battle of Jutland, iv: 107;
for submarine spotting, iv: 285;
U. S. _N-C-4_ first to cross Atlantic, iv: 288, viii: 240;
N-C flying boats, description, viii: 236-240.
Zeppelins,
progress in construction, '14--'18, viii: 241;
use during War, viii: 246-248;
description, viii: 248-254;
number in crew, viii: 254.
_See also_ under each country.
Aeroplane, see Aeronautics, Airplane.
Afghanistan,
put outside Russian sphere by Anglo-Russian agreement, '07, i: 104;
friendly to England during War, vi: 78;
changed attitude toward British, '19, vi: 80;
border warfare with India, '19, vi: 81.
Africa,
dark continent, i: 10;
European penetration, i: 48;
"spheres of influence," i: 96.
African campaigns, iii: 250-256;
tropical peculiarities, iii: 250;
German handicaps, iii: 252;
operations in Cameroons (Kamerun), iii: 252;
in Togoland, iii: 252;
in German Southwest Africa, iii: 253;
in German East Africa, iii: 255.
Agadir incident,
Germany creates Moroccan crisis, July, '11, i: 104, 203.
_Agamemnon_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
hit by gunfire, iv: 43.
Agram,
suppression of Jugoslav National Congress at, Mar., '18, vi: 363.
Ahmed Fevzi, Turkish commander at Erzerum, iii: 262.
Aincreville, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262.
Air raids,
Ludendorff's plan to burn Allied capitals, ii: 333;
use of Zeppelins in, viii: 246;
success of, xi: 216;
on:
England,
Aug. 9, '15, i: 381;
Aug. 17, '15, i: 381;
Sept. 8, '15, i: 381;
Oct. 13, '15, i: 382;
Jan. 31, '16, i: 384;
Mar. 1, '16, i: 384;
Mar. 5, '16, i: 384;
Mar. 19, '16, i: 384;
Apr. 1--3, '16, i: 385;
Apr. 24, '16, i: 385;
Aug. 9, '16, i: 386;
Sept. 23, '16, i: 388;
Sept. 25, '16, i: 388;
Oct. 1, '16, i: 388;
attacks on undefended coast towns, ii: 266, vi: 4;
first attack on London, iii: 41.
Paris,
Jan. 30, '16, i: 384;
Mar. 11, '18, i: 395.
Air Speed Indicator, for airplanes, viii: 220.
Aircraft, _see_ Aeronautics.
Aire valley, description, v: 73;
scene of action in Meuse-Argonne offensive, v: 225.
Airships, _see_ Aeronautics.
Aisne, battles of:
Sept., '14, i: 375, 376, iii: 36.
Apr.--Nov., '17, iii: 73-76;
French start offensive, iii: 73;
early French success, iii: 73;
battle for Chemin des Dames, iii: 73;
Germans driven from Chemin des Dames, iii: 76.
May 27--June 5, '18, iii: 92-95, v: 129-135;
situation before German offensive, iii: 92;
Soissons-Rheims salient, iii: 93;
Germans cross Vesle River, iii: 93;
Soissons captured by Germans, May 29, iii: 93;
Château-Thierry captured by Germans, June 1, iii: 93;
Germans reach Marne, iii: 93;
American troops check enemy, iii: 94.
Aisne-Marne offensive, v: 130, 158-183;
artillery, important feature, v: 171;
A. E. F. casualties, v: 179, 181.
Aisne-Meuse sector,
Franco-American offensive, Nov, 1--11, '18, iii: 103.
Aisne-Ourcq sector, struck by Foch, '18, ii: 84.
Aix-les-Bains, A. E. F. leave area, "Y" work in, vii: 269.
Akabah, occupied by British, Nov. 3, '14, i: 376.
Ala, captured by Italians, May 29, '15, iii: 234.
Aland Island, occupied by Germans, Nov. 9, '17, i: 392.
Alaska, acquisition by U. S., i: 52.
Albania,
primitiveness of people, i: 92;
William of Wied becomes ruler, i: 206;
Allied offensive in, July, '18, i: 397;
Serbians retreat into, iii: 160;
Italy takes possession, Dec. '14, vi: 120;
promised to Italy, '15, vi: 361.
Albatross pursuit planes, viii: 192.
Albert,
captured by British, ii: 157, iii: 98;
captured by Germans in second Somme battle, iii: 89.
Albert, Dr. Heinrich, German propagandist in U. S., i: 133, x: 327.
Albert, King of Belgians, biography, ix: 385-391, xi: 128-131.
_Albert of Belgium_,
poem by Dana Burnet, i: 228;
by Dorothy S. Phillips, ix: 391.
_Albion_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31.
Albrecht, Grand Duke of Württemberg, army commands, ii: 184, iii: 10.
_Alcantara_,
British armed liner, sinks German _Greif_, iv: 200.
_Alcedo_, American ship torpedoed, Nov. 6, '17, i: 392.
Aldis Optical Sight, use in aerial marksmanship, viii: 211.
Aleppo, captured by British, Oct. 25, '18, iii: 200.
Alexander, Crown Prince of Serbia,
re-enters Belgrade, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 397;
foreign policy, vi: 355;
head of united Jugoslavs, vi: 366.
Alexanderson alternator,
for generation of radio waves, viii: 316-318.
Alexandria, captured by Germans, Nov., '16, i: 389, iii: 222.
Alexieff, Gen. Michael Vassilivitch,
commands Russian forces in Poland, iii: 140;
biography, ix: 238.
Algeciras Conference, '06, i: 86, 99, 203.
Algeria, French occupation of, i: 37.
_Algonquin_,
American steamer sunk by U-boat, Mar. 2, '17, i: 349.
All-American (82nd) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
All-Russian Congress of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates,
convention of, '17, vi: 164.
All-Russian Government of Siberia,
formation, vi: 191;
collapse, vi: 193.
Allen, Corp. Jake, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
Allen, Maj.-Gen. Henry T.,
commands 90th Div., v: 196;
in St. Mihiel drive, v: 202.
Allenby, Gen. Sir Edmund H. H.,
British commander in Palestine, ii: 90, iii: 193;
defeats Turks, ii: 92, 218, v: 213;
captures Jerusalem, ii: 92, iii: 322, xi: 48;
strategy of Palestine campaign, ii: 93;
at first battle of Ypres, ii: 171;
commands British cavalry at Mons retreat, iii: 25;
biography, ix: 194-199.
Allenstein,
Russians defeated at, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375;
occupied by Russians, iii: 111.
Alliances, Holy Alliance,
formation, i: 33;
conflict of European, i: 93-101;
Three Emperors' League, i: 95;
Triple Alliance, i: 95, 208, 255, ii: 4, 48, vi: 115;
Entente Cordiale, between France and Russia, i: 98;
Triple Entente, i: 98, 103, 106, 146, 218, 220, ii: 2;
Anglo-Japanese, '05, '11, i: 104, 107;
Balkan League, i: 204;
_see also_ under name of alliance.
Allied Home for Munition Workers, vii: 108.
Allies, superiority in inventiveness, i: _Intro. ix_;
agree not to make separate peace, i: 146;
defensive policy compared with German aggression, ii: 1;
lack unity of command, ii: 22, 40, 58, 230, iii: 55;
unsuccessful in all theaters of War during '15, ii: 36, 50;
unite command under Foch, ii: 40, 218, v: 120, 214;
man-power, ii: 82, 115, 154, iii: 403;
"Will to win" _vs._ German efficiency, ii: 100;
underestimate German strength, ii: 101;
propaganda among German troops, ii: 321;
plan of campaign against German invasion of France, iii: 8;
Balkan blunder, iii: 156;
fail to support Rumania, iii: 214;
casualties, iii: 404;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
war aims, iv: 6;
military position, '17, iv: 10;
lack aggressive plan in Mediterranean, iv: 13;
gain superiority in air for first time, Sept., '18, v: 206;
make simultaneous attacks on all fronts, Sept., '18, v: 213;
appeal for U. S. troops, v: 373-375, 378;
secret treaty with Italy, Apr., '15, vi: 122, 361;
send troops to Russia, vi: 187;
intervene in Siberia, vi: 192;
intervene in Austria, '19, vi: 320;
occupy Hungary, '19, vi: 325;
secret treaties, '16--'17, dispose of Asiatic Turkey, vi: 334;
overcome German superiority in artillery, viii: 36;
war cost, xii: 27, 107;
plan of economic boycott against Germany, xii: 102;
rise in national debts, xii: 114;
list of "Allied and Associated Powers" against Germany, xii: 179.
Allworth, Capt. Edward S., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.
Almereyda, traitorous editor of _Bonnet Rouge_, vi: 105.
_Alnwick Castle_,
British ship sunk without warning, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 230.
Alpini, description, ii: 242.
Alsace-Lorraine, early history, i: 210-212;
annexed by Germany, 1871, i: 212;
formed into _Reichsland_, i: 213;
German dictatorship in, i: 213;
fidelity to France during War, i: 215;
German immigration into, i: 215;
German constitution for, '11, i: 215;
French invasion of, during War, i: 375, 376, iii: 14-21;
Peace Treaty provisions for return to France, xii: 194-197;
exempt from share in German national debt, xii: 226.
Altimeter, airplane altitude indicator, viii: 220.
Altkirch, taken by French Aug. 7, '14, iii: 16.
Alvensleben, G. C. A. von,
German financier and spy, sensational career, x: 363-368.
_Amalfi_, Italian cruiser sunk by Austrian U-boat,
July 7, '15, i: 380, iv: 369.
Amara, taken by British, May, '15, iii: 181.
Ambrine, use in treatment of burns, viii: 290.
Ambulance, first use, vii: 9;
Red Cross companies, location, vii: 30-31;
difficulties of transporting wounded, viii: 376;
improved types of stretchers, viii: 377;
drawn by dogs, viii: 379;
airplane ambulances, viii: 379;
hospital trains, viii: 380;
perils of driving, x: 92.
American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, vii: 92.
American Committee for Devastated France, vii: 92.
American Committee for Relief of Belgian Prisoners in Germany,
vii: 88.
American Escadrille, _see_ Lafayette Escadrille.
A. E. F., _see_ U. S., Army.
American Fund for French Wounded, vii: 89.
American Jewish Committee, relief for Belgium, vii: 350;
relief for Palestine, vii: 350;
organization, vii: 354.
American Relief Administration,
for feeding newly liberated peoples, xii: 141;
Herbert Hoover director-general, xii: 141.
American Students' Committee of École des Beaux Arts, vii: 108.
American Women's War Relief Fund, vii: 89, 91.
Amerongen, residence of Kaiser after abdication, vi: 278.
Ames, Winthrop, helps start Over-There Theater League, vii: 339.
Amiens, strategic importance, ii: 69;
German attacks on, unsuccessful, Apr., '18, ii: 152, 314, iii: 389;
British offensive, Aug. 8, '18, ii: 281.
Aminullah Khan,
murders father and succeeds to throne of Afghanistan, vi: 81.
Ammunition:
Bullets, component parts, viii: 1;
steel-piercing, viii: 60-64;
Clay armor-piercing, description, viii: 60-63;
advantages of sharp-nosed, viii: 93;
types used in aerial fighting, viii: 211-214;
U. S. war output of rifle ammunition, xii: 284.
Explosives, function, viii: 1;
detonation compared with explosion, viii: 1;
explosive _compound_ and explosive _mixture_ compared, viii: 2;
black powder, viii: 2;
guncotton, viii: 2;
nitrogen necessary in, viii: 2;
driving power of gunpowder, viii: 2;
smokeless powder, viii: 4;
primers, viii: 6;
composition and properties of different kinds, viii: 6;
cordite, viii: 6;
trinitrotoluol (T.N.T.), viii: 6;
ballistic tests, viii: 7;
muzzle flash, viii: 7;
manufacture, xi: 282-284;
U. S. war production of smokeless powder, xii: 285;
of high explosives, xii: 285;
of T.N.T., xii: 285.
Shells, high explosive, compared with shrapnel, ii: 288;
non-ricochet, iv: 333;
star, iv: 334, viii: 77;
gas, U. S. production, v: 324;
kinds, viii: 8;
used by U. S. 3-in. field guns, viii: 23;
structure of "Big Bertha" shells, viii: 46;
illuminating shells and bombs, viii: 74;
rifle lights, viii: 75;
reason for rotating motion in flight, viii: 110;
forces determining path of flight, viii: 111-112;
computation of air resistance, viii: 113;
U. S. war production of artillery ammunition, xii: 284;
shrapnel, _see below_.
Shrapnel, compared with high explosive shell, ii: 287;
invention, viii: 72;
description, viii: 72;
manufacture, viii: 72-74.
Amputation, new method of, viii: 367.
Anatolia, area, xii: 279;
population, xii: 279.
Anatolian Railway Co., gets concessions in Turkey, 1888, ii: 292.
_Ancona_,
Austria-Hungary promises reparation for sinking, i: 326, 384;
controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary over sinking,
summary, i: 361;
torpedoed by Austrian U-boat, i: 382, iv: 223.
Ancre sector, British offensive, ii: 212, iii: 64, 66.
Anderson, Sgt. Johannes S.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
Andrassy, Count Julius,
member Hungarian Independence Party, vii: 311;
statement on Communist Government, vii: 328.
Andrews, Brig.-Gen. Avery D.,
Chief of G-1, G. H. Q., A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102.
Anglo-French Loan, floated in U. S., xii: 111.
Annunzio, Gabriele D', _see_ D'Annunzio.
Anti-aircraft guns, range, ii: 264;
effectiveness, v: 308.
Anti-din compound, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.
_Antilles_,
U. S. transport torpedoed, Oct. 17, '17, i: 392, iv: 337;
eye-witness account, iv: 337.
Antioch, captured by British, Jan. 30, '18, i: 393.
Antivari, surrender to Austrians, Jan. 20, '16, i: 384.
Antwerp, Belgian Government moves to, Aug. 17, '14, i: 375;
captured by Germans, Oct. 8, '14, i: 376, ii: 143, 168, iii: 15;
strategic value controlled by Dutch, vi: 375.
Anzac Cove,
landing place of British troops at Gallipoli, ii: 30, iii: 170.
Anzacs, _see_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Apponyi, Count Albert, advocates war, vi: 307;
leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311.
Aprémont, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199;
captured by 28th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229.
Arabia, revolt against Turkey, iii: 196, vi: 333.
_Arabia_, British steamer sunk by U-boat, Nov. 6, '16, i: 334.
_Arabic_,
British steamer sunk by U-boat, Aug. 19, '15,
i: 323, 381, iv: 223, xi: 20;
loss of life in sinking, i: 323;
controversy between U. S. and Germany on sinking, summary, i: 361.
Arabs, with Turkish forces invading Egypt, iii: 190.
Arbitration, Tribunal established by First Hague Conference, i: 94;
international treaties of, i: 103.
Archangel, Allies land forces at, Apr. 21, '18, i: 395;
limited value as port, iii: 161;
A. E. F. sent to fight Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187.
Archangel, Mt., French attack Bulgars, Nov. 9--19, '15, iii: 204.
Ardahan, Turks defeated by Russians at, Jan. 3--4, '15, i: 378.
Ardennes, strategic importance, ii: 6;
topography, ii: 87, v: 73;
French retire from, Aug., '14, iii: 20.
Arditi, description, ii: 240.
_Arethusa_, British cruiser sunk by mine, Feb. 14, '16, i: 384;
in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240;
sinks German _Blücher_ at Dogger Bank, iv: 247.
Argentine, German population of, i: 79;
ultimatum to Germany, Sept. 22, '17, i: 390;
neutrality, vi: 389;
soviet riots, '19, vi: 389.
Arges River, Rumanian stand at, iii: 222.
Argonne Forest, military topography, v: 73, 217, 234;
battle of, _see_ Meuse-Argonne Offensive.
_Ariadne_,
German cruiser in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240;
sunk, iv: 241.
Arietal Farm, taken by 26th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.
_Ark Royal_,
mother-ship for British aircraft at Gallipoli, iv: 43.
Armaments, international movement for reduction, i: _Intro. xi_;
battleships, xi: 280-282.
Armenia, military operations in, iii: 260-263;
massacres in, by Turks, iii: 405, vi: 331;
early history, vi: 231;
fate under secret treaties of '16--'17, vi: 334;
independent government established. Aug., '18, xii: 279;
area, xii: 279;
population, xii: 279.
Armenian and Syrian Relief, American Committee for, vii: 92.
Armentières,
occupied by Germans, Apr., '18, i: 395, ii: 75, iii: 359;
recaptured by British, Oct. 2, 18, i: 399, iii: 101.
Armies, _see under_ name of country.
Armies of Occupation,
Allied, expense to be paid by Germany, xii: 226;
conditions for withdrawal, xii: 261.
Armistice, with Bulgaria, Sept. 30, '18, i: 399, vi: 347;
with Germany, Nov. 11, '18,
i: 399, iii: 402, iv: 142-144, v: 391, vi: 271, xi: 54;
false report in U. S., of signing, Nov. 7, i: 399, iii: 400;
terms extended, Dec. 11, '18, i: 399;
with Austria-Hungary, Nov. 3, '18, iii: 400;
celebrations, iii: 402;
with Turkey, Oct. 31, '18, vi: 334.
Armor, use in modern warfare, viii: 59, 69.
Army Educational Commission, American Y. M. C. A., vii: 282.
Army of Occupation, _see_ U. S., Army.
Army schools, U. S., _see_ U. S., Army.
Arnim, Gen. von, commander 6th German Army Corps, iii: 14;
launches last attack on Ypres, iii: 360.
Arras, battle of, Apr., '17, ii: 341, iii: 70-72;
Vimy Ridge captured by Canadians, iii: 70;
British capture "Oppy Line," iii: 72;
German casualties, iii: 72;
results, iii: 72.
Arras-Roye sector, British offensive, Mar., '17, iii: 68.
Arsiero, captured by Austrians, May 28, '16, i: 385, iii: 238;
retaken by Italians, June 27, '16, i: 386.
Artificial eyes, for war blind, viii: 391.
Artificial limbs, for war cripples, viii: 384-390.
Artillery:
Anti-aircraft, v: 308.
Bore, explained, viii: 7, 111;
bore pressure in modern guns, viii: 7;
rifling, viii: 7, 111.
Durability, viii: 7, 26, xi: 280.
Field, French 75-mm. gun, ii: 287;
German and Austrian, viii: 22;
structure and operation, viii: 22;
U. S. pre-War equipment, viii: 22-25;
U. S. 3-in. gun, viii: 23;
U. S. 2.95-in. mountain gun, viii: 24;
U. S. 4.7-in. gun, viii: 24;
development of light guns to accompany infantry, viii: 140;
French 37-mm. quick firers, viii: 140.
Heavy, mobile German guns, ii: 287;
German superiority, ii: 288;
U. S. Naval Batteries on Western Front, iv: 323, viii: 42-45;
use in offensive, v: 304;
French 155-mm. G. P. F. gun, v: 308;
U. S. railway-mount guns, viii: 36-39;
U. S. caterpillar-mount guns, viii: 39;
long-range bombardment of Paris, viii: 45-47, xi: 271-274;
structure of shells hitting Paris, viii: 46;
super-range guns impractical, viii: 47;
U. S. 121-mile range super-gun, viii: 48-51;
British naval super-guns, viii: 53;
manufacture of big guns, viii: 54-58;
shell velocity of, viii: 314;
destructive power of 16-in. gun, viii: 336;
kinds used during War, xi: 274;
naval, xi: 280-282.
Howitzers, Skoda, viii: 22, xi: 278;
U. S. pre-War types, viii: 24;
U. S. railway-mount types, viii, 38, 39;
French 520-mm. (21-in.) gun, viii: 51-53;
use against forts and trench systems, xi: 274.
Importance, Field Marshal Haig's report on, ii: 123-131.
Mortars, limitations, viii: 30;
range of latest U. S. types, viii: 31;
German 11-in. siege mortars, viii: 34-36;
absence of rifling in bore, viii: 112;
device for rotating shell during flight, viii: 112;
functions, viii: 118;
Stokes mortar, viii: 141;
trench mortars captured by A. E. F., xii: 288.
Range-finding, muzzle velocity, viii: 7;
by sight, viii: 8-14;
telescopic range-finder, viii: 9;
problem of marksmanship, viii: 10-13;
use of aircraft in, viii: 13;
by sound, viii: 14-16;
use of photography in, viii: 14;
direct and indirect fire, viii: 28;
zones of fire, viii: 32;
altering range by change of projectile and powder charge,
viii: 32;
air-resistance to flying projectile, viii: 113.
_See also_ under each country.
Artistic rights,
Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of, xii: 244-246.
Artois, Allied offensive in, '15, ii: 148, iii: 46;
battle of, May, '14, iii: 42.
Asiago, Austrians reach, May 28, '16, i: 385, iii: 238.
Asir, Principate of, established, '18, xii: 279.
_Askold_, Russian cruiser at Gallipoli, iv: 41.
Asquith, Herbert Henry,
responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200, 202, 204;
biography, ix: 30-35.
Association of Highland Societies of Edinburgh, viii: 95.
Astor, Mrs. Vincent, "Y" worker in Paris, vii: 267.
_Asturias_,
British hospital ship torpedoed, Mar. 20, '17, iv: 232.
Athletics, for A. E. F., _see_ Sports.
Atkins, Tommy, nickname for British soldier, origin of, vi: 230;
fighting qualities, xi: 181-189.
Atrocities, German, summary of crimes, i: 400;
Ludendorff's explanation, ii: 346;
burning of Louvain, iii: 273-277;
in Marne district, iii: 297-300;
at Senlis, iii: 334-337;
in Belgium, vi: 84;
destruction of Rheims Cathedral, vi: 97.
Aubers Ridge, battle of, iii: 42.
_Audacious_,
British battleship sunk by U-boat, Oct. 27, '14, i: 376.
Audenarde, taken by 91st Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 279.
Auffenberg, Gen. von,
commands Austrian army invading Poland, iii: 118.
Augustovo, battle of, German defeat at, iii: 118.
Australia, war casualties, iii: 404, 405;
army strength, iii: 405;
naval strength, iv: 58;
history prior to '14, vi: 37;
area and population, vi: 37;
pro-War platform of Liberal Party, vi: 39;
recruiting opposed by Socialists, vi: 40;
conscription opposed by Labor Party, vii: 41, 42;
conscription defeated by referendum, Oct., '16, vi: 41;
labor unrest, '16, vi: 42;
Labor Party split on conscription, vi: 42;
coalition government formed, Feb., '17, vi: 42;
"Commonwealth War Government" takes office, Feb., '17, vi: 42;
Australian Workers' Union,
similar to American Federation of Labor, vi: 45;
"One Big Union" movement, vi: 45;
labor vote defeats conscription referendum second time,
'17, vi: 45;
war legislation by Nationalists, vi: 45;
soviet government favored by labor, vi: 46;
war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107;
rise in public debt, xii: 114;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179.
Austria, Republic established, Nov. 13, '18, vi: 318;
Germany acknowledges independence of, '19, xii: 197;
area and population, xii: 279.
Austria-Hungary:
Army, German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4;
pre-War organization, iii: 7, 105;
requirements reduced, '15, vi: 311;
for military operations, _see_ name of campaign.
Blockade of, vi: 253;
food shortage due to, vi: 312.
Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404;
battle deaths, v: 363;
Aug., '14--Aug., '15, vi: 311;
money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25.
Coal, production, '13--'17, xii: 48.
Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, xii: _Intro. x._
Declarations of war,
ultimatum to Serbia, July 23, '14,
i: 112, 375, vi: 306, 357, xi: 4;
on Serbia, July 28, '14, 1: 115, 375;
reasons for war on Serbia, i: 243;
on Russia, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375;
by Great Britain, Aug. 12, '14, i: 375;
on Belgium, Aug. 28, '14, 1: 375;
by Rumania, Aug. 27, '16, 1: 386;
diplomatic relations broken with U. S., Apr. 8, '17, i: 389;
by China, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390;
by U. S., Dec. 7, '17, i: 393.
Food shortage, vi: 312, 314, 317, 321;
forces demand for peace, vi: 314, 317;
cause of revolt, Apr., '19, vi: 321.
Foreign policy,
German foreknowledge of ultimatum to Serbia, i: 8, 133-136, 252;
not a colonizing nation, i: 37;
Austro-Prussian War, 1866, i: 41;
world position in 1871, i: 47;
gets control of Bosnia-Herzegovina, i: 50;
subservience to Germany, i: 79, 133;
joins Triple Alliance, i: 95;
annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina, i: 109;
ultimatum to Serbia, July 23, '14,
i: 112, 375, vi: 306, 357, xi: 4;
during last days before War, i: 126;
unity of Austro-German interests, i: 208;
reasons for war on Serbia, i: 243;
antagonism to Russia, vi: 306;
antagonism to Italy, vi: 308;
ambition to incorporate Jugoslavs in Empire, vi: 355;
opposition to Serbian aspirations, vi: 356;
anti-Slav policy, vi: 360;
suppression of Czechoslovak nationalism, vi: 396.
Internal conditions, race rivalries, i: 21, ii: 63, vi: 306;
loyalty of German elements, vi: 307;
revolution suppressed, '14, vi: 308;
effect of Italian declaration of war, vi: 309;
parliamentary disturbances, '15--'16, vi: 311;
labor troubles, vi: 311, 314;
revolution threatened, '16, vi: 313;
revolution breaks out, '18, vi: 317;
Republic established, Nov. 13, '18, vi: 318;
Bolshevism, vi: 319.
National anthem, xi: 332.
Navy, development, iv: 364;
surrender to Jugoslavs, vi: 364;
_Monarch_ sunk, x: 290;
_Wien_ sunk, x: 290;
_Viribus Unitis_
sunk by Italians in Pola harbor, x: 297-303.
Peace negotiations,
proposal to U. S. through Swedish minister, Sept. 16, '18,
i: 397;
appeal to U. S., Oct. 7, '18, i: 399;
asks U. S. for armistice, Oct. 27--29, '18, i: 399;
Emperor Charles' secret peace offer, '17, ii: 63, vi: 315;
asks Italy for armistice, ii: 252;
armistice signed, Nov. 3, '18, iii: 400, vi: 271, xi: 52;
Peace Treaty terms, vi: 321;
armistice terms, vi: 364.
Population, in 1860, i: 40;
German, i: 79, vi: 306;
Hungarian, i: 79;
Slav, i: 79.
Press, _Tageblatt_ demands war, '14, vi: 306;
attack on Italy, '15, vi: 310;
attitude on labor strikes, '18, vi: 314;
_Arbeiter Zeitung_ preaches radicalism, vi: 315;
comment on peace terms, vi: 322.
Prisoners of war, iii: 404.
War cost, money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
average daily war cost, xii: 106;
total war cost, July, '14--Oct., '19, xii: 107;
rise in national debt, xii: 114.
Authe, seized by 79th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.
Autocracy, destruction of, by War, i: _Intro. x._
Autrecourt, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269.
Averescu, Gen., Rumanian commander in Wallachia, iii: 222.
Aviators, _see_ Aeronautics.
Avlona, occupied by Italy, Dec., '14, vi: 120.
Avocourt Woods, French retire from, Mar. 21, '16, i: 384;
scene of fierce battle at Verdun, iii: 51.
_Ayesha, S. S._, _Emden's_
landing party escapes from Keeling Island in, iv: 186, 191;
abandoned, iv: 192.
Aylmer, Gen.,
commands British force sent to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 184.
Ayres, Col. Leonard P.,
extracts from _The War with Germany--a Statistical Summary_,
by, xii: 280-289.
B
Babtie, Surg.-Gen.
responsibility for lack of medical service in Mesopotamia,
iii: 367.
"Babushka," pet name of Catherine Breshkovsky, q.v., ix: 348.
Baccarat sector, assigned to A. E. F., v: 11;
training area for 42nd Div., v: 118.
Bacteriology, in disease prevention, vii: 253.
Badonviller, German attack at, v: 21, 28.
Bagdad,
captured by British, Mar. 11, '17,
i: 389, ii: 92, iii: 187, xi: 29, 48;
description, iii: 332.
Bagdad Railway, German plan for connecting Berlin with Bagdad, i: 80;
Anglo-German agreement for joint control, '14, i: 200, ii: 13, 295;
menaced by Serbia, ii: 33;
"largest single factor in bringing on the War," ii: 290;
beginnings, 1871, ii: 291;
Anatolian Railway Co. gets concessions in Turkey, 1888, ii: 292;
Germans get concession to build road from Haidar Pasha to Angora,
1888, ii: 292;
British oppose German concessions, ii: 292;
German Emperor visits Sultan, 1898, ii: 292;
_La Société Impériale Ottomane du Chemin de Fer de Bagdad_,
terms of concession to, ii: 292;
Germans get privilege to extend line to Bagdad, ii: 292;
clash of European interests, ii: 292;
compromise of clashing interests, ii: 294;
sections finished, Aug., '14, ii: 294;
Pan-German policy, ii: 296;
internationalization, ii: 297;
cut by fall of Nish, Oct., '18, iii: 213;
opened, '15, vi: 258;
route, xi: 4.
Bagley, Lieut.-Com. David W.,
commander of U. S. destroyer _Jacob Jones_,
sunk by U-boat, iv: 346.
Bailey, Maj.-Gen. Charles J., commands 81st Div., v: 197.
Bailleul, captured by Germans, iii: 360.
Bainsizza Plateau, Italian offensive, Aug., '17, ii: 58, iii: 240.
Baker, Newton D., biography, ix: 323-326;
conference with Marshal Foch at Trois Fontaines, xii: 285.
Bakeries, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 333, 400.
Bakhireff, Vice-Adm.,
commands Russians in battle of Riga Gulf, iv: 366.
Balance of Power, early wars for, i: 28.
Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur James, biography, ix: 40-44;
visits America, ix: 44.
Balkan League, i: 204.
Balkan Wars, '12--'13, i: 109, 204;
unsatisfactory peace settlement, i: 110;
Sir Edward Grey's efforts to prevent general European war, i: 198;
London Ambassadorial Conference, i: 204;
London Peace Conference, i: 204;
war between Bulgaria and rest of Balkan Allies, i: 206;
Rumanian intervention, i: 206;
peace terms, i: 206;
German incitement, i: 207, ii: 27.
Balkans, conflagration center of World War, i: 1, 89;
international position in '14, i: 62;
area, i: 90, 92;
independent states in, i: 92;
population in '14, i: 92;
racial mixtures, i: 92;
policy of Great Powers, i: 92, 114;
German dynasties in, i: 96;
German designs on, ii: 27;
civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 405.
Ball, Capt., air duel with Capt. Immelmann, x: 209-211, xi: 228.
Ballin, Herr, head of Hamburg-American Line, i: 264.
Ballistics,
computation of air resistance to flying projectile, viii: 113.
Balloons, _see_ Aeronautics.
Ballou, Maj.-Gen. Charles C., commander 92nd Div., v: 145.
Baltic Provinces, early history, vi: 226;
Russian duplicity in, vi: 226;
under domination of German landlords, vi: 226;
revolt, '05, vi: 227;
form Lettish Legion, vi: 227;
Bolshevik propaganda in, vi: 228;
overrun by Germans, vi: 230;
ask recognition by Peace Conference, vi: 238.
_Baltimore_,
U. S. cruiser used in laying North Sea mine barrage, iv: 326.
Bamberg, seat of Bavarian Government during Spartacide revolution,
Mar.--May, '19, vi: 300.
Bamford, Brig.-Gen.,
commander 1st Div., v: 250;
of 26th Div., v: 252.
Banitza, occupied by Bulgars, Aug. 19, '16, iii: 208.
Banking Indicator, on airplanes, viii: 221.
Bantheville, captured by 90th Div., Oct. 22, '18, v: 252.
Bapaume,
taken by British, Aug. 28,'18, i: 397, ii: 157;
British objective in Somme battle, iii: 55;
captured by British, Mar. 17, '17, iii: 68.
Bar-sur-Aube, rest area for 26th Div., v: 118.
Barbed wire,
French use in trench defense, v: 13;
impenetrable cloth as protection against, viii: 68;
value as defensive barrier, viii: 136, 152;
French devices for destruction of, viii: 152-155;
Breton-Prepot cutter, viii: 152;
Gabet-Aubriot electric torpedo for destruction of, viii: 154.
Barger, Pvt. Charles D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.
Barkeley, Pvt. David B., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
Barkley, Pvt. John L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 390.
Barracks, Adrian type, v: 8;
constructed in France by A. E. F., v: 332, 400.
Barrage, North Sea,
Allied mine, iv: _Intro. xi_, 324-330, viii: 274;
artillery, viii: 136-140, x: 162.
Barrett, Sir Arthur,
commands British troops in Mesopotamia, iii: 180.
Barricourt Wood,
taken by 89th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262;
heights captured by Fifth Corps, v: 391.
Barrow, Sir Edmund,
responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364.
Bart, Pvt. Frank J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388.
Barth, Brig.-Gen. Charles H., commander 81st Div., v: 197.
Bartlett, Brig.-Gen.,
commander, Expeditionary Brigade, Coast Artillery Corps, v: 305.
Barton, Clara, mother of American Red Cross, vii: 12.
Baruch, Bernard M.,
Chairman, U. S. War Industries Board, xii: 72;
member Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense,
xii: 116.
Base hospitals, _see_
Hospitals;
Red Cross.
Bases, German, in France, ii: 86.
Basra,
occupied by British Nov. 21, '14, i: 376, iii: 180;
British base for Mesopotamian expedition, ii: 91, iii: 330.
Battalion of Death, Russian women's, x: 183-185, xi: 205.
Battles:
Aisne,
Sept., '14, i: 375, 376, iii: 36;
Apr.--Nov., '17, iii: 73-76;
May 27--June 5, '18, iii: 92-95, 129-135.
Allenstein, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375.
Amiens, ii: 152, 281, 314, iii: 389.
Ardahan, Jan. 3--4, '15, i: 378.
Argonne, _see_ Meuse-Argonne Offensive.
Arras, Apr. 9, '17, ii: 341, iii: 70-72.
Artois, May 9, '14, iii: 42.
Augustovo, iii: 118.
"Battle of France," Sept.--Nov., '18, iii: 100-103.
Belleau Wood, iii: 94, v: 135-139, 192, 382, xi: 43.
Cambrai,
Nov., '17,
i: 392, 393, ii: 280, iii: 80-82, 337-340, viii: 142, 156;
Sept.--Oct., '18, ii: 281, iii: 101, v: 213, xi: 52.
Cantigny,
May 28, '18, i: 395;
'18, iii: 94, v: 31-34, 122, 124-128, 141, 380.
Champagne,
Sept., '15, i: 382, ii: 25, iii: 46;
July 15--17, '18, v: 47, 129, 148-158.
Château-Thierry,
May 31--June 3, '18, v: 35, 130, 134-135, 381-382, xi: 43.
Chemin des Dames, May 27, '18, i: 395, ii: 76, 154, v: 132.
Coronel, '14, i: 376, iv: 64-68, ix: 308.
Ctesiphon, iii: 182, 367, 384.
Dogger Bank, Jan. 24, '15, iv: 246-253.
Falkland Islands, Dec. 8, '14, i: 376, iv: 69-85, ix: 308.
Flanders,
June--July, '17, ii: 56, 343, iii: 38, 40, viii: 299;
_see also_ Yser.
Heligoland Bight, i: 375, iv: 240-243, xii: 205.
Isonzo, _see_ Italian Front.
Jadar, '14, ii: 32, iii: 152.
Jutland, May 31, '16, iv: 99-136, 144-156, 256, 258, xi: 29.
Kars, '15, iii: 260.
Kut-el-Amara,
i: 382, 385, 389, iii: 181-183, 318-320, 364, xi: 29.
Le Cateau, '14, ii: 162, 174, 176-182, iii: 23.
Liége, i: 143, 375, ii: 348, iii: 10, xi: 9.
Lys, iii: 91.
Marne,
Sept., '14,
i: 375, ii: 9, 82, 103, 138, 140-142, 182-184, 220, 227, 258,
iii: 30-34, xi: 12;
July--Aug., '18,
ii: 77, 154, 322-324, 326,
iii: 95, v: 47-61, 129, 148-183, 382, viii: 148, x: 381-387.
Mazurian Lakes, i: 378, iii: 113-116, 130.
Messines Ridge, i: 395, ii: 56, iii: 74, 76, 77, 360.
Mons-Charleroi, Aug. 21--23, '14,
i: 375, ii: 162, iii: 277-281, xi: 10.
Neuve Chapelle, Mar., '15, iii: 41, 375.
Passchendaele Ridge, i: 392, 395, ii: 56, iii: 79, 360, v: 377.
Passenheim, Aug., '14, iii: 116.
Ravaruska, Sept. 4--10, '14, iii: 122.
Riga, Oct. 18, '17, i: 392.
St. Mihiel,
Sept. 20, '14, iii: 37;
Sept. 12, '18,
ii: 84, iii: 99, v: 65-72, 199-212, 309, 384-386, xi: 46.
San, May 15--17, '15, i: 380, iii: 136.
Sarre, Aug., '14, iii: 18.
Somme,
July, '16, i: 386, ii: 44-47, 126, 148, iii: 55-68, 314;
Mar., '18, iii: 86-90, xi: 24;
Aug., '18, ii: 331, xi: 46.
Tannenberg, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375, ii: 24, 228, 353, iii: 112-116.
Vaux, i: 385, ii: 189, iii: 52, 54, 62, 306, 313, 327-329;
_see also_ Verdun.
Verdun,
i: 268, 376, 384, 388, 390, ii: 36-39, 47, 67, 186-189,
iii: 46-55, 61, 62, 79, 302-315, 327-329, viii: 289-291, xi: 22.
Vimy Ridge, i: 46, 47, 70, iii: 343-349.
Ypres,
Nov., '14, i: 376, ii: 144, 170, iii: 41;
Apr., '15, ii: 170, 222, iii: 42, 320;
July--Sept., '17, ii: 128;
Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 359-363.
Yser,
Oct., 14, i: 376, ii: 220, iii: 40;
July, '17, iii: 77.
_See also_ under name of engagement.
Bauer, Herr Gustav,
chosen head of German cabinet, June, '19, vi: 304.
Bauer, Otto,
leader of Austrian Maximalists, vi: 314;
activities, '18, vi: 318;
becomes Minister of Foreign Affairs, '19, vi: 319.
Baulny, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 227.
Bavaria,
socialist republic proclaimed, Nov., '18, vi: 273, 280;
revolt against Kurt Eisner, Feb., '19, vi: 298;
soviet republic proclaimed, Feb., '19, vi: 298, 300;
Revolutionary Tribunals in control of Munich, Mar., '19, vi: 300;
Peasants' Union declares food blockade against Munich,
Mar., '19, vi: 300.
Bavarian Digging Song, xi: 339.
Bayonet fighting, use in modern warfare, viii: 105-110.
Bayonville, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.
Beatty, Adm. Sir David,
at battle of Jutland, iv: 99;
British commander at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240;
at battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246;
arranges for surrender of German fleet, iv: 383;
biography, ix: 283-287.
Beauclaire, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 265.
Beaucourt,
captured by British, Nov. 14, '16, i: 388;
British gain control of valley, Jan., '17, iii: 64.
Beaufort, taken by 89th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.
Beaulencourt-Loupart line, captured by British, Mar., '17, iii: 64.
Beaumont,
taken by Germans, Feb. 23, '16, iii: 48;
Germans driven from, by British, iii: 64;
captured by 2nd and 80th Divs., Nov. 5, '18, v: 266.
Beaune, A. E. F. University at, v: 106, vii: 282.
Beauquesne, training area for 27th Div., v: 290.
Bebel, Herr, personal sketch, vi: _Intro. ix._
Bedouins, join Turks invading Egypt, iii: 190.
Beersheba, captured by British, Oct. 31, '17, iii: 194.
Beirut, taken by French, Oct. 10, '18, iii: 199.
Beit Lekia, taken by British Nov. 19, '17, iii: 194.
Bela Kun, Hungarian Bolshevik leader, activities, vi: 324-326.
Belfort,
defenses of, iii: 2, v: 215;
bombarded by Germans, Jan., '16, iii: 48.
Belgian Relief, _see_ Belgium; War Relief.
_Belgian Prince, S. S._, sunk by U-boat, July 31, '17, iv: 232.
_Belgium, 1918_, poem by Sheril Schell, xi: 84.
Belgium:
Army,
increase in, '09--'12, i: 144;
dependence on Germany for munition supply, i: 234;
German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4;
escapes from Antwerp, Oct. 9, '14, ii: 143;
pre-War organization, iii: 4;
mobilized, June 28, '14, iii: 378;
strength of air service at end of War, viii: 202;
for military operations, _see under_ name of campaign.
Casualties,
total in War, iii: 404;
money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25;
battle deaths, xii: 289.
Coal production '13--'15, xii: 48.
Food, _see_ Relief, below.
Neutrality,
guaranteed by European Powers, 1831, 1839, i: 141, 229;
British policy, history of, i: 141, 222, 224;
defense arrangement with British, '06, i: 143;
German violation,
Aug. 4, '14, i: 144, 223, ii: 8, iii: 8-16, 380, xi: 4;
Bethmann-Hollweg's "Scrap of paper" statement, i: 146;
France pledges to respect, Aug., '14, i: 223, iii: 380;
King Albert appeals to England, i: 223;
violation menace to Great Britain, i: 224;
Sir Edward Grey urges British intervention, Aug. 3, '14, i: 224;
German ultimatum, Aug. 2, '14, i: 227, iii: 380;
German reasons for violation, i: 229, 231, xi: 9;
Bismarck's pledge of guarantee, i: 229;
German admission of injustice of violation, i: 230;
German ultimatum rejected, i: 230. iii: 378-381;
German charge of secret Anglo-Belgian agreement, i: 231;
British offer of help, i: 232;
appeal to England, Aug. 4, '14, i: 233;
German charge of unneutral conduct denied, i: 234;
evidences of trust in German good faith, i: 234;
Lloyd George denounces violation, i: 236;
German disregard of, in planning campaign against France, ii: 4;
military topography of German border, ii: 6;
French consider German invasion improbable, ii: 8;
effect of invasion on result of War, ii: 206;
Ludendorff's justification of violation, ii: 346;
composition of invading forces, iii: 10;
French defenders retire, Aug., '14, iii: 20;
invasion creates national unity, vi: 84;
Bryce Report on atrocities, vi: 84;
deportation of civilian population, vi: 84;
for invasion and military operations,
_see_ name of engagement.
Peace Conference, delegates, xii: 180.
Peace Treaty,
claims against Holland, vi: 89;
acquires Moresnet, xii: 188;
acquires Eupen, xii: 188;
acquires Malmédy, xii: 188;
reparation by Germany, xii: 218.
Prisoners of war, iii: 404.
Relief, Commission for,
in Belgium, vii: 116-144;
famine conditions, vii: 117;
early relief organization, vii: 118;
Herbert Hoover's activities, vii: 119, 124, 136;
_Comité Nationale Belge, de Secours et d'Alimentation_,
vii: 120;
overcoming blockade difficulties, vii: 120-127;
care of children, vii: 134;
American contributions, vii: 139-144;
dependence on imports for existence, xii: 136.
Royal family, ix: 388, xi: 143-145.
War cost,
debt to U.S., xii: 18;
money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
war cost, Aug., '14--Oct., '18, xii: 107;
rise in national debt, xii: 114.
Belgrade,
captured by Austrians, Dec. 2, '14, i: 376, vi: 357;
recaptured by Serbians, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 155, 394, 397;
retaken by Austrians, Oct. 6--8, '15, i: 382, vi: 357.
Belikamen, Serbs rout Austrians at, ii: 32.
Bell, Maj.-Gen. George, Jr., commander 33rd Div., v: 144;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219.
Belleau Wood, battle of,
June, '18, 2nd Div. at, iii: 94, v: 135-139, 382, xi: 43;
strategic importance, v: 138;
renamed "Bois de la Brigade Marine," v: 139;
Gen. Degoutte's praise of A. E. F. at, v: 192.
Bellicourt, position on Hindenburg Line, v: 290.
Below, Gen. Otto von, commands 17th German Army, ii: 149.
Benedict XV, Pope, makes peace plea, Aug. 15, '17, i: 390;
offer accepted by Germany, Sept. 21, '17, i: 390;
biography, ix: 405.
Benes, Edward, seeks Allied aid for Bohemia, vi: 397;
member of Czechoslovak provisional government, vi: 399.
Benet-Mercier machine gun, description, viii: 80.
Benson, Admiral William S., biography, ix: 296-298.
Bentinck, Count, Kaiser's host after abdication, Nov., '18, vi: 278.
Berat, occupied by Italians, July 11, '18, i: 397.
Berbers, with Turkish forces invading Egypt, iii: 190.
Berchtold, Count A. J. S. J. K., biography, ix: 143.
Berehaven, Ireland, U. S. naval base, iv: 356.
Bergson, Henri,
French philosopher, on German doctrine of force, i: 152.
Berlin, revolution, Nov., '18, vi: 273-276, 284;
Spartacide uprising, Jan., '19, vi: 287;
Spartacides suppressed by Ebert, vi: 289;
second Spartacide revolution, Mar., '19, vi: 299.
Berlin-Bagdad Railroad, _see_ Bagdad Railway.
Berlin Conference, '85,
divides Africa into "spheres of influence," i: 96.
Berlin, Congress of, 1878,
Russian ambitions in Near East checked, i: 48, 93;
terms of settlement at, i: 93;
defects of settlement, i: 93.
Bernhardi, Gen. Friedrich von,
expounds German Kultur in _Germany and the Next War_, i: 67;
on desirability of a European war, i: 131;
striking quotations from, i: 179.
Bernstein, Herr,
German Socialist leader, opposes war, vi: _Intro. xii._
Bernstorff, Count Johann von,
activities as head of German spy system in U. S., i: 8, x: 326;
biography, ix: 133.
Berny, taken by French, Sept. 17, '16, i: 388.
Bersaglieri, description, ii: 240.
Berthelot, Gen., drives Germans from Vesles to Aisne, '18, ii: 214.
Berzy-le-Sec, captured by 1st Div., July 21, '18, v: 55, 179, 383.
Bessarabia, Russian offensive in, starts, Dec. 24, '15, i: 382;
invaded by Bolsheviki, vi: 350.
Béthincourt, captured by Germans, Mar. 6, '16, i: 384.
Bethmann-Hollweg, Dr. Theobold von,
German Chancellor, justification of Germany, i: 117;
"scrap of paper" statement on Belgian neutrality, i: 146;
statement of reasons for unrestricted submarine warfare, i: 344;
proposes compromise peace, '17, vi: 262;
resigns as Chancellor, July, '17, vi: 266;
biography, ix: 121-126;
admission of German guilt, ix: 121;
opposition to ruthless warfare, ix: 126.
"Big Bertha,"
German long-range gun, bombards Paris, viii: 45-47, xi: 271-274.
Birdwood, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William, personality, iii: 375.
Births, decrease due to War, statistics, iii: 406.
Bishop, Col. Wm. A., British ace, story of, x: 215-221, xi: 229.
Bismarck, Prince Otto von, builder of German Empire, i: 41;
Near East policy, i: 48;
forced to resign Chancellorship, 1890, i: 73, 97, ix: 359;
forms Triple Alliance, i: 95;
colonial policy, i: 97;
representative of Junker class, i: 258;
plan for universal empire, ii: 2;
publishes von Moltke's views on German strategy, ii: 14.
Bismarck, Major von, German military attaché in Switzerland, vi: 380.
Bissell, Lieut.,
commands detachment defending bridge at Château-Thierry,
May 31, '18, v: 134.
Bissolati, Signor,
Italian political leader, advocates Jugoslav conciliation, vi: 362;
against policy of aggrandizement, vi: 366.
Bistritz, taken by Rumanians, Sept. 4, '16, iii: 218.
Bitlis, captured by Russians, Mar. 2, '16, iii: 263;
evacuated by Russians, Aug. 8, '16, i: 386;
recaptured by Russians, Aug. 26, '16, i: 386.
Bitur, taken by British, Nov., '17, iii: 194.
"Black Cobra Bill,"
nickname of "Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of India,"
vi: 78.
_Black Prince_,
British warship lost at battle of Jutland, iv: 121.
Black Sea, Russia gains freedom of action in, 1871, i: 47;
Turkish bombardment of ports, Oct. 28, '14, i: 376.
Blackwell, Pvt. Robert L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
Blanc Mont,
captured by French and Americans, Oct. 5, '18, v: 241, 255, 257.
Blankets, for U. S. Army, v: 358.
Bligny, German repulse at, July 15, '18, v: 51.
"Blimps," U. S., scout dirigibles, viii: 245, 255.
Blind, Committee for Men Blinded in Battle, activities, vii: 99;
Permanent Relief War Fund, activities, vii: 255-259;
Red Cross Institute for, vii: 259;
number blinded in War, vii: 260.
Blinkers, use of, in action, v: 319.
Bliss, Gen. Tasker H.,
U. S. representative on Supreme War Council, iii: 84.
Blockade, of Allies by Germany, _see_ Submarine Warfare;
of Germany by Allies, _see_ Germany, Blockade of.
_Blücher_,
German cruiser sunk at Dogger Bank, eye-witness account, iv: 247.
Blue and Gray (29th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Blue Ridge (80th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Bobo, Capt. Stephen N.,
story of his band of "rough-neck" weaklings, x: 49.
Boehm-Ermolli, Gen., commands Austrians relieving Przemysl, iii: 132.
Boers, rebel against British, '14, vi: 49;
Gen. Hertzog leader of rebellion, vi: 49;
aid Germans in Southwest Africa, '14, vi: 50;
_see_ also South Africa, Union of.
Bohemia, Diet suppressed by Austria-Hungary, '15, vi: 311;
early history, vi: 396;
oppression by Austria-Hungary, vi: 396;
press comment on Czech loyalty, '14, vi: 396;
formation of army, '17, vi: 398;
National Council, vi: 399;
_see also_ Czechoslovakia.
Boirault tank, viii, 153.
Boiselles, taken by French, Jan. 17--18, '15, i: 378.
Bolivia,
severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 13, '17, i: 389;
Peace Conference, delegate to, xii: 180.
Bolo Pasha, French traitor, pro-German plots, vi: 105, x: 340-344.
Bolshevism, fallacy of, i: _Intro. xi._;
doctrines, vi: 148, ix: 112, xi: 33;
as product of high cost of living, xii: _Intro. xiii_;
in: Australia, revolutionary spirit among labor, vi: 45.
Austria, rise and overthrow, '19, vi: 319.
Bulgaria, outbreak in, vi: 346.
Czechoslovakia, anti-Bolshevik feeling, vi: 400.
Finland, provisional government established, Nov., '17, vi: 198;
suppressed by Mannerheim, '18, vi: 200.
Germany, _see_ Spartacides.
Hungary, riots, Jan.--Feb., '19, vi: 324;
success, Mar., '19, vi: 325.
India, propaganda stirs unrest, vi: 77.
Poland, spread in, vi: 223.
Russia,
peace of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, Mar. 3, '18,
ii: 272, VI: 183;
propaganda among German troops, '18, ii: 322;
Russian troops incited to desert and revolt,
iii: 269, vi: 155, 164;
doctrines, vi: 148, ix: 112, xi: 33;
navy demoralized, vi: 155, 164;
Kornilov rebellion defeated, vi: 169;
movement against Kerensky spreads, Oct., '17, vi: 173;
arguments used to win populace, vi: 175;
Bolsheviki call on Soviets to seize government, Nov. 2, '17,
vi: 175;
increasing power of movement, Oct., '17, vi: 177;
overthrow Kerensky and seize government, vi: 177-183;
Lenin announces platform, Nov. 8, '17, vi: 179;
dictatorship of proletariat, vi: 181;
Bolshevik land program, vi: 181;
opposition of middle class functionaries, vi: 181;
Russian secret treaties made public, vi: 183;
Constituent Assembly dissolved, Jan. 18, vi: 185;
Red Army raised, vi: 185;
reign of terror, vi: 187;
state of war declared with Entente, vi: 187;
Princes' Island Conference proposed by Peace Conference,
vi: 188;
Finland used as base of operations. '15, vi: 198;
progress in Letvia, vi: 228;
financing German Spartacides, vi: 281;
connection with Maximalists, vi: 314;
Lenin's defense of tyrannical methods, ix: 115;
currency inflation, xii: _Intro. xiii._
Siberia, opposition in, vi: 189.
Bombs:
Aerial, viii: 221-225.
Depth, evolution of, iv: 307;
for combating U-boats, iv: 317;
development by U. S. Navy, iv: 330;
launching mechanism, iv: 331;
invention of "Y" gun, iv: 332;
description, viii: 281, xi: 239.
Illuminating, drop bombs, viii: 76.
Bona, bombarded by _Breslau_, Aug. 4, '14, iv: 14.
Bone, Fl.-Com. R. J.,
battle with German planes invading England, x: 237.
_Bonnet Rouge_, traitorous French newspaper, vi: 105.
Books, demand for, in A. E. F. schools, vii: 282.
Bordeaux, French government moves to, Sept. 3, '14, i: 375;
embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395.
Borden, Sir Robert, Premier of Canada, vi: 24;
urges increase of Foreign Service Army, Jan., '16, vi: 27.
"Bore" of gun, defined, viii: 111.
Boris, Czar of Bulgaria,
succeeds to throne following abdication of Ferdinand, '18, vi: 347.
Boselli, Signor, forms coalition Italian cabinet, June, '16, vi: 127.
Bosnia-Herzegovina, annexed by Austria, '08, i: 109, vi: 356;
devastated, '18, vi: 363.
Bosphorus, bombarded by Russian warships, Mar. 28, '15, i: 378.
Botchkareva (Butchkareff),
Ensign Vera, commander of Battalion of Death, x: 183-185, xi: 205.
Botha, Gen. Louis,
commander of British South African troops, iii: 253;
policy as Prime Minister of Union of South Africa, vi: 47;
biography, ix: 191-193.
Bott, Capt. Alan,
British ace, experiences as Turkish prisoner, x: 235-237.
Bourassa, Henri, Canadian Nationalist leader, vi: 30;
opposition to Canadian participation in War, vi: 30.
Bouresches, objective in Belleau Wood action, v: 37, 133, 137.
Bourgeois, Leon, advocate of League of Nations, xii: 155.
Bourmont, training area for 2nd Div., v: 6.
_Bouvet_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
sunk by mine, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35, 47, 375.
Bovington, U. S. Tank School at, v: 314.
Boy-Ed, Capt. Karl, German Naval Attaché in U. S., dismissed, i: 276;
share in passport frauds, i: 315;
German arch-spy in U. S., x: 329.
Boy Scouts, war-time activities, British, xi: 94;
Belgian, xi: 98;
French, xi: 98;
American, xi: 100-116.
Boycott, anti-German, Allied proposals for, xii: 102.
Boyemia River, French withdraw to, in Salonika Campaign, iii: 204.
Boyle, Lieut.-Com. E. C.,
commander of British submarine _E-14_, iv: 209.
Boyon Wood, taken by 18th and 28th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.
_Brabançonne, La_, Belgian national hymn, xi: 327.
Brabant, A. E. F. engineers bridge Meuse at, Oct. 8, '18, v: 245.
Bradley, Brig.-Gen. Alfred E., Chief Surgeon, A. E. F., v: 345.
Brady, Father John J., heroic chaplain of U. S. Marines, x: 100.
Brandeville, occupied by 5th Div., Nov. 7, '18, v: 271.
Brazil, German population of, i: 79;
severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 11, '17, i: 389;
declares war on Germany, Oct. 26, '17, i: 392, vi: 390;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180.
Bread, daily consumption by A. E. F., v: 330.
Breguet bombing airplanes, viii: 224.
Breheville, taken by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272.
_Bremen_,
German cruiser sunk by British submarine, Dec. 18, '15, i: 382.
Bremen, Spartacide uprising in, Feb., '19, vi: 294.
Breshkovsky, Catherine,
leader of Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party, vi: 148;
prophecy on Russia, ix: 231;
biography, ix: 348.
_Breslau_, German cruiser,
outwits Allied fleets and escapes to Bosphorus, Aug., '14,
i: 375, iv: 13;
sunk, Jan. 20, '18, i: 393.
Brest, embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 396.
Brest-Litovsk, captured by Germans, Aug. 25, '15, i: 381, iii: 138.
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of,
between Russia and Germany, a dictated "German peace,"
ii: 63, vi: 183, vi: 268;
effect of Austro-Hungarian demands for peace on, vi: 314;
abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, '19, xii: 205.
_Bretelle_, definition of, v: 16.
Breton, J. L., inventor of armored barbed-wire cutter, viii: 152.
Briand, Aristide, forms French Cabinet, Oct., '15, vi: 100.
Bridges, pontoons, viii: 299;
portable steel, viii: 301.
Brieulles-sur-Bar, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.
Brieuvilles-sur-Meuse,
action in Meuse-Argonne battle at, Sept. 27, '18, v: 226.
Briey, iron area coveted by Germans, ii: 6.
_Brilliant_, British cruiser in Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262.
Briquenay, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 91.
_Bristol_,
British warship in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70.
Bristol airplanes, viii: 203.
_Britannia_, British battleship torpedoed, Nov. 9, '18, i: 399.
_Britannic_,
British hospital ship sunk by mine, Nov. 21, '16, i: 389.
British American War Relief Fund, vii: 99.
Brody, captured by Russians, July 28, '16, i: 386, iii: 120, 145.
_Broke_,
British destroyer, night battle with German destroyers, x: 293-295.
Browning, Vice-Adm. Sir Montague E.,
head of British delegation to U. S., iv: 157.
Browning machine-guns, description, viii: 84-87;
U. S. production figures, xii: 284.
Brunehilde position, location, v: 84.
Brusiloff, Gen. Alexei Alexeievitch,
commands Russian invasion of Galicia, '16, ii: 42, 235, iii: 119;
biography, ix: 232-235.
Brussels, occupied by Germans, Aug. 20, '14, iii: 14;
German entry described by Richard Harding Davis, iii: 271-273.
_Brussels_, Capt. Fryatt's ship, x: 265.
Bryan, William Jennings, policy on German submarine warfare, i: 321;
resigns as Secretary of State, i: 321.
Buchan, John, description of Mons retreat, iii: 277-281.
Bucharest, captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222.
Bucharest, Treaty of,
between Rumania and Central Powers, May 6, '18, i: 395, vi: 352;
Bulgarian attitude on, vi: 339.
Buck, Maj.-Gen. Beaumont B.,
cited for gallantry at Berzy-le-Sec, v: 180;
promoted to major-general, v: 182;
commands 3rd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202.
Buckeye (37th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Budapest, Bolshevik riots in, '18--'19, vi:323.
Buenz, Dr. Karl, German secret agent in U. S., x: 331.
Buffaloes (92nd Division), _see_ U. S., Army.
Bukovina, occupied by Russians, iii: 122.
Bulair Lines, Gallipoli defenses, iv: 24.
Bulgaria, German ruler of, i: 96;
defeat and surrender to Allies, Sept. 30, '18,
i: 399, ii: 94, 96, 216, iii: 213, vi: 347, xi: 48;
key to Balkan situation, ii: 28;
tool of Germany, ii: 28;
enmity for Serbia, ii: 32;
reasons for siding with Germany, ii: 32;
enters War, Oct. 14, '15, ii: 33, vi: 343;
Ludendorff's reasons for collapse of, ii: 329;
mobilizes against Serbia, iii: 156, vi: 342;
invades Rumania, Sept. 2, '16, iii: 218;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
casualties, iii: 404, xii: 289;
effect of surrender on German morale, vi: 270;
racial characteristics, vi: 338;
desire for Balkan supremacy, vi: 339;
geographical position, vi: 341;
attitude toward Allies, vi: 341;
proclaims neutrality, '14, vi: 341;
terms for entering War, vi: 341;
antagonism toward Russia, vi: 342;
Agrarian Party against War, vi: 343;
result of Teutonic alliance, vi: 344;
cession of Demotika to, by Turkey, vi: 344;
friction with Germany, vi: 344;
attitude toward Russian Revolution, vi: 344;
dispute with Turkey, '18, vi: 345;
Bolshevism in, vi: 346;
terms of armistice with Allies, vi: 347;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
war cost, Oct., '15--Oct., '19, xii: 107;
rise in national debt, xii: 114;
for military operations, _see_ name of campaign.
Bullard, Lieut.-Gen. Robert Lee,
in command of Third Army Corps, A. E. F., Aug., '18,
v: 62,167, 189, 383;
of Second Army, Oct., '18, v: 83, 246, 390;
of Toul sector, Jan., '18, v: 115;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219, 388;
biography, ix: 218-221.
Bullets, _see_ Ammunition.
Bülow, Gen. von,
commands German army in first Marne battle, ii: 184, iii: 10;
on Italian Front, iii: 247.
Bülow, Prince Bernhard von, biography, ix: 128-131.
Bulson, captured by 42nd Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269.
_Bulwark_, British battleship blows up, Nov. 26, '14, i: 376.
Bundesrat, German, composition and powers, i: 71, 156.
Bundy, Maj.-Gen. Omar, commander, 2nd Div., v: 109, 132;
biography, ix: 223-226.
Burat, captured by Bulgars, Jan. 23, '16, i: 384.
Burdick, "Ma," Salvation Army mother in France, vii: 384.
Bures, training area for 1st Div., v: 6.
_Buresk, S. S._, _Emden's_ collier, iv: 188.
Burney, Vice-Adm. Sir Cecil, commands British Channel Fleet, iv: 89.
Burnham, Gen.,
commands 82nd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202.
Burns, use of ambrine in treatment of, viii: 390.
Bushnell, David, Revolutionary War inventor of submarine, iv: 201.
Buzancy, captured by 80th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 217, 264.
Buzzer phone, use of, in action, v: 318.
Byng, Gen. Sir Julian,
commander of British Third Army, ii: 214, iii: 371;
fights battle of Cambrai, Nov., '17, iii: 82, 337-340, viii: 142;
personal traits, iii: 376.
Bzura, scene of fighting in German attack on Warsaw, iii: 129.
C
_Cabinga, S. S._, prize of German raider _Emden_, iv: 172.
Cables,
German submarine surrendered to Allies under Peace Treaty,
xii: 225.
Cableways, Italian aerial, viii: 303-306.
Cadets, Russian political party, aims of, vi: 148.
Cadorna, Gen. Luigi, member of Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84;
Italian commander in Isonzo campaign, iii: 241;
biography, ix: 225-229.
Caillaux, Joseph,
arrested on charge of treason, Jan. 13, '18, i: 393;
accused of traitorous activities, vi: 106.
Caillette Wood, taken by French Oct. 24, '16, i: 388.
Calais, German drive for, iii: 40;
Calais to Persia, Germany's goal in world control plan, '13, ii: 2.
Call, 2nd Lieut. Donald M.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.
Callaghan, Adm. Sir George,
commander of British Grand Fleet,
relieved by Jellicoe, Aug. 5, '14, iv: 88.
Cambrai, German base in France, ii: 86;
first battle of, Nov., '17,
Maj.-Gen. Swinton on work of British tanks at, ii: 280;
Byng's surprise attack, iii: 80, 337-340
(Philip Gibbs's description), viii: 142, 156;
American engineers at, iii: 82;
German prisoners captured, iii: 82;
German counter-offensive, iii: 82;
"best-kept secret of War," iii: 337;
adventures of a tank pilot, iii: 338;
Order of the Day for Tank Corps, Nov. 20, '17, iii: 340;
second battle of, Sept. 27--Oct. 10, '18, ii: 281, v: 213;
captured by Allies, Oct. 9, '18, xi: 52.
Cambrai-St. Quentin sector,
Allies smash Hindenburg Line, '18, iii: 101.
Cameron, Maj.-Gen. George H., commands 4th Div., May, '18, v: 128;
commands Fifth Corps, St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 386;
commands Fifth Corps in Meuse-Argonne, Sept., '18, v: 219, 388.
Cameroons (Kamerun) conquered by Allies,
Aug., '14--Feb., '16, iii: 252, xii: 279;
area, xii: 279;
population, '16, xii: 279.
_Camilla, S. S._, Belgian Relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230.
Camouflage, use in outwitting U-boats, iv: 311, viii: 343, xi: 241;
for masking machine-guns, v: 287;
development, viii: 136;
in nature, viii: 336;
war uses, viii: 336-344, xi: 277, 291-295.
Camp des Romains fort, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199.
_Campbells Are Coming_, Scotch patriotic air, xi: 334.
Canada, becomes self-governing dominion, 1867, i: 43;
army in Europe, July, '16, iii: 343;
characteristics of fighting forces, iii: 343;
war casualties, iii: 404, 405;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
strength of army, iii: 405;
political conditions, prior to '14, vi: 23;
enthusiastic response to declaration of war, vi: 24;
political situation, Aug., '14, vi: 25;
war donations by provinces, vi: 25;
Conservatives advocate close Imperial Federation, vi: 25;
Premier Borden's view of Canada
as a "participating nation" of British Empire, vi: 25;
Liberal view of Imperial Federation, vi: 26;
voluntary enlistments, vi: 26;
increase in land under cultivation, '15, vi: 26;
increase in food exports, '15, vi: 26;
bilingual schools issue creates race antagonism, vi: 27-28;
Bourassa, Nationalist leader, opposes War, vi: 30;
failure of recruiting among French-Canadians, vi: 31-36;
conscription, problems of, vi: 31-36;
Anglo-Saxons indorse conscription, vi: 31;
labor against conscription, vi: 32;
Liberals support conscription, vi: 32;
Conscription Bill announced, June, '17, vi: 32;
Conscription Bill passed, Aug., '17, vi: 33;
War Franchise Bill, '17, vi: 34;
Catholic Church opposes conscription, vi: 34;
results of election, '17, vi: 35;
pro-conscriptionists form "Unionist" coalition, vi: 35;
secessionist talk, vi: 36;
Quebec draft riots, Mar., '18, vi: 36;
loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2;
coal production, '13--'17, xii: 48;
nationalization plans for railroads, xii: 90;
war cost, Aug., '14--Aug., '19, xii: 107;
rise in public debt, xii: 114;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179;
_see also_ Great Britain.
Canadian sector on Western Front, '17, iii: 343.
_Canadians_, poem by W. H. Ogilvie, x: 318.
Canal du Nord, crossed by Allies, Sept. 25, '18, i: 397.
Canal sector, Ypres to Voormezeele, v: 300.
Canary birds, as gas detectors, xi: 324.
Cannon, _see_ Artillery.
_Canopus_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33;
in Cradock's fleet off Coronel, iv: 64;
in battle of Falklands, iv: 70.
Cantigny,
captured by 1st Div., May 28, '18, i: 395, iii: 94, v: 31, 124;
American casualties at, v: 33, 128, 141;
significance of capture, v: 34;
Pershing's report on capture, v: 380.
Cantonments, U. S., description, xi: 155;
soldiers' life at, xi: 159;
construction of, xii: 125.
_Cap Trafalgar_, armed German liner,
battle with British _Carmania_,
Sept. 14, '14, iv: 199, x: 318-321.
Cape Helles, Turkish fortification at, iv: 42.
Cape Yeni Shehr, Turkish fortifications at, iv: 42.
Caporetto, Italian disaster at,
Oct. 21--Nov. 1, '17, effect on Western Front, ii: _Intro. xx_;
Italian rout before Austrian advance, ii: 246;
wholesale Italian surrenders, ii: 246;
army demoralized, iii: 247;
causes of rout, ii: 248, vi: 129;
retreat checked at the Piave, ii: 250;
effect on Italo-Slav unity, vi: 362.
Caproni triplanes, viii: 223.
Carabinieri, Italian military police, ii: 242.
Carbon dioxide, asphyxiating properties of, viii: 166;
monoxide, poisonous properties of, viii: 166-168.
Carbonyl chloride, _see_ Phosgene.
Carden, Vice-Adm.,
commands British naval forces in Mediterranean,'15, iv: 28;
at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
resigns, Mar. 16, '15, iv: 32.
Carency, French attack at, May 11--12, '15, i: 380.
Carignan-Sedan-Mézières railroad,
vital importance to Germans, v: 387;
threatened by Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 387.
_Carmania_, armed British liner,
battle with German _Cap Trafalgar_,
Sept. 14, '14, iv: 199, x: 318-321.
_Carnarvon_, British cruiser at Falklands, armament of, iv: 70.
_Carnetta, S. S._, Belgian Relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230.
Carniola, clash of Italians and Jugoslavs in, vi: 364.
Carpathian Mts., Russian attempts to cross, '15, ii: 26;
Ludendorff's account of campaigns, ii: 360;
topography, iii: 108;
Russians occupy passes, Sept., '14, iii: 124;
Austrian attacks, Jan.--Mar., '15, iii: 132;
_see also_ Russian Front.
Carpenter, Capt.,
commander of _Vindictive_ at Zeebrugge raid, iv: 263;
account of Zeebrugge raid, iv: 266.
Carrel, Dr. Alexis,
invents Carrel-Dakin treatment for infected wounds,
viii: 369, ix: 312, xi: 289;
wins Nobel prize, '12, ix: 310;
biography, ix: 310-313.
Carrel-Dakin treatment, description, viii: 369-372, ix: 312, xi: 289.
Carso Plateau, description, ii: 244, iii: 239;
Italian advance across, June, '15--Oct., '17, ii: 245;
_see also_ Italian Front.
Carson, Sir Edward,
leader of Ulster opposition to Irish Home Rule, vi: 53, 60;
biography, ix: 50-53.
Cary, Gen. Langle de,
commands a French army at first Marne battle, ii: 184.
Casement, Sir Roger,
hanged for treason, Aug. 3, '16, i: 386, vi: 60, ix: 53;
negotiations with Germany, vi: 57;
captured, vi: 58.
_Cassin_, U. S. destroyer torpedoed, account of, iv: 343.
Castelletto, mined by Italians, viii: 311.
Castelnau, Gen., commands French forces in Lorraine, iii: 16;
stops Germans at Roye, Sept., '14, iii: 38;
appointed Chief of Staff, Dec., '14, iii: 46;
at Verdun, iii: 304.
Casualties, among troops attacking with tanks, ii: 284;
total in War, iii: 403;
classified by belligerents, iii: 404;
civilian deaths due to War, iii: 405;
per cent. of head wounds, viii: 64;
in World War compared with all other wars, 1800--1913, xii: 25;
money equivalent of man-power lost, military and civilian, xii: 25;
total battle deaths, by countries, xii: 288;
_see also_ under campaign, battle, and country.
Cattaro, bombarded by French and British, Aug. 24, '14, i: 375.
Caucasus, military operations in, Oct., '14--Jan., '15, ii: 91-92;
iii: 260-263, xi: 29;
early history, vi: 231;
conflict of racial interests, vi: 231;
Russian misrule in, vi: 231;
demand for self-government, '05, vi: 231;
effect of Russian Revolution, vi: 232;
rise of new nations under Russian Revolution, vi: 233.
Caudron bombing airplanes, viii: 223.
Causes, of War,
summarized by Dr. Chas. W. Eliot, i: _Intro. vii_;
complexity of, i: 2;
conflict of political systems, i: 4;
conflict of nationalistic aspirations, i: 5;
element of individual responsibility, i: 5;
German desire for war, i: 8;
colonial rivalry, i: 14;
Anglo-German economic rivalry, i: 78, 121;
German ambitions for world power, i: 83;
murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, i: iii;
Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg's statement of, i: 117;
Vice-Chancellor Helfferich's statement of, i: 119;
Dr. Dernburg's statement of, i: 120;
statement of German "Intellectuals" on, i: 120;
racial element in, i: 120;
German territorial ambitions, i: 122;
German excuse of Russian menace, i: 137, 139;
German statement of English responsibility, i: 193;
Prince Lichnowsky denies Anglo-German commercial jealousy, i: 193;
Ludendorff's analysis of, ii: 346;
_see also_ Germany, Responsibility for War.
Cavalry, function in Palestine campaign, ii: 93;
Field-Marshal Haig on value of, ii: 120;
German military critic on importance of, ii: 260;
use in St. Mihiel drive, v: 206;
_see also_ under armies of each country.
Cavell, Edith, executed Oct. 12, '15, i: 382;
story of, x: 172;
betrayed by Gaston Quien, x: 352.
"C. C. Gear,"
for timing machine-gun fire through airplane propeller blades,
viii: 214-216.
Cecil, Lord Robert, advocate of League of Nations, xii: 155.
Cemeteries for A. E. F. dead in France, v: 331, 400.
Central Committee for Relief of Jews Suffering Through the War,
vii: 352;
_see also_ Jews.
Central Council of Delegates meets in Berlin, Dec. 16, '18, vi: 283.
Central Powers, unity of command established, ii: 330;
general strategic plan on Eastern Front, iii: 110;
mobilized strength, iii: 430;
war casualties, iii: 404;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
peace proposals, Dec. 12, '16, vi: 313;
Anti-Slav policy, vi: 360;
war cost, xii: 27, 107;
rise in national debts, xii: 114;
_see also_
Austria-Hungary;
Bulgaria;
Germany;
Turkey.
Central Records Office, A. E. F., v: 402.
Cereals, shipped to Europe by U. S., '16--'18, xii: 37.
Cerna River, Serb attack on Bulgars at, Sept. 15, '18, iii: 213.
Cernavoda, captured by Teutons, Oct. 25, '16, i: 388, iii: 221.
Cernavoda-Constanza Railway, Teutons gain control of, iii: 221.
Cettinje, captured by Austrians, Jan. 13, '16, i: 384.
Châlons, abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375;
taken by French, Sept. 11, '14, i: 375;
system of trench defenses, v: 44.
Chamberlain, Austen,
responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364.
Chamberlaine, Brig.-Gen. Wm.,
commands Railway Reserve, First Army, A. E. F., v: 305.
Champagne, French offensive in, Sept., '15, ii: 25, iii: 46;
as possible sector for German spring drive, '18, ii: 67;
German offensive checked, July 15--17, '18,
v: 47, 129, 155, viii: 146-148;
A. E. F. participation in Allied defensive, July 15--17, '18,
v: 148-158.
Champigneulle, attacked by 77th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.
Champneuville, captured by Germans, Feb. 27, '16, i: 384.
Chanak, town on Dardanelles, iv: 24;
bombarded by Allies, Mar. 6, '15, iv: 45.
Channel ports, importance to Allies, ii: _Intro. viii_;
German drive for, '18, ii: 75, iii: 38, 359;
opposing views of Viscount French and Joffre on importance of,
ii: 172;
Belgian coast evacuated by Germans, Oct., '18, ii: 214.
_Chant du Départ, Le_, French patriotic song, xi: 333.
Chapman, Victor,
member of Lafayette Escadrille, killed at Verdun, iii: 391.
Charcoal, use in gas masks, viii: 176.
_Charge of the Tank Brigade_,
poem by Vilda Sauvage Owens, xi: 267.
_Charlemagne_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31.
Charleroi, captured by Germans, Aug. 21--23, '14, i: 375.
Charles Francis, Emperor of Austria-Hungary,
ascends throne, Nov. 21, '16, i: 388;
secret letter to Prince Sixtus asking for peace,
Mar., '17, ii: 63, 315;
conciliatory policy, vi: 313;
overthrown by Socialist revolution, '18, vi: 317;
letter of appeal to King Ferdinand of Rumania, vi: 317;
leaves Austria, Mar. 23, '19, vi: 319;
biography, ix: 371-373.
Charpentry, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 27, '18, v: 227.
Chartèves, captured by 3rd Div., v: 383.
Chasseurs, description, xi: 189.
Château-Thierry captured by Germans, June 1, '18, ii: 154, iii: 93;
Ludendorff on A. E. F. fighting at, ii: 320;
re-occupied by A. E. F. and French, July 21, '18, iii: 96, v: 184;
German attempts to cross Marne at, repulsed by A. E. F.,
May 31--June 3, '18, v: 35, 130, 134-135, 381-382, xi: 43;
location and importance, v: 133;
_see also_ Marne, battles of, July, '18.
Châteauroux, U. S. gas-mask factory at, v: 324.
Châtel-Chehery, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243.
Châtillon, Germans force bridgehead at, July 15, '18, v. 51.
Châtillon Wood, taken by 60th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 271.
Chaulnes, captured by British, Mar. 17, '17, iii: 68.
Chaumont, A. E. F. general headquarters, v: 100.
Chaumont-en-Vixen, training area for 1st Div., v: 121.
Chelsea War Refugees Fund, vii: 106.
Chemery, captured by 42nd Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269.
Chemical warfare,
poison gas first used by Germans at battle of Ypres, Apr.,
'15, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316, xii: 285;
first use against Russians, iii: 288-292;
Pierre Loti's description of gassed, iii: 320-322;
German projector batteries, v: 28;
U. S. Chemical Warfare Service, activities, v: 321-327, 401;
gas warfare development, v: 321;
kinds of poison gases used, v: 321, viii: 166-172;
mustard gas, v: 321, viii: 171, xi: 321;
phosgene (carbonyl chloride), v: 321, viii: 168-170;
U. S. production of gas shells, v: 324, 325;
invention in U. S. of super-poisonous gas, viii: _Intro. ix_;
methods of gas attack, viii: 162-165;
gas clouds, viii: 162-164, xi: 316;
gas shells, description and use, viii: 164, xi: 320;
poisoning and asphyxiation, differences, viii: 166-167;
carbon dioxide, asphyxiating properties, 166;
nitrogen, asphyxiating properties, viii: 166;
carbon monoxide, poisonous properties, viii: 166, 167, 168;
chlorine, use in gas attacks, viii: 168-170;
vaporous liquid poisons, use in gas attacks, viii: 170-172;
diphosgene, use in gas attacks, viii: 170;
xylyl bromide (tear gas), use in gas attacks, viii: 170;
chlorpicrin, use in gas attacks, viii: 171;
sneezing gas, use in gas attacks, viii: 171;
Lewisite, new American poison gas, deadliest of all, viii: 172;
methods of defense against gas attacks, viii: 173-179;
oxygen helmets, viii: 173;
gas masks, viii: 174-178;
use of charcoal in gas masks, viii: 176;
fans for blowing away poison gases, viii: 178;
use of neutralizing reagents, viii: 178;
wet blankets as air-locks, viii: 178;
U. S. poison-gas production at Edgewood Arsenal,
viii: 179-187, xii: 285;
gas gangrene, xi: 287;
international law on, xi: 313;
general description, xi: 313-323.
Chemin des Dames, battle and capture of,
by Germans, May 27, '18, i: 395, ii: 76, 154, v: 132;
Germans driven from, '17, iii: 73-76;
training area for 26th Div., v: 117.
_Chemung, S. S._,
American steamer torpedoed, Nov. 26, '16, i: 389.
Chennery, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.
Cheppy, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.
Chiapovano Valley, Italian objective in '17 drive, ii: 58.
Children in the War, xi: _Intro. ix-xiii_, 56-84;
letters of, xi: 60, 74-84;
brave Belgian boys run off to war, xi: 67;
Prudent Marius, the boy dispatch rider, xi: 69;
"The Little Serbian Sergeant," xi: 69;
American relief for European, xi: 84-93.
Chile, neutral during War, vi: 390;
Tacna-Arica dispute with Peru, vi: 390.
Chiles, Capt. Marcellus H.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
Chilly, taken by French, Sept. 4, '16, i: 386.
China, under foreigners' yoke, i: 18;
defeated by Japan in war of 1894, i: 20;
forced to accept "open door" policy, i: 38;
U. S. policy of "open door" in, i: 57;
special Japanese interests in,
recognized by Lansing-Ishii Note, '17, i: 58;
international position of, '14, i: 63;
severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Mar. 14, '17, i: 389;
declares war on Teutonic Allies, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390;
coolie labor in France, ii: 377, xii: 80, 85;
siege of Tsing Tau, iii: 257;
Tsing Tau seized by Germans, 1897, iii: 259;
origin of phrase "yellow peril," vi: 248;
Japanese demands on, '15, vi: 385;
coal production, '13--'15, xii: 48;
refuses to sign Peace Treaty with Germany, xii: 167;
delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180;
German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 206;
Kiao-Chau (Shantung)
transferred to Japan under Peace Treaty, xii: 209;
_see also_ Kiau-Chau; Shantung.
"Chinese Citizen Boy," letter from, xi: 179.
Chipilly Ridge,
33rd Div. breaks German line at, 'Aug. 1, '18, v: 260.
Chloride of lime, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.
Chlorine, first used by Germans in gas attack at Ypres,
Apr., '15, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316, xii: 285;
poisonous properties of, viii: 166, 168;
use in chemical warfare, viii: 168-170;
manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 183.
Chlorpicrin, description of, v: 321;
use in chemical warfare, viii: 171;
manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 185.
_Choising, S. S._,
_Emdens's_ survivors transfer from _Ayesha_ to, iv: 192.
Cholm, claimed by Poland and Ukraine, vi: 248.
Chronoscope, for measuring reaction times, viii: 352.
Chunuk Bair, Turk stronghold at Gallipoli, iii: 172;
Anzac attack on, iii: 173, 356-358;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Churchill, Winston Spencer,
advocates Dardanelles attack, ii: _Intro. x, xiv._, 29, 200;
responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200;
member of British Cabinet War Council, ii: 198;
defends Dardanelles campaign, ii: 205, iv: 56;
biography, ix: 44-47.
Cierges, attacked by 37th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229.
Ciezkowice, captured by Germans, May 2, '15, i: 380.
Cimone, Mt., taken by Italians, July 25, '16, i: 386.
Citizenship, Bureau of, educational work among A. E. F., vii: 282.
Cividale, taken by Germans, Oct. 28, '17, iii: 247.
Civil War, Gen. Maurice on strategy of,
compared with World War, ii: _Intro. xiii._
Civilian deaths, due to War, iii: 405;
money value of, xii: 25.
Clam-Martinitz, Premier of Austria-Hungary, appointment as, vi: 313.
Clarkson, Grosvenor B.,
Director of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 115;
on causes of high cost of living, xii: 142-148.
Clausewitz, Gen. Karl von,
influence on development of German militarism, i: 166.
Clay, Capt. W. L., inventor of armor-piercing bullet, viii: 60.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty,
between U. S. and Great Britain on Panama Canal, i: 86.
Clemenceau, Georges, makes _Bonnet Rouge_ disclosures, vi: 105;
forms new War Cabinet, Nov., '17, vi: 106;
disagrees with Pres. Wilson's peace aims, vi: 108;
publishes letter of Emperor Charles to Prince Sixtus
offering to make peace, vi: 315;
biography, ix: 1-13, xi: 125;
record as Premier, ix: 12;
view of "Fourteen Points," ix: 13;
bibliography, ix: 13;
faith in Foch, ix: 151;
at the Peace Conference, xii: 149-163;
excludes Germans from, xii: 162.
Clermont-Ferrand, U. S. Air-Service Training School at, v: 313.
Cléry-le-Grand, taken by 60th Inf., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262.
Cléry-le-Petit, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 2, '18. v: 264.
Clifford, Rev. J. H.,
"Doc of the Fifth," chaplain of U. S. Marines, x: 32-35.
Clocks, for airplanes, viii: 220.
Cloth, anti-gas, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.
Coal, abundance secret of German power, i: 267;
German production, 1880--1913, i: 267;
seizure of French mines by Germany, ii: 20;
consumption of, by A. E. F., v: 331;
Dutch supply from Germany, vi: 377;
U. S. production, '18--'19, xii: 46;
production by chief countries, '13--'17, xii: 47;
war-time price of, xii: 48;
Peace Treaty requirements for German deliveries
to France, Belgium, Italy, xii: 224.
Coast Guard, Boy Scouts in, xi: 104.
"Coastals," type of U. S. dirigibles, viii: 245, 256.
Coblenz, bombed by Allied airmen, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392;
bridgehead at, occupied by A. E. F., Dec. 8, '18, i: 400, v: 394;
conditions for Allied withdrawal from, xii: 261.
Cochin, Lieut.,
French submarine commander, feat in clearing minefield, iv: 375.
Codes, detection of, v: 319.
Coetquidan, artillery training camp in Brittany, v: 6.
Coffin, H. E.,
Chairman of Committee on Industrial Preparedness, xii: 69;
views on industrial preparedness, xii: 69;
member of Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense,
xii: 116.
Cohalan, Justice,
leads Irish-American movement for Irish Republic, vi: 65.
Cold storage plants, use by A. E. F., v: 331.
Colmar, French advance toward, Aug., '14, iii: 16.
Cologne, bridgehead at, occupied by British, Dec. 6, '18, i: 400;
conditions for Allied withdrawal from, xii: 261.
Colombia, pro-German attitude of, vi: 392.
Colonies, important share of British, in winning War, i: 13;
loss of German, i: 13;
German miscalculation of loyalty of British, i: 14;
share of French, in final victory, i: 14;
European rivalries for, a chief cause of war, i: 14;
era of colonization by European nations, i: 26;
influence on development of naval power, i: 28;
colonization during 19th century, i: 37;
in Far East, i: 38;
expansion important motive in German war policy, ii: 13.
_Columbia, S. S._,
American steamer sunk by U-boat, Nov. 7, '16, i: 388.
Colyer, Sgt. Wilbur E.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388.
Combles, captured by Allies,
Sept. 26, '16, i: 388, iii: 58, 59;
recaptured by Allies, Aug. 30, '18, ii: 158.
_Comité Nationale Belge de Secours et d'Alimentation_,
organization, vii: 120.
Commerce, national rivalries, i: 262;
English blockade threatens ruin of German, vi: 253;
_see also_ Trade, under name of country.
Commerce raiders, German, exploits of _Emden_, iv: 166-194;
_Königsberg_, career in Indian Ocean, iv: 195;
_Karlsruhe_, activities in Atlantic, iv: 196;
_Königin Luise_, operations in English Channel, iv: 197;
_Meteor_, activities in Baltic, iv: 197;
_Moewe_, converted merchantman, iv: 197;
_Seeadler_, iv: 198;
_Wolf_, seaplane carrier, iv: 198.
Commissaries, political, in Russia, demoralize army, iii: 268;
Council of People's, dictatorship of, vi: 181;
_see also_ Russia.
Commission for Relief in Belgium, vii: 116-144.
Committee, of Mercy, vii: 87;
for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105.
Communication, lines of,
French railways available for A. E. F. use, '18, v: 110;
between France and Germany, v: 214.
Compass, for airplanes, viii: 220;
Sperry gyro-compass, viii: 348.
Comrades in Service, vii: 284.
_Conduct of War, The_, by Marshal Foch, ix: 152.
_Confédération Générale du Travail_,
French labor union, political activities, vi: 110.
Congo, Belgian exploitation of, i: 50;
creation of Congo Free State, i: 50.
Congo Conference, '84--'85, i: 16.
Congress of Berlin, 1878, i: 16.
Congressional Medal of Honor,
list and deeds of recipients during War, x: 388-402.
Conner, Brig.-Gen. Fox,
Chief of Operations, A. E. F. General Staff, v: 102.
Connolly, James, Sinn Fein leader,
wounded during Dublin rioting, Apr., '16, vi: 60;
Commandant-General of "Irish Republic," ix: 53.
Conscientious objectors, treatment of, in Great Britain, vi: 8.
Conscription, _see under_ name of country.
Consevoie, U. S. engineers bridge Meuse at, Oct. 8, '18, v: 245.
Constantine, King of Greece, abdicates throne, June 12, '17, i: 390;
opposed to Allied cause, iii: 202;
biography, ix: 380-382.
Constantinesco, M.,
inventor of "C. C. Gear" for regulating airplane fire, viii: 215.
Constantinople, Russian ambitions for, i: 63;
captured by Turks, 1453, i: 90;
Gallipoli base of defense of, ii: 27;
key to early ending of War, ii: 29;
early history, iv: 18;
_see also_
Gallipoli Campaign;
Turkey.
Constantinople Convention, 1888, Suez Canal neutralized, i: 15.
Constanza, captured by Teuton forces, Oct. 23, '16, i: 388, iii: 221;
bombarded by Russian fleet, Nov. 11, '16, i: 388.
Constituent Assembly, Russian,
dissolved by Bolsheviki, Jan., '18, vi: 185.
Contraband, _see_ Germany, Blockade.
Contracts, between German and Allied nationals,
Peace Treaty provisions on status and methods of discharge,
xii: 240-243.
Convoy service, difficulties of, iv: 317.
Cook, Lieut. S. W.,
co-inventor of depth-bomb launching device, iv: 331.
Co-operative Societies, Siberia,
organization of landowning peasants, vi: 191.
Cordite, composition and explosive properties, viii: 6.
Corfu, seat of Serbian government transferred to, iii: 160;
meeting of Jugoslav representatives at, Aug., '17, vi: 359.
_Cormoran, S. S._,
converted into auxiliary cruiser by _Emden's_ crew, vi: 169.
_Cornwall_, British cruiser at Falklands, iv: 70.
Cornwall, Jack, heroic British Boy Scout, xi: 98.
_Cornwallis_, British battleship sunk, Jan. 9, '17, i: 389;
at Gallipoli, iv: 33.
Coronel, battle of, Nov. 1, '14, iv: 64-68, ix: 308;
comparison of opposing fleets, iv: 64, 65;
Von Spee's account of, iv: 66;
British account of, iv: 67;
losses, iv: 68;
Sir Henry Newbolt on strategy of, iv: 68.
Corps, compared with Division, v: 109.
Cossacks, origin, vi: 146;
fight against Bolsheviki, vi: 192.
Cost of living, _see_ Prices;
_also_ under each country.
Cost of War, capitalized value of lives lost, iii: 406, xii: 25;
importance of money as war weapon, xii: 1;
compared with previous wars, xii: 24;
value of property destroyed, xii: 24, 25;
economic loss in man-power, xii: 25;
value of production loss, xii: 26;
value of tonnage sunk, xii: 26;
cost to Allies and Central Powers, xii: 27, 107;
meaning of "cost of war," xii: 105;
difficulties of computing money equivalent, xii: 105;
range of expenditures, xii: 105;
expenditures of different belligerents, xii: 106-107;
methods used to raise war funds, xii: 107-114;
taxation _vs._ borrowing, xii: 107;
rise in national debts of belligerents, xii: 114;
_see also_ under each belligerent.
Costin, Pvt. Henry G., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 394.
Côte de Châtillon, capture of,
by 42nd Div., Oct. 16, '18, v: 84, 250, 252.
Côtes-de-Meuse, taken in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12--13, '18, v: 69.
Cotton, not on British contraband list, ii: 21.
Coulommiers,
Germans beaten back at, in first battle of the Marne, iii: 32.
Council of National Defense, U. S.,
_see_ United States, Council of National Defense.
Courcelette, taken by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388.
Courland, early history, vi: 226;
Republic of, established Apr., '18, xii: 279;
area, xii: 279;
population, Apr., '18, xii: 279;
_see also_ Baltic Provinces.
Courtu, stormed by French in first battle of the Somme, '16, iii: 58.
_Covington_, U. S. transport sunk, July 1, '18, i: 397, iv: 337.
Cracow, Russian operations against, '14, iii: 127.
Cradock, Adm. Sir Christopher,
commander of defeated British fleet in battle of Coronel,
iv: 63, ix: 308.
Crandell, Miss Marion G.,
American "Y" worker with French, killed vii: 313.
_Cressy_, British cruiser, sunk by _U-9_,
Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280, xi: 234.
Crile, Col. George W.,
first demonstrator of nitrous oxide as anæsthetic, vii: 68.
Croats, early history, vi: 354;
antagonism to Italy, vi: 362.
Croix de Guerre, awards to American "Y" workers, vii: 275, 313.
Cromarty, as British naval base, iv: 94.
Cromer, Lord,
chairman of commission to investigate Gallipoli disaster, ii: 197.
Cronkhite, Gen. Adelbert, commander 80th Div., v: 144;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219.
Crothers, Rachel, starts Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 343.
Crown Prince of Germany, _see_ Frederick William.
Crown Prince of Prussia, _see_ Frederick William.
Ctesiphon,
British defeated at, by Turks, Jan. 3, '16, i: 384, iii: 182;
description of Arch of, iii: 331;
collapse of British medical service at battle of, iii: 367.
Cuba, revolt against Spain, i: 56;
declares war on Germany, Apr. 7, '17, i: 389;
debt to U. S., xii: 18;
Peace Conference delegate, xii: 180.
Cuisy Wood, captured by 79th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.
Cukela, 1st Lieut. Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388.
Cumières, captured and lost by Germans, May 23--27, '16, iii: 54, 312.
Cunel, captured by 5th Div., Oct. 14, '18, v: 250.
Curlu, captured by British, July 2, '16, i: 386.
_Cushing_,
American ship attacked by German airplane, Apr. 28, '15, iv: 218.
Custace, Capt. Frank M., war services, x: 322.
Custer (85th) Division, _see_ U. S. Army.
Customs duties, German, regulation of, by Peace Treaty, xii: 229.
Cuxhaven, bombarded by British airmen, Dec. 25, '14, i: 378.
_Cyclops_, U. S. collier, mysterious disappearance, iv: 356.
Cyprus, acquired by Great Britain, i: 93.
Cyrenaica, base of Turkish forces invading western Egypt, iii: 190.
Czar of Russia, _see_ Nicholas II.
Czechoslovakia, anti-Bolshevist forces in Russia, vi: 187, 192;
capture of Vladivostok, June, '18, vi: 192;
attack on Hungary, April--May, '19, vi: 326;
antagonism to Italy, vi: 362;
independence recognized, vi: 399;
German elements rebel against new government, vi: 399;
Socialist movement in, '19, vi: 400;
against Bolshevism, vi: 400;
claims Teschen at Peace Conference, vi: 400;
debt to U. S., xii: 18;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180;
Peace Treaty provisions for independence of, xii: 197;
use of German ports, Peace Treaty provisions for, xii: 253;
Republic established, Oct., '18, xii: 279;
area, xii: 279;
population, Oct., '18, xii: 279;
_see also_ Bohemia.
Czernin, Count, Austro-Hungarian Minister of Foreign Affairs,
appointment as, vi: 313;
peace statement, July, '17, vi: 314;
resigns as Foreign Minister, vi: 315.
Czernowitz, taken by Russians, Nov. 29, '14, i: 376, iii: 122;
abandoned by Russians, Jan. 5, '16, i: 384;
recaptured by Russians, June 17--18, '16, i: 385, iii: 144;
occupied by Teutons, Aug. 3, '17, i: 390.
D
_Daffodil_, British ferryboat in Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262.
Daghestan, Republic of, formed by Caucasian mountaineers, vi: 234.
Dalmatia, Italian claims for, vi: 361;
conflict between Italians and Jugoslavs for possession of, vi: 365.
D'Amade, Gen., commander of French forces at Gallipoli, iii: 167.
Damascus,
captured by British and Arabs, Oct. 1, '18, i: 399, iii: 199.
Damloup, scene of fighting at Verdun, iii: 55.
Dammartin, 1st Div. headquarters, June, '18, v: 143.
"Danger Zone," in rifle fire, viii: 93.
Daniels, Josephus, biography, ix: 326-329.
Dankl, Gen.,
commands Austrian army invading Russian Poland, '14, iii: 118.
Dannevoux,
scene of fighting in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.
D'Annunzio, Gabriele,
pro-Ally propaganda during Italian neutrality,
ii: 239, vi: 119, 124, ix: 343;
manifesto on Italian claims for eastern Adriatic coast, vi: 368;
claims Fiume, vi: 369;
seizes Fiume, vi: 370;
biography, ix: 343-345;
author of _Song of the Dardanelles_, ix: 343;
message to America, ix: 344.
_Danton_, French battleship torpedoed, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 376.
Danube River, as barrier against invasion, iii: 151, 214;
bridge across, blown up by Rumanians, iii: 221;
internationalized by Peace Treaty, xii: 248.
Danzig, demanded by Poland, vi: 225;
made free city under Peace Treaty, vi: 226, xii: 203.
Dardanelles, Russian gateway to the sea, ii: 28, iii: 161;
closed by Turkey, Sept., '14, ii: 28;
strategic importance, ii: 29;
Narrows, critical point, ii: 29;
topography of shores, iii: 165, iv: 21, 23;
modern defenses, iii: 165, iv: 23, 27, 45;
early history, iv: 18-22;
early fortifications, iv: 19;
closed by Turkey to warships of other nations, iv: 20;
forced in 1807 by Adm. Duckworth, iv: 20;
fortified by Allies in Crimean War, iv: 20;
forced in 1878, by Adm. Hornby, iv: 21;
importance to Turkey, iv: 23;
importance of combining land and naval attacks in forcing, iv: 26;
description, xi: 14;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Dardanelles Expedition, _see_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Dardanos Fort, bombarded by British, Feb. 19, '15, iv: 43.
Dar-es-Salam, captured by British, iii: 255.
Davis, Richard Harding,
description of German entry into Brussels, iii: 271-273;
description of burning of Louvain, iii: 273-277.
Davison, Henry P., Chairman, War Council American Red Cross, vii: i;
biography, ix: 339.
De Ram automatic camera for aerial photography, viii: 228, 333.
De Valera, Prof. Eamonn, elected to Parliament, vi: 62;
arrest and escape from jail, vi: 65;
elected President of Irish Republic, ix: 55;
address to America, ix: 55.
Dead Man's Hill, at Verdun,
battle of, May, '16, iii: 51, 53, 306, 308, 310, xi: 22.
Debeney, Gen., commander of French First Army, ii: 212.
Debts, national, of belligerents, xii: 111-114;
between German and Allied nationals,
Peace Treaty provisions for settlement of, xii: 232-236.
Decorations, Congressional Medal of Honor,
list and deeds of recipients during War, x: 388-402.
_Deductions from the World War_,
by Gen. Baron von Freytag-Loringhoven, summary of, ii: 254.
_Defender_,
British destroyer in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.
_Defense_, British ship sunk at Jutland, iv: 121.
Defense, elements in, iv: 4;
French trench system of, v: 12;
Gouraud's method of, against infiltration,
v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148;
_see also_ Tactics.
Defense of the Realm Act, British,
as weapon against war-time labor strikes, vi: 14;
used to prevent electricians' strike, Feb., '19, vi: 20.
Definitions, of popular war terms, xi: 359-362.
Delcassé, Théophile,
dismissed as French Minister through German pressure, i: 99;
resignation from Viviani government, Oct., '15, vi: 100.
Delousing, by Salvage Service of A. E. F., v: 331.
Demir-hissar, occupied by Bulgars, iii: 207.
Demir-Kapu, taken by French, Oct. 20, '15, iii: 204.
Democracy, in Europe, as result of the War, i: _Intro. x_;
rise of, during 19th century, i: 29;
among American colonists, i: 29;
development in France, i: 30;
European reaction, 1814--40, i: 32;
failure of movement of 1848 in Germany, i: 32;
growth of national sentiment for, in U. S., '04--'14, i: 293.
Demotika, ceded to Bulgaria by Turkey, vi: 344;
Turkey demands return of, vi: 345.
Denikin, Gen., report on collapse of Russian armies, iii: 267-270;
leads fight on Bolsheviki, vi: 192, 248.
Denmark, war with Prussia, 1864, i: _Intro. vii_;
neutral during War, vi: 393;
popular sentiment pro-Ally, vi: 393;
war-time increase in shipping, xii: 101.
Depth bomb, evolution of, iv: 307;
use in fighting submarines, iv: 317;
development by U. S. Navy, iv: 330;
launching mechanism, iv: 331;
invention of "Y" gun, iv: 332;
for discharge from airplanes, iv: 332;
description, viii: 281, xi: 239.
_Der Kampf_, Maximalist publication, vi: 314.
_Der Tag_, the German "millennium," xi: 195.
_Derflinger_, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
Dernburg, Dr. Bernhard, justifies German war policy, i: 120;
heads German propaganda in U. S., i: 274, 316;
character sketch of, ix: 353.
_Derrière Chez Mon Père_, French soldiers' song, xi: 339.
D'Esperey, Gen. Franchet,
commands French troops at first Marne battle, ii: 184, iii: 31;
commands Allied troops on Balkan front, ii: 218, iii: 212, vi: 347;
signs armistice with Hungary, vi: 323.
Destroyers,
effectiveness against submarines, viii: _Intro. viii._
Detonation, of explosives compared with explosion, viii: 1.
_Deutschland_, German merchant submarine,
arrives at Baltimore, July 9, '16, i: 334, iv: 214;
Capt. Koenig's account of trip, iv: 215;
feat in crossing Atlantic, x: 271-274.
Devastation of France,
by Germans in retreat to Hindenburg Line, iii: 67;
French protest to neutrals, iii: 68;
German excuses for, iii: 68.
_Devoir, Le_, Canadian Nationalist newspaper, vi: 30.
D'Eyncourt, Sir E., share in development of tank, viii: 155.
D. H. 10, British bombing planes, viii: 204.
_Dhair Hissar_, Turkish torpedo-boat in Ægean, iv: 49.
Diaz, Gen., succeeds Cadorna as Italian Commander-in-Chief, iii: 248.
Dickebusch sector, A. E. F. in, v: 286, 289.
Dickinson, Prof. G. Lowes,
defense of British conscientious objectors, vi: 8.
Dickman, Maj.-Gen. Joseph T.,
commands 3rd Div. at Mezy-Moulins, v: 51;
commands Fourth Corps at St. Mihiel, v: 65, 202, 386;
commands First Corps in Meuse-Argonne, v: 83, 132;
commands 3rd Div. at Château-Thierry, v: 132;
commands Army of Occupation, v: 395.
Dilboy, Pvt. George, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.
Dimethyl-trithiocarbonate (skunk gas),
use in chemical warfare, v: 322.
Dinant,
Germans checked at, in march through Belgium, Aug., '14, iii: 12.
Diphenylchlorarsine, use in chemical warfare, v: 322.
Diphosgene, use in chemical warfare, viii: 170.
Dirigibles, _see_ Aeronautics.
Disarmament, Anglo-German negotiations, '12, i: 106, 194;
German answer to British proposals, i: 195.
Disease,
statistics for U. S. Army, v: 402, vii: 179, 193-196, 208-209;
early handicaps in prevention, vii: 177;
preventive methods in U. S. Army, vii: 193, 245-248;
results of preventive methods, statistics for U. S. Army, vii: 195;
sanitation, vii: 253;
inoculation against, vii: 253;
prevention of infections among troops, viii: 392-397;
anti-typhoid immunization, viii: 393;
_see also_
Infection;
Medical Science;
Sanitation.
Distinguished Service Cross, awards of, to "Y" workers, vii: 272.
"Divine right of kings," Kaiser's conception of, i: 68.
Dixmude, occupied by Germans, Nov. 10, '14, i: 376;
evacuated by Germans, Dec. 20, '14, i: 376;
occupied by Belgians, Sept. 29--30, '18, i: 397;
German repulse at, in march through Belgium, '14, iii: 40.
Dixmude-Ypres sector,
Allied offensive, Sept. 28--Oct. 3, '18, iii: 100.
Djemal Pasha,
commander of Turkish forces operating against Suez, iii: 190.
Dmitrieff, Gen., biography, iii: 119.
Dmowski, Roman, leader of Polish reactionary parties, vi: 220.
Dniester River,
Germans defeated at, in Galician campaign, '15, iii: 136.
Dobrudja, German conquest of, Sept.--Oct., '16, ii: 60, iii: 218-221;
description of, iii: 215;
disastrous Rumanian counter-offensive, Oct., '16, iii: 220;
dispute between Germany and Bulgaria over, vi: 344;
overrun by Bulgarians, vi: 344.
Docks, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 332, 400.
Dogger Bank, battle of,
British defeat fleet of German raiders, Jan. 24, '15, iv: 246-253;
eye-witness accounts, iv: 247-250;
Adm. Beatty's official report, iv: 250.
Dogs in War, as ambulance drawers, viii: 379;
varied activities, xi: 340-347;
story of "Cap," the Red Cross dog, xi: 362-367;
story of "Pat," Liberty Bonds salesman, xi: 396-402;
effect of food shortage on, xii: 40.
Dommartin-la-Montagne,
captured by 26th Div., Sept. 12--13, '18, v: 69, 212.
Don Republic, established Jan., '18, xii: 279;
area, xii: 279;
population, xii: 279.
Dormans, 28th Div. holds German line at, July 15, '18, v: 53;
location, v: 133.
Douai, German base in France, ii: 86.
Douaumont Fort, at Verdun,
captured by Germans, Feb. 25--26, '16,
i: 384, ii: 189, iii: 48, 305;
French recapture and lose, May 22--25, '16, i: 385, iii: 310;
retaken by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388, iii: 61.
Doughboys, spirit of self-assurance of, i: 370;
_see also_ U. S., Army.
Doughnuts, Salvation Army specialty, vii: 399.
Doulcon, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264.
Dozier, 1st Lieut. James C.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
Draft, _see_ Conscription under name of country.
_Drake_, British cruiser torpedoed, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392.
_Dresden_, German cruiser
in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65;
in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70;
sunk by British near Juan Fernandez, Mar. 14, '15, iv: 70.
Drina River, crossed by Austrians invading Serbia, iii: 151.
Drop bombs, viii: 76.
Drummond, Sir James Eric,
first Secretary-General of League of Nations, xii: 186.
Dubilier, Wm., inventor of anti-submarine listening device, iv: 308.
Dublin, bloody fighting at, during Irish Rebellion, vi: 60.
Dubno, captured by Russians, June 11, '16, i: 385, iii: 144.
Duck-boards, use in mud fields of Flanders, viii: 300.
Duds, deloading of, v: 326.
Dueidar, Turks defeated at, Apr., '16, iii: 191.
Duff, Sir Beauchamp,
responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 370.
Dugouts, subterranean system of, in Hindenburg Line, v: 301.
Dukla Pass, occupied by Russians, Dec., '14, iii: 127.
Duma, Russian, reconvened, Feb. 22, '16, vi: 140;
struggle against reactionary government, vi: 140, 142, 144;
forces dismissal of Stürmer as Premier, vi: 142;
Czar issues undated decree ordering dismissal, vi: 144;
refuses to be dismissed, Mar. 10, '17, vi: 146;
activities during Revolution, Mar., '17, vi: 150-155;
establishes Provisional Government under Prince Lvov, vi: 155;
_see also_ Russia.
Dumba, Dr. Constantin,
Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Washington, i: 275;
dismissed from U. S. for instigating labor strikes, i: 275.
Dun-sur-Meuse, captured by 61st Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271, 391;
bombed by U. S. airmen, v: 311.
Dunant, Henri,
influence in organization of International Red Cross, vii: 12.
Duncan, Maj.-Gen. George B.,
brigade commander in Toul sector, Jan., '18, v: 115;
commands 77th Div., May, '18, v: 141.
Dunkirk, bombarded by Germans, Apr. 30,'15, i: 380;
bombarded by Germans, June, 22, '15, i: 380;
German drive for, '14, iii: 40.
Dunn, Rear-Adm. Herbert O., biography, ix: 295.
Dunne, Edw. F.,
member of Irish-American delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 66.
Durazzo, occupied by Austrians, Feb. 26, '16, i: 384;
naval base at, destroyed by Allied warships, Oct. 1, '18, i: 399;
occupied by Italians, Oct. 13, '18, i: 399;
retreating Serbs embark for Corfu from, '16, iii: 286.
Dushkin, Alexander, visits Europe for Jewish relief, vii: 360.
Dutov, Gen., commands anti-Bolshevik troops in Siberia, vi: 192.
Duval, traitorous owner of _Bonnet Rouge_, vi: 105;
found guilty and shot, vi: 106.
Dwyer, Lance Corp. Edward, wins Victoria Cross, x: 128.
Dyestuffs,
German deliveries to Allies, Peace Treaty demands, xii: 224.
E
_E-7_, British submarine, exploit in Sea of Marmora, iv: 211.
_E-9_, British submarine, in German waters, iv: 207.
_E-11_, British submarine, daring in Sea of Marmora, iv: 210.
_E-14_, British submarine, activities in Dardanelles, iv: 209.
_E-50_, British submarine, rams U-boat, iv: 214.
_E-54_, British submarine, sinks U-boat, iv: 212.
Eagle Hut, American "Y" center in London, vii: 288, 300.
East, Maj.-Gen. Maurice
on strategic value of campaigns in, ii: _Intro. vii-xxiv._
East Africa, German, conquered by Allies, iii: 255;
acquired by Great Britain, '18, xii: 271;
area and population, xii: 271.
East Prussia,
Russian invasion of, Aug., '14, ii: 24, 227, iii: 110-116;
battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14, ii: 24, iii: 112-116;
effect of Russian invasion on first battle of the Marne, ii: 227;
German campaigns against Russia, '14, Ludendorff's account,
ii: 353-357;
plan of Russian invasion, iii: 110;
importance, iii: 112;
Hindenburg's strategy, iii: 113;
strength of Hindenburg's forces, iii: 113;
decisive German victory at Mazurian Lakes, iii: 113;
Russian withdrawal, iii: 116;
plebiscite provisions of Peace Treaty, xii: 200.
Eastern Front, fortifications of, iii: 109;
strategic aspects, iii: 110;
Austrian strategic plans, iii: 118;
_see also_ East Prussia;
Galicia;
Mazurian Lakes;
Poland.
Eastern Karelia, military government established, May, '19, xii: 279;
area, xii: 279;
population, xii: 279.
Ebert, Friedrich,
elected President of Germany, Feb., '19,
vi: _Intro. xiii_, 292;
appointed Chancellor, Nov., '18, vi: 273;
establishes new democratic government, Nov., '18, vi: 277;
states government's determination to put down Spartacides,
Jan. 8, '19, vi: 287;
outlines policies of Provisional Government, Feb., '19, vi: 292;
German press comment on personality, vi: 293;
biography, ix: 135-138.
Economic strategy, in war, theory and example of, ii: 16;
Allied proposals for anti-German boycott, xii: 102.
Ecuador, proletarian unrest, vi: 392;
delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180.
Ecurey, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272.
Edgewood Arsenal, great U. S. poison-gas plant, viii: 179-187.
Education, bilingual schools discontinued in Canada, vi: 29;
A. E. F. becomes "College in Khaki," vii: 280;
A. P. Stokes makes survey for A. E. F., vii: 281;
Y. M. C. A. hut classes, vii: 281;
demand for text-books in A. E. F. schools, vii: 282;
A. E. F. post schools, vii: 282;
work of Bureau of Citizenship among A. E. F., vii: 282;
U. S. soldier students at French and British universities,
vii: 282, 290;
Army Educational Committee, vii: 282;
A. E. F. university at Beaune, vii: 282;
Y. M. C. A. work for prisoners of war, vii: 306.
Edward VII promotes Anglo-French good will, i: 98.
Edwards, Maj.-Gen.,
commands 26th Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202;
relieved of command, Oct. 24, '18, v: 252.
Effects Depot, S. O. S., for care of effects of deceased men, v: 331.
Eggers, Sgt. Alan Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 392.
Eggs, imports of, by Germany, ii: 18.
Egli, Col., head of Swiss Intelligence Service,
tried for unneutral communication with Germans, vi: 380.
Egypt, British establish themselves in, 1882, i: 48;
British control recognized by France, '04, i: 99;
anti-British German propaganda, iii: 188;
political unrest, iii: 188;
operations against Suez Canal, iii: 189;
Turks start offensive in western Egypt, iii: 190;
Turks driven out, '16, iii: 191;
tribesmen suppressed, '16--'17, iii: 191;
resentment against British domination, vi: 67;
popular pro-Turkish sympathy, vi: 68, 330;
Nationalist cry against "British oppression," vi: 69;
Great Britain declares protectorate over,
Dec. 19, '14, vi: 69, xii: 279;
Nationalist movement for independence, '18, vi: 70;
insurrection, '19, vi: 71;
German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208;
area, xii: 279;
population, '14, xii: 279.
Eichhorn, chief of Berlin police, deposed, Jan. 5, '19, vi: 287.
Eichorn, Marshal von, assassinated by Ukrainian, vi: 187, 248.
Eisner, Kurt,
becomes head of Bavarian Socialist Republic, Nov., '18,
vi: 273, 280;
appeals to German national government on behalf of
Berlin Spartacides, vi: 288;
assassinated, Feb. 21, '19, vi: 298.
El Arish, occupied by Turks, Jan., '15, iii: 189;
taken by British, Dec. 22, '16, iii: 192.
El Kubri, Turks engage British in vicinity of, iii: 190.
El Tasher, British defeat Sudanese at, May, '16, iii: 191.
Elbe,
internationalized by Peace Treaty, rules of navigation, xii: 248.
Electric drive, description and advantages of, iv: 322;
successfully applied in _U. S. S. New Mexico_, iv: 322.
Electric welding, use in repairing interned German liners, iv: 319;
use in U. S. in construction of ships, iv: 322.
Elles, Gen., commander of British Tank Corps, iii: 377.
Elliott, Col.,
leader of British Marines, killed in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 264.
Ellis, Sgt. Michael B., wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388.
Ely, Maj.-Gen., Hanson E.,
as colonel, commands 28th Inf. at Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 124;
assigned to command of 5th Div., Oct. 21, '18, v: 252.
_Emden_, German commerce raider, exploits of, iv: 166-194;
method of sinking captured ships, iv: 173;
bombards Madras, Sept. 18, '14, iv: 174;
attacks Penang Harbor, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 178;
lands force on Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 184;
attacked by _Sydney_ off Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 185;
destruction of, report of captain of _Sydney_, iv: 187;
summary of raiding activities, iv: 189;
landing force at Keeling escapes on _Ayesha_, iv: 190-194.
Emmich, Gen. von, commands German attack on Liége, iii: 10.
Emont Wood, cleared by 37th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229;
37th Div. retreats from, Sept. 29, '18, v: 230.
Emplacements,
duplicate, permitting rotation of artillery in trenches, v: 14.
_Empress Maria_, Russian dreadnought,
blown up in Black Sea, iv: 366.
Enfield rifle, facilities for manufacture in U. S., v: 347;
standard British service rifle, viii: 95;
U. S. production figures, xii: 284.
Engineering, development in U. S. Navy, iv: 319;
relation of, to war, viii: 298-302.
Engines, shipment of American locomotives to France, xii: 286.
England, _see_ Great Britain.
Entente Cordiale, established between France and Russia, 1891, i: 98.
Entertainment,
27th Div. theatrical troupe, v: 299;
Over-There Theater League, activities, vii: 277, 339-343;
for A. E. F., by Y. M. C. A., vii: 277;
at Winchester camp, vii: 287;
for Army of Occupation, vii: 292;
for A. E. F. in Siberia, vii: 295;
"Y" program for Navy, vii: 299;
by Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 346, 348.
Enver Pasha, leader of Young Turks, i: 109, ix: 270;
commander of Turkish army, iii: 164;
in Caucasus campaign, iii: 260;
biography, ix: 270-274.
Eperlecques, training area for 30th Div., v: 300.
Epieds, German stand at, in retreat from Marne, July 21, '18, v: 184;
General Degouette commends Americans for service at, v: 192.
Epionville, taken by 91st Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.
Ersatz, German, i: 72.
Erskine, Prof. John, member of Army Educational Commission, vii: 282;
educational director of A. E. F. university at Beaune, vii: 283.
Erwin, Brig.-Gen. James B., commands 6th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197.
Erzberger, leader of German Center Party, vi: _Intro. xiii_;
becomes Minister of Finance, July, '19, vi: _Intro. xiii._
Erzerum,
captured by Russians, Feb. 15, '16, i: 384, ii: 91, iii: 262.
Erzingan, captured by Russians, July 25, '16, i: 386, iii: 263.
Eseka, captured by French, Oct. 30, '15, i: 382.
Esnes, location of, v: 217;
4th Engineers build road from, to Malancourt, Sept., '18, v: 226.
Essen, bombarded by Belgian airplanes, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382.
Essen trench, captured and reversed by French, Oct. 1--3, '18, v: 254.
Essey, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211.
Essomes-sur-Marne, location of, v: 133.
Estaires, occupied by Germans, Apr. 10--11, '18, i: 395.
Esternay, destruction by Germans, iii: 297.
Esthonia, early history, vi: 226;
independent Republic established, Apr., '18, vi: 230, xii: 279;
area, xii: 279;
population, '18, xii: 279;
_see also_ Baltic Provinces.
Estrayes Wood, captured by 29th Div., Oct. 23, '18, v: 252.
Etraye, threatened by 33rd Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 82;
ridge taken by 29th Div., Oct. 23, '18, v: 86;
captured by 79th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 272.
Eupen, ceded to Belgium, under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, xii: 188.
Europe, area of greatest nationalistic development, i: 9;
race rivalries in, i: 21;
alignment of nations at outbreak of War, ii: 2;
general conditions, winter '17--'18, v: 1, 113;
military situation in, Nov. 1, '18, v: 253.
Evan-Thomas, Rear-Adm. Hugh,
commands British 5th Battle Squadron at battle of Jutland, iv: 110.
Everts, Gen., commander of Russian Army of the Bug, iii: 119.
Exermont Valley, slopes taken by 182nd Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229;
heavy A. E. F. casualties at, Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.
Explosion, compared with detonation, viii: 1.
Explosive shell, compared with shrapnel, ii: 288.
Explosives, _see_ Ammunition.
Extraterritoriality, explained, i: 17;
Japan withdraws rights of, i: 18;
Turkey withdraws rights of, i: 18.
F
_Falaba, S. S._, British steamer,
sunk by German submarine, Mar., '15, i: 319, 378, iv: 218.
Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich G. A. S. von,
sent to regain Bagdad, ii: _Intro. xx_, iii: 196;
invades Rumania, ii: 60, iii: 218;
replaced as Chief of German General Staff by von Hindenburg,
iii: 61;
biography, ix: 262.
Falkland Islands, battle of,
British defeat German fleet, Dec. 8, '14,
i: 376, iv: 69-85, ix: 308;
strength of opposing fleets, iv: 70;
von Spee's strategy, criticism of, iv: 70;
Sturdee's tactics, iv: 71;
German cruiser _Dresden_ escapes, iv: 74;
British casualties, iv: 74;
German loss in men and ships, iv: 74;
importance of victory, iv: 74;
Admiral Sturdee's official report, iv: 75-79;
eye-witness accounts, iv: 80-85.
Fallon, Capt. David, brave tank commander, x: 165.
_Falmouth_, British cruiser sunk, Aug. 19, '16, i: 386;
at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.
Falzarego Pass, limit of Italian advance in Cadore, iii: 234.
_Fanning_, U. S. destroyer, captures German submarine, iv: 350.
Fanning Island,
Germans destroy wireless station at, Sept. 7, '14, iv: 62.
Fao, British land at, Nov. 7, '14, iii: 180.
_Farewell_, poem by Lieut. Robert Nichols, R. F. A., vii: 389.
Farman airplane, viii: 189.
Farnsworth, Maj.-Gen. Charles S.,
commands 37th Div., June, '18, v: 145;
in Marne-Aisne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 219.
Fay, Robert, German agent, plots to blow up ships, x: 369-377.
Fay-en-Haye, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199.
Fayolle, Gen.,
commands Allied forces opposing German drive on Paris, '18,
ii: 152;
decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60.
_Fearless_,
British cruiser in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.
Federalism, development in America and Europe, i: 30.
Ferdinand, Archduke Francis,
_see_ Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria.
Ferdinand, Czar of Bulgaria, abdicates, Oct. 5, '18, i: 399, vi: 347;
proclamation to army, vi: 340;
appeals to Germany, vi: 347;
character, ix: 378;
biography, ix: 378-380.
_Ferdinand of Bulgaria_, poem by D. S. P., ix: 376.
Ferdinand, King of Rumania, biography, ix: 399-401.
Fère Forest captured by 42nd Div., July 26, '18, v: 58.
Ferrero, Guglielmo, Italian historian,
comparison of German militarism with Roman imperialism,
ii: 365-372;
sympathy with Allies, '14, vi: 119.
Fertilizers, shortage in Germany during blockade, ii: 18.
Field glasses for A. E. F., viii: 326.
Finland, signs peace with Germany, Mar. 7, '18, i: 393;
political history, 1809--1914, vi: 196;
granted autonomy, 1809, vi: 196;
autonomy revoked, 1899, vi: 196;
threatened with class revolution, '05, vi: 196;
socialist tendency in Diet, '05, vi: 196;
nationalism assailed by Russian bureaucracy, '14, vi: 196;
German aid against Russification, vi: 196;
declares independence, Mar., '17, vi: 198;
base for Russian revolutionary activities, '17, vi: 198;
Bolshevik revolution, Nov., '17, vi: 198;
Russia recognizes Bolshevik government, '17, vi: 198;
Socialists demand union with Russian Soviet, Nov. '17, vi: 198;
White Guards recalled from Germany to quell civil war, vi: 198;
General von der Goltz sent to aid Whites, vi: 199;
Republic established by moderate Socialists, '18, vi: 200;
new government recognized by Great Britain and U. S., '18, vi:200;
Bolshevism stamped out by Mannerheim, '18, vi: 200;
origin of inhabitants, vi: 200;
area and population, xii: 279.
_Finland_, U. S. transport sunk by U-boat, Nov. 2, '17, i: 392;
torpedoed, Oct. 27, '17, iv: 337.
_Firedrake_,
British destroyer in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.
First aid, importance in treatment of wounded, vii: 178.
Fisher, Adm. Lord John,
responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200;
views on advisability of Dardanelles expedition, ii: 203;
biography, ix: 288-290.
Fisher, Prof. Irving,
analysis of high cost of living, xii: _Intro._
Fiske, Rear-Adm. Bradley T., invents torpedo plane, iv: 335.
Fiske, Brig.-Gen. H. B.,
Chief of Training, A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102.
Fismes, captured by 32nd Div., Aug. 6, '18, v: 61;
taken and retaken by U. S. divisions, July--Aug., '18, v: 189;
General Degoutte commends Americans for services at, Sept. 9, '18,
v: 192.
Fismette, captured by 28th Div., Aug., '18, v: 62.
Fiume, conflict of Italians and Jugoslavs for, vi: 365;
arrival of U. S. troops at, vi: 366;
Italian delegates withdraw from Peace Conference
in controversy over, vi: 368-370, xii: 159;
occupied by D'Annunzio, vi: 370;
awarded to Italy conditionally, vi: 370.
_Five Souls_, poem by W. N. Ewer, xi: 93.
Flabas, captured by 26th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 271.
Flanders, battles of:
Oct., '14, nature of terrain, iii: 38, viii: 299;
extent of battle line, iii: 38;
Foch cuts dikes of Yser, iii: 40;
Germans repulsed, iii: 40.
Aug., '17, failure of British offensive, ii: 56;
Ludendorff's criticism of, ii: 343;
description of, iii: 78-80;
duration, iii: 78;
objects, iii: 78;
Allied offensive checked by rains, iii: 79;
Passchendaele Ridge captured by Canadians, iii: 79;
Allied gains, Sept.--Oct., '17, iii: 79;
results, iii: 79.
Sept., '18, Belgians and British renew offensive, v: 213.
Flemings, failure of German propaganda among, vi: 86.
Flers, captured by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388.
Fleury, at Verdun, captured by French, Aug. 3, '16, i: 386;
captured by Germans, '16, iii: 313.
Fleville, captured by 16th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.
_Florence H._, cargo-carrier, heroism of crew, iv: 354.
Florina, occupied by Allies, Sept. 18, '16, i: 388, iii: 208;
occupied by Bulgars, Aug. 17, '16, iii: 207, 208.
"Flying Dutchman," name applied to _Emden_, iv: 187.
Foch, Marshal Ferdinand,
strategy of, in Allied offensive, '18, ii: 76-98, 212, v: 213;
at second Marne battle, ii: 77, 154;
theories on strategy, ii: 80, 81, 103, 137;
takes initiative of attack from Germans, ii: 84, v: 130;
as Lieut.-Col., Professor of General Tactics at École de Guerre,
ii: 103, 137, 220;
share in victory at first Marne battle,
ii: 103, 138-142, 182, 184, 220;
author of _Principles of War_, summary, ii: 104;
conception of _mind_ as determining factor in victory,
ii: 138;
on functions of a general, ii: 138;
theories on battle tactics, ii: 138;
commands 20th Corps at Nancy, '14, ii: 138;
organizes new French army, '14, ii: 138;
famous despatch during first Marne battle, ii: 141, iii: 33;
given command of French Army of the North, Oct., '14,
ii: 143, iii: 38;
floods Belgium as defense against Germans, '14, ii: 145;
stops British retreat at Ypres, '14, ii: 145, 220;
commands French at Somme battle, July, '16, ii: 148;
appointed co-ordinator of Allied operations, Dec., '16, ii: 148;
appointed Chief of Staff, French Army, Mar., '17, ii: 148;
sends reinforcements to check Italian rout, ii: 149;
French representative on Allied War Council, ii: 149;
appointed Allied Commander-in-Chief on Western Front, Mar. 28, '18,
ii: 151, iii: 89, v: 120, 380, xi: 41;
analysis of weakness of German drive, '18, ii: 154;
made Marshal of France, ii: 156, iii: 97;
Viscount French's eulogy of, ii: 170;
General Malleterre's eulogy of, ii: 220;
commands 20th Corps at battle of the Selle, '14, iii: 18;
repulses Germans at Mondement, '14, iii: 33;
member Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84;
text of appointment as Allied Commander-in-Chief, v: 380;
biography, ix: 148-153;
Clemenceau's estimate of, ix: 151;
pronunciation of name, ix: 151;
bibliography, ix: 153;
members of family killed in War, ix: 153;
military commandments, xi: 55;
conference with Secretary Baker, at Trois Fontaines, Oct. 4, '18,
xii: 277.
Focsani, captured by Germans, Jan. 8, '17, i: 389.
Fogaras, captured by Rumanians, iii: 218.
Fokker airplane, machine-gun mounting on, viii: 192, 208-210.
Foltz, Brig.-Gen. F. S., commands 91st Div., July, '18, v: 196.
Food, sent to Europe from U. S., '16--'18, xii: 36;
importance in winning War, xii: 40, 135;
War's effect on neutrals, xii: 42;
European relief by U. S., Hoover's report, xii, 42;
situation in Europe after armistice, xii: 43;
world's requirements and supply, '19, xii: 44;
use of potatoes as, xii: 47;
U. S. exports to Europe, before and during War, xii: 135;
problem of national self-sufficiency, xii: 135;
war-time sugar shortage, xii: 138;
national tastes in, xii: 138;
scientific rations _vs._ personal taste, xii: 139;
scientific rations as conservation measure, xii: 139;
Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission, functions, xii: 139;
war-time government control, xii: 140;
U. S. wheat exports to Allies, July 1, '17--July 1, '18, xii: 141;
_see also_ under each country.
Foreign Legion, American enlistments in, '14--'17, iii: 391;
in Aisne-Marne Offensive, July 18, '18, v: 168;
heroic story of, x: 27-32;
history, xi: 193.
Forestry, A. E. F. operations, v: 334, 400.
Forests, French, chief source of Allied lumber supply, viii: 307.
Forêt Wood, captured by 4th Div., Oct. 11, '18, v: 248.
Forges, captured by Germans, Mar. 6, '16, iii: 51, 306;
captured by 33rd Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.
_Formidable_,
British battleship sunk by U-boat, Jan. 1, '15, i: 378.
Formosa, acquired by Japan, 1895, i: 20.
Forrest, Sgt. Arthur J., wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
Forstner, Lieut. von, share in Zabern incident, i: 73.
Fortescue, Granville,
description of scenes behind Turkish lines at Gallipoli, iii: 340.
Foster, Sgt. Gary Evans, wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
"Fourteen Points," President Wilson's basis for peace, xii: 163-165.
"Foyers du Marin," "Y" huts for French sailors, vii: 313.
"Foyers du Soldats," comfort huts for French soldiers, vii: 310;
number, vii: 311;
locations, vii: 313.
Fractures, treatment of, viii: 367.
France:
Air Service, strength at end of War, viii: 201;
personnel and equipment, viii: 202, 206.
Army, increase in, for '14, i: 132;
German estimate of military effectiveness, '14, ii: 4;
military resources, Aug. 1, '14, ii: 12;
German military critic on, ii: 256;
uniform, ii: 286;
pre-War organization, iii: 3;
morale, '17, iv: 10;
relations with A. E. F., v: 22;
type of service rifle, viii: 95;
medical service, viii: 362-365;
Chasseurs, xi: 189;
Spahi, xi: 189;
Zouaves, xi: 189;
Tirailleurs, xi: 191;
Foreign Legion, xi: 193;
_see also_ Foreign Legion;
for military operations, _see_ name of campaign.
Artillery, famous "75's," efficiency of, ii: 287;
plan of rotating in trenches, v: 14;
520-mm. (21-inch) howitzers, viii: 51-53.
Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
total battle deaths, xii: 288.
Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, xii: _Intro. x._
Declarations of war, by Germany on, Aug. 3, '14, i: 140;
on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 10, '14, i: 375;
on Turkey, Nov. 5, '14, i: 376;
on Bulgaria, Oct. 16, '15, i: 382;
popular reception of, '14, vi: 95.
Food, potato crop, xii: 47;
war-time sugar shortage, xii: 138.
Foreign policy, occupation of Algeria, i: 37;
world position, 1871, i: 47;
world position, '14, i: 59;
Triple Entente among France, Russia, Great Britain,
i: 98, 103, 106, 107, 218, 220, ii: 2;
Entente Cordiale with Russia, 1891, i: 98;
Anglo-French Treaty of, '04, i: 99;
Franco-Russian treaty of July, '12, i: 107;
Anglo-French agreement for united action
against "third Power," '12, i: 107, 220;
Russian alliance cause of entry into War, i: 220;
pledge to respect Belgian neutrality, i: 223;
French complaints of British shirking of war duty, iii: 382;
Austro-Hungarian attempts to make peace with, '17, vi: 315;
claims to Asiatic Turkey under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334;
Turkish policy announced, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 334.
Forests, chief source of Allied lumber supply, viii: 307.
Frontiers, topography of German border, ii: 6;
defenses, iii: 2;
natural gateways on, v: 214.
Industries, war-time disorganization, xii: 79;
economic value of A. E. F. to, xii: 86;
German destruction in invaded territory, xii: 87.
Internal politics, development of democracy, i: 30;
organization of War Cabinet by Viviani, vi: 97;
fall of Viviani government, Oct. 28, '15, vi: 100;
nation united in War aims, vi: 101;
mixed reception of Wilson's peace proposals, vi: 102;
Socialists advocate peace by negotiation, vi: 102, 103;
fall of Briand ministry, '17, vi: 103;
effect of Russian Revolution, vi: 103;
Stockholm Conference causes crisis, vi: 103;
_Bonnet Rouge_ disclosures wreck Ribot Cabinet, '17,
vi: 104;
Painlevé forms new Cabinet, vi: 105;
Painlevé ministry falls, Nov., '17, vi: 106;
Clemenceau succeeds as Premier, vi: 106;
Clemenceau overcomes pacifist opposition, vi: 106;
growth of labor movement in politics, vi: 109;
class war, '19, vi: 110;
Jaurès parade, '19, vi: 110;
significance of attempt to kill Clemenceau, vi: 110;
French peace aims, vi: 111;
May Day riots, '19, vi: 111;
class war intensified, vi: 113.
Labor, war achievements, ii: 373-382;
shortage due to mobilization, ii: 373;
skilled workers recalled from army, ii: 374;
women as munition workers, ii: 376;
foreigners recruited for war work, ii: 377;
importation of Chinese laborers, ii: 377;
use of colonials, ii: 377;
use of prisoners of war, ii: 377;
size of labor army, ii: 377;
housing of war workers, ii: 377;
co-operative societies for provisioning of war workers, ii: 378;
protection for women workers, ii: 379;
war-time abandonment of strike and sabotage, ii: 379;
state intervention in industrial disputes, ii: 380;
growth of syndicalism, ii: 381;
demand for share in management, ii: 381;
selective assignment to industries, xii: 79.
Minerals, German plans for seizure of iron mines,
i: 122, 267, ii: 15, 20;
coal production, '13--'17, xii: 48.
Morale, of people during War, i: _Intro. xiii_, ii: 383-392;
war-time unity, ii: 385;
factors in war-time unity, ii: 392;
depression, '17--'18, v: 2.
Munitions, statistics on ordnance production, ii: 373;
immensity of need unforeseen, ii: 373.
Navy, strength in '06, i: 101;
increase in, for '14, i: 132;
entrusted control of Mediterranean by Allies, iv: 12;
strength at outbreak of War, iv: 13, 373;
war record in Mediterranean, iv: 373;
work in Dardanelles, iv: 375;
_Fusiliers marins_, French naval gunners,
on Western Front, iv: 376;
protection of French coast, iv: 377;
anti-submarine activities, iv: 378.
Peace Conference, delegates to, xii: 179;
_see also_ Peace Conference.
Peace Treaty, ratified, Oct. 13, '19, xii: 264;
_see also_ Peace Treaty.
Population, in 1860, i: 40;
in 1874, compared with that of Germany, i: 61;
in '14, compared with that of Germany, i: 61;
growth since 1870 compared with that of Germany, i: 262.
Prisoners of war, iii: 404.
Railroads, unprecedented war-time demands on, xii: 91;
equipment shipped to France by U. S., xii: 95, 286.
Reconstruction, material needs, xii: 87.
Shipping, war losses, xii: 87.
War cost, loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2;
income-tax rates compared with British and U. S., xii: 4;
debt to U. S., xii: 18, 31;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
André Tardieu's estimate, xii: 86;
average daily war cost, xii: 106;
total war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107;
taxation, xii: 109;
loans, xii: 111;
rise in national debt, xii: 111-113, 114.
War relief, _see_ War relief.
Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, heir to Austrian throne, i: 111;
murdered with consort at Sarajevo,
June 28, '14, i: 111, 375, vi: 306, xi: 4;
responsibility of Serbian government for murder, i: 112;
responsibility disclaimed, i: 246;
causes and results of murder, vi: 135;
national policy, vi: 356.
Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary,
dies, Nov. 21, '16, i: 388, vi: 313;
tragedies of reign, vi: 305;
proclamation against Italy, vi: 310;
biography, ix: 370-373.
Franco-American Committee for Protection of Children of Frontier,
vii: 101.
Francois, Gen. von, German commander in East Prussia, iii: 111.
Frankenau, Russians defeat Germans near, Aug. 22, '14, iii: 111.
Frankfurt, bombed by Allied airmen, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392.
Frantz, Gen. von,
protest against Allies' peace terms, May, '19, vi: 302.
_Frauenlob_, German cruiser,
torpedoed in Baltic by British, Nov. 7, '15, i: 382.
Frederick William, German Crown Prince,
moving spirit for campaign in West, '14, ii: 13;
commands an Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184;
renounces succession, Nov. 9, '18, ii: 340;
commands one of armies of invasion, '14, iii: 10;
commands German armies at Verdun, '16, iii: 303;
detained at Wieringen by Dutch, Nov., '18, vi: 278;
biography, ix: 367-369.
Free Milk for France, fund started, vii: 376;
object, vii: 376;
French testimonials, vii: 379.
Freedom of the seas, U. S. note to Germany on, i: 324;
Maurice Revai, Austro-Hungarian deputy, on Teutonic conception of,
ii: 27;
definition, xi: 18.
French Heroes' Lafayette Memorial Fund, vii: 90, 110-116.
French, Field-Marshal Sir John, Viscount of Ypres,
report on events leading to first Marne battle, ii: 9;
first British commander-in-chief in France,
ii: 159, iii: 22, ix: 180;
publishes _1914_, account of military operations of year,
ii: 159;
summary of _1914_, ii: 160-174;
arrival in France, ii: 161;
dispute with Kitchener on British military policy in France,
ii: 164, 169;
exposé of British shell shortage, ii: 173;
overruled by Joffre on plan for offensive against Channel ports,
ii: 174;
commands British at first Marne battle, ii: 184;
official despatch on Mons retreat, iii: 24;
relieved as commander-in-chief, iii: 46, ix: 52;
biography, ix: 177-181;
Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, '18, ix: 181.
French-Swiss, characteristics of, vi: 380.
French Wounded Emergency Fund, vii: 91.
Fresne, captured by Germans, Mar. 7, '16, i: 384.
Fresnes-en-Woevre,
taken by 4th Div. in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 13, '18, v: 69.
Freyberg, Colonel, New Zealander, wins Victoria Cross, x: 131.
Freytag-Loringhoven, Gen. Baron von,
German military critic, view on German tactics at start of War,
ii: 10;
summary of his _Deductions from the World War_, ii: 254;
exposition of German war philosophy, ii: 260.
Fricourt, captured by Allies in Somme battle, iii: 58.
Friedrichshaven, bombarded by British airmen, Nov. 21, '14, i: 376.
Frise, captured by Germans, Jan., '16, iii: 47.
Fryatt, Capt. Chas.,
executed by Germans, July 27, '16, i: 386, x: 265-269;
attempts to ram _U-33_, Mar. 20, '15, x: 265;
Ambassador Gerard's intervention for, fails, x: 265.
Fuchs, Lieut.-Gen.,
German commander in St. Mihiel salient, Sept., '18, v: 201.
Funk, Pvt. Jesse N., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
Furlong, 1st Lieut. Richard A.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
Fyfe, Hamilton,
defense of General Gough in defeat of British Fifth Army, ii: 190.
G
_G-13_, British submarine, sinks U-boat, iv: 213.
G. C.'s, explanation of, v: 12.
Gaba Tepe. _see_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Gabet-Aubriot electric torpedo,
for destroying barbed wire, viii: 154.
Gädke, Col., German military writer, views on the War, ii: 270.
Gaffney, Pvt. Frank, wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.
Galicia,
German offensive in, '15, ii: 233, 360
(Ludendorff's account), iii: 135-138;
Russian invasion of, '14, iii: 118-124;
General Russky crosses border, Sept., '14, iii: 120;
Lemberg captured by Russians, Sept. 3, '14, iii: 121;
rout of Auffenberg's army, iii: 121;
last Russian offensive, '17, iii: 146, 147;
Russian attempts at Russification of, vi: 243.
Galliéni, Gen. Joseph-Simon,
prepares Paris for siege by Germans, iii: 28;
biography, ix: 161-164;
Military Governor of Paris, ix: 163.
Gallipoli Campaign,
Winston Churchill advocates forcing Dardanelles,
ii: _Intro. x, xii_, 29, 200;
reasons for,
ii: _Intro. xii_, 27-31, 198, iii: 161-164, iv: 51-57;
failure of initial naval attack, ii: _Intro. xv_;
reasons for land attack after naval failure, ii: _Intro. xv_;
weakness, ii: _Intro. xvi_;
strategy, ii: 27-31;
Feb.--Dec., '15, ii: 27-31;
Viscount French's condemnation, ii: 173;
Commission of Inquiry into responsibility for failure,
appointment and personnel, ii: 197;
persons named as responsible, ii: 198;
summary of Commission's report on responsibility, ii: 200;
British War Council, responsibility of, for disaster, ii: 200;
campaign sanctioned without expert study, ii: 200;
Lord Fisher disapproves expedition, ii: 203;
Premier Asquith's defense, ii: 204, iv: 53;
Winston Churchill's defense, ii: 205, iv: 56;
military operations, Apr. 25, '15--Jan. 9, '16, iii: 161-177;
Allies assemble troops in Egypt for expedition, Apr., '15,
iii: 162;
composition of Allied forces, iii: 162;
Gen. Sir Ian Hamilton commander of Allied troops, iii: 162, iv: 32;
Enver Bey commands Turkish defenders, iii: 164;
composition of Turkish forces, iii: 164;
topography of peninsula, iii: 165, iv: 21, 23;
defenses, iii: 165, iv: 23, 27, 45;
British plans for landing attack, iii: 167;
Allied landing, Apr. 25, '15, iii: 167-170, 352, iv: 36-42
(Adm. de Robeck's official report), x: 35-40;
Anzacs scale cliffs near Gaba Tepe, Apr. 25, iii: 167, 352
(Masefield's description), iv: 36 (official report);
Achi Baba, key to southern Gallipoli, iii: 170, 355;
Pasha Dagh, Australian objective, iii: 170;
Krithia, objective of Allied attack, May--June, '15, iii: 170;
"war of attrition" on Anzac sector, iii: 171;
Allies' revised strategy, July, '15, iii: 171-173;
Turkish positions, July, '15, iii: 171;
Anzac reinforcements land for final attack, Aug., '15, iii: 173;
last Allied offensives fail, Aug., '15,
iii: 173, 355-358. (Masefield's description);
last attack on Chunuk Bair, Aug., '15, iii: 173, 355;
last attack on Koja Chemen Tepe, Aug., '15, iii: 173, 355, 357;
last attack on Krithia, Aug., '15, iii: 173;
obstacles to success of last Allied offensive, iii: 173;
Gen. Monro succeeds Hamilton, iii: 174;
evacuation, Nov., '15--Jan., '16, iii: 174-177, 358;
casualties, Allied and Turkish, iii: 177, 355, 357, iv: 51;
reasons for failure, iii: 177;
bibliography, iii: 177;
Fortescue's description, iii: 340-343;
Turkish camp scenes behind the lines, iii: 341;
Masefield's description of British embarkation for, iii: 350;
soldier's life on Gallipoli, described by Masefield, iii: 353;
Gen. Hamilton's report on Lone Pine fighting, iii: 356;
Adm. Carden favors naval attack, iv: 28;
initial Allied bombardment, Nov. 3, '14, iv: 28;
British plan of operations, iv: 30;
preliminaries to attack, Jan. 15--Feb. 19, '15, iv: 30;
bombardment by Allied fleet, Feb. 19, '15, iv: 30, 42;
Allied fleet enters Straits, Mar. 1, '15, iv: 32;
Vice-Adm. de Roebeck succeeds to command of Allied fleet,
Mar., '15, iv: 32;
Allies decide to combine naval and land operations, iv: 32, 35, 49;
number and description of Allied warships participating, iv: 33;
Allied bombardment, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 34 (official report), 47;
Hamilton's delay fatal mistake of campaign, iv: 34;
French land troops at Kum Kale, Apr. 25, '15, iv: 41;
heroic minesweeping, iv: 43;
Narrows forts bombarded, Mar. 5, 7, '15, iv: 45;
analogy to opening of Mississippi by Farragut during Civil War,
iv: 51;
cost of expedition, iv: 51;
lessons of, iv: 52;
mistakes in plan and execution, iv: 56;
Turkish joy over Allied failure, vi: 330;
Y. M. C. A. with British at, vii: 321;
_see also_ Dardanelles.
Gallowitz, Gen. von, military career, v: 203.
Gangrene, treatment for gas gangrene, viii: 367, xi: 287.
Garda, Lake, naval operations on, iii: 232.
Gardens, cultivated in France by British soldiers, ii: 131;
by A. E. F., v: 330.
Gardiner, J. B. W., on strategy of the War, ii: 1.
Garibaldi, descendants of Liberator, in War, x: 62-65.
_Garibaldi_, Italian cruiser sunk by U-boat, iv: 369.
_Garibaldi Hymn_, Italian national anthem, xi: 328.
Garrisons, use of small _groupes de combat_ by French, v: 13.
Garua, taken by Allies, June 11, '15, i: 380.
Gas, _see_ Chemical warfare.
Gas gangrene, _see_ Gangrene.
Gas masks, v: 324, viii: 174-178, xi: 317.
Gasoline, consumption by A. E. F., v: 331.
_Gaulois_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
damaged in attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35.
Gaza, Turks defeated by British at, Mar. 26--27, '17, iii: 192;
captured by British, Nov. 6, '17, iii: 194.
Geddes, Sir Eric, biography, ix: 313-316.
Generalship, British, in the War,
analyzed by Philip Gibbs, iii: 370-378;
physical characteristics of British leaders, iii: 371;
mostly of cavalry training, iii: 371;
personal gallantry, iii: 371;
as great "English gentlemen," iii: 371;
mental characteristics, iii: 371;
mostly conservative men, iii: 372;
no leader of magnetism, iii: 372, 374;
personal traits of Sir Douglas Haig, iii: 373;
ill feeling against Staff by men in ranks, iii: 373;
faulty tactics in battles of the Somme, iii: 374;
desire to gain worthless ground, iii: 374;
efficiency of administrative organization, iii: 374;
Sir Herbert Plumer, great military chief, iii: 375;
faults at battles of Neuve Chapelle and Loos, iii: 375;
Gen. Birdwood's popularity, iii: 375;
tragedy of Second Army, iii: 375;
final victory not due to generalship, iii: 378;
success of unprofessional soldier as leader, iii: 378;
inefficiency of Staff College, iii: 378;
chief shortcoming, iii: 378.
Geneva, designated capital of League of Nations, vi: 382, xii: 183.
Geologists, war services, v: 327, viii: 311.
Geophone, description and use for sound locating, viii: 312-314.
George V, King of England,
receives General Pershing, June, '17, v: 97;
biography, ix: 392-395.
Georgia, early history of people, vi: 231;
Republic established, Jan., '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Gerache Wood, taken by 80th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.
Gerard, James W., leaves Germany as U. S. Ambassador, i: 346.
German-Americans, distribution and characteristics, i: 278;
Bernhardi's views on political importance, i: 279.
German-Swiss, characteristics, vi: 380.
_Germania, To_, Bulgarian ode, vi: 342.
Germany:
Air Service,
passing of supremacy, vii: 201;
strength at end of War, viii: 202;
pre-War record flights, viii: 206;
equipment and strength, viii: 206;
supremacy over Allies, viii: 207;
bombing planes, viii: 221-222;
A. E. G. bombers, viii: 221;
Gotha bombers, viii: 221;
Lizenz bombers, viii: 222;
Zeppelins during War, viii: 246-248;
Zeppelins described, viii: 248-254;
military service abolished under Peace Treaty, xii: 214;
surrendered to Allies, xii: 215.
Area, of Republic, xii: 279.
Army,
aristocratic character, i: 69;
system of organization, i: 71, iii: 4-6;
tradition of efficiency, i: 72;
conception of duties, i: 72;
increase in peace strength, '14, i: 131;
dependence on imports for munitions, ii: 21;
loss of morale in Somme battle, '16, ii: 47;
manpower on Western Front, Mar., '18, ii: 65;
loss of morale under Allied offensive, '18,
ii: 86, v: 87, vi: 270;
German critic's opinion of, ii: 257;
machine-gun equipment, ii: 275;
heroism of machine-gunners, ii: 282;
invisibility of uniform, ii: 286;
recruiting situation, '18, ii: 308-310, 318;
desertions, ii: 309;
punishments not severe enough, Ludendorff's view, ii: 318;
Ludendorff on causes of demoralization, ii: 320, 333;
agitators undermine morale, ii: 320;
reorganized after Somme battle, '16, iii: 61;
best equipped, iii: 272;
infiltration method of attack, iii: 386, v: 17;
construction of machine-gun nests, v: 37;
sympathy with Revolution, '18, vi: 274;
return to Berlin, Dec. 10, '18, vi: 282;
Machine Gun Corps, viii: 79;
trench systems, viii: 124-129;
adopt trench defense after Marne defeat, '14, viii: 134;
machine-gun equipment compared with Allied, Aug., '14, viii: 134;
method of attack, viii: 137;
"holding" troops, viii: 144;
"shock" troops, viii: 144;
training, xi: 195-204;
cavalry, xi: 196;
discipline, xi: 202;
reduction in strength under Peace Treaty, xii: 209, 211;
reduction in equipment under Peace Treaty, xii: 210, 212;
table of organization imposed by Peace Treaty, xii: 212;
for military operations, _see_ Western Front;
_also_ name of campaign or engagement.
Artillery,
superiority over Allies, ii: 128, 288, viii: 36;
guns captured by Allies, July--Nov., '18, iii: 103;
development of heavy field howitzers, viii: 22;
11-in. siege mortars described, viii: 34-36;
long-range bombardment of Paris, viii: 45-47;
structure of long-range shells hitting Paris, viii: 46.
Bagdad Railway, interest in, _see_ Bagdad Railway.
Belgian neutrality, violation of, _see_ Belgium, Neutrality.
Blockade of, effectiveness, i: 280, vi: 253, xii: 97 (German view);
Allied regulation of neutral commerce, i: 280, vi: 377;
controversy between U. S. and Great Britain
on seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339;
British Order in Council, Mar. 15, '15, i: 318;
Allied trade blacklist, i: 335;
controversy between U. S. and Great Britain
on seizure of neutral mail, i: 335;
measures to starve Germany, i: 358;
objects of British Orders in Council, ii: 16;
food shortage, ii: 17, vi: 253-255, 260, 261, 266, 285, 294;
report of German scientists on, ii: 17;
estimate of minimum food requirements, ii: 17;
meat production self-sufficient, ii: 18;
statistics on pre-War food imports, ii: 18;
shortage of fertilizers, ii: 18;
increased production as offset against blockade, ii: 18;
reduction of waste, ii: 18, vi: 254;
increase in tilled land, ii: 19;
international law on, ii: 21;
difficulties of enforcement, ii: 21, iv: 86;
German isolation, ii: 21;
value of, ii: 22;
effect on civilian population, ii: 99;
use of dog flesh as food, xii: 41;
after-War food conditions, xii: 45;
U. S. export license system, xii: 99;
German trade with neutrals, xii: 100;
smuggling, xii: 100;
Allied plan of after-War economic boycott, xii: 102;
pre-War food production, xii: 136-138;
war-time food problems, xii: 136.
Boundaries, under Peace Treaty, xii: 186.
Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404;
princes killed in battle, ix: 237;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
total battle deaths, xii: 288.
China, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 206.
Coal, production, 1880--1913, i: 267;
secret of power, i: 267;
production, '13--'15, xii: 48.
Colonies, loss of, i: 13;
acquisition of African, i: 50, 95;
acquisition of Pacific islands, i: 81;
acquisition of Kiau-Chau, i: 82;
South American settlements, i: 84;
area and population of African, i: 96, xii: 279;
understanding with British on African expansion, i: 200;
necessity as outlet for population, i: 262;
important motive in war policy, ii: 13;
conquest of African, by Allies, iii: 252-256;
New Guinea conquered by Australians, vi: 38;
Samoa conquered by New Zealanders, vi: 38;
surrendered to Allies under Peace Treaty, xii: 206;
Kiau-Chau transferred to Japan, xii: 209, 279;
distribution among Allies, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279;
_see also_ name of colony.
Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, xii: _Intro. x._
Declarations of war,
on Russia, Aug. 1, '14, i: 115, 139, 375;
on France, Aug. 3, '14, i: 140, 375;
by Great Britain, Aug. 4, '14, i: 145, 375;
on Belgium, Aug. 4, '14, i: 375;
by Italy, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386;
on Rumania, Aug. 28, '16, i: 386;
by U. S., Apr. 6, '17, i: 389, ii: 53, xi: 35;
diplomatic relations with Brazil severed, Apr. 11, '17, i: 389;
diplomatic relations with Bolivia severed, Apr. 13, '17, i: 389;
Greece breaks off diplomatic relations, June, 29, '17, i: 390;
by China, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390.
Defeat, causes of,
underestimate of Allied inventive capacity, i: _Intro. ix_;
underestimate of British, ii: _Intro, viii_;
strategic, ii: 15;
faulty psychology, ii: 53, 78, 221;
collapse of Germanic allies, ii: 89, 98, 329;
analysis of, ii: 99;
German efficiency _vs._ Allies' "will to win," ii: 100;
Field-Marshal Haig on, ii: 120;
failure to take Channel ports in '14, ii: 221;
Russian campaigns, ii: 221;
adoption of trench warfare, ii: 222;
forcing U. S. into War, ii: 222;
miscalculation of German endurance, ii: 224;
launching of '18 offensive, ii: 225;
failure to learn from American Civil War, ii: 255;
not in position for war of exhaustion, ii: 304;
Ludendorff ascribes to incompetent civil government,
ii: 301-304, 310;
Allied superiority too great, Ludendorff's view, ii: 227;
_see also_ under Germany, Strategy;
for military operations, _see_ Western Front,
_also_ campaign or engagement.
Egypt, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208.
Food, _see_ Blockade.
Foreign policy, world position, 1871, i: 44;
influence of industrialism on, i: 77;
domination over Austria-Hungary, i: 79, 133;
Near East policy, i: 80, 207, ii: 89;
ambition for world power, i: 83, 170, ii: 2, 13;
expansion in South America, i: 84;
Venezuelan controversy with U. S., i: 86;
jealousy of U. S. strength, i: 87;
plans for subjugation of U. S., i: 87-88;
ambition for "place in the sun," i: 95, ii: 27;
enters Triple Alliance, i: 95;
dynastic relations in Balkans, i: 96;
sympathy with Boers, i: 96, 192;
Turkish policy, i: 98, 207, ii: 28, vi: 330;
Kaiser's statement of Moroccan policy, Mar., '05, i: 99, 202;
hatred of Great Britain,
i: 101, 167, 190-194, ii: 14, vi: 251-252, 264;
Moroccan crisis forced by sending gunboat
_Panther_ to Agadir, July, '11, i: 104, 203;
negotiations with British for curbing naval program, '12,
i: 106, 194-197;
dream of Central European Federation under herself, 171, vi: 258;
von Bülow's statement of policy, i: 173;
Bernhardi's view of British as declining nation, i: 190;
ill feeling against Kaiser's English mother, i: 192;
_Hymn of Hate_, i: 194;
negotiations with British for mutual neutrality, '12, i: 194-197;
Prince Lichnowsky on Moroccan policy, i: 204;
Kaiser visits Turkey, 1889, 1898, i: 207;
unity of Austro-German interests, i: 208;
Austria as buffer against Slavs, i: 209;
hatred of France, i: 215;
Sir Edward Grey's statement of events, July 23--Aug. 3, '14,
i: 218-227;
refusal to pledge respect of Belgian neutrality, '14, i: 223;
Bismarck's pledge to respect Belgian neutrality, 1870, i: 229;
Russian policy, i: 239;
statement of war aims by Chancellor Michaelis, '16, ii: 14;
plans for annexation of Russian territories, ii: 15;
anti-British plans in East, ii: 27;
"Gott strafe England," vi: 251;
Russo-British alliance rouses hatred, '14, vi: 251;
desire to include Austria in Republic, vi: 322;
friction with Bulgaria, vi: 344;
attitude on Dutch neutrality, vi: 376;
relations with Japan, vi: 382;
_see also_ under Germany, Militarism, Pan-Germanism.
Fortifications,
demolition under Peace Treaty terms, xii: 189, 205, 211, 214.
Health, effect of War on, iii: 406.
Industries,
rise as industrial power, i: 75-78;
state aid, i: 76;
influence on foreign policy, i: 77;
industrial mobilization, xii: 80;
effects of war-time shortage of raw materials, xii: 97;
use of potash boycott against U. S., xii: 98.
Internal politics,
political organization, 1648 to French Revolution, i: 26;
failure of democratic movement, 1848, i: 32;
unification under Bismarck, i: 40-44, ii: 1;
political organization of Empire, i: 70, 156;
strength of Social-Democrats, i: 71, vi: _Intro. xi, xv_;
powers of Imperial Chancellor, i: 71, 156;
William II becomes Emperor, 1888, i: 97;
Professor Lamprecht's defense of German system, i: 155;
composition and powers of Bundesrat, i: 156;
composition and powers of Reichstag, i: 156;
powers of Emperor, i: 156;
dominance of Prussia, i: 156, 258;
social classes, i: 258;
Bismarck representative of Junker class, i: 258;
change from agricultural into industrial state, i: 259-260;
struggle between old aristocracy and new capitalists, i: 260;
basis of national strength, i: 260;
social legislation, i: 264;
Sir Thomas Barclay on German political parties,
vi: _Intro. ix-xvi_;
party principles compared, vi: _Intro. ix, xii_;
Social-Democratic leaders, vi: _Intro. ix_;
Sir Thomas Barclay on Revolution of '18, vi: _Intro. x_;
leaders of the Revolution, vi: _Intro. x_;
strength of Center Party, vi: _Intro. xi, xv_;
strength of Conservatives, vi: _Intro. xi, xiv, xv_;
Conservative principles, vi: _Intro. xii_;
principles of Social-Democrats, vi: _Intro. xii_;
principles of National-Liberals, vi: _Intro. xii_;
policies of Center Party, vi: _Intro. xiii_;
National-Liberal strength, vi: _Intro. xv_;
strength of Democratic Party, vi: _Intro. xv_;
Germany politically undeveloped, vi: _Intro. xv_;
city governments non-partisan, vi: _Intro. xvi_;
public sentiment on War, '14, vi: 250;
anti-War protest by Social Revolutionists, '14, vi: 250;
Socialist peace agitation, '15, vi: 258, 262;
Socialist split on war policy, '15, vi: 260;
beginnings of Spartacide group, vi: 260;
"preventive arrests" for suppressing pacifists, '16, vi: 262;
Socialists demand peace without annexations, '17, vi: 266;
Socialists demand liberal terms for Russians at Brest-Litovsk,
vi: 268;
labor strikes during Brest-Litovsk peace negotiations,'17,
vi: 268;
strikes suppressed by armed force, vi: 260;
reduction in munition output, '18, vi: 270;
Germany faces defeat, vi: 270;
Prince Maximilian of Baden succeeds Count von Hertling
as Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270;
Prince Max proposes Liberal-Socialist coalition government,
vi: 270;
Kaiser's last appeals fail, vi: 270, 271;
Ludendorff's régime ends, Oct., '18, vi: 271;
revolutionary threats, Oct., '18, vi: 271;
Revolution starts, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 272;
Kaiser abdicates, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 272;
establishment of German republics, vi: 273, 280;
revolutionary scenes in Berlin, vi: 273-277;
Ebert, as Chancellor,
establishes provisional government, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 277;
Kaiser flees to Holland, vi: 277;
radical Socialists oppose Ebert government, vi: 278;
Spartacides urge Bolshevik revolution, vi: 279;
spread of Bolshevism, vi: 280;
Independents demand immediate social reconstruction
before political reform, vi: 280;
Ebert government appeals for bourgeois support, vi: 280;
Spartacides allied with Russian Bolsheviki, vi: 280;
return of "victorious" army to Berlin
strengthens Provisional Government, vi: 282;
Central Council of Delegates convened by Ebert,
Dec. 16, '18, vi: 283;
Central Council votes for election of National Assembly,
Dec. 19, '18, vi: 283;
Central Executive Committee created, Dec., '18, vi: 283;
Majority Socialists in absolute control of government, vi: 283;
Soldiers' and Workmen's Councils ordered dissolved,
Dec., '18, vi: 283;
Spartacides and Independents threaten proletarian revolution,
Dec., '18, vi: 283;
Count zu Reventlow on Germany under Socialist régime, vi: 284;
hunger and unemployment, vi: 285-287, 294-298;
Spartacide insurrection, Jan., '19, vi: 287-290;
Bavarian government supports Berlin Spartacides, vi: 288;
Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg killed, Jan. 14, '19, vi: 289;
National Assembly elections, Jan. 19, '19, vi: 290;
National Assembly meets at Weimar, Feb. 6, '19, vi: 291;
Ebert's speech before National Assembly on government's policies,
vi: 292;
Ebert elected President of Germany, Feb., '19, vi: 292;
Scheidemann elected Chancellor, Feb., '19, vi: 292;
composition of Scheidemann Cabinet, vi: 292;
German press comment on Ebert as President, vi: 293;
middleclass "counter strikes" against extremists, vi: 294;
Kurt Eisner assassinated, Feb. 21, '19, vi: 298;
Soviet established in Munich, Feb. 19, vi: 298, 300;
Spartacides in control of Saxony, Feb., '19, vi: 299;
second Spartacide rising in Berlin suppressed by Noske,
Mar., '19, vi: 299;
Ebert government overthrows Munich Soviet,
Apr.--May, '19, vi: 300-301;
forced to accept Versailles Peace Treaty, vi: 302-305;
press comment on peace terms, vi: 302-304;
Gustav Bauer succeeds Scheidemann as Chancellor
to sign Peace Treaty, vi: 304;
National Assembly votes to accept Allies' terms,
June 22, '19, vi: 305.
International concessions,
surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 228.
Iron, plans for annexation of French ore lands,
i: 122, 267, ii: 13, 15;
importance of Lorraine ore deposits, i: 267;
seizure of French and Belgian mines, '14, ii: 20.
Kultur, Bernhardi on, i: 64, 159, 160;
great men of, i: 64;
significance, i: 64;
manifestations, i: 64;
spokesmen of, i: 66;
gospel of conquest, i: 66;
educational program for dissemination of, i: 67;
supremacy of State dominant idea, i: 68, 148;
doctrine of "divine right of kings," i: 68;
relation to militarism, i: 69;
German social philosophy compared with British, i: 149;
strength of State higher good than happiness of individuals,
i: 149;
Bergson on German doctrine of force, i: 152;
transition from idealism to materialism, i: 152;
materialistic spirit of German students, i: 154;
national egoism, i: 154;
contributions to world culture, i: 154;
definition and exposition of, i: 158;
compared with _culture_, i: 158;
Bernhardi's belief in supremacy of German brain, i: 160;
right to conquest, i: 161;
_see also_ under Germany, Militarism.
Liberia, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208.
Luxemburg, violation of neutrality, _see_ Luxemburg.
Militarism, war as national policy, i: _Intro. vii_, 70;
basic conception, i: 69;
glorification of doctrine of force, i: 69;
Henri Bergson on, i: 152;
Professor Lamprecht's defense, i: 155;
Bernhardi on universal military training, i: 162;
Bernhardi on necessity of war to progress, i: 162;
Bernhardi condemns love of peace, i: 162, 171;
German pride in, i: 163;
compared with Christianity, i: 165;
compared with British policy, i: 165;
force in place of diplomacy, i: 166;
"World power or downfall," i: 170;
von der Goltz's plea against peace, i: 171;
German statement of policy, i: 171-173;
striking quotations from Bernhardi, i: 179;
Bernhardi on conqueror's right to annex territory, i: 181;
German denial of, i: 182;
compared with Allies' defensive policy, '14, ii: 1;
statement of war aims by Chancellor Michaelis, ii: 14;
explained by Baron von Freytag-Loringhoven, ii: 260;
compared with Roman imperialism, by Professor Ferrero,
ii: 365-372;
pre-War preparedness, vi: 249;
_see also_ under Germany,
Foreign policy, Kultur, Pan-Germanism.
Morale, demands of War on nation, ii: 302;
fighting spirit waning, '18, ii: 309-311;
change between '17 and '18, v: 2.
Morocco, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208.
Navy, strength in '06, i: 101;
negotiations with British for curbing naval program,
i: 106, 194-197;
increase in "peace strength" for '14, i: 131;
strength threat to British security, i: 196;
surrendered to Allies, Nov. 21, '18,
i: 400,
iv: 142-144, 383-384 (list and description of major units),
385-387 (German eye-witness account),
387-390 (American eye-witness account),
390-394 (British eye-witness account),
xii: 213 (Peace Treaty terms);
hemmed in by British, ii: _Intro. viii_;
efforts to break blockade by use of submarines, iv: 7, 256;
strength of China Squadron, iv: 58;
operations in Pacific, iv: 60;
strategy of defense, iv: 86;
operations of High Sea Fleet in North Sea, iv: 91;
superior to British in destroyers, iv: 94;
use of fleet criticized by Jellicoe, iv: 94;
High Sea Fleet compared with British Grand Fleet, iv: 96;
North Sea raids, iv: 136;
mission during War, iv: 138;
development, iv: 362;
Bolshevik propaganda in, iv: 380;
revolts, Nov., '18, iv: 380-383, vi: 272, 283;
morale, iv: 294;
mutiny suppressed, '17, vi: 266;
Peace Treaty conditions for reduction, xii: 212-214;
_see also_ Submarine warfare.
Occupation by Allies, expense to be paid by Germany, xii: 226;
conditions for withdrawal, xii: 261.
Pan-Germanism,
ideal of unification of all Teuton elements in Europe,
i: 78, xi: 4;
Pan-German League, objects, i: 79;
propaganda in U. S., i: 79;
policy in South America, i: 84;
Bernhardi's statement of principles, i: 152;
Bismarck's plan for world empire, ii: 2;
first steps toward under William II, ii: 2;
goal of Calais to Bagdad, ii: 13;
Bagdad Railway important factor in, ii: 296;
compared with Roman imperialism,
by Professor Ferrero, ii: 365-372;
expounded by Friedrich Naumann in _Mitteleuropa_, vi: 258;
_see also_ under Germany, Foreign policy, Militarism.
Peace negotiations,
Prince Max asks Wilson to intercede, Oct. 6, '18,
i: 399, vi: 271;
armistice, Nov. 11, '18, i: 399,
iii: 402, v: 391, vi: 271, xi: 54;
war aims expressed in secret memorandum to Austria, '16, ii: 14;
condemned by Ludendorff, ii: 303;
Allies reject, prior to Spring offensive, '18, ii: 316;
Kaiser orders proposals through Queen of Holland, ii: 331;
Ludendorff convinced Germany can't win, Sept., '18, ii: 333, 335;
drive for "mental armistice," ii: 387-390;
armistice with Russia, Dec. 6, '17, v: 113;
Brest-Litovsk treaty with Russia, Mar. 3, '18, vi: 183;
Socialists present peace manifesto, Nov., '15, vi: 258;
Bethmann-Hollweg rejects Socialist peace demands, vi: 260;
Bethmann-Hollweg proposes "peace of compromise," '17,
vi: 262-264;
Socialists support peace without annexations, '17. vi: 266;
Reichstag passes resolution for peace without annexations, '17,
vi: 266;
forced to accept Versailles Peace Treaty, vi: 302-305;
Allies' peace terms received, May 7, '19, vi: 302;
press comment on peace terms, vi: 302-304;
National Assembly votes to sign Peace Treaty, June 22, '19,
vi: 304;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179, 182;
Peace Treaty ratified, July 10, '19, xii: 264;
_see also_ Peace, moves for.
Population, in 1860, i: 40;
compared with France, 1874--1914, i: 61;
emigration to U. S., i: 75, 79, 277;
emigration to South America, i: 79;
growth since 1870 compared with that of France, i: 262;
relation of growth to colonial expansion, i: 262;
rapid increase, i: 277;
of Republic, xii: 279.
Prisoners of war, iii: 404.
Propaganda, in U. S. before War, i: 79;
activities of Dr. Albert, i: 133;
artificial nature of public opinion, i: 149;
preparing German mind for war, i: 171, 181;
appeal to Americans, Aug., '14, i: 268;
von Jagow's defense against American criticisms, i: 273;
activities of German agents in U. S.,
i: 274, 302, 314, x: 326-348;
Dr. Dernburg's activities in U. S., i: 274;
instigating Hindu revolutions, i: 317;
Mexican plot-against U. S., i: 347;
on Italian Front, iii: 247, vi: 128;
following capture of Americans at Seicheprey, v: 123;
in Spain, xii: 101.
Railroads, war-time deterioration, viii: 283;
efficiency under war conditions, viii: 284-285;
Peace Treaty regulations, xii: 253.
Reparation, views of U. S. press on, xii: 24;
estimates of capacity to pay, xii: 159;
cession of Sarre coalfields to France, xii: 189;
Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 217-225.
Responsibility for War,
German manipulations to force war, i: 8, 129-138;
unwillingness to coöperate to prevent World War,
i: 115, 124-126, 246, 250;
responsibility denied, i: 116-120;
Bethmann-Hollweg's statement, i: 117;
Hellferich's justification, i: 119;
statement by German "Intellectuals," i: 120;
Dr. Dernburg's defense, i: 120;
German case against Great Britain, i: 121;
evidences of anticipating the War, i: 131;
complicity in Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, i: 133-136, 252;
Potsdam Conference, July 5, '14, i: 136, 250;
statement of Allied infractions of international law, i: 139;
Sir Edward Grey's statement of events leading to War,
July 23--Aug. 3, '14, i: 218-227;
Prince Lichnowsky's account of events leading to War,
i: 246, 250;
Dr. Mühlon's disclosures, i: 250-254;
Peace Treaty provisions for trial of guilty, xii: 217;
_see also_ Causes of the War.
Royal family, xi: 149;
_see also_
William II;
Frederick William.
Shipping,
increase in tonnage, 1880--1913, compared with British, i: 77;
increase in tonnage, '00--'04, i: 263;
Kaiser's personal interest in, i: 264;
German resourcefulness, i: 264;
tonnage and capital of North German Lloyd Line, i: 264;
tonnage and earnings of Hamburg-American Line, i: 264;
tonnage and earnings of Hansa Line, i: 264;
tonnage of Hamburg-South American Line, i: 264.
Siam, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208.
Strategy,
seizure of French coal and iron mines,
i: 122, 267, ii: 13, 15, 20;
general war plans, ii: 1-8, iii: 8, iv: 4-8;
estimate of European military alignments, ii: 2-4;
conquest of France first objective, ii: 4-8, iii: 2, 10;
topography of German western frontier, ii: 6;
invasion of Belgium and northern France, ii: 8, xi: 9;
mistake of striking first at France instead of Russia, '14,
ii: 11;
probable results of a vigorous offensive against Russia in '14,
ii: 13;
reasons for striking at France first, ii: 13;
destructiveness as war policy, ii: 15, xi: 20, xii: 23;
defensive attitude toward Russia, '14, ii: 22;
East Prussian campaigns, ii: 24;
invasion of Russian Poland, ii: 25;
failure to operate against Suez Canal, ii: 31;
military plans for '17, ii: 53;
necessity for military strokes of '18, ii: 65;
at strategic advantage, Mar., '18, ii: 66;
selection of front for spring offensive, '18, ii: 67;
plans for '18 campaign, ii: 70, 149;
retreat under blows of Foch, ii: 86;
causes of failure, ii: 99;
faced with military disaster, Nov., '18, ii: 215;
Russia overwhelmed, '15, ii: 233;
Col. Gädke on German war plans and results, ii: 270;
underestimate of U. S. strength, ii: 272;
fortified lines of retreat behind Western Front, ii: 304;
Gen. von Schlieffen responsible for plan of invasion
through Belgium, ii: 345;
Ludendorff's defense of war policy, ii: 346;
alternatives facing Germany, winter, '17--'18, v: 3;
general strategy on Western Front, viii: 133;
_see also_
under Germany, Defeat, causes of;
_also_ Western Front;
campaign or engagement.
Submarine warfare, _see_ Submarine warfare.
Trade, 1880--1914, compared with British, i: 77;
tariff policy, i: 78;
production and import of grains, ii: 17;
dependence on imports for war materials, ii: 20;
war trade with neutrals, ii: 21, xii: 100;
anti-German toy boycott in New York, xii: 99;
Allied proposals for after-War economic boycott, xii: 102;
customs regulations imposed by Peace Treaty, xii: 229;
suppression of unfair competition by Peace Treaty, xii: 230.
Treaties,
pre-War agreements with Allies revived by Peace Treaty, xii: 231;
with Germanic allies, abrogated by Peace Treaty, xii: 232;
with Russia, abrogated by Peace Treaty, xii: 232;
with Rumania, abrogated by Peace Treaty, xii: 232;
_see also_ Brest-Litovsk Treaty;
Bucharest, Treaty of;
Peace Treaty;
Triple Alliance.
War booty, value, xii: 22.
War cost, financial mobilization, ii: 265, xii: 21;
gold reserves, June 30, '14, i: 265;
loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2;
method of raising war funds, xii: 21;
system of loans, xii: 21, 113;
estimate of expenditures, xii: 21;
currency inflation, xii: 22;
war finance system compared with British, xii: 22;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
average daily war cost, xii: 106;
total war cost, Aug., '14--Oct. '19, xii: 107;
taxation, xii: 109;
rise in national debt, xii: 113, 114.
Wireless stations, Peace Treaty regulations for, xii: 214.
_Germany and the Next War_, book by General von Bernhardi,
striking quotations from, i: 179.
Germont, seized by 79th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 266.
Gesnes, location, v: 217;
captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.
Ghent, Belgians re-enter, iii: 103.
Gibbons, Floyd, account of _Laconia_ sinking, iv: 226-229.
Gibbs, Philip, analysis of German war blunders, ii: 221;
account of Cambrai battle, Nov., '17, iii: 337;
description of German spring offensive, '18, iii: 360;
analysis of British generalship, iii: 370-378.
Gibercy, taken by 79th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 272.
Gifford, Walter S.,
Director U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 116.
Ginchy, objective in Somme battle, iii: 58;
description of battle, x: 147-155.
Giolitti,
Italian political leader, opposes entry into War, ii: 236, vi: 123.
Girba, Turks routed at, Feb., '17, iii: 191.
Glasgow, labor riots in, Jan., '19, vi: 19.
_Glasgow_, British cruiser, in battle off Coronel, iv: 65;
hit by gunfire, iv: 68;
in battle of Falklands, iv: 70.
Gleaves, Adm.,
convoys first U. S. troops to France, June 26, '17, iv:160, v: 106.
_Glenart Castle_, British hospital ship,
sunk Feb. 26, '18, i: 393.
Glenn, Maj.-Gen. Edwin F., commands 83rd Div., June, '18, v: 146.
_Glory of War, The_, poem by Dana Burnet, ix: 261.
Glossop, Capt. John C. T.,
commands _Sydney_ in engagement with _Emden_, iv: 187.
_Gloucester Castle_,
British hospital-ship torpedoed without warning, iv: 232.
Gloves, anti-gas, number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.
_Gneisenau_, German cruiser, in battle off Coronel, iv: 65, 66;
sunk at battle of Falklands, iv: 70, ix: 308;
eye-witness account of sinking, iv: 82.
_God Save the King_, English national anthem, xi: 326.
Godfrey, Dr. Hollis,
member, Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense,
xii: 116.
_Goeben_, German battle cruiser,
eludes Allied fleet in Mediterranean and escapes to Turkish waters,
Aug., '14, iv: 13-16;
far-reaching effects of escape, iv: 16;
sold to Turkey, iv: 16;
damaged by mine in Black Sea, Nov. 18, '15, iv: 50, 365.
Gold, Peace Treaty restriction on German export of, xii: 226;
deliveries of, by Germany to Allies under Peace Treaty, xii: 228.
Goldschmidt alternator, for generating radio waves, viii: 316.
_Goliath_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33;
sunk by Turks, May 13, '15, iv: 50.
Golice, captured by Germans, May 2, '15, i: 380.
Goltz, Field-Marshal Baron von der,
heads German mission to Turkey, iii: 164;
commands German troops in Finland, vi: 199;
biography, ix: 268.
Goltz, Horst von der, plots to blow up Welland Canal, x: 333.
Golytsin, Russian Prime Minister, reactionary government of, vi: 143;
gets undated order from Czar dismissing Duma, '17, vi: 144;
issues Czar's order dismissing Duma, Mar. 10, '17, vi: 146.
Gompers, Samuel,
member Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense,
xii: 116.
Gondrecourt, training area for 1st Div., v: 6.
_Good-by-ee_, English soldiers' song, xi: 338.
_Good Hope_,
Admiral Cradock's flagship at battle off Coronel, iv: 64;
hit by gunfire, iv: 66;
sunk by explosion, iv: 67, ix: 308.
Goremykin, deposed as Russian Prime Minister, '15, vi: 140.
Gorizia, Italian attacks fail, '15, ii: 50, 240, iii: 244;
captured by Italians, Aug., '16, ii: 51, 242, iii: 246;
life in, under Italian occupation, ii: 244;
key to Isonzo, iii: 239.
_Goshawk_, British destroyer,
in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.
Gotha airplanes, description, viii: 196, 221.
Goto, Baron, biography, ix: 92.
Göttingen prison camp, Y. M. C. A. work in, vii: 303.
Gough, Gen. Sir Hubert, at first Ypres battle, ii: 171;
responsibility for defeat of British Fifth Army,
Mar., '18, ii: 190-197;
decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60.
Gouraud, Gen.,
defensive tactics against German advance, July, '18,
ii: 209, v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148;
famous appeal to troops, July, '18, v: 45;
qualities as leader, v: 46.
Gourko, Gen. Basil, Chief of Russian General Staff, ii: 225;
exposition of Russian strategy, ii: 225.
Gradisca, captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244.
Grado, bombarded by Austrian airplanes, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382.
Granatieri, description of, ii: 242.
Grandcourt, taken by British, Nov. 18, '16, i: 388.
Grand Fleet, British, _see_ Great Britain, Navy.
Grand Pré, captured by A. E. F., Oct., '18. v: 85, 218, 252, xi: 53.
Granger, Dr. Amédée,
invents X-ray apparatus for locating bullets in flesh, viii: 374.
Graves, war, A. E. F. Registration Service, v: 331, 400;
Peace Treaty provisions for care of, xii: 217.
Great Britain:
Air Service, formation of Royal Air Force, viii: 202;
strength at end of War, viii: 202;
types of airplanes, viii: 203-206;
Bristol planes, viii: 203;
Handley-Page bombers, viii: 204, 223;
D. H.-10 bombers, viii: 204;
types of dirigibles, viii: 245;
dirigible _R-34_ crosses Atlantic, viii: 245;
dirigibles _R-33_ and _R-34_, description, viii: 254.
Army, German contempt for, i: 191;
lands in France, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375;
ammunition shortage, '14,
ii: _Intro. xiii_, 173 (Viscount French's exposé);
deficiency in trained men, ii: 113;
deficiency in material, ii: 114;
Field-Marshal Haig on value of cavalry, ii: 120;
machine-gun equipment, ii: 125, 275;
artillery equipment, ii: 125;
Haig on effects of growth in artillery service, ii: 125;
artillery at Somme battle, '16, ii: 126;
ammunition used on Western Front, Aug.--Nov., '18, ii: 130;
military hospitals in France, ii: 131;
total strength in France, ii: 131;
service of supply behind the lines, ii: 131-132;
Haig's opinion of British officer, ii: 133;
Haig's opinion on present organization, ii: 134;
changing civilians into soldiers described by Haig, ii: 135;
Haig's tribute to Regular Army, ii: 136;
opinion of a German military critic, ii: 256;
pre-War organization, iii: 3;
Intelligence service, iii: 383;
strength, '14--'18, iii: 404, 405;
strength in Italy, iii: 405;
strength in Mesopotamia, iii: 405;
"Pal" regiments, vi: 6;
slackers driven into service, vi: 6;
origin of nickname "Tommy," vi: 230;
types of rifles used, viii: 95;
Indian winners of Victoria Cross, x: 85;
Senegalese troops, x: 116;
British soldier as fighter, xi: 181-189;
for military operations, _see_ campaign or engagement.
Blockade by Germany, _see_ Submarine warfare.
Blockade of Germany, _see_ Germany, Blockade of.
Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404, 405;
causes for extent of, analyzed by Field-Marshal Haig, ii: 118;
at Gallipoli, iii: 177;
in attempts to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 364;
in '17, iii: 382;
in German spring offensive, '18, iii: 390;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
total battle deaths, xii: 288;
_see also_ campaign or engagement.
Coal, production, '13--'17, xii: 47;
war-time fuel control, xii: 51.
Cost of living,
increase in, by reduction of imports, ii: _Intro. xxii_;
price movements in England and U. S. since 1780,
xii: _Intro. viii-x_;
criticism of government policy, xii: 28.
Declarations of war,
on Germany, Aug. 4, '14, circumstances of,
i: 145, 218-227 (Sir Edward Grey's statement), 375;
on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 12, '14, i: 375;
on Turkey, Nov. 5, '14, i: 376;
on Bulgaria, Oct. 15, '15, i: 382.
Food, effect of submarine warfare, vi: 10;
police prevent hoarding, vi: 11;
government control of, xii: 34, 59;
Food Control Committee established, xii: 34;
sugar shortage, xii: 34, 138;
meat control, xii: 34;
war-time fish supply, xii: 34;
wheat control, xii: 35;
increase in crop production, '16--'18, xii: 40;
work of women in production of, xii: 40;
effect of food shortage on dogs, xii: 40;
potato crop, xii: 47;
war-time problems, xii: 138.
Foreign policy, value of U. S. good-will, i: 35;
world position, 1871, i: 44;
Turkish policy at Congress of Berlin, i: 48;
acquires control of Egypt, i: 48;
extent of colonial empire, i: 59;
international position, '14, i: 59;
policy of conciliation, i: 59, 107, 218;
Anglo-French good-will, i: 98;
treaty with France, '04, i: 99;
agreement with Russia for control of Persia, '07, i: 104;
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, i: 104;
negotiations with Germany for curbing naval program,
'12, i: 106, 194-197;
statement of policy by Asquith, Nov., '11, i: 106;
agreement with France for united action against "third Power,"
'12, i: 107, 220;
negotiations to prevent World War, July--Aug., '14,
i: 115, 124, 218-227 (Sir Edward Grey's account),
247-249 (Prince Lichnowsky's account);
policy on Belgian neutrality, i: 141, 222, 224;
arrangement with Belgium for defense of neutrality, '06,
i: 143, 231;
promise to defend French coast, Aug. 2, '14, i: 146, 220;
statement of war aims by Lloyd George, i: 189;
negotiations with Germany for mutual neutrality, '12, i: 194-197;
Sir Edward Grey's efforts to establish Anglo-German good-will,
i: 198;
agreement with Germany on African expansion, i: 200;
agreement for settling rivalries in Turkey, '14, i: 200;
question of armed intervention in Moroccan crisis, i: 218;
freedom from secret obligations in event of war, i: 218;
Sir Edward Grey urges intervention in defense of
Belgian neutrality, i: 224;
offer of help to Belgium, Aug. 4, '14, i: 232;
influence in the East, ii: 27;
claims to Turkey under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334;
Turkish policy, announced Nov. 7, '18, vi: 334;
_see also_ Triple Entente.
Industries during War, peace and war productivity compared,
xii: 19, 77-79;
women in, xiii: 25;
bonuses to labor, xii: 28;
provisions for settlement of labor disputes, xii: 79.
Internal politics, Imperial unity through war,
i: _Intro. xiv_;
political philosophy compared with German, i: 165;
members of War Council, Nov., '14, ii: 198;
political conditions, Aug., '14, vi: 1;
industrial and social unrest, '15, vi: 2;
labor opposition to conscription, vi: 6;
Conscription Bill passed, Apr., '16, vi: 6;
treatment of conscientious objectors, vi: 8;
pacifists indorse Soviet peace aims, '17, vi: 12;
Lord Lansdowne's peace letter, vi: 13;
Defense of the Realm Act inadequate to prevent strikes, vi: 14;
Labor Party platform, '17, vi: 14;
conditions at close of War, vi: 15;
general elections, '18, vi: 16-17;
industrial strikes spread, Jan., '19, vi: 17;
ship-builders' strike, vi: 19;
Glasgow riots, vi: 19;
strike in electrical trades prevented
by Defense of the Realm Act, Feb., '19, vi: 20;
Lloyd George calls Labor Peace Conference, Feb., '19, vi: 20;
commission of inquiry into mining conditions appointed,
Feb., '19, vi: 20;
truce in labor war till completion of Peace Treaty, vi: 22;
after-War problems, vi: 23.
Munitions, exposé of shell shortage by Viscount French, ii: 173;
production compared with that of Central Empires, xii: 78;
work of Ministry of Munitions, xii: 78.
Navy, protector of lines of supply, i: 15;
rise to world supremacy, i: 28;
strength in '06, i: 101;
negotiations with Germany for curbing naval program,
i: 106, 194-197;
general strategy during War, ii: _Intro. vii_, iv: 85-93;
ships in Mediterranean at outbreak of War, iv: 13;
squadrons in Eastern waters, iv: 58;
ships in West Atlantic, iv: 58;
problem of maintaining Allied supremacy, iv: 86;
Admiral Jellicoe appointed to command of Grand Fleet,
Aug. 4, '14, iv: 88;
minesweeping operations, iv: 91;
convoy of troopships, iv: 92;
bases, iv: 92;
extracts from Jellicoe's _The Grand Fleet, 1914--1916_,
iv: 93-97;
unpreparedness, '14, iv: 93;
lack of destroyers, iv: 94;
Grand Fleet compared with German High Sea Fleet, iv: 96;
Jellicoe's reasons for not attacking Germans, iv: 96;
make-up of Grand Fleet, Aug., '14, iv: 97;
make-up of Grand Fleet at battle of Jutland, iv: 119;
Lord Fisher's views on share in Allied victory, iv: 140;
statistics on transport of troops, '15--'18, iv: 239;
18-in. super naval guns, viii: 53;
_see also_
battle or engagement;
Gallipoli Campaign.
Peace Conference, delegates, xii: 179;
_see also_ Peace Conference.
Peace Treaty, press views, vi: 22;
ratified, July 25--31, '19, xii: 264;
_see also_ Peace Treaty with Germany.
Prisoners of war, iii: 404.
Railroads, system of war-time government control, xii: 89.
Royal family, xi: 150-152;
_see also_ George V.
Shipping, tonnage, 1880--1913, compared with German, i: 77;
government control of ship-building, xii: 95;
tonnage in '14, xii: 95;
yearly tonnage production, '14--'17, xii: 96;
war-time shortage of, xii: 96.
Strategy, analyzed by Maj.-Gen. Maurice,
ii: _Intro. vii-xxiv_;
naval, iv: 85-93.
Trade, 1880--1913, compared with German, i: 77;
pre-War position, xii: 18-19;
pre-War and war-time compared, xii: 78.
War cost, financial position at start of War, xii: 1, 18;
loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2;
income tax rates, compared with U. S. and French rates, xii: 4;
debt to U. S., xii: 18;
exchange rates with U. S., xii: 19;
extravagance in expenditure of war funds, xii: 19-20;
taxes, xii: 20, 107, 108, 111;
money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
currency inflation, xii: 27-28;
average daily war cost, xii: 105;
total war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107;
war loans, xii: 111;
rise in national debt, xii: 111, 114.
_Great Northern, S. S._, speed record as army transport, v: 358.
Greece, revolts against Turkey, 1825, i: 34;
breaks off diplomatic relations with Central Powers, June 29, '17,
i: 390, vi: 345;
anti-Allied attitude at Salonika, iii: 206;
Venizelos establishes revolutionary government, Sept., '16,
iii: 210;
Venizelos government recognized by Allies, Jan., '17, iii: 210;
King Constantine deposed by Allies, iii: 210, vi: 245;
war casualties, iii: 404, xii: 289;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
debt to U. S., xii: 18;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180;
_see also_ Salonika Campaign.
Greek fire, composition of, xi: 314.
Gregory, Sgt. Earl D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
_Greif_, German armed liner,
sunk in fight with British _Alcantara_, iv: 200.
Grenades, number of U. S., at front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 350;
ancient method of throwing weapons by hand revived, viii: 119;
Germans first to use, viii: 119;
Allied unpreparedness at start of War, viii: 119;
nature, viii: 119;
technique of throwing, viii: 120;
kinds, viii: 120, xi: 211.
Grenfell, Capt. Francis O.,
first winner of Victoria Cross in War, x: 10.
Gresham, Pvt.,
one of first of A. E. F. to be killed in France, xi: 173.
Grey, Edward, Viscount of Fallodon,
efforts to prevent the War, i: 124-126, 247;
mediation in Balkan Wars, i: 198;
efforts to establish Anglo-German good-will, i: 198;
negotiations to settle Anglo-German rivalry in Mesopotamia,
'12--'14, i: 200;
speech before Parliament summarizing events leading to World War,
Aug. 3, '14, i: 218-227;
biography, ix: 35-40;
bibliography, ix: 40;
advocate of League of Nations, xii: 155.
Grierson, Gen. Sir James,
commander of British Second Corps, death in France, ii: 176.
Grimancourt, taken by 322nd Inf., Nov. 10, '18, v: 277.
Grimm, Swiss Socialist,
expelled by Russian Provisional Government, vi: 380.
Grissinger, Col. J. W., Chief Surgeon, Third Army, A. E. F., v: 346.
Grodno, captured by Germans, Sept. 2, '15, i: 381, iii: 140.
_Groupes de Combat_, function in French defensive, v: 12.
Guatemala,
severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 28, '17, i: 390;
delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180.
Guedecourt, taken by British, Sept. 26, '16, i: 388.
Guépratte, Rear-Adm., commands French fleet at Gallipoli, iv: 31.
Guillaumat, Gen., drives Germans from Vesles to Aisne, ii: 214.
_Guillaume, Empereur d'Allemagne_,
French soldiers' song, xi: 339.
Guillemont, taken by Allies, Sept. 3, '16, i: 386.
Guillemont Farm, strong point on Hindenburg Line, v: 290.
_Gulflight_, first American ship sunk by U-boat, May 1, '15,
i: 319, 380, iv: 218.
Gumbinnen, Russians defeat Germans at, Aug. 16--24, '14, iii: 111;
retaken by Germans, iii: 116.
Gumpertz, Sgt. Sydney G., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
Guncotton, composition and detonating properties, viii: 2;
_see also_ Ammunition.
Gunpowder, black, composition and explosive properties, viii: 2;
smokeless, composition and action, viii: 4;
muzzle flash, viii: 7;
_see also_ Ammunition.
Gunpowder Neck, U. S. poison-gas plant at, viii: 179-187.
Guns, _see_ Artillery.
_Guns of Verdun_, poem by Patrick R. Chalmers, vi: 91.
Guthrie, Col. Percy, first Canadian to enlist, x: 44.
Guynemer, Capt. Georges, French "miracle ace," x: 202, xi: 231.
Gyles, Midshipman Donald,
heroic fight against German destroyers, x: 293-295.
Gyroscope, war uses, viii: 348.
H
Haase, Herr,
leader German Social-Democratic minority, vi: _Intro. xii_;
in Ebert ministry, Nov., '18, vi: 278;
advocates Bolshevik principles, vi: 299.
Habibullah Khan,
Emir of Afghanistan, assassinated, Feb., '19, vi: 80.
Hagen position, location in Argonne, v: 218.
Hague Conference, establishes Arbitration Tribunal, 1899, i: 94;
convened for second time at suggestion of Roosevelt, '07, i: 103;
accomplishments, i: 103.
Hahn, Maj.-Gen. W. G., commander 32nd Div., Feb., '18, v: 119.
Hai River, near Kut-el-Amara, iii: 186.
Haifa, captured by British, Sept. 23, '18, iii: 199.
Haig, Field-Marshal Sir Douglas,
analysis of Western Front campaigns, ii: 112-136;
theories on warfare, ii: 118;
on causes of German military collapse, ii: 120;
on functions of cavalry in the War, ii: 120;
on importance of infantry in the War, ii: 123;
on importance of artillery in the War, with statistics,
ii: 123, 126;
on efficiency of British army officers, ii: 133;
on British military organization, ii: 134;
appointed Commander-in-Chief of British Expeditionary Force,
Dec. 15, '15, iii: 46;
famous "Our backs to the wall" appeal, Mar., '18, iii: 359, v: 120;
personal traits, iii: 373;
biography, ix: 181-184.
Haiti, delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180.
Halahan, Capt., killed at Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 264.
Haldane, Gen., commander of British Sixth Army, iii: 371;
personal traits, iii: 377.
Haldane, Lord, mission to Germany, '12, i: 106, 194.
Halicz, Russians retire from, June 27, '15, i: 380;
captured by Russians, '14, iii: 121;
recaptured by Russians, July, '17, iii: 146.
Hall, Richard Nelville, brave ambulance driver, story of, x: 95.
Hall, Sgt. Thomas Lee, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
Haller, Gen.,
leads revolt of Polish "Iron Brigade" against Austria, vi: 216.
Hamburg-American Line, tonnage and earnings, i: 264.
Hamburg-Persian Gulf railway, _see_ Bagdad Railway.
Hamburg-South American Line, tonnage, i: 264.
Hamel, captured by Germans, Apr. 7, '18, i: 395;
work of tanks at Allied attack, July 4, '18, ii: 281;
share of 33rd Div. in recapture of, July, '18, v: 260.
Hamidieh II, Turkish battery at Gallipoli, armament of, iv: 45.
Hamilton, Gen. Sir Ian,
Allied commander-in-chief at Gallipoli, iii: 162, iv: 32;
succeeded by Gen. Monro, iii: 174;
despatches to War Office, iv: 35-36.
_Hampshire_, British cruiser,
sunk June 5, '16, with Kitchener and staff, i: 385.
Handley-Page bombing planes, viii: 196, 204, 223.
Hankey, Sir Maurice, secretary, Supreme Peace Council, xii: 152.
Hanotaux, Gabriel, on U. S. neutrality, i: 290.
Hansa Line, tonnage and earnings, i: 264.
Hapsburgs, rise and downfall, vi: 305;
_see also_
Austria-Hungary;
Charles Francis;
Francis Joseph.
Hara, Japanese Prime Minister, _see_ Kei Hara.
Harbin, bourgeois government set up by General Horvath at, vi: 192.
Harbord, Maj.-Gen. James G.,
Chief of Staff, A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 101, 403;
commands 2nd Div. in Aisne-Marne Offensive, July, '18, v: 167;
commander, Services of Supply, v: 401.
Hardaumont, captured by Germans, Mar. 8, '16, i: 384.
Harden, Maximilian, on sordid nature of World War, i: 123;
on relations between U. S. and Germany, i: 274;
on American war prosperity, i: 311;
optimistic view of German food situation, '14, vi: 254;
on Allied peace terms, vi: 303.
Hardinge, Lord,
responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 370.
Harington, Sir John,
"brain of British armies in the field," iii: 375.
Harper, Harry, description of Zeppelins by, ii: 262.
Harper, Gen., of British Fourth Corps, personal traits, iii: 377.
Hart, Prof. Albert B.,
summary of U. S. official correspondence on submarine sinkings,
i: 358-362.
Hartlepool, bombarded by Germans, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245.
Hartmannsweilerkopf, captured by French, Mar. 25, '15, i: 378;
Dec., '15, iii: 46.
Hartwell, William, first officer of _S. S. Brussels_,
report on Fryatt case, x: 266-269.
Harvey, Lieut. F. U. W., wins Victoria Cross at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349.
Hassein, King of Hedjaz, joins forces with British, iii: 199.
Hatler, Sgt. M. Waldo, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
Haucourt, taken by Germans, Apr. 5, '16, i: 384, iii: 51.
Haudromont Quarries, taken by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388.
Hausen, Gen. von,
commander of a German Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184.
Hauts de Meuse, location, v: 199.
Havre, Belgian government moved to, Oct. 13, '14, i: 376;
embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395.
_Hawke_, British cruiser, torpedoed Oct. 13, '14, i: 376.
Hay, Maj.-Gen. Wm. H., commander 28th Div., v: 278.
Hay, Pvt., one of first of A. E. F. to be killed, xi: 173.
Hays, 1st Lieut. George Price,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.
Hayward, Col. Wm. D., account by,
of his colored regiment of "bell-hops and waiters," x: 135-137.
Hazois Wood, taken by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.
Hebron, occupied by British, Dec. 7, '17, i: 393, iii: 196.
Hedjaz, Arabs aid British in Palestine operations, iii: 196, 199;
kingdom established under secret treaties, '16--'17,
vi: 334, xii: 279;
delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180;
area and population, xii: 279.
Heeringen, Gen. von,
commands German Sixth Army of invasion, Aug., '14, iii: 10.
_Hela_, German cruiser
torpedoed off Heligoland, Sept. 13, '14, iv: 207.
Helfferich, Karl, on justification of Germany's part in War, i: 119;
director of Deutsche Bank, i: 133, 252;
German Vice-Chancellor, i: 133, 252;
biography, ix: 353.
_Helgoland_, German battleship,
mutiny of crew starts revolution, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381.
Heligoland,
Peace Treaty provisions for destruction of fortifications on,
xii: 205.
Heligoland Bight, naval battle of,
British victory, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375, iv: 240-243;
Admiral Beatty's official report on, iv: 241.
Helmets, steel, devised by French, viii: 64;
process of manufacture of French type, viii: 64;
rate of production, viii: 65;
efficiency as protection, viii: 65;
process of manufacture of U. S. Army type, viii: 66-68;
bullet-resisting tests, viii: 69-72.
Hem, stormed by French in battle of the Somme, July, '16, iii: 58.
Henderson, Arthur, biography, ix: 47-50.
_Henri IV_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.
Henry, Prince, of Prussia, visits U. S., '02, i: 80;
escapes from mutiny of German Fleet, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 272.
Herbebois, taken by Germans, Feb. 21, '16, iii: 48.
Heriot, Corp. James D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
Hermannstadt, captured by Rumanians, Sept. 2, '16, i: 386;
Rumanians defeated at, Sept. 29--30, '16, i: 388.
Hertling, Count von, German Chancellor,
comment on failure of Champagne-Marne Offensive, July 15--18, '18,
v: 158;
retires as Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270.
Hertzog, Gen.,
anti-British Nationalist leader in South Africa, vi: 49, 50;
heads Nationalist delegation to Peace Conference, Jan., '19,
vi: 52.
Herzegovina, annexed by Austria, '08, i: 109, vi: 356;
_see also_ Bosnia-Herzegovina.
_Hesperian, S. S._,
torpedoed by German submarine, Sept. 4, '15, i: 326.
Hickey, Gen., commander of 16th Irish Div., iii: 377.
Hickory (30th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
High Sea Fleet, _see_ Germany, Navy.
Hill, Corp. Ralyn, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.
Hill 60, at Ypres,
captured by British, Apr, 17, '15, i: 378, iii: 42;
captured by Germans, May 5, '15, i: 380.
Hill 70, at Loos, captured by British, Sept., '15, iii: 46.
Hill 140, near Souchez, captured by French, Sept., '15, iii: 46.
Hill 180, captured by 327th Inf. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive,
Oct. 7, '18, v: 242.
Hill 190, near Ronchères, captured by 3rd Div., July 27, '18, v: 187.
Hill 204, near Château-Thierry,
captured by 26th Div., July 20, '18, v: 56;
dominating situation, v: 133;
captured by French and A. E. F., June 6, '18, v: 135.
Hill 223, near Châtel Chehery,
captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243.
Hill 240, captured by 18th and 28th Infs. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive,
Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.
Hill 242, near Côte de Châtillon,
captured by 168th Inf., Oct. 15, '18, v: 84.
Hill 244, near Châtel Chehery,
captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243.
Hill 258, captured by 127th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive,
Oct. 14, '18, v: 250.
Hill 263, captured by 28th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive,
Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.
Hill 269,
captured by 26th Inf. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 5, '18,
v: 240;
held by 1st Engineers against German attacks, v: 246.
Hill 288, near Côte de Châtillon,
captured by 168th Inf., Oct. 14, '18, v: 84.
Hill 304, at Verdun, battle for, iii: 51.
Hill 378, stormed by 79th Div. troops in Meuse-Argonne Offensive,
Nov. 5, '18, v: 270.
Hilton, Sgt. Richmond H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
Hindenburg, Field-Marshal Paul von,
put in command of German armies in East Prussia, Aug., '14,
ii: 24, 353, iii: 112;
destroys Russian Army at battle of Tannenberg, Aug. 26--31, '14,
ii: 24, 353 (Ludendorff's account), iii: 112-116, ix: 242;
campaigns in Russian Poland, ii: 25, iii: 116-118, ix: 245;
Ludendorff's tribute to, ii: 300;
appointed Chief of German General Staff, Aug. 29, '16,
ii: 326, iii: 61;
made Chief of General Staff of Central Powers, ii: 331;
proclamation against "unconditional surrender," Oct. 24, '18,
ii: 335;
first meeting with Ludendorff, Aug. 23, '14, ii: 353;
biography, ix: 242-249;
nicknamed "Old Man of the Swamps," ix: 242;
decorated for valor, ix: 246;
popularity, ix: 249.
Hindenburg Line,
German strategic retreat to, '17, ii: 53, iii: 66-70;
Germans driven to, Sept., '18, ii: 157, iii: 98, 100;
extent and description, iii: 66, v: 216, 301;
strategic purpose, iii: 66;
devastation of French territory in retreat to, '17, iii: 67;
reasons for strategic retreat of '17, iii: 70;
27th and 30th Divs., A. E. F., attacking with British,
break through in Cambrai-St. Quentin sector, Sept.--Oct., '18,
iii: 101, v: 290-295, 301, 393;
Michel position on St. Mihiel front, v: 69;
Kriemhilde position on Meuse-Argonne front, v: 74, 218;
First Army breaks through in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 390.
Hines, Maj.-Gen, John L., promotion, v: 182;
commands 4th Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202;
commands 4th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219;
commands Third Corps in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 83, 390.
Hintzmann, Korvettenkapitan,
German delegate to arrange for surrender of German fleet, iv: 384.
Hipper, Rear-Adm. von,
commands German squadron at battle of Dogger Bank, Jan. 24, '15,
iv: 246;
commands German advance fleet at battle of Jutland, May 31, '16,
iv: 99, 103, 108, 113.
Hirson, captured by Allies, Nov., '18, iii: 103.
Hodges, Maj.-Gen. H. F., commander 76th Div., July, '18, v: 196.
Hoffman, Sgt. Chas. F., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389.
Hoffman, Conrad, executive secretary, American Y. M. C. A.,
work for prisoners in Germany, vii: 309.
_Hogue_, British cruiser, torpedoed by _U-9_,
Sept. 22, '14,
eye-witness accounts, iv: 205, x: 274-280;
as told by U-boat commander, x: 279.
Holbrook, Lieut.-Com. Norman D.,
blows up Turk warship in Dardanelles, x: 317.
"Holding" troops, German, viii: 144.
Holland, _see_ Netherlands.
_Holland No. 9_, first U. S. Navy submarine, iv: 205.
Holy Alliance, formation of, i: 33;
defects of, i: 35.
Holy War, declared by Turks, Nov. 17, '14, i: 376, vi: 330;
to destroy British control in East, ii: 27;
failure of, ii: 31;
response to, in India, vi: 74.
Home Rule, Irish, _see_ Ireland.
Home Service, Red Cross, activities of, vii: 35.
Homs, taken by Allies, Oct., '18, iii: 199.
Honduras, delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180.
Hood, Rear-Adm. Horace L. A.,
commands 3rd British Battle Cruiser Squadron at battle of Jutland,
iv: 117;
lost with sinking of _Invincible_, iv: 120.
Hoofien, S., Dutch representative in Palestine,
report on American relief work, vii: 366.
Hoover, Herbert C.,
appointed U. S. Food Administrator, May 19, '17, i: 390;
pioneer of American relief in Europe, vii: 85;
organizes American Relief Committee, vii: 119;
organizes American Commission for Relief in Belgium,
vii: 119, xii: 136;
account of interview with Lloyd George on Belgian Relief, vii: 124;
biography, ix: 316-323;
bibliography, ix: 323;
work as U. S. Food Administrator, xii: 35;
report on U. S. food exports for relief of Europe, xii: 42;
director-general of American Relief Administration, xii: 141.
Horn, Lieut. Werner,
German spy, tries to blow up bridge on Canadian border,
i: 316, x: 368.
Hornby, Sir Geoffrey Phipps, forces Dardanelles, 1878, iv: 21.
Horne, Gen.,
commands British First Army in offensive against Cambrai,
Sept., '18, ii: 214, v: 213;
characterization by Philip Gibbs, iii: 371.
Horns, for gas alarm, number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.
Horses, utility in the War, viii: 397;
hospitals for, viii: 398;
number shipped to France by U. S., xii: 95, 278.
Horton, Lieut.-Com. Max,
exploit in command of submarine _E-9_, iv: 207.
Horvath, Gen., sets up bourgeois government in Siberia, vi: 192;
resigns from government, vi: 193.
Hospitals: British, in France, ii: 131.
French, medical service for wounded, viii: 362-365.
United States, _see_ U. S. Army, Medical Service.
Hotchkiss machine-gun, viii: 87.
House, Col. E. M.,
U. S. representative on Supreme War Council, iii: 84;
biography, ix: 70-76.
Howitzers, _see_ Artillery.
Hughes, W. M., Premier of Australia,
advocate of closer union within British Empire, vi: 40;
for vigorous war policy, vi: 40;
delegate to Allied Economic Conference, June, '16, vi: 40;
forms "Hughesite" Liberal government supporting conscription,
vi: 42.
Hulloch, British enter, Sept. 26, '14, iii: 46.
_Humber_, British monitor, description, iv: 281.
Humbert, Charles, French Senator,
implicated in Bolo Pasha plots, x: 344.
Hungary, war sentiment, '14, vi: 306;
parliamentary struggle, '16, vi: 311;
Independence Party, leaders and aims of, vi: 311;
"Independence and 1848" Party, formation and aims of, '16, vi: 311;
Socialist demands for peace, '16, vi: 312;
effects of Rumanian invasion, '16, vi: 313;
"bloodless" revolution overthrows Hapsburg rule, Oct., '18,
vi: 322;
National Council, governing body during revolution, vi: 322;
Republic established, Nov., '18, vi: 323, ix: 146, xii: 279;
Count Karolyi, provisional head of Republic, vi: 323;
armistice signed with Allies, vi: 323;
Ironworkers' Party, conflict with government, vi: 324;
Bolshevists under Bela Kun seize control, Mar., '19, vi: 324-328;
military occupation by Allies, Mar., '19, vi: 325;
Allies' peace terms rejected, vi: 326;
the Red Army, vi: 326;
area and population, xii: 279;
_see also_ Austria-Hungary.
_Hunley_, Confederate submarine in American Civil War, iv: 203.
Hurley, Edward, biography, ix: 335-337.
"Hush" ships, description of, iv: 303.
Hussein Kamil Pasha, made Khédive of Egypt by British, vi: 69.
Hutier, Gen. von, commands Eighteenth German Army, ii: 149;
new method of surprise attack, general plan and tactics of, v: 41,
viii: 143-145.
Hutton, Col. P. C., Chief Surgeon, "Paris Group," A. E. F., v: 346.
Hydrogen, use for inflating balloons, viii: 263.
Hydrophones, use in detection of U-boats, viii: 17-20, 279-281.
Hydroplanes, _see_ Aeronautics.
_Hymn of Hate_, German, against England, i: 194, vi: 253.
_Hymn of the Lusitania_, German, i: 365.
I
_I Want to Be an Angel_, aviators' song, xi: 338.
Igel, Wolf von, German arch-spy in U. S., x: 337;
Imecourt, captured by 319th Inf., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.
Immelmann, Capt., German ace,
death in air duel with Capt. Ball, x: 209-211, xi: 216.
Immigration, to U. S. from Europe, i: 37.
_Imperatritsa_, Russian battleship,
burns and sinks in Black Sea, Oct. 20, '16, i: 388.
_Implacable_, British battleship, at Gallipoli, iv: 33.
_In Flanders Fields_, poem by Lieut.-Col. John McCrae, xi: 54.
Incendiary bullets, viii: 214.
_Indefatigable_, British battle cruiser,
sunk at battle of Jutland, iv: 108.
Indemnity, _see_ Reparation.
Index numbers, for measuring price changes, xii: _Intro. vii._
India,
troops in Palestine and Salonika campaigns,
ii: _Intro._ _xxiii_;
Suez Canal gateway to, ii: 27;
response to appeal of Holy War, ii: 27, vi: 74;
casualties, total in War, iii: 404, 405;
strength of army, iii: 405;
agitation for autonomy, vi: 72;
response to British war needs, vi: 72;
reasons for loyalty, vi: 73;
Nationalist claims for independence, vi: 74;
political demands on Great Britain, vi: 75;
caste system, description of, vi: 75;
influenza epidemic, '18, vi: 76;
suffering from famine, '18--'19, vi: 76;
Defense of India Act, for suppressing sedition, vi: 77;
Bolshevism in, vi: 77;
"Black Cobra Bill," for suppressing radicalism, vi: 78;
coal production, '13--'16, xii: 48;
War cost, Aug., '14--Mar. '19, xii: 106;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179.
Indian, American, as fighter, xi: 175-179.
Indo-China, French, Japan's desire for, vi: 386.
_Indomitable_,
British cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
Industrial rights,
Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of, xii: 244-246.
Infantry, Field-Marshal Haig's estimate of importance, ii: 123.
Infection, in shell wounds, viii: 362, 367;
causes, viii: 369;
Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, ix: 312, xi: 288-289;
prevention among troops, viii: 392-397, xi: 286-289;
_see also_
Disease;
Medical science;
Sanitation.
"Infiltration," new German method of attack, iii: 386, v: 17, 19;
Gen. Gouraud's method of defense against,
v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148.
_Inflexible_, British battle cruiser at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
damaged by gunfire in Gallipoli attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35;
at battle of Falklands, iv: 70.
Influenza, deaths from, in '18, iii: 405.
Insterburg,
important junction on Petrograd-Berlin Railroad, iii: 111.
Insurance, social, in territories ceded by Germany,
funds to be transferred to Allies, xii: 246.
Intelligence tests for soldiers, viii: 349-351.
Inter-Allied Commissions of Control,
to supervise execution of military terms of Peace Treaty, xii: 215.
Inter-Allied Conference, Mar., '16,
decides on Somme offensive, iii: 55.
Inter-Allied Games, at Pershing Stadium, vii: 313.
Inter-Allied General Staff, created, iii: 84.
Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission, functions, xii: 139.
Inter-Allied War Council, _see_ Supreme War Council.
International law, formulation of, by Grotius, i: 26;
German statement of Allied infractions, i: 139;
Lansing's proposal for regulation of U-boat war, i: 281, 328;
comment of London _Times_ on Lansing proposal, i: 282;
German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen, i: 282;
U. S. position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283;
controversy between U. S. and Great Britain
on right of seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339;
controversy between U. S. and Germany on submarine warfare,
i: 317-326, 329-335, 339, 357-361 (chronological summary);
U. S. note to Germany on "Freedom of the seas," July 21, '15,
i: 323;
controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary on submarine warfare,
i: 326;
President Wilson opposed to principle of McLemore Resolution,
i: 327;
controversy between U. S. and Great Britain
on seizure of neutral mail, i: 335;
on blockades, ii: 21;
_see also_
Germany, Blockade of;
Submarine warfare.
International rivalries, factors in, 1890--1914, i: 58-63.
International Sanitary Commission,
for Serbian typhus relief, iii: 398.
_Intrepid_, British cruiser in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262;
sunk in channel at Zeebrugge, iv: 265.
Inventions,
displace importance of strategy in war, viii: _Intro. vii._
_Invincible_, British battle cruiser, armament, iv: 70;
blown up at Jutland, iv: 119;
at Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.
Ipek, occupied by French, Oct. 16, '18, i: 399.
_Iphigenia_, British cruiser in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262;
sunk in channel at Zeebrugge, iv: 265.
Ireland, history of Home Rule movement, vi: 53;
Ulster, led by Carson, opposes Home Rule, vi: 53, 60, ix: 50;
situation at outbreak of War, vi: 53;
loyalty to British in early days of War, vi: 55;
Sinn Feiners start separatist propaganda, vi: 55;
spread of Sinn Fein movement, vi: 57;
Sir Roger Casement's negotiations with Germans, vi: 57;
Sinn Feiners organize armed opposition, vi: 57;
Irish Volunteers, vi: 57;
sympathy with Germany, vi: 57;
German arms for Sinn Feiners captured by British, vi: 58;
Sir Roger Casement captured, vi: 58, ix: 53;
Easter Rebellion, Apr., '16, vi: 58;
proclamation of Republic, Apr., '16, vi: 60;
Padraic Pearse, Provisional President, vi: 60, ix: 53;
collapse of rebellion, May, '16, vi: 60;
leaders executed for treason, May 3, '16, vi: 60, ix: 53;
Lloyd George's proposal for Home Rule settlement, '17, vi: 61;
Irish Convention meets to discover way for settlement, '18,
vi: 61-63;
De Valera, leader of Sinn Feiners, vi: 61;
De Valera elected to Parliament, vi: 62;
Sinn Feiners' attitude toward Convention, vi: 62;
government's new Home Rule Bill, '18, outline of, vi: 64;
struggle over conscription, vi: 64;
Sinn Feiners carry parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 64;
Irish Republic proclaimed by National Assembly at Dublin, '18,
vi: 64;
delegates to Peace Conference appointed, vi: 64;
movement in U. S. in support of Irish freedom, vi: 65;
Irish-American mission to Peace Conference, vi: 65;
Peace Conference refuses hearing to Irish cause, vi: 66;
Sinn Fein platform, ix: 52;
De Valera elected President of Irish Republic, ix: 55.
Ireland, Maj.-Gen. M. W., Surgeon-General, U. S. Army, v: 346.
_Iris_, British ferryboat in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262.
Irish-Americans, support for cause of Irish freedom, vi: 65;
Irish Race in America Convention, Feb., '19, vi: 65;
delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 65.
Irkutsk, captured by Czechoslovaks, July 13, '18, i: 397.
Iron, importance of Lorraine deposits, i: 267;
importance in war, i: 268;
French mines coveted by Germany, ii: 13, 15;
French mines seized by Germany, ii: 20.
_Irresistible_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
sunk in Gallipoli attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35, 48.
Isherwood, Lieut.-Com.,
co-inventor of launching device for depth bombs, iv: 331.
Ishii, Viscount, biography, ix: 90.
Ishtib, occupied by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397.
Isonzo Front, _see_ Italian Front.
Isonzo River, course, ii: 48.
Is-sur-Tille, center of American lines of supply,
iii: 83, v: 11, 330.
Istria, given by Allies to Italy under secret treaty, '15, vi: 361.
_Italia Irredenta_, definition, xi: 18.
Italian Front,
Lloyd George advocates strong offensive on, ii: _Intro. xx_;
most difficult theater of War, ii: 48;
general military topography,
ii: 48, 49, 236, 244, iii: 226-230, xi: 25;
general strategy at start of War,
ii: 48, 49, iii: 228-231, 239-241;
topography of Isonzo Front, ii: 48, iii: 239;
Isonzo campaigns, ii: 49-52, 56-58, 240, 242-250, iii: 239-248;
topography of Trentino Front, ii: 49, iii: 230;
Trentino campaigns, ii: 49, 51, iii: 230-239;
Italian attacks on Gorizia fail, '15, ii: 50, 240;
results of '15 campaign, ii: 51;
Gorizia captured by Italians, Aug., 16, ii: 51, 242, iii: 246;
Caporetto disaster and Italian rout, Oct.--Dec., '17,
ii: 56-58, 246-250, iii: 80, 246-248, vi: 129, xi: 37;
Italian retreat checked by stand at the Piave, Nov., '17,
ii: 58, 250, iii: 80, 248;
last Austrian offensive, June, '18, ii: 94-96, 250-252, iii: 249;
victorious final offensive by Italy, Oct., '18,
ii: 96, 252-254, iii: 249;
Carso Plateau, description of, ii: 244;
Gradisca captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244;
Monfalcone captured by Italians, June, '15, iii: 244;
casualties and prisoners of war, Austrian and Italian,
during Isonzo campaigns, iii: 244, 246, 248;
Cividale captured by Austro-Germans, Oct. 28, '17, iii: 247;
Udine captured by Austro-Germans, Oct., '17, iii: 247;
Italian losses in men and territory in great retreat,
Oct.--Dec., '17, ii: 248;
Jugoslavs in Austrian army desert to Italians, iii: 249;
American reinforcements arrive, July, '18, iii: 249, v: 394;
bibliography, iii: 249;
aerial cableways across the Alps, viii: 303-306.
_Italian Front, On the_, poem by G. E. Woodbury, vi: 114.
Italy:
Army, German estimate of effectiveness, '14, ii: 4;
Arditi, description of, ii: 240;
Bersaglieri, description of, ii: 240;
Alpini, description of, ii: 242;
Carabinieri, as military police, ii: 242;
Granatieri, description of, ii: 242;
pre-War organization and equipment, iii: 224-226;
effect of enemy propaganda on morale, iii: 247, vi: 128;
for military operations, _see_ Italian Front.
Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404, vi: 130;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
total battle deaths, xii: 288.
Declarations of war, on Austria, May 23, '15,
i: 380, ii: 48, 236, vi: 126, 309, xi: 18;
on Turkey, Aug. 21, '15, i: 381;
on Bulgaria, Oct. 19, '15, i: 382;
on Germany, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386;
belligerency condemned as traitorous by Austrian press, vi: 310.
Foreign policy, international position, '14, i: 61;
ambition for Mediterranean supremacy, i: 61;
member of Triple Alliance, i: 95, 255, ii: 48, vi: 114;
war with Turkey for Tripoli, '12, i: 109, vi: 114;
neglected by Germany, i: 255;
Bissolati's explanation of neutrality, i: 256;
refusal to enter War as German ally, ii: 48, xi: 6;
Central Powers bargain for neutrality, ii: 48;
parliamentary struggle between neutralists and interventionists,
ii: 236, vi: 123-126;
Salandra and Sonino advocate war on side of Allies,
ii: 236, vi: 123;
Giolitti advocates continued neutrality, ii: 236, vi: 123;
attitude toward U. S., ii: 245;
public opinion for neutrality in early days of War, vi: 116;
pro-German sentiment, vi: 118;
pro-Ally sentiment grows, vi: 119;
territorial demands on Austria, '14, vi: 120;
Avlona occupied, Dec., '14, vi: 120;
secret treaty with Allies, Apr., '15, price of entry into War,
vi: 122, 361;
occupation of Austrian territories following armistice,
vi: 129, 364;
unpopularity of Austrian alliance, vi: 308;
claims to Asiatic Turkey under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334;
hostility to Jugoslav expansion, vi: 360-362, 364-370;
Adriatic aspirations, vi: 361;
Fiume dispute, vi: 365-370.
Imports, dependence on, ii: 236, vi: 127.
Internal politics, unification, i: 39;
parliamentary struggle between neutralists and war party,
ii: 236, vi: 123-126;
Salandra and Sonnino advocate war on side of Allies,
ii: 236, vi: 120, 123;
Giolitti for continued neutrality, ii: 236, vi: 123;
D'Annunzio rouses people to side with Allies, ii: 239, vi: 124;
strikes instigated by Bolshevik propaganda, iii: 247, vi: 128;
political situation preceding entry into War, vi: 114;
popular sentiment for neutrality, vi: 116;
pro-Ally sentiment, vi: 116, 119;
attitude of political parties on neutrality, vi: 117;
pro-German sympathies, vi: 118;
King Victor takes decisive step for war, vi: 125;
obstructionist policy of Catholics and Socialists, vi: 126;
fall of Salandra Cabinet, June, '16, vi: 127;
coalition government under Boselli takes office, June, '16,
vi: 127;
pacifist propaganda and riots, vi: 128;
fall of Boselli government, Oct., '17, vi: 129;
Orlando heads new Cabinet, vi: 129;
Cabinet crisis on Fiume question, '18, vi: 369.
Navy, strength at outbreak of War, iv: 368;
War record, iv: 368;
blockade of Jugoslav ports, vi: 369.
Peace Conference, delegates to, xii: 179.
Peace Treaty, ratified, Oct. 7, '19, xii: 264.
Prisoners of war, iii: 404.
Royal family, xi: 141-143;
_see also_ Victor Emmanuel.
War cost, Luzzati's statement on, vi: 130;
relatively largest of all belligerents, vi: 131;
financial position at start of War, xii: 1;
debt to U. S., xii: 18;
value of man-power lost, xii: 25;
value of property destroyed, xii: 26;
average daily war cost, xii: 106;
total war cost, May, '15--Oct., '18, xii: 107;
taxation, xii: 107, 109;
loans, xii: 113;
rise in national debt, xii: 113, 114.
J
Jablonitza, captured by Russians, Aug. 15, '16, i: 386.
_Jacob Jones_,
U. S. destroyer sunk by U-boat, Dec. 6, '17, i: 393;
report of Lieut.-Com. Bagley, iv: 346-349.
Jador, battle of,
Austrians driven from Serbia, '14, ii: 32, iii: 152.
Jaffa, captured by British, iii: 194.
Jagow, Gottlieb von, German Foreign Secretary, ix: 127-128.
Jametz, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.
Japan, abrogates extraterritorial rights, i: 18;
acquires Formosa, 1894, i: 20;
acquires Port Arthur and Korea in Russo-Japanese War, i: 20;
rise as world power, '05, i: 20;
adopts "open door" policy, 1854, i: 38;
Root-Takahira agreement on "open door" in China, '08, i: 57;
Lansing-Ishii Note recognizes special Japanese interest
in China, '17, i: 58;
international position in '14, i: 63;
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, terms of, i: 104, 107;
Ludendorff's comment on entry into War, ii: 357;
siege and capture of Kiau-Chau (Tsing Tau),
Aug. 23--Nov. 7, '14, iii: 257-259, iv: 367, vi: 382-383;
total casualties, iii: 404;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
naval strength, iv: 58;
naval service to Allies, iv: 367;
motive in siding with Allies, iv: 367, vi: 382;
sends troops to Vladivostok against Soviet government, vi: 193;
the "Yellow Peril," origin of phrase, vi: 248;
ultimatum to Germany demanding surrender of Kiau-Chau,
Aug. 17, '14, vi: 382;
declares war on Germany, Aug. 23, '14, vi: 382;
internal politics during War, vi: 384;
forces China to accede to "Group Demands," '15, vi: 385;
summary of concessions obtained under "Group Demands," vi: 385;
ambition for domination in Far East, vi: 386;
treaty with Russia, '16, vi: 386;
imperialists advocate intervention in Siberia, '17, vi: 386;
Terauchi Cabinet opposed by liberals, vi: 386-388;
Kei Hara succeeds Terauchi as Premier, '18, vi: 388;
opposition by conservatives to Hara government, vi: 388;
separatist movement in Korea, vi: 388;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
coal production, '13--'16, xii: 48;
delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180;
Shantung (Kiau-Chau) transferred to, by Peace Treaty, xii: 209;
ratifies Peace Treaty, Oct. 27, '19, xii: 264;
_see also_
Kiau-Chau;
Shantung.
Jaroslav, fortress on San,
captured by Russians, Sept. 21, '14, i: 376, iii: 123;
retaken by Germans, May 17, '15, iii: 136.
Jassy, Rumanian government moved to, Nov. 28, '16, i: 389.
Jastrow, Prof. Morris, Jr.,
discussion of Bagdad Railway problem, ii: 290-297.
Jaulgonne, location, v: 133;
captured by 3rd Div., July, '18, v: 383.
_Jauréguiberry_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.
Jaurès, Jean, French anti-militarist, assassinated, vi: 95.
Jebel Shammar, Emirate of, established, '18, xii: 279.
Jellicoe, Adm. Sir John,
appointed Commander-in-Chief of British Grand Fleet, Aug. 4, '14,
iv: 88;
analysis of British and German fleets at start of War, iv: 93-97;
biography, ix: 275-282;
bibliography, ix: 282.
Jericho, captured by British, Feb. 22, '18, i: 393, ii: 196.
Jerusalem,
captured by Gen. Allenby, Dec. 11, '17, ii: 92, iii: 196, 322-326;
Allenby's proclamation to people of, iii: 325;
work of Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 323.
_Jeszcze Polska_, Polish national anthem, xi: 331.
Jews, distress in war areas, vii: 349;
number in Russian Poland, vii: 349, 358, 361, 376;
number in Galicia, vii: 349, 376;
number in Germany, vii: 349;
number in Turkey, vii: 349, 368 (outside Palestine), 376;
number in Palestine, vii: 349, 366, 376;
number in Serbia, vii: 349, 369, 376;
American aid for needy in Palestine, vii: 350, 358, 365-368;
American aid for needy in Belgium, vii: 350;
organization of war relief agencies in U. S., vii: 351-354;
American Jewish Relief Committee formed, vii: 354;
funds raised in U. S. for overseas war relief, '16--'17,
vii: 355-356;
American relief for destitute in Russian Poland,
vii: 356-358, 360-363;
refugees in interior of Russia, relief activities for,
vii: 356, 363-365;
conditions in Galicia, vii: 358;
number dependent on war relief, by countries,
vii: 358, 361, 362, 363, 366, 367, 369, 376;
work of relief commission sent to Europe from U. S., vii: 359-360;
American relief for needy in Constantinople, vii: 368;
contributions to destitute in Serbia and Greece, vii: 368;
aid for war refugees in Spain, vii: 369;
relief funds raised in U. S. during '18, vii: 370-374;
reports, on after-War distress in Europe, vii: 375-376;
extent of relief work in Vilna, vii: 375;
number in Lithuania, vii: 376;
number in Baltic Provinces, vii: 376;
number in Russia, vii: 376;
number in Serbia, vii: 376;
number in Rumania, vii: 376;
number in Bulgaria, vii: 376;
number in Greece, vii: 376;
number in Hungary, vii: 376;
number in Persia, vii: 376.
Jihad, _see_ Holy War.
Joffre, Marshal Josef Jacques César,
fights first battle of the Marne, Sept., '14, ii: 9, 182, iii: 30;
controversy with Viscount French on importance of Channel ports,
ii: 172;
_General Joffre and His Battles_, book by Raymond Recouly,
summary of, ii: 182-189;
appointed Commander-in-Chief of French armies, iii: 46;
technical adviser to French War Council, iii: 62;
biography, ix: 154-161;
visit to U.S., ix: 161;
bibliography, ix: 161;
intimate anecdote of, ix: 269.
Johnston, Sgt. Harold I., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
Johnston, Maj.-Gen. W. H.,
in command of 91st Div., Aug., '18, v: 196;
at Marne-Aisne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 220.
Joint Distribution Committee,
for Jewish war relief, formation of, vii: 354.
Jonc de Mer Ridge,
Germans driven back at, by A. E. F., Oct. 18, '18, v: 296.
Jordan River, military operations along, iii: 197.
Joseph Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria,
commands Austrian forces to invade Poland, iii: 119.
Jugoslavs, in Austrian Army desert to Italians, '18, iii: 249;
Austrian and Russian policies toward, vi: 306;
attack Hungarian Republic, April--May, '19, vi: 326;
racial groups among, with early history, vi: 354;
Serbian ambition for unification, vi: 355, 363;
clash with Austrian interests, vi: 355-359;
meeting of Jugoslav representatives in Corfu plans
for united nation, Aug.,'17, vi: 359;
conflict with Italy over eastern Adriatic coast,
vi: 359-363, 364-370;
Hungarian government suppresses Jugoslav Congress at Agram,
Mar., '18, vi: 363;
establish united Provisional Government, Nov., '18, vi: 364;
seize Austrian navy and merchant marine, Nov., '18, vi: 364;
armed opposition to Italian advance in Carniola, Nov., '18,
vi: 364;
struggle with Italy for possession of Fiume and Dalmatia,
vi: 365-370;
establish united kingdom under Prince Alexander of Serbia,
Dec. 21, '18, vi: 366;
recognized by U. S., Feb. '19, vi: 366;
President Wilson's note supporting Jugoslav claim for Fiume,
vi: 369;
claims for independence recognized by Austria-Hungary
in agreeing to armistice, vi: 399;
area and population of united kingdom, xii: 279;
_see also_ Serbia.
Junior American Red Cross, activities, xi: 90.
Justh, Julius, leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311.
Jutland, battle of, May 31, '16,
description in full, with official reports, iv: 99-136;
outline in brief, iv: 99-104;
opposing commanders, iv: 99;
British ships and men lost, iv: 100;
German ships and men lost, iv: 100;
moral victory for Germans, iv: 100;
criticism of Jellicoe's tactics, iv: 101;
greatest naval engagement in history, iv: 102;
conditions influencing, iv: 102;
strength and composition of fleets engaged,
iv: 103-104, 112, 114, 119;
disposition of British forces, iv: 104;
first phase, iv: 106-113;
Beatty's report on first phase, iv: 106-110;
Jellicoe's account of first phase, iv: 108;
accuracy of German fire, iv: 108;
_Indefatigable_ sunk, iv: 108;
fight between destroyer flotillas, iv: 109;
_Queen Mary_ blown up, iv: 110;
critical analysis of first phase, iv: 110-113;
second phase, Beatty's report on, iv: 113-115;
weather conditions, iv: 113;
critical analysis of second phase, iv: 115;
third phase, iv: 115-130;
Jellicoe's account of third phase, iv: 117-120, 121-129;
Third Battle Cruiser Squadron under Hood reinforces Beatty,
iv: 117;
British miscalculate position, iv: 117;
Hood gets into action with enemy, iv: 119;
Beatty's report on third phase, iv: 119, 120-121, 129;
_Invincible_ blows up, iv: 119;
Adm. Hood lost with _Invincible_, iv: 119-120;
_Shark_, _Defence_, and _Black Prince_ sunk, iv: 121;
low visibility, iv: 121-123;
British alter course to avoid torpedo attack, iv: 125;
German destroyers sunk, iv: 126;
Germans retire under cover of smoke screen, iv: 126;
Jellicoe pursues enemy, iv: 127;
critical analysis of third phase, iv: 129;
fourth phase, iv: 131-136;
night fighting and torpedo attacks, iv: 131;
Jellicoe abandons pursuit, iv: 133;
critical analysis of fourth phase, iv: 133-136;
effect of battle on military situation, iv: 135;
lessons taught by, iv: 135;
account and analysis of, by Arthur Pollen, iv: 144-156;
authoritative information incomplete, iv: 146;
British lose chance for decisive victory, iv: 152, 156;
German eye-witness account, iv: 256;
British eye-witness account, iv: 258.
Juvigny, captured by French and 32nd Div., A. E. F.,
Aug., '18, i: 397, v: 62, 258, 384;
32nd Div. casualties at, v: 259.
K
_K-13_, British submarine,
account of sinking, and rescue of crew, x: 304-315.
"Kahkos," description, viii: 257.
Kaiser, _see_ William II.
Kaiser Wilhelm Land, acquired by Australia, '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Kakali, captured by Allies, Oct., '15, iii: 204.
Kale-I-Sultanie, fort on the Dardanelles, ii: 29.
Kaledin, Gen., commands Russian army at Rovno, iii: 142;
leads Cossacks in Siberia, vi: 192.
_Kambana_, Bulgarian newspaper,
statement against Russia, June, '15, vi: 342.
Kamerun, _see_ Cameroons.
Kamio, Gen.,
Japanese commander at siege of Tsing Tau (Kiau-Chau), iii: 257.
Karaburnu, Greek fort occupied by Allies, iii: 206.
Karaurgan, Russians defeat Turks at, Jan. 16, '15, i: 378.
Karlsruhe, Allied air raid on, June 15, '15, i: 380.
_Karlsruhe_, German sea-raider,
battle with British cruiser _Bristol_, Aug. 6, '14, iv: 63;
career in Atlantic, iv: 196.
Karnes, Sgt. James E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
Karolyi, Count Michael,
pleads Hungary's cause in U. S., '14, vi: 307;
leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311;
forms "Independence and 1848" Party, '16, vi: 311;
appointed Premier of Hungary, Nov., '18, vi: 323;
resigns as Premier, Mar., '19, vi: 325;
biography, ix: 144-147.
Kars, Russians defeat Turks at, Jan. 1, '15, iii: 260.
Katia, battle between Turks and British at, Apr., '16, iii: 191.
Katz, Sgt. Philip C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
Kaufman, Sgt. Benjamin, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.
Kautsky, Herr, German Social-Democratic leader,
opposes war, vi: _Intro. xii._
Kavala, bombarded by British warships, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386;
occupied by Bulgars, '16, iii: 207, vi: 344.
_Kawachi_, Japanese battleship blows up, July 12, '18, i: 397.
Keeling Island, destruction on, by landing party from _Emden_,
Nov. 9, '14, iv: 184, 190.
_Keep the Home Fires Burning_, American soldiers' song, xi: 336.
_Keep Your Head Down, Fritzie Boy_,
American soldiers' song, xi: 337.
Kei Hara, heads liberal Japanese Cabinet, vi: 388.
Keirsbilk, Alois Van,
Belgian hero, executed for plotting death of Kaiser, x: 357-360.
Kellermann, Bernhard,
German novelist, description of conditions at front, iii: 286.
Kelley, Col., British commander against Sudanese, iii: 191.
Kelly, Pvt. John Joseph, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389.
Kem, captured by Anglo-American forces, July 15, '18, i: 397.
Kemmel, Mount,
stormed and captured by Germans, Apr., '18, i: 395, iii: 91, 360;
occupied by Anglo-American troops, Aug. 19, '18, i: 397;
key-point in defense of Channel ports, iii: 381;
27th and 30th Divs. in sector, v: 286.
Kennedy, Maj.-Gen. C. W., commands 85th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197.
_Kent_, British cruiser
at battle of Falklands, armament, iv: 70;
sinks _Nürnberg_, iv: 74.
Kerensky, Alexander Feodorovitch,
speech in Duma predicting revolution, vi: 144;
leader of Socialist-Revolutionary Party, vi: 148;
pacifies revolting Petrograd troops, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 151;
Minister of Justice in Prince Lvov's Cabinet, vi: 155;
character sketch, vi: 155;
abolishes death penalty, vi: 157;
Minister of War in Lvov's coalition Cabinet, vi: 160;
member of "Group of Toil," vi: 160;
becomes Premier and dictator of Russia, vi: 165;
struggle with Kornilov for supreme power, vi: 167-171;
declares himself Commander-in-Chief, vi: 171;
struggle with Soviets, vi: 175-179;
overthrown by Bolsheviki, vi: 179-181;
biography, ix: 104-109;
bibliography, ix: 109.
Kermanshah, captured by Russians, Feb. 25, '16, i: 384.
Kerosene, amount used by A. E. F., v: 331.
Kessler, Count, expelled from Poland, vi: 220.
Kessler, George A., starts Blind Relief War Fund, vii: 255.
Keystone (28th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Kharga, British base in Libyan Desert, iii: 191.
_Kheyr-ed-Din-Barbarossa_,
Turkish battleship sunk by British submarine, Aug. 9, '15, i: 381.
Khvostov, Russian Minister of Interior,
removed from office, Feb., '16, vi: 140.
Kiau-Chau (Kiao-Chau), seized by Germany, 1897, i: 15, 82;
siege and conquest of Tsing Tau by Japanese, Aug. 24--Nov. 7, '14,
iii: 257-259, iv: 367, vi: 382-383;
German rights transferred to Japan under Peace Treaty, xii: 209;
area and population, xii: 279;
_see also_ Shantung.
Kiel Canal, Peace Treaty provisions for navigation of, xii: 255.
Kienzle, Herbert, in German plot to blow up ships at sea, x: 372.
Kiev, captured by Germans, Mar. 2, '18, i: 393.
Kilid-Bahr, fortification of, on Gallipoli, ii: 29, iv: 24, 45;
objective of British landing forces, iii: 167;
bombarded, Mar. 5, '15, iv: 45;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Killingholme, England, U. S. seaplane station at, iv: 359.
_Kimigayo_, Japanese national anthem, xi: 328.
_King Edward VII_,
British battleship sunk by mine, Jan. 10, '16, i: 384.
Kiribaba Pass, seized by Russians, Jan. 16, '15, i: 378.
Kitchener, Field-Marshal Lord Horatio Herbert,
drowned in sinking of cruiser _Hampshire_, June 5, '16,
i: 385, ix: 168;
attitude on Dardanelles campaign, ii: _Intro. xv_;
dispute with Field-Marshal French, ii: 164-169;
member of British Cabinet War Council, ii: 198;
responsibility for Dardanelles disaster, ii: 198, 202;
influence in War Council described by Winston Churchill, ii: 202;
biography, ix: 168-176;
bibliography, ix: 176;
military commandments, xi: 55.
_K-K-K-Katy_, American soldiers' song, xi: 335.
Kluck, Gen. Alexander von,
leads invasion of Belgium and France, Aug., '14,
ii: 8, iii: 10, xi: 10;
occupies Brussels, Aug. 20, '14, ii: 8, iii: 21;
defeated at first Marne battle and forced to retreat, Sept., '14,
ii: 9, 184, iii: 30-34;
strategy of Aug., '14 advance, criticism of,
by Field-Marshal French, ii: 168;
avoids Paris and crosses the Marne, iii: 28;
biography, ix: 266-268.
Knights of Columbus, war-time activities of, vii: 328-339;
organizing for war work, vii: 330;
funds raised, vii: 331;
war work expenditures, vii: 332;
War Activities Committee, vii: 334;
employment bureaus for discharged service men, vii: 338.
Knotty Ash Camp, Liverpool, American Y. M. C. A. at, vii: 287.
Knox peace resolution,
declaring war between U. S. and Germany at end,
passed by Congress in substitution for Treaty of Versailles,
xii: 273-277;
text of original resolution
asking the President to make separate peace, xii: 273-274;
text of amended resolution, xii: 277;
vetoed by President Wilson, xii: 277;
President's veto message, xii: 278.
Kocak, Sgt. Matej, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389.
Koenig, Paul, head of Hamburg-American Line secret service, i: 317;
German spy in U. S., x: 347.
Koenig, Capt. Paul,
commander of German commerce submarine _Deutschland_,
personal account of trans-Atlantic trip, iv: 214-216, x: 271-274.
Koja Chemen Tepe, at Gallipoli, dominates Anzac positions, iii: 172;
Anzac assault on, iii: 173;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Kolchak, Adm. Aleksandr Vasiliyevich,
Siberian government of, recognized by Allies, vi: 188;
declares himself dictator of Siberia, vi: 194;
leader of anti-Bolshevik forces in Russia, vi: 194;
biography, ix: 239-241.
Kollontai, Mme., member of Bolshevik presidium, vi: 179.
_Köln_, German cruiser
sunk at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.
_Königin Luise_, German raider in English Channel, iv: 197.
Königsberg, in East Prussia, Russian objective, iii: 111.
_Königsberg_, German sea-raider,
sunk by British monitors, July 11, '15, i: 381, iv: 195.
Koran of Caliph Othwan, Peace Treaty provision for return of,
by Germany to King of Hedjaz, xii: 225.
Korea, acquired by Japan, i: 20;
struggle for independence, vi: 388.
Kornilov, Gen. Laurus,
appointed Commander-in-Chief of Russian armies by Kerensky,
vi: 164;
rebellion against Kerensky, vi: 167-171;
imprisoned, vi: 171;
leads Cossacks against Bolsheviki, vi: 192;
biography, ix: 235-237.
Kossaima, occupied by Turks, Jan., '15, iii: 189.
Kovel, military importance, ii: 42.
Kovno, captured by Germans, Aug. 17, '15, i: 381, ii: 363, iii: 138.
Koweit, Sultanate of, established, '18, xii: 279.
Kriemhilde Position, German line of defense,
extent and description, v: 74, 218, 234;
A. E. F. breakthrough in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18,
v: 80-88, 240, 245, 262;
_see also_ Meuse-Argonne Offensive.
Krithia, at Gallipoli, Allied attacks on, iii: 169-173;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
_Kronprinz Wilhelm_,
comes into Newport News harbor, Apr. 11, '15, i: 378;
interned, Apr. 26, '15, i: 380.
Kronstadt, captured by Rumanians, Sept., '16, iii: 218;
recaptured by Teutons, Oct., '16, iii: 220;
military headquarters of Bolsheviki, vi: 164.
Krovno, occupied by Austrians, Feb. 4, '16, i: 384.
Krupp, Bertha, owner of largest German munition plant, ix: 352.
Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Dr. Gustave,
head of Krupp Works, visit to England, June, '14, i: 265;
husband of Bertha Krupp, ix: 352.
Kuban Republic, established, Nov., '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Kucharzewski, Premier of Poland under German jurisdiction, vi: 214.
Kuhn, Maj.-Gen. Joseph E., commands 79th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219.
Kultur, German, _see_ Germany, Kultur.
Kum Kale,
French land troops at, for Gallipoli Campaign, Apr. 25, '15,
iv: 41;
Turkish fortifications at, iv: 42;
Allied bombardment of, Mar. 4, '15, iv: 44.
Kurnah, taken by British, Dec. 9, '14, i: 376, iii: 180.
Kuryet-el-Enad, taken by British, Nov. 19, '17, iii: 194.
Kusmanek, Gen. von, Austrian commander defending Przemysl, iii: 134.
Kut-el-Amara, captured by British, Sept., '15, iii: 181;
siege and surrender of British at, Dec. 7, '15--Apr. 29, '16,
iii: 183, 318-320;
number of British surrendered, iii: 318;
conditions in, during siege, iii: 364.
L
La Bassée, captured by British, Jan. 23, '15, i: 378.
La Boisselle, captured by Allies in Somme battle, '16, iii: 58.
Labor, anti-war spirit, xii: 65;
importance in winning the War, xii: 68;
floating, xii: 68;
women in war industries, xii: 83-85;
Peace Treaty charter for international organization, xii: 255-261;
_see also_ under each country.
Labor Peace Conference, British, Feb. 27, '19, vi: 20.
"Labyrinth," captured by French, June 22, '15, i: 380;
designation for German trenches between
Arras and Neuville St. Vaast, iii: 42.
_Laconia, S. S._, Cunard liner torpedoed, Feb. 25, '17, i: 389;
eye-witness account, iv: 225-229.
Ladd, Anna Coleman, makes copper face masks for mutilated, vii: 68.
_Lafayette_, poem by R. A. Purdy, xi: 18.
Lafayette Escadrille, formation, iii: 391;
first members, iii: 391;
Capt. Thenault appointed commander, iii: 391;
first casualties, iii: 391;
equipment of fliers, iii: 392;
propaganda among Germans, iii: 392;
total casualties, iii: 392;
story of, x: 196-202.
Lafayette Fund, first American war relief organizations vii: 85.
La Fère, British driven from, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375;
captured by Germans, Aug. 29, '14, i: 375;
recaptured by Allies, Oct. 13, '18, i: 399, xi: 52;
German base in France, ii: 86;
French attacks on, '17, iii: 68.
La-Ferte-sous-Jouarre, headquarters of First Army, A. E. F., v: 384.
Lamarch, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211.
Lamont, Thomas W.,
financial adviser to U. S. delegation to Peace Conference,
xii: 149;
account of Peace Conference at work, xii: 149-163;
member of Reparations Commission, xii: 158.
Lamprecht, Prof. Karl,
German historian, defense of German system of government, i: 155.
Landres-St. Georges, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 90, 263;
bombed by A. E. F. airmen, v: 311.
Landreville, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.
Landsberg, Herr, member of Ebert government, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 277.
Landsturm, German, i: 72.
Landwehr, German, i: 72.
Lane, Franklin K., on meaning of the War to America, i: 367.
Langfitt, Maj.-Gen. Wm. C., Chief Engineer, A. E. F., v: 336.
Langres, A. E. F. training schools at, v: 106, 314.
Lanrezac, Gen., Viscount French's criticism of, ii: 162.
Lansdowne, Lord, letter calling on Allies to state war aims, vi: 12.
Lansing-Ishii Note,
'17, recognizes Japan's special interests in China, i: 58, vi: 386.
Laon, captured by Germans, Aug. 29, '14, i: 375;
German base in France, ii: 86;
captured by Gen. Mangin, Oct. 12, '18, ii: 214, xi: 52.
La Peyrère, Adm., Commander-in-Chief of French navy, '14, iv: 12.
La Pultière Wood, captured by 5th Div., Oct. 14, '18, v: 250.
_Lars Kruse_, Belgian relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230.
La Rue Farm, captured by 27th Div., v: 296.
_La Société Impériale Ottomane du Chemin de Fer de Bagdad_,
formation, ii: 292;
terms of concession to, ii: 292.
_Last Long Mile, The_, British soldiers' song, xi: 337.
Latham, Sgt. John C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.
Latin America, participation in War, vi: 389.
Launeville, taken by 89th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.
Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, Canadian Liberal leader, vi: 24;
speech pledging War support, Aug., '14, vi: 24;
against Imperial federation, vi: 26;
declines to form coalition Cabinet, vi: 33.
League of Nations, Charles W. Eliot on, i: _Intro. xiii_;
international co-operation during War, i: _Intro. xiii_;
summary of provisions, i: _Intro. xiv_;
proposal to place Fiume under, vi: 369;
spirit of, xii: 155;
prominent advocates, xii: 155;
drafting of Covenant described by Thos. W. Lamont, xii: 155;
analysis by Geo. W. Wickersham, xii: 170-178;
text of Covenant in full, xii: 182-185;
countries invited to join, xii: 186;
original members, xii: 186;
Sir James Eric Drummond, first secretary-general, xii: 186;
U. S. Senate opposition to, xii: 264-270;
first meeting of Council, Jan. 20, '20, xii: 270.
Leather, war-time conservation in shoemaking, xii: 53.
Leave areas, "Y" service at, vii: 269;
_see also_ Y. M. C. A.
Lebanon, disposal under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334.
Le Cateau, battle of, Aug. 26, '14,
criticism of Smith-Dorrien's strategy at, by Field-Marshal French,
ii: 162, 174;
account of battle, ii: 174-182, iii: 23.
Le Charmel, German stand at, July 21, '18, v: 185;
Gen. Degoutte's commendation of A. E. F. at, v: 192.
Le Chêne Tondu,
German defense of, against 56th Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229;
captured by 28th Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 239.
Lee service rifle, viii: 95.
_Leelanaw, S. S._, American steamship
sunk by U-boat, July 25. '15, i: 381.
_Leipzig_, German cruiser
in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65;
sunk in battle of Falklands, iv: 70, ix: 308;
eye-witness account of sinking, iv: 80.
Lejeune, Gen.,
commander of 2nd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202.
Leman, Gen., defender of Liége, iii: 11.
Le Mans, embarkation center for returning A. E. F., v: 395.
Lemberg,
battle of, and capture by Russians, Sept. 1--3, '14,
i: 375, ii: 23, iii: 121, xi: 16;
recaptured by Austrians, June 22, '15, i: 380, iii: 137;
military importance, ii: 42;
seized by Poles, Nov., '18, vi: 217.
Lemert, Sgt. Milo, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
Lemordant, French painter-soldier, x: 169.
Lenin, Nicolai, urges defeat of Russia, '14, '15, vi: 140;
leader of Bolsheviki, vi: 161-163;
overthrows Kerensky, Nov., '17, vi: 179-181;
becomes President of Council of People's Commissaries, Nov. 8, '17,
vi: 181;
policies of government, vi: 181;
biography, ix: 109-115;
bibliography, ix: 115.
Lens, Allied objective in battle of Artois, May, '15, iii: 42;
objective in battle of Arras, Apr., '17, iii: 70;
held by Germans against Allied attacks in Arras battle, iii: 72.
_Léon Gambetta_, French cruiser torpedoed, Apr. 27, '15,
iv: 373.
_Leonardo da Vinci_, Italian dreadnought
blown up, Aug. 2, '16, i: 386.
Leopold, Prince, commands Bavarians entering Warsaw, iii: 138.
L'Epasse Wood, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.
Le Prêtre Wood, captured by 180 Inf. Brig., Sept. 13, '18, v: 209.
Lescarboura, Austin C., on trench warfare, viii: 133;
opinion on efficiency of tanks, xi: 251;
on use of dogs in War, xi: 340.
Le Selle River, German stand at, Oct., '18, v: 295.
Les Eparges, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199;
captured by French, Sept. 12, '18, v: 212.
Les Petites Armoises, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.
Letord bombing airplanes, viii: 223.
Letts, peasant inhabitants of Baltic Provinces, vi: 226;
early history, vi: 226;
rebellion of '05, vi: 227;
form Lettish Legion to fight in War, '15, vi: 227;
join Bolsheviki, vi: 228.
Letvia, Republic of, established, Apr., '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
_Leviathan_, work as U. S. transport, xii: 275.
Levicu, Dr.,
leader in movement for Soviet government in Munich, Mar., '19,
vi: 300.
Lewis machine-gun, description, viii: 81;
rejected by U. S. government, viii: 82;
use on airplanes, viii: 87;
U. S. production figures for aircraft, xii: 284.
Liberty Loans, U. S., popularity, xii: 10;
selection of drive periods, xii: 11;
influence on national thrift, xii: 11-16;
subscription figures by Federal Reserve Districts, xii: 12;
New York City subscriptions, by borough, xii: 12;
compared with amount of other U. S. indebtedness, xii: 16;
amounts raised, xii: 113;
effect on German morale, xii: 126;
number of subscribers, xii: 127;
methods used in selling campaigns, xii: 127-134;
sales psychology, xii: 132;
Victory Way, xii: 133;
number of persons engaged in drives, xii: 134;
statistics, xii: 134;
_see also_ U. S., War cost.
Liberty motor, description, viii: 199;
production figures, xii: 285.
Liberty truck, development and description, viii: 291-294.
Libyan Desert, military operations in '16--'17, iii: 191.
Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Maximilian, German ambassador to England,
negotiations for settlement of Anglo-German rivalries, '12--'14,
i: 196, 250;
account of events leading to World War, i: 246;
author of _Memorandum_, account of diplomatic experiences
in England, i: 250;
biography, ix: 131-133.
Liebau, Hans, German propagandist in U. S., x: 338.
"Liebau Employment Agency,"
center of German propaganda in U. S., x: 338.
Liebknecht, Karl, German radical leader,
sketch of, by Sir Thomas Barclay, vi: _Intro. x_;
votes against war credits, vi: _Intro. xii_;
protest against War, '14, vi: 249;
imprisoned, '16, vi: 262, ix: 140, 141;
freed from prison, Oct., '18, vi: 272;
leads Spartacides, Nov., '18, vi: 278, ix: 142;
organizes Spartacide demonstrations, Dec., '18, vi: 283;
killed during Spartacide uprising, Jan. 15, '19, vi: 289, ix: 142;
biography, ix: 138-143;
elected to Prussian Assembly while in prison, ix: 140;
expelled from Socialist Party, ix: 141;
bibliography, ix: 142.
Liége, forts constructed, 1890, i: 143;
captured by Germans, Aug. 7, '14, i: 375,
ii: 348 (Ludendorff's account), iii: 10, xi: 9.
Liggett, Lieut.-Gen. Hunter,
commands First Corps, A. E. F., in Marne defensive, July, '18,
v: 56;
commands First Corps in St. Mihiel drive, v: 65, 202, 386;
appointed commander of First Army, Oct. 16, '18, v: 83, 246, 390;
in command of 41st Div., '17, v: 109;
commands First Corps in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 220, 388, 390;
commands First Army in Meuse-Argonne, v: 390;
biography, ix: 218.
Lightning (78th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Lille, abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375;
death-rate during German occupation, iii: 406.
_Lille, Laon and St. Dié_, poem by John Finley, vi: 82.
Limburg, claimed by Belgium, vi: 91.
Limey, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199.
Liners, interned German, in U. S. ports, injuries to, iv: 319.
Linsingen, Gen. von,
commands Austrians operating against Lemberg, iii: 132.
Liny-devant-Dun, captured by 11th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 271.
_Lion_, British battle cruiser,
Beatty's flagship in battle of Jutland, iv: 105;
in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241;
disabled in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
Liquid fire, first use by Germans in Belgium, July 30, '15, i: 381;
how used, viii: 120;
story of Germans caught in own trap, x: 18.
Lisle, Gen. de, at first battle of Ypres, ii: 171.
Lissey, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272.
Listening device, for detecting submarines, description, iv: 308;
_see also_
Hydrophones;
Microphone.
Literary rights, Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of,
xii: 244-246.
Lithuania, struggle for independence, vi: 234-236;
opposed by Polish aspirations, vi: 234;
fight against Bolshevism, vi: 236;
Cabinet of '18, vi: 236;
fight against Polish aggression, vi: 236;
Republic established, Apr., '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Little Russia, _see_ Ukraine.
Livonia, early history, vi: 226;
Republic established, Apr., '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279;
_see also_ Baltic Provinces.
Lizenz bombing airplanes, viii: 222.
_Llandovery Castle_, torpedoed, June 22, '18, i: 395.
Lloyd George, David,
advocates aggressive campaign against Austria,
ii: _Intro. x, xx_;
becomes British Prime Minister,
ii: _Intro. xx_, vi: 10, ix: 28;
military policy, ii: _Intro, xxi_;
becomes Minister of Munitions, May, '15, vi: 5, xii: 78;
appeal to munition workers, vi: 5, ix: 27;
speeds up British war efforts, vi: 10;
statement of Allied war aims, vi: 12;
indorses President Wilson's Fourteen Points, vi: 14;
conciliatory policy between labor and capital, vi: 20;
biography, ix: 21-30;
bibliography, ix: 30;
_see also_ Peace Conference.
Loans, raised by belligerents for conduct of War, xii: 111.
Locomotives, number shipped to France from U. S., xii: 95, 286;
_see also_ Railroads.
Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot,
leads opposition to Peace Treaty, xii: 264;
original reservations to Peace Treaty, text, xii: 265;
revised reservations to Peace Treaty, text, xii: 269.
Lodz, occupied by Germans, Nov. 27, '14, iii: 129.
Logan, Col. James A.,
Chief of Administration (G-1), G. H. Q., A. E. F., v: 101.
Loman, Pvt. Berger, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.
Lome, surrender to British, Aug., '14, iii: 252.
London,
air raids on, Aug. 17, '15, i: 381;
Sept. 8, '15, i: 381;
Oct. 13, '15, i: 382;
Dec. 24, '14, iii: 41;
welcome to Pershing, June, '17, v: 97;
American Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 288.
_London_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.
London Volunteer Motor Corps, vii: 107.
_Long, Long Trail_, American soldiers' song, xi: 335.
Longueval, objective in Somme battle, iii: 58.
Longwy, abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375;
iron area coveted by Germans, '14, ii: 6.
Loos, British attempt to pierce German lines at, '15, ii: 25;
captured by British, Sept. 26, '15, iii: 46;
faulty British generalship in battle of, iii: 375.
_Lord Nelson_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31.
Lorraine, value of iron deposits, i: 267;
French offensive in, Aug., '14, iii: 16.
Losnitza, Austrians cross Drina at, iii: 151.
Losses, _see_
Casualties;
Prisoners of war.
"Lost Battalion," under Major Whittlesey
cut off from 77th Div., Oct. 2, '18, v: 231, 239;
attempts at relief of, fail, v: 241, 242;
rescued, Oct. 7, '18, v: 243;
units composing, v: 363.
Loti, Pierre, description of gas victims, iii: 320-322.
Lough Foyle, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357.
Louppy, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.
"Lousy Champagne," location, v: 43.
Louvain, captured by Germans, Aug. 19, '14, i: 375, iii: 14;
burned by Germans, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375, iii: 14;
description of burning by Richard Harding Davis, iii: 273-277.
Louvain, University of, Peace Treaty provisions for restoration
by Germany of books destroyed, xii: 225.
Lowenstein, Milton B., Boy Scout in air service, xi: 116.
Lowestoft,
attacked by German battle cruiser squadron, Apr. 25, '16, i: 385.
Lowicz, occupied by Germans, Dec. 18, '14, i: 376.
Lublin, occupied by Austrians, July 30, '15, i: 381.
Lublin-Cholm Railway, cut by Germans in '15 offensive, iii: 138.
Lubomirsky, Prince,
appointed by Germany to Regency Council of Poland, vi: 214.
"Lucky Bag," explanation of term, iv: 171.
Lucy-la-Bocage, important point near Château-Thierry, v: 132.
Ludendorff, Gen. Erich von, War account, ii: 298-365;
estimate of own importance to German victories, ii: 298, 300;
appointed First Quartermaster-General, Aug. 29, '16,
ii: 326, iii: 61;
denies being Germany's dictator, ii: 333;
resignation forced, Oct. 26, '18, ii: 336, vi: 271;
opinion of A. E. F., ii: 337;
war attitude, explained by himself, ii: 344;
brigade commander at start of War, ii: 345;
share in capture of Liége, ii: 348;
appointed Chief of Staff to Hindenburg in East Prussia, Aug., '14,
ii: 351;
account of first meeting with Hindenburg, Aug. 23, '14, ii: 353;
appointed Chief of Staff for operations on southeastern front,
Sept., '14, ii: 357;
failure of "Spring Drive" loses War, '18, vi: 270;
biography, ix: 250-257.
Luderitz Bay, captured by British, iii: 254.
Lufberry, Maj. Raoul, American ace, story of, x: 191-196.
Luke, Lieut. Frank, Jr., American aviator, story of, x: 211-214;
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.
Lukin, Gen., heads expedition against Sollum, iii: 191.
_Lullaby for a Baby Tank_, poem by H. T. Craven, xi: 270.
Lumber, uses in war, viii: 306-309.
Lunacharsky, member of Bolshevik presidium, vi: 179.
Lunéville, captured by Germans, Aug. 21--23, '14, i: 375, iii: 20;
retaken by French, Sept. 11, '14, i: 375.
Lupkow Pass, occupied by Russians, Dec., '14, iii: 127.
_Lurcher_, British destroyer
at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.
_Lusitania, S. S._,
German warning against travelling on, May 1, '15, i: 319;
sunk by German submarine, May 7, '15,
i: 319, 358, 362-365 (Lord Mersey's official report), 380,
xi: 20, 237;
loss of life, i: 319, 362;
U. S. note to Germany on sinking, May 13, '15, i: 320;
Roosevelt's statement on, i: 320;
Taft's view of action by U. S. over sinking, i: 320;
U. S. demands disavowal of sinking by Germany, i: 323;
summary of controversy between U. S. and Germany over sinking,
i: 358;
dimensions, i: 362;
number and nationality of passengers on last trip, i: 362;
number in crew, i: 362;
not armed, i: 363;
German hymn of glory over sinking of, i: 365;
eye-witness accounts of sinking, iv: 220-222;
Capt. Turner's account, iv: 222;
Germans celebrate destruction as naval victory, iv: 223.
Lutsk, captured by Germans, Sept. 1, '15, i: 381;
recaptured by Russians, Sept. 23, '15, i: 382;
recaptured by Germans, Sept. 27, '15, i: 382;
captured by Russians, June 6, '16, i: 385, iii: 142.
_Lützow_, German battle cruiser
sunk at Jutland, eye-witness account, iv: 256.
Luxemburg, Duchess of, _see_ Marie Adelaide.
Luxemburg, Grand Duchy of,
invaded by Germans, Aug. 2, '14, i: 144, iii: 10, vi: 93, xi: 10;
annexation sought by Belgium and France, '19, vi: 94;
Peace Treaty provisions concerning, xii: 189.
Luxemburg, Rosa,
German radical leader, protest against War, '14, vi: 249;
imprisoned, '16, vi: 262;
leads Spartacides, Nov., '18, vi: 278;
killed during Spartacide uprising, Jan. 14, '19, vi: 289;
views on social revolution, ix: 147.
Lvov, Prince George E.,
Premier under Russian Provisional Government, Mar. 14, '17,
vi: 155;
manifesto on war aims, Apr. 9, '17, vi: 159;
forms Coalition Cabinet, vi: 160;
biography, ix: 100-102;
President of All-Russian Union of Provincial Councils, xii: 82.
Lynch, George,
inventer of impenetrable cloth against barbed wire, viii: 68.
Lys, battle of, Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 91;
Portuguese troops flee under German attack,
ii: 153, iii: 91, vi: 374;
Allied lines broken, ii: 153, iii: 91;
Germans turn attack to Channel ports, iii: 91.
Lysk, Germans defeat Russians at '14, iii: 116.
_Lynx_, British destroyer blown up in Baltic, iv: 197.
M
Ma'an, seized by Arabs, Sept., '18, iii: 199.
Maastricht salient, claimed by Belgium, vi: 91.
MacArthur, Brig.-Gen. Douglas,
leads pursuit of Germans to Vesle River, Aug. 2--3, '18, v: 61;
commands 84th Inf. Brig., Oct. 14--16, '18, v: 84;
biography, ix: 213-217.
Macao, purchase of Portuguese interests at, by Japan, vi: 386.
Macdonald, Ramsay, endorses Bolshevist peace aims, vi: 12;
defeated in Parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 17.
Macdowell, Major T. W.,
wins Victoria Cross for gallantry at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349.
Macedonia, promised to Bulgaria by Germany, ii: 32;
occupation of, by Bulgarians, vi: 343-344;
military operations in, _see_ Salonika Campaign.
Machine-guns, use of, in British Army, ii: 125;
British and German equipments, Aug., '14, ii: 275;
utility in trench warfare, ii: 288, viii: 134-136;
nests, construction of, v: 37;
pits, v: 287;
number on A. E. F. front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 350;
predecessors of modern types, viii: 78;
Hiram Maxim's invention, 1883, viii: 78;
German pre-War preparedness, viii: 78;
effectiveness, viii: 79, 136;
usefulness compared with rifle, viii: 79;
German Machine-Gun Corps, viii: 79;
principal types, viii: 80-87;
Maxim gun, viii: 80, 87;
Benet-Mercier gun, viii: 80;
Lewis gun, viii: 81-82;
Browning gun, viii: 84-87;
on airplanes, viii: 86-87, 189-192, 196, 208-216;
Hotchkiss gun, viii: 87;
German and Allied equipments compared, Aug., '14, viii: 134;
tank _vs._ machine-gun, viii: 150-151;
U. S. production figures, xii: 284;
number captured by Americans, xii: 288.
Mackensen, Field-Marshal August von,
commander of Teuton forces conquering Serbia, ii: 34, iii: 156;
leads invasion of Rumania, ii: 60, iii: 222;
leader of offensive through Galicia and Poland, ii: 233, iii: 128;
commands Bulgarian forces, iii: 218;
biography, ix: 257-261.
Madeline Farm,
Germans resist attacks on, by 80th and 3rd Divs., Oct. 6, '18,
v: 241;
captured by Americans, Oct. 9, '18, v: 245.
_Madelon, Le_, French soldiers' song, xi: 339.
Madras,
bombarded by German raider _Emden_, Sept. 18, '14, iv: 174.
_Magdeburg_, German cruiser sunk by Russians, Aug., '14,
iv: 365.
Maghdaba, British defeat Turks at, iii: 192.
Magnes, Dr. Judah L.,
visits Europe for Jewish war relief, vii: 356, 360.
_Magpies in Picardy_, poem by "Tipcuca," xi: 224.
Magyars, predominance in Austria-Hungary, vi: 306;
loyalty to Empire, vi: 306;
rebel against new Czechoslovak government, vi: 399;
_see also_
Austria-Hungary;
Hungary.
Mahon, Gen., commands British at Salonika, iii: 202.
Maidos, defenses of Gallipoli at, iv: 24.
_Mainz_, German cruiser,
sunk in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.
Mainz,
occupation by Allies and conditions for withdrawal from, xii: 261.
Maize, imports of, by Germany, ii: 17.
_Majestic_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
sunk by submarine at Gallipoli, May 27, '15, iv: 50.
Malancourt, captured by Germans, Mar., '16, iii: 51;
location, v: 217;
4th Engrs. build artillery road from, to Esnes, Sept., '18, v: 226.
Malborghetto, captured by Italians, iii: 244.
_Mali Journal_, Serbian newspaper,
on antagonism to Austria-Hungary, vi: 356.
Malingering, devices for detection of, viii: 358-361.
Malinov, succeeds Radoslavov as Bulgarian Premier, vi: 346;
statement on circumstances of Bulgarian surrender, vi: 347.
Malleterre, Gen., discussion of Allied victory, ii: 206;
Professor of Military Geography at École de Guerre, ii: 220;
eulogy of Foch and Pétain, ii: 220.
Mallon, Capt. George H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.
Malmédy, ceded to Belgium under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, xii: 188.
Malmö, meeting of Scandinavian rulers at,
and pledge of mutual neutrality, vi: 393.
Malvy, French Minister of Interior,
tried for criminal neglect, iv: 10;
implicated in _Bonnet Rouge_ case, vi: 105;
exiled from France, vi: 106.
Mametz, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58.
Manchuria, Japanese penetration of, i: 20.
Mangin, Gen.,
attacks Germans on Villers-Cotterets and Soissons line, July, '18,
ii: 210, v: 159;
appointed commander of Verdun sector, iii: 62;
successful attack at Verdun, Dec., '16, iii: 62.
Mann, Maj.-Gen. William A.,
relieved of command of 42nd Div., '17, v: 109.
Mannerheim, Gen., commands Finnish White Guards, vi: 198;
dictator of Finnish de facto Republic, '18, vi: 200.
Manning, Corp. Sidney E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.
Manoury, Gen.,
commands a French army at first Marne battle, ii: 182, 184.
Mantou, Prof., interpreter to Supreme Peace Council, xii: 152.
_Maple Leaf Forever, The_, Canadian national hymn, xi: 330.
March, Gen. Peyton C.,
Chief of Staff, U. S. Army, biography, ix: 210-212.
Margate, bombed by German airmen, Oct. 22, '16, i: 388.
Marie, Queen of Rumania, appeal for American aid, vi: 349.
Marie Adelaide, Grand Duchess of Luxemburg,
resigns in favor of sister, vi: 94;
biography, ix: 383-384.
_Marina, S. S._, British freighter
sunk by German submarine, Oct. 28, '16, i: 335, 388.
Marines, U. S., _see_ U. S., Marines.
Maritz, Col., rebel Boer leader,
joins Germans in Southwest Africa, '14, iii: 254, vi: 50.
_Markomannia_, auxiliary to German raider _Emden_,
iv: 170, 172.
Marlin aircraft guns, U. S. production figures, xii: 284;
_see also_ Machine-guns.
Marne, Allied retreat to the, Aug.--Sept., '14, iii: 20-30;
topography of salient, v: 42, 133.
Marne, battles of:
Sept., '14, report of Field-Marshal French on preliminary action,
ii: 9;
outline of maneuvers, ii: 9;
Foch's generalship at, ii: 103, 138-142, 182, 220, iii: 31-34;
described by French participant, ii: 182;
Gen. Manoury's share in victory, ii: 182;
military situation preceding, ii: 183;
Allied generals under Joffre at, ii: 184;
German commanders at, ii: 184;
effect of Russian invasion of East Prussia on, ii: 227;
analysis of, by a German military critic, ii: 258;
detailed account of, iii: 30-36;
casualties at, iii: 35.
July, '18, Foch's strategy, ii: 77, ii: 154;
Ludendorff's account, ii: 322-324;
Ludendorff's comment on casualties, ii: 326;
Ludendorff's comment on A. E. F. fighting, ii: 326;
general account of battle, iii: 95-97, v: 129;
detailed account of A. E. F. participation,
v: 47-61, 148-192, 382;
reasons for failure of German offensive, v: 54;
German artillery captured by Americans, v: 56;
stand of 38th Inf. against German attempts to cross Marne,
July 15, '18, v: 150-153, x: 381-387;
Pershing's message to troops, v: 191;
Gen. Degoutte's praise of A. E. F. at, v: 192;
work of tanks at, viii: 148;
_see also_
Aisne-Marne Offensive;
Champagne.
Marne District, German destruction in, iii: 297-300.
Marne (3rd) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Mars, A. E. F. base hospital at, v: 400.
_Marseillaise_, French national anthem,
an Alsatian song, i: 211;
effect on French audience, i: 211;
words, xi: 326.
Marseilles, embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395.
Marshal, Gen., commander of British capturing Bagdad, xi: 48.
Marshall, Louis, President American Jewish Relief Committee,
vii: 354.
Martin, Miss Winona C.,
American "Y" worker killed in France, vii: 313.
Martin, Dr. Franklin, member of Advisory Commission,
U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 116.
Martinpuich, captured by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388.
Mary, Queen of England, biography, ix: 392-395.
Masaryk, T. G., leader of movement for Czech independence, vi: 397.
Masefield, John,
description of British embarkation for Gallipoli, iii: 350;
account of Gallipoli fighting, iii: 352, 355-358;
description of soldier's life at Gallipoli, iii: 353.
Mata-Hari, woman spy, executed by French, Oct. 15, '17, i: 392;
discloses tank secret to Germans, x: 360.
Matz Valley, German attacks during '18 offensive, ii: 76.
Maubeuge, Allied objective in final drive, Nov., '18, iii: 103.
Maude, Gen. Sir Frederick Stanley,
Mesopotamian successes, '16--'17,
ii: _Intro. xviii_, 90, iii: 185;
biography, ix: 194-199.
Maurepas, captured by French during battle of the Somme, iii: 58.
Maurice, Maj.-Gen. Sir Frederick,
on general strategy of the War, ii: _Intro. vii-xxiv._
Mauser rifle, description, viii: 95.
Max, Burgomaster of Brussels,
demand of concessions from Germans, iii: 14.
Maxim, Hiram, invents machine-gun, 1883, viii: 78.
Maxim machine-gun, description, viii: 80;
modified type used by Germans and Austrians, viii: 87.
Maximilian of Baden, Prince,
appointed German Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270;
appeals to Wilson for armistice, vi: 270.
Mayo, Adm. Henry Thomas, biography, ix: 296.
Mazurian Lakes, topography of district, iii: 108;
difficulty of military operations in, iii: 113;
Russian armies annihilated by Hindenburg, Aug., '14, iii: 113-116;
second battle, Feb., '15, iii: 130;
_see also_ Tannenberg, battle of.
McAdoo, William G., biography, ix: 329-331;
Director General, U. S. Railroad Administration, xii: 88.
McAlexander, Brig.-Gen. U. G.,
as colonel commands 38th Inf. Regt. in second battle of the Marne,
July, '18, v: 152;
commands 180th Inf. Brig, at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12--15, '18, v: 209;
biography, ix: 216.
McAndrew, Maj.-Gen. James W.,
succeeds Gen. Harbord as Chief of Staff, A. E. F., Aug., '17,
v: 102;
Pershing's appreciation, v: 403-404;
biography, ix: 216.
McCaw, Brig.-Gen. Walter D., Chief Surgeon, A. E. F., v: 346.
McLemore Resolution, warning to Americans not to
travel on belligerent ships, i: 327;
President Wilson opposes, i: 327;
defeated, i: 328.
McLeod, Marguerite Gertrude Zelle,
German spy, discloses tank secret, x: 360.
McMahon, Maj.-Gen. James E., in command of 5th Div., May, '18,
v: 128;
at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202;
relieved of command of 5th Div., Oct., '18, v: 252.
McMurtry, Capt. George C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.
McRae, Maj.-Gen. James H.,
in command of 78th Div., June, '18, v: 144;
at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202.
Meat packers, profits before and during War, xii: 56.
Mecca, captured by Arabs, July 15, '16, i: 386.
Medeah Farm, captured by 67th French Div., Oct. 3, '18, v: 256.
Medical Corps, U. S., _see_ U. S., Army.
Medical science, use of X-ray, vii: 221, viii: 373-376;
development under war needs, viii: 361-365, xi: 286-291;
rifle and shell wounds, relative dangers of, viii: 361;
French medical service for wounded, viii: 362-365;
danger of infection in shell wounds, viii: 362, 367;
treatment of head wounds, viii: 365;
treatment of face wounds, viii: 366;
treatment of body wounds, viii: 366;
treatment of blood vessel lesions, viii: 366;
treatment of nerve cord lesions, viii: 366;
treatment of fractures, viii: 367;
new method of amputation, viii: 367;
prevention of tetanus infection, viii: 367, xi: 287;
prevention of gas gangrene, viii: 367, xi: 287-288;
treatment of shell shock, viii: 368;
causes of infection, viii: 369;
Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, xi: 288-289;
mechanical treatments for injured limbs, viii: 381-384;
artificial arms for war cripples, viii: 384-388;
artificial legs for war cripples, viii: 388-390;
reconstructing mutilated faces, viii: 390;
use of ambrine in treatment of burns, viii: 390;
artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391;
prevention of infectious diseases among troops, viii: 392-397;
anti-typhoid immunization, viii: 393;
making drinking water safe for army, viii: 394-396;
_see also:_
Disease;
Infection;
Reconstruction of disabled;
Sanitation;
Surgery.
Medwa, Turks defeated at, by British, Jan., '16, iii: 191.
Mehun, U. S. Ordnance repair shop at, v: 350.
Memel, captured by Russians, Mar. 19, '15, i: 378;
evacuated by Russians, Mar. 21, '15, i: 378;
raided by Russian fleet, Mar., '15, iv: 365;
Peace Treaty provisions concerning, xii: 203.
_Men of Harlech_, Welsh national hymn, xi: 330.
Menoher, Maj.-Gen. Charles T., commander 42nd Div., '17, v: 109;
at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202.
Mensheviki, Russian political party, doctrines of, vi: 148.
Menshikov, Russian imperialist,
outlines plan of conquest, '14, vi: 134.
Merchant marine, _see_ Shipping.
Mercier, Cardinal Désiré,
biography and war-time activities, ix: 341-343.
_Mersey_, British monitor, in Flanders and East Africa, iv: 281.
Mersey, Lord, official report on _Lusitania_ sinking,
i: 362-365.
Merville salient, evacuation of, by Germans, iii: 98.
Mesopotamia, German dream of acquisition, ii: 27;
British irrigation schemes in, ii: 295;
terrain and climate, iii: 178;
historic background of modern battlefields, iii: 329-334;
disposition under secret treaties of '16--'17, vi: 334;
area and population, xii: 279.
Mesopotamian Campaign,
strategic importance and Allied plan of operations,
ii: _Intro. xvi_, 87-91, iii: 178-180;
British land troops at Fao to protect oil fields, Nov., '14,
ii: _Intro. xvi_, iii: 180;
Gen. Nixon pursues Turks and threatens Bagdad, '15,
ii: _Intro. xvi_, 91, iii: 180-182;
British defeated at Ctesiphon and driven into
Kut-el-Amara, Dec., '15, ii: _Intro. xvi_, 91, 182-183;
siege of Kut and Gen. Townshend's surrender,
Dec. 7, '15--Apr. 29, '16,
ii: _Intro. xvii_, 91, iii: 183-185, 363, 364;
British reorganize campaign after Kut disaster,
ii: _Intro. xviii_, 92, iii: 185;
British capture Bagdad, Mar. 11, '17,
ii: _Intro. xviii_, 92, iii: 187;
British landing force advances to Basra and Kurna, Dec., '14,
iii: 180;
British capture Kut-el-Amara, Sept., '15, iii: 181;
unsuccessful attempts to relieve siege of Kut, iii: 184-185;
Gen. Maude placed in command of British, '16, iii: 185;
causes of and responsibility for British disaster,
report of Royal Commission, iii: 185, 363-370;
battle of Sannyat, iii: 185-187;
bibliography, iii: 187;
personnel of Commission of inquiry, iii: 363;
conditions in Kut during siege, iii: 364;
casualties in attempts to relieve Kut, iii: 364.
Messines Ridge,
British mine and blow up German positions, June, '17,
ii: 56, iii: 74, 76-77, viii: 310;
nature of German defenses, iii: 77;
casualties, British and German, iii: 77;
recaptured by Germans, Apr., '18, iii: 360.
_Messudiyeh_, Turkish warship
blown up in Dardanelles, Dec. 13, '14, i: 376, x: 317.
Mestrovitch, Sgt. James I.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.
_Meteor_, German raider in Baltic, iv: 197.
Metternich, Prince, theory of government, i: 33.
Metz, bombarded by British airmen, Jan. 14, '18, i: 393;
entered by French, Nov. 19, '18, i: 400;
Allied plan for capture of, Nov., '18, v: 274.
Meurer, Vice-Adm.,
German delegate to arrange for surrender of German fleet, iv: 384.
Meurthe River, line of defense before Nancy, iii: 19.
Meuse River, French forced to retire from, Aug., '14, iii: 20;
German attempt to invade France through valley of, '14, v: 199.
Meuse-Argonne Offensive,
concentration of A. E. F. for, Sept., '18, ii: 84, v: 75, 218, 388;
objectives, ii: 84, 214, 387;
topography of battleground, ii: 214, v: 73-74, 90, 217-218;
strategic importance, ii: 215, v: 214-216, 387;
breakdown of A. E. F. supply service, ii: 215;
Ludendorff's comment on, ii: 334;
detailed account of battle, Sept. 25--Nov. 11. '18,
iii: 100, v: 72-95, 213-253, 260-279;
extent of A. E. F. front, v: 72-73, 217, 390;
Allied plan of campaign, v: 73, 75, 216, 218;
A. E. F. divisions participating, with positions in line,
v: 74, 219-222, 388;
German defenses, position and strength, v: 74, 217-218, 388;
A. E. F. advance to Kriemhilde position, v: 78-82;
Allies break through Kriemhilde line, v: 83-88;
Germans dislodged and thrown across the Meuse, Nov., '18, v: 88-95;
number of French troops participating, v: 220, 388;
German strength, v: 220, 388;
day by day account of operations, Sept. 25--Oct. 3, v: 222-233;
number of Allied airplanes, v: 223, 388;
day by day account, Oct. 4--31, v: 234-253;
day by day account of last phase, Nov. 1--11, v: 260-279;
Argonne Forest cleared of Germans, Nov. 3, '18, v: 266;
number of Allied tanks used, v: 315, 388;
sector assigned to A. E. F., v: 385;
Pershing's official report, v: 386-393;
Allies' artillery strength, v: 388;
strength of First Army, A. E. F., v: 390, xii: 280;
desperate nature of fighting, v: 390-391;
Germans appeal for Armistice, Nov. 6, '18, v: 391;
German guns captured, v: 393;
German prisoners captured, v: 393;
casualties of First Army, v: 393, xii: 280;
magnitude of operations, v: 393.
Mexico, German plot to involve in war with U. S., i: 347.
Meyer-Waldeck, Capt., German governor of Tsing-Tau, iii: 257.
Mézières, captured by Germans, Aug. 27, '14, i: 375;
Allied objective in final drive, Nov., '18, iii: 103;
captured by French, Nov. 9,. '18, iii: 103;
fortified French frontier town, v: 215.
Mézières-Sedan railroad,
key to German lines of communication on Western Front, v: 216, 387.
Mezy, Germans force passage of Marne at, July 15, '18, v: 150.
Mice, uses in war, vii: 229.
Michael, Grand Duke,
designated as successor by Czar on abdication, vi: 156;
renounces succession to Russian throne Mar., '17, vi: 156.
Michaelis, Georg, statement of German war aims, ii: 14;
appointment as German Chancellor, July, '17, vi: 266.
Michel position,
section of Hindenburg Line on St. Mihiel Front, v: 69.
Michitch, Gen., Serbian commander,
stops advance of Austrian invaders, Dec., '14, iii: 394.
Michler, Gen., decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60.
Microphone, instrument for detection of U-boats, iv: 308, xi: 241;
_see also_ Hydrophones.
Milan, bombarded by Austrian airmen, Feb. 14, '16, i: 384.
Miles, Capt. Wardlaw L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.
Militarism, German, _see_ Germany, Militarism.
Military commandments, by Kitchener and Foch, xi: 55.
Military training, universal,
advocated by Dr. Chas. W. Eliot, i: _Intro. xii_;
German system of, i: 71;
Bernhardi's defense of, i: 162;
Roosevelt's advocacy of, for U. S., i: 326;
abolition of, in Germany under Peace Treaty, xii: 211.
Milk supply, German, ii: 18.
Miller, Lieut. John Q., observation pilot, story of, x: 232-235.
Miller, Major Oscar F., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.
Millicent Sutherland Ambulance, vii: 107.
Milne, Adm.,
commander of British fleet in Mediterranean, Aug., '14, iv: 13.
Milne, Pvt. W. J.,
awarded Victoria Cross for gallantry at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349.
Milyukov, Paul M., Russian statesman,
exposes treachery of Stürmer, Nov., '16, vi: 142;
assails Government distribution of food, Feb., '17, vi: 144;
Minister of Foreign Affairs in Provisional Government, Mar., '17,
vi: 158;
statement of loyalty to Allied cause, vi: 158, 159;
biography, ix: 102-103.
Mines, submarine,
North Sea mine barrage, iv: _Intro. xi_, 324, viii: 274;
use of trawlers for sweeping, iv: 292;
use in fighting U-boats, iv: 312;
use of Paravanes as protection against, iv: 313;
methods of laying, iv: 326.
Mining, in land operations, blowing up of Messines Ridge by British,
iii: 74, 76-77, viii: 310;
of Austrian positions in Alps by Italians, viii: 311.
Minkler, C. T., inventor of depth bomb, iv: 330.
Miraumont, evacuated by Germans, iii: 64.
Mirbach, Count von, assassinated by Bolsheviki, vi: 187.
Missionaries, European, as colonial pioneers in East, i: 17.
Missions, German Christian,
continuity guaranteed by Peace Treaty, xii: 263.
Missy, scene of hard fighting by 1st Div., July, '18, v: 55;
1st Div. makes first capture of German guns by A. E. F., v: 174.
Mitau, captured by Germans, Aug. 2, '15, i: 381.
Mitrovitza, captured by Germans, Nov. 23, '15, i: 382.
Mixed Arbitral Tribunal,
establishment and functions under Peace Treaty, xii: 243.
Mkwawa, Sultan, skull of,
Peace Treaty provision for return of, by Germany, xii: 225.
Mobile ordnance repair shops,
description and functions, v: 350, viii: 294-298.
_Moewe_, German raider, activities, iv: 197.
Moffat, John, systematizes American war relief, vii: 87;
decorated for relief work, vii: 87.
Moffett, Capt. Wm. A.,
commander of Great Lakes Naval Training Station, iv: 318.
_Moltke_, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
Moltke, Field-Marshal von, views on German strategy, ii: 14.
Moltke, Lieut.-Gen. Helmuth von, biography, ix: 264.
_Monarch_, Austrian battleship
torpedoed by Italians at Trieste, x: 290.
Monastir, evacuated by Serbs, Dec. 3, '15, i: 382;
retaken by Allies, Nov. 19, '16, i: 388, iii: 208.
Moncy Wood, captured by 26th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.
Mondement, Germans driven back at, in first Marne battle, iii: 33.
Mondragon, Gen., of Mexico, designer of self-loading rifle, viii: 90.
Money,
effect of unsecured paper money on prices, xii: _Intro. viii_;
inflation chief cause of high prices, xii: _Intro. xii_, 27;
war-time inflation in U. S., xii: _Intro. xii_;
inflation throughout world, xii: _Intro. xiii_;
functions, xii: _Intro. xv_;
standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuating cost of living,
xii: _Intro. xv_;
inflation defined, xii: 28;
effects of inflation, xii: 29;
revaluation of gold standard, xii: 31;
_see also_ Prices.
Monfalcone, captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244.
_Monge_, French submarine, rammed by Austrian warship, x: 295.
Monitors, revival of discarded naval type, iv: 280;
description of British type, iv: 281;
service at Dardanelles, iv: 282;
service at Trieste, iv: 283;
service in Serbia, iv: 283;
construction of, iv: 284.
_Monmouth_, British cruiser
in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65;
struck during battle, iv: 66;
sunk by _Nürnberg_, iv: 67, ix: 308.
Monneaux, location, v: 133.
Monro, Gen., Sir Charles,
sent to India to develop military resources,
ii: _Intro. xviii_;
succeeds Gen. Hamilton at Gallipoli, iii: 174;
conducts evacuation of Gallipoli, iii: 174.
Monroe Doctrine, barrier against European expansion in America, i:37;
interpretation under Roosevelt, i: 84;
upheld by Roosevelt against German coercion of Venezuela, i: 86.
Mons,
captured by Germans, Aug. 21--23, '14, i: 375;
British retreat from, Aug., '14,
ii: 162 (Viscount French's account),
iii: 277-281 (John Buchan's description);
British gallantry at, xi: 10.
Monsard, taken by Fourth Corps, Sept. 12, '18, v: 206.
Mont Blanc, captured by 2nd Div., v: 393.
Mont Mare Wood, passage by 89th Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 210.
Mont St. Père-Chartèves, location, v: 133.
Mont St. Quentin, captured by British, Mar. 18, '17, iii: 68.
Mont Sec, dominating position on St. Mihiel sector, v: 65, 116, 199.
Mont Wood, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264.
Montauban, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58.
Montblainville, captured by 28th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 325.
Montdidier, captured by French, Aug. 11, '18, i: 397;
1st Div. relieves French near, v: 29.
Montdidier-Noyon defensive, by Allies, June 9--15, '18,
iii: 94, v: 129, 139-141;
conditions leading to German attack, v: 139;
Allied use of artillery during, v: 139.
Monte Nero, captured by Italians, iii: 244.
Montecuccoli, Adm.,
responsible for development of Austrian navy, iv: 364.
Montenegro, declares war on Austria, Aug. 7, '14, i: 375;
declares war on Germany, Aug. 10, '14, i: 375;
forced to surrender to Austria, Feb., '16, vi: 358-359;
joins Jugoslav union, vi: 366;
battle deaths, xii: 288.
Montfaucon, German stronghold in Meuse-Argonne sector, v: 78, 218;
captured by 79th Div., Sept. 27, '18, v: 224-225.
Montfaucon Wood, captured by 37th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.
Montmédy, captured by Germans, Aug. 27, '14, i: 375.
Montmirail, German objective in last drive on Paris, v: 36;
headquarters of 28th Div., June, '18, v: 143.
Montrebeau Wood, captured by 1st Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 237.
Montrieul-aux-Lions, headquarters of 2nd Div., June, '18, v: 143.
Moore, Rear-Adm. Sir Archibald,
second in command of British in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
Morale, Allied and German during winter, '17--'18, v: 1;
German, weakened by failure of great offensive, July, '18, v: 53;
American, under hardships of Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 87, 232;
Allied and German, Sept., '18, v: 213.
Moranville, taken by 322nd Inf., Nov. 9, '18, v: 277.
Morava-Maritza Valley,
approach to Constantinople through Serbia, iii: 150.
Moravia, early history, vi: 396;
nationalistic aspirations, vi: 396.
Moresnet, ceded to Belgium under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, xii: 188.
Moreuil salient, military operations in, Aug.--Sept., '18, iii: 98;
Allied attack on Albert-Montdidier line, iii: 98;
Albert captured by British, Aug., '18, iii: 98;
British attack on the Scarpe, Sept., '18, iii: 98.
Morgan, Miss Anne, war relief activities, vii: 92.
Morine Wood, captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.
Morocco,
French control of, recognized by Great Britain, '04, i: 99, 202;
Kaiser's famous speech at Tangier on German policy, Mar., '05,
i: 99, 202;
European crisis on dispatch of German gunboat _Panther_
to Agadir, July, '11, i: 104, 203;
storm center of European diplomacy, i: 202;
Prince Lichnowsky's views on German policy, i: 204;
German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208.
Mort Homme, _see_
Dead Man's Hill;
Verdun.
Mortars, _see_ Artillery.
Morton, Maj.-Gen. Charles G.,
commands 29th Div., June, '18, v: 146;
takes command of sector on right bank of Meuse, Oct. 10, '18,
v: 246.
Moscow,
municipal elections annulled by reactionary Protopopov, '17,
vi: 143;
Conference called by Kerensky, '17, vi: 167;
meeting of Soviet Congress, Mar., '18, vi: 185.
Moselle River,
German attempt to enter France through valley of, '14, v: 199.
Mosley, Brig.-Gen. G. Van H.,
Chief of Co-ordination, G. H. Q., A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102.
Motors, airplane, production in U. S., xii: 285;
Liberty, production figures, xii: 285.
Motor Transport Corps, U. S., _see_ U. S., Army.
Motor trucks, important function in Verdun defense,
iii: 50, viii: 289-291;
mobile ordnance repair shops, description and functions,
v: 350, v: 294-298;
armored cars, viii: 286;
Paris buses as war transports, viii: 286;
use as ambulances, viii: 287;
number in use by belligerents, Aug., '14, viii: 288;
number in use at front, June, '15, viii: 288;
number shipped to France from U. S., viii: 288, xii: 95, 286;
Liberty truck, development and description, viii: 291-294.
Mott, Dr. John R.,
General Secretary, Y. M. C. A. War Work Council, vii: 261.
_Mount Vernon_, U. S. transport torpedoed, Sept. 5, '17,
iv: 337.
_Mousquet_, French destroyer
sunk by _Emden_, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 181.
Mouzay, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 94, 272.
Mücke, Lieut. Hellmuth von,
account of exploits of German raider _Emden_,
iv: 167-187, 190-194.
Mudros, British advance base for Gallipoli campaign,
iii: 164, iv: 30.
Mühlon, Dr. William,
disclosures of German complicity in forcing War,
i: 133-136, 250-254.
Muir, Maj.-Gen. Charles H., commands 28th Div., May, '18, v: 128;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 220.
Mules, number shipped to France by U. S., xii: 95, 286.
Mülhausen, captured by French, Aug. 8, '14, iii: 16.
Müller, Capt. Karl von,
commander of German raider _Emden_, iv: 166.
Munich, murder of Kurt Eisner
and Spartacide uprising in, Feb., '19, vi: 298;
Spartacides establish Soviet, vi: 300;
Soviet overthrown by Noske, May, '19, vi: 301.
Münsterberg, Prof. Hugo, on "Russian Peril," vi: 250.
Murfin, Capt. O. G., in charge of U. S. Navy mine bases, iv: 325.
Murman Region,
Military Government of, established, July, '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Murmansk, fighting between Allies and Bolsheviki at, vi: 187.
Murray, Gen., commands British troops defending Suez, iii: 191.
Mush, captured by Russians, Feb. 18, '16, i: 384, iii: 263;
evacuated by Russians, Aug. 8, '16, i: 386.
Mushi, captured by British, Mar. 13, '16, i: 384.
Mustard gas, use in chemical warfare, v: 321, viii: 171-172, xi: 321;
use of "Sag Paste," as protection against, v: 324;
manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 186.
N
Namazieh Battery, at Gallipoli, iv: 45.
Namur, forts of, constructed, 1890, i: 143;
captured by Germans, Aug., '14, i: 375, iii: 14-15.
Nancy, German advance on, checked, Aug., '14, iii: 19;
important frontier fortress, v: 199, 215.
Nantillois, captured by 315th Inf., Sept. 28, '18, v: 228.
Napier, Rear-Adm. T. D. W.,
commander of British 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron at Jutland,
iv: 120.
Naples, bombed by German aviators, Mar. 11, '18, i: 395.
Napoleon, Fort, at Gallipoli,
bombarded by French battleship _Gaulois_, Mar. 2, '15, iv: 43.
Narew, Russian Army of the, invades East Prussia, iii: 111.
_Narodna Odbrana_, Serbian patriotic society,
accused of responsibility for murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand,
i: 112.
_Narodni Savetz_, Bulgarian patriotic organization, vi: 341.
Narrows, at Dardanelles,
defenses of bombarded by Allies, Mar. 5, '15, iv: 45.
Narva, captured by Germans, Mar. 5, '18, i: 393.
Nasarie, taken by British, '15, iii: 181.
Nasmith, Lieut.-Com.,
captain of British submarine _E-11_ in Sea of Marmora,
iv: 210.
Nasrullah Khan, instigator of Habibullah Khan's assassination,
vi: 80.
National Allied Relief Committee, vii: 87;
_see also_ War relief.
National anthems, words and histories of, xi: 325-332.
National Council of Austrian Women, peace appeals, '17, vi: 314.
National Guard, U. S., federalized, Aug. 5, '17, i: 390;
_see also_ U. S., Army.
National Volunteers,
Irish organization enlisted to aid British, vi: 57.
National War Work Council,
of American Y. M. C. A., formation, vii: 262;
_see also_ Y. M. C. A.
Nationalism, problems of, i: 23;
development in Europe since 1648, i: 26;
factor in racial unification, v: _Intro. viii_;
growth during 19th century, v: _Intro. ix_;
_see also_ under name of country.
Nations of the world, political positions in 1871, i: 44-60.
Naumann, Friedrich,
author of _Mittel Europa_, statement of German war aims,
vi: 258;
views on trench frontiers, viii: 126.
_Nautilus_, submarine invented by Robert Fulton, 1800, iv: 202.
Naval Batteries, U. S., on Western Front, v: 306, viii: 42-45.
Naval power, influence on result of War, i: 13;
function as protector of supply routes, i: 15;
development as adjunct to colonization, i: 28.
Naval raids, German bombardment of English coast towns, iv: 244-246.
Naval stations, British, around the world, i: 15.
Navarino, battle of, 1827, i: 34.
Navies, _see_ under each country.
Navigation, freedom of, for Allies,
over German waterways, Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 247-253;
Elbe, Oder, Niemen, and Danube internationalized
under Peace Treaty, xii: 248.
"Navy Hut," American "Y" center at Brest, vii: 302.
Nazareth, captured by British, Sept. 21, '18, iii: 198.
N-C Flying Boats, development and description, viii: 236-240;
_N-C-4_ first airplane to cross Atlantic, iv: 288, viii: 240.
Near East, European rivalries in, i: 38;
German policy, i: 80, 207, ii: 89;
_see also_
Balkans;
Germany, Foreign policy.
"Near victories," of the War, ii: 206.
_Nebraskan, S. S._, American steamer
attacked by German submarine, May 25, '15, i: 320.
Neibaur, Pvt. Thomas C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.
_Nembo_, Italian destroyer,
battle with Austrian U-boat, Oct. 16, '16, iv: 369.
Nesle, occupied by French cavalry Mar., '17, iii: 68.
Netherlands, international position in '14, i: 61;
refuses to cede Dutch Flanders to Belgium, vi: 89;
strength of army, '14, vi: 375, 378;
maintains armed neutrality, vi: 375-377;
neutrality condemned by British press, vi: 376;
effect of submarine warfare on, vi: 377-378;
merchant marine seized by Allies, Mar., '18, vi: 378;
claims Scheldt and Maastricht area, '18, vi: 378;
generous host to Belgian refugees, vii: 168-175;
war-time increase in shipping, xii: 101.
"Netherlands Overseas Trust," vi: 377.
Neufchateau, training area for 26th and 42nd Divs., v: 6.
Neutrals, increase in shipping, xii: 100;
trade with Germany, xii: 100.
Neuve Chapelle, captured by British, Mar. 9--10, '15, i: 378, iii: 41;
faulty British generalship at, iii: 375.
Neuve Eglise, captured by British, Sept. 2, '18, i: 397.
Newbolt, Sir Henry,
account of Smith-Dorrien's battle at Le Cateau, Aug. 26, '14,
ii: 176-182.
New Guinea, German, captured by Australians, '14, vi: 38.
_New Mexico_, U. S. battleship,
propelled by electricity, iv: 322.
New Zealand, war casualties, iii: 404, 405;
strength of army, iii: 405;
area and population, vi: 37;
loyalty to Great Britain, vi: 46;
war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107, 114;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179.
_New Zealand_, British cruiser
in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv 241;
in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
Niblack, Rear-Adm. Albert P., biography, ix: 295.
Nicaragua, delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180.
Nicholas, Grand Duke, Commander-in-Chief of Russian armies, iii: 119;
removed as Commander-in-Chief and sent to Caucasus, Sept., '15,
iii: 140, 262;
biography, ix: 229-231.
Nicholas, King of Montenegro,
surrenders to Austrians, Feb., '16, vi: 359;
deposed, vi: 366.
Nicholas II, Czar of Russia,
takes personal command of army, Sept., '15, iii: 140, vi: 141;
influence of Rasputin over court, vi: 141;
issues undated order for dismissal of Duma, '17, vi: 144;
abdicates, Mar. 15, '17, vi: 156;
biography, ix: 374-376.
_Nicholson_ U. S. destroyer, captures German submarine, iv: 350.
Niemen, Russian Army of the, invades East Prussia, iii: 110.
Niemen River, internationalized by Peace Treaty, xii: 248.
Nietzsche, Friedrich,
German apostle of gospel of force, i: 67, ii: 2;
striking quotations from, i: 179-180.
Nieuport, captured by Germans, Oct. 24, '14, i: 376.
Nieuport scout planes, viii: 192.
Nightingale, Florence, pioneer army nurse, vii: 11.
_1914_, by Viscount French,
account of military operations of year, summary with extracts,
ii: 159-174.
Nish, captured by Bulgars, Nov. 5, '15, i: 382, iii: 158;
retaken by Allies, Oct. 13, '18, iii: 213.
Nish-Salonika Railroad, cut by Bulgarians, iii: 158.
Nitrogen, asphyxiating properties, viii: 166.
Nitti, Francesco S.,
Italian minister, opposes policy of aggrandizement, vi: 366.
Nivelle, Gen. Robert,
succeeds Joffre as French Commander-in-Chief,
ii: _Intro. xx_, iii: 62;
in supreme command of Allied forces on Western Front, '16, ii: 54;
plans campaign of '17, ii: 54;
defends Verdun, '16, iii: 54, 61, 310;
biography, ix: 167-168.
Nixon, Gen. Sir John,
commands British troops in Mesopotamia, iii: 182;
responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 367.
"No Man's Land," definition, v: 17.
Nolan, Brig.-Gen. D. E.,
Chief of Intelligence (G-2), G. H. Q., A. E. F.,
Sept., '17, v: 101;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 221.
Nonsard, captured by 1st Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211.
Norman Compensating Foresight, use in range-finding, viii: 211.
North German Confederation, formation, i: 43, ii: 1.
North German Lloyd Line, tonnage and capital, i: 264.
North Pacific Islands, German, acquired by Japan, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
North Sea,
Allied mine barrage, iv: _Intro. xi_, 324-330, viii: 274;
problem of belligerents in, iv: 86, 91;
German naval raids, iv: 136.
_Northern Pacific, S. S._, speed record as transport, v: 358.
Norway, pro-Ally sympathies, vi: 394.
Noske, Gen., suppresses Berlin Spartacides, vi: 289;
overthrows Munich Soviet, vi: 300-301.
_Nottingham_, British cruiser sunk, Aug. 19, '16, i: 386;
in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.
Nouart, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264.
Novo Georgievsk, Russian attack at, Oct., '14, iii: 126;
captured by Germans, Aug., '15, iii: 138.
Noyon, captured by French, Aug. 28, '18, i: 397, ii: 158;
occupied by French, March 18, '17, iii: 68;
_see also_ Montdidier-Noyon defensive.
Nugent, Gen., commander of 36th Ulster Div., iii: 377.
_Nur-el-Bahr_, British cruiser
sunk off Sollum, Nov. 6, '15, ii: 190.
_Nürnberg_, German cruiser in battle off Coronel, iv: 65;
sunk in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70, 74.
Nurses, U. S. Army Nurse Corps, vii: 203;
_see also_
Red Cross;
War relief.
O
_O Patria, O Rei, O Povo_, Portuguese national hymn, xi: 329.
Obrenovatz, captured by Austrians, Oct. 18, '15, i: 382.
O'Brien, Lieut. Pat, escape from German prison, x: 257.
Observation balloons, _see_ Aeronautics.
_Ocean_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31, 35, 48.
Oches, taken by 77th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.
Oder River, internationalized by Peace Treaty, xii: 248.
Odessa, importance as military base, iii: 161.
Ogons Wood, captured by A. E. F., Oct. 5, '18, v: 230, 237, 239.
_Oh, How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning_,
American soldiers' song, xi: 337.
O'Kelly, J. T., Irish representative to Peace Conference, vi: 65.
Okuma, Count, influence on Japanese foreign policy, vi: 384;
biography, ix: 87.
"Old Dutch Cleansers," nickname for 9.2-in. British howitzers,
v: 308.
Old Hickory (30th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
O'Leary, Jeremiah, pro-German propagandist in U. S., x: 345.
O'Leary, Sgt. Michael, wins Victoria Cross, x: 71.
Oman, acquired by Allies, '13, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Omsk, capital of All-Russian Government, vi: 191.
_Onslow_, British destroyer at battle of Jutland, iv: 121.
"Open Door" policy in China, i: 57;
_see also_ China.
Opium Convention, Jan. 23, '12,
put into force by Peace Treaty, xii: 232.
Opium War, against China, 1840, i: 38.
"Oppy Line," captured by British in Arras battle, iii: 72.
Optical glasses, for A. E. F., viii: 326.
Orange Free State,
becomes part of Union of South Africa, 1899, vi: 47;
opposition to Great Britain, vi: 50-52;
_see also_ South Africa, Union of.
Orders in Council,
British, establish blockade of Germany, i: 312, 318, ii: 16, 21;
_see also_ Germany, Blockade of.
Orientator, for testing aviators, viii: 356-358.
Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele,
Italian statesman, forms coalition cabinet, Oct., '17, vi: 129;
foreign policy, vi: 362, 366;
demands Fiume for Italy, vi: 368;
withdraws from Peace Conference on Fiume crisis, vi: 368;
biography, ix: 85-87.
Orly, U. S., aircraft factory at, v: 313.
Ornes, captured by Germans, '16, iii: 48.
Orphans, _see_ War relief.
Orsova, captured by Rumanians, Sept. 7, '16, i: 386, iii: 218;
evacuated by Rumanians, Nov. 24, '16, i: 389, iii: 222.
Orsova Railway, captured by Germans in Wallachian campaign, iii: 221.
O'Ryan, Maj.-Gen. John F., commander, 27th Div., v: 196, 281;
account of history of 27th Div., v: 281-300.
O'Shea, Corp. Thomas E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.
Ossowetz, besieged by Germans, iii: 118, 130;
captured, Aug., '15, iii: 138.
Ostend, seat of Belgian government moved to, Oct. 5, '14, i: 376;
occupied by Germans, Oct. 13, '14, i: 376, iii: 38;
raided by British May, '18, iv: 279;
evacuated by Germans, xi: 52.
Ostrovo, Lake,
Allied counter-attack against Bulgars at, Sept., '16, iii: 208.
_Otranto_, British auxiliary cruiser
in battle off Coronel, iv: 65.
Ourcq River,
crossed by 42nd Div. in pursuit of Germans, July, '18, v: 50, 187;
course and topography of region, v: 133;
A. E. F. fighting at, commended by Gen. Degoutte, v: 192.
_Over There_, American soldier song, xi: 336.
Over-There Theater League,
organization and activities, vii: 277, 339-342.
Ovillers, captured by Allies in Somme battle, iii: 58.
Oxygen, for gas victims, iii: 320.
Oxygen helmets as defense against poison gas, viii: 173.
P
Paderewski, Ignace Jan, returns to Poland as popular hero, vi: 220;
becomes Prime Minister, vi: 223;
defeated for presidency, vi: 225;
biography, ix: 95-98.
Paës, Dr. Sidonio,
President of Portugal, assassinated, Dec., '18, vi: 374.
Paget, Sir Ralph, Chairman,
International Sanitary Commission for Serbian typhus relief,
iii: 398.
Painlevé, Paul, succeeds Ribot as French premier, '17, vi: 105.
"Pal" regiments, British recruiting device, vi: 6.
Palestine, strategic importance, ii: _Intro. xviii, xxi_, 87-90;
conquered by Gen. Allenby,
ii: _Intro. xx_, 92-94, 218, iii: 192-200, 322-326;
capture of Gaza, Mar. 26--27, '17, ii: 92, iii: 192;
capture of Jerusalem, Dec. 11, '17,
ii: 92, iii: 193-196, 322-326 (description of Allenby's entry);
British and Turkish manpower, ii: 93, iii: 200;
destruction of Turkish army, Sept., '18, ii: 94, 218, iii: 198;
Damascus captured, Oct. 1, '18, iii: 199;
Aleppo captured, Oct. 25, '18, iii: 200;
bibliography, iii: 200;
disposition under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334;
Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 322;
area and population, xii: 279.
Palmer, Frederick, comment on Marne fighting, July, '18, v: 158;
tribute to 1st Div., v: 234.
Pan-Germanism, _see_ Germany.
Pan-Slavism, aspirations, i: 244;
"Greater Serbia" propaganda, i: 244;
fight for control of Ukraine by Russia, vi: 241;
Russia aims at annexation of Ruthenia, '14, vi: 241;
Bulgaria's attitude toward, vi: 340;
_see also_ Slavs.
Panama, declares war on Germany, Apr, 7. '17, i: 389;
Peace Conference delegate, xii: 180.
Panama Canal, U. S. gains control of, i: 84.
Pannes, captured by 42nd Div., v: 211.
_Panther_, German gunboat sent to Agadir, July, '11,
i: 104, 203.
Paolucci, Dr.,
helps Lieut.-Col. Rossetti to sink Austrian warship
_Viribus Unitis_, x: 297-303.
Papacy, relation to Italian government, i: 61.
Papeete, bombarded by German fleet, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 62.
Papen, Capt. Franz von,
German Military Attaché in U. S., dismissed for unneutral conduct,
i: 276;
share in passport frauds, i: 314;
activities as arch-spy in U. S., x: 328-329.
Parachutes, use by military balloonists, viii: 260-263.
Parades, first American troops in Paris, July 4, '17, v: 107;
Allied troops on Bastille Day in Paris, July 14, '18, v: 147;
27th Div. in New York City, Mar. 25, '19, v: 299.
Parajd, captured by Rumanians, Oct. 5, '16, i: 388.
Paravane, protective device against submarine mine, iv: 313.
Paris, air raids on, Jan. 29--30, '16, i: 384;
Mar. 11, '18, i: 395;
German advance on, '14, ii: 6, iii: 28, vi: 97;
bombarded by long-range gun from St. Gobain Forest,
ii: 154, iii: 88, viii: 45-47;
welcome to Gen. Pershing, June 13, '17, v: 97;
German drive on, May 27--Aug. 6, '18, battles in Marne salient,
v: 129-139, 141, 147;
parade of Allies, July 14, '18, v: 147;
panic in, during German drive, '18, v: 378;
May Day rioting, May, '19, vi: 111.
Paris Conference, 1856, guarantees Turkish power in Europe, i: 39.
"Paris Group," organization of, Medical Department, A. E. F., v: 346.
Pasha Dagh, Australian objective in Gallipoli attack, iii: 170;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Pashitch, Nicholas, Premier of Serbia,
negotiations with Italy for settling Adriatic rivalry, vi: 362;
biography, ix: 120.
Passchendaele Ridge, captured by British, Oct.--Nov., '17, ii: 56, 79;
recaptured by Germans, Apr., '18, iii: 377.
Passenheim, Russians defeated at, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375, iii: 116.
Passport frauds, German activities in U. S., i: 314, x: 333.
Patriotic songs, xi: 332-335.
Patrol boats, work in combating submarines, iv: 292.
Patrolling, training A. E. F. in, v: 117.
Patrols, German system of, in the Vosges, v: 26.
Patterson, Miss Hannah J.,
awarded D. S. M. for work on Woman's Committee,
Council of National Defense, xii: 125.
Pau, Gen. Paul,
commands French forces invading Alsace, Aug. 14, '14, iii: 16.
Peace Conference, Paris,
U. S. delegates sail for, Dec. 4, '18, i: 400;
conciliatory attitude of Austrian delegates, vi: 321;
negotiation with Hungarian Soviet, Apr., '19, vi: 326;
Fiume crisis, vi: 366-370, xii: 159;
prestige of Japanese delegation, vi: 388;
dispute over Teschen district, vi: 400;
inside story of, by Thos. W. Lamont,
financial adviser to U. S. delegation, xii: 149-163;
complexity of task, xii: 149;
rapidity of work, xii: 149;
open diplomacy, xii: 149;
Supreme Council, members and method of evolving Peace Treaty,
xii: 150-153;
"Big Four," xii: 150, 152;
"Big Three," xii: 150;
Conference procedure, xii: 156;
commissions, xii: 156;
delays, xii: 156;
language difficulties, xii: 157;
Reparations Commission, organization and work, xii: 158, 219-221;
Shantung controversy, xii: 160;
Germans excluded from negotiation, xii: 161;
Belgian demands, xii: 161;
signing of Peace Treaty with Germany, ceremonies, xii: 165-169;
list of delegates, xii: 179-182;
_see also_ Peace Treaty with Germany, Versailles, '19.
Peace moves, President Wilson asks belligerents
to state war aims, Dec. 18, '16, i: 335;
response to Wilson's note, i: 336;
Wilson's "Peace without victory" speech, i: 336;
Pope Benedict's appeal, Aug. 15, '17, i: 390, ix: 405;
Germany accepts Pope's offer, Sept. 21, '17, i: 390;
text of letter from Emperor Charles of Austria-Hungary
to Prince Sixtus making secret offer of peace, Mar., '17, ii: 63;
German attempts in '16 and '17 fail, ii: 270, 316, vi: 263;
German moves condemned by Ludendorff, ii: 303;
Kaiser orders proposals through Queen of Holland, ii: 331;
Russian Provisional Government urges Allies
to revise peace aims, May, '17, vi: 161;
German Socialists demand peace without annexations, '15, vi: 258;
Bethmann-Hollweg proposes peace of understanding, '16--'17, vi: 262;
German popular demand for
"peace without annexations or indemnities," vi: 266-268;
Emperor Charles forces offer by Teutonic allies, Dec. 12, '16,
vi: 313;
demonstrations in Sofia, vi: 346;
_see also_
Armistice;
and under each country.
Peace Treaty with Germany,
Versailles, '19, criticism by British liberal press, vi: 22;
terms presented to Germans, May 7, '19, vi: 302, xii: 161;
condemned by German press, vi: 302-304;
Germany consents to sign, June 22, '19, vi: 304, xii: 163;
how drafted, described by Thos. W. Lamont,
financial adviser to U. S. delegation, xii: 149-161;
text, work of technicians, xii: 150;
French demands, xii: 153;
evolution of Covenant of League of Nations, xii: 155;
Belgian demands, xii: 161;
ceremonies of signing, xii: 165-169;
analysis by Geo. W. Wickersham, xii: 170-178;
signed June 28, '19, xii: 179;
text in full, xii: 179-263;
preamble, giving list of nations allied against Germany,
and their delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 179-182;
League of Nations, text of Covenant, xii: 182-185;
boundaries of Germany, xii: 186;
provisions concerning Luxemburg, xii: 189;
demolition of German fortifications, xii: 189, 205, 211, 214;
Sarre Basin settlement, xii: 189-194;
Alsace-Lorraine, provisions for return to France, xii: 194-197;
Germany acknowledges independence of Austria, xii: 197;
provisions for independence of Czechoslovak State, xii: 197;
independence and boundaries of Poland, xii: 198-200;
plebiscite for East Prussia, xii: 200;
provisions concerning Memel, xii: 203;
Danzig made free city, xii: 203;
plebiscite provisions for Schleswig, xii: 204;
Heligoland, destruction of fortifications on, xii: 205;
provisions concerning Russo-German relations, xii: 205;
Brest-Litovsk Treaties abrogated, xii: 205;
German colonies surrendered to Allies, xii: 206;
German rights in China surrendered, xii: 206;
German rights in Siam surrendered, xii: 208;
German rights in Liberia surrendered, xii: 208;
German rights in Morocco surrendered, xii: 208;
German rights in Egypt surrendered, xii: 208;
Shantung (Kiau-Chau) transferred to Japan, xii: 209;
reduction of German army and military equipment,
xii: 209, 210, 211, 212;
universal military service abolished in Germany, xii: 211;
new German army, table of organization for, xii: 212;
German navy, surrender and reduction, xii: 212-214;
German wireless stations, regulation by Allies, xii: 214;
German military air service abolished, xii: 214;
existing German air service surrendered to Allies, xii: 215;
Interallied Commissions of Control
to supervise execution of military terms, xii: 215;
repatriation of prisoners of war, xii: 216;
war graves, care of, xii: 217;
punishment of Germans guilty of war crimes, xii: 217;
reparation terms imposed on Germany, xii: 217-225;
Reparation Commission, formation and functions, xii: 219-221;
shipping, restitution for Allied shipping sunk, xii: 222;
reconstruction, German obligations, xii: 223;
coal, German deliveries to France, Belgium, Italy, xii: 224;
dyestuffs, German deliveries to Allies, xii: 224;
submarine cables, German, surrendered to Allies, xii: 225;
trophies of war, return of, to France by Germany, xii: 225;
Koran of Caliph Othman,
return of, by Germany to King of Hedjaz, xii: 225;
Sultan Mkwawa,
skull of, return by Germany to Great Britain, xii: 225;
Louvain, University of,
restoration by Germany of books destroyed, xii: 225;
art objects,
carried by Germans from Belgium, restoration of, xii: 225;
gold, restriction on German export of, xii: 226;
Armies of Occupation,
Allied, in Germany, expense to be borne by Germany, xii: 226;
ceded territories, share in German national debt, xii: 226;
Alsace-Lorraine,
exempt from share in German national debt, xii: 226;
Poland, share in German national debt, xii: 227;
international concessions,
surrender by Germany of rights in, xii: 228;
gold, deliveries of, by Germany to Allies, xii: 228;
customs duties, regulations imposed on Germany, xii: 229;
privileges for Allied shipping to be granted by Germany, xii: 230;
trade competition, Germany to suppress unfair methods, xii: 230;
Allied nationals, treatment of, by Germany, xii: 230;
pre-War treaties between Allies and Germany revived, xii: 231;
treaties among Teutonic allies abrogated, xii: 232;
treaties between Germany and Russia abrogated, xii: 232;
treaties between Germany and Rumania abrogated, xii: 232;
Opium Convention, Jan, 23, '12, put into force, xii: 232;
debts, between German and Allied nationals,
methods of payment, xii: 232-236;
property rights of Allied nationals confiscated by Germany,
methods of restitution, xii: 236-240;
contracts, between German and Allied nationals,
status and methods of discharge, xii: 240-243;
Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, establishment and functions, xii: 243;
literary rights, provisions for re-establishment of, xii: 244-246;
artistic rights, provisions for re-establishment of, xii: 244-246;
industrial rights, provisions for re-establishment of,
xii: 244-246;
ceded territories, social insurance funds of,
to be transferred to Allies by Germany, xii: 246;
aerial navigation, rules for, xii: 246;
freedom of transit,
for Allied goods and nationals through Germany, xii: 247, 253;
ports, Allied, discrimination against,
by Germany forbidden, xii: 247;
navigation, Allied, over German waterways, xii: 247-253;
Elbe, internationalized, xii: 248;
Oder, internationalized, xii: 248;
Niemen, internationalized, xii: 248;
Danube, internationalized, xii: 248;
Rhine, international control and rules for navigation,
xii: 250-253;
use of northern German ports by Czechoslovak State, xii: 253;
German railways, provisions relating to, xii: 253;
Kiel Canal, rules of navigation through, xii: 255;
labor, international organization for improving conditions of,
xii: 255-261;
guarantees for execution, exacted from Germany, xii: 261;
Armies of Occupation, conditions for withdrawal, xii: 261;
Savoy, neutralized zone of, provisions concerning, xii: 262;
German Christian missions, continuity guaranteed, xii: 263;
prize courts, provision concerning decisions of, xii: 263;
signed, June 28, '19, xii: 264;
ratified by Germany, July 10, '19, xii: 264;
ratified by Great Britain, July 25--31, '19, xii: 264;
ratified by King of Italy, Oct. 7, '19, xii: 264;
ratified by France, Oct. 13, '19, xii: 264;
ratified by Japan, Oct. 27, '19, xii: 264;
U. S. Senate opposition to, xii: 264-278;
Fall amendments to, defeated in U. S. Senate, Oct. 2, '19,
xii: 264;
original Lodge reservations defeated in U. S. Senate, Nov. 19, '19,
xii: 265-266;
original Lodge reservations, text, xii: 265;
defeated in U. S. Senate for second time, Mar. 19, '20,
xii: 266-269;
Pres. Wilson's opinion on Lodge reservations, xii: 267;
revised Lodge reservations, text, xii: 269;
efforts of Congress to declare peace
by joint resolution in substitution for, xii: 271-278;
Knox Resolution, xii: 273, 277;
President Wilson's message vetoing Knox Resolution, xii: 278.
Pearce, Padraic,
Provisional President of Irish Republic, vi: 60, ix: 53.
Peck, Pvt. Archie A., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.
Penang harbor, attacked by _Emden_, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 178.
People's Relief Committee, for Jewish relief, formation, vii: 354.
Pepper Hill, at Verdun,
attacked by Germans, Apr. 18, '16, iii: 52, 304.
Periscope, description, viii: 165, xi: 245.
Perkins, Pvt. Michael J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.
Permanent Blind Relief War Fund,
organization and activities, vii: 255-259.
Péronne, French objective in Somme battle, iii: 55;
captured by British, Mar. 18, '17, iii: 68.
Péronne-Ham sector, Allied drive on, Sept., '18, ii: 158.
Pershing, Gen. John J.,
offers A. E. F. to Foch, Mar. 28, '18, v: 30, 120, 380, ix: 153;
sails for Europe, May, '17, v: 97;
reception in England, June, '17, v: 97;
reception in France, June, '17, v: 97;
reasons for selection of American Army zone, '18, v: 110;
farewell speech to 1st Div., Chaumont-en-Vixen, Apr., '18, v: 121;
urges attack with A. E. F., July, '18, v: 158;
extract from report on Aisne-Marne Offensive, July, '18, v: 182;
assumes tactical command of American forces in battle area,
v: 192, 384, ix: 205;
extract from report on St. Mihiel attack, v: 212;
starts Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 213;
extract from report on preparation for Meuse-Argonne attack,
v: 218;
divides A. E. F. combat units into two Armies, Oct. 9, '18,
v: 246, 390;
personal message to each soldier in A. E. F., v: 353;
official report on A. E. F., v: 373-404;
appeal to War Dept. for troops, Dec., '17, v: 373;
insists on independent American Army in France, v: 385;
Alsatian ancestry, ix: 166;
origin of name, ix: 166;
biography, ix: 199-210.
Pershing Stadium, vii: 313.
Persia, divided into "spheres of influence"
by Anglo-Russian agreement, '07, i: 104, vi: 335;
sympathy with Turkey, vi: 330;
pro-German sentiment, vi: 336-337;
Great Britain in control, '19, vi: 338.
_Persia, S. S._, British merchantman
sunk in Mediterranean, Dec. 30, '15, i: 384;
eye-witness account, iv: 224.
Peru, dispute with Chile over Tacna-Arica district, vi: 390;
delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180.
Pétain, Marshal Henri Philippe,
defender of Verdun, ii: 189, iii: 50, 54, 304, xi: 22;
eulogy of, by Gen. Malleterre, ii: 220;
biography, ix: 164-166.
Peter I, King of Serbia,
accompanies his nation in retreat, iii: 281, 284;
reënters Belgrade, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 397;
foreign policy, vi: 355;
biography, ix. 398-399.
Petrograd, food shortage in, vi: 141;
workmen's delegates on War Industrial Committee arrested, vi: 143;
during the Revolution, vi: 144-153.
Petroseny, captured by Rumanians, Sept. 1, '16, i: 386.
Peuvillers, captured by 128th Inf. Regt., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.
Peyton, Maj.-Gen., British commander in western Egypt, iii: 191.
Pflanzer, Gen. von, Austrian commander in Bukovina, iii: 132.
Philippines, acquired by U. S., i: 56.
Phillipeville, bombarded by _Goeben_, Aug. 4, '14, iv: 14.
Phonotelemeter, description of, viii: 20.
Phosgene (Carbonyl chloride),
use in chemical warfare, v: 321, viii: 168-170;
manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 184.
Photography in war, work of U. S. Signal Corps, v: 319;
use in artillery range-finding, viii: 14;
value of aerial photography, viii: 226, 331;
types of aerial cameras, viii: 228, 332-334;
De Ram automatic camera for aerial photography, viii: 228, 333;
work of U. S. aerial photographers, viii: 228, 235;
personnel of Photographic Section, U. S. Air Service, viii: 234;
future, viii: 234;
making pictorial history of War, viii: 329-331;
production of photographic supplies by U. S., viii: 355;
mobile developing laboratories, viii: 335;
_see also_ Aerial photography.
Piave River,
Italian stand at, after Caporetto rout, ii: 58, 250, iii: 248.
Picardy Front, German choice for final drive, '18, ii: 69;
advantages of, for German offensive, '18, ii: 69.
Pichon, Stephen, French Foreign Minister,
speech before Chamber of Deputies
on secret Entente agreements of '16--'17, vi: 334.
Pigeons, war uses, v: 239, 319, viii: 328.
Pike, Lieut.-Col. Emory J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor,
x: 400.
Pill-boxes, description, iii: 79, viii: 130;
battle tactics in use of, viii: 130-133.
Pilsudski, Gen. Joseph, leads Polish troops against Russia, vi: 202;
jailed by Germans, vi: 214;
assumes dictatorship of Poland, vi: 219;
dictatorship not recognized by Allies, vi: 222;
Minister of Foreign Affairs in Paderewski cabinet, vi: 223;
becomes president of Polish Republic, vi: 225;
biography, ix: 92-95.
Pirot, occupied by Bulgars, Oct. 28, '15, i: 382.
Pistols, Schwarzlose automatic pistol, mechanism, viii: 90;
use as military weapon, viii: 116-117.
"Place in the sun," speech by Kaiser, '01, i: 95;
definition of phrase, ii: 27;
German control of Balkans as means of attaining, ii: 27.
Plava, captured by Italians June 10, '15, i: 380, iii: 244.
_Players, The_, poem by Francis Bickley, ix: 290.
Pleinchamps Farm, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 239.
Ploechti, captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222.
Plumer, Gen. Sir Herbert, commander of British Second Army, ii: 214;
a great military chief, iii: 375;
offensive in Flanders, Sept., '18, v: 213.
Plunkett, Rear-Adm. Chas. P.,
commander of U. S. Naval Railway Batteries on Western Front,
v: 306, viii: 45.
Plunkett, Sir Horace,
Irish leader, chairman of Irish Convention, '18, vi: 62.
Plymouth, England, U. S. subchaser base, iv: 359.
Poincaré, Raymond, President of French Republic, biography,
ix: 14-19;
bibliography, ix: 19.
_Points d'Appui_, definition, v: 13.
Pola, Italian naval raid on, Nov. 2, '16, iv: 369;
Italians sink Austrian dreadnought at, May 14, '18, iv: 372;
Austrian dreadnought _Viribus Unitis_ blown up
by Italians at, Nov. 1, '18, x: 297-303.
Poland, topography, iii: 106-108;
German invasion of, and unsuccessful attacks on Warsaw,
Sept., '14--Feb., '15, iii: 116-118, 124-127, 128-132;
Austrian invasion of, iii: 118-120;
conquered by Austro-German forces, July--Sept., '15,
iii: 137-141, vi: 311;
battle of the Salients, July, '15, iii: 138;
Warsaw captured by Germans, Aug. 4, '15, iii: 138;
civilian deaths due to war-time privation, iii: 406;
early history and pre-War condition, vi: 201;
Russian promise of autonomy, '14, vi: 201;
Austrian Poles support Central Powers, vi: 202;
Poles under Pilsudski fight against Russia, vi: 202;
war-time destitution in, vi: 204-210;
German reforms in, vi: 208;
German policy, vi: 210-213;
Germany promises reëstablishment of Polish Kingdom, Nov. 5, '16,
vi: 210;
Germany demands Polish troops, vi: 213;
freed by Russian Revolution, vi: 213;
Germany sets up Regency, vi: 214;
denied representation at Brest-Litovsk by Germany, vi: 214;
revolt against Teuton domination, '18, vi: 216;
capture of Lemberg from Ruthenians, Nov. 5, '18, vi: 217;
proclamation of Republic, vi: 218-219;
Pilsudski becomes dictator, Nov., '18, vi: 219;
Germans expelled, Dec., '18, vi: 220;
political struggle between classes, vi: 220;
Conservatives support Paderewski, vi: 220;
Warsaw Revolt against Pilsudski fails, vi: 220-222;
war against Bolsheviki, vi: 222-224;
war with Ukraine over Cholm, vi: 222, 248;
dispute with Czechs over Teschen, vi: 222, 400;
compromise cabinet of Paderewski and Pilsudski, Feb. 9, '19,
vi: 223;
Provisional Government recognized by Allies, Feb., '19, vi: 225;
Pilsudski elected President, vi: 225;
claims for Danzig, vi: 225;
Peace Treaty provisions for independence and boundaries of,
vi: 226, xii: 18-200;
American war relief for Jews in, vii: 356-358, 360-363, 375;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180;
share in German national debt, Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 227;
area and population, xii: 279.
Political parties, _see_ under countries.
_Pommern_, German battleship
torpedoed by British submarine _E-9_, July 2, '15, iv: 208.
Pont-à-Mousson, on Toul-St. Mihiel sector, v: 65, 116, 119.
Pontoons, viii: 299-300.
_Pontoporros_, auxiliary to German raider _Emden_, iv: 172.
Pope, _see_ Benedict XV.
Pope, Corp. Thomas A., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397;
Poperinghe line,
British-American line of defense in Flanders, v: 287, 289.
Population, decrease in births due to War, iii: 406;
effects of War on, xii: 25.
Port Arthur, seized by Russia from China, i: 20;
acquired by Japan, i: 20;
11-in. siege guns first used by Japanese at, viii: 34.
Ports, French, selected for A. E. F. use, '18, v: 110;
Allied, Peace Treaty provisions against discrimination by Germany,
xii: 247.
Portugal, international position in '14, i: 62;
rout of army before German offensive, Apr., '18,
ii: 153, iii: 91, vi: 374;
war casualties, iii: 404, v: 364;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
internal strife, vi: 372-375;
enters War as British ally, vi: 373;
President Paës assassinated, Dec. '18, vi: 374;
Royalist uprising suppressed, '19, vi: 375;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180.
Posen, revolt of Polish population against Germany, vi: 225;
awarded to Poland by Peace Conference, vi: 226.
Potash, German boycott of U. S., xii: 98.
Potatoes, world production by countries, xii: 47;
as food, xii: 47;
German system of drying and crushing, xii: 47.
Potsdam Conference of German war leaders, July 5, '14, i: 136;
decision for war, i: 249.
Potts, Pvt. Frederick, wins Victoria Cross at Gallipoli, x: 138.
Powder, _see_ Ammunition.
Power plants, built by A. E. F. Engineer Corps, v: 333.
Pozières, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58.
Prague,
meeting of Czechoslovak representatives at, Apr. 2, '18, vi: 398.
Prauthory, Haute-Marne, headquarters, 32nd Div., Feb., '18, v: 119.
_President Lincoln_, U. S. transport
sunk, May 31, '18, i: 395, iv: 337;
eye-witness account, iv: 340.
Press:
Austria-Hungary, _Tageblatt_ demands war, '14, vi: 306;
Hungarian journals support war, vi: 307;
_Pester Lloyd_ for war, '14, vi: 308;
_Oesterreichische Rundschau_ attacks Italy, '15, vi: 310;
_Vossische Zeitung_ on strikes, Jan., '18, vi: 314;
_Arbeiter Zeitung_, radical organ, vi: 315;
_Arbeiter Zeitung_ on peace terms, vi: 322;
_Has Haroda_ on Czech loyalty, '14, vi: 396.
Bulgaria, statement against Russia by _Kambana_, June, '15,
vi: 342.
Germany, _Militärische Rundschau_ advocates immediate war, '14,
vi: 249;
Socialist organ _Vorwärts_ supports Kaiser, vi: 249;
_Liller Kriegszeitung_ preaches hate of England, vi: 252;
optimistic attitude of _Frankfurter Zeitung_, Nov., '14,
vi: 253;
Maximilian Harden ridicules in _Zukunft_ talk
of German starvation, vi: 254;
alarm over prospects of starvation, '15, vi: 255;
submarine warfare urged, vi: 256, 265;
on German successes, '15, vi: 258;
_Vorwärts_ demands statement of peace aims, vi: 258;
_Frankfurter Zeitung_ on seriousness
of Allied blockade, '15--'16, vi: 261;
_Vorwärts_ on food shortage, vi: 261;
demand war to finish, '17, vi: 264;
gospel of hate against England, vi: 264-265;
_Taglische Rundschau_
on German demoralization, Dec., '18, vi: 284;
_Vorwärts_ on industrial unrest, Dec., '18, vi: 286;
comments on Ebert as President, vi: 293;
on peace terms, vi: 302-304;
Maximilian Harden on peace terms, vi: 303.
Great Britain, condemns Dutch neutrality, vi: 376.
Italy, _Corriere della Sera_ and _Secolo_
advocate conciliation with Jugoslavs, vi: 362.
Serbia, expressions of hatred for Austria-Hungary
by _Politika_, _Mali Journal_, _Balkan_, _Zastava_, vi: 356;
_Samouprava_ denounces Italian treaty, '15, vi: 361.
Turkey, _Ikdam_ for war, vi: 330;
_Tanine_ on Dardanelles expedition vi: 330;
_Hillal_ acclaims victory, '15, vi: 331.
United States, attitude on U. S. neutrality, i: 308;
on _Lusitania_ sinking, i: 319;
on _Arabic_ torpedoing, i: 322;
on German indemnity, xii: 24.
Pressel, Dr. Wilhelm von,
builds first spur of Bagdad railway, 1871, ii: 291.
Pressure gauges, on airplanes, viii: 220.
"Preventive arrests,"
for suppressing pacifist agitation in Germany, vi: 262.
Prices,
analysis of, by Prof. Irving Fisher, xii: _Intro. vii-xvii_;
high cost of living as result of War, xii: _Intro. vii_, 143;
index numbers, xii: _Intro. vii_;
rise in U. S., '13--'19, xii: _Intro. vii-viii_;
influence of unsecured paper money on, xii: _Intro. viii_;
chart of price movements in U. S. and England since 1780,
xii: _Intro. viii_;
before and after great wars of history, xii: _Intro. ix_;
percent. rise in warring countries, xii: _Intro. x_;
present high level not due to scarcity, xii: _Intro. x_;
inflation as cause of high prices, xii: _Intro. xii_, 27;
countries arranged in order of high prices,
xii: _Intro. xii-xiii_;
extent of currency inflation, xii: _Intro. xiii_;
high cost of living as breeder of Bolshevism,
xii: _Intro. xiii-xiv_;
purchasing power of wages, '13--'18, xii: _Intro. xiv_;
remedies for high cost of living, xii: _Intro. xiv-xv_;
standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuation in,
xii: _Intro. xv_;
effect of wars on, xii: 27;
reduced production as cause of high prices, xii: 27, 38-40;
"fair price" lists, xii: 54;
rise in U. S., '14--'18, xii: 56-59;
present, compared with Civil War days, xii: 57, 75;
effects of government control in Great Britain, xii: 59;
government control in U. S., xii: 59;
_see also_ Cost of living, under name of country.
Prilep, captured by Bulgars, Nov. 17, '15, i: 382;
occupied by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397.
Primers, composition and explosive properties, viii: 6.
_Prince George_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.
Prince, Norman, member Lafayette Escadrille, death, iii: 391.
Princes' Island, conference of Russian factions at, fails, vi: 188.
_Princess Royal_, British cruiser, in Battle of Jutland, iv: 108;
in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
_Principles of War_, treatise by Marshal Foch,
ii: 80, 104, ix: 152.
_Prinz Eitel Friedrich_, German raider,
puts into Hampton Roads for repairs, Mar. 10, '15, i: 378;
interned by U. S., Apr. 7, '15, i: 378.
Priority system, among U. S. industries during War, xii: 73-75.
Pripet marshes, Russian offensive against Austria, June, '16, ii: 42;
description, iii: 108.
Prisoners of war, classified by countries, iii: 404;
work of Swiss Red Cross for, vi: 380;
work of American Y. M. C. A. for, vii: 302-310;
Crown Princess of Sweden's work for, vii: 308;
Peace Treaty provisions for repatriation of, xii: 216.
Austria-Hungary, captured by Serbs, description of, iii: 395;
humane treatment by Serbs, iii: 400;
total lost in War, iii: 404.
French, diary describing life in German prison, iii: 300;
total lost in War, iii: 404.
German, captured in Somme battle, iii: 60;
in battle of Cambrai, iii: 82;
in St. Mihiel drive, iii: 99, v: 71, 207;
during Allied drive, July--Nov., '18, iii: 103;
total in War, iii: 404;
at Cantigny, v: 33;
taken by A. E. F. in Marne salient, July, '18, v: 56;
first capture by A. E. F., v: 113;
clothed by U. S. Salvage Service, v: 331;
captured in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 394;
total captured by A. E. F., xii: 288.
Russian, sufferings of, in German prison camp, iii: 300;
total lost in War, iii: 404.
Turkish, captured by British in Palestine campaign,
ii: 94, iii: 199;
total lost in War, iii: 404.
United States, first captured by Germans, iii: 84;
total lost in War, iii: 404;
work of American Red Cross for, vii: 37-39, 71.
_See also_
under battle or campaign;
countries.
Prize courts, Peace Treaty provision for decisions of, xii: 263.
Profiteering, xii: 55;
U. S. meat-packers' profits before and during War, xii: 56.
Prohibition, U. S. war-time act passed, July 7, '17, i: 390;
Russian government forbids sale of vodka, iii: 265, vi: 135;
voluntary abstention urged in England by Lloyd George, '14, vi: 2-3;
use of vodka substitutes in Russia, vi: 138;
imposed by Bela Kun's government in Hungary, vi: 325.
Propaganda, _see_
Allies;
Germany.
Property rights, of Allied nationals confiscated by Germany,
Peace Treaty provisions for restitution of, xii: 236-240.
Protopopoff, Russian Minister of Interior,
in German employ, ii: 59, vi: 143;
causes Rumanian entry into War for German interest, ii: 59;
gains power at court through Rasputin, vi: 143;
reactionary policy, vi: 143;
surrenders to Duma during Revolution, March, '17, vi: 153.
_Provence II_, French cruiser
sunk by U-boat, Feb. 26, '16, iv: 376.
Pruitt, Corp. John H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 390.
Prussia, war with Denmark, 1864, i: _Intro. vii_, 41;
autocratic form of government, i: 29;
assumes leadership of German states under Bismarck, i: 40;
population in 1860, i: 40;
Seven Weeks' War against Austria, 1866, i: 41;
representation in Imperial Bundesrat, ii: 71;
traditional policy of force, i: 150;
controlling share in government of German Empire, i: 156;
King of, powers as German Emperor, i: 156;
relations with Great Britain, stages in evolution of, i: 168;
Prussianization of Germany, i: 258;
plan of imperial development, ii: 1;
_see also_ Germany.
Przasnyz, captured by Germans, Feb. 24, '15, i: 378, iii: 131;
recaptured by Russians, Feb. 27, '15, i: 378.
Przemysl, invested by Russians, Sept. 16, '14, i: 376, iii: 123-124;
Russians forced to raise siege, Oct. 12, '14, i: 376, iii: 125;
reinvested by Russians, Nov. 12, '14, i: 376, iii: 127, xi: 16;
captured by Russians, Mar. 22--23, '15,
i: 378, iii: 134, 292-293, xi: 16;
number of Austrians surrendering, i: 378, iii: 134, 293;
recaptured by Austro-German forces, June 1--2, '15,
i: 380, ii: 234, iii: 136.
Pskov, captured by Germans, Feb. 24, '18, i: 393.
Psychological tests, for gauging intelligence of army recruits,
vii: 216, viii: 349-351.
Psycho-physiological tests,
for determining fitness of recruits for specific duties,
viii: 351-356.
Putnik, Field-Marshal, Commander-in-Chief of Serbian army, iii: 150.
Pys, evacuated by Germans, Feb. 24, '17, iii: 64.
Q
"Q" ships, British decoys for U-boats, iv: 296.
Quebec, not enthusiastic for War, vi: 26;
failure of recruiting among French-Canadians, vi: 30;
move for secession from Dominion, vi: 33, 36;
Draft Boards defeat conscription by blanket exemptions, vi: 36;
draft riots, vi: 36;
_see also_ Canada.
_Queen_, British battleship at Dardanelles, iv: 33.
_Queen Elizabeth_,
British dreadnought at Dardanelles, ii: _Intro. xv_, iv: 31.
_Queen Mary_, British cruiser blown up at Jutland, iv: 110, 258;
in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.
Queenstown, Ireland,
base for U. S. destroyer and subchaser detachment, iv: 357.
Quennemont Farm, strong point on Hindenburg Line, v: 290.
Quien, Gaston, betrayer of Edith Cavell, x: 352.
Quinn, Jim, citation for D. S. C., July 18, '18, v: 171.
R
_R-34_, British dirigible, crosses Atlantic, viii: 245;
similarity to Zeppelin, viii: 254.
Races, European rivalries, i: 21.
Rada, Central Council of Ukraine,
formed after Russian revolution, vi: 243.
Radio, _see_ Wireless.
Radoslavov, Vassil, Bulgarian Premier,
heads patriotic organization, _Narodni Savetz_, vi: 341;
statement of Bulgarian war demands, vi: 341;
German sympathies, vi: 343;
resigns, June 17, '18, vi: 346.
Raemakers, Louis, Dutch cartoonist of the War, ix: 190.
Rafa, Turks defeated by British at, Jan., '17, iii: 192.
Raids, _see_
Air raids;
Naval raids.
Raikes, Lieut.-Com. Robert H. T.,
commander of British submarine _E-54_,
battle with German U-boats, iv: 212.
Railroads, German ambition for Calais-Persia route, ii: 2;
Russian military, iii: 105;
Petrograd-Berlin, iii: 111;
Transylvanian, cut by Rumanians, iii: 218;
Orsova, taken by Germans in Wallachian campaign, iii: 221;
Cernavoda-Constanza, captured by Teuton allies, Oct., '16, iii, 221;
in Trentino, iii: 230;
in Isonzo sector, iii: 239;
in Uganda, iii: 255;
in Transcaucasia, iii: 260;
number of troop trains needed to move a U. S. division, v: 20;
French, available for A. E. F. use, v: 110;
St. Mihiel-Metz, cut, Sept. 12, '18, v: 206;
German lines of communication in occupied territory, v: 215;
Mézières-Sedan, key to German lines of communication
on Western Front, v: 216, 387;
built by Engineer Corps, A. E. F., in France,
v: 333, 334, 403, xii: 283;
equipment sent to France from U. S., v: 403, xii: 95, 286;
war functions, viii: 283;
collapse of Russian system, under war stress, viii: 283;
work of German railroads during War, viii: 283-285;
narrow-gauge, at the front, viii: 302;
_see also_ Bagdad Railway.
Railway Artillery Reserve, U. S., formation, v: 305;
units composing, v: 305;
engagements on Western Front, v: 306-308;
_see also_ U. S. Army, Artillery.
Rainbow (42nd) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Rambucourt, on Toul sector, v: 116.
Ramscappelle, German success at, Oct. 30, '14, iii: 40.
_Ramsey_, British patrol boat,
sunk by German auxiliary cruiser _Meteor_, iv, 197.
Ramsgate, bombarded by German destroyers, Nov. 25, '16, i: 389.
Range-finder, telescopic, structure and use of, viii: 9.
Range-finding, _see_
Artillery;
Hydrophones;
Microphone;
Phonotelemeter.
Rapallo Conference, iii: 84.
Rappes, Bois des, captured by 3rd Div., Oct., '18, v: 85.
Rasputin, Gregory, influence over Czarina and Russian court, vi: 141;
assassinated, '16, vi: 141;
influence places Protopopov in power, vi: 143;
biography, ix: 345-347.
Ravaruska, Russian success in battle of, Sept. 4--10, '14, iii: 122;
captured by Austro-German forces, June 20, '15, iii: 136.
Rawlinson, Gen., commander of British Fourth Army, ii: 214, iii: 371.
Raynal, Major, defender of Fort Vaux, iii: 55, 313.
Read, Maj.-Gen. George W., commander, 30th Div., June, '18, v: 146;
commands 2nd Corps, v: 290, 382, 394;
biography, ix: 223-224.
Read, Lieut.-Com.,
pilots _N-C-4_, first airplane across Atlantic, viii: 240.
Rebais, Germans beaten back at, in first Marne battle, iii: 32.
Reconstruction of devastated war areas,
German obligations under Peace Treaty, xii: 223.
Reconstruction of disabled,
American help for vocational training of French disabled,
vii: 79, 92-95;
program of European belligerents, vii: 175;
in U. S. Army, vii: 175-186, 210-216, 222, 233-239;
importance of first aid, vii: 178;
treatment of shell-shock, vii: 179;
percent. of injured returned to service, vii: 180;
system of vocational training for U. S. service men,
vii: 180-182, 210-216, 236-239;
educational personnel for training of U. S. service men,
vii: 180, 185;
care of blinded U. S. service men, vii: 182, 213;
correcting speech defects in U. S. military hospitals,
vii: 182, 213;
work of U. S. dental officers, vii: 210;
in civilian industries, vii: 240-245;
mechanical treatments for injured limbs, viii: 381-384;
artificial arms for war cripples, viii: 384-388;
artificial legs for war cripples, viii: 388-390;
remaking shell-torn faces, viii: 390;
artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391;
_see also_
Medical science;
Surgery.
Recouly, Raymond, account of first Marne battle, ii: 182-186;
account of Verdun battle, ii: 186-189.
Recreation, for service men, _see_
Entertainment;
Sports.
Recruiting, _see_ under country.
Red Army, in Russia, organized by Trotzky, vi: 185;
in Munich, raised by Munich Soviet, vi: 300;
in Hungary, under Communist Government, vi: 326.
Red Cross:
American, relief work in Italy, ii: 250, vii: 42, 82;
Henry P. Davison, Chairman of War Council, vii: 1;
war-time activities, summary, vii: 1;
amount of contributions to, vii: 1;
increase in membership, vii: 1;
personnel in France, vii: 1;
Clara Barton, mother of, vii: 12;
peace time activities, vii: 14;
war organization, vii: 15-27;
raising war funds, vii: 15-27;
total relief expenditures, vii: 27;
range of activities, vii: 29;
location of base hospitals, vii: 30;
location of ambulance companies, vii: 30-31;
sanitary service, vii: 31-32;
nursing personnel, vii: 33;
canteen service, vii: 33, 42, 47-49, 54, 57;
auxiliary activities for service men's comfort, vii: 34;
recruiting services of nation's womanhood, vii: 34;
home service work, vii: 35;
services abroad, vii: 35-40;
hospital work in France, vii: 37, 45;
work for American prisoners in Germany, vii: 37-39, 71;
relief activities in England, vii: 40, 45;
with the Navy, vii: 41;
relief work among belligerents during U. S. neutrality,
vii: 43-46;
hospital work in Germany, vii: 45;
hospital work in Austria-Hungary, vii: 45;
relief for Serbia, vii: 45, 84;
stories of overseas service with fighting men, vii: 47-72;
work for wounded, vii: 49-54, 56, 60-64;
ambulance service at the front, vii: 49-51;
tales of wounded, vii: 51-54;
hotels for service men in Paris, vii: 54;
supplying delicacies to wounded, vii: 56;
huts, vii: 59;
entertainment, vii: 60;
as bureau of information, vii: 62-64;
helping doughboys shop in France, vii: 64;
department store for overseas service men, vii: 66;
production of surgical dressings, vii: 67;
production of nitrous oxide, vii: 68;
baths and laundries behind the lines, vii: 70;
Children's Bureau, activities for welfare of child war sufferers,
vii: 72, 76-79, xi: 85-90;
relief among Allied civilians, vii: 73-85;
relief among French refugees, vii: 73;
fight against tuberculosis in France, vii: 75;
education of French disabled, vii: 79;
relief for Belgian refugees, vii: 82;
relief in Rumania, vii: 84;
work in Palestine, vii: 84;
Institute for the Blind, vii: 259;
letters of appreciation from refugee children, xi: 60;
Junior American Red Cross, activities, xi: 90-93;
help by Boy Scouts, xi: 108;
letter from "Chinese citizen boy," xi: 179.
International, in Switzerland, vi: 380;
World League of, vii: 3;
history of development, vii: 4-14;
Florence Nightingale, first field nurse, vii: 11;
U. S. becomes member, vii: 14.
_Red Cross Nurse_, poem by Edith Thomas, vii: 279.
"Red Monday," during Russian Revolution, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 150.
"Red Week," rioting during, in Italy, June, '14, vi: 114.
"Reds," _see_ Bolshevism.
Reeves, Col. Ira L.,
military superintendent, A. E. F. University at Beaune, vii: 283.
Refrigerating plants, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 403.
Refugees, _see_ War relief.
Regan, 2nd Lieut. Patrick, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.
Reichstag, German, limitations as legislative body, i: 71;
composition and powers, i: 156.
Reims (Rheims), abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375;
re-occupied by French, Sept. 15, '14, i: 376;
Cathedral bombarded by Germans, iii: 74, vi: 97;
attacked by Crown Prince, June, '18, iii: 95;
description of surrounding country, v: 43;
gateway between Germany and France, v: 215.
_Reiter's Morganlied_, German air, xi: 335.
Relief, _see_ War relief.
Religion, diversity of, obstacle to world federation, i: 25;
work of Y. M. C. A. with troops overseas, vii: 283-285.
Remington self-loading rifle, description, viii: 89;
_see also_ Rifles.
Remonville, location, v: 217;
captured by 89th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262.
Remounts, construction of depots for, by A. E. F., v: 333;
procuring of, for A. E. F., v: 399.
Renault tank, description, viii: 156;
_see also_ Tanks.
Rennenkampf, Gen.,
commander of Russian forces invading East Prussia, '14,
ii: 24, 227, iii: 110;
driven out of East Prussia by Hindenburg, ii: 25, 229, iii: 116;
Ludendorff's account of retreat, ii: 355;
_see also_
East Prussia;
Tannenberg, battle of.
Renner, Dr., becomes Austrian Chancellor, '19, vi: 319;
Bolshevik uprising against, vi: 321;
conciliatory attitude at Peace Conference, vi: 321.
Renwick, George, description of Munich under Red Terror, vi: 301.
Repair shops, U. S. Ordnance, in France, v: 350.
Reparation, by Germany, Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 217-225.
Reparation Commission, formation and functions, xii: 158, 219-221.
Repatriés, returned French exiles, xi: 75.
Repington, Colonel,
military correspondent of _London Times_,
exposes British shell shortage, May, '15, ii: 174.
Replacement system, plan for A. E. F., '17, v: 102, 399.
Respirators, number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324;
utility as defense against poison gas, viii: 174-178;
_see also_ Chemical warfare.
Responsibility for the War, _see_ Germany,
Responsibility for War.
Retreats, famous examples of, in history, iii: 280.
_Return, The_, poem by John Freeman, ix: 331.
Reval, seized by Germans, Feb. 24, '18, i: 393.
Reventlow, Count Ernst Zu,
condemnation of democratic rule in Germany, vi: 284.
Reville, taken by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272.
Revolver, use as military weapon, viii: 117.
Reynolds, Col. C. R., Chief Surgeon, Second Army, v: 346.
Rheims, _see_ Reims.
Rhine River, French strategy in regard to, ii: 8;
German fortifications on, Peace Treaty provisions concerning,
xii: 189;
Peace Treaty provisions for international control and navigation,
xii: 250-253.
Ribot, Alexandre, succeeds Briand as French Premier, '17, vi: 103.
Rice, Brig.-Gen. John H., Chief Ordnance Officer, A. E. F., v: 350.
Richthofen, Capt. Baron Manfred Freiherr von,
career as aviator, x: 253-255.
Rickenbacker, Capt. Eddie, career as aviator, x: 259-264.
Rieka, Slav name of Fiume, vi: 365.
Rifles,
type used by A. E. F., description and reasons for adoption,
v: 347, viii: 96, 102-105;
U. S. production figures, v: 347, xii: 284;
types, viii: 84, 88-105;
Browning automatic, viii: 84;
automatic, difference from machine-gun, viii: 88;
importance of rapid fire, viii: 88;
self-loading, compared with machine-gun, viii: 88;
principal self-loading types, viii: 89-91;
Remington, viii: 89;
Sjorgen, viii: 89;
Winchester, viii: 89;
rifle fire and artillery compared, viii: 92;
range of military rifle, viii: 92;
"danger zone" in rifle fire, viii: 93;
advantages of sharp-nosed bullet, viii: 93;
comparison to gas engine, viii: 94;
British service rifles, description, viii: 95;
Lee type, viii: 95;
Enfield-M type, viii: 95;
French service rifle, description, viii: 95;
German Mauser, description, viii: 95;
sighting devices, viii: 96-102;
definition of "bore," viii: 111;
definition and purpose of "rifling," viii: 111.
Rifle lights, viii: 75.
"Rifling" of gun, definition and purpose, viii: 111-112.
Riga, occupied by Germans, Sept. 3, '17, i: 390, iii: 147, iv: 136.
Riga, Gulf of, description, iv: 136-137;
German naval operations in, '15--'17, iv: 137-138;
battle of, and capture of dominating islands by Germans,
Oct. 12--18, '17, iv: 137-138.
Rintelen, Capt. Franz von, German agent in U. S., i: 315.
Ritchings, Lieut.-Col. Arthur,
rise from constable to lieutenant-colonel, x: 378.
_River Clyde_, British transport at Gallipoli, iii: 168, iv: 39.
Riviera, A. E. F. leave area, Y. M. C. A. work in, vii: 269.
Rizzo, Commander Luigi,
sinks Austrian battleships in motor-boat attack, iv: 370;
sinks Austrian battleships, _Wien_ and _Monarch_,
in Trieste harbor, x: 290.
_Road to France, The_, poem by Daniel M. Henderson, vi: 131.
Roads, construction by A. E. F. in France, v: 334, 403.
Robb, 1st Lieut. George S., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.
Robeck, Vice-Adm. de,
succeeds Vice-Adm. Carden in command
of Allied fleet at Gallipoli, iv: 32.
Roberts, Lieut. E. M., record as aviator, x: 249-252.
Roberts, Corp. Harold W.,
American tank driver, wins Congressional Medal of Honor,
x: 402, xi: 386.
Robertson, Gen. Sir William,
appointed British Chief of General Staff, ii: _Intro. xviii_;
biography, ix: 184-186.
Rockenbach, Brig.-Gen. Samuel D., commander U. S. Tank Corps, v: 314.
Rockwell, Kiffin,
member of Lafayette Escadrille, killed in Vosges, iii: 391.
Rodman, Admiral, biography, ix: 293-295.
Rodzianko, Michael V., President of Russian Duma, vi: 150.
Rogers, Maj.-Gen. H. L., Chief Quartermaster of A. E. F., v: 332.
Rohrbach, Paul, German publicist, on Anglo-German rivalry, vi: 251.
Romagne, captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 14, '18. v: 250.
Romagne-sous-Montfaucon, American cemetery at, v: 403.
Romani, Turks defeated by British at, Aug., '16, iii: 192.
Romanoffs, _see_
Nicholas II;
Russia, Royal family.
Romorantin, U. S., aircraft plant at, v: 313.
Ronchères, captured by 3rd Div., July 28, '18, v: 188.
Roosevelt, Capt. Archie, war record, x: 238.
Roosevelt, Capt. Kermit, war record, x: 241.
Roosevelt, Lieut. Quentin, record as aviator, x: 241-249;
killed in air fight, x: 245-249.
Roosevelt, Theodore, fight against "big business," i: 293;
against U. S. neutrality, i: 299;
temperament contrasted with that of Pres. Wilson, i: 299;
probable course of action if President during War, i: 302;
pro-German sentiments in '14, i: 309;
statement on _Lusitania_ sinking, i: 320;
statement on universal military training, Nov., '15, i: 326;
attacks Pres. Wilson's note asking
belligerents for statement of war aims, i: 337.
Roosevelt, Lieut.-Col. Theodore, Jr.,
commands 26th Inf. at Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 126;
at Sedan, Nov. 7, '18, v: 269;
war record, x: 241.
Roosevelt, Mrs. Theodore, Jr., "Y" worker in Bordeaux, vii: 267;
in charge of Aix-les-Bains leave area, vii: 269.
Root-Takahira agreement, '08, i: 57.
Rosenwald, Julius, member,
Advisory Commission of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 116.
Rossetti, Lieut.-Col. R.,
sinks Austrian warship _Viribus Unitis_ in Pola harbor,
x: 297-303.
Rosyth, advance base for British battle cruisers, iv: 91, 94;
meeting place for arranging surrender of German fleet, iv: 384.
Roulers, German base in France, ii: 86.
Rowlatt, Justice, author of "Black Cobra Bill" of India, '18, vi: 78.
Royal Air Force, British, _see_ Great Britain, Air Service.
_Royal Edward_, British transport sunk, Aug. 13, '15, i: 381.
Royal families, _see_ country.
Roye, captured by Allies, Aug. 27, '18, i: 397, ii: 157.
Rozyshche, captured by Russians, June, '16, iii: 144.
Rue, training area for 27th Div., '18, v: 286.
Ruggles orientator, for testing aviators, viii: 356-358.
Ruhleben, German prison camp, American "Y" work at, vii: 303.
_Rule Britannia_, British patriotic song, xi: 333.
Rumania, gains independence from Turkey, i: 92;
intervention in Second Balkan War, '13, i: 206;
declares war on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386;
Germany declares war on, Aug. 28, '16, i: 386;
Turkey declares war on, Aug. 29, '16, i: 386;
Bulgaria declares war on, Sept. 1, '16, i: 386;
reasons for entry into War, ii: 59, iii: 214, vi: 348-349;
betrayed by Russia, ii: 59, iii: 221, vi: 349;
natural resources, ii: 59;
invades Transylvania, ii: 60, iii: 217, vi: 313, xi: 28;
conquered by Teuton forces under Mackensen and Falkenhayn,
ii: 60, iii: 218-224, vi: 349, xi: 29;
topography, iii, 214;
failure of Allied support, iii: 214;
army, training and equipment, iii: 215;
strategy of campaigns, iii: 216;
Bucharest captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222;
government moved to Jassy, Nov., '16, iii: 223, vi: 349;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
total casualties, iii: 404, vi: 353, xii: 289;
civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 405;
attacks Hungarian republic, '19, vi: 326;
race problems, vi: 348;
policy of neutrality, vi: 348;
secret treaty with Allies as war price, iii: 349;
suffering under Teuton invasion, vi: 349, 353;
struggle with Russian Bolsheviki in Bessarabia, vi: 350-352;
signs peace treaty with Central Powers, May 7, '17, vi: 352;
peace terms imposed by Germany, vi: 352;
conditions after armistice, Nov., '18, vi: 353;
royal family, ix: 399-402;
debt to U. S., xii: 18;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
war cost, Aug., '16--Oct., '18, xii: 107;
rise in national debt, xii: 114;
Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180;
former treaties with Germany abrogated by Treaty of Versailles,
xii: 232;
area, '19, xii: 279;
population, '19, xii: 279.
_Rumania_, poem by George Edward Woodberry, vi: 347.
Rumanian National Hymn, xi: 329.
Rumanian Relief Committee of America, vii: 109.
Rumeli Medjidieh Battery, Fort at Gallipoli, iv: 45;
bombarded by Allied fleet, iv: 45.
Rupel, Greek fortress, seized by Bulgars, May, '16, iii: 207.
_Rupert Brooke_, poem by Moray Dalton, vii: 285.
Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, army commands, iii: 10, 61.
Ruroede, Carl, leader in German passport frauds in U. S., x: 333.
Russell, Bertrand, British philosopher,
dismissed from Cambridge University
for supporting conscientious objectors, vi: 8;
on effects of War, vi: 11.
_Russell_, British battleship
sunk in Mediterranean, Apr. 27, '16, i: 385.
Russia:
Army, mobilization, July 31, '14, i: 375, iii: 264;
German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4;
man-power available, ii: 27;
lack of resources to equip manpower, ii: 27-28;
shortage of ammunition, ii: 231, iii: 264;
machine-gun equipment, ii: 232;
artillery equipment deficient, ii: 232;
collapse of, ii: 340 (Ludendorff on),
iii: 146, 267-270 (Gen. Denikin's report), v: 113, vi: 157, 164;
organization and strength, iii: 104;
weaknesses, iii: 105;
Czar takes personal command, Sept. 8, '16, iii: 140;
leading commanders pledge support to Republican Government,
Mar., '17, iii: 145;
vice in, iii: 267;
causes of demoralization, iii: 268;
balloting substituted for fighting, iii: 268;
desertions, iii: 269, vi: 157, 164;
Bolshevist propaganda in, iii: 269, vi: 157, 164;
Cossack cavalry, strength, vi: 146;
fraternization with enemy, vi: 157, 161;
Kerensky abolishes death penalty, vi: 157;
Red Army raised by Trotzky, vi: 185;
for military operations, _see_
Russian Front;
battle or campaign.
Casualties, total in War, iii: 404;
civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 406;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
battle deaths, xii: 288.
Coal, production, '13--'17, xii: 48.
Cost of living, percent. rise during War, xii: _Intro. x._
Declarations of war, pledge of aid to Serbia against Austria,
July 27, '14, i: 114;
by Germany against, Aug. 1, '14, i: 115, 139, 375;
by Austria against, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375;
on Bulgaria by, Oct. 19, '15, i: 382;
on Turkey by, Oct. 30, '14, i: 376;
reception by populace, iii: 264, vi: 134-135;
ultimatum to Bulgaria, Oct. 4, '15, vi: 343.
Food, shortage, vi: 141, 144, 145;
potato crop, xii: 47.
Foreign policy, Asiatic expansion, i: 20;
seizure of Port Arthur from China, i: 20;
gains freedom of action in Black Sea, 1871, i: 47;
world position in '14, i: 62;
ambitions in Near East checked by Congress of Berlin, i: 93;
German influence, i: 95, 240;
Entente Cordiale with France, 1891, i: 98;
member of Triple Entente, i: 98, 103, 106;
settlement of Persian question with Great Britain, '07, i: 104;
Franco-Russian treaty of July, '12, i: 107;
Balkan policy, i: 114;
pledge of aid to Serbia against Austria, July 27, '14, i: 114;
negotiations in attempt to prevent the War, i: 126-129;
hatred of Germany, i: 242;
German view of, i: 242;
betrayal of Rumania by German agents in Government,
ii: 59, iii: 221, vi: 349;
imperialistic ambitions, vi: 132;
treachery of Government exposed by Milyukov, Nov., '16, vi: 142;
secret treaties made public by Trotzky, vi: 183;
Soviet Government makes peace with Germany, vi: 183-185;
relations of Soviet with Allies, vi: 187-188;
hostility to Ukrainian nationalistic aspirations, vi: 241;
treaty with Japan, '16, vi: 386;
for relations with Finland, _see_ Finland.
Industries, inadequate for war needs, ii: 27-28;
hampered by lack of port facilities, iii: 161;
chaotic condition during War, xii: 82.
Internal politics, war enthusiasm, Aug., '14, iii: 264, vi: 134-135;
prohibition of vodka, iii: 265, vi: 135;
revolutionary outbreaks before War, vi: 132-134;
Socialists oppose War, vi: 134;
attack of Duma on War Office for inefficiency, Aug., '15, vi: 136;
Minister of War Sukhomlinov arrested and disgraced, vi: 136;
request for new ministry refused by Czar, '15, vi: 136;
Duma dissolved, Sept., '15, vi: 136;
peace sentiment, '15, vi: 138;
Lenin advocates defeat of Russia, vi: 140;
Stürmer succeeds Goremykin as Prime Minister, vi: 140;
Duma reconvenes, Feb. 22, '16, vi: 140;
attack of Socialist Cheidze on Government, vi: 140;
influence of Rasputin at Court, vi: 141;
Rasputin murdered, vi: 141;
Stürmer becomes Foreign Minister, July, '16, vi: 142;
Stürmer dismissed under accusations of corruption and treachery,
vi: 142;
repressive policy of Protopopov, Minister of Interior, '17,
vi: 143;
Golytsin succeeds to Premiership, '17, vi: 143;
threats of revolt in Duma, Feb., '17, vi: 144;
Revolution starts in Petrograd, Mar., '17, vi: 145;
Duma disobeys Czar's order of dismissal, Mar., '17, vi: 146;
leaders and policies at start of Revolution, vi: 148;
revolutionary scenes in Petrograd, Mar. 11--15, '17, vi: 148-156;
Czar disregards appeals for liberal ministry, vi: 150, 151;
Red Monday, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 150-153;
arrest of ministers of old régime, vi: 153;
reform _vs._ revolution, Mar., '17, vi: 153-157;
Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates formed, Mar. 12, '17,
vi: 155;
Provisional Government under Prince Lvov formed by Duma,
Mar. 14, '17, vi: 155;
Czar abdicates, Mar. 15, '17, vi: 156;
struggle between Provisional Government and Soviet on war policy,
vi: 158-160;
fall of Liberal ministry and formation of coalition cabinet,
vi: 160;
peasant societies, vi: 160;
statement of policy by coalition Government, vi: 161;
Bolshevist uprising suppressed, July, '17, vi: 161-165;
Kerensky becomes virtual dictator, vi: 165;
rivalry between Kerensky and Kornilov for power, vi: 167-171;
Moscow Conference, vi: 167;
Kornilov rebellion fails, vi: 169;
Kerensky declares Russia a Republic, Sept. 15, '17, vi: 171;
Bolshevist revolution overthrows Kerensky, Nov., '17, vi: 171-181;
Lenin becomes President of Council of People's Commissaries,
vi: 181;
Trotzky becomes Commissary of Foreign Affairs, vi: 181;
Bolshevist program, vi: 181;
opposition of middle classes to Bolshevik rule, vi: 181;
Constituent Assembly dissolved by Bolsheviki, Jan., '18, vi: 185;
Congress of Soviets substituted for Constituent Assembly, vi: 185;
reign of terror under Bolshevist régime, vi: 187.
Navy, Black Sea fleet bombards Bosphorus forts, iv: 49;
strength of Black Sea fleet, iv: 50;
development, iv: 364;
strength of Baltic fleet, iv: 364;
war record, iv: 364-366;
part in Revolution, iv: 366, vi: 164.
Peace negotiations,
Brest-Litovsk Treaty ends war with Central Powers, Mar., '18,
ii: 63, 273, vi: 183;
armistice with Germany signed, Dec. 6, '17, v: 113;
movement for peace by radicals and conservatives, '15, vi: 138;
Soviet demands immediate Socialist peace conference, vi: 161;
nature of Bolshevik peace propaganda, vi: 171-175;
Versailles Treaty, provisions on, Russo-German relations,
xii: 205;
treaties with Germany abrogated by Versailles Treaty, xii: 232.
Prisoners of war, iii: 404.
Railroads, military, iii: 105;
Petrograd-Berlin line, iii: 111;
importance of Warsaw as junction, iii: 138;
Brest-Litovsk line, military importance, iii: 138;
collapse under war stress, viii: 283.
Royal family, xi: 145-149;
_see also_ Nicholas II.
War cost, currency inflation by Bolsheviki, xii: _Intro. xiii_;
financial position at start of War, xii: 1;
loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2;
debt to U. S., xii: 18;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
average daily cost, xii: 106;
total cost, Aug., '14--Oct., '17, xii: 107;
taxation, xii: 109;
loans, xii: 113;
rise in national debt, xii: 113, 114.
Russian Front,
German analysis of strength and strategic importance,
Aug., '14, ii: 12-16;
strategic plans of Russia and Central Powers,
ii: 22, 225 (Gen. Gourko's explanation), iii: 109-110;
Russian invasion of Galicia, '14--'15,
ii: 22-24, 26, iii: 118-124, 127, 132-134;
Lemberg captured by Russians, Sept. 3, '14, ii: 23, iii: 121;
operations in East Prussia, '14,
ii: 24, 227-229 (Gen. Gourko's account),
353-357 (Ludendorff's account), iii: 110-116;
battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14, ii: 24, iii: 112-116;
campaigns in Poland,
ii: 25, 26, 229, 361-365 (Ludendorff's account),
iii: 116-120, 124-127, 128-132, 137-141;
Przemysl, siege and capture by Russians,
ii: 26, iii: 123, 125, 127, 134, 292, xi: 16;
successful Teuton counter-offensive in Galicia under Mackensen,
May, '15, ii: 26, 233, 360 (Ludendorff's account),
iii: 135-137, 294-296, vi: 258, 311;
Warsaw, German attacks on and capture,
ii: 26, iii: 128-130, 131, 138;
Brusiloff's offensive in Galicia, '16, ii: 42-44, 235, iii: 141-145;
Russian collapse, '17,
ii: 54, 340 (Ludendorff on),
iii: 146, 267-270 (Gen. Denikin's report), v: 113, vi: 157, 164;
campaigns in Caucasus and Armenia,
ii: 91-92, iii: 260-263, vi: 331, xi: 29;
capture of Erzerum, Feb. 16, '16, ii: 91, iii: 262-263;
effect of invasion of East Prussia on first Marne battle, ii: 227;
reasons for weakness of Russian fortresses, ii: 230;
Przemysl recaptured by Teuton forces, June 1--2, '15,
ii: 234, iii: 136;
Lemberg recaptured by Austrians, June 22, '15, ii: 234, iii: 137;
topography, iii: 106-109;
last Russian offensive in Galicia, July, '17, iii: 146;
battle experiences on, iii: 316;
activities of A. E. F. against Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187, 193;
description of Russian trenches, viii: 123;
_see also_
East Prussia;
Galicia;
Mazurian Lakes;
Poland.
Russky, Gen., commander of Russian forces invading Galicia, iii: 119.
Ruthenians, clash with Poles for control of eastern Galicia,
vi: 217, 248;
cultural freedom under Austrian rule, vi: 241;
attempts at forced Russification during Russian occupation
of Galicia, vi: 243.
Ryan, Michael J., Irish-American delegate to Peace Conference vi: 66.
S
Saarbrücken, British air raid on, Oct. 25, '17, i: 392.
Saarburg, occupied by French, Aug. 17, '14, i: 375.
"Sacred Egoism," Italian foreign policy of, vi: 120.
"Sacred Way, The," highway to Verdun, iii: 50.
Sag paste, developed by U. S. Chemical Warfare Service
as protection against mustard gas, v: 324.
Saïd Pasha Zagloul, Egyptian Nationalist leader, vi: 70.
Sailly-Saillisel, objective in Somme battle, '16, iii: 58.
St. Benoit, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 13, '18, v: 211.
St. Dunstan's Home for British blind, vii: 259.
St. Etienne, captured by 71st Brig., Oct. 8, '18, v: 257.
St. Gobain, German defensive system captured by
Allies in last drive, '18, ii: 214, xi: 52;
Germans bombard Paris from Forest of, iii: 88, viii: 45-47.
_St. Louis_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.
St. Maurice Ridge, captured by 27th Div., v: 296.
St. Mihiel,
occupied by Germans, Sept. 26, '14, i: 376, iii: 37, v: 199;
recaptured and salient wiped out by A. E. F., Sept. 12--15, '18,
ii: 84, iii: 99, v: 65-72, 199-212, 384-386 (Pershing's report),
xi: 46;
strategic importance of A. E. F. operations,
ii: 84, v: 200, 208, 384, 385-386;
strength of A. E. F, and French troops attacking, Sept., '18,
iii: 99, v: 203, 385, 386;
German prisoners captured in operations against, Sept., '18,
iii: 99, v: 71, 207, 208, 212, 386;
German artillery captured at, Sept., '18,
iii: 99, v: 71, 207, 212, 386;
Allied casualties in reduction of salient, iii: 99, v: 71, 212, 386;
topography of salient, v: 65, 199;
list and disposition of A. E. F. and French divisions
in drive against, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 386;
strength of German troops defending sector, Sept., '18, v: 201, 208;
strength and activities of Allied air service in drive against,
Sept., '18, v: 206, 309, 386;
effect of victory on A. E. F. morale, v: 386.
St. Nazaire,
debarkation and embarkation port for A. E. F., v: 339, 396.
St. Pierremont, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 265.
St. Quentin, German base in France, ii: 86;
Germans break through British lines at, Mar., '18,
ii: 70-74, 150-151, 190-197,
iii: 86-91, 381-390 (Philip Gibbs's account);
unsuccessful French attacks on, Mar., '17, iii: 68;
captured by British, iii: 101.
St. Quentin Canal, part of Hindenburg Line defenses, v: 292, 301.
St. Remy, captured by 26th Div. in St. Mihiel drive,
Sept. 12, '18, v: 69, 212.
Saionji, Marquis, Japanese statesman,
causes fall of Terauchi Cabinet, vi: 388;
personal sketch, ix: 92.
Sakharoff, Gen., Russian commander on Galician Front, iii: 142;
sent to defend Rumania against German invasion, '16, iii: 221, 223.
Salandra, Antonio, Italian Premier,
pro-Ally policy brings Italy into war against Germany,
ii: 236-239, vi: 123-126;
Cabinet of, forced to resign, June, '16, vi: 127.
Salonika Campaign, Maj.-Gen. Maurice on general military aspects of,
ii: _Intro. xix_;
Allies fail to defend Rumania, ii: 62;
Allies' reasons for undertaking, iii: 201-202;
attitude of Greece on Allied occupation of Greek territory,
iii: 202, 206;
strategy and military operations, iii: 202-213;
Allies land first troops, Oct. 3, '15, iii: 202;
Allied strength, Oct., '15, iii: 202;
Allies driven by Bulgars across Greek frontier, Oct.--Nov., '15,
iii: 204-205;
Uskub captured by Bulgars, Oct. 9, '15, iii: 204;
Allies fortify Salonika position, iii: 205;
Bulgars occupy Greek territory, May, '16, iii: 207;
Gen. Sarrail proclaims martial law in Salonika, iii: 207;
Allies increase forces, May--Aug., '16, iii: 207;
Monastir captured by Allies, Nov. 19, '16, iii: 208-210;
Gen. d'Esperey succeeds Gen. Sarrail in command of Allied armies,
iii: 212;
Allied and Bulgarian strengths, Sept., '18, iii: 212;
final Allied offensive crushes Bulgaria and forces surrender,
Sept.--Oct., '18, iii: 212-213.
Salvage service, British, activities of, ii: 131;
A. E. F., activities of, v: 331, viii: 345-348;
general functions, xi: 308-313.
Salvation Army, war work, vii: 379-400;
tales of experiences in war service, vii: 379-393;
"Ma" Burdick, soldiers' friend, vii: 384;
care of soldiers' graves in France, vii: 391;
home service, vii: 393;
huts and hostel service, vii: 395;
clothing bureau, vii: 397;
work with A. E. F., vii: 397;
as soldiers' forwarding agency, vii: 399;
employment bureaus, vii: 399;
finances, vii: 400.
Samoa, German, captured by New Zealanders, vi: 38;
area and population, xii: 279.
Samogneux, captured by Germans, Feb. 23, '16, iii: 48.
_Samouprava_, Serbian journal,
denounces terms of Italian secret treaty with Allies, vi: 361.
Sampler, Sgt. Samuel H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.
Samsonoff, Gen.,
commander of Russian forces invading East Prussia,
defeated and killed in battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14,
ii: 24, 228, iii: 111-116;
Gen. Gourko's account of fate, ii: 228;
Ludendorff's account of fate, ii: 355;
_see also_ Tannenberg, battle of.
San, battle of the, May 15--17, '15, iii: 136.
_San Diego_, U. S. cruiser sunk by mine, iv: 216.
_San Francisco_, U. S. cruiser
used in laying North Sea mine barrage, iv: 326.
San Giovanni di Medua, concentration of Serbian refugees at, iii: 284.
Sanders, Gen. Liman von, head of German Mission in Turkey, iii: 164.
Sandlin, Pvt. Willie, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.
Sanitation, Red Cross Sanitary Service, vii: 31-32;
Division of Sanitation, U. S. Army Medical Corps,
war-time activities, vii: 191, 253;
prevention of infectious diseases among troops, viii: 392-397;
making drinking water safe for army, viii: 394-396;
taught by movies in war zone, xi: 89;
_see also_
Disease;
Infection.
Sanniyat,
British repulsed at, in attempt to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 185.
Santos-Dumont, development of aircraft by, xi: 221-223.
Sapieha, Prince Eustace,
attempted _coup d'état_ against Pilsudski fails, vi: 222.
Sarajevo, _see_ Serajevo.
Sarrail, Gen., commands a French Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184;
defender of Verdun, '14, ii: 188, iii: 303;
commander of French forces at Salonika, iii: 62, 202.
Sarre, battle of the, Aug. 18, '14, iii: 18.
Sarre Basin, Peace Treaty provisions concerning, xii: 189-194.
Save River,
Austrians cross in invading Serbia, Aug. 12, '14, iii: 151.
Savoy,
neutralized zone of, Peace Treaty provisions concerning, xii: 262.
Sawelson, Sgt. William, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.
Saxony, Spartacide revolt in, Feb., '19, vi: 299.
Sayville wireless station, taken over by U. S. Govt., July 8, '15,
i: 381.
Sazonov, Serge,
resigns as Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, July 23, '16,
vi: 142;
biography, ix: 98-99.
Scandinavia, neutrality, vi: 392.
Scapa Flow, British naval base, iv: 93;
German warships interned at, iv: 143.
Scarborough, bombarded by Germans, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245.
Scarpe sector, British drive on, Aug., '18, ii: 158.
_Scharnhorst_, German cruiser
in battle off Coronel, iv: 65, 66;
sunk in battle of Falkland Islands,
iv: 70, 72, 82 (eye-witness account), xi: 308.
Scheidemann, Philip,
leader of German Social-Democratic majority, vi: _Intro. xii_;
member of Ebert Government, Nov., '18, vi: 277;
elected Chancellor, Feb., '19, vi: 292;
biography, ix: 135-138.
Scheldt River, Belgian claims to Dutch territory at mouth of, vi: 89;
strategic position, vi: 375.
Schleswig, Danish attitude toward, vi: 393;
plebiscite provisions of Peace Treaty for, vi: 394, xii: 204.
Schlieffen, Gen. Count von,
author of plan of German campaigns, Aug., '14, ii: 345.
Schmidt, Adm., German commander in battle of Riga Gulf, iv: 366.
Scholz, Walter,
accomplice in German plot to blow up Allied ships, x: 371.
School of the soldier, xi: 159;
of the squad, xi: 161.
Schools, general educational program
for A. E. F. at army centers and European universities,
v: 106, vii: 281-283, 290;
for children in war zones, xi: 65-66;
U. S. Army training schools, _see_ U. S., Army.
Schwab, Charles M., biography and war service, ix: 332-334.
Science, in the War, Field-Marshal Haig's tribute, ii: 124;
displaces importance of military strategy, viii: _Intro. vii._
_Scots Wha Hae wi' Wallace Bled_,
Scottish national song, xi: 331.
Scottish Women's Hospitals for Home and Foreign Service, vii: 101.
"Scrap of paper," Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg's statement
on Belgian neutrality, i: 146.
Seaplanes, _see_ Aeronautics.
Sea Scouts, British, coast guard duty, xi: 94.
Sea tanks, Italian, description, iv: 272.
Sebastopol, importance as seaport, ii: 28.
Secours National, American Committee of the,
organization and activities, vii: 105;
_see also_ War relief.
Sector, defined, v: 14.
Sedan, key-point in German lines of supply, ii: 87;
A. E. F. advance on, Nov., '18, iii: 103, v: 92, 269, 391, xi: 53;
_see also_ Mézières-Sedan railroad.
Sedd-el-Bahr, fort on Gallipoli, ii: 30, iv: 24, 42;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
_Seeadler_, career as German raider, iv: 198.
_Seed-Time_, poem by Josephine Preston Peabody, vii: 283.
Seeger, Alan, poet-soldier, x: 142.
Seibert, Sgt. Lloyd M., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.
Seicheprey,
German raid on A. E. F. lines at, Apr. 20, '18, v: 28, 122, xi: 43.
Seitz, Karl,
Austrian president, advocates union with Germany, vi: 322.
Seleucia, ruins of ancient Greek capital, in Mesopotamia, iii: 331.
"Self-determination," not recognized in Europe before War, i: 16.
Seligman, Prof. Edwin R. A., on the cost of the War, xii: 105-114.
Selivanoff, Gen., commands Russians besieging Przemysl, iii: 132.
Selle, battle of the, Aug. 19, '14, iii: 18.
Semenoff, Gen., Cossack commander under Kolchak, vi: 192.
Semmer, Marcelle, French heroine, story of, x: 181.
_Send Out the Army_, British soldiers' song, xi: 337.
Senegalese, description as fighters, x: 116.
Senlis, German atrocities at, iii: 334-337.
Senussi, Moslem league, invades Egypt, Nov., '15, iii: 190.
Septsarges Wood,
fighting at, in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.
Serajevo,
Archduke Francis Ferdinand and consort murdered at,
i: 111, vi: 306, xi: 4;
attacked by Serbians, Sept., '14, iii: 153.
Serapeum, Turkish attack near, in advance on Suez, iii: 190.
Serbia, Balkan ambitions in conflict with
Austrian interests, i: 110, vi: 306, 354-357, 363;
Austria charges with responsibility for murder
of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, i: 112, 246;
Austrian ultimatum to, July 23, '14, i: 112, 375;
conciliatory reply to Austrian ultimatum, i: 113;
Russian pledge of aid against Austria, July 27, '14, i: 114;
Austria declares war on, July 28, '14, i: 115, 243, 375;
Austrian reasons for war against, i: 243, ii: 27, 33;
anti-Austrian societies, i: 244;
declares war on Germany, Aug. 9, '14, i: 375;
Bulgaria declares war on, Oct. 14, '15, i: 382;
conquest of, by Teutonic allies,
ii: 32-36, iii: 148-160, 281-286, 393-400, vi: 357-358, xi: 18;
Allies refuse aid against conquest by Central Powers,
ii: 35, iii: 156, 393, 400;
Allies prevent attack by, on Bulgaria, ii: 36, iii: 156;
unprepared for war, iii: 148, vii: 146;
lack of artillery and ammunition, iii: 148, 393;
size, organization, and fighting qualities of army,
iii: 148, vii: 144;
topography, iii: 150;
generalship during War, iii: 150;
typhus epidemics, iii: 155, 398-400, vi: 357, vii: 148;
retreat into Albania, '15,
iii: 158-160, 281-286, 400, vi: 357-358, vii: 151-158;
army and government take refuge at Corfu, iii: 160, 286;
effect of defeat on Allied cause, iii: 160;
casualties during retreat into Albania, iii: 284, vi: 358;
American and Allied relief work in, iii: 398, vii: 109, 144-168;
prisoners of war, iii: 404;
total war casualties, iii: 404, xii: 288;
early history, vi: 354;
Austrophile policy, vi: 355;
Russophile policy, vi: 355;
anti-Austrian expressions by press, vi: 356;
clash with Italy over Fiume and eastern Adriatic coast,
vi: 360-363, 364-370;
statement of war aims, vi: 363;
letters of appreciation for American relief, vii: 158-166;
debt to U. S., xii: 18;
money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25;
value of property loss, xii: 26;
war cost, July, '14--Oct., '18, xii: 107;
rise in national debt, xii: 114;
delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180;
_see also_ Jugoslavs.
_Serbia_, poem by Florence Earle Coates, vi: 353.
Sergy, captured by 42nd Div., July, '18, v: 59, 188;
Gen. Degoutte commends A. E. F. for services at, v: 192.
Serieux Farm, captured by 181st Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229.
Seringes-et-Nesles, captured by 42nd Div., v: 59, 188;
Gen. Degoutte commends A. E. F. for services at, v: 192.
Serre, evacuated by Germans, Feb. 24, '17, iii: 64.
Services of Supply (S. O. S.), _see_ U. S., Army.
Seven Weeks' War, between Prussia and Austria, 1866, i: 41.
_Severn_, British monitor,
in attack on German cruiser _Königsberg_, iv: 195, 282;
description, iv: 281.
_Seydlitz_, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
Shabatz, Austrians cross into Serbia at, Aug., '14, iii: 151.
Shantung, Germany gains forced concessions in, 1897, i: 82;
Japan's desire for, iv: 367, vi: 382, 385;
Japanese demands for, at Peace Conference, xii: 160;
German rights in, transferred to Japan by Peace Treaty, xii: 209;
_see also_ Kiau-Chau.
Shell-shock, treatment, vii: 179, viii: 368-369.
Shells, _see_ Ammunition.
Shipping, British position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 282;
German position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 282;
U. S. position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283;
controversy between U. S. and Great Britain
on seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339;
list of American ships attacked by German U-boats, i: 356;
list of ships sunk with loss of American lives, i: 357;
list of sinkings by German raider _Emden_, iv: 189;
tales of heroic captains of merchant ships, x: 322-324;
value of tonnage sunk, xii: 26;
statistics on world tonnage, Aug., '14--Dec., '17, xii: 91;
statistics on losses, Aug., 14--Dec., '17, xii: 92;
neutral, chartered by U. S. for war service, xii: 98;
war-time increase in neutral, xii: 100;
Peace Treaty provisions for replacement
by Germany of Allied shipping destroyed, xii: 222;
Peace Treaty provisions on privileges
to be granted to Allied shipping by Germany, xii: 230;
_see also_ Germany, Blockade of;
Submarine Warfare.
"Shock" troops, German, viii: 144.
Shotgun, use in modern warfare, viii: 114-116.
Shrapnel, compared with high explosive shell, ii: 287, viii: 8;
invention, viii: 72;
description, viii: 72;
manufacture, viii: 72-74;
_see also_ Ammunition.
Siam, delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180;
German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208.
Siberia, Russian expansion in, i: 20;
early history, vi: 189;
relations with Russia, vi: 189;
movement for autonomy, vi: 189;
Bolsheviki suppress Duma, vi: 189;
anti-Bolshevik elements form All-Russian Government at Omsk,
vi: 191;
"Coöperatives," nature of, vi: 191;
Gen. Horvath sets up bourgeois government at Harbin, vi: 192;
Czecho-Slovak prisoners in, form anti-Bolshevik army, vi: 192;
Vladivostok captured by Czecho-Slovaks, June, '18, vi: 192;
unofficial Allied intervention, vi: 192;
intervention in, by U. S. troops, vi: 192-193;
reactionary factions gain control, vi: 193;
Kolchak makes himself dictator, vi: 194;
anarchy and civil war, vi: 194;
Japanese policy in regard to, vi: 386;
American Y.M.C.A. in, vii: 293.
Sibert, Maj.-Gen. William L.,
commander of first American forces in France, June, '17, v: 106.
Sidi Ahmed, heads Moslem forces invading Egypt, Nov., '15, iii: 190.
Sidi Barrani, occupied by British, Feb., '16, iii: 191.
Siebs, Paul, share in German plot to blow up ships at sea, x: 373.
Siegfried Line, _see_ Hindenburg Line.
Signalling, means of, viii: 322;
work of U. S. Army Signal Corps in France, viii: 322-329;
use of pigeons in, viii: 328;
_see also_ U. S. Army, Signal Corps.
Silesia, Upper,
awarded to Poland by Peace Conference pending plebiscite, vi: 226.
Silistria, retaken by Bulgaria, vi: 344.
Silver, rise in value, due to War, xii: 32.
Sims, Adm. William Snowden, biography, ix: 291-293.
Sinai Desert, Turkish advance through, against Suez, iii: 191.
Sinn Fein, _see_ Ireland.
_Sirius_, British cruiser in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262.
Siwa, captured by British, Feb. 5, '17, iii: 191.
Sixtus, Prince, of Bourbon-Parma,
letter of Emperor Charles to, making peace offer
to Allies, Mar., '17, ii: 63, vi: 315.
Sjorgen self-loading rifle, description, viii: 89.
Skinker, Capt. Alexander R.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.
Skobelev, Minister of Labor in Prince Lvov's coalition cabinet,
vi: 160.
Skoda howitzers, viii: 22;
_see also_ Artillery.
Skoropadski, Gen., Cossack dictator in Ukraine, vi: 247.
Slack, Pvt. Clayton K., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
Slang, soldiers', expressions of, xi: 362.
Slavs, distribution and culture, i: 238;
in Austro-Hungarian empire, vi: 306-307;
antagonism to Latins, vi: 359;
antagonism to Teutons, vi: 360;
_see also_ Jugoslavs;
Pan-Slavism;
Russia;
Serbia.
Slovaks, _see_
Bohemia;
Czechoslovakia.
_Smile, Smile, Smile_, American soldiers' song, xi: 335.
Smith, Lieut.-Col. Frederick E.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.
Smith, Maj.-Gen. W. R., commander, 36th Div., July, '18, v: 196.
Smith-Dorrien, Gen. Sir Horace,
commander of British Second Corps, ii: 162, 174;
Viscount French's criticism of,
for fighting Le Cateau battle, Aug. 26, '14, ii: 162-164, 174;
Sir Henry Newbolt's account of stand at Le Cateau, ii: 174-182;
Viscount French's praise of, for stand at Le Cateau, iii: 28.
Smoke screen, uses in naval warfare, iv: 311.
Smoke shells, use in covering infantry advance, ii: 126.
Smokeless powder, _see_ Ammunition.
Smuggling of war supplies into Germany, xii: 100.
Smuts, Gen. Jan Christaan,
sent by Peace Conference on mission to Hungary, vi: 326;
biography, ix: 187-190;
advocate of League of Nations, ix: 190, xii: 155.
Sneezing gas, use in chemical warfare, viii: 171.
Snowden, Philip,
British Labor Party leader, indorses Bolshevist peace aims, vi: 12;
defeated in Parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 17.
Socialism, fallacy of, i: _Intro. xi_;
Socialists, _see_ under country.
Soissons, occupied by Germans, May 29, '18, ii: 154, iii: 93;
Allied drive against, in Aisne-Marne counter-offensive,
July 18--21, '18, v: 130, 158-183;
recaptured by French, Aug. 2, '18, v: 188.
Soldau, captured by Russians, Aug., '14, iii: 111;
recaptured by Germans, Aug., '14, iii: 114.
_Soldier, The_, poem by Rupert Brooke, x: _facing p_. 1.
Soldiers' and Workmen's Councils, in Germany, rise, vi: 280, 283;
dissolution ordered by Central Council of Delegates,
Dec., '18, vi: 283.
Soldiers' Committees, in Russia, cause of army demoralization,
iii: 268.
Soldiers' Councils, of Austria,
vote against soviet form of government, Apr. 10, '19, vi: 320;
seize control of Vienna, Apr. 18, '19, vi: 321.
Soldier's creed, xi: 170.
Soldiers' songs, xi: 335-339.
Somme, battles of:
July--Sept., '16, ii: 44-47, 148, iii: 55-62, 63, 64, xi: 24;
Allies' aims, ii: 44, iii: 55;
battle line at start, ii: 46;
results, ii: 46-47 (Haig's report), iii: 56, 61, 63;
loss of German morale, ii: 47;
effect on battle of Verdun, ii: 47, iii: 61, 63, 314;
British artillery at, ii: 126;
Foch in command of French, ii: 148;
Inter-Allied Conference decides on unified offensive, Mar., '16,
iii: 55;
Allied man-power, iii: 55;
amount of ammunition used, iii: 56;
description of initial bombardment by John Buchan, July 1, '16,
iii: 57;
Allies' first objectives, iii: 58;
Maurepas captured by French, iii: 58;
Pozières captured by British, iii: 59;
Thiepval stormed by British, iii: 59;
Combles evacuated by Germans, iii: 59;
works of tanks at, iii: 59, 64;
Germans captured, iii: 60;
extent of battle area, iii: 61;
casualties, German and Allied, iii: 61;
a "blood-bath" for Germans, iii: 63;
effect on Germany, iii: 63;
importance, iii: 63.
Mar.--Apr., '18, ii: 70-74, 150-151, 190-197,
iii: 86-91,
381-390
(Philip Gibbs's account of German break through British lines);
German method of attack, iii: 88;
Albert captured by Germans, iii: 89;
results in establishment of Allied unity of command under Foch,
iii: 89;
British casualties, iii: 390.
Sommerance, captured by 1st Div., Oct. 11, '18, v: 248.
Sommerville sector, held by Americans, '17, v: 111.
_Song of the Dardanelles_, poem by D'Annunzio, ix: 343.
Sonnino, Baron Sidney,
advocates Italy's entry into War on side of Allies,
ii: 236, vi: 120, 123;
becomes Italian Foreign Minister, vi: 120;
insists on fulfillment of secret treaty with Allies, vi: 362, 366;
policy at Peace Conference, vi: 369;
biography, ix: 82-85.
Sothern, E. H., helps organize Over-There Theater League, vii: 339.
Souchez, captured by French, Sept. 26, '15, iii: 46.
Souchon, Adm.,
Commander of German cruisers _Goeben_ and _Breslau_,
iv: 14.
South Africa, Union of,
forces under Gen. Botha conquer German Southwest Africa, '14--'15,
iii: 253-255, vi: 50;
strength of army, iii: 405;
war casualties, iii: 405;
formation after Boer War, vi: 47;
British policy in, vi: 47;
political parties and policies, vi: 47-49;
Gen. Botha leader of loyal Afrikander Party, vi: 47;
Unionists, vi: 47;
Gen. Hertzog organizes Nationalist Party, vi: 47-49;
Nationalists oppose participation in War, vi: 49;
Boer rebellion under Maritz and De Wet suppressed by Botha, '14,
vi: 49-50;
parliamentary elections of '15 show strong anti-British sentiment,
vi: 50-52;
Nationalists' attitude prevents conscription, vi: 52;
Nationalists send delegation to Peace Conference
to plead for independence, vi: 52;
war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107;
rise in public debt, xii: 114;
delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 179.
South Pacific Islands, German, acquired by Australia, '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Southwest Africa, German, conquered by Allies, iii: 253-255, vi: 50;
area and population, xii: 279.
Soviet, _see_ Bavaria;
Bolshevism;
Hungary;
Russia;
Saxony;
Spartacides.
Spad biplane, viii: 194.
Spahis, description, xi: 189.
Spain, as a naval power, i: 28;
loss of colonial empire, i: 35;
international position in '14, i: 62;
policy of neutrality during War, vi: 370;
growing dislike for Germans, vi: 371;
war-time prosperity, vi: 372;
German propaganda in, xii: 101.
Spartacides, German, beginnings, vi: 260;
leaders, vi: 278;
excluded by Ebert from Provisional Government, Nov., '18, vi: 278;
urge social revolution, vi: 279;
allied with Russian Bolsheviki, vi: 280-281;
program rejected by Central Council of Delegates, Dec., '18,
vi: 283;
plan revolution against government of Majority Socialists, vi: 283;
insurrection of Jan., '19, vi: 287-290;
Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg killed, vi: 289;
defeated in elections for National Assembly, Jan., '19, vi: 290;
instigate labor strikes, vi: 294;
establish Soviet in Munich, Feb., '19, vi: 298, 300-301;
establish Soviet in Leipzig, Feb., '19, vi: 299;
second Berlin insurrection suppressed by Noske, Mar., '19,
vi: 299-300;
_see also_ Germany, Internal politics.
Spee, Adm. Count Maximilian,
commander of German Far East Squadron, strategy of operations,
iv: 59-62;
defeats British in battle off Coronel, Nov. 1, '14, iv: 64-69;
biography, ix: 306-309.
Sperry gyro-compass, viii: 348.
Spheres of influence, of Great Powers, i: 18.
Spies, German, in United States, x: 326-348, 350;
in England, x: 348;
the "spy mill," x: 355;
disclosure of tank secret by Mata-Hari, x: 360;
dynamiting of Canadian railroad bridge, x: 368;
plot to blow up Allied ships, x: 369-377;
within French lines, x: 379.
_Spires of Oxford_, poem by Winifred M. Letts, xi: 210.
Spitaals-Bosschen, captured by 91st Div., Oct. 31, '18, v: 279.
Sports, in A. E. F., at Winchester Camp, vii: 288;
in Army of Occupation, vii: 293;
general athletic program under Y. M. C. A., vii: 313-317.
Springfield rifle, standard arm of U. S. troops before War, v: 347;
reason for abandonment during War and adoption of British type,
v: 347, viii: 96;
comparison of new U. S. type with, viii: 102-105;
_see also_ Rifles.
Spruce, use in aircraft construction, viii: 308.
_Srpska Narodna Himna_, Serbian national anthem, xi: 328.
Stage Women's War Relief, organization and activities, vii: 343-349.
Stanislau, captured by Austrians, Feb., '15, iii: 132;
recaptured by Russians, Mar., '15, iii: 132;
recaptured by Austrians, June, '15, iii: 136.
Star shells, iv: 334, viii: 334.
_Star-spangled Banner_, American national anthem, xi: 325.
Stark, Col. Alexander, Chief Surgeon, First Army, v: 346.
Stefanik, Gen.,
member of Czechoslovak provisional government, vi: 399.
Stenay, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.
Stern, Lieut.-Col. Sir A. G.,
share in development of tanks, viii: 155.
Stock Exchange, New York, effect of War on, xii: 32.
Stokes, Anson Phelps,
Secretary of Yale University, educational survey of A. E. F.,
vii: 281.
Stokes mortar, use as "artillery of accompaniment," viii: 141.
Stone, Lieut.-Com. A. J.,
inventor of "Y" gun for launching depth bombs, iv: 332.
Stonne, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 268.
Storage tanks built by A. E. F. Engineers in France, v: 334.
_Storstad, S. S._, Belgian relief ship
sunk by U-boat, Mar. 8, '17, iv: 229.
_Strassburg_, German cruiser
in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.
Strategy, of the War,
Maj.-Gen. Maurice on, ii: _Intro. vii-xxiv_;
Allied miscalculation of German strength, Aug., '14,
ii: _Intro. vii_;
British policy of combined land and naval attack,
ii: _Intro. viii_;
factors in formation of British military policy,
ii: _Intro. viii_;
importance of Eastern and Western theaters of war compared,
ii: _Intro. x-xxiii_, 11-14, 87-90,
171-172 (Field-Marshal French's opinion);
Lloyd George favors aggressive campaign against Austria,
ii: _Intro. x, xx_;
comparative advantages for Allies of Dardanelles
and Austrian campaigns, ii: _Intro. xii_;
advantageous position of Central Powers, ii: _Intro. xiii_;
comparison of, in World War with that of Civil War,
ii: _Intro. xiii_;
value of Mesopotamian campaign, ii: _Intro. xvi_, 87-90;
reasons for British campaign in Palestine,
ii: _Intro. xviii, xxi_, 87-90;
British position in secondary theaters of war, '17,
ii: _Intro. xix_;
advisability of Salonika expedition, ii: _Intro. xix_;
Allies' problem, ii: _Intro. xxi_;
Allies at strategical advantage, Aug., '18, ii: _Intro. xxiii_;
general German war plans, '14, ii: 1-6, iv: 4-6, viii: 133;
French plans, '14, ii: 6-11;
German mistake in attacking France instead of Russia first,
Aug., '14, ii: 11-16;
probable results of a vigorous German offensive
against Russia in '14, ii: 13;
economic strategy,
Allied blockade and German U-boat warfare, ii: 16-22;
absence of unified Allied plan prior to '16, ii: 40;
German battle positions compared with Allied, ii: 41;
Allied plan for overcoming German advantage of position, ii: 41;
German plans for '17, ii: 53;
Allied plans for '17, ii: 54;
reasons for German offensive of '18 and choice of front,
ii: 63-69, 288;
object of war, ii: 68;
choice of Picardy front by Germans for final drive, '18, ii: 69;
importance of Amiens, ii: 69;
German operations in final drive, spring, '18, ii: 70-80, 97;
Foch's defense against German drive, spring, '18, ii: 76, 77;
theories of Foch on, ii: 80-82, 103-110, 137;
destruction of opposing army the essential, ii: 80;
of Foch, in Allied counter-offensive, July--Nov., '18,
ii: 82-87, 97, v: 213;
Allied, in Turkey, ii: 87-94;
causes for failure of German war plans, ii: 99;
German in '14, compared with that in wars of 1866 and 1870, ii: 115;
necessity of frontal attacks on Western Front, ii: 116;
Field-Marshal Haig's theories on, ii: 118-120;
war of position on Western Front, ii: 148;
task of Allied reserves during German offensive, '18, ii: 151;
Russian war plans, explained by Chief of Staff Gen. Gourko, ii: 225;
Germans defeated in open warfare, '18, ii: 288-290;
importance of Bagdad railway, ii: 290;
defined, iv: 1;
relation of naval, to land, iv: 2;
offensive defined, iv: 4;
essentials of naval, iv: 4;
criticism of Allied lack of action in Mediterranean, iv: 13;
British and German aims in North Sea, iv: 86;
Lord Fisher's criticism of British, iv: 140;
German alternatives, '17--'18, v: 3;
old-fashioned studies useless in present War, v: 40;
_see also_
campaign, engagement, or front;
Foch;
Germany;
Tactics.
Strauss, Rear-Adm. Joseph,
in command of U. S. mine laying operations, iv: 328.
Stretchers, improved types, viii: 377.
Strong, Maj.-Gen. Frederick S.,
commander 40th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197.
Strong, Dr. Richard P.,
in charge of U. S. typhus relief in Serbia, iii: 398, vii: 148.
Strumnitza, French headquarters established at, Oct., '15, iii: 204.
Stryj, captured by Germans June 1, '15, iii: 136.
Strypa River, crossed by Russians June 8, '16, iii: 144.
Sturdee, Vice-Adm. Sir Frederick,
British commander at Battle of Falklands, iv: 69, ix: 308.
Stürgkh, Carl, Austrian Premier, killed, Oct. 21, '14, vi: 312.
Stürmer, Boris, Russian cabinet member, German agent, ii: 59;
succeeds Goremykin as Premier, vi: 140;
becomes Foreign Minister, vi: 142;
dismissed from office under charges of treason, vi: 142.
Stuttgart, bombed by French airmen, Sept. 22, '15, i: 382;
Oct. 1, '17, i: 392.
Sub-chaser _No. 28_,
experiences when disabled at sea, iv: 352-354.
Sublime Porte, name for Turkish Foreign Office, i: 90.
Submarines, development and early history, iv: 201-205, xi: 241-245;
voyage of German commerce submarine _Deutschland_
across Atlantic, iv: 214, x: 271-274;
life aboard, iv: 235-239;
greatest achievement of War, viii: _Intro. viii_;
description, viii: 264-266;
_see also_ name of submarine.
Submarine warfare, Lansing's proposal for regulation of, i: 281, 327;
comment of London _Times_ on Lansing proposal, i: 282;
German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen, i: 282;
Germany announces blockade of Great Britain,
effective Feb. 18, '15, i: 314, 358, ii: 21, iv: 217, vi: 256;
controversy between U. S. and Germany over,
i: 317-326, 328-335, 339,
357-361 (chronological summary, with list of ships sunk,
Aug., '14--Apr., '16), iv: 223;
President Wilson's "Strict accountability" note, i: 317;
American ship _William P. Frye_ sunk, Jan. 28, '15, i: 319;
_Falaba_ sunk, Mar. 28, '15, i: 319, 358, iv: 218;
American tanker _Gulflight_
torpedoed, May 1, '15, i: 319, 358, iv: 218;
German warning to neutrals to keep off Allied ships,
May 1, '15, i: 319;
_Lusitania_ sunk, May 7, '15,
i: 319, 358, 362-365 (Lord Mersey's official report), iv: 220;
controversy between U. S. and Germany on _Lusitania_ sinking,
i: 320, 323, 325, 326, 327, 358-361;
American steamer _Nebraskan_ attacked, May 25, '15, i: 320;
_Arabic_ sunk, Aug. 19, '15, i: 323, 360, iv: 223;
Germany pledges to warn before sinking, i: 325, 361;
_Hesperian_ torpedoed, Sept. 4, '15, i: 325;
controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary
over sinking of _Ancona_, Nov. 8, '15, i: 326, 361, iv: 223;
Germany to sink armed merchantmen without warning, Mar. 1, '16,
i: 327;
British passenger steamer _Sussex_ sunk, Mar. 24, '16,
i: 328, 361, iv: 223, x: 281-288 (survivor's description), xi: 20;
U. S. threatens to sever relations with Germany over _Sussex_
sinking, i: 329-331, 361;
German apology for _Sussex_ sinking, i: 333;
activities of _U-53_ off U. S. coast, Oct., '16, i: 334;
freighter _Marina_ sunk, Oct. 28, '16, i: 334;
_Arabia_ sunk, Nov. 6, '16, i: 334;
Germany declares unrestricted warfare, Feb. 1, '17,
i: 339, 344, ii: 22, 272,
306-307 (Ludendorff's account of decision),
iv: 223, vi: 265, xi: 35;
Bethmann-Hollweg's statement of reasons for unrestricted warfare,
i: 344;
U. S. severs diplomatic relations with Germany over, Feb. 3, '17,
i: 344-345;
U. S. merchantmen ordered armed, i: 347;
American steamer _Algonquin_
sunk without warning, Mar. 2, '17, i: 348;
influence of unrestricted warfare in forcing U. S. into War,
i, 348, 368, ii: 53;
President Wilson's speech before Congress,
stating case against Germany and asking
for declaration of war, Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355;
list of American ships attacked, i: 356;
list of ships sunk with loss of American lives, i: 357;
_Persia_ sunk, Dec. 30, '15, i: 361, iv: 224;
effectiveness, ii: _Intro. xvii_, 22, 54, iv: 239;
German purpose in, ii: 22, 53, iv: 7-8, 140;
British drive against German submarine bases, '17, ii: 56;
Ludendorff on failure of ruthlessness, ii: 308;
efforts to sink U. S. troopships, ii: 318;
methods of combating,
iv: _Intro. xi_, 284-287, 304-317, 324-334,
viii: 17-20, 266-282, 343-344, xi: 239;
North Sea mine barrage, iv, _Intro. xi_, 324-330, viii: 274;
_Aboukir_, _Cressy_, and _Hogue_
sunk by _U-9_, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280;
exploits of British submarine _E-9_, iv: 207;
exploits of British submarines in Dardanelles, iv: 209-212;
_Laconia_ sunk, Feb. 25, '17, iv: 225;
Belgian Relief ship _Storstad_ torpedoed, Mar. 8, '17, iv: 229;
_Alnwick Castle_ sunk without warning, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 230;
hospital ships sunk without warning, iv: 232;
_Belgian Prince_ sunk July 31, '17, iv: 232;
use of air- and sea-planes for detecting U-boats, iv: 284-287;
net traps, iv: 305-307, 308, viii: 274;
torpedoes, description and method of use by U-boats,
iv: 307, viii: 266, xi: 245-248;
depth-bombs as anti-submarine weapon,
iv: 307, 312, 317, 330-332, viii: 281-282, xi: 239;
nets across British Channel, iv: 307, viii: 274;
use and description of sound-detecting devices for locating U-boats,
iv: 308-310, viii: 17-20, 279-281;
zigzagging, iv: 310;
smoke screen, iv: 311;
camouflaging ships, iv, 311, viii: 343;
arming merchant ships, iv: 314, viii: 278;
U. S. transport _Tuscania_ torpedoed, iv: 336;
U. S. transport _Covington_ sunk, July, '17, iv: 337;
U. S. transport _Mount Vernon_
torpedoed, Sept. 5, '17, iv: 337;
U. S. transport _Antilles_ torpedoed, Oct. 17, '17, iv: 337;
U. S. transport _Finland_ torpedoed, Oct. 27, '17, iv: 337;
U. S. transport _President Lincoln_
sunk, May 31, '18, iv: 337, 340;
U. S. destroyer _Cassin_ torpedoed, iv: 343;
U. S. destroyer _Jacob Jones_ sunk, Dec. 6, '17, iv: 346;
Italian cruisers _Amalfi_ and _Garibaldi_ sunk, iv: 369;
French cruiser _Léon Gambetta_
sunk by Austrian U-boat, iv: 373;
French cruiser _Provence II_ sunk, Feb. 26, '16, iv: 376;
French battleship _Danton_ sunk, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 376;
French anti-submarine campaign, iv: 378;
first attack on American convoy, June 22, '17, v: 107;
effect on British food supply, vi: 10;
effectiveness of destroyers in combating, viii: _Intro. viii_;
fantastic proposals for fighting U-boats, viii: 266-274, 276-278;
account of experiences by survivor of a rammed U-boat, x: 295-297;
value of tonnage sunk, xii: 26;
_see also_
Germany, Blockade of;
Shipping.
Sudanese, defeated by British, May, '16, iii: 191.
Suez Canal, neutralized, 1888, i: 16;
construction of, by French, 1869, i: 48;
Great Britain gains control, 1875, i: 48;
importance, ii: 27;
German designs on, ii: 27;
Turkish operations against, ii: 31, iii: 189-192.
_Suffolk_, Adm. Craddock's flagship in West Atlantic, iv: 63.
_Suffren_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
mysterious disappearance, iv: 376.
Sugar, shortage in England, xii: 34;
method of war-time distribution in U. S., xii: 46;
war-time shortage, xii: 138.
Sugar Equalization Board, U. S., functions, xii: 46.
Sukhomlinov, Russian Minister of War,
arrested and disgraced, '15, vi: 136.
Summerall, Maj.-Gen. Charles P.,
placed in command of Fifth Corps, Oct. 12, '18, v: 83, 250, 391;
as brigadier-general commands 1st Div. at Soissons, July, '18,
v: 167;
at St. Mihiel, Sept., 318, v: 202;
tribute to, by Frederick Palmer, v: 235;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 391.
Sunshine (40th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Supplies, lines of, to field armies, ii: 69.
Support, line of, definition and description, v: 12.
Supreme Naval Council, Allied, formed, Dec. 4, '17, i: 393.
Supreme War Council, Allied, formed, Nov. 9, '17, i: 392, iii: 84.
Surgery, early history, vii: 4-6;
in U. S. Army, vii: 219-224;
use of X-ray in war surgery, vii: 221, viii: 373-376;
war-time evolution in methods, viii: 361-365;
treatment of head wounds, viii: 365;
treatment of face wounds, viii: 366;
treatment of body wounds, viii: 366;
treatment of blood vessel lesions, viii: 366;
treatment of nerve-cord lesions, viii: 366;
treatment of fractures, viii: 367;
new method of amputation, viii: 367;
prevention of gas gangrene, viii: 367;
prevention of tetanus infection, viii: 367;
Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, xi: 289;
artificial arms, viii: 384-388;
artificial legs, viii: 388-390;
use of ambrine in treatment of burns, viii: 390;
reconstructing mutilated faces, viii: 390;
artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391;
_see also_ Infection;
Medical Science;
Reconstruction of disabled;
U. S. Army, Medical Service.
Surveillance, line of, definition and description, v: 12.
_Sussex_, British passenger steamer sunk by U-boat, Mar. 24, '16,
i: 328, 361, iv: 223, x: 281-288 (survivor's description), xi: 20;
U. S. threatens to sever diplomatic relations
with Germany over sinking of, i: 329-331, 361;
German apology for sinking, i: 333.
Suvla Bay, at Gallipoli,
Allied landing at, Aug. 7, '15, i: 381, iii: 173;
_see also_ Gallipoli Campaign.
Suwalki, Russians cross into East Prussia near, iii: 111;
captured by Germans, iii: 116;
evacuated by Germans, Oct. 9, '14, iii: 118.
Schwarzlose automatic pistol, description, viii: 90.
Sweden, international position in, '14, i: 62;
policy of neutrality, vi: 394;
relations with Finland, vi: 395;
Crown Princess of, work for war prisoners, vii: 395.
Swierzynski, Joseph, forms Polish cabinet, vi: 219;
declares Poland republic, vi: 219.
_Swift_, British destroyer,
account of night battle with German destroyers, x: 293-295.
Swift, Maj.-Gen. Eben, commands 82nd Div., June, '18, v: 143.
_Swiftsure_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.
Swinton, Maj.-Gen. E. D.,
on development and war functions of tanks, ii: 273-290;
conceives idea of tank as war weapon, Oct., '14,
ii: 276, viii: 155, xi: 256.
Switch position, defined, v: 16.
Switzerland, system of citizen army, i: _Intro. xii_;
international position, '14, i: 62;
policy of armed neutrality during War, i: 140, vi: 379;
antagonism between French and German elements, vi: 379-380;
implication of Intelligence Dept.
of General Staff in unneutral conduct, vi: 380;
Foreign Minister Hoffman forced out of office
by neutralist sentiment, vi: 380;
Gustave Ador heads Foreign Office, vi: 380;
Red Cross activities, vi: 380;
Geneva designated as seat of League of Nations, vi: 382, xii: 183.
_Sydney_, Australian cruiser,
destroys German raider _Emden_, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 185-190.
Synchronizers, for timing machine-gun fire
through airplane propeller blades, viii: 86, 190-192, 208-210, 214.
Syria,
placed under French control by secret treaties of '16--'17, vi: 334;
area and population, xii: 279.
T
Tachometer, aero engine revolution counter, viii: 218.
Tactics, battle of maneuver and of line compared by Foch, ii: 108;
new French plan of defense, June, '18, ii: 208;
trench warfare and "war of movement,"
compared by German military critic, ii: 259;
German method of attack by infiltration, iii: 386, v: 17-19;
French trench defensive organization, v: 12-17;
parallel of resistance, v: 12;
line of resistance, v: 12;
line of surveillance, v: 12;
line of support, v: 12;
center of resistance, v: 14;
adaptation of American divisional organization
to French scheme of defense, v: 19-21;
elements of limitation in offensives, v: 23;
American patrolling activities, v: 27, 117;
use of gas-projector batteries by Germans, v: 28;
value of villages in stabilized warfare, v: 31;
method of overcoming machine-gun nests, v: 39;
von Hutier's method of surprise attack, v: 41, viii: 143-145;
Gen. Gouraud's system of defense against attack
by infiltration, v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148;
A. E. F. training for open warfare, v: 114;
new German tactics in drive of Mar., '18, v: 161;
use of masked machine-gun fire in defensive, v: 287;
_see also_ Strategy;
Trench warfare;
battle or campaign.
Taft, William Howard,
statement on U. S. action on _Lusitania_ sinking, i: 320.
Tagliamento River,
reached by Austro-Germans in invasion of Italy, Nov., '17,
ii: 58, iii: 248;
_see also_ Italian Front.
Tailly, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264.
Talaat Bey, Turkish Minister of Interior,
responsibility for Armenian massacres, vi: 332.
Talley, Sgt. Edward R., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
_Tanine_, Turkish newspaper,
comment on Dardanelles expedition, vi: 330.
Tanks, Field-Marshal Haig on effectiveness, ii: 123-124;
use in Allied counter-offensive, July 18, '18, ii: 210, 281;
development, description, and battle uses,
ii: 273-290 (Maj.-Gen. Swinton on),
v: 314, viii: 140-143, 148-161, xi: 251-264;
German opinion of value, ii: 273-274;
invention suggested by American farm tractors, ii: 274, xi: 256;
purpose in development of, ii: 275, viii: 140-141, xi: 253-256;
Maj.-Gen. Swinton conceives idea for, ii: 276, viii: 155, xi: 256;
fore-runners of idea, ii: 276;
British experimentation, '15--'16, ii: 277, viii: 155, xi: 257;
origin of word "tank," ii: 277;
first quantity production begun by British, Feb., '16, ii: 277;
first use in action at battle of the Somme, Sept., '16,
ii: 277, iii: 59, viii: 141, xi: 251-253;
successful surprise attack at battle of Cambrai, Nov. 20, '17,
ii: 280, 283, iii: 80, 337-340 (Philip Gibbs's description),
viii: 142,156;
use in Allied retreat, Mar.--June, '18, ii: 280;
British "Whippets," ii: 280, viii: 148, xi: 262;
use in Allied attack at Hamel, July 4, '18, ii: 281, 282;
lead in Allied surprise attack at Amiens, Aug. 8, '18, ii: 281;
use by Allies in second battle of Cambrai, Sept. 27--Oct. 10, '18,
ii: 281;
first time manned by Americans, Sept. 29, '18, ii: 281;
development by French, ii: 282, viii: 152-155, xi: 257;
German type, ii: 282, viii: 159;
effectiveness compared with field artillery, ii: 283;
saving of war material in use, ii: 284;
casualty rate among troops attacking with, ii: 284;
in drive against Soissons, July, '18, v: 177;
number in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 223, 388;
number of U. S. tanks in France, v: 350;
value as infantry support, viii: 141-143;
tank _vs._ machine gun, viii: 150-151;
decisive factor in smashing German trench system,
viii: 150-152, xi: 261;
uses in peace times, viii: 151;
French invention for crushing barbed-wire entanglements, viii: 153;
Boirault machine, viii: 153;
French electric tank, viii: 155;
French "baby" Renaults, viii: 156, xi: 260;
British and French types compared, viii: 156;
U. S. types, viii: 158;
requirements for successful tank, viii: 158;
future possibilities, viii: 160;
account of an American tank-man, x: 58-62;
German method of defense against, xi: 264;
account of battle between, xi: 265-266;
sensation of riding in, xi: 269-270;
for U. S. Tank Corps, _see_ U. S., Army.
Tannay, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 268.
Tannenberg, battle of,
Hindenburg crushes Russian armies
invading East Prussia, Aug., '18,
ii: 24-25, 228-229 (Gen. Gourko's account),
353-354 (Ludendorff's comments on), iii: 112-116.
Tardenois salient,
strategic aspects, with description of terrain,
ii: 210-212, v: 42-43, 58;
_see also_ Marne, battles of, July, '18.
Tarnopol, captured by Russians, Sept. 27, '14, iii: 120.
Tatarli, captured by Allies, Oct., 15, iii: 204.
Taube airplanes, record flights by, viii: 206.
Taxation, in paying for cost of War, xii: 108-114;
_see also_ under each country.
Tchitcherin, Russian Soviet Commissary for Foreign Affairs, vi: 187.
Tear gas, _see_ Chemical warfare;
Chlorpicrin;
Zylyl bromide.
Teleferica, Italian aerial cableway in the Alps, viii: 303-306.
Telegraphy, development and use of wireless,
in the War, viii: 315-318, 320-322;
U. S. Army system in France, viii: 323, 325.
Telephones, development and use of wireless,
in the War, viii: 316-320;
U. S. Army system in France, viii: 323-326.
Terauchi, Count, Japanese Prime Minister,
militarist policy, vi: 386-388;
biography, ix: 90.
Tereschenko, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs
in Prince Lvov's coalition cabinet, vi: 160.
Teschen, dispute between Poland and Czechoslovakia
for possession of, vi: 400.
Tetanus, causes and treatment of,
in army, vii: 253, viii: 367, xi: 287.
Teutonic Allies, _see_ Central Powers.
Thann, captured by French, Aug. 7, '14, iii: 16.
Theatricals, for service men, _see_ Entertainment.
Thenault, Capt., French commander of Lafayette Escadrille, iii: 391.
_There Will Come Soft Rains_, poem by Sara Teasdale, ix: 274.
_These Be the Days That Call for Men_,
poem by John Trotwood Moore, iii: _Intro. x._
_Thetis_, British cruiser
blown up at Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262, 264.
"They shall not pass,"
French watchword at Verdun, ii: 189, iii: 304, xi: 21.
Thiaucourt, captured by 2nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 68, 206, 210;
American cemetery at, v: 400.
Thiaumont, captured by Germans, June 23, '16, i: 386, iii: 55, 313;
recaptured by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388, iii: 61.
Thiepval, Allied objective in Somme battle, iii: 58;
stormed by British, Sept, 26, '16, iii: 59.
Thomas, Albert,
French Socialist leader, on French labor during War, ii: 373-382.
Thomas, J. H., British labor leader,
conference with Lloyd George on strike by "Triple Alliance," vi: 22.
Thrasher, Leon, U. S. citizen killed in sinking of _Falaba_
by U-boat, Mar. 28, '15, i: 319.
Three Emperors' League, 1872, i: 95.
_Thuringen_, German battleship,
crew first to mutiny, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381.
_Tiger_, British cruiser, hit at battle of Jutland, iv: 108;
in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.
Tilsit, occupied by Russians, Aug. 24, '14, iii: 111.
Timber, war uses, viii: 306-309.
Tirailleurs, description, xi: 191.
Tirgu-jiuly, Rumanians defeated at, by Germans, iii: 221.
Tirpitz, Adm. Alfred von,
share in developing German navy, iv: 363, ix: 301;
biography, ix: 298-306;
submarine policy, ix: 302.
Tisza, Count Stephan, Hungarian Premier, attitude on War, vi: 306;
political opposition to, '16, vi: 311;
Rumanian policy assailed in Parliament, vi: 313;
biography, ix: 144-147.
T. N. T., _see_ Trinitrotoluol.
Togoland, conquered by Allies, Aug.,'14, iii: 252;
area and population, xii: 279.
"Tommy Atkins," nickname for British soldier, origin, vi: 230;
description as fighting-man, xi: 181-189.
Torcy, location, v: 37, 133;
Gen. Degoutte's commendation of A. E. F. fighting at, v: 192;
captured by First Corps, July 18, '18, v: 383.
Torpedoes, description and use, iv: 307, viii: 266, xi: 245-258;
device for launching from air, iv: 335.
Toul, headquarters of First Army, Aug., '18, v: 193;
important fortified city, v: 199.
Toul sector, taken over by A. E. F., Jan. 19, '18, v: 115.
Tours, A. E. F. Air Service Training School at, v: 313;
headquarters of S. O. S., v: 332.
Towers, Commander,
in command of N-C flying boats on trans-Atlantic flight, viii: 240.
Townshend, Gen. Sir Charles,
besieged in Kut-el-Amara by Turks, iii: 183, 318-320, xi: 29;
forced to surrender Apr. 29, '16, iii: 183, 319, xi: 29;
biography, ix: 194.
Tracer bullets, viii: 211.
Tractors, artillery, U. S., number in use in France, v: 350;
supplant horses, viii: 40.
Transloy-Loupart line, captured by British, Mar.,'17, iii: 66.
Transports,
Ludendorff's account of German efforts to sink U. S. troopships,
ii: 317-318;
account by Adm. Gleaves of first expedition of U. S. troops
to France, June,'17, iv: 157-162;
list of ships carrying U. S. troops across Atlantic
for first time, June,'17, iv: 160;
equipment and escort of, by U. S. Navy, iv: 160, 165;
transportation of A. E. F. overseas,
with statistics on number of troops carried
and number and nationality of troopships and convoys used,
iv: 162-165, v: 285, 379, xii: 94-95, 283;
British, statistics on troops carried, iv: 239;
U. S., attacked by submarines, accounts of, iv: 335-343.
Transvaal, _see_ South Africa, Union of.
Transylvania,
invasion of, by Rumanians, Aug.,'16, ii: 60, iii: 217-218;
desire for possession cause of Rumania's entry into War,
iii: 214, vi: 349;
topography of frontier, iii: 214;
Rumanians defeated and expelled from, by Falkenhayn,
Sept.--Oct.,'16, iii: 220;
attitude of inhabitants to Rumanian invasion, vi: 313.
Trawlers, use in patrol and minesweeping, iv: 292;
battle with submarine, iv: 294.
Treaties,
Allied agreement not to make separate peace, i: 146;
treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany, Mar.,' 18,
ii: 63, 273, vi: 183, 268;
Quadruple Treaty (Treaty of London) between Italy and Allies,
price for Italian participation in War, Apr., '15, vi: 122, 361;
Trotzky publishes Russian secret treaties, vi: 183, ix: 118;
secret agreements among Allies for partition of Turkey,
'16--'17, vi: 334;
agreement between Rumania and Allies as price
for Rumanian entry into War, '16, vi: 349;
treaty of Bucharest between Rumania and Central Powers,
May,'17, vi: 352;
pre-War agreements between Germany and Allies
revived by Treaty of Versailles, xii: 231;
agreements among Central Powers abrogated
by Treaty of Versailles, xii: 232;
treaties between Germany and Rumania
abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, xii: 232;
treaties between Germany and Russia abrogated by
Treaty of Versailles, xii: 232;
_see also_ Alliances;
Peace Treaty with Germany, Versailles, '19.
Trebizond, captured by Russians, Apr. 18,'16, ii: 92, iii: 263.
Treitschke, Heinrich von,
German historian, exposition of Kultur, i: 66;
theory of supremacy of State, i: 148;
biography, i: 174;
philosophy compared with Carlyle's, i: 175;
theory of German greatness, i: 175;
hatred for England, i: 175;
summary of political philosophy, i: 177;
American student's recollection of, i: 178.
_Trench Duty_, poem by Siegfried Sassoon, ix: 282.
Trench feet, viii: 396.
Trench warfare,
adoption by Germans after retreat from Marne, Sept., '14,
ii: _Intro. vii_, 11, iii: 37, viii: 134, xi: 12, 253;
opposed by Field-Marshal French, ii: 171;
compared with "war of movement" by German military critic, ii: 259;
description of German trench system, ii: 275, viii: 124-130;
use of barbed wire as defensive barrier, ii: 276, viii: 136, 152;
value of tanks in, ii: 276, viii: 140-143, 150, 161;
use of machine guns in, ii: 288, viii: 134-136;
life in, iii: 286, x: 65-71, xi: 171-173;
French defensive system, v: 12-17;
night fighting, viii: 74;
reasons for adoption in place of open warfare, viii: 123;
kinds of trenches, viii: 123;
description of Russian trenches, viii: 123;
disadvantages of trenches as defensive system, viii: 129;
"pill-boxes," viii: 130-132;
use of artillery in, viii: 132-133, 136-141;
_see also_ Barbed wire;
Machine gun;
Tanks.
Trentino, _see_ Italian Front.
Trepov, Russian Premier, forced to resign, '17, vi: 143.
Treves, bombed by French airmen, Sept. 13, '15, i: 382;
Oct. 1, '17, i: 392.
_Trevier_, Belgian relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230.
Trieste,
unsuccessful Italian offensives against,' 16--'17,
ii: 52, 246, iii: 246, xi: 26;
promised by Allies to Italy as war prize, vi: 122, 361;
American troops landed at,
to preserve peace between Italians and Jugoslavs, vi: 366;
sinking of Austrian battleships _Wien_ and _Monarch_
in harbor of, by Italians, x: 290.
Trinitrotoluol (T. N. T.),
composition and explosive properties, viii: 6;
American output of, xii: 285.
Triple Alliance, of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy,
formation, 1882, i: 95;
terms, i: 95;
military strength, i: 95;
solidity of union between Germany and Austria, i: 208;
Italian position in, i: 255;
French estimate of, ii: 4;
repudiated by Italy, ii: 48, vi: 115;
_see also_ Foreign policy, under name of country.
Triple Entente, of France, Russia, and Great Britain,
formation, i: 98, 106;
not a treaty-bound alliance, i: 103, 218;
Franco-Russian treaty of July,'12, i: 107;
Anglo-French agreement for united action
against "third power," Nov., '12, i: 107, 220;
attitude to outbreak of War, i: 129;
agreement not to make separate peace, Aug. 4,'14, i: 146;
German estimate of military effectiveness, ii: 2;
_see also_ Foreign policy, under name of country.
Tripoli, Turkish territory in north Africa, seized by Italy, i: 109;
town in Syria, captured by Allies, Oct.,'18, iii: 199.
Tritton, Sir William,
share in developing tank as fighting machine, viii: 155, xi: 257.
_Triumph_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;
sunk by U-boat, May 26, '15, iv: 50.
Trois Fontaines, conference between Marshal Foch and Secretary Baker
at, Oct. 4, '18, xii: 285.
Tronsol Farm, captured by 182nd Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229.
Trophies of War, Peace Treaty provisions for return of,
by Germany, to France, xii: 225.
Trotzky, Leon,
becomes Commissary of Foreign Affairs of Soviet Russia,
Nov., '17, vi: 181;
publishes Russian secret treaties, vi: 183;
as Minister of War raises Red Army, vi: 185;
biography, ix: 116-119;
bibliography, ix: 119.
Troubridge, Adm., takes charge of Serb refugees at Medua, iii: 284;
in command of British naval forces in Mediterranean, Aug., '14,
iv: 13.
Trugny Wood, evacuated by Germans, July 24, '18, v: 186.
Tsing Tau, _see_ Kiau-Chau.
Tuilerie Farm, captured by 42nd Div., Oct., 15, '18, v: 252.
Turkestan, Republic of, established, Jan., '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Turkey:
Army, Germanization under von der Goltz, i: 207;
organization, iii: 164;
Liman von Sanders appointed to reorganize, vi: 330;
for military operations, _see_
Caucasus;
Gallipoli Campaign;
Mesopotamian Campaign;
Palestine;
Suez Canal.
Casualties, total in War, iii: 404;
money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25;
battle deaths, xii: 288.
Declarations of war,
renewal of age-old struggle between Europe and Asia, i: 11;
by Russia against, Oct. 30, '14, i: 376;
by France and Great Britain against, Nov. 5, '14, i: 378;
Holy War declared against Allies, Nov. 17, '14,
i: 376, ii: 31, vi: 330, xi: 14;
by Italy against, Aug. 21, '15, i: 381;
on Rumania, Aug. 29, '16, i: 386;
diplomatic relations with U. S. severed, Apr. 20, '17, i: 390;
strategic victory for Germany, ii: _Intro. viii_, 27-28;
welcomed by Russia, vi: 134;
welcomed by Turkish press, vi: 330.
Foreign relations,
extraterritorial rights for foreigners withdrawn, i: 18;
continuance as European Power assured by Paris Conference, 1856,
i: 39;
international position, '14, i: 63;
subjugation and misrule of Christian races, i: 89-93, iv: 17-18;
settlement of Congress of Berlin, 1878, i: 93;
pre-War relations with Germany, i: 98, 207, vi: 328-330;
strategic importance as Germanic ally,
ii: _Intro. viii_, 27-28, 87-90;
Dardanelles closed, Sept.,'14, ii: 28;
escape of German cruisers _Goeben_ and _Breslau_
into Turkish waters and their purchase by Turkey,
iv: 14-17, vi: 330;
Allied agreements for partition, vi: 334;
Demotika ceded to Bulgaria, vi: 344;
dispute with Bulgaria, '18, vi: 345.
Internal affairs, form of government, i: 90;
constitution proclaimed, 1839, i: 92;
Young Turk revolution, '08, i: 109;
Armenian massacres, iii: 405, vi: 331-333;
war sentiment, vi: 330;
Arab revolt, '16, vi: 333.
Navy, purchase of German cruisers _Goeben_ and _Breslau_,
iv: 16-17, vi: 330;
strength, iv: 50.
Peace negotiations, capitulation, and armistice with Allies,
Oct. 31, '18, ii: 94, vi: 334.
Prisoners of war, iii: 404.
War cost, Nov., '14--Oct., '19, xii: 107;
rise in national debt, xii: 114.
Turner, Corp. Harold L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.
Turner, 1st Lieut. William S.,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.
Turner, William Thomas, captain of torpedoed _Lusitania_, i: 362.
_Turtle_, submarine used in American Revolution, iv: 201.
_Tuscania_, U. S. transport torpedoed, Feb. 5, '18,
i: 393, iv: 336.
Tutrakan, captured by Bulgarians, Sept. 6, '16, iii: 218.
Typhoid, U. S. Army statistics, vii: 195;
immunization against, vii: 246, 253, viii: 393;
manufacture of anti-typhoid vaccine, viii: 393.
Typhus, epidemic of, in Serbia, iii: 155, 398-400, vi: 357, vii: 148.
_Tyulen_, Russian submarine,
captures Turkish transport in Black Sea, iv: 366.
U
_U-9_, German submarine,
sinks British cruisers _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, _Hogue_,
Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205.
_U-15_, first German submarine sunk in War, iv: 305.
_U-29_, German submarine,
rammed by British battleship _Dreadnought_, Mar., '15, iv: 305.
_U-53_, German submarine,
activities off U. S. coast, Oct., '16, i: 334, iv: 216.
_U-58_, German submarine,
captured by U. S. destroyers _Fanning_ and _Nicholson_,
iv: 349.
_U-117_, German submarine,
activities off U. S. coast, '18, iv: 216.
U-boats, _see_ Submarines;
Submarine warfare.
Udine, bombed by Austrian airmen, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382;
captured by Austro-Germans, Oct., '17, iii: 247.
Uhlans, German cavalry, description, xi: 196.
Ukraine, early history, vi: 239-241;
pre-War movement for independence, vi: 241-243;
Russian attempts at suppression of nationalist feeling, vi: 243;
autonomy proclaimed, June 24, '17, vi: 243;
movement for establishment of federal Russia, vi: 244;
struggle with Bolsheviki, vi: 244-246, 248;
conclusion of separate peace with Germans at Brest-Litovsk,
vi: 246-247;
revolt against German domination, '18, vi: 247-248;
war with Poland for possession of Cholm, vi: 248;
population and area, xii: 279.
Ulianov, Vladimir, _see_ Lenin, Nicolai.
Ulster, _see_ Ireland.
Uniforms, military,
invisibility of French, ii: 286;
invisibility of German,
ii: 286, iii: 272 (description by Richard Harding Davis).
United Kingdom, _see_ Great Britain.
United States:
Army, morale, i: 369, v: _Intro. xii_, 9, 71-72;
National Army ordered mobilized, Aug. 13, '17, i: 390;
strength in France, Mar., '18, ii: 66, v: 380;
nearing end of offensive force at Armistice, ii: 98;
A. E. F. put at disposal of Foch by Pershing, Mar. 28, '18,
ii: 152, v: 120, 380;
transportation overseas, with statistics on rate and means of,
ii: 317 (Ludendorff's comment on), iv: 10-12,
157-165 (Adm. Gleaves' account of first convoy across Atlantic),
v: 106, 128, 284, 373-379 (Pershing's report),
xii: 94-95, 283, Ludendorff's opinion of fighting qualities,
ii: 326;
first contingent arrives in France, June 26, '17,
iii: 83, iv: 162, v: 106;
first shot fired against Germans, Oct. 23, '17, iii: 84, v: 112;
first American prisoners captured by Germans, Nov. 3, '17,
iii: 84, v: 112;
on Italian Front, iii: 249, v: 394;
total strength, iii: 403, xii: 280-281, 282;
strength overseas, iii: 403, 405, v: 128, xii: 280-281, 282, 287;
combat value, v: 4;
training in France,
v: 6-12, 100, 102-106, 107-108, 111-113, 114-119, 233, 312,
314, 325, 327,
373-378 (Pershing's report on arrangements
with French and British), xi: 171-173,
_see also_ under each Division;
living conditions in France, v: 8;
first divisions enter front lines, Jan., '18, v: 10;
supplies for,
with statistics on quantity consumed and methods of procurement,
v: 11, 110, 115, 285, 328-332, 396-398, 400,
xii: 283-284,
_see also_ under U. S. Army, Services of Supply;
size and organization of division, v: 19-21, 108, xii, 282, 287;
size and organization of regiment, v: 20, 108, 281, xi: 163;
adaptation of American divisional organization
to French system of trench warfare, v: 21;
offensive spirit, v: 22, 26, 29;
patrolling activities at the front, v: 27, 117;
distribution of A. E. F. divisions in battle area,
June, '18, v: 41, 141-147;
combat units in France organized into First Army
under tactical command of Pershing, Aug., '18, v: 64, 192, 384;
Pershing arrives overseas, June, '17, v: 97;
General Staff, A. E. F., organization and personnel, v: 98-102;
training of officers, with statistics,
v: 100, 102-104, 108, 312, 325, xii: 280, 282;
general educational program for A. E. F.
at army centers and European universities,
v: 106, vii: 281-283, 290;
organization of corps, v: 109;
number and distribution of A. E. F. combat divisions,
Sept., '18, v: 197;
number and distribution of A. E. F. combat divisions,
Nov. 1, '18, v: 253;
divisions serving in Allied armies, v: 254, 279, 373-379, 393;
American soldier's attitude towards British soldier, v: 288;
air service training schools, in U. S. and overseas,
v: 312, xii: 285;
tank schools, v: 314;
gas warfare training, v: 325, 327;
statistics on health and disease in,
v: 344, 402, vii: 179, 193-195,
_see also_ under U. S. Army, Medical Service;
rifle equipment, description and reasons for adoption of type,
v: 347, viii: 96, 102-105;
Pershing's message to each member of A. E. F., v: 353;
list of A. E. F. divisions, with histories, v: 354-372;
replacement (depot) divisions, v: 368-372, 399;
Pershing's official report on A. E. F. operations, v: 373-404;
on Russian Front against Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187, 193;
return of A. E. F. to U. S., v: 395;
procuring of remounts, v: 399;
A. E. F. mail service, v: 402;
system of keeping records of A. E. F., v: 402;
military justice in, v: 403;
punishments in, v: 403;
intelligence tests for recruits, vii: 216, viii: 349-351;
training camps in U. S., number and system of instruction,
xi: 155-165, xii: 282;
soldier's equipment, xi: 167-168;
pay, xi: 168;
cantonment construction, xii: 125, 282;
statistics on participation in War, xii: 280-289;
total battles fought by A. E. F., xii: 280, 287;
total days in battle, xii: 280, 287;
number of troops in battle, xii: 280, 287;
total of ordnance and prisoners captured, xii: 288;
for branches and units, _see_ below;
for detail of military operations,
_see_ name of battle or campaign.
Adjutant General's Department, functions, v: 402.
Air Service, record in France, v: 309-313, xii: 285-286;
losses, v: 309;
number of enemy planes and balloons shot down by, v: 309;
strength at the front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 309, xii: 285, 286;
strength and activities of balloon companies, v: 311-312;
growth, v: 312, xii: 285;
total personnel, v: 312, xii: 285;
training schools, v: 312, xii: 285;
dependence on Allies, v: 401 (Pershing's report);
types of aerial navigating instruments, viii: 217-221;
work of aerial photographers, viii: 228-235;
airplane production, xii: 285;
types of aero squadrons, xii: 286;
for N-C flying boats and dirigibles, _see_ U. S., Navy.
Artillery,
first shot of War fired by A. E. F., Oct.27, '17,
i: 392, iii: 84, v: 112;
dependence of A. E. F. on French and British for,
v: 111, 348, 401, xii: 284;
heavy artillery (Coast Artillery Corps),
battle activities in France, v: 303-308;
organization and units of Railway Artillery Reserve, v: 305;
Naval Batteries on Western Front, v: 306, viii: 42-45;
anti-aircraft batteries, v: 308;
trench mortar battalions, v: 308;
number of cannon and trench mortars at the front,
Nov. 11, '18, v: 350;
description of types of field guns, viii: 22-28;
description of types of heavy guns, viii: 36-42;
description of prospective 121-mile range gun, viii: 48-51;
production figures, xii: 284;
captured by A. E. F., xii: 288.
Chemical Warfare Service,
organization and activities,
v: 321-327, 401 (Pershing's report), viii: 179-187;
poison gases used, v: 321-322;
experimentation and development, v: 323-324;
gas masks and other defense equipment issued to A. E. F.,
v: 324;
gas shell production, v: 325, viii: 186;
gas defense training, v: 325;
duties of gas officer, v: 325;
deloading and examination of unexploded German shells,
v: 325-326;
use of poison gas by artillery and infantry, v: 326;
activities of A. E. F. gas troops, v: 327;
invention of Lewisite, deadliest poison gas, viii: 172;
poison gas production at Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 179-187;
daily output compared with German, French, British, viii: 179.
Dental Corps, organization and activities, vii: 209-210.
Engineer Corps,
heroic stand by A. E. F. engineer troops against German break
through British lines, Mar., '18, iii: 89, v: 123;
organization and activities overseas,
v: 332-336, 399-400, xii: 283, 287;
construction of barracks, v: 332, 400;
construction of hospitals, v: 332, 400;
construction of docks, v: 332, 400, xii: 283;
railroad construction, v: 333, 334, 400, xii: 283;
insuring clean water supply for A. E. F., v: 333;
construction of refrigerating plants, v: 333, 400;
construction of bakeries, v: 333, 400;
activities of Forestry Division, v: 334, 400, xii: 287;
work with combat troops, v: 335;
Pershing's tribute to, v: 336;
road construction in France, v: 400.
Graves Registration Service,
_see_ U. S. Army, Quartermaster Corps.
Inspector General's Department, functions of, v: 402-403.
Judge Advocate General's Department, functions of, v: 403.
Medical Service,
war-time organization and activities,
v: 336-347, 402, vii: 175-239, 245-254;
field hospitals and medical work at the front,
v: 337-338, vii: 178, 230-233, 249-254;
evacuation hospitals, v: 338, vii: 178, 251;
hospital trains, v: 339, vii: 199, 251, viii: 380;
hospital construction in France, 340-342;
A. E. F. base hospitals, v: 340, 400;
"Hospital Centers," v: 341, 400;
capacity of A. E. F. hospitals, v: 342;
statistics on patients treated in A. E. F. hospitals,
v: 342, 352, 402;
statistics on personnel, v: 343-344, vii: 177, 201-203;
statistics on disease and wounded,
v: 344, 402, vii: 179, 193-196, 208-209;
procurement of supplies for use overseas, v: 344, vii: 222-224;
volunteer organizations co-operating with,
v: 344, vii: 187-189, 219, _see also_ Red Cross;
organization in France, v: 345-346;
letter of commendation from Pershing, v: 346;
total number of hospital patients treated during War, v: 352;
number of hospitals and patients treated in U. S., v: 352,
vii: 201;
venereal disease, statistics on, and methods of combating,
v: 402, vii: 208-209;
physical reconstruction of disabled and mutilated,
vii: 175-176, 180-186, 210-216, 233-239,
_see also_ Reconstruction of disabled;
war-time mobilization of medical profession of U. S.,
vii: 187-189, 203, 219-222;
Medical Reserve Corps and Volunteer Medical Service Corps,
vii: 187, 203;
work of women physicians, vii: 188;
system of war-time organization, vii: 191, 203;
activities of Division of Sanitation, vii: 191-196;
construction of hospitals in U. S., vii: 196-198;
number of patients returned from overseas
for treatment in U. S., vii: 200;
army nurses, number and organization, vii: 203;
work of Division of Laboratories and Infectious Diseases
in control of communicable diseases, vii: 203-209;
functions of Division of Medicine, vii: 216-219;
testing mentality of recruits, vii: 216, viii: 349-351;
classification of soldiers by vocations, vii: 216-217;
physical examination of drafted men, vii: 217, xii: 281;
treatment of special diseases and injuries, vii: 218, 222;
training of personnel, vii: 222, 225.
Military Police,
_see_ U. S. Army, Provost Marshal General's Department.
Motor Transport Corps,
organization and functions, v: 328, 351, 401.
Nurse Corps, organization and personnel, vii: 203.
Ordnance Department,
functions and war-time activities,
v.: 347-351, 401 xii: 284-285;
size of personnel at start of War, v: 347;
reasons for adoption of type of rifle used by A. E. F.,
v: 347, viii: 96, 102;
rifle production figures, v: 347, xii: 284;
statistics of ammunition and explosive production,
v: 350, xii: 284, 285;
artillery production figures,
v: 350, xii: 284, _see also_ under U. S. Army, Artillery;
machine-gun production, v: 350, xii: 284;
number of tanks sent to the front, v: 350;
mobile repair shops, v: 350, viii: 294-298;
supply bases and workshops, v: 350;
strength of A. E. F. personnel, v: 350;
letter of praise from Pershing, v: 351.
Provost Marshal General's Department, functions, v: 403.
Quartermaster Corps,
organization and functions, v: 328-332, 400, xii: 283;
growth of personnel in France, June, '17--Dec., '18, v: 328;
scope of duties, v: 328, 400;
methods of procuring supplies, v: 328;
supply depots in France, v: 329-330;
amount of bread consumed by A. E. F., v: 330;
statistics on oil and fuel for A. E. F., v: 331;
Salvage Service, activities of, v: 331, 400, viii: 345-348;
delousing facilities for A. E. F., v: 331;
acquisition of burial grounds for A. E. F. dead
and care of graves (Graves Registration Service), v: 331, 400;
A. E. F. expenditures, v: 332;
statistics on issue of blankets and clothing, xii: 283.
Salvage Service, _see_ U. S. Army, Quartermaster Corps.
Services of Supply (S. O. S.),
establishment and functions,
iii: 83, v: 328-352, 396-401 (Pershing's report on);
coördination of procurement and distribution
of supplies for A. E. F., v: 396-397;
purchasing activities overseas, v: 397;
reclassification system for A. E. F., v: 399;
personnel, Nov. 11, '18 v: 401;
_see also_ under U. S. Army,
Engineer Corps,
Motor Transport Corps,
Ordnance Department,
Quartermaster Corps,
Transportation Corps.
Signal Corps,
activities in France, v: 317-320, 401,
viii: 322-331, xi: 303-308, xii: 283, 286-287;
A. E. F. telephone and telegraph system
at the front and behind the lines,
with statistics on number of exchanges,
miles of wire, etc.,
v: 317, 318, 320, 401, viii: 322-326, xii: 283, 287;
statistics on personnel, v: 317;
American women operators with A. E. F., v: 317;
organization of field signal battalions, v: 317;
devices for communication used at the front, v: 318, viii: 322;
"listening-in" and detection of enemy codes, v: 319;
work of Photographic Division in making moving-pictures of War,
v: 319-320, viii: 329-331;
laying of cable across English Channel, v: 320, 401;
supplying A. E. F. with field glasses, viii: 326;
supplying A. E. F. with wrist-watches, viii: 327;
use of pigeons as messengers, viii: 328-329.
Tank Corps,
man British tanks in action for first time, Sept. 29, '18,
ii: 281;
organization, v: 314;
tank schools overseas, v: 314;
American tanks in action, v: 315-316, 401;
number of tanks sent to the front, v: 350;
dependence on French and British, v: 401.
Transportation Corps, functions, v: 400.
Veterinary Corps, activities, vii: 225-227.
First Army, formation, Aug. 10, '18, v: 64, 192-195, 384;
reorganized and divided into First and Second Armies,
Oct. 9, '18, v: 83, 246, 274;
drive against and reduction of St. Mihiel salient, Sept. 12--15,
_see_ St. Mihiel;
Meuse-Argonne drive, _see_ Meuse-Argonne Offensive.
Second Army, formation, Oct., '18, v: 83, 246, 274;
operations in direction of Briey Iron Basin and Metz,
v: 274-279, 390, 393;
casualties, v: 279.
Third Army (Army of Occupation),
formation, Nov. 14, '18, v: 280, 395;
occupation of Coblenz bridgehead, v: 394-395.
First Corps,
operations in Allied counter-offensive in Marne salient,
July, '18, v: 56, 191-192
(commendations from Pershing and Degoutte), 383;
shifted to Toul sector, Aug. 13, '18, v: 62;
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12--15, '18, v: 65, 202, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18,
v: 74, 78, 90, 91, 92, 220, 388, 390, 391;
reaches heights opposite Sedan, Nov. 6, '18, v: 92;
formation, Jan., '18, v: 109.
Second Corps,
breaks through Hindenburg Line
in co-operation with British, Sept.--Oct., '18, v: 87, 393;
prisoners captured, v: 87, 393;
formation, v: 382.
Third Corps,
operations in valley of the Vesle in Allied counter-offensive,
Aug., '18, v: 62, 191-192
(commendations from Pershing and Degoutte), 383;
transferred to Verdun region, Sept., '18, v: 62, 384;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18,
v: 74, 78, 90, 219, 260, 388, 390, 391;
in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
Fourth Corps,
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 206, 386;
co-operation in Meuse-Argonne attack, Sept., '18, v: 220;
forms part of Second Army, v: 275;
in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
Fifth Corps,
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 69, 202, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18,
v: 74, 90, 92, 219, 388, 390, 391.
Sixth Corps, part of Second Army, v: 275.
Seventh Corps, in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
1st Division,
training in France, v: 6-12, 106-108, 111-117;
transferred from Lorraine to relieve
French on Montdidier front, Apr., '18, v: 29, 121, 380;
captures Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 31-34, 124-128, 380;
in drive on Soissons flank in Allied counter-offensive
on Marne salient, July 18--22, '18,
v: 53-56, 130, 158-182, 191 (Pershing's commendation), 382;
casualties during operations in Marne salient, July, '18,
v: 55, 181;
captures Berzy-le-Sec, July 21, '18, v: 55, 180, 383;
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12--15, '18, v: 65-70, 202, 211, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18,
v: 74, 80-81, 83, 88, 91-92, 231, 234, 237,
240-246, 248-250, 268-270;
relieved in Meuse-Argonne by 42nd Div., Oct. 12, '18,
v: 83, 248;
record march for relief of 80th Div. and advance on Sedan,
Nov. 5--7, '18, v: 91, 92, 269;
arrival and organization in France, v: 106-108, 109;
enters front-line trenches for first time, Oct., '17, v: 111;
artillery unit fires first shot of War for A. E. F.,
Oct. 23, '17, v: 112;
casualties in Cantigny sector, Apr. 25--July 7, '18,
v: 128, 141;
in support of French in Montdidier-Noyon defensive,
June, '18, v: 129, 139;
makes first capture of German guns by A. E. F.,
July 18, '18, v: 174;
casualties in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 211;
tribute to bravery from a German colonel, v: 246;
captures Sommerance, Oct. 11, '18, v:248;
casualties in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, v: 248;
citation for record in Meuse-Argonne by Pershing, v: 248;
summary of history, v: 355;
units composing, v: 355;
total casualties, v: 355;
prisoners and war material captured, v: 355;
in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
2nd Division, training in France, v: 6-12, 119;
goes into front line position on Marne salient,
June 4, '18, v: 37, 132, 136;
in battle of Belleau Wood, June 6--26, '18,
v: 39, 129, 135-139, 192, 382,
x: 1-10 (account of Marines in action);
captures Bouresches, June 6, '18, v: 39, 138, x: 8-9;
in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient,
July 18--22, '18, v: 55, 130, 158-182,
191 (Pershing's commendation), 382;
captures Vierzy, July 18, '18, v: 55, 174;
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12--15, '18, v: 65-70, 202, 210, 386;
operations in Champagne as part of Gouraud's French Fourth Army,
Oct. 1--6, '18, v: 79, 241, 254-258, 393;
captures Blanc Mont, Oct. 5, '18, v: 79, 241, 257, 393;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18,
v: 88, 90, 92, 95, 262-270, 274, 391;
capture of and drive through Landres-St. George,
Nov. 1, '18, v: 90, 262-263;
arrival and organization in France, v: 108;
captures Vaux, July 1, '18, v: 138, 382;
casualties in Marne offensive, July, '18, v: 179;
prisoners and guns captured in Marne offensive, v: 179;
captures Beaumont, v: 266;
summary of history, v: 355;
units composing, v: 355;
total casualties, v: 355;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 355;
in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
3rd Division,
repulses German attempts to cross Marne at Château-Thierry,
May 31--June 3, '18, v: 35, 132-135, 381, xi: 43;
in second battle of the Marne, July 15--29, '18,
v: 52-53, 56, 143, 148-153, 183-186, 187-188,
191-192 (tributes of Pershing and Degoutte), 382, 383,
x: 381-387;
stand of 38th Inf. Regt. against German attempts to cross Marne,
July 15, '18, v: 2, 150-153, x: 381-387;
captures Jaulgonne and Chartèves during second Marne battle,
July, '18, v: 56, 383;
in reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 211;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18,
v: 74, 80, 81, 83, 85, 231, 233, 234, 237, 239, 241, 245,
247, 248, 250, 251, 252, 389;
arrival in France, v: 128;
occupies Château-Thierry, July 21, '18, v, 184;
casualties during battles in Marne salient, June--July, '18,
v: 188;
summary of history, v: 356;
units composing, v: 356;
total casualties, v: 356;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 356;
in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
4th Division,
in Aisne-Marne Allied counter-offensive, July 18--Aug. 12, '18,
v: 60, 61-62, 130, 168, 183, 184, 191, 383;
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 69, 202, 212, 386;
reaches Vesle River in pursuit of Germans, Aug., '18,
v: 62, 191;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18,
v: 74, 78, 219, 220, 224, 226, 228, 236, 239, 245, 246,
248, 250, 252, 388;
arrival in France, v: 128;
training in France, v: 143;
casualties during Aisne-Marne offensive, July--Aug., '18,
v: 191;
summary of history, v: 356;
units composing, v: 356;
total casualties, v: 356;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 356;
in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
5th Division,
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 210, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18,
v: 85, 90, 92, 93-95, 248, 250, 262, 264, 270, 271, 272, 391;
captures Cléry-le-Grand, Nov. i, '18, v: 90, 262;
captures Cléry-le-Petit and Doulcon, Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264;
forces crossing of Meuse in Meuse-Argonne battle,
Nov. 3--5, '18, v: 92, 93-94, 264, 270;
captures Mouzay, Nov. 9, '18, v: 94, 272;
captures Dun-sur-Meuse, Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271, 391;
arrival and training in France, v: 128;
enters trenches in the Vosges, June, '18, v: 128, 381;
casualties in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 210;
captures Cunel and clears Bois de la Pultière, Oct. 14, '18,
v: 250;
position at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 272;
summary of history, v: 357;
units composing, v: 357;
total casualties, v: 357;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 357;
in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
6th Division, arrival and training overseas, v: 197;
summary of history, v: 357;
units composing, v: 357;
casualties, v: 357.
7th Division, arrival and training in France, v: 198;
starts first offensive as part of Second Army, Nov. 10, '18,
v: 277, 279;
summary of history, v: 357;
casualties, v: 357;
units composing, v: 358.
8th Division, summary of history, v: 368;
in Siberia, v: 368;
in Germany, v: 368;
units composing, v: 368.
26th Division, arrival and training in France,
v: 6-12, 108, 117-118;
raided by Germans at Seicheprey, Apr. 20, '18, v: 28, 122;
goes into position on Marne sector, July 9, '18, v: 46, 138;
in second battle of the Marne, July 15--24, '18,
v: 56, 58, 130, 155, 168, 183, 184, 185, 186,
191-192 (tributes from Pershing and Degoutte), x: 76-78;
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 211, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18,
v: 86-87, 220, 252, 270, 271, 272, x: 78-79;
goes into Toul sector, Apr., '18, v: 120;
casualties in second Marne battle, July, '18, v: 186;
summary of history, v: 358;
units composing, v: 358;
total casualties, v: 358;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 358.
27th Division,
organization and training in U. S., v: 196, 281-284, 358;
arrival and training in France, v: 196, 284-286;
war record, v: 281-300 (by Maj.-Gen. O'Ryan), 358, 393;
with Gen. Byng's Third British Army, July, '18, v: 286;
operations with British in Flanders, July--Aug., '18,
v: 286-290;
breaks through Hindenburg Line with British Fourth Army,
Sept.--Oct., '18, v: 290-297, 393;
casualties in assault of Hindenburg Line, v: 295;
return to U. S., v: 299;
commendation from Field-Marshal Haig, v: 299;
total casualties, v: 358;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 358.
28th Division,
in second battle of the Marne and pursuit of Germans across
Vesle River, July--Aug., '18, v: 53, 56, 60, 62, 130, 153-154,
183-184, 188, 190, 191-192, (praise by Pershing and Degoutte),
383;
drives Germans from the Vesle to the Aisne, Aug.--Sept., '18,
v: 62, 260, 383-384;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18,
v: 74, 78, 218, 220-221, 225, 227, 229, 231, 237-239, 241,
243, 388;
arrival in France, v: 128;
training in France, v: 143;
sent to Marne sector as reserve to French army
defending road to Paris, June, '18, v: 143, 153;
casualties in second Marne battle, July 15--21, '18, v: 184;
captures Aprémont, Sept. 28, '18, v: 229;
captures Le Chêne Tondu, Oct. 4, '18, v: 239;
captures Châtel Chehery, Oct. 7, '18, v: 243;
operations as part of Second Army in direction of
Metz and Briey, Nov., '18, v: 274-279;
summary of history, v: 358;
units composing, v: 359;
total casualties, v: 359;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 359.
29th Division,
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive,
Sept.--Oct. '18, v: 74, 86, 244, 246, 252;
captures Etraye ridge, Oct. 23, '18, v: 86, 252;
organization and arrival in France, v: 146, 359;
casualties in Meuse-Argonne battles, v: 253;
summary of history, v: 359;
units composing, v: 359;
total casualties, v: 359;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 359.
30th Division, arrival and training in France, v: 146, 300;
with British in Belgium, July--Aug., '18, v: 286, 300;
summary of organization, v: 300, 359;
breaks through St. Quentin Tunnel sector of Hindenburg Line,
Sept.--Oct., '18, v: 301-303, 393;
casualties, v: 359;
units composing, v: 360;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 360.
31st Division, history, v: 368;
units composing, v: 368.
32nd Division,
drives Germans to Vesle in Allied counter-offensive on
Marne salient, July--Aug., '18,
v: 60-61, 62, 130, 188-190, 191-192
(praise by Pershing and Degoutte), 383;
captures Cierges, July 31, '18, v: 60, 188;
captures Fismes, Aug. 6, '18, v: 61, 189;
captures Juvigny, Aug. 30, '18, v: 62, 258-259, 384;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18,
v: 74, 80, 83, 84-85, 231, 237, 240, 241, 245, 247,
248, 250, 252, 389;
captures Gesnes, Oct. 5, '18, v: 81, 240;
captures Bantheville, Oct. 18, '18, v: 84-85, 252;
arrival in France, v: 119, 360;
casualties in Marne offensive, July--Aug., '18, v: 190;
captures Romagne, Oct. 14, '18, v: 250;
summary of history, v: 360;
units composing, casualties, v: 360;
in Army of Occupation, 360, 395.
33rd Division,
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18,
v: 74, 78, 83, 219, 224, 225, 228, 230, 234, 236, 244,
246, 388;
arrival and training in France under British, v: 144, 260;
attack on Hamel with Australians, July 4, '18, v: 144, 260;
with British in attack near Amiens, Aug., '18, v: 260;
summary of history, v: 360;
units composing, v: 360;
casualties, v: 360;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 360.
34th Division, summary of history, v: 368;
units composing, v: 369.
35th Division,
in First Army reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18,
v: 66, 203;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18,
v: 74, 220, 225, 227, 229, 231, 388;
arrival and training in France, v: 128, 197;
captures Charpentry and Baulny, Sept. 27, '18, v: 227;
unsuccessful attack on Exermont, Sept. 29, '18, v: 231;
summary of history, v: 361;
units composing, v: 361;
casualties, v: 361;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 361.
36th Division, arrival in France, v: 196;
operations with French Fourth Army in Champagne, Oct., '18,
v: 254, 257, 258, 393;
casualties in Champagne, v: 258;
summary of history, v: 361;
units composing, v: 361;
total casualties, v: 361;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 361.
37th Division, in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18,
v: 74, 78-79, 219, 224, 227, 229, 230, 231, 388;
operations in Belgium, Oct.--Nov., '18, v: 83, 279-280, 393;
arrival in France, v: 145;
casualties in Belgian campaign, v: 280;
summary of history, v: 361;
units composing, v: 362;
total casualties, v: 362;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 362.
38th Division, organization and summary of history, v: 369;
units composing, v: 369.
39th Division (5th Depot),
organization and summary of history, v: 198, 369;
units composing, v: 369.
40th Division (6th Depot),
organization and summary of history, v: 197, 369;
units composing, v: 370.
41st Division (1st Depot),
organization and summary of history, v: 109, 370;
units composing, v: 370.
42nd Division,
arrival and training in France, v: 6-12, 21, 109, 118, 142;
in the Vosges (Baccarat) sector, v: 21, 28, 118, 142;
joins French Fourth Army in Champagne defensive, July, '18,
v: 44-51, 129-130, 142-143, 155-158;
in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient,
July 25--Aug. 2, '18,
v: 56, 58-61, 130, 186-187, 188-189,
191-192 (praise by Pershing and Degoutte), 383;
takes Forêt de Fère and crosses Ourcq in pursuit of Germans,
July 26--28, '18, v: 58-59, 187, 383;
captures Sergy, Seringes-et-Nesles, and Hill 212,
July 28, '18, v: 59, 188;
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 211, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18,
v: 83, 84, 88, 91, 92, 220, 248, 250-252, 262, 269, 390;
capture of Côte de Châtillon, Oct. 14--16, '18, v: 84, 250-252;
reaches heights opposite Sedan, Nov. 6, '18, v: 92, 269;
casualties in Marne offensive, July--Aug., '18, v: 189;
summary of history, v: 362;
units composing, v: 362;
total casualties, v: 362;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 362;
in Army of Occupation, v: 395.
76th Division, summary of history, v: 196, 370;
units composing, v: 370.
77th Division,
drives Germans from the Vesle to the Aisne after second Marne
battle, Aug.--Sept., '18, v: 62, 190, 260, 383-384;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26--Nov. 11, '18,
v: 74, 78, 79, 81, 85, 88, 90-91, 92, 95, 220, 225, 227, 229,
231-232, 234, 239, 241, 242, 243, 246, 247, 250, 252, 262,
263, 264, 265, 266, 268, 269, 270, 388, 391, xii: 288;
outflanks German positions at Champigneulle in
Meuse-Argonne drive, Nov. 1--2, '18, v: 88, 263;
arrival and training in France, v: 141;
isolation and rescue of "Lost Battalion," Oct. 2--7, '18,
v: 231, 239, 241, 242, 243;
capture of St. Juvin, Oct. 12, '18, v: 250;
attack on Grand Pré, Oct. 16, '18, v: 252;
summary of history, v: 362;
units composing, v: 363;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 363;
casualties, v: 363.
78th Division,
as reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18,
v: 65, 202, 210;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18,
v: 85, 91, 220, 252, 262, 264, 266, 268, 391;
captures Briquenay, Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 264;
arrival and training in France, v: 144;
casualties in Meuse-Argonne drive, v: 268;
summary of history, v: 363;
units composing, v: 363;
total casualties, v: 363;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 363.
79th Division,
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18,
v: 74, 78-79, 80, 219, 224, 225, 226, 228, 230, 231, 262,
265, 270-272, 388;
captures stronghold of Montfaucon, Sept. 27, '18, v: 78-79, 225;
organization and arrival in France, v: 196, 363;
captures Nantillois, Sept. 28, '18, v: 228;
summary of history, v: 363, casualties, v: 363;
units composing, v: 364;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 364.
80th Division,
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18,
v: 74, 78, 83, 88, 91, 219, 224, 226, 227, 230, 234, 237,
239, 241, 245, 246, 248, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266-268,
388, 391;
captures Buzancy, Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 264;
arrival and training in France, v: 144;
battle for Brieulles-sur-Meuse, Sept. 27--28, '18, v: 226, 227;
capture of Bois des Ogons, Oct. 4--5, '18, v: 237, 239;
repulsed in attacks on Madeleine Farm, Oct. 6, '18, v: 241;
Madeleine Farm captured, Oct. 9, '18, v: 245;
unsuccessful attacks on Cunel, Oct. 10--11, '18, v: 246, 248;
captures Beaumont with 2nd Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 266;
casualties in Meuse-Argonne drive, v: 268;
summary of history, v: 364;
units composing, v: 364;
total casualties, v: 364;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 364.
81st Division, arrival and training in France, v: 197;
operations in direction of Briey and Metz as part of
Second Army, v: 274-278;
captures Grimancourt, Nov. 10, '18, v: 277;
position at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 278;
summary of history, v: 364;
units composing, v: 364;
casualties, v: 364;
prisoners captured, v: 364.
82nd Division,
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. '18, v: 65, 68, 71, 202, 208, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18,
v: 74, 83, 241, 242, 246, 247, 248, 251, 252, 390;
arrival and training in France, v: 143;
composite character, v: 143;
summary of history, v: 143, 365;
units composing, v: 365;
casualties, v: 365;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 365.
83rd Division, summary of history, v: 146, 371, 399;
units composing, v: 371.
84th Division, summary of history, v: 198, 371, 399;
units composing, v: 371.
85th Division, summary of history, v: 197, 371;
units composing, v: 371.
86th Division, summary of history, v: 372;
units composing, v: 372.
87th Division, summary of history, v: 198, 372;
units composing, v: 372.
88th Division, summary of history, v: 198, 365;
units composing, v: 365;
casualties, v: 365.
89th Division,
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 70, 202, 210, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18,
v: 90, 92, 95, 220, 252, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270, 274, 391;
organization and arrival in France, v: 146, 365;
in Army of Occupation, v: 274, 366, 395;
summary of history, v: 365;
units composing, v: 366;
casualties, v: 366;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 366.
90th Division,
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 208-210, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18,
v: 90, 92, 95, 220, 252, 262, 264, 272, 274, 391;
arrival and training in France, v: 196;
casualties in St. Mihiel drive, v: 210;
captures Stenay, Nov. 10, '18, v: 272;
in Army of Occupation, v: 274, 366, 395;
summary of history, v: 366;
units composing, v: 366;
total casualties, v: 366;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 366.
91st Division,
as reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 66, 203;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18,
v: 74, 78, 220, 225, 227, 229, 231, 232, 246, 388;
transferred to Belgium under French Sixth Army, Oct., '18,
v: 83, 279, 393;
operations in Belgium, Oct.--Nov., '18, v: 83, 279, 393;
organization and arrival in France, v: 196, 366;
captures Spitaals-Bosschen, Oct. 31, '18, v: 279;
captures Audenarde, Nov. 2, '18, v: 279;
summary of history, v: 366;
units composing, 367;
casualties, v: 367;
prisoners and guns captured, v: 367.
92nd Division (colored),
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 74, 233;
organization and arrival in France, v: 145, 367;
summary of history, v: 367;
units composing, v: 367;
casualties, v: 367.
93rd Division (colored), summary of history, v: 367;
units composing, v: 367;
casualties, v: 368.
Casualties, in submarine warfare during neutrality, i: 357;
first time in War, Nov., '17, i: 392, v: 113;
total in War, iii: 404;
total dead, iii: 404, xii: 280;
number wounded, iii: 404, v: 344, xii: 280;
prisoners or missing, iii: 404;
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 71, 212, 386;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26--Nov. 11, '18, v: 393,
xii: 280;
on Russian Front, v: 394;
total deaths overseas, classified according to cause, v: 402;
battle deaths, v: 402, xii: 280, 289;
deaths from disease, v: 402, vii: 179, 195, xii: 280;
money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25;
_see also_ U. S. Army, Medical Service.
Coal, production, '13--'17, xii: 47;
war-time shortage, xii: 48;
conservation measures under Fuel Administration, xii: 48-50;
extent of mining operations, xii: 50;
production compared with other staples, xii: 50;
waste in use, xii: 51;
Fuel Administration priority list, xii: 75;
production for '18--'19, xii: 146.
Conscription, Franklin Lane on lessons taught by, i: 370;
Conscription Act passed, Apr. 28--May 18, '17,
i: 390, iii: 83, xii: 280-281;
health statistics of drafted men, vii: 217, xii: 281-282;
total number of registrants, xii: 280, 281;
number inducted into service, xii: 280, 281.
Cost of living,
high prices most striking economic effect of War,
xii: _Intro. vii_;
"index numbers" as measure of price changes,
xii: _Intro. vii_;
comparison of index numbers, '13--'19, xii: _Intro. vii-viii_;
chart of price movements in U. S. and England since 1780,
xii: _Intro. viii-x_;
rise in, '14--'18, xii: _Intro. x_, 56-59;
existing high prices not due to scarcity, xii: _Intro. x-xi_;
currency inflation, xii: _Intro. xiii_, 143;
chart showing relation of, to money in circulation, '14--'18,
xii: _Intro. xiii_;
high prices as breeder of Bolshevism, xii: _Intro. xiii-xiv_;
purchasing power of wages, '13--'18, xii: _Intro. xiv_;
remedies proposed for reducing high cost of living,
xii: _Intro. xiv-xv_, 147;
standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuations in,
xii: _Intro. xv_;
scarcity as cause of high prices, xii: 39, 142;
"fair price" lists, xii: 54;
profiteering, xii: 55, 143;
meat-packers' profits before and during War, xii: 56;
present, compared with Civil War prices, xii: 57, 75;
rise in clothing prices, xii: 58, 142, 145;
government price-fixing, xii: 59;
monthly price changes, '12--'18, xii: 60;
analysis of, by Council of National Defense, xii: 142-148;
relation between wages and prices in estimating, xii: 142;
housing problem, xii: 142;
curtailed production since Armistice, xii: 142;
food consumption statistics, xii: 142;
influence of War on prices, xii: 143;
food supply statistics, '18--'19, xii: 143-144;
reasons for high food prices, xii: 144;
reduction in shoe output for '19, xii: 146;
coal production, '18--'19, xii: 146;
reduction in iron and steel production, '19, xii: 147;
reasons for high cost of living,
summarized by Council of National Defense, xii: 147;
_see also_
Prices;
U. S., Food.
Council of National Defense,
activities of General Medical Board of, vii: 187-189;
creation by Congress, '16, xii: 115;
duties, xii: 116;
members, xii: 116;
Advisory Commission of, pre-War activities, xii: 117;
committees, xii: 122;
distinguished membership of committees, xii: 122;
non-partisanship of, xii: 124;
expenses, xii: 124;
work of Field Division, xii: 124;
results of activities, xii: 124;
War Industries Board established, xii: 125;
cantonment construction, xii: 125;
share in victory, xii: 126;
analysis of causes of and remedies for high cost of living,
xii: 142-148.
Declarations of war,
transition from neutral to belligerent, i: 300-308;
impelling causes for, i: 301, 341, 348, 368, ii: 53;
effect of '16 Presidential campaign on, i: 305;
diplomatic relations with Germany severed, Feb. 3, '17,
i: 344-345, 389;
text of President Wilson's speech before Congress asking for
declaration of war with Germany, Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355;
text of declaration of war with Germany, Apr. 6, '17, i: 355;
Franklin Lane on effects of entry into War on American life,
i: 366-373;
diplomatic relations with Austria-Hungary severed, Apr. 8, '17,
i: 389;
diplomatic relations with Turkey severed, Apr. 20, '17, i: 390;
declaration of war on Austria-Hungary, Dec. 7, '17, i: 393;
effect on final result of War,
ii: 220, 273 (a German military critic's view), iii: 83;
Ludendorff's comments on, ii: 341;
effect on French, ii: 387;
effect on British, vi: 11;
_see also_ under Submarine warfare.
Employment Service, war-time activities, xii: 67.
Food,
Herbert Hoover appointed Food Administrator, May 19, '17, i: 390;
position of U. S. as producer, '17, xii: 35;
wheat production _vs._ consumption, 1890--1914, xii: 35;
corn production _vs._ consumption, 1890--1914, xii: 35;
voluntary rationing, xii: 35;
exports to Europe before and during War, xii: 36, 135;
conservation, xii: 37, 40, 141;
war-time increase in production, statistics, xii: 37;
increased production more important than conservation, xii: 38;
crop acreage, '10--'18, xii: 38;
crop yields, '10--'18, xii: 39;
Hoover's report on European relief, xii: 42;
war-time government control, xii: 46, 59, 140;
Sugar Equalization Board, functions, xii: 46;
war-time sugar distribution, xii: 46;
potato crop, xii: 47;
"fair price" lists, xii: 54;
functions of Food Administration, xii: 59, 140;
statistics on quantity and prices, June, '18--June, '19,
xii: 61-65;
price comparisons, '13--'19, xii: 64;
wheat exports to Allies, July 1, '17--July 1, '18, xii: 141;
consumption statistics, xii: 142;
production statistics, '18--'19, xii: 143;
wheat production, '18--'19, xii: 143;
meat production, '18--'19, xii: 144;
corn crop, '18, xii: 144;
reasons for high prices, xii: 144;
_see also_ under U. S., Cost of living.
Food Administration, _see_ under U. S., Food.
Foreign relations, policy of isolation, i: 50;
abandonment of policy of isolation, i: 52-58;
early relations with China and Japan, i: 53;
African interests, i: 54;
Congo policy, i: 54;
armed expeditions sent beyond borders, 1836--1861, i: 54;
intervention in Cuba, i: 56;
"open door" policy in China, i: 57;
Root-Takahira agreement, '08, i: 57;
Lansing-Ishii Note, '17, i: 58;
policy in Venezuelan controversy with Germany, '02, i: 86;
participation in European conferences, i: 86;
participation in Algeciras Conference, '06, i: 86;
German plans for subjugation of U. S., i: 87-88;
arbitration treaties, i: 103;
emergence from War as World Power, i: 371;
after-War mission, i: 372.
Fuel Administration, _see_ under U. S., Coal.
German-owned property, extent, xii: 33-34.
Industries during War,
regulations for conservation of leather by War Industries Board,
xii: 53;
duties and powers of War Industries Board, xii: 72;
priority system, xii: 73-75;
distribution of war contracts, xii: 74;
response to war needs, xii: 115;
creation of Council of National Defense, xii: 115;
duties of Council of National Defense, xii: 116;
pre-War movement for industrial preparedness, xii: 117;
pre-War activities of Advisory Commission,
Council of National Defense, xii: 118;
committees of Council of National Defense, xii: 122;
organization and personnel of War Industries Board, xii: 125;
share in final victory, xii: 126;
_see also_ under U. S., Council of National Defense, Labor.
Labor, women in war industries, xii: 25;
war-time safeguards for workers, xii: 66;
organizing for war production, xii: 67;
Employment Service of Department of Labor, war-time activities,
xii: 67;
war-time strikes, xii: 68;
importance in winning War, xii: 68-69;
size of working population, xii: 71;
immigration as source of labor supply, xii: 71;
war-time dislocation, xii: 71;
Mediation Commission for settling labor unrest, xii: 71;
activities of Advisory Labor Council, xii: 71;
Gen. Crowder's "Work or fight" order, xii: 72;
women as railway workers during War, xii: 84;
settlement of war-time disputes in shipyards, xii: 94;
attitude to War, xii: 121.
Marine Corps, strength, Nov. 11, '18, iii: 403;
in battle of Belleau Wood, June 6--26, '18,
v: 39, 130, 135-139, 382, x: 1-10;
capture of Bouresches, June 6, '18, v: 39, 138, x: 8-9;
in second battle of the Marne, July 18--19, '18,
v: 55, 130, 159, 167-170, 174-175, 178-179;
capture of Vierzy, July 18, '18, v: 55, 174-175;
in Champagne as part of Gouraud's French Fourth Army, Oct., '18,
v: 79, 241, 255-257;
capture of Blanc Mont, Oct. 5, '18, v: 79-80, 241, 257;
in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18,
v: 95, 262-263, 266, 270, 274;
arrival in France, v: 106, 108;
incorporated in 2nd Div., v: 108;
not in Château-Thierry battle of May 31--June 3, '18,
as popularly supposed, v: 130, 135;
casualties at Belleau Wood, June, '18, v: 139;
name of Belleau Wood changed by French
to _Bois de la Brigade de Marine_, v: 139;
casualties in second Marne battle, July, '18, v: 179;
in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. '18, v: 210;
in drive through Landres-St. George, Nov. 1, '18, v: 262-263;
force crossing of Meuse, Nov. 10, '18, v: 270, 274;
_see also_ under U. S. Army, 2nd Division.
Navy,
Rear-Adm. Mayo on war-time accomplishments of,
iv: _Intro. vii-xiii_;
supplying guns and gun crews for merchant ships,
iv: _Intro. viii_, 314;
laying of North Sea mine barrage, iv: _Intro. xi_, 324-330;
anti-submarine coast patrol, iv: _Intro. xii_;
Naval gunners on Western Front,
iv: _Intro. xii_, 323, v: 306, viii: 42-45;
transportation of A. E. F. to France,
iv: _Intro. xii_, 157-165 (account of first
expedition across Atlantic, June, '17, by Adm. Gleaves),
xii: 94-95, 283;
lessons of the War, iv: _Intro. xiii_;
destroyer flotilla on anti-submarine patrol duty in war zone,
iv: 157, 315-317, 343;
development of depth bomb by, iv: 307, 330;
strength of personnel before War and at armistice, iv: 317;
training of new personnel, iv: 317;
war-time expansion in ships and equipment, iv: 318-319;
repair of damaged interned German liners, iv: 319-321;
laying of oil pipe line across Scotland, iv: 322;
invention of "Y" gun for discharge of depth bombs, iv: 331;
development of aerial bombs for use by seaplanes against U-boats,
iv: 332;
development of star shells for illuminating enemy positions
in dark, iv: 334;
invention of torpedo plane, iv: 335;
adventures of transports in war zone, iv: 335-343;
capture of German submarine _U-58_, Nov. 18, '17, iv: 349;
Secretary Daniels' report on activities in European waters,
iv: 356-359;
co-operation with British,
iv: 356 (Secretary Daniels on),
359-361 (tributes by Sir Eric Geddes and Adm. Beatty);
development and description of N-C flying boats, viii: 236-240;
_N-C-4_ first airplane to cross Atlantic, viii: 240;
types of dirigibles used by, viii: 245, 255-257.
Neutrality,
Dr. Eliot's summary of reasons for pro- and anti-German feeling,
i: 270-273;
von Jagow's defense against anti-German criticisms, i: 273;
Maximilian Harden's views on, i: 274;
German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen,
i: 282;
position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283;
French opinion of, i: 287;
unpopular with all belligerents, i: 288;
British opinion of, i: 289;
Gabriel Hanotaux's views on, i: 290;
conflict of sympathies, i: 297;
psychology of, i: 297;
increasing pro-Ally sentiment, i: 299;
attitudes of Wilson and Roosevelt compared, i: 299, 302;
German violations against, i: 300;
transition from neutral to belligerent, i: 300-308;
effect of '16 Presidential campaign on, i: 305;
attitude of press, i: 309;
Austro-Hungarian protest of unfairness of, i: 309;
Maximilian Harden's views on American war prosperity, i: 310;
Bryan's statement on, Jan. 20, '15, i: 311;
controversy with Great Britain over British seizure of
neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339;
controversy with Germany on submarine warfare,
i: 317-326, 328-335, 339, 357-361
(chronological summary with list of ships sunk);
President Wilson's "Strict accountability" note to Germany,
i: 317;
President Wilson's "Too proud to fight" statement, i: 320, v: 372;
controversy with Germany on _Lusitania_ sinking,
i: 320, 323, 325, 326, 327, 358-361;
statements of Taft and Roosevelt on _Lusitania_ sinking,
i: 320;
note to Germany on "Freedom of the seas," July 21, '15, i: 322;
attitude of press on torpedoing of _Arabic_, i: 323;
controversy with Austria-Hungary on torpedoing of _Ancona_,
i: 326, 361;
McLemore Resolution warning Americans not to travel on
belligerent ships, i: 327;
McLemore Resolution defeated, i: 328;
note threatening severance of diplomatic relations
with Germany over sinking of _Sussex_, Apr. 18, '16,
i: 329-331;
issues of '16 Presidential campaign, i: 334;
controversy with Great Britain over British seizure of
neutral mail, i: 335;
President Wilson asks belligerents to state war aims,
Dec. 18, '16, i: 336;
Lansing's statement of problems of, i: 339;
diplomatic relations with Germany severed, Feb. 3, '17,
i: 344-345, 389;
President Wilson orders U. S. merchantmen armed, i: 347;
American casualties from submarine warfare during, i: 357;
President Wilson issues proclamation of, Aug. 4, '14, i: 375;
_see also_ Germany, Blockade of;
Submarine warfare.
Peace Conference, delegates sail for, Dec. 4, '18, i: 400;
list of delegates, xii: 179;
for work of delegates at, _see_ Peace Conference;
_also_ under name of delegate.
Peace Treaty, fight against, in Senate, xii: 264-278;
Fall amendments to, defeated, Oct. 2, '19, xii: 264;
ratification with original Lodge reservations defeated,
Nov. 19, '19, xii: 265-266;
text of original Lodge reservations, xii: 265;
defeated in Senate for second time, Mar. 19, '20, xii: 266-269;
President Wilson's opinion of Lodge reservations, xii: 267;
text of revised Lodge reservations, xii: 269;
efforts to declare peace by Congressional resolution,
xii: 271-278;
text of peace resolution introduced in House of Representatives,
Apr. 1, '20, xii: 271;
Knox resolution declaring peace with Germany passed by Congress,
May 15--21, '20, xii: 273-277;
text of original Knox resolution proposing separate peace
with Germany and successors of Austria-Hungary, xii: 273;
text of amended Knox resolution, xii: 277;
President Wilson vetoes Knox resolution, xii: 277;
text of President Wilson's veto message, xii: 278.
Population, European immigration, i: 37;
German immigration in 1882 and 1910, i: 75;
size, characteristics, and distribution of German element in,
i: 79, 277-279;
ratio of increase in urban and rural, 1890--1910, xii: 35.
Press, attitude on neutrality, i: 309;
attitude on _Lusitania_ sinking, i: 320;
attitude on torpedoing of _Arabic_, i: 323;
views on German indemnity, xii: 24.
Prisoners of war, first captured by Germans, Nov. 3, '17,
iii: 84, v: 112;
total lost in War, iii: 404.
Railroads, war-time operation under government control, xii: 87-90;
reasons for government control, xii: 88;
defects in management, xii: 89;
equipment sent to France, xii: 95;
pledge of maximum war-time service by, xii: 121.
Shipping, war-time building program, with statistics, xii: 92-94;
war losses, xii: 94;
neutral tonnage chartered for war service, xii: 98;
war-time cargo fleet, statistics on tonnage and shipments,
xii: 283, 286.
Trade, with Germany through neutrals, ii: 21;
increase in exports, '12--'17, xii: 1;
luxury imports, xii: 8-9;
decrease in luxury imports, '14--'18, xii: 58;
hostility to trade with Germany, xii: 99;
War Trade Board export license system, xii: 99.
War cost, currency inflation, xii: _Intro. xiii_, 28-31, 143;
loans floated in U. S. by foreign countries, Aug., '14--Jan., '17,
xii: 2;
sources and amounts of war-time taxation, xii: 2-9, 109-111;
income taxes, with comparison of rates in England and France,
xii: 2-6;
criticisms of war tax law, xii: 5-6;
President Wilson's tax program, xii: 6-7;
luxury taxes, xii: 7-9;
war-time prosperity, xii: 9-10;
loans in early U. S. history, xii: 10;
Liberty Loans, floating of, with statistics on amounts raised
and number of subscribers, xii: 10-16, 113, 126-135;
repayment of loans made to Allies, xii: 11;
Liberty Loan subscriptions by Federal Reserve Districts, xii: 12;
Liberty Loan subscriptions in New York City, xii: 12;
comparison of war debt with pre-War national debt,
xii: 16, 113, 114;
hourly war expenditures, xii: 16;
comparison of war cost with previous expenditures, xii: 16;
distribution of war expenditures, xii: 16;
amount of loans to Allies, xii: 16, 18, 31;
short-term certificates of indebtedness, xii: 16;
War Savings Stamps, amount raised by, xii: 18,134;
problem of liquidating national debt, xii: 18;
accumulation of Europe's gold supply in U. S., xii: 29;
credit expansion, xii: 30;
pre-War cash reserves, xii: 30;
transition from debtor to creditor nation, with statistics,
xii: 31;
daily, monthly, and total war cost, Apr., 17--June, '19,
xii: 106-108.
War Industries Board, _see_ under U. S., Industries during War.
Uruguay, failure of soviet plot in, vi: 392;
delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180.
Uskub, captured by Bulgarians, Oct., '15, i: 382, iii: 158, 204;
recaptured by Allies, Sept., '18, iii: 213.
V
_V-187_,
German destroyer sunk at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.
Vaccine, manufacture of anti-typhoid, viii: 393;
_see also_ Disease.
Vacuum tubes, in wireless telephony, viii: 318-320.
Valenciennes, Germans use as gateway into France, v: 215.
Valley, Count Arco, assassin of Kurt Eisner, vi: 298.
Van, occupied by Russians, May 23, '15, iii: 262.
Van Iersal, Sgt. Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389.
Vanquois, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.
Varennes, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.
Vaux, town in Marne salient, location, v: 133;
captured by 2nd Div., July 1, '18, v: 138, 382.
Vaux, Fort, at Verdun, captured by Germans, June 7, '16,
i: 385, iii: 54, 313;
evacuated by Germans, Nov. 2, '16, i: 388, iii: 62;
German efforts at capture repulsed, Mar., '16,
ii: 189, iii: 52, 306,
327-329 (description by French officer participating in defense);
Major Raynal, defender of, awarded Legion of Honor, iii: 313;
_see also_ Verdun.
Veles, captured by Bulgarians, Oct. 28--29, '15, i: 382,
iii: 158, 204;
recaptured by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397.
Velocity of projectiles, viii: 111.
Vencheres Wood, captured by 179th Inf. Brig., Sept. 13, '18, v: 209.
Vendieres, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 14, '18, v: 210.
Venereal diseases,
statistics on, and methods of combating in U. S. Army,
v: 402, vii: 208-209.
Venezuela, pro-German attitude during War, vi: 392.
_Vengeance_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31.
Venizelos, Eleutherios, pro-Ally policy during Greek neutrality,
iii: 202;
establishes revolutionary government in Crete, Sept., '16, iii: 210;
biography, ix: 76-82;
bibliography, ix: 81.
Verdun,
strategic value and reasons for German campaigns against,
i: 268, ii: 6, 13, 36-39, 188, 189, iii: 46, 302,
v: 199, 215, xi: 21;
effect of battle of the Somme on German offensive against,
ii: 47, iii: 61, 63, 314;
eliminated by Germans as scene of '18 offensive, ii: 67;
battles of, Feb., '16--Sept., '17,
ii: 186-189, iii: 46-55, 61-62, 79, 302-315, 327-329,
viii: 289-291, xi: 21-22;
comparison of German attack, Feb., '16,
with tactics at first battle of the Marne, ii: 186;
"They shall not pass," French watchword of defense at,
ii: 189, iii: 304, xi: 21;
Pétain commands defenders, Feb.--May, '16, ii: 189, iii: 50, 304;
Germans capture Fort Douaumont, Feb. 25, '16,
ii: 189, iii: 48, 304-305;
German attacks on Fort Vaux repulsed, Mar., '16,
ii: 189, iii: 52, 306, 327-329
(described by French officer taking part in defense);
German Crown Prince in command of attacking forces,
iii: 47, 48, 303;
use of motor transports in defense of, iii: 50, viii: 289-291;
battles for Dead Man's Hill (Le Mort Homme), Mar.--May, '16,
iii: 51, 53-54, 306-307, 308, 310-313;
Cumières captured and lost by Germans, May, '16, iii: 54, 312;
Gen. Nivelle appointed to command of French defenders, May, '16,
iii: 54, 310;
Fort Vaux captured by Germans, June 7, '16, iii: 54, 313;
German efforts to capture Fort Souville defeated, iii: 55;
Thiaumont captured by Germans, June 23--24, '16,
and recaptured by French, iii: 55, 313;
Nivelle's surprise attack, Oct., '16, iii: 61;
Fort Douaumont recaptured by French, Oct., '16, iii: 61;
Fort Vaux evacuated by Germans, Nov. 2, '16, iii: 62;
Gen. Mangin succeeds Nivelle as French commander at,
Dec., '16, iii: 62;
Mangin launches successful offensive, Dec., '16, iii: 62;
final French victories regain all important positions,
Aug.--Sept., '17, iii: 79;
Ludendorff's comment on German blunder at, iii: 302;
description of intensity of fighting at, by French participant,
iii: 308;
Major Raynal, defender of Fort Vaux, awarded Legion of Honor,
iii: 313;
freed from threat of further German attacks by suppression of
St. Mihiel salient, Sept., '18, v: 208.
Verrieres, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.
Versailles Treaty, _see_ Peace Treaty with Germany.
Very, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.
Very pistol, use in signalling, v: 319.
Vesle River,
Germans driven across, in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient,
July--Aug., '18, v: 60-62, 188-191, 383;
Germans driven from, to the Aisne, Aug.--Sept., '18,
v: 62, 260, 383-384.
Vesnitch, Dr. M. R., Serbian diplomat,
statement of Jugoslav attitude toward Italian aggrandizement,
vi: 366.
Veterinary,
treatment of sick and injured animals in War,
vii: 225-227, viii: 397-399.
Vickers machine-gun, use on airplanes, viii: 87;
U. S. production figures, xii: 284.
Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, biography, ix: 395-398.
Victory Way, in New York City, xii: 133.
Vienna, war-time privation in, vi: 312;
riots, '18, vi: 316;
after-War distress, vi: 318;
Bolshevik uprising suppressed, Apr., '19, vi: 320-321.
Vierstaat Ridge,
captured by British and 27th Div., A. E. F., Sept. 1--2, '18,
v: 290.
Vierzy, captured by 2nd Div., July 18, '18, v: 55, 174.
Vigneulles,
junction of 1st and 26th Divs. at, closes St. Mihiel salient,
Sept., '18, v: 69, 211, 212.
Ville-devant-Chaumont, captured by 26th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.
Villepigue, Corp. John C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
Villers Wood, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 15, '18, v: 210.
Villers-Cotterets, concentration of Allied forces near,
for Marne counter-offensive, July, '18, ii: 154, v: 161.
Villers-devant-Dun, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264.
Villers-sous-Preney, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 14, '18, v: 210.
Vilna, captured by Germans, Sept., '15, iii: 141.
Vilosnes-sur-Meuse captured by 60th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271.
Vimy Ridge, captured by Canadians, Apr. 9, '17, iii: 70, 343-349;
strategic importance, iii: 343;
London _Times'_ account of battle, iii: 346-348;
decorations for gallantry at, iii: 349.
_Vindictive_, British cruiser at Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262;
sunk in Ostend Channel, iv: 279;
_see also_ Zeebrugge Raid.
_Viribus Unitis_, Austrian battleship
sunk by Italians in Pola harbor, May 15, '18, i: 395, x: 297-303.
_Vive La France!_ poem by Charlotte H. Crawford, vi: 94.
Viviani, René, French statesman, biography, ix: 19-21.
Vladivostok, seized by Czechoslovak troops, June, '18, vi: 192;
Allies send troops to, vi: 193;
_see also_ Siberia.
Vocational training,
for war cripples, American help for French disabled, vii: 79, 92-95;
for American disabled, vii: 180-182, 210-216, 236-239;
modern attitude on, viii: 387;
_see also_ Reconstruction of disabled.
Vodka, war-time prohibition of, in Russia, iii: 265, vi: 135;
use of harmful substitutes for, vi: 138.
Voisin bombing planes, viii: 223.
Voldemaras, Prof.,
forms first independent Lithuanian cabinet, vi: 236.
Vologodsky, Peter,
head of liberal Siberian government at Omsk, vi: 191.
Voormezeele, captured by 30th Div., Aug. 31--Sept. 1, '18, v: 300.
Vosges Mountains, military importance, ii: 6;
place in scheme of general French strategy, ii: 9;
French occupy passes of, Aug., '14, iii: 16;
French offensive in, Dec., '15, iii: 46;
as training area for A. E. F.,
v: 118, 197, _see also_ under each Division.
W
Waalker, Sgt. Reider, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.
_Wacht am Rhine, Die_, German national song, xi: 332.
Wales, Prince of, personal sketch, ix: 395, xi: 150-152.
Walker, Col. William H.,
head of U. S. poison-gas plant at Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 181.
Wallace, Gen., British commander in western Egypt, iii: 191.
Wallachia, German offensive in, iii: 221.
Walsh, Frank P.,
member of Irish-American delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 66;
biography, ix: 337-339.
War, as a simple art, iii: 137;
definition of, iv: 1;
desirability, v: _Intro. x_;
extent of modern, v: _Intro. x_;
German policy of, _see_ Germany, Kultur, Militarism.
War Babies' Cradle,
organization and relief activities of, vii: 107, xi: 56.
War Committee (or Council) of British Cabinet,
members, Nov., '14, ii: 198;
responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 200;
responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364.
War Industries Board, U. S., _see_ U. S., Industries during War.
War relief:
American, plan of _Stars and Stripes_ for adoption of
French orphans, vii: 72, xi: 80;
Children's Bureau of American Red Cross, relief activities for
Allied children, vii: 72, 76-79, xi: 85-90;
vocational training for French war cripples, vii: 79, 92-95;
beginnings of American relief work, vii: 85;
Herbert Hoover's activities, vii: 85, 119, xii: 136, 141;
Lafayette Fund, vii: 85;
Committee of Mercy, vii: 87;
American Women's War Relief Fund, vii: 87, 91;
National Allied Relief Committee, vii: 87-90;
John Moffat's activities in early development of, vii: 87;
American Committee for Relief of Belgian Prisoners in Germany,
vii: 88, 96;
Allied Home for Munition Workers, vii: 88, 108;
French Heroes Lafayette Memorial Fund, vii: 90, 110-116;
benefit bazaars, vii: 90;
"Hero Land" bazaar, vii: 90;
American Fund for French Wounded, vii: 91, xi: 85;
American Committee for Devastated France, vii: 92;
American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, vii: 92;
War Relief Clearing House for France and Her Allies, vii: 95;
Le Bien-Être du Blessé, vii: 96;
French Tuberculosis War Victims' Fund, vii: 97;
American Committee of the Charities of the Queen of the Belgians,
vii: 98;
for war blind, vii: 99, 255-260 (Permanent Blind Relief War Fund);
Franco-American Committee for the Protection of
Children of the Frontier, vii: 101, xi: 85;
American Committee of the Secours National, vii: 105;
Committee for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105, xi: 84;
aid for French victims of shell-shock and nervous derangements,
vii: 106;
War Babies' Cradle, vii: 107, xi: 56;
relief work of American alumni of École des Beaux Arts, vii: 108;
relief for Serbia, vii: 109, 144-168;
relief for Rumania, vii: 109;
Commission for Relief in Belgium, organization and activities,
vii: 116-144;
Millard Shaler, early organizer of Belgian relief, vii: 119;
Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 343-349;
for Jewish war sufferers, vii: 349-376;
Free Milk for France fund, vii: 376-379;
American Relief Administration for feeding newly liberated
peoples, xii: 141.
Belgian, Charities of the Queen of the Belgians, vii: 98.
British, in Serbia, iii: 398;
Association of Highland Societies of Edinburgh, vii: 95;
British and Canadian Patriotic Fund, vii: 99;
British American War Relief Fund, vii: 99;
Scottish Women's Hospitals for Home and Foreign Service, vii: 101;
Chelsea War Refugees Fund for Belgian refugees in England,
vii: 106;
London Volunteer Motor Corps, vii: 107;
St. Dunstan's Home for blind, vii: 259.
Dutch, for Belgian refugees and interned soldiers, vii: 168-175.
French, vocational training for disabled, vii: 92-95;
Le Bien-être du Blessé, vii: 96;
Secours National, vii: 105;
Committee for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105, xi: 84;
relief for victims of shell-shock and nervous derangement,
vii: 106;
War Babies' Cradle, vii: 107, xi: 56.
_See also_ Knights of Columbus;
Red Cross;
Salvation Army;
Young Men's Christian Association.
War Risk Insurance, Bureau of, for U. S. fighting men, vii: 176.
War Savings Stamps, U. S., amount sold, xii: 18, 134.
War terms and soldier slang, definitions of, xi: 359-362.
War Trade Board, U. S., _see_ U. S., Trade.
War Zone, _see_
Germany, Blockade of;
Submarine warfare.
Warburg, Felix M., treasurer American Jewish Relief Committee,
vii: 354.
Ward, Pvt. Calvin, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.
Warehouses, location of great A. E. F. supply depots in France,
v: 330;
construction of, by A. E. F. in France, v: 333, 400.
Warfare, _see_ Strategy;
Tactics;
Trench warfare.
Warneford, Flight Sub-Lieut. R. A. J., brings down first Zeppelin,
ii: 269, x: 223.
_Warrior_, British cruiser sunk at Jutland, iv: 260.
Warsaw, German attacks on and capture of, Aug. 5, '15,
i: 381, ii: 26, iii: 128-130, 131, 138.
_Warspite_, British warship at battle of Jutland, iv: 260.
Washington Inn, for American officers in London, vii: 288.
_Wasted_, poem, xi: 100.
Watches, for A. E. F., viii: 327.
Water supply, for A. E. F., construction of facilities for, v: 333;
modern methods for making safe for use of armies, viii: 394-396.
_We Are Fred Karno's Army_, British soldiers' song, xi: 338.
_Wearing of the Green_, Irish patriotic air, xi: 334.
Weather forecasting, importance of, in war, xi: 296-303.
Weddigen, Lieut.-Com. Otto, commander of _U-9_,
sinks British cruisers _Aboukir, Cressy_, and _Hogue_,
iv: 205, x: 274-280.
Wedell, Hans von, leader in German passport frauds in U. S., x: 333.
Weimar, meeting place of German National Assembly, Feb., '19, vi: 291.
Wekerle, Dr., succeeds Count Tisza as Premier of Hungary, vi: 314;
suppresses Jugoslav congress at Agram, Mar., '18, vi: 363.
Welland Canal, German plot for destruction of, i: 318.
Wellborn, Col., director of U. S. Tank Corps, v: 314.
Wemyss, Sir Rosslyn,
succeeds Jellicoe as British First Sea Lord, Dec. 26, '17, i: 393.
West, Sgt. Chester H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.
West Prussia, award to Poland by Peace Conference, vi: 226.
Western Front,
establishment by Germans of trench lines from
North Sea to Swiss border following first Marne battle,
Sept., '14, ii: _Intro. vii_, 11, iii: 37,
viii: 134, xi: 12, 253;
relative importance compared with Eastern theatre of war,
ii: _Intro. x-xxiv_ (Gen. Maurice on), 11-14, 87-89,
171 (opinion of Field-Marshal French);
the _vital_ front, ii: _Intro. xxiii_;
Allied retreat to the Marne, Aug.--Sept., '18,
ii: 9, 166, 183, iii: 20-30;
German "strategic" retreat to Hindenburg Line, '17,
ii: 53, iii: 66-70;
reasons for German offensive of Mar.--July, '18, ii: 65-67;
German strength, Mar., '18, ii: 65, 75, iii: 383, v: 120;
Allied strength Mar., '18, ii: 66;
choice of sector by Germans for great offensive of Mar., '18,
ii: 67-69, 311, iii: 86;
great German offensive begun, Mar. 21, '18,
ii: 70, 150, 308-316 (Ludendorff's account),
iii: 86, 359, v: 23, 120, 130, 380, vi: 270;
break through Allied line and rout of British Fifth Army near
St. Quentin in great German drive, Mar., '18,
ii: 70-74, 150-152, 190-197, iii: 86-91,
381-390 (account by Philip Gibbs), v: 373;
German drive against Channel ports, Apr., '18,
ii: 75, 153, iii: 91, 359-363;
German casualties in offensive of Mar.--Apr., '18, ii, 75;
German drive to the Marne, May--July, '18,
ii: 76-79, 154, 320, iii: 92-96, v: 35, 41-53, 129, 130;
Allied counter-offensive and retreat of Germans out of
France and Belgium, July 18--Nov. 11, '18,
ii: 80-87, 154, 156-159, 209-216
(résume by Gen. Malleterre), 324-326 (Ludendorff's account),
331-340 (Ludendorff's account), iii: 96-104, v: 72, 192, 213;
battle line, July 18, '18, ii: 82;
German bases in France captured in Allied counter-offensive,
July--Nov., '18, ii: 86;
campaigns on, first phase, maneuvering for position, ii: 112;
second phase, war of attrition, ii: 112;
third phase, final stroke, ii: 113;
necessity for frontal attack on, ii: 116;
Foch's analysis of weakness of German position, July, '18, ii: 154;
Allied and German man-power, Oct., '18, ii: 159;
British man-power, Aug., '18, ii: 214;
British shell supply, Aug., '18, ii: 214;
military situation, Nov., '18, ii: 215;
general topography, iii: 2;
battle line, Jan., '15, iii: 41;
German prisoners and guns captured by Allies,
July--Nov., '18, iii: 104;
A. E. F. deciding factor in last campaigns on, v: 23-25;
first American sector established, Aug., '18, v: 64, 192-193, 384;
American front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 95;
five major German offensives on, v: 96;
effect of Russian withdrawal from War on, v: 113;
German lines of defense and communications, v: 214-216;
for details of engagements or sectors, _see_ name of battle,
campaign, or sector.
Wet, Gen. Christian de,
leader of Boer rebellion against British, '14, vi: 50.
Wettig, Carl, discloses German plot to blow up ships, x: 374.
Wexford, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357.
Wheat, production and imports by Germany, ii: 17;
government price-fixing in U. S., xii: 59;
U. S. exports to Allies, July, '17--July,'18, xii: 141;
statistics on production in U. S., '18--'19, xii: 143;
_see also_ Food.
_Where Do We Go From Here, Boys?_,
American soldiers' song, xi: 337.
Whiddy Island, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357.
Whippets, British baby tanks, ii: 280, viii: 148, xi: 262;
_see also_ Tanks.
Whitby, bombarded by German fleet, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245.
White Russia, Republic of, established, May, '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Whittlesey, Major Charles W.,
commander of "Lost Battalion," isolation and rescue in
Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 2--7, '18, v: 231, 239, 241, 242, 243;
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.
_Why Did We Join the Army?_, British soldiers' song, xi: 337.
Wickersham, Geo. W.,
analysis of Peace Treaty with Germany, xii: 170-178.
Wickersham, 2nd Lieut. J. Hunter,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.
_Wien_, Austrian battleship torpedoed by
Italians in Trieste harbor, i: 393, x: 290.
Wieringen,
German Crown Prince's home at, after flight from Germany, vi: 278.
Wilhelm, Kaiser, _see_ William II.
Wilhelmina, Queen of Netherlands, biography, ix: 401-405.
Wilhelmshaven, revolt of German navy at, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381.
Willard, Daniel, chairman of Advisory Commission,
U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 116.
William I, becomes first German Emperor, Jan. 18, 1871, i: 44.
William II, of Germany,
abdicates throne, Nov. 9, '18, i: 399, ii: 340, vi: 273;
conception of powers as Emperor, i: 73;
becomes Emperor, 1888, i: 97, 185, ix: 358;
arrogance, i: 97;
visits Turkey, i: 98, 207;
famous speech at Tangier, Mar., '05, i: 99;
complicity in Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, July, '14,
i: 133-136, 252;
interview in London _Daily Telegraph_ declaring friendship for
England, Oct. 28, '18, i: 186;
advice to troops to be "terrible as Huns," i: 186;
reprimanded by Reichstag and Bundesrat for _Daily Telegraph_
interview, i: 189;
Lloyd George's opinion of, i: 189;
Kruger telegram supporting cause of Boers against Great Britain,
Jan. 3, 1898, i: 192;
statement about "sharpness of German sword," ii: 161;
Ludendorff's estimate of weakness, ii: 317;
Supreme War Lord, ii: 331;
author of phrase "Yellow peril," vi: 248;
retirement to Amerongen after abdication, Nov., '18, vi: 277;
biography and sketch of personality, ix: 355-367, xi: 139-141;
bibliography, ix: 367;
Peace Treaty provisions for trial for war guilt, xii: 217.
William of Wied, becomes ruler of Albania, i: 206.
_William P. Frye_,
American ship sunk by Germans, Jan. 28, '15, i: 319, 378.
Wilson, Adm. Henry B., biography, ix: 295-296.
Wilson, Gen.,
British representative on Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84.
Wilson, Major,
develops idea of tank as fighting machine, viii: 155.
Wilson, William B.,
U. S. Secretary of Labor, on anti-war spirit of laboring classes,
xii: 65.
Wilson, Woodrow,
assumes leadership of liberal Democrats, i: 295;
temperament contrasted with Roosevelt's, i: 299;
"Strict accountability" note to Germany on U-boat warfare, i: 317;
"Too proud to fight" statement, i: 320, v: 372, ix: 62;
opposition to McLemore Resolution, i: 327;
note to belligerents to state war aims, Dec. 18,. '16, i: 336;
"Peace without victory" speech, Jan., '17, i: 337, ix: 64;
speech before Congress asking for declaration of war with Germany,
Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355;
effects of diplomacy, ii: 390;
position in Fiume dispute, vi: 369;
biography and personal sketch, ix: 55-69, xi: 131-135;
"Fourteen Points," ix: 67, xii: 163-165;
bibliography, ix: 69;
stricken ill during tour for ratification of Peace Treaty,
Sept., '19, xii: 264;
opinion of Lodge reservations, xii: 267;
message vetoing Knox Resolution, xii: 278;
for relations with belligerents during neutrality,
_see_ Germany, Blockade of;
Submarine warfare;
for work at Peace Conference, _see_ Peace Conference.
Winchester self-loading rifle, description, viii: 89.
Windhoek, captured by British, May 12, '15, i: 380, iii: 255.
Wire entanglements, _see_ Barbed wire.
Wireless, use by A. E. F. Signal Corps, v: 317, 318-319;
development under war needs, viii: 315;
apparatus for generation and transmission of radio waves,
viii: 315-318;
Goldschmidt alternator, viii: 316;
Alexanderson alternator, viii: 316-318;
use of vacuum tubes in wireless telephony, viii: 318-320;
types of aerials, viii: 320;
U. S. Navy wireless stations, location and method of operation,
viii: 320-322.
Wisloka River,
battle between Germans and Russians on banks of, May, '15, iii: 136.
Woevre River,
Germans driven into plains of, by A. E. F. advance in
Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18, v: 94.
Wold, Pvt. Nels, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.
_Wolf_, seaplane-carrier German raider, activities, iv: 198.
Women in War, French munition workers, ii: 376;
Pershing's tribute, v: 404;
as Y. M. C. A. workers in Europe, vii: 267-271;
Russian Battalion of Death, x: 183-185, xi: 205-210;
British, in war industries, xii: 25;
American, in war industries, xii: 26, 84-85;
British, as farm laborers, xii: 40;
effects of entry into industries on social organization, xii: 83-84;
_see also_ Nurses;
Red Cross;
Salvation Army;
War relief;
Young Men's Christian Association.
Wood, Maj.-Gen. Leonard,
on lessons of the War, iii: _Intro. vii-x_;
in command of 89th Div., during training period, v: 146, 365.
Woodfill, 1st Lieut. Samuel,
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.
World empires, development toward, before War, i: 23;
rivalry of ambitions for, i: 25.
World federation, ideal of, i: 25;
religious diversity an obstacle to, i: 25.
World League of Red Cross Societies, organization and objects, vii: 3.
World War, results,
i: _Intro. ix-xiv_ (summary by Dr. Eliot),
vii: _Intro. ix_ (Dr. Manning on spiritual);
areas involved, i: 9;
effect on population, xii: 25;
_see also_ Causes of War;
Cost of War;
Germany, Responsibility for War.
Wounded, _see_
Ambulance;
Carrel-Dakin treatment;
Hospitals;
Infection;
Medical Science;
Reconstruction of disabled;
Surgery;
U. S. Army, Medical Service.
Wright, Maj.-Gen. William M., commander of 35th Div., v: 128, 361;
commander of 89th Div., v: 146, 365;
commander of Seventh Corps, v: 395;
biography, ix: 221-223.
Württemberg, Duke of, in command of German Northern Armies, iii: 61.
Wynne, Mrs. Hilda,
experiences as ambulance driver, vii: 105, x: 186-188.
X
Xivray, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199.
X-ray, use in war surgery, vii: 221, viii: 373-376.
Xylyl bromide (tear gas), use in chemical warfare, viii: 170.
Y
"Y" gun, for launching depth bombs, iv: 331.
Yachts, converted, work in anti-submarine patrol, iv: 292.
Yakutsk Republic, established, May, '18, xii: 279;
area and population, xii: 279.
Yankee (26th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army.
Yarmouth, bombarded by German raiders, Nov. 3, '14, iv: 244.
Yemen, Imamate of, established, '18, xii: 279.
York, Sgt. Alvin C., account of exploits as fighter, x: 13-18;
gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.
Young, Lt.-Com. E. Hilton, account of Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 269-279.
Young, Lieut. I. E. R.,
account of air battle against German raiders over London, x: 215.
Young Men's Christian Association:
American, organization for war work and program of activities,
vii: 261-266;
recognition by War Department as welfare agency, vii: 262;
personnel, number and character, vii: 266;
casualties in overseas service, vii: 267;
women's work with, overseas, vii: 267-271;
Work in A. E. F. leave areas, vii: 269;
at the front with combat troops, vii: 271-277;
award of Distinguished Service Crosses to workers, vii: 272;
with the "Lost Battalion," vii: 273;
huts used as targets by Germans, vii: 274;
awards of _Croix de Guerre_ to workers, vii: 275, 313;
hotels for service men, vii: 277;
entertainment for service men, vii: 277-279;
educational work for A. E. F., vii: 280-283, 290;
religious activities among troops, vii: 283-285;
activities for A. E. F. in United Kingdom, vii: 286-290;
Eagle Hut in London, vii: 288, 300;
in Italy, vii: 290;
with Army of Occupation, vii: 291-293;
with A. E. F. in Russia and Siberia, vii: 293-298;
Navy service, vii: 298-302;
Navy Hut at Brest, vii: 302;
work among prisoners of war, Allied and Teuton, vii: 302-310;
care of American war prisoners in Germany, vii: 309;
_Foyers du Soldats_ for French soldiers, vii: 310-313;
_Foyers du Marin_ for French sailors, vii: 313;
athletics for A. E. F., vii: 313-317;
work for Russian army and civilians, vii: 318-319.
British, in Egypt, vii: 321, 322;
at Gallipoli, vii: 321;
in Sudan, vii: 322;
in Palestine and Jerusalem, vii: 322-323;
in Mesopotamia, vii: 324.
Indian, welfare work in India, vii: 327.
International, in Egypt, vii: 322;
in Mesopotamia, vii: 324-327.
Young Turks, force constitutional government in Turkey, '08, i: 109.
Ypres, battles of:
Oct.--Nov., '14, ii: 144, 170-171 (Field-Marshal French's account),
iii: 41.
Apr., '15, first use of gas in warfare by Germans,
ii: 222, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316.
July--Oct., '17, ii: 128 (Haig's account of use of artillery in),
iii: 78-79.
Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 360-363 (description by Philip Gibbs).
Yser, battles of, Oct., '14, ii: 220, iii: 40;
July, '17, iii: 77-78.
Yudenitch, Gen., Russian commander,
campaign against and capture of Erzerum, iii: 262-263.
Z
Zabern incident, i: 72.
Zeebrugge Raid, British exploit in blocking German submarine
base on Belgian coast, Apr., '18, iv: 261-279;
ships participating, iv: 262;
official Admiralty report, iv: 262-265;
Capt. Carpenter's account, iv: 266-268;
British casualties, iv: 268;
account of Lieut.-Com. Young of _Vindictive_, iv: 269-279.
Zemstvos, Russian, congress of, prohibited by Protopopov, vi: 143;
succeeded by local "soviets," vi: 164;
war-time activities, xii: 82.
_Zemtchug_, Russian cruiser sunk by German raider _Emden_,
Oct. 28, '14, iv: 179.
Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von,
inventor of Zeppelin dirigible airships, biography, ix: 250-252.
Zeppelins, description of structural features,
with discussion of utility during war and peace,
ii: 262-269, viii: 241-254;
raids on England, ii: 266, iii: 41,
viii: 246, _see also_ Air raids;
exploit of Sub-Lieut. Warneford in bringing down first
Zeppelin of War, ii: 269, x: 223-225;
development in construction, '14--'18, viii: 241;
compared with airplanes, viii: 241-245;
flight of _L-59_ to Egypt, viii: 243.
Zigzagging, as defense against U-boat attack, iv: 310.
Zimmermann, Dr. Alfred F. M., German Foreign Secretary,
attempt to force from Ambassador Gerard
guarantees for German-owned property in U. S., i: 345;
text of note attempting to involve Mexico and Japan
in war against U. S., i: 347.
Zouaves, description, xi: 189.
ILLUSTRATIONS
I.--PORTRAITS
A.
Adams, Sgt, Harry J., x: 42.
Ador, Gustave, President of Switzerland,
with President Poincaré of France, xii: 154.
Ahmed, Sultan, Shah of Persia, i: 104.
Albert, King of the Belgians, at the front, ii: 5;
with Queen Elizabeth, ii: 157, vii: 140;
inspecting British tank, ii: 278;
equestrian statue, iii: 379;
portrait studies, vii: 121, ix: 386;
symbolic painting of, ix;
_facing p._ 386 (in color);
entry into Bruges, ix: 390;
inspecting U. S. sailors, xi: 129.
Albert, Prince, of England, xi: 150, 151 (as aviator).
Alexander, King of Greece, iii: 206.
Alexander I, Czar of Russia, i: 35.
Alexander, Prince Regent of Serbia, vi: 357, vii: 147.
Alexander, Maj.-Gen. Robert, v: 221.
Alexandra, former Czarina of Russia, ix: 377;
with royal family, xi: 146.
Alexandra, Dowager Queen of England, ix: 394.
Alexandrina Irene, Princess, daughter of German Crown Prince, xi: 149.
Alexis, Czarevitch, of Russia,
ii: 227, xi: 145, 146, 148 (last photograph).
Alfonso, King of Spain, with son, vi: 371.
Allen, B. S., vii: 115.
Allen, Maj.-Gen. Henry T., v: 201.
Allenby, Gen. Sir Edmund H. H.,
ii: 89, 177, iii: 323 (entering Jerusalem), ix: 197.
Allied Food Council, members of, ix: 322.
Ames, Winthrop, vii: 340.
Anastasia, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146.
Andrews, Brig.-Gen. Avery D., v: 93.
Aonzo, Lieut., iv: 365.
Aosta, Duke of, iii: 240.
Armenian Patriarch, of Jerusalem, vi.: 332.
Arnim, Count von, ii: 222.
Arnim, Gen. Sixt von, iii: 88.
Arthur, Julia, vii: 344.
Asquith, Herbert H., ix: 31.
Astor, Mrs. Vincent, as Y. M. C. A. canteen worker, vii: 270.
Atkinson, Sgt. Ralph M., x: 61.
Averescu, Gen., iii: 216.
B
Bailey, Maj.-Gen. C. J., v: 275.
Bain, H. F., vii: 115.
Baker, Newton D.,
v: 39 (with Gen. Pershing), 375, ix: 324,
xii: 117 (with members of Council of National Defense),
xii: 289 (drawing first draft number).
Baldwin, Dr. E. R., vii: 69.
Balfour, Arthur James, ix: 41;
at Peace Conference, xii: 160.
Barker, Col. William, vii: 391.
Barton, Clara, vii: 12.
Baruch, Bernard M.,
xii: 117 (with members of U.S. Council of National Defense), 119.
Bates, Blanche, vii: 344.
Bauer, Gustav, vi: 304.
Beatty, Adm. Sir David,
iv: 11 (coming on board U. S. battleship _New York_),
102, 149 (with King George), ix: 284.
Belgian royal children, xi: 130.
Bell, Maj.-Gen. George, Jr., v: 219.
Belrose, L., vii: 115.
Benedict XV, Pope, i: 164.
Benson, Adm., with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi_;
with Secretary Daniels and Sir Eric Geddes, iv: 357.
Benson, 1st Lieut. Philip, x: 210.
Berchtold, Count, i: 137, ix: 143.
Bergmann, Gen., ix: 267.
Bernhardi, Gen, Frederick von, i: 169.
Bernstorff, Count Johann von, ix: 134, x: 327.
Bertle, Sir Francis L., ii: 131.
Bethel, Brig.-Gen. Walter A., v: 38.
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von,
i: 130 (with Kaiser and leading German generals),
iii: 2, vi: 265, ix: 123.
Bigelow, member of Lafayette Escadrille, x: 197.
Biggs, Dr. H. M., vii: 69.
Binkley, Sgt. David U., x: 97.
Birdwood, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William, iii: 375.
Bishop, Col. William A., x: 216, 219.
Bismarck, Prince Otto von, i: 43;
with Napoleon III, i: 44;
at Congress of Berlin, i: 49;
at proclamation of German Empire, i: 55;
dictating surrender of French in Franco-Prussian War, i: 163;
dictating terms of peace to French after Franco-Prussian War,
i: 212.
Bissing, Gen. von, ii: 99.
Bliss, Gen, Tasker H., v: 110;
at Peace Conference, xii: 160.
Bohlen, Krupp von, i: 135.
Bonstelle, Jessie, vii: 344.
Booth, Miss Evangeline, vii: 392.
Boothby, George, vii: 335.
Borden, Sir Robert, vi: 25.
Botchkareva, Marie, x: 184.
Botha, Gen. Louis, vi: 49, ix: 192.
Brent, Bishop, xi: 250.
Breshkovsky, Catherine, vi: 150, ix: 348.
Briand, Aristide,
i: 398 (presiding at first Allied Conference, Mar., '16), ii: 386.
Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count, ix: 137, xii: 169.
Brown, Brig.-Gen. Preston, v: 86.
Brunswick, Duke and Duchess of, i: 168.
Brusiloff, Gen. Alexei, iii: 143, ix: 233.
Bullard, Lieut.-Gen. Robert Lee,
v: _facing p._ 396 (in color), ix: 220, x: 17 (with staff).
Bülow, Prince Bernhard von, ix: 129.
Bunch, Maj. Henry E., x: 83.
Bundy, Maj.-Gen. Omar, v: 249, ix: 226.
Bunsen, Sir Maurice de, i: 126.
Burdick, "Mother," vii: 385.
Burr, Sgt. George E., x: _facing p._ 102 (in color).
Butterfield, Sgt. William M., x: 343.
Byng, Sir Julian, iii: 338.
C
Cadorna, Gen. Luigi, iii: 229, 231, 233, ix: 228.
Caillaux, M., vi: 104.
Cambon, Jules, i: 128.
Cambon, Paul, ii: 384.
Cameron, Pvt. Charles, x: 144.
Campbell, Capt. Douglass, x: _facing p._ 152 (in color).
Canterbury, Archbishop of, vii: 299.
Carden, Vice-Adm., iii: 174.
Carney, Pvt. Fred, x: 53.
Carpenter, Capt., iv: 266, 267.
Carpentier, Georges, as airman, x: 207.
Carranza, Gen. Venustiano, i: 320.
Carrel, Dr. Alexis, ix: 311, xi: 289.
Carson, Sir Edward, vi: 66, ix: 51.
Carty, Col., x: 48.
Casement, Sir Roger, vi: 56, 57 (on trial for treason), ix: 54.
Castelnau, Gen. de, with Gen. d'Esperey, ii: 141.
Castlereagh, Lord, i: 29.
Cavour, Count Camillo, i: 43.
Cecil, Lord Robert, xii: 207.
Chamberlain, Austen, ii: 90.
Chapman, Victor, x: 170.
Charles I, Emperor of Austria-Hungary,
ii: 65, iii: 140 (in Warsaw), ix: 373.
Charles Theodore, Prince, son of King Albert of Belgium, xi: 130.
Churchill, Winston Spencer, vi: 10, ix: 45 (with wife).
Churchill, Mrs. Winston Spencer, ix: 45.
Clarkson, Grosvenor B.,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Clausewitz, Carl von, i: 166.
Clayburgh, Mme., vii: 344.
Clemenceau, Georges, near the front, iii: 35;
decorating a priest, iii: 85;
portrait study, ix: 3;
leaving Peace Conference, ix: 6;
in his study, ix: 11;
in uniform of a poilu, ix: 12;
visiting a liberated French village, xi: 126;
at Somme battle front, xi: 127;
presiding at Peace Conference, xii: 160.
Clementel, French Minister of Commerce, xii: 106.
Clifford, Rev. J. H., x: 33.
Coffin, Howard E.,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Colmar, Mayor of, i: 328.
Commission for Relief in Belgium, members of, vii: 115.
Connaught, Duke of, with King George, i: 124;
inspecting troops, vi: 33;
with Archbishop of Canterbury at a Y. M. C. A. hut, vii: 299.
Conner, Brig.-Gen. Fox, v: 104.
Constantine, former King of Greece, iii: 203, ix: 381 (with family).
Council of National Defense,
U. S., with Advisory Commission, members of, xii: 117.
Cozens, W. J., vii: 115.
Cradock, Adm. Sir Christopher, iv: 63.
Craig, Capt., vi: 66.
Craig, Brig.-Gen. Malin, v: 80.
Crile, Dr. George W., vii: 68.
Cronkhite, Maj.-Gen. Adelbert, v: _facing p._ 146 (in color).
Currie, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Arthur, iii: 346 (with Pershing), 377, vi: 28.
Czar of Russia, _see_ Nicholas II.
D
D'Amade, Gen., ii: 163.
Daniels, Josephus, with Franklin Roosevelt, i: 359;
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi_;
with Sir Eric Geddes and Adm. Benson, iv: 357;
portrait study, x: 327;
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Danilo Alexander, Prince, of Montenegro, iii: 153.
D'Annunzio, Gabriele, vi: 121.
Dasch, Pvt. Carl W., x: 50.
Davis, Brig.-Gen. Robt. C., v: 291.
Davison, Henry P., vii: 3, 17.
Dawson, Sgt. Clarence W., x: 310.
De La Ray, Gen., vi: 49.
Derby, Dr. Richard, x: 242.
Dernburg, Dr. Bernhard, vi: 297.
D'Esperey, Gen., with Gen. Castelnau, ii: 141.
Devereaux, Pvt. Harold J., x: 134.
De Wet, Gen. Christian, vi: 49.
Diaz, Gen., ii: 367.
Dickman, Maj.-Gen. Joseph T., v: 52.
Disraeli, Benjamin, i: 50.
Djavid Bey, ii: 28.
Djevad Bey, Col., iii: 356.
Dmitrieff, Gen. Radko, iii: 136.
Dougherty, Color Sgt. Hardy C, x: 110.
Doumergue, French Minister of Colonies, vi: 104, xii: 106.
Drummond, Sir Eric, xii: 202.
Dubail, Gen. and Madame, xi: 47.
Duffy, Father, vii: 335.
Dugan, Maj.-Gen. Thomas B., v: 226.
Dumba, Dr. Constantin, x: 328.
Dunant, Henri, vii: 10.
Duncan, Maj.-Gen. George B., v: 10.
E
Earle, Rear-Adm.,
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
Ebert, Friedrich,
vi: 293 (delivering speech of acceptance to election as
German President), ix: 136.
Edward VII, of England,
with Kaiser, i: 188;
with son (present King George V) and
grandson (present Prince of Wales), ii: 3.
Edwards, Maj.-Gen. Clarence R.,
v: 66 (with Gen. Liggett), 253.
Eggeman, Judge, vii: 335.
Eggers, Sgt., x: 105.
Einem, Gen. von,
with Kaiser and other leading German generals, i: 130.
Eisner, Kurt, vi: 289.
Eitel, Prince, of Prussia, i: 168.
Eitel Friedrich, Princess, of Prussia, i: 168.
Elena, Queen of Italy, xi: 142.
Elizabeth, Queen of Belgium,
ii: 157, vii: 140, ix: 389, xi: 130 (with her children).
Ellis, Pvt. M. B., x: 119.
Eltinge, Brig.-Gen. Leroy, x: 283.
Ely, Maj.-Gen. Hanson E., v: 123.
Enver Pasha, iii: 262, ix: 271.
Erzberger, Mathias, meeting with Foch to arrange armistice, v: 392.
Eugene, Archduke, of Austria, with staff, i: 139.
F
Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich von,
i: 130 (with other leading German generals), iii: 223, ix: 262.
Fallow, Capt. Thomas H., x: 161.
Feng Kuo-Chang, Gen., i: 58.
Ferdinand, former Czar of Bulgaria, iii: 156, 211, ix: 379.
Ferdinand, King of Rumania,
iii: 219 (decorating troops), 221, ix: 400.
Ferguson, Sgt. Dugald E., x: 77.
Ferguson, Elsie, vii: 341.
Fernandez, Bijou, vii: 344.
Fisher, Adm. Lord John, ix: 289.
Fiske, Brig.-Gen. Harold B., v: 103.
Fitzgerald, John, vii: 335.
Flagler, Maj.-Gen. Clement A. F., v: 209.
Foch, Marshal Ferdinand,
ii: 86 (inspecting Rhine fortifications with Gen. Mangin),
139, 142 (reviewing guards at St. Germain-en-Laye),
v: 392 (meeting German armistice delegates),
ix: 148, 151 (an early portrait), xi: 47, 136.
Forstner, Lieut. von, i: 73.
Foulois, Brig.-Gen Benjamin D., v: 310.
Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, of Austria,
i: 3 (with family), 111, 113 (shortly before assassination),
vi: 360 (with Kaiser).
Francis Joseph I, late Emperor of Austria-Hungary, ix: 371.
Frederick, Archduke, of Austria, ii: 24.
Frederick, King of Denmark, vi: 393.
Frederick the Great, i: 22.
Frederick III, German Emperor, i: 183.
Frederick William, former Crown Prince of Prussia and of Germany,
with Crown Princess, i: 117;
with leading German generals, i: 130;
with members of royal family, i: 168;
bestowing decorations, ii: 38;
portrait studies, ii: 311, 339, ix: 368 (with one of his children);
on Verdun front, iii: 48, 307;
with staff, iii: 304;
with father and son, vi: 263.
Frederick William III, King of Prussia, i: 34.
French, Field-Marshal Viscount John, iii: 24, ix: 178, xi: 360.
French cabinet, members of, '13, vi: 304.
Freytag-Loringhoven, Baron von, ii: 255.
Fritz, Pvt. Albert, x: 80.
G
Galliéni, Gen. Joseph Simon, ix: 162.
Galopin, Gen., xi: 47.
Garfield, Harry A., xii: 49.
Garibaldi, Capt., x: 64.
Garibaldi, Gen., x: 64.
Gasette, Miss Grace, vii: 190.
Gaultney, Corp. Walter E., x: _facing p._ 200 (in color).
Gay, G. I., vii: 115.
Geddes, Sir Eric,
iv: 357 (with Josephus Daniels and Adm. Benson), ix: 314.
George, Prince, of England, xi: 151.
George V, King of England,
with Duke of Connaught, i: 124;
with father (Edward VII) and Prince of Wales, ii: 3;
aboard U. S. battleship _New York_, iv: 11, 85;
with Adm. Beatty, iv: 149;
inspecting gun on a U. S. battleship, iv: 346;
decorating a U. S. soldier, v: 383;
bust presented to American Y. M. C. A. in London, vii: 286;
with Lloyd George, ix: 29;
portrait study, ix: 393;
at baseball game between U. S. service teams in London, xi: 153;
on tour of inspection, xi: 314.
Gerard, James W., i: 303 (with embassy staff in Berlin), 322.
German Crown Princess, with Crown Prince, i: 117;
with members of royal family, i: 168;
with daughter and German Empress, xi: 149.
Gibbons, Cardinal James, vii: _Intro. vi._
Gibson, Harvey D., vii: 103.
Gibson, Hugh, vi: 88, vii: 115.
Gifford, Walter S.,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Giovanna, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144.
Gleaves, Vice-Adm. Albert, iv: 159.
Glossop, Capt. John C. T., iv: 186.
Godfrey, Dr. Hollis,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Goltz, Field-Marshal Baron von der, ix: 269.
Gompers, Samuel P., xii: 87.
Gordon, Maj.-Gen. Walter H., v: 223.
Gorgas, Surgeon-General William C., vii: 192.
Gori, Lieut., with Commander Rizzo and Lieut. Aonzo, iv: 365.
Gortchakoff, Prince, i: 181.
Goschen, Sir Edward, i: 125.
Gough, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Hubert de la Poer, iii: 376.
Gouraud, Gen. Henri, ii: 122, 210, iii: 229, v: 44.
Gourko, Gen. Basil, ii: 226.
Graham, Sgt. Clyde, x: 166.
Grayson, Rear-Adm., xii: _Intro. xvii._
Greek delegates to Paris Peace Conference, ix: 80.
Greek royal family, ix: 381.
Grey, Sir Edward, ix: 36.
Griffin, Rear-Adm.,
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
Grismer, Mrs. Joseph, vii: 344.
Grouitch, Madame Slavko, vii: 145.
Guendele, Gen. von,
with German armistice delegates, meeting Foch, v: 392.
Gustav, King of Sweden, vi: 395.
Guynemer, Capt. Georges, x: 203.
H
Haakon VII, King of Norway, i: 133.
Haan, Maj.-Gen. William G., v: 24.
Haeseler, Gen. von, with Kaiser and leading German generals, i: 130.
Haig, Field-Marshal Sir Douglas, ii: 113, 114, iii: 374, ix: 182.
Haldane, Lord, i: 108.
Hall, Capt. James Norman, x: 201.
Hamill, Dr. Samuel M., vii: 69.
Hamilton, Gen. Sir Ian, ii: 30, iii: 162.
Harbord, Maj.-Gen. James G., v: _facing p._ 36 (in color).
Harden, Maximilian, vi: 303.
Hartman, Sgt. William A., x: 167.
Hartz, Gen. William W., v: 255.
Hay, Maj.-Gen. William H., v: 279.
Helfferich, Dr. Karl, iii: 2, ix: 354.
Helmick, Maj.-Gen. Eli, v: 268.
Heming, Violet, vii: 344.
Henderson, Arthur, ix: 48.
Herren, Sgt. William, x: 323.
Hertling, Count von,
i: 273, vi: 259 (addressing Prussian Chamber of Deputies).
Hill, R. F., vii: 115.
Hindenburg, Field-Marshal Paul von,
i: 130 (with Kaiser and other leading German generals),
ii: 207, 299 (with Ludendorff), 325 (with Ludendorff), 361,
iii: 113, vi: 291, ix: 243, 248 (wooden statue of),
364 (with Kaiser and Ludendorff).
Hinds, Maj.-Gen. Ernest, v: 320.
Hines, Maj.-Gen. John L., v: 182.
Hines, Walker D., xii: 90.
Hinkle, member of Lafayette Escadrille, x: 197.
Hohenberg, Duchess of,
i: 3 (with husband, Archduke Francis Ferdinand
of Austria, and family), 111, 113
(with husband, shortly before assassination).
Holt, Dr. L. Emmett, vii: 69.
Honnold, W. L., vii: 115.
Hood, Rear-Adm. Horace, iv: 120.
Hoover, Sgt. Charles S., x: 126.
Hoover, Herbert C., vii: 115, 122, ix: 317.
Horton, Lieut.-Com. Max K., iv: 207.
House, Col. Edward M.,
ix: 71 (with Mrs. House), 74, xii: 160 (at Peace Conference).
Houston, David F.,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Howe, Capt. Maurice W., x: 312.
Howze, Maj.-Gen. Robert L., v: 185.
Hsaün Tung, ex-Emperor of China, i: 17.
Hughes, Sir Sam, vi: 35.
Hughes, William Morris, vi: 39.
Hurley, Edward N., with Charles M. Schwab, ix: 336.
I
Ingenohl, Vice-Adm., iv: 68.
Ireland, Maj.-Gen. Merritt A., vii: 194.
Ishii, Viscount, ix: 89.
Italian royal children, xi: 142.
Italian War Mission to United States, members of, vi: 118.
Ivanoff, Gen., iii: 127.
J
Jagow, Gottliev von, iii: 2, ix: 127.
Janeway, Dr. Theodore C., vii: 250.
Janis, Elsie, vii: 294.
Jellicoe, Adm. Sir John, v: 100, ix: 276.
Joan of Arc, i: _frontispiece_ (in color).
Joffre, Marshal Joseph Jacques César, with Gen. Nivelle, ii: 12;
in trenches with Kitchener, ii: 164;
examining German prisoners, ii: 173;
at Verdun, iii: 50;
with Gen. Pershing, v: 57;
painting in color, ix: _facing p._ 154;
decorating French officer, ix: 158;
at West Point, ix: 160;
at Lafayette statue in Brooklyn, xi: 7;
portrait studies, xi: 11, 268;
with other leading French generals and Pershing, xi: 47.
Jones, R. H., vii: 115.
Jutta, Princess, of Montenegro, iii: 153.
K
Kaiser, _see_ William II.
Karolyi, Count, ix: 146.
Kei Hara, vi: 387.
Kenney, Maj., with Maj. Whittlesey, v: 238.
Kerensky, Alexander Feodorovitch, vi: 145, ix: 105.
Key, Francis Scott, xi: 325.
Kitchener, Field-Marshal Earl Horatio Herbert,
ii: 164 (in trenches with Joffre), 165, 203, ix: 169, 171.
Klotz, Louis, at Peace Conference, xii: 160.
Kluck, Gen. Alexander von,
i: 130 (with Kaiser and group of German generals), 377,
ii: 9, ix: 267 (with staff).
Koenig, Capt. Paul, iv: 214.
Kolchak, Adm. Aleksandr Vasiliyevich, ix: 240.
Korniloff, Gen., ii: 235, vi: 168.
Korth, Sgt. Herman, x: _facing p._ 254 (in color).
Krauss, Gen. F. M. C., with Archduke Eugene of Austria, i: 139.
Kreger, Brig.-Gen. Edward A., v: 230.
Krobatin, Austrian Minister of War, with Archduke Eugene, i: 139.
Kropotkin, Prince Peter, vi: 136.
Kruger, Oom Paul, i: 192.
Krupp, Alfred, i: 160.
Krupp, Bertha, ix: 353.
Krupp von Bohlen, i: 135.
Kuhl, Gen. von, ix: 267.
Kuhn, Maj.-Gen. Joseph E., v: 224.
Kuropatkin, Gen., iii: 269.
L
Lafayette, Marquis de, xi: 6.
Lafayette Escadrille, members, x: 197, 200.
Lane, Franklin K.,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Langfitt, Maj.-Gen. W. C., v: 343.
Langham, Pvt. George W., x: 99.
Lansing, Robert, at Peace Conference, xii: 160.
Lassiter, Maj.-Gen. William, v: 145.
Latham, Sgt., x: 105.
Lathrop, Mrs. Benjamin G., vii: 94.
Laurier, Sir Wilfred, vi: 26.
Law, Andrew Bonar, conferring with French cabinet members, xii: 106;
at Peace Conference, xii: 160.
Le Jeune, Maj.-Gen. John A., v: 256.
Leman, Gen., i: 144.
Lenihan, Brig.-Gen. Michael J., vii: 335.
Lenin, Nicolai, ix: 111.
Leonard, Benny, viii: 108.
Leopold, Crown Prince of Belgium, xi: 130, 145.
Leopold, Prince, of Bavaria,
i: 130 (with group of German generals), iii: 140 (in Warsaw).
Lepley, Sgt. James B., x: 251.
Lewis, Sgt. Stacy A., x: 302.
Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Maximilian, i: 196, ix: 132.
Liebknecht, Karl, ix: 139.
Liggett, Lieut.-Gen. Hunter,
v: _facing p._ 108 (in color), 66 (with Maj.-Gen. Edwards),
ix: 219.
Lincoln, Tribitsch, x: 345.
Lipton, Sir Thomas,
with Duchess of Westminster and her Red Cross nurses on board the
yacht _Erin_, vii: 136.
Li Yuan-Hung, Gen., i: 57.
Lloyd George, David, addressing a crowd, vi: 5;
return to London from Peace Conference, vi: 21;
portrait studies, ix: 22, xii: 151;
with King George, ix: 29;
at Peace Conference, xii: 160.
Lloyd George, Mrs. David, ix: 24.
Lloyd George, Miss, xi: 121.
Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot, xii: 239.
Lohvitsky, Gen., vi: 144.
Londonderry, Lord, vi: 66.
Lovett, Judge Robert S., vii: 90.
Ludendorff, Gen. Erich von,
with Kaiser and group of German generals, i: 130;
with Hindenburg, ii: 299, 325;
portrait study, ix: 251;
with wife, ix: 253;
with Kaiser and Hindenburg, ix: 364.
Lufberry, Maj. Raoul, x: 192, 197, xi: 228, 229.
Luke, Lieut. Frank, x: 212.
Luxemburg, Rosa, vi: 281.
Lvoff (Lvov), Prince George E., vi: 159, ix: 101.
M
MacArthur, Maj.-Gen. Douglas, v: _Intro. viii_, ix: 213.
MacDonald, Ramsay, vi: 3.
Mackensen, Field-Marshal August Anton Ludwig von,
i: 130 (with Kaiser and group of leading German generals),
iii: 137, 222, ix: 258.
Mafalda, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144.
Maja Vajiravudth, King of Siam, vi: 80.
Malvy, M., vi: 104.
Mangin, Gen., inspecting Rhine fortifications with Foch, ii: 86.
Manning, Corp. Sidney E., x: 122.
Manning, Rev. Dr. William T., vii: _Intro. viii._
Mapes, L. D., vii: 115.
March, Gen. Peyton C., ix: 211.
Maria, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144.
Marie, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146.
Marie, Queen of Rumania, vii: 111, ix: 402.
Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess of Luxemburg, i: 78, ix: 383.
Marie José, Princess, of Belgium, xi: 130, 144.
Marlborough, Duchess of, vii: 131.
Marshall, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William R., iii: 333.
Martin, Dr. Franklin,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Mary, Princess, of England, xi: 150.
Mary, Queen of England, ix: 394.
Maude, Gen. Sir Frederick Stanley, iii: 184, ix: 195.
Maudhuy, Gen. de, ii: 144.
Maurice, Maj.-Gen. Sir Frederick B., ii: _Intro. ix._
Max, Burgomaster, of Brussels, iii: 272.
Max, Prince, of Baden, vi: 302.
Mayhew, 2nd Lieut. Carl C., x: 136.
Mayo, Adm. Henry Thomas, iv: _Intro. ix_, ix: 297.
McAdoo, Eleanor, xi: 133.
McAdoo, William G., ix: 330, xii: _Intro. xi._
McAlexander, Brig.-Gen. Ulysses G., v: 389, ix: 217.
McAndrew, Maj.-Gen. James W., v: 101, ix: 215.
McGlachlin, Maj.-Gen. Edward F., v: 228.
McGowan, Rear-Adm.,
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
McIntrye, Miss Gladys and Irene,
being decorated for distinguished service at the front, vii: 395;
collecting funds for Salvation Army, vii: 398.
McKaig, Corp. F. H., x: 300.
McKeogh, Lieut. Arthur, x: 140.
McRae, Maj.-Gen. James H., v: 251.
Meissner, Maj. James A., x: 231.
Menoher, Maj.-Gen. Charles J., v: 190.
Mercier, Cardinal Désiré,
i: 235, ix: _facing p._ 340 (in color), 342.
Metternich, Count von, i: 34.
Michaelis, Georg, ii: 302.
Millerand, Alexandre, i: 333, ii: 388.
Milyukov, Paul, v: 158.
Minkiewicz, Secretary of Provisions for Poland, vii: 355.
Mishich, Gen. Voivode, with staff, ii: 35.
Mitchel, Col., vii: 335.
Moffat, John, vii: 86.
Mohammed V, Sultan of Turkey, iii: 357.
Moltke, Field-Marshal von, i: 48, 55.
Moltke, Lieut.-Gen. Helmuth von,
i: 130 (with Kaiser and leading German generals), ix: 265.
Montenegro, royal family, iii: 153.
Moore, Mast.-Sig.-Elect. E. J., x: _facing p._ 304 (in color).
Morgan, Miss Anne, vii: 93.
Morgan, John Pierpont, xii: _Intro. xiv._
Mosley, Brig.-Gen. George V. H., v: 341.
Mueller, Commander Karl von, iv: 168, 173.
Muir, Maj.-Gen. Charles H., v: 205.
Münsterberg, Prof. Hugo, vi: 268.
N
Napoleon I, Emperor of France,
i: 7 (retreating after Waterloo), ii: 88.
Napoleon III, Emperor of France, i: 36, 44.
Nash, J. A., vii: 115.
Nellmond, Earl Edler von,
with Archduke Eugene of Austria and staff, i: 139.
Netherlands, royal family, vii: 172.
Neville, Gen., decorating colors of 6th Marine Regt., x: 199.
Nicholas, Grand-Duke, Nicolaevitch,
of Russia, with Czar, iii: 112, vi: 154;
portrait studies, iii: 115, ix: 230.
Nicholas, former King of Montenegro, i: 114, iii: 153 (with family).
Nicholas II, former Czar of Russia,
with Grand-Duke Nicholas, iii: 112, vi: 154;
inspecting Red Cross workers, vii: 359;
portrait study, ix: 375;
with royal family, xi: 146, 148 (last photograph).
Nightingale, Florence, vii: 11.
Nivelle, Gen., with Marshal Joffre, ii: 12.
Nolan, Brig.-Gen. Dennis E., v: 105.
Northcliffe, Lord, vi: 12.
Nourey Bey, Capt., iii: 356.
Nugent, Sgt. John F., x: 23.
O
Oberndorff, Count von,
German armistice delegate, meeting with Foch, v: 392.
O'Brien, Corp. John J., x: _facing p._ 354 (in color).
O'Brien, Lieut. Pat, x: 256.
Okuma, Count, i: 19, vi: 385, ix: 88 (with wife).
Olga, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146.
O'Neil, Peggy, vii: 342.
Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, ix: 86.
O'Ryan, Maj.-Gen. John F., v: 282.
Oscar, Prince, of Prussia, i: 168, vi: 221.
Oshima, Gen., vi: 385.
Owen, H., vii: 115.
P
Paderewski, Ignace, vi: 206 (with Polish Mission in New York), ix: 97.
Painlevé, Paul, iii: 83.
Palmer, Rear-Adm.,
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
Papen, Capt. Franz von, x: 328.
Parrish, Sgt. Grady, x: 25.
Pashitch, N., iii: 151.
Passard, Jean, xi: 74.
Patriquin, Jean, vii: 344.
Pelltier, Gen., xi: 47.
Pendleton, Lieut. George H., x: 154.
Pershing, Gen. John J., with Gen. Currie, iii: 346;
painting in color, v: _frontispiece_;
with Secretary of War Baker, v: 39;
with Joffre, v: 57, ix: 208;
with Marshal Pétain, v: 98;
at tomb of Lafayette, v: 99;
with U. S. nurses in France, vii: 78;
portrait study, ix: 200;
on Mexican border, ix: 206;
with group of French generals, xi: 47;
as a boy, xi: 123;
in the field, xi: 124.
Pétain, Marshal Henri Philipp,
ii: 149, 186 (on Verdun front), iii: 52,
v: 99 (with Pershing), ix: 165.
Peter, King of Serbia, iii: 149.
Pichon, Stephen, xii: 160 (at Peace Conference), 233.
Pilsudski, Gen. Joseph, ix: 93, 95.
Pius X, Pope, i: 27.
Plumer, Gen. Sir Herbert. C. O., ii: 162.
Poincaré, Raymond, visiting the front, ii: 218;
portrait study, ix: 15;
with President Ador of Switzerland, xii: 154.
Poincaré, Mme. Raymond, ix: 16.
Poland, W. B., vii: 15.
Polish Military Mission to U. S., vi: 206.
Politis, Nicholas, ix: 80.
Popes, _see_
Benedict XV;
Pius X.
Porro, Gen., iii: 229.
Prince, Norman, x: 170.
Princip, slayer of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand,
arrest following crime, i: 5.
Pringle, Capt., with Vice-Adm. Wemyss, iv: 323.
Prussian royal family, i: 168.
Puryear, 1st Lieut. George W., x: 179.
R
Rasputin, vi: 142 (surrounded by female admirers), ix: 346.
Rathenau, Dr. Walter, vi: 275.
Rawlinson, Gen. Sir Henry, ii: 171, iii: 88.
Read, Maj.-Gen. George W., ix: 224.
Reading, Lord Rufus, xii: 110.
Rennenkampf, Gen., ii: 25, iii: 110.
Rickard, E., vii: 115.
Rickenbacker, Capt. "Eddie," with mother and sister, x: 260.
Rizzo, Com., with Lieuts. Aonzo and Gori, iv: 365.
Robeck, Vice-Adm. de, iv: 35.
Roberts, Field-Marshal Earl, i: 315, iii: 371, vi: 2.
Robertson, Gen. Sir William R., iii: 373, ix: 185.
Rockenbach, Brig.-Gen. Samuel D., v: 315.
Rodman, Rear-Adm. Hugh,
welcoming King George on U. S. battleship _New York_, iv: 11;
with Adm. Sims on _New York_, iv: 95;
portrait study, ix: 294.
Romanos, Athos, ix: 80.
Roosevelt, Capt. Archie, x: 245.
Roosevelt, Franklin D., with Josephus Daniels, i: 359;
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
Roosevelt, Capt. Kermit, x: 243.
Roosevelt, Lieut. Quentin, x: 244.
Roosevelt, Theodore,
i: 161 (with Kaiser at military maneuvers),
x: 239, 240 (with family),
xi: 114 (reviewing Boy Scouts at Sagamore Hill),
400 (with grandchild).
Roosevelt, Lieut.-Col. Theodore Jr., x: 241, 247.
Root, Elihu, in Moscow, vi: 166.
Rosenfelt, Henry H., vii: 350.
Rosenwald, Julius,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Rubinstein, Madam Ida, vii: 374.
Ruprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria,
i: 130 (with Kaiser and leading German generals), ii: 217, iii: 382.
Russell, Brig.-Gen. Edgar, v: 318.
Russell, Col. F. F., vii: 69.
Russian Princesses, as war nurses, xi: 147.
Russian royal family, xi: 146, 148 (last photograph.).
Russian War Mission to United States, members of, vi: 174.
Russky, Gen., iii: 105.
Ryan, John D., xii: 125.
S
Salisbury, Lord, i: 56.
Samsonoff, Gen., ii: 223, iii: 111.
Sanders, Gen. Liman von, vi: 286.
Sarrail, Gen., iii: 207.
Sazonov, Serge, i: 119, vi: 141.
Scheidemann, Philipp, ix: 136, 137 (with members of cabinet).
Schurz, Carl, i: 53.
Schwab, Charles M., ix: 333, 336 (with Edward N. Hurley).
Seeger, Alan, x: 142.
Sengier, E., vii: 115.
Shaler, M. K., vii: 115.
Sherman, Corp. Whitney D., x: 66.
Shimamura, Adm., vi: 385.
Sims, Adm. William S.,
i: 391, iv: _frontispiece_ (in color),
95 (on board battleship _New York_ with Adm. Rodman),
ix: 292 (with family).
Skinner, Mrs. Otis, vii: 344.
Smith, Brig.-Gen. Harry A., v: 45.
Smith, Margaret, vii: 344.
Smith, Capt. Richard T., x: 69.
Smith, Maj.-Gen. William R., v: 207.
Smith-Dorrien, Gen. Sir Horace, ii: 175.
Smuts, Gen. Jan Christiaan, iii: 256, ix: 188.
Snow, Maj. William A., x: 320.
Sonnino, Baron Sidney, ix: 83.
Sothern, E. H., vii: 340.
Soukhomlinoff, Gen., iii: 122.
Sparks, Rear-Adm.,
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
Sparrows, Com.,
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
Spee, Adm. Count von, iv: 60, ix: 307.
Stage Women's War Relief Committee, members of, vii: 344.
Stebbins, Miss Katherine, vii: 276.
Steidl, Sgt. August, x: 93.
Stein, Corp. Fred C., x: 182.
Stewart, Lieut.-Col. John W., x: 163.
Stowers, Sgt. Joseph H., x: 90.
Sturdee, Vice-Adm. Sir Frederick C. D., iv: 79.
Sturgis, Maj.-Gen. Samuel D., v: 194.
Sultans, of Turkey, iii: 357, vi: 331.
Summerall, Maj.-Gen. Charles P., v: 85.
Sutherland, Duchess of, at her hospital in France, vii: 109.
Swinton, Maj.-Gen., ii: 274.
Symington, 1st Lieut. James M., x: 88.
T
Taft, William Howard, xii: 175.
Talbot, Dr. F. B., vii: 69.
Talleyrand, i: 32.
Tardieu, André, i: 286, xii: 160 (at Peace Conference).
Tatiana, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146.
Taylor, Rear-Adm.,
with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
Terauchi, Count, ix: 91.
Thaw, Maj. William, x: 197.
Thenault, Capt., x: 197.
Tirpitz, Adm. Alfred von,
i: 130 (with Kaiser and leading German generals),
ii: 261, iv: 2, 221, ix: 299.
Townshend, Gen., iii: 365.
Treitschke, Prof. Heinrich von, i: 174.
Trotzky, Leon, ii: 232, ix: 111.
Turkish Crown Prince, iii: 356.
Turkish Sultans, iii: 357, vi: 331.
Turner, Lieut. Benjamin E., x: 159.
Turner, Pvt. Robert I., x: 159.
Tyrwhitt, Commodore, iv: 251 (with officers of _Arethusa_), 259.
U
Uehara, Gen., vi: 385.
Umberto, Crown Prince, of Italy, xi: 143.
Usher, Rear-Adm. Nathaniel R., iv: 320.
V
Venizelos, Eleutherios, iii: 202, ix: 77, 80.
Victor Emanuel, King of Italy,
iii: 229, vi: 122, ix: 396, xi: 152 (with Prince of Wales).
Victoria, former Empress of Germany, i: 187, ix: 366, xi: 149.
Vincent, Mrs. Walter, vii: 344.
Viviani, René, ii: 161, vi: 104, ix: 20.
W
Wadehouse, British Commissioner, at Cyprus, i: 176.
Wales, Prince of,
ii: 3 (with father and grandfather),
xi: 149, 150 (at age of sixteen), 152 (with King of Italy).
Walker, Brig.-Gen. Meriweather I., v: 353.
Wallace, Maj.-Gen., iii: 372.
Walsh, Frank P., ix: 338.
Walsh, Sgt. Patrick, x: 101.
Watson, Lieut.-Col. George L., x: 151.
Watts, Capt., with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._
Weddigen, Lieut.-Com. Otto, iv: 305.
Weigel, Maj.-Gen. William, v: _facing p._ 308 (in color).
Welch, Dr. W. H., vii: 69.
Wemyss, Adm. Sir Rosslyn, on board a U. S. battleship, iv: 323;
meeting German armistice delegates, v: 392.
Westminster, Duchess of, with her nurses, vii: 136.
Weygand, Gen., meeting German armistice delegates, v: 392.
Wharton, Mrs. Edith, vii: 100.
Wheeler, Margaret, vii: 344.
White, Henry, xii: 160 (at Peace Conference), 167.
White, J. B., vii: 115.
Whitlock, Brand, vi: 83, vii: 117 (with wife), x: 175.
Whittlesey, Maj. Charles, with Maj. Kenney, v: 238.
Wilhelmina, Queen of Netherlands,
vii: 172 (with heir and Prince Consort), ix: 404.
Willard, Daniel,
xii: 117 (with members of U. S. Council of National Defense), 122.
William I,
Emperor of Germany, portrait study, i: 45;
entry into Versailles, 1871, i: 46;
being proclaimed German Emperor, 1871, i: 55;
triumphal return to Berlin after Franco-Prussian War, i: 150.
William II, former Emperor of Germany, at age of nineteen, i: 70;
entering Jerusalem, 1898, i: 97;
with leading German generals, i: 130;
with Theodore Roosevelt, watching military maneuvers, i: 161;
in coronation robes, i: 185;
with Edward VII of England, i: 188;
statue as monk in Metz Cathedral, i: 211;
watching troop movements in France, i: 217;
parading with sons in Berlin, ii: 258;
on way to memorial service with family, ii: 261;
portrait studies, ii: 306, ix: 359;
on visit to the front, ii: 330;
with Gen. von Einem, iii: 117;
on Eastern Front, vi: 221, ix: 356;
with Crown Prince and grandson, vi: 263;
with six sons, vi: 298;
with Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, vi: 360;
with Hindenburg and Ludendorff, ix: 364;
in conversation with a German officer, ix: 365;
with the Empress, ix: 366;
at age of six, xi: 140;
at age of sixteen, xi: 141.
Wilson, Gen. Sir Henry, ii: 71.
Wilson, William B.,
with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117.
Wilson, Woodrow,
addressing Congress, i: 329;
portrait studies, ix;
_frontispiece_ (in color), 57, 59, xi: 132, xii: 181;
delivering speech of acceptance of renomination for Presidency,
'16, ix: 61;
delivering second inaugural address, ix: 65;
marching with service men, xi: 134;
with Adm. Grayson in Brussels, xii: _Intro. xvii_;
on board _George Washington_ on way to Peace Conference,
xii: 187.
Wilson, Mrs. Woodrow,
ix: 63,
xii: 187 (on board _George Washington_ on way to France).
Wines, Sgt. Pearl J., x: 236.
Winn, Maj.-Gen. Frank L., v: 187.
Winterfeld, Gen. von,
German armistice delegate, meeting with Foch, v: 392.
Witenmeyer, Maj.-Gen. Edmund, v: 215.
Wood, Maj.-Gen. Leonard,
iii: _Intro. ix_, ix: 160 (at West Point with Joffre).
Woyrsch, Gen. von, iii: 140.
Wright, Maj.-Gen. William M., v: 127, ix: 222.
X
Xenia, Princess, of Montenegro, iii: 153.
Y
Yankoff, Gen., vi: 341.
Yanushkevitch, Gen., ii: 231.
Yolanda, Princess, of Italy, xi: 143.
York, Sgt. Alvin C., x: 14, 15.
Yuan Shih-k'ai, i: 57.
Z
Zeppelin, Count von, ii: 263.
II.--GENERAL
_Aboukir_, British cruiser, iv: 206.
Aden, harbor of, vi: 330.
Aerial photographs,
being assembled to form map of enemy country, viii: 235.
Aeronautics:
Airplanes, Wright-Martin reconnaissance plane, ii: 124;
directing artillery fire, ii: 129;
in Palestine, ii: _facing p._ 220 (in color);
target as seen from height, ii: 354;
Italian fighting plane, iii: 243;
British airplanes in mass formation, iii: 383;
attacking submarine, iv: 83, 198, 285;
mechanism for launching from deck of battleship, iv: 141;
construction of, iv: _facing p._ 286 (in color), viii: 218;
torpedo-plane, iv: 306;
aviator "true-ing" plane, v: 311;
assembling Liberty planes in France, v: 313;
British flyer dropping wreath on comrade's grave inside
German lines, vii: 188;
aviator dropping bombs, viii: _frontispiece_ (in color), 219;
plane starting flight, viii: _facing p._ 188 (in color);
Spad plane, viii: 190;
Richthofen's "Traveling Circus," viii: 191;
De Haviland-4, viii: 192, xi: 217;
machine-gun mountings on, viii: 193, 209, 211;
German armored plane, showing detail of construction, viii: 195;
German night bomber, viii: 202;
German hydroplane, viii: 203;
Handley-Page bomber, viii: 204, 220;
manufacture of propellers, viii: 205, 239;
Leoning monoplane, viii: 207;
Curtis triplane, viii: 210;
British seaplanes, viii: 213, 237;
camouflaged carrier-ship for, viii: 215;
bomb-carrying devices on, viii: 219, 224, 227;
German Albatross, viii: 222;
Caproni triplane, viii: 223;
Martin bomber, viii: 234;
a U. S. two-seater, viii: _facing p._ 348 (in color);
airplane ambulance, viii: 368;
A. E. F. hangar in France, x: 124;
an air duel, x: 204;
in battle formation, x: 217, 228;
Burgess tractor, x: 392;
patrolling over A. E. F. sector, xi: 138;
Curtiss biplane, xi: 215;
Wright warplane, xi: 218;
inspection before flight, xi: 220;
testing engine before installation, xi: 221;
circling above U. S. battleship _Connecticut_, xi: 223;
U. S. pursuit plane, xi: 225;
skeleton of airplane body, xi: 227;
planes used for carrying Pershing's mail, xi: 348.
Balloons, French sausage type, iii: 305, viii: 260;
operating with naval convoy, iv: 289;
uses of hydrogen vs. helium for inflation of, viii: 244;
U. S. sausage type, viii: 258;
French spherical type, viii: 261;
cable reel of kite balloon, viii: 262.
Dirigibles, Zeppelin being guided by lighthouse, ii: 265;
interior of a Zeppelin, ii: 269;
British dirigible convoying U. S. troopship, iv: 291;
French type, viii: 242;
repairing a French type, viii: 245;
early type of Zeppelin, viii: 247;
Zeppelin _L-49_ shot down by French, viii: 249;
interior of British _R-34_, viii: 251;
fuel tanks on Zeppelin _L-49_, viii: 253;
_R-34_ being filled with gas at Mineola, viii: 255;
U. S. type, viii: 256;
pilot's gondola on a Zeppelin, x: 226;
Zeppelin _L-15_ sinking, x: 361.
Aeroplanes, _see_ Aeronautics, Airplanes.
Africa, battle scene in, iii: 251;
scene in German East Africa, iii: 255;
natives, vi: 48.
Agadir, i: 106.
Airplanes, _see_ Aeronautics.
Air raids, funeral of English victims, ii: 300;
London school children seeking shelter under desks, vii: 361;
protection of French works of art against, x: 364.
Airships, _see_ Aeronautics, Balloons, Dirigibles.
Aisne River, A. E. F. advance trenches near, v: 259;
airplane view of French hospital on, vii: 63.
Albatross airplane, viii: 222.
Albert, ruins of, i: _facing p._ 300 (in color);
ruins of Church of Notre Dame, xi: 23.
Algeciras Conference, i: 99.
_Alnwick Castle_, British liner, iv: 231.
Alpini, iii: 228.
Alps, scene on Austro-Italian border, ii: 237;
Austrian stronghold on, ii: 241.
Alsace, a valley in, iii: 21;
forest behind trenches, iii: 47;
American troops entering, May 27, '18, v: 267.
Alsace-Lorraine, German lookout tower, i: 221;
reunion with France symbolized, ii: 391.
Ambulances, group of American drivers and cars, vii: 31, 213;
French, mounted on auto trucks, vii: 202;
American, at Verdun, vii: 207, 251;
improvised British, in Mesopotamia, vii: 260;
gathering wounded after battle, vii: 400, xi: 209;
dog-drawn, viii: 378;
woman driver, x: 186;
_see also_ under country, Army;
Hospitals;
Wounded.
"America," painting by René Mal, v: 50.
American Fund for French Wounded, a Paris fête for, vii: 59;
distributing clothing to refugees, vii: 102;
surgical dressing department, vii: 221;
packing kits for soldiers, vii: 246.
American Jewish War Relief, bureau of information, vii: 351.
Amerongen, former German Kaiser's residence at,
after abdication, ix: 358.
_Amethyst_, British cruiser, iv: 255.
Amherst College, Army Training Corps at drill, xi: 170.
Amiens, protecting art treasures from German bombardment, ii: 68.
Amsterdam, a food riot, vi: 377.
_Anglia_, British hospital ship, vii: 253.
Annapolis, U. S. Naval Academy students, xi: 165.
Anti-aircraft guns, v: 11, viii: 10, 13, 16, xi: 188.
Antwerp, town hall, ii: 169;
barbed-wire entanglements in streets, ii: 345;
Red Cross trains at, vii: 118.
_Arabic_, sinking of, iv: 224.
Arabs, iii: 332;
gun dance, iii: 368.
_Arethusa_, British destroyer, officers of, iv: 251.
Argonne Forest,
territory lying before A. E. F. to advance through, v: 75;
U. S. infantrymen advancing through, v: 82, 247;
inside German trenches, v: 214;
A. E. F. officers' headquarters, v: 217;
captured German dugout, v: 235;
men of 77th Div. in, v: 244;
concealed German artillery, xi: 53.
_Arkansas_, U. S. battleship,
close-up, showing gun fire, iv: 361;
cleared for action, iv: 392.
Armenians, murdered by Turks, vii: 96.
Armentières, British clearing ruins of, i: 240.
Armies, _see_ name of country;
_also_ Battle scenes.
Armistice,
German delegates passing through French lines on way to meet Foch,
ii: 390, xii: 251;
first meeting of Allied and German delegates, v: 392;
Paris celebration, vi: 107.
Armor,
breast-plate for soldier as protection against bullet, viii: 68.
Armor plate, forging of, viii: 62, xii: 70.
Arras, town hall, ii: 85;
ruins of Cathedral, ii: 351, iii: 67;
ruins of, iii: 279.
Artificial hands and arms for war cripples,
eating with mechanical hands, vii: 234;
doing farm work, vii: 235;
doing carpenter work, viii: 383;
manufacture of artificial arms and legs, viii: 385;
doing mechanical work, xi: 290.
Artillery, manufacturing 16-in. guns at Watervliet Arsenal, i: 304;
line of howitzer fire, ii: 129, iii: 159;
heavy guns on way to front, ii: 147;
ricochet and non-ricochet shells, i: 333;
disappearing gun, v: 307;
mortar battery, viii: 3;
railway-mount guns, viii: 29, xi: 278;
big gun in position for action, viii: 31;
8-in. howitzer with caterpillar mount, viii: 40;
tractor for hauling, viii: 42;
breech-block and bore of big gun, viii: 44;
construction of long-range gun, viii: 47, 55;
field guns, old and new types, viii: 56;
manufacture of shells, viii: 73;
path of shrapnel fire, viii: 74;
huge naval gun, xi: 273;
shrapnel exploding, xi: 275;
heavy shells on way to front, xi: 279;
camouflaged gun and gunners, xi: 292, 293;
construction of howitzers, xii: 73;
of different belligerents, _see_ name of country;
in action, _see_ Battle scenes;
_also_ Shells.
Assouan, vi: 78.
Astronomical instruments, Chinese,
carried by Germans from Peking, vi: 255.
_Asturias_, hospital ship, i: 293.
Athens, war-time crowds, iii: 155.
Australia, army, embarking for overseas, ii: 201, vi: 38, 40;
landing at Gallipoli, iii: 167, iv: 40;
charging at Gallipoli, iii: 353.
Austria-Hungary, army,
reservists in New York reporting for service, i: 281;
Alpine defenses, ii: 241;
artillery captured by Italians, ii: 287;
cavalry entering Polish village, iii: 123;
in Carpathian trenches, iii: 142;
on Isonzo front overlooking Italian positions, iii: 236;
resting, vi: 211;
at field mass, vi: 308;
in Tyrol stronghold, vi: 309;
siege gun, viii: 26.
Auteuil, tent hospital at, vii: 205, 206;
hospital workers serving coffee to convalescents, vii: 243.
_Ayesha_, schooner
used by crew of _Emden_ to escape in, iv: 191.
B
_B-2_, British submarine, iv: 58.
Badges and medals of American Red Cross,
vii: _facing p._ 50 (in color).
Badonville, raid on German trenches near, v: 232.
Bagdad, iii: 186;
Arabs in, iii: 332.
Bairnsfather, Capt. Bruce, cartoons by, ii: 116, iii: 22, 23, 26.
Balloons, _see_ Aeronautics.
_Baltic_, life-boats, iv: 234.
_Baltimore_, U. S. cruiser, iv: 329.
Barbed-wire, as trench protection, ii: 284;
entanglements of, in Antwerp streets, ii: 345;
in Tsing-Tau defenses, iv: 61;
cutting device, viii: 154;
cutting entanglements by hand, xi: 254.
Barcy, battlefield of, iii: 25.
Baseball, U. S. army men playing, vii: 315;
King George at game between U. S. Army and Navy teams in London,
xi: 153.
Battalion of Death, Russian women's, iii: 125, vi: 162, xi: 206, 208;
Polish women's, vi: 218.
Battle scenes,
charge by Prussian cuirassiers in Franco-Prussian War, i: 214;
French soldiers in the Vosges charging on skis, i: 216;
Belgians behind street barricades repulsing Germans, i: 312;
French machine gunners at Mancourt, ii: 43;
night bombardment by artillery, ii: 102;
airplane view during action on Western Front, ii: 105;
the dead after battle in Flanders, ii: 117;
British charge at Montaubon, ii: 121;
holes shot by shell fire, ii: 133, v: 236;
fight for Kemmel Hill, ii: 152;
poilus charging, ii: 185;
Allied dead on battlefield, ii: 194;
Highlanders attacking near Ypres, ii: 213;
Belgians on skirmish duty, ii: 347;
killed and debris on Marne battlefield, iii: 27, 94;
Germans crossing Marne River, iii: 32;
flash-light photograph at night, iii: 44;
British charging during battle of the Somme, iii: 57;
German charge at Chemin des Dames, iii: 73;
British bombardment of Passchendaele Ridge, iii: 78;
in Meuse-Argonne, iii: 101;
on Russo-German front, iii: 119;
in African jungle, iii: 251;
fight for Erzerum, iii: 263;
heap of Serbian dead, iii: 283;
cavalry charge, iii: 289;
killed German outposts, iii: 291;
directing battle by telephone, iii: 314;
Australians charging at Gallipoli, iii: 353;
at Messines Ridge, iii: 360;
battle wreckage, iii: 361, vi: 367, xi: 302, 309;
British blowing up ammunition dumps, iii: 384;
wounded awaiting transportation, iii: 385;
Scots on outpost duty, iii: 389;
naval action, iv: 17;
warship struck by torpedo, iv: 55;
British landing party at Zeebrugge, iv: 265;
U. S. Marines at Belleau Wood, v: 137;
Russian retreat from Galicia, vi: 180;
Russians charging through barbed wire, vi: 186;
Italian killed, vi: 310;
vision of Christ on battlefield, vii: 5;
ambulance men gathering wounded, vii: 400, xi: 209;
effect of howitzer fire on fort, viii: 135;
British Rifle Brigade at Neuve Chapelle, x: 11;
liquid fire attack, x: 19;
attack with grenades, x: 21;
night naval attack at Dardanelles, x: 36;
British meeting Turk attack at Gallipoli, x: 39;
charge of London Scottish at Messines, x: 45;
tanks advancing, x: 59;
Italians hard pressed by enemy, x: 63;
winning a Victoria Cross, x: 72;
British artillery in action, x: 107, 129;
Highlanders fighting through Loos, x: 157;
long-range bombardment of Austrian positions by Italians, x: 359;
hand-to-hand fight on destroyer _Broke_, x: 370;
Gurkhas capturing German trench, xi: 192;
tanks in action, xi: 252, 256, 263;
shrapnel explosion, xi: 275;
gas attack, xi: 319;
_see also_ Dead;
Wounded.
Battleship in process of construction,
iv: _facing p._ 126 (in color).
_Bayern_, German battleship, iv: 389.
Beersheba, iii: 199.
Belgium,
triumphant, symbolic painting, iii: _facing p._ 380 (in color).
Army, cavalry troops after defense of Liége, i: 208;
at mess with French soldiers, i: 241;
behind street barricade fighting Germans, i: 312;
cavalryman, ii: 160;
scouting, ii: 286;
on skirmish duty, ii: 347;
a "fighting priest" in trenches, iii: 15;
cavalry in trenches, iii: 19;
a sentry, iii: 285;
snipers, iii: 287;
anti-aircraft gun, viii: 13;
field gun, viii: 24.
Neutrality, facsimile of signatures to Treaty of 1839 guaranteeing,
i: 147.
Relief, supply ship on way from U. S., vii: 120;
relief packages, vii: 126;
making cradles for babies, vii: 141;
warehouse full of supplies, vii: 143;
relief workers in New York packing clothing for, vii: 165;
home return of refugees, ix: _facing p._ 368 (in color);
Queen Elizabeth medal for workers, ix: 391.
Benet-Mercier machine gun, viii: 82.
Berlin, victorious entry of William I, 1871, i: 150;
royal palace, i: 158;
soldiers leaving for the front, i: 191;
wreckage after food riots, vi: 256;
a public square, Nov., '18, vi: 257;
Brandenburger Gate, vi: 272;
Reichstag Building, vi: 277, xi: 3;
proclamation of German Republic, Nov. 8, '18, vi: 277;
barricaded streets during revolution, vi: 279;
transporting food by tram, vi: 282;
Spartacan demonstration, Feb., '19, vi: 290;
fighting between government troops and radicals, vi: 299;
demonstrations against Peace Treaty, vi: 301, xii: 214.
Berlin, Congress of, 1878, i: 49;
British caricature of, i: 51.
Bethlehem, Pa., a steel plant at, xii: 67.
Bethune, airplane view of, ii: 127.
Bibles, for U. S. service men, vii: 284.
"Big Bertha," German long-range gun,
fragment of shell used in bombarding Paris,
viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272;
diagram of shell, viii: 53;
prepared base for, viii: 61.
Black Watch Regiment, British, x: 56.
Blind, learning modelling in clay, vii: 256;
benefit entertainment in New York for aid of, vii: 258;
learning basketry, vii: 259.
_Blücher_, German cruiser, iv: 247;
sinking of, in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 249.
Blue Cross, care of horses wounded in battle, vii: 227, 228.
"Blue Devils," French, iii: 49, v: 151.
Bolsheviki, agitator addressing troops, vi: 165;
Madrid demonstration, vi: 372.
Bombs, bomb-room in a British fuse factory, ii: 119;
illuminating bombs exploding, v: 133;
aviator dropping, viii: _frontispiece_ (in color),
219 (apparatus for, on German plane);
devices for carrying, on airplanes, viii: 224, 227;
French women manufacturing, xi: 283;
_see also_ Depth charge.
Bosphorus, i: 12, iii: 369.
Bouillonville, street scene, v: 160.
_Bouvet_, French battleship, iv: 48.
Boy Scouts,
Red Cross men of future, xi: _frontispiece_ (in color);
daily good turn, xi: _facing p._ 96 (in color);
pledging allegiance to flag, xi: 97;
at salute, xi: 98;
wounded scout, xi: 99;
as war gardeners, xi: 101, 115, 116;
on visit to White House, xi: 102;
bridging stream, xi: 103;
learning coöperation, xi: 104;
camping, xi: 105;
as town cleaners, xi: 106;
as wireless operators, xi: 107;
in hiking outfit, xi: 108;
Third Liberty Loan poster, xi: 109;
field map making, xi: 110;
signalling, xi: 111, _facing p._ 224 (in color);
encampment, xi: 112;
emergency coast guards, xi: 113;
on review before Theodore Roosevelt, xi: 114;
as wood cutters, xi: 117;
listening to scoutmaster around the camp-fire,
xi: _facing p._ 118 (in color).
Brandenburger Gate, Berlin, vi: 272.
Bread tickets, German, vi: 261.
Brest, debarkation of A. E. F., v: 3.
Breton peasant, v: 160.
Breton-Pretot machine, for cutting barbed wire, viii: 153.
Brialmont type of fort, ii: 350.
_Britannia_, British tank in U. S., viii: 137, 138, 142.
Brown University, Army Training Corps, xi: 163.
Browning machine-gun, light type, viii: 85;
heavy type, viii: 85.
Bruges, airplane view, viii: 232;
entry of King Albert into, ix: 390.
Brussels, town hall, i: 140;
bird's-eye view, i: 201;
during German occupation, i: 253;
Senate chamber used as church by Germans, i: 311;
German soldiers visiting Art Museum, ii: 344;
Palace of Justice, iii: 271;
King Albert's palace, ix: 387.
Bucharest, royal palace, ii: 62;
bird's-eye view, vi: 352.
Buckingham Palace, London, i: 127;
on night of declaration of war, i: 138.
Budapest, the quay, vi: 325.
Bulgaria, mountain village, vi: 339;
peasant women, vi: 340;
army, supply train behind the lines, vi: 343.
Bullets, diagram showing path of, viii: 93;
types of, used by airmen, viii: 212.
Burgess tractor, in flight, x: 392.
Burmese troops, vi: 6.
C
Cambrai, Canadians in, iii: 80.
Camels, as cavalry mounts, iii: 192;
caravan resting, iii: 367;
use by British in Egyptian campaign, vi: 68;
for carrying wounded, vi: 71;
as transport train in Asia Minor, vi: 333.
Cameroons, battle scene, iii: 251;
native market, vi: 52.
Camouflage, concealed British guns, ii: 123, 128;
wooden cannon, vi: 238;
screened railroad tracks, vi: 247, viii: 337;
over roadway, vi: 368;
example of need for, viii: 338;
soldier disguised by, viii: 339, 342;
for railway-mount guns, viii: 343, 347;
_Mauretania_ in "dazzle" paint, viii: 344;
protected gun and gunners, xi: 292;
camouflaged mortar, xi: 293.
Canada, army recruiting by phonograph, i: 314;
veterans of second battle of Ypres, i: 379;
being reviewed by Field-Marshal Haig, ii: 114;
forestry unit, ii: 130;
presentation of colors, ii: 342;
going over top at Vimy Ridge, iii: 69;
in Cambrai, iii: 80;
in Flanders, iii: 345;
on hike, iii: 346;
artillery at the front, iii: 348;
90th Winnipeg Rifles, vi: 24;
1st Battalion, vi: 29;
guarding International Bridge, Niagara Falls, vi: 31, 34;
encamped at Toronto, viii: 305;
digging trenches, viii: 140.
Canteens,
for service men, scenes in, vii: 7,
56, _facing p._ 96 (in color), 268, 270, 394;
Red Cross automobile canteen, vii: 248;
group of Y. M. C. A. women workers, vii: 269.
Cantigny, men of 1st Div., A. E. F., advancing at, ii: 271;
French flame throwers after the attack, v: 32;
French sappers at ruins of, v: 33;
French and American veterans of, v: 125.
Cape Town, parade to aid recruiting, i: 383;
bird's-eye view, vi: 50.
Caproni triplane, viii: 223.
Carbon monoxide producer, viii: 187.
Carrel-Dakin treatment ward in a war hospital, xi: 288.
Cartoons:
American, civilization obscured by war, i: 87;
burning of American manufacturing plants, i: 275;
response to Europe's appeal for aid, i: 276;
on preparedness, i: 280, 297, 335, iv: 315;
German submarine warfare, i: 300, iv: 227;
responsibility of rulers for war, i: 314;
futility of diplomacy, i: 325, 326;
German hatred of U. S., i: 330;
barbarian's contempt for warring Europe, i: 335;
war debt for future generations, ii: 297;
German intrigue with Mexico, ii: 341;
disregard of international law by belligerents, iv: 230;
Iron Cross, v: 23;
Red Cross, vii: 28;
effect of U. S. loans to Allies, xii: 10;
Europe's dependence on American food supply, xii: 144.
Austrian, conception of hatred, i: 149;
Zeppelin attacks on England, i: 302.
Belgian, on German brutality, vii: 129.
British, Kaiser's project of Mittel-Europa, i: 10;
Bismarck's resignation from Chancellorship, from _Punch_,
i: 74;
German hypocrisy, _Punch_, Sept. 9, '14, i: 90;
U. S. indifference to German outrages, _Punch_,
Sept. 23, '14, i: 91;
Kaiser as protector of Islam, _Punch_, Apr. 5, '15, i: 100;
Germany's naval aspirations, _Punch_, July 12, '05, i: 105;
German advances to Holland, _Punch_, Jan. 11, '11, i: 118;
French desire to revenge 1870, i: 121;
French alarm over Austrian defeat, 1866, from _Punch_,
i: 123;
frightfulness of war, i: 195;
Kaiser's Eastern policy, _Punch_, May 10, 1890, i: 203;
German use of frightfulness, _Punch_, Feb. 17, '15, i: 284;
Kaiser world's enemy, _Punch_, Aug. 19, '14, i: 294;
U. S. protests at British maritime acts, _Punch_,
Jan. 6, '15, i: 298;
Kaiser's attitude on peace, _Punch_, Sept. 23, '18, i: 316;
U. S. relations with Germany, _Punch_, Apr. 21, '15, i: 324;
German atrocities, i: 351;
Capt. Bruce Bairnsfather's caricatures of life at the front,
ii: 116, iii: 22, 23, 26;
Belgium's defiance of Germany, _Punch_, Oct. 21, '14,
iii: 9, Aug. 12, '14, iii: 275;
German military failures, _Punch_, Nov. 4, '14, iii: 29;
Kaiser outcast from civilization, Feb. 19, '15, iii: 299;
Kaiser's plan for invasion of England, _Punch_,
Oct. 28, '14, iv: 3;
German alliance with Austria and Bulgaria, iv: 6;
Germany's attempted blockade of England, _Punch_,
Feb. 17, '15, iv: 9;
loyalty of India, _Punch_, Sept. 9 '14, x: 341.
Dutch, Raemaekers' conception of Kultur, i: 222;
Reims Cathedral as temple of war, i: 231;
Germany's decline in strength, '17, i: 307;
Raemaekers on German deportation of Belgian workmen, i: 363;
Flemish "prosperity," Raemaekers' view of, vi: 85;
Raemaekers' conception of Kaiser haunted by sins, vi: 285.
French, "They shall not pass," i: 230.
German, British policy with regard to Asiatics, i: 54;
Hague Temple of Peace, i: 94;
British difficulties with India, i: 101;
caricature of Sir Edward Grey, i: 198;
influences forcing U. S. into war, i: 289;
injustice of U. S. war against Germany, i: 290;
Japanese menace against U. S., i: 290;
on Allied Somme offensive, '16, i: 301;
U. S. munition trade, i: 307;
British advances to Bulgaria, i: 310;
Dr. Karl Helfferich, i: 318;
U. S. difficulties with Mexico, i: 323;
mailed fist, ii: _Intro. xix_;
on British censorship, ii: 101;
on British slackers, ii: 180;
on spy scare in England, ii: 260;
on U. S. neutrality, ii: 304;
British failure to accomplish war aims, iv: 192;
on submarine success, iv: 217;
British indifference to American submarine losses, iv: 229;
frightfulness of war, iv: 232;
use of works of art as defense, v: 13.
Italian, extent of British Empire, i: 122;
on U. S. entry into war, i: 299;
on Italian neutrality, ii: 359;
Germany's invasion of Belgium, iii: 274.
Japanese, German reverses, iv: 175.
Norwegian, German conception of freedom of the sea, i: 357.
Unidentified, intervention of Powers to save Turkey, 1878, i: 41.
Cartridges, kinds, viii: 60.
Casement, Sir Roger, German passport of, ix: 52.
Castle, Vernon, flying, xi: 214.
Catapult, used for launching airplanes, iv: 141;
use in hauling grenades, viii: 119.
Cavell, Edith, funeral procession entering Westminster Abbey, x: 177;
Norwich memorial to, x: 180.
Chamber of Deputies, French, xi: 2.
Chasseur Alpin, ii: _frontispiece_ (in color).
Château-Thierry, river front, ii: 82;
bird's-eye view, ii: 156, v: 34: x. 4;
ruins of, ii: 272;
street barricade, v: 61;
company of 26th Div. going out of action at, v: 153.
Chaumont, Pershing's headquarters at, vii: 317.
Chavaniac, Château of, Lafayette's birthplace, vii: 110, xi: 6;
interior view, vii: 113.
Chemical warfare, gas mask adjusted for use, v: 140;
filling tanks with phosgene, v: 322;
filling shells with mustard gas, v: 323, viii: 165;
testing an American gas mask, v: 325;
American "Model 1919" gas mask, v: 326;
gas training for American troops, viii: 121;
poison gas in iron drums, viii: 163;
effect of gas on leather gloves, viii: 167;
filling shells with phosgene, viii: 169;
frozen cube of mustard gas, viii: 172;
early types of gas masks, viii: 174, 175;
French "Model M-2" gas mask, viii: 175;
American "Model K. T." gas mask, viii: 176;
types of gas masks used by different belligerents, viii: 177;
diagram of gas mask, viii: 178;
views of U. S. poison gas plant at Edgewood Arsenal,
viii: 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187;
gas masks for horses, xi: 315;
Germans under gas attack, xi: 317;
a gas attack before invention of masks, xi: 319.
Chemin des Dames, soldiers exploring captured territory, ii: 78.
Children in war:
American, cultivating war garden, ii: 17;
new commander-in-chief, xi: _facing p._ 368 (in color).
Armenian, refugees from Turkey at Salonika, vii: 369.
Belgian, greeting British relief worker, vii: 134;
wounded, vii: 242;
under care of Red Cross, xi: 85;
refugees in France, xi: 86.
British, London school-children in air raid drill, vii: 361;
as war gardeners, xi: 364, 367.
French, making friends with American soldiers, v: 164, xi: 81;
outfitted with clothing by American Fund for French Wounded,
vii: 102;
cared for by Red Cross, vii: 200, 201, 368;
war nurseries, vii: 211, 217;
going to school with gas masks, vii: 352;
being photographed with mothers by Germans for identification,
xi: 59;
school in war zone, xi: 66;
little soldier asleep, xi: 70;
repatriated war refugees, xi: 75;
seeking safety in cellars, xi: 76;
offering prayers of thanksgiving, xi: 78;
treasuring presents of toys, xi: 79;
American Red Cross worker with little refugee, xi: 87;
Red Cross sketches used in educational campaign
for proper care of, xi: 87-90;
refugees at La Jonchère Sanatorium, xi: 91;
playing at war, xi: 120, 374, 376, 379, 381, 383, 385;
posing for doughboy, xi: _facing p._ 270 (in color);
tribute to marching U.S. soldiers,
xi: _facing p._ 324 (in color);
school-girls waiting to welcome Gen. Pétain, xii: 114.
German, day home for soldiers' children in Berlin, xi: 64.
Italian, group of war refugees, xi: 67;
young hero, xi: 68;
in underground Venetian school, xi: 69;
refugees in London, xi: 92.
Russian, Archangel school-children, xi: 379.
Serbian, war orphans, vii: 148;
the little sergeant, xi: 71;
war sufferers, xi: 73.
_See also_
Boy Scouts;
Refugees.
Christmas card for Kaiser from Uncle Sam,
xi: _facing p._ 248 (in color).
_City of Portland_, U. S. motor ship, launching of, xii: 96.
Clemenceau, Georges, boyhood home, ix: 4;
scene of attempted assassination, ix: 9;
pen with which signed Peace Treaty, ix: 13.
Cleveland, view of docks and shipping, xii: 148.
Colmar, iii: 66.
Cologne, bridge across Rhine at, i: 157.
Colt machine-gun, viii: 80;
mounted on motor cycle, viii: 81;
use against air craft, viii: 83.
Committee of Mercy, caring for Belgian children, vii: 134;
helping refugees from Louvain, vii: 137.
Congress, U. S., President Wilson addressing, i: 329.
_Connecticut_, U. S. battleship, xi: 222.
Constantinople, general view, i: 60, iii: 369, vi: 345;
Galata Bridge, iii: 165;
Golden Horn, iv: 29, vi: 337;
Mosque of St. Sophia, vi: 232;
Imperial Treasury, vi: 233.
Constanza, harbor of, i: 199.
Convoy system, Allied, iv: 7.
Copenhagen, bird's-eye view, i: 132.
Cornell University, machine-gun squad, xi: 157.
_Cornwallis_, British,
battleship in action at Dardanelles, iv: 42.
Cossack troops, ii: 233, iii: 130, vi: 195.
Cracow, Florian Gate, vi: 203;
Cathedral, vi: 204.
Craonne, ruins of French church after bombardment, i: 396.
Crillon, Hotel,
headquarters of American peace delegation at Paris, xii: 245.
Culebra Cut, Panama Canal, i: 85.
Curtis triplane, viii: 210.
Curtiss biplane, xi: 215.
Cyprus, scene during ceremonies of British annexation of, i: 176.
Czechoslovak girls in native dress, vi: 398.
D
_Daffodil_, British ferry boat, after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 270.
_Danton_, French battleship, iv: 377.
Danube River, iii: 217.
Danzig, vi: 296.
Dardanelles, iv: 21, vi: 329;
night bombardment at, by British warships, x: 36.
Dartmouth College, student regiment at drill, xi: 157.
De Haviland-4 airplane, viii: 192, xi: 217.
De Wet, Gen., surrender to Gen. Botha, iii: 254.
Dead, after a battle in Flanders, ii: 117;
field strewn with Allied dead, ii: 194;
poilu saluting grave of comrade,
iii: _facing p._ 100 (in color);
Serbians killed in defending Belgrade, iii: 283;
German outposts killed on Galician front, iii: 291;
loading trawlers with the killed in
Gallipoli fighting for burial at sea, iv: 52;
Italians killed in front of Austrian positions, vi: 310;
Armenians murdered by Turks, vii: 96;
gravestones for A. E. F. buried in France, x: 115;
cartload of, from battlefield, x: 349.
Decorations, German Crown Prince bestowing Iron Cross, ii: 39;
first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12;
Clemenceau decorating a priest, iii: 85;
Rumanian King decorating troops, iii: 219;
Gen. Helmick awarding D. S. C. to colored troops, v: 268;
King George of England decorating U. S. soldier, v: 383;
badges and medals of American Red Cross,
vii: _facing p._ 50 (in color);
Salvation Army girls being decorated by Gen. Edwards, vii: 395;
Marshal Joffre decorating officers, ix: 158;
honoring French war heroes, x: _frontispiece_ (in color);
Gen. Neville decorating colors of 6th U. S. Marine Regt., x: 199.
Delhi, vi: 74.
Depth charge exploding, iv: 198, x: 307.
Detroit, automobiles ready for shipment, xii: 17.
_Deutschland_, German merchant submarine, iv: 215, xi: 236;
at Baltimore, x: 270;
returning to Bremen, x: 273.
Dinant, fortress and town of, i: 143, ii: 349;
a château near, iii: 13.
Dixmude, destruction of, i: _facing p._ 198 (in color).
Dogs in war, drawing Belgian artillery, ii: 196;
searching for Germans, iii: 18;
as Red Cross workers, vii: 156, 222;
pulling ambulance, viii: 378;
French war dogs, xi: 341;
Dutch war dogs pulling machine gun, xi: 343;
training French war dogs, xi: 345;
Italian despatch dogs, xi: 347;
Italian war dogs carrying supplies to Front, xi: 363.
Douaumont, Fort, view from air, viii: 228.
Dublin, ruins of Sinn Fein Rebellion, '16, vi: 55, 61;
street fighting, '16, vi: 58.
Duma, Russian, meeting-place, vi: 173.
Dynamos, carried away by Germans from French and Belgian factories,
vi: 250.
E
Eagle Hut, American Y. M. C. A. honor for service men in London,
vii: 264, 288, 320.
Eagle Hut, Y. M. C. A. house for service men in
Bryant Park, New York City, vii: 265.
East Africa, German, Hindu shop, vi: 51;
native troops, vi: 253;
rural scene, vi: 254.
Echternach, vi: 92.
Egypt, supply depot, vi: 67;
native troops, vi: 69;
laborers in France, vi: 70;
northern, vi: 81.
Ehrenbreitstein, German fortress at, i: 156.
Eiffel Tower, equipped with searchlight, ii: 267.
_Emden_, German cruiser, iv: 171;
before the war, iv: 173;
ashore on Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 182.
Enfield rifle, viii: 98, 100, 103, 104.
Erzerum, fight for, iii: 263;
general view of, iii: 268.
Essey, ruins of, v: 156.
F
_Falaba_, sinking of, by U-boat, x: 287.
"Fantom of Death," xi: 395.
Fère-en-Tardenois, ruins of, ii: 323.
_Feuta_, Austrian cruiser, iv: 283.
Fismes, Hôtel de Ville, ruins of, v: 191.
Fiume, vi: 315.
Flanders, German trenches, ii: 109;
the killed after a battle, ii: 117;
French and Belgian ammunition trains on way to front, ii: 193;
German artillery in, iii: 36.
Flirey, ruins of, v: 151.
_Florida_, U. S. battleship, guns of, iv: 350.
Food conservation, drying fruits and vegetables, xii: 52;
municipal canning station, xii: 61;
a community conference on, xii: 140.
Ford baby tank, xi: 262.
Foreign Legion, vi: 229, x: 28, xi: 194.
France:
Army, advancing in the Vosges on skis, i: 216;
at mess with Belgian troops, i: 241;
on guard on Swiss border, i: 259;
Chasseur Alpin ("Blue Devils"),
ii: _frontispiece_ (in color), iii: 49, v: 151;
machine gunners at Mancourt, ii: 43;
scouts on the Meuse, ii: 45;
sappers at work, ii: 73;
poilu on guard in Alsace, ii: _facing p._ 136 (in color);
receiving instructions before going into trenches, ii: 153;
poilus charging, ii: 185;
grenadiers at Chemin des Dames, ii: 215;
on march with American soldiers, ii: 219;
soldiers' wives waiting in line to get government allowance,
ii: 378;
poilu, iii: _frontispiece_ (in color);
first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12;
Clemenceau decorating a priest, iii: 85;
field kitchen, iii: 311;
flame throwers at Cantigny, v: 32;
sappers at Cantigny, v: 33;
wounded poilu being supported by doughboy, v: 50;
sketches of poilu types, v: 156;
supply train on way to front, v: 302;
wounded soldier being brought in by American comrade, v: 386;
North African trooper, vi: _facing p._ 378 (in color);
wounded soldiers in Switzerland, vi: 381;
types of infantry equipment, viii: 71;
soldiers watching bombardment in the Vosges,
viii: _facing p._ 122 (in color);
testing fitness of soldiers, viii: 352, 353;
Marshal Joffre decorating officers, ix: 158;
decorating war heroes, x: _frontispiece_ (in color);
brave wounded, x: 112;
spahis, x: 117;
group of airmen, x: 207;
soldiers resting, x: 367, xi: 190;
cavalry on march, xi: 49;
sappers with tools, xi: 312;
war-dogs, xi: 341, 345;
_see also_ Battle scenes.
Artillery, on Champagne front, ii: 66;
heavy guns on way to front, ii: iii, v: 349;
bringing shells to advanced positions, iii: 59;
big railway-mount guns, iii: 65, v: 166, viii: 35;
famous "75's," iii: 93;
supply of shells, iii: 312;
155-mm. guns, v: 172;
biggest gun used in war, viii: 52;
a big shell, viii: 57.
Industry, ruined machinery of a manufacturing plant, ii: 77;
dynamos carried away by Germans, vi: 250.
Navy, warship taking on provisions, iv: 177;
device for detection of U-boats, iv: 308;
battleships in battle order, iv: 374;
naval guns on Western Front, viii: 341, 343;
_see also_ name of war vessel.
Parliament, Chamber of Deputies, xi: 2.
"France Aroused," sculpture, i: 142.
Free Milk for France, poster, vii: 377;
American girls raising funds for, vii: 378.
Freiburg, vi: 288.
Fryatt, Capt. Charles, body being escorted through Dover streets,
x: 267;
funeral cortege entering St. Paul's Cathedral, London, x: 268;
grave, x: 269.
_Furious_, British floating aerodrome, iv: 287.
G
Galicia, oil wells, iii: 144;
ruined oil fields, iii: 265;
German soldiers marching through, xi: 17.
Gallipoli, British troops landing, iii: 167, iv: 37, 40;
wounded Anzacs, iii: 169, 172;
Anzac trenches, iii: 170, 171, 342;
Sedd-ul Bahr fortress, iii: 341;
Anzac camp, iii: 351;
Australians charging, iii: 353;
loading trawlers with Allied dead for burial at sea, iii: 354;
bombardment of fortifications by Allied warships, iv: 38;
signaling by heliograph at, vi: 228;
British meeting Turkish attack, x: 39;
scene behind Anzac lines, xi: 15.
Gas masks, types of, v: 326, viii: 174, 175, 176, 177, 178.
Geneva, interior of Victoria Hall, xii: 172.
_George Washington_, U. S. transport used by President Wilson
for trip to France for Peace Conference, xii: 162;
starting on first trip across with the President, xii: 187.
Germany:
Army, Southwest African cavalry, i: 11;
Southwest African camel corps, i: 96;
machine-gun abandoned in Belgium, i: 237;
reservists reporting to colors, i: 248;
soldiers bivouacked in ballroom, i: 252;
infantry marching to Ostend, i: 349;
firing from behind defensive shelter, ii: 29;
signal corps at work, ii: 100;
in trenches in Flanders, ii: 109;
in underground quarters, ii: 256;
soldier surrendering, ii: 295, v: 48;
group of airmen, ii: 336;
at mess on Eastern Front, ii: 362;
in Poland, iii: 108, vi: 207;
entrenched machine-gun battery, iii: 131;
staff officers observing bombardment, iii: 134;
field telephone station, iii. 295;
struggling through Serbian mud, iii: 399;
in trenches in Argonne, v: 214;
in a Russian forest, vi: 212;
building trenches, vi: 245;
war booty, vi: 250;
soldier harvesting, vi: 251;
East African troops, vi: 253;
pay-day, vi: 267;
wounded being gathered by ambulance men, vii: 208;
plan of underground village for troops, viii: 126;
first line trench shelters at Pleimont, viii: 131;
"pill-boxes," viii: 132;
officer's underground bed-room, viii: 133;
a trench, viii: 134;
infantry resting, xi: 10, 199;
in Galicia, xi: 17;
bridging a river, xi: 27;
entering bombarded Russian town, xi: 34;
Uhlans, xi: 196;
troops returning to rear, xi: 197;
troops on church parade, xi: 201;
entering Lemberg, xi: 203;
_see also_ Battle scenes.
Artillery, anti-aircraft gun, ii: 364;
in Flanders, iii: 36;
howitzers, iii: 128, viii: 32;
observation tower, viii: 15;
fragment of long-range shell used in bombarding Paris,
viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272;
diagram of long-range shell, viii: 53;
prepared position for "Big Bertha," viii: 61.
National Assembly, in session, vi: 274.
Navy, naval base at Kiel, ii: 56;
battle cruisers, iv: 146;
submarine dry-dock in Kiel Canal, iv: 202;
coat of arms on captured U-boat, iv: 212;
interior of a U-boat, iv: 237;
officers and men of captured U-boat, iv: 238;
captured U-boats in Brooklyn Navy Yard, iv: 297;
surrender of fleet to Allies at Scapa Flow,
iv: 381, 382, 383, 386, 390;
naval gun captured on Western Front, viii: 30;
details of U-boats, viii: 265, 267;
aboard a torpedo boat, x: 278;
_see also_ Submarines;
_also_ name of vessel.
Reichstag Building, vi: 277, xi: 3.
Ship-building yard, ii: 19.
Gibraltar, Rock of, ii: _Intro. xiv._
_Gloucester Castle_, British hospital ship, iv: 233.
_Goeben_, German cruiser, v: 15.
Gold $5,000,000 in kegs on way from U. S. to Europe, i: 269.
Golden Horn, Constantinople, iv: 29, vi: 337.
Grand Pré, ruins of, v: 263.
"Gratitude March,"
Polish school-boy's tribute to American children, xi: 390, 392.
Great Britain:
Army, in German East Africa, i: 14, iii: 252;
New Guinea colonials, i: 81;
railroad construction in France, ii: 44, v: 296;
machine-gun unit on Western Front, ii: 125;
regiment of Highlanders, ii: 172;
motor lorries on way to front, ii: 192, iii: 5;
street barricade against Germans in a French town, ii: 289;
assisting in recruiting, ii: 310;
descending Mount of Olives in Palestine,
ii: _facing p._ 332 (in color);
cavalry in trenches, ii: 19;
on Italian Front, iii: 241;
in Cameroons, iii: 251;
supply train, iii: 317;
advance medical station in Palestine, iii: 326;
cavalry resting, iii: 362;
wounded awaiting transportation, iii: 385, vii: 196, 238;
bringing up pontoons for use at front, iii: 387;
"Die Hards," iii: 388;
Scots on outpost duty, iii: 389;
on Salonika Front, iii: 397;
going over the top, flash-light photo, v: 293;
recruiting posters, vi: 6, 63, vii: 129, xi: 334;
in trenches, vi: 62;
on march, vi: _facing p._ 130 (in color);
supplies at Salonika, vi: 225;
bandaging wounded on Western Front, vii: 97;
"Tommy" making friends with Belgian children, vii: 134;
Sudanese troops in Egypt, vii: 323;
entering Bagdad, vii: 326;
troop train in France, vii: 388;
field oven viii: 291;
Rifle Brigade fighting way through Neuve Chapelle, x: 11;
charge of London Scottish at Messines, x: 45;
Black Watch Regiment, x: 56;
Scots fighting through Loos, x: 157;
soldiers with captured souvenirs, xi: 182;
cavalry camp, xi: 184;
smiling Tommies going to battle, xi: 185;
wounded soldiers at Neuve Chapelle, xi: 187;
awaiting inspection, xi: 297;
Highlander with doughboy, xi: 361;
_see also_ Australia;
Battle scenes;
Canada;
India;
New Zealand;
South Africa.
Artillery, in action, ii: 128, 132, x: 107, 129;
returning from front, ii: 158;
big guns on way to front, vi: 65;
hauling big gun into position, vi: 90;
howitzer, viii: 33.
Navy, on board a battleship, iv: 25;
on board a monitor, iv: 26;
gun and gun crew of monitor, iv: 34, 281;
mine-sweepers, iv: 51;
patrol boat on duty, iv: 73;
veterans of battle of Jutland, iv: 122, 155;
recruiting poster, iv: 139;
battle cruisers, iv: 151;
heroes of Zeebrugge raid, iv: 155;
submarine officer watching for target, iv: 236;
monitor in action, iv: 282;
destroyer on patrol duty, iv: 295;
treating wounded in Mesopotamia, vii: 327;
shell of super gun, viii: 4;
Grand Fleet, xi: 32;
_see also_ name of war vessel.
Parliament, Houses of, xi: 2.
Greek reservists in U. S. reporting for duty, i: 261.
Grenades, filling, viii: 171;
throwing, x: 21.
_Grosser Kurfürst_, German battleship
surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389.
Gurkhas, at English entertainment, vi: 17;
at battle front, x: 87;
capturing German trench, xi: 192;
pipers, xi: 333.
H
Hague, Peace Palace at, i: 102.
Hamburg, river front, vi: 269.
_Hamidieh_, Turkish cruiser, officers and crew, iv: 46.
Handley-Page bombing plane, viii: 204, 220.
Heligoland, harbor of, iv: 241;
street scene, iv: 242.
Heliograph, signalling by, vi: 228.
Helmets, manufacture of, viii: 65;
use by war photographers, viii: 67;
Helsingfors, market scene, vi: 197;
general view, vi: 199.
Hermannstadt, iii: 220.
Herzegovina, town scene, vi: 361.
_Hindenburg_, German battleship, iv: 385, 389.
Hindenburg Line, tunnel entrance, v: 294.
Hindu Maharajah, vi: 79.
Hindu shop in East Africa, vi: 51.
Hochoffen Company's smelters, Lübeck, Germany, i: 364.
Hohenzollern, Castle, i: 33;
coat of arms, i: 153.
"Home from France," iii: _facing p._ 348 (in color).
Horses, treatment of, wounded in battle, vii: 227, 228.
Hospitals:
American reading to sick and wounded, v: 339;
an evacuation hospital, v: 345;
at Neuilly, vii: 38, 77, 199;
on board battleship, vii: 41;
hospital trains, vii: 58, 107, 252, viii: 380;
Walter Reed Hospital, Washington, vii: 64;
tent hospital at Auteuil, vii: 205, 206, 243;
Debarkation Hospital No. 5, New York City, vii: 347;
gassed soldier at a field hospital, vii: 354;
hospital ship _Mercy_, viii: 370, 371, 374.
British, American women's, in London, vii: 30;
bombarded by Germans, vii: 82;
home of Duke of Westminster as, vii: 89;
on Astor estate at Cliveden, vii: 106, 281;
Prince of Wales Hospital at Tottenham, vii: 108;
Duchess of Sutherland's, in France, vii: 109;
University College, Oxford, turned into, vii: 198;
hospital trains, vii: 241, viii: 379;
hospital ships, vii: 253, 396.
Dutch, German wounded being cared for at Maastricht, vii: 174.
French, barges converted as, vii: 49, 236, 244;
near Soissons, airplane view, vii: 63;
box-car converted into, vii: 239.
German, hospital train, vii: 220.
Rumanian, anti-typus bath and disinfectant train, vii: 212.
Russian, scenes in, vii: 363, xi: 147.
Salonikan, bombarded by Germans, vii: 159.
Swiss, for treatment of tubercular patients, at Leysin, vii: 247.
Howitzers,
path of trajectory and effect of fire, ii: 129, iii: 159, viii: 135;
German, iii: 128, viii: 32;
British, viii: 33;
8-in., with caterpillar mount, viii: 40;
construction of, xii: 73.
Hungary, celebrating establishment of Republic, vi: 323.
Hydrophones, for detection of U-boats, viii: 17, 19.
I
_Indefatigable_, British battle cruiser, iv: 148.
India, army, behind the lines in France, i: 219;
sepoys, iii: 182;
at a listening post in the desert, iii: 190;
Gurkhas at English entertainment, vi: 17;
detachment standing at attention, vi: 73;
in desert trenches, vi: 75;
Hindu servants of British officers, vi: 77;
Gurkhas at battle front, x: 86;
Gurkhas capturing German trench, xi: 192;
Gurkha pipers, xi: 333.
Indians, American, in U. S. Army, xi: 176, 177.
_Inflexible_, British battleship, iv: 44.
International Bridge, Niagara Falls, vi: 31, 34.
_Invincible_, British battle cruiser, iv: 72, 145.
Ireland, recruiting scene, vi: 54;
ruins of Dublin Rebellion, '16, vi: 55, 61;
street fighting in Dublin, '16, vi: 58.
_Iris_, British ferry boat,
returning after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 270.
Isonzo valley, iii: 238.
Italy:
Army, group of Italian and U. S. airmen, i: 257;
at Mass before battle, ii: 50;
machine gunners at front, ii: 95, 238;
in trenches, prepared to repulse attack, ii: 150;
mountain sentinel, ii: 237, vi: 318;
in first line trenches overlooking Austrian position, ii: 243;
Arditi shock troops in action, ii: 247;
climbing to mountain positions, ii: 251, iii: 242;
first line troops under bombardment, ii: 253;
digging trenches in the Alps, iii: 225;
Alpini, iii: 228;
an outpost visited by Cadorna, iii: 233;
sharpshooters on Mount Nero, iii: 237;
entrenched, vi: 115;
mobilization, vi: 125;
recruits, vi: 126;
directing artillery fire from a mountain crag, vi: 307;
in mountain dugout, vi: 314;
hard pressed in battle, x: 63;
fording mountain torrent, xi: 28.
Artillery, big guns, ii: 249, iii: 245;
hoisting guns up mountain, viii: 5;
anti-aircraft, viii: 10, 16;
a gun used against Austrian offensive, viii: 38;
long-range bombardment, x: 359;
artillery crossing mountains, xi: 40.
Declaration of war, symbolized,
iii: _facing p._ 230 (in color);
crowds celebrating, vi: 116;
anti-German demonstration in Rome, vi: 117.
Navy, motor boat sinking Austrian battleship, iv: 370;
sea tank breaking through enemy harbor defense, iv: 371;
mine layer, iv: 372.
J
Japan, artillery advancing on Tsing Tao, ii: 358;
torpedo boats off Yokohama harbor, iv: 169;
state procession, vi: 383.
_Jason_, in Plymouth harbor, vii: 135.
Jerusalem, Kaiser's entry, 1898, i: 97;
British tank in streets of, ii: _facing p._ 280 (in color);
walls, ii: _facing p._ 370 (in color);
surrender of, iii: 195;
Gen. Allenby's entry, iii: 323.
Jutland, battle of, British veterans of, iv: 122, 155;
British warships shelling German cruiser, iv: 130;
night action, iv: 132.
Juvigny, German machine gun nests at, v: 261.
K
Kemmel Hill, fight for, ii: 152;
French post on, v: 289.
Kiel, harbor of, ii: 56;
U-boat dry dock in Canal, iv: 202.
Kiev, street scene, vi: 240;
history museum, vi: 244.
Knights of Columbus,
serving members of "Lost Battalion" after rescue, vii: 329;
group of secretaries at Lafayette Monument, Paris, vii: 330;
providing music for troops on leave, vii: 332;
hut on Broadway, New York City, vii: 333;
group of workers in battle area, vii: 335;
helping wounded, vii: 336;
in Verdun, vii: 337;
in the Argonne, vii: 338.
Knitting, in Central Park, New York, vii: 123;
New York firemen doing their bit, vii: 125.
Königgrätz, defeat of Austrians by Prussians in battle of, i: 42;
occupation by Prussians, 1866, i: 47.
Königsberg, iii: 290.
Kremlin, the, Moscow, ii: 234.
_Kronprinz Wilhelm_, German sea raider, iv: 196.
Krupp works, Essen, ii: 106.
Kut-el-Amara, native bazaar, iii: 181;
banks of Tigris at, iii: 183;
group of venerable inhabitants, iii: 318.
L
_L-15_, German Zeppelin, sinking, x: 361.
_L-49_, Zeppelin, captured by French, viii: 249;
fuel tanks on, viii: 253.
Lafayette, Marquis de, tomb, Pershing's visit to, v: 99;
birthplace, vii: 110, xi: 7;
Paris Monument, vii: 330;
Brooklyn Monument, xi: 7.
Lafayette Fund, soldier's kit, vii: 88.
Laundry, on wheels for army, viii: 288.
Le Mans, Y. W. C. A. hostess house at, vii: 272.
_Leipzig_, German cruiser, iv: 75.
Lemberg, iii: 121, vi: 160;
German troops entering, xi: 203.
Leoning monoplane, viii: 207.
_Leviathan_, U.S. transport, bringing home 27th Div., v: 298;
entering N.Y. harbor, vii: 382.
Lewis machine-gun, v: 240, viii: 86.
Liberty Bell, vi: 227.
Liberty Loan, posters, x: 339, 353, xi: 109, xii: 7, 14, 128, 131.
Liberty Motor, viii: 194, 197, 198, 199.
Liége, bird's-eye view, i: 336;
Meuse bridge, iii: 6.
Ligny, battle of, in Franco-Prussian War, i: 65.
Lille, German troops in, i: 172;
airplane view of, viii: 231.
_Lion_, flagship of Adm. Beatty, at battle of Jutland, iv: 147;
after battle off Dogger Bank, iv: 252.
Liquid fire, x: 19.
Lisbon, celebrating declaration of war, vi: 374.
Locomotives, U. S., ready for shipment overseas, v: 195;
building of, viii: _facing p._ 282 (in color);
being assembled in France x: 391.
Locust Point,
ruins of fire suspected of German incendiary origin, i: 279.
London,
Buckingham Palace and Queen Victoria's monument, i: 127;
scene in front of Buckingham Palace on night of declaration of war,
i: 138;
crowd in front of Royal Exchange listening to
King's reading of war proclamation, i: 145;
night illumination for search of German air raiders, i: 151;
mass meeting to urge internment of Germans, ii: 259;
view from Westminster Abbey, vi: 4;
anti-conscription demonstration, vi: 7;
recruiting scene, vi: 8;
Lord Mayor's Show, vi: 9;
Tower of, vi: 11;
anti-German riot, x: 334.
London Scottish, charging at Messines, x: 45.
"Lost Battalion," members of,
being fed at Knights of Columbus field kitchen, vii: 329.
Louvain, ruins of Library, i: 239;
refugees from, vii: _Intro. xii._
Lucy-le-Bocage, ruins of, v: 134.
Luresnes, American Cemetery at, vii: 224.
_Lusitania_, sinking of, i: 291;
float representing sinking, i: 296;
facsimile of German warning against sailing on, i: 319;
attempt to save passengers while sinking, iv: 219;
popular German postcard depicting torpedoing, iv: 221;
German medal celebrating destruction, iv: 222;
appeal to revenge sinking of, iv: _facing p._ 222 (in color);
funeral procession of victims, iv: 225;
on last voyage, iv: 226, xi: 20.
Luxemburg, City of, vi: 93.
M
Machine-guns, Lewis, v: 240, viii: 86;
Colt, viii: 80, 81, 83;
Benet-Mercier, viii: 82;
German, viii: 85;
Browning, viii: 85;
on airplanes, viii: 193, 209, 211.
Madrid, Bolshevik demonstration, vi: 372.
Mainz, vi: 295.
_Mainz_, German cruiser, sinking off Heligoland, iv: 243.
_Majestic_, British battleship, ii: 204.
Matines, Cathedral, vi: 102.
Malingering, tests for detection of, viii: 359, 363.
Malmaison, Fort, German defenses at, ii: 41.
Mancourt, French machine gunners repulsing German attacks, ii: 43.
Marines, U. S., _see_ U. S., Marines.
_Markgraf_, German battleship surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389.
Marne, battles of, dead and debris on battlefield, iii: 25, 94;
Germans forcing crossing of river, iii: 32;
French celebrating anniversary of, iii: 34.
Marne River, at Château-Thierry, ii: 82, x: 4;
Allied airplanes flying over, ii: 83;
Germans crossing, iii: 32;
U. S. troops resting near, v: 42.
_Marseillaise_, singing of, xi: 327.
Marseilles, arrival of Russian troops at, i: 251.
Martin bombing plane, viii: 234.
Mascots, lion mascots of Maj. Lufberry, xi: 229;
baboon mascot of Royal Engineers, xi: 230.
Masks, for shell-torn faces, viii: 389, 391.
Maubeuge, ruin of fort at, ii: 11.
Maude, Gen., grave of, iii: 187.
McPherson, Fort, U. S. army student officers at, v: 301.
Melbourne, Australian army embarking for Gallipoli, ii: 201;
Alexandra Gardens, vi: 43.
_Mercy_, U. S. hospital ship, view of a ward, viii: 370;
operating room, viii: 371;
X-ray apparatus, viii: 374.
Mesopotamia, New Zealanders digging trenches, ii: 91;
bridge across Tigris, iii: 319;
native silver-smiths, iii: 330;
camel caravan, iii: 367;
bridge across Narin River destroyed by Turks, vi: 222.
Messines, battle of, iii: 360.
Metz, i: 332.
Meuse River, ruins of bridge destroyed by Germans, i: 313;
at Verdun, ii: 37, iii: 61, 303;
French scouts reconnoitering on, ii: 45;
at Liége, iii: 6;
near Dinant, iii: 13;
passing through country north of Verdun, iii: 309;
wreckage on banks, iii: 328.
Milan, pro-war demonstration, vi: 119, 124.
Mine-field, viii: 273, 275.
Mine-layers,
iv: 200, 329, 372, viii: 267 (plan of German mine-laying submarine).
Mine-laying, iv: 324, 326, 331.
Mines, iv: 325, 327;
floating, xi: 247.
Mine-sweepers, iv: 51, 260.
Mobile repair shop, viii: 295.
_Moltke_, German battle cruiser, with crew, iv: 257.
Monastir, vi: 355.
Monitors, _see_ Great Britain, Navy.
Mortars, viii: 3, xi: 293.
Moscow, the kremlin, ii: 234;
Red Square, vi: 167.
Moselle River, v: 81.
"Mothers of France," vi: _frontispiece_ (in color).
Motor truck, equipped with apparatus for crossing trenches, viii: 292.
Motor boats, construction of, in New Jersey shipyard, xii: 102.
Mouilly, battlefield near, in St. Mihiel salient, v: 204.
Mülhausen, street scene, ii: 183.
Murat, Prince, palace of, President Wilson's Paris residence
during Peace Conference, ix: 67, 68.
Mustard gas, filling shells with, v: 323, viii: 165;
frozen cube of, viii: 172.
N
Nancy, bird's-eye view, ii: 140.
Napoleon, tomb of, x: 233.
_Nautilus_, Fulton's submarine, iv: 203.
Naval scenes, general, firing a salvo, iv: 77;
lookout in crow's nest, iv: 163;
destroyer on patrol, iv: 193;
torpedo boat on patrol, x: 284;
target practice, xi: 281;
winter patrol, xi: 298;
battleship in rough sea, xi: 300;
_see also_ under name of country, Navy;
_also_ particular references such as Submarines;
etc.
_N-C-I_, U. S. seaplane, viii: 238.
_Nebraska_, U. S. battleship,
crew preparing to sow mine field, iv: 326.
Netherlands, mobilized soldiers reading war news, i: 263;
military maneuvers, ii: 181;
troops at machine-gun practice, vi: 376;
war refugees in, vii: 169;
Red Cross volunteers, vi: 170.
Neufmaisons, street scene, v: 54.
Neuilly, American hospital at, vii: 38, 77, 199.
New Guinea, native troops in British service, i: 81;
native women as plantation workers, i: 82.
New York, parade of German-Americans, '14, i: 272;
Austrian reservists reporting at consulate at outbreak of war,
i: 281;
display of flags on Armistice Day, Nov. 11, '18, iii: 401;
Victory Parade, iv: 138;
Red Cross Parade, vii: 2;
women of Motor Corps of America parading, vii: 57;
Victory Way, xii: 133.
_New York_, U. S. battleship,
visited by King George and Adm. Beatty, iv: 11, 85, 345;
airplane view, iv: 358;
in a storm, iv: 395.
New Zealand, army, digging trenches in Mesopotamia, ii: 91;
in Egypt, vi: 46.
_North Carolina_,
U. S. battleship, crew visiting Pyramids, iv: 353.
_North Dakota_, U. S. battleship, iv: 344.
North Sea Allied patrol, x: 285, 294.
Notre Dame, Church of, at Albert, after German bombardment, xi: 23.
Noyon, French entering, '18, iii: 102.
Nurses, French, vii: _frontispiece_ (in color);
reading to convalescent, vii: 21;
Japanese, vii: 44;
British, vii: 52;
Red Cross, treating Allied wounded, vii: 65;
reading last rites over the dead, vii: 76;
Polish, recruited in America, vii: 353;
Russian, vii: 362;
French Sister of Mercy, x: _facing p._ 48 (in color);
writing letters for wounded, x: 380;
_see also_ Red Cross.
O
Observation tower, German collapsible type, viii: 15.
Oglethorpe, Fort, U. S. army student officers at, ii: 319.
Olives, Mount of, ii. _facing p._ 332 (in color).
Oppressed nations, representatives of,
at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, vi: 227.
Ostend, esplanade, ii: 224;
bird's-eye view of harbor, iv: 275;
British cruiser _Vindictive_ being sunk at, iv: 276.
P
Palestine, British troops with captured Turkish plane, ii: 93;
Mount of Olives, ii: _facing p._ 332 (in color);
native market, iii: 194;
dressing-station for British wounded, iii: 326;
_see also_ name of towns in, as Jerusalem, etc.
Parachute, French type, viii: 263.
Parades, German-Americans in New York, '14, i: 272;
in Cape Town, to help recruiting, i: 383;
in London, recruits passing Whitehall, i: 387;
A. E. F. in Paris, July 4, '17, ii: _Intro. xxiv_;
in Petrograd celebrating capture of Lemberg, ii: 230;
in Berlin, on birthday of Kaiser, ii: 258;
in New York, Victory parade, iv: 138;
recruits at Chicago, v: 377;
Lord Mayor's Show, London, vi: 9;
women's, in London, '15, vi: 18;
Dominion Day in Winnipeg, vi: 27;
Anzac Day in Sydney, '18, vi: 44;
Allies in Vladivostok, vi: 193;
Red Cross in New York, vii: 2;
women of American Motor Corps, in New York, vii: 57;
Russian troops in Paris on Bastille Day, x: 376;
U. S. troops in Paris, July 4, '19, x: 389.
Paris, group of Americans stranded in, by outbreak of war, i: 277;
congestion at railroad station on declaration of war, i: 278;
interior of American embassy, i: 288;
Allied conference at French Foreign Ministry, March, '16, i: 398;
Eiffel Tower, ii: 267;
crowd outside Bank of France on outbreak of War, ii: 382;
bird's-eye view, v: 379, xii: 258;
on watch for enemy with searchlights, vi: 97;
Bois de Boulogne, vi: 100;
Armistice celebration, vi: 107;
Joan of Arc anniversary celebration, vi: 108;
Bourse, vi: 109;
May Day riots, May 1, '19, vi: 111;
poor getting coal allotment, vi: 112;
theatre turned into relief warehouse, vii: 114;
crowd in Place de la Concorde to greet President Wilson, xii: 164;
crowd at Place de l'Etoile welcoming Wilson, xii: 193.
Parliament, British, Houses of, xi: 2.
Passchendaele Ridge, British bombardment of, iii: 78.
Peace Treaty, Clemenceau's pen in signing, ix: 13;
table and chair used in signing, xii: 157.
_Pegasus_, British airplane carrier, iv: 81.
_Pennsylvania_, U. S. battleship, airplane view of, iv: 360.
Periscope, land use, ii: 179.
Permanent Blind Relief War Fund,
Italian fiesta for, at New York Public Library, vii: 258.
Persia, Christian inhabitants, vi: 336.
Petrograd, celebrating capture of Lembery, ii: 230;
war-time crowds, vi: 137;
burning, vi: 146;
celebrating Kerensky revolution, vi: 152;
along the Canal, vi: 155;
view from St. Isaac's Cathedral, vi: 163;
street orators, vi: 165, 172;
Tauris Palace, vi: 173;
crowds awaiting food rations, vii: 372, 373.
Phosgene, filling shells with, viii: 169.
Pigeons, as military messengers, viii: 327, 328.
Pill-boxes, viii: 132, xi: 253.
Place de la Concorde, Paris, welcoming President Wilson, xii: 164.
Place de l'Etoile, Paris crowds welcoming President Wilson, xii: 193.
Plymouth, England, harbor, vii: 135.
"Poilu," iii: _frontispiece_ (in color).
Pola, harbor, iv: 369, vi: 312.
Poland, German trenches in, iii: 108;
troops in Warsaw, vi: 205;
Women's Battalion of Death, vi: 218;
unloading food supplies from U. S. in Warsaw, vii: 355;
shipping kosher meat for Jewish war sufferers in, vii: 357.
Pontoons, iii: 387.
Pope's palace, interior of, ix: 406.
Port Said, i: 16, iii: 200.
Posters:
American, for Navy recruiting, iv: 316;
for Marine recruiting, v: 131, x: 316;
for Red Cross, vii: 20, 21, 23, 26, 132, xi: 285;
for Free Milk for France fund, vii: 377;
for Liberty Loans, x: 339, 353, xi: 109, xii: 7, 14, 128, 131;
War Savings Stamps, prize poster, x: 346.
British, recruiting, vi: 6, 63, vii: 129, xi: 334;
for Women's Land Army, vi: 13;
for Belgian relief, vii: 128.
French, War Loan, vi: 96, 98;
for soldiers' relief, vi: 99, 103;
war exposition, vi: 113.
Italian, War Loan, vi: 327.
Potsdam, throne room of royal palace at, i: 159.
Prague, vi: 397.
_Prinz Eitel Friedrich_, German sea raider, iv: 196.
Prisoners of war:
Austrian, in Italy ii: 97;
in Serbia, iii: 154;
captured by Russians, iii: 293, vi: 182.
Belgian, snipers on way to execution by Germans, i: 236.
British, at Göttingen, iii: 301;
condition on being released from German prison camp, vii: 39.
German, captured in first Marne battle, ii: 143, 173;
on way to prison camp, ii: 328;
serving as stretcher bearers, ii: 334;
captured at Verdun, iii: 315;
U-boat crew captured by Americans, iv: 238;
captured by Russians, vi: 177;
being searched for concealed weapons, vi: 284;
group under British guard, vii: 104;
in prison camp, vii: 303;
at Fort McPherson, x: 373.
Russian, having mess, vi: 139;
as street laborers, vi: 184, 217.
Serbian, on way to Austria, vii: 154.
Turkish, on march, vi: 232.
Propaganda, dropped by British in German lines, ii: 320;
device for releasing from aircraft, ii: 321.
Prussian Chamber of Deputies in session, vi: 259.
Przemysl, vi: 135.
Q
_Queen Elizabeth_, British super-dreadnought, iii: 175, iv: 31.
Queen Elizabeth Medal, Belgian, ix: 391.
Quirinal Palace, Rome, vi: 128.
_Quistconck_, launching of, at Hog Island, xii: 26.
R
_R-34_, British dirigible, viii: 251, 255.
Raemaekers, Louis, cartoons by, i: 222, 363, vi: 85, 285.
Raines Foundation Schools,
London, converting crates into baby cradles, vii: 141.
Ramsgate, after an air raid, ii: 268.
Red Cross:
American, New York parade, vii: 2;
a large flag, vii: 13;
national headquarters, Washington, vii: 18;
posters, vii: 20, 21, 23, 26, 132, xi: 285;
reading to convalescents, vii: 21, 204;
Kaiser's trophy donated to, vii: 25;
rolling kitchens, vii: 33;
knitting for soldiers, vii: 34;
Paris headquarters, vii: 36;
sightseeing with convalescent U. S. soldiers in London, vii: 40;
hospital ship _Red Cross_, vii: 45;
medal and badges of, vii: _facing p._ 50 (in color);
preparing Christmas packages for A. E. F., vii: 55, 279;
hospital train, vii: 58;
advance station in France, vii: 61;
sightseeing with U. S. sailors on leave in London, vii: 62;
distributing cigarettes to Russian wounded, vii: 79;
field canteen in France, vii: _facing p._ 96 (in color);
looking after Belgian refugees in Paris, vii: 112;
worker among refugees, vii: _facing p._ 158 (in color);
supplies at Brest, vii: 171;
making bandages, vii: _facing p._ 198 (in color);
caring for French children, vii: 200, 201;
distributing gifts to French children, vii: 229;
caring for wounded Belgian boy, vii: 242;
coffee and cakes for convalescent A. E. F. at Auteuil Hospital,
vii: 243;
loading supplies for overseas,
vii: _facing p._ 250, 350 (in color);
mailing letters for departing soldiers, vii: 297;
in Italy, vii: _facing p._ 300, 374 (in colors);
canteen at Trieste, vii: 301;
Red Cross men in the making, xi: _frontispiece_ (in colors);
nurse visiting poor of Marseilles, xi: 83;
nurse bathing Belgian baby, xi: 85;
educational cartoons for child welfare in France, xi: 87-90.
Belgian, hospital trains, vii: 118.
British, serving food to Germans, vii: 7;
wounded soldiers at Gift House, vii: 70;
in Mesopotamia, vii: 260.
Dutch, volunteers, vii: 170.
French, canteen, vii: 48;
barge hospitals on the Seine, vii: 49, 236;
giving refreshments to soldiers on troop train, vii: 226;
hospital train, vii: 239;
motor canteen, vii: 248;
caring for wounded children, vii: 368.
Japanese, nurses assisting at operation, vii: 44.
Russian, group of nurses, vii: 362.
_Red Cross_, hospital ship, vii: 45.
Refugees of war:
American, tourists fleeing from war zone, i: 271.
Belgian, wives seeking news of deported husbands, i: 177;
fleeing before German invasion, i: 355, 356;
gathered in front of town hall, Antwerp, ii: 169;
fleeing from Antwerp, iii: 17, xi: 60;
Germans deporting women, vi: 86;
fleeing from Louvain, vii: _facing p._ 1;
assisted at Paris railroad station by Red Cross, vii: 112;
relief bundles for, vii: 126;
two aged refugees from Louvain, vii: 137;
finding food and shelter in Holland, vii: 169;
returning home, ix: _facing p._ 368 (in color);
children in France, xi: 86.
French, under escort of German guards, i: 205, x: 351;
going into Holland, i: 224;
fleeing out of war zone, i: 270, xi: 57, 58;
on road to Amiens, ii: 151;
in Marne district, iii: 298;
among ruins of Termonde, vii: 74;
getting clothing in Paris from American Fund for French Wounded,
vii: 102;
old peasant woman among ruins of home, vii: 150;
Red Cross relief worker among,
vii: _facing p._ 158 (in color);
from Château-Thierry, vii: 312;
children found at Château-Thierry by Allied soldiers, xi: 61;
child seeking safety in barn, xi: 65;
repatriated French children, xi: 75;
children at La Jonchère Sanatorium, xi: 91;
arriving in Paris with the family goat, xi: 178.
German, from East Prussia, arriving in Berlin, Aug., '14, ii: 23.
Italian, children, xi: 67, 69.
Rumanian, vi: 350.
Salonikan, vii: 163, 164, 166, 369, 371.
Serbian, tramping along railway tracks, vii: 158;
finding shelter in caves, vii: 160;
destitute children, xi: 73.
Reichstag Building, Berlin, vi: 277, xi: 3.
Reims (Rheims), Cathedral, i: 76;
Cathedral being bombarded by Germans, i: 225, 245;
bird's-eye view, ii: 155;
ruins of, ii: 211.
Renault tank, viii: 159, xi: 260.
"Reunited," home return of soldier,
xi: _facing p._ 188 (in color).
Rifle Brigade, British, fighting way through Neuve Chapelle, x: 11.
Rifles, diagram showing path of bullet, viii: 93;
U. S. types, viii: 98, 99, 100, 103, 104;
German anti-tank, viii: 139.
Riga castle, iii: 146.
Rio de Janeiro, vi: 391.
Riva, Porta San Marco, ii: 49.
Road construction behind the lines in France, v: 398.
Romagne, A. E. F. cemetery at, v: 233.
Rome, anti-German demonstration, vi: 117;
crowds celebrating King's birthday, vi: 127;
Quirinal Palace, vi: 128.
Roosevelt, Quentin, entrance card into École de Tir Aerien, x: 242;
record card at École de Tir Aerien, x: 245.
Roosevelt, Theodore, Sagamore Hill home, x: 248.
Rotterdam, harbor, vii: 139.
Ruggles orientator,
machine for testing aviation applicants, viii: 357.
Rumania, artillery detachment passing in review before King Ferdinand,
vi: 351.
Russia:
Army, marching through Marseilles, i: 251;
entering burning town in Eastern Galicia, ii: 26;
Cossack troops, ii: 233, iii: 130, vi: 195;
field guns, ii: 352, vi: 170;
outposts encountering Germans, ii: 356;
women's Battalion of Death, iii: 125, vi: 162, xi: 206, 208;
reserves on march, iii: 266;
at field Mass, iii: 270, vi: 144;
military funeral, vi: 133;
troops in panic, vi: 143;
reservists mobilizing, vi: 149;
greeting news of Czar's overthrow, vi: 157;
on way to front without rifles, vi: 176;
artillery retreating, vi: 209;
attacking with hand grenades, vi: 213;
riflemen, vi: 215;
an impromptu orchestra, vii: 152;
trenches on Eastern Front, viii: 127;
on parade in Paris, x: 376.
General scenes, rural district, vi: 138;
children's procession demanding education, vi: 147;
group of radicals, vi: 178;
winter scene, vi: 191;
peasant gathering herbs, vii: 367.
S
_S-126_, German destroyer,
torpedoing of, by British submarine, iv: 208.
Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt home at, x: 248.
St. Mark's, Venice, vi: 320.
St. Mihiel sector, "dead acres," iii: 98;
trenches, iii: 99;
tank in action at Mont Sec, v: 202;
battleground near Mouilly, v: 204.
St. Nazaire, first A. E. F. camp at, v: 107.
St. Paul's Cathedral, London, U. S. flag in, x: 30.
St. Quentin, Germans in, xi: 51.
St. Sophia, Mosque of, vi: 232.
Salonika, withdrawal of Greek troops, iii: 205;
Greek troops camping in Turkish cemetery, iii: 209;
Alexander's Arch, iii: 394;
British supplies, vi: 225;
war refugees, vii: 163, 164, 166, 369, 371;
rag-picker, xi: 62;
water-boy, xi: 63.
Salonika Front, sandbag bridge, iii: 210;
British labor battalion at work, iii: 397.
Salvation Army, the "doughnut girl," vii: 380;
at the front with British, vii: 381;
soft drink bar for service men, vii: 384;
women workers cooking doughnuts near front lines, vii: 386, x: 189;
women workers being decorated by Gen. Edwards, vii: 395;
collecting funds in New York, vii: 398;
hut in Union Square, New York City, vii: 399.
Scarborough, England, after a German naval raid, iv: 244.
Scheldt River, pontoon bridge across, ii: 167.
Sea Scouts, British, boy signalmen, xi: 96.
Searchlight, mounted on motor truck, viii: 76.
Sedan, view of, v: 94.
Sedd-ul Bahr fortress, after Allied bombardment, iii: 341, iv: 49.
Senegalese soldier, vi: _facing p._ 270 (in color).
Senlis, Cathedral, iii: 335.
Sepoys, iii: 182.
Serajevo, view of, i: 4.
Serbia:
Army, group of officers, i: 244, vi: 357;
type of soldier, ii: 33;
outposts on guard, iii: 282;
abandoned artillery, iii: 395;
artillery on way to front, iii: 396;
troops on march, vi: 246;
in camp, vi: 356;
artillery in action, vi: 358;
campaigning in winter, vii: 157;
lack of equipment, vii: 161.
General, Germans struggling through Serbian mud, iii: 399;
relief boxes for, vii: 114;
war medal, vii: 146;
packing clothing for war sufferers of, at Bush Terminal, Brooklyn,
vii: 165;
monument to mark where Serbs reëntered their country after exile,
vii: 167;
group of peasants, vii: 370;
selling wood in market place, xi: 72.
_Seydlitz_, German battleship surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389.
Shells, path of howitzer fire, ii: 129, iii: 159;
French, iii: 312, viii: 57;
ricochet and non-ricochet, iv: 333;
fragments of German, used in long-range bombardment of Paris,
viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272;
line of flight of German, used in bombardment of Paris, viii: 49;
path of trajectory of 120-mile range U. S. gun, viii: 50;
construction of German, used in long-range bombardment of Paris,
viii: 53;
manufacture of, viii: 73;
path of shrapnel fire, viii: 74;
shrapnel exploding, xi: 275;
heavy shells on way to front, xi: 279.
Sherman, Fort, U. S. soldiers on parade, xi: 36.
Shrapnel, line of flight, viii: 74;
exploding, xi: 275.
Siberia, station on trans-Siberian railroad, vi: 190.
Sirens, for warning of German air raids, viii: 216.
Sister of Mercy, x: _facing p._ 48 (in color).
Smoke screens, ii: 198, iv: 57, viii: 269, 325, xi: 402.
Soissons, ruins of Cathedral, iii: 92.
Somme, battlefield of, ii: 146, iii: 56;
British charging during battle of, iii: 57;
front visited by Clemenceau, xi: 127.
Sound horns, for detection of airplanes, viii: 18.
Sound-mirror, for detection of airplanes, viii: 21.
South Africa, Union of, troops embarking for Gallipoli, iii: 176.
Southwest Africa, German, native village, vi: 260.
Spad airplane, viii: 190.
Spahis, x: 117.
Spies, German, English mob attacking shop of suspect, i: 227;
under French guard, x: 332.
Springfield rifle, viii: 98, 99, 103, 105.
Stage Women's War Relief,
supplying service men with newspapers, vii: 345;
Service House in New York, vii: 346;
theatricals at New York Debarkation Hospital, vii: 347.
_Stamboul_, Turkish transport struck by torpedo, iv: 209.
Stanford University, cadets at trench drill, xi: 167.
_Star-spangled Banner_,
singing of, by U. S. service men, xi: 331.
Stelvio Pass, in the Alps, xi: 42.
Stockholm, bird's-eye view, i: 134.
Strassburg, i: 306.
Strassburg statue, Paris, vi: 105.
Stretchers, types, v: 338, viii: 377;
struck by shell, vii: 51.
Submarines, rising to surface, iv: 56;
anti-submarine patrol, iv: 193, 379, xi: 30;
German dry-dock for, in Kiel Canal, iv: 202;
development of Holland submarines, 1895--1915, iv: 204;
British submarine sinking German destroyer, iv: 208;
interior, showing torpedo tubes and mechanisms, iv: 210, 237;
coat of arms on captured U-boat, iv: 212;
U-boat being sunk by destroyer, iv: 213;
salvaging torpedoed merchantmen, iv: 218;
use of decoys to lure freighters, iv: 254, 276;
captured U-boats at Brooklyn Navy Yard, iv: 297;
U. S. types, iv: 299, viii: 280, xi: 240;
details of German U-boats, viii: 265, 267;
use of nets for trapping, viii: 268, 270, 272, xi: 238;
use of hinged plates on sides of ships for protection against,
viii: 271;
mine fields for destruction of, viii: 273, 275;
detail of periscope, viii: 277, 282;
crew's quarters on board U-boat, x: 275;
British type, x: 296;
torpedoed ship settling into water, xi: 19;
U-boat submerged, xi: 234;
U-boat on surface, xi: 235;
close-up view of conning-tower, xi: 242;
submerged, with conning-tower and periscope projecting, xi: 244;
placing torpedo in tube, xi: 246.
Sudanese troops, in Egypt, vii: 323.
Suez Canal, British supply depot on, vi: 223;
launching of first British seaplane on, vi: 224.
_Suffolk Coast_, disguised British warship, iv: 301, 303.
_Suffren_, French battleship, iv: 22.
Surgical dressing, making of, by volunteer women workers,
vii: _facing p._ 198 (in color);
warehouse of, vii: 219.
_Sussex_, Channel ferryboat, torpedoed by U-boat, x: 281.
Sweden, food riots, xii: 46.
Switzerland, medal cast in honor of President Wilson, ix: 69.
Sydney, Australia, town hall, vi: 37;
recruiting scene, vi: 41.
T
Tanks, early type, ii: 276;
camouflaged, ii: 276;
in action, ii: 279, v: 157, xi: 252, 256, 263;
sketch drawing, iii: 339;
dragging camouflaged gun, v: 316;
German anti-tank rifle, viii: 139;
framework of first tank, viii: 156;
"baby" tank, xi: 270.
British, being inspected by King Albert, ii: 278;
in Jerusalem, ii: _facing p._ 280 (in color);
approaching Gaza, ii: 282;
replica of first tank used, vii: 300;
_Britannia_ in U. S., viii: 137, 138, 142;
a whippet, viii: 140;
in action, viii: 149, x: 59;
tank gun, viii: 150.
French, St. Chamond type, ii: 275;
"baby" tanks, ii: 281,
viii: 158, 159 (interior view of Renault tank),
xi: 260 (exterior view of Renault tank);
supporting advancing U. S. troops, v: 193;
tractors for transporting Renaults, viii: 141;
interior views, viii: 144, 145, 147, 159 (Renault);
predecessor of tank, viii: 155;
in action, viii: 157;
Renault type, viii: 159 (interior view), xi: 260.
German, overturned, viii: 160;
miniature one-man tank, viii: 161.
U. S., supporting infantry attack, v: 181;
going over the top at St. Mihiel, v: 202;
tank troops training, v: 287;
largest in world, viii: 146;
first, xi: 258;
Ford "baby" tank, xi: 262.
Targets, range-finding on U. S. battleship, viii: 11;
for long-range, viii: 94;
for rapid fire, viii: 95;
for 200 and 300 yards, viii: 97;
for mid-range, viii: 101;
spotting disk, viii: 101.
Tauris Palace, Petrograd, vi: 173.
Teleferica, cableways used by Italians to cross chasms, viii: 304.
Telegraph, field headquarters station, i: 353;
linesman repairing wires under fire, x: 148.
Telephone in war, first unit of U. S. women operators, ii: 309;
German field telephone, iii: 295;
central at French army headquarters, viii: 323;
"listening in," x: 394.
Termonde, ruins of, i: 340, 341.
Thiaucourt, street scene, v: 162.
_Thomas_, U. S. transport, at Vladivostok, vi: 188.
Tigris, iii: 319.
_Tipperary_, vi: _facing p._ 130 (in color).
Tokyo, celebrating capture of Kiau Chau, vi: 384.
Torpedo, at moment of discharge, iv: 16, 400, x: 330;
torpedo tubes being turned on target, iv: 153;
destroyer dodging, iv: 188;
torpedo tubes on submarine, iv: 210;
being placed in position on submarine, xi: 246.
Torpedoplane, iv: 306.
Toul, Cathedral corner, v: 160.
Tower of London, vi: 11.
Tractors, for hauling artillery, viii: 42;
for transporting tanks, viii: 141;
tractor motor truck, viii: 290;
use in plowing, xii: 76.
Treaty of 1839, facsimile of signatures to, guaranteeing
Belgian neutrality, i: 147.
Trench stoves, captured from Germans, vi: 87.
Trenches, construction of, i: 360;
barbed-wire entrance to, ii: 284;
soldiers in entrance to dugout, v: 76;
diagram of, showing method of attack in reducing forts, viii: 125;
hallway of underground dwelling, viii: 129;
machinery used in digging, viii: 130;
communicating, viii: 330;
_see also_ under name of country, Army.
Trent, river front, vi: 130.
Trieste, water front, ii: 52;
market scene, ii: 245.
Troopship, religious service on board, iv: 228.
Trudeau Sanitarium, French children under Red Cross care at, vii: 200.
Tsing Tau, wireless station wrecked by Japanese fire, iii: 259;
barbed-wire entanglements outside walls of, iv: 61.
Turkey, army, leaving for the front, ii: 31;
infantry at attention, iii: 166;
artillery on way to Suez Canal, iii: 189;
putting up hospital tents, vii: 365.
Tyrol, Italians advancing, iii: 242;
Austrian stronghold, vi: 309.
U
_U-58_, German submarine captured by U. S. destroyer, iv: 349.
_U-65_, German submarine, ii: 20.
_U-105_, German submarine, interior of, iv: 237.
Uhlans, German, in Belgium, xi: 196.
Ukrainian peasants, vi: 242.
United States:
Agriculture, in war time, xii: 84, 137, 147.
Army, setting-up exercises, i: 308, 365;
training for trench warfare, i: 338;
equipment, i: 352, xi: 169 (with cost of each item);
field headquarters telegraph station, i: 353;
student officers in training, i: 367, v: 285;
on Mexican border, i: 368;
Signal Corps men at work, i: 372, v: 319;
marching in Paris, July 4, '17, ii: _Intro. xxiv_;
on march over French roads, ii: 219;
advancing at Cantigny, ii: 271, x: 75;
on regimental parade, ii: 305;
first unit of women telephone operators, ii: 309;
recruits drilling, ii: 313;
military lecture, ii: 315;
first troops reaching France, ii: 316, iii: 81, iv: 158, 162;
student officers at Fort Oglethorpe, ii: 319;
return from France, iii: _facing p._ 348 (in color);
debarking at Brest, v: 3;
machine gunners at rest, v: 20;
resting after march, v: 26;
an infantry-man, v: 30;
resting near Marne front, v: 42;
supporting wounded poilu, v: 50;
on way to front, v: 60, 63, 381;
marching through ruined town, v: 68;
territory to advance through in Meuse-Argonne region, v: 75;
advancing through Argonne forest, v: 82, 247;
officer's dugout, v: 89;
first camp in France, v: 107;
graves of first killed in France, v: 111;
hand grenade practice, v: 112;
boxing match for recreation, v: 114, vii: 314;
veterans of Cantigny, v: 125;
motorized machine-gun unit, v: 142;
infantry in firing trenches, v: 144;
washing day, v: 149;
sketches of A. E. F. types, v: 151;
troops coming out of action at Château-Thierry, v: 153;
passing through Thiaucourt, v: 162;
making friends with French children, v: 164;
advancing over open field, v: 169;
infantry advancing with tank protection, v: 181, 193;
billeted in French farmhouse, v: 189;
M. P. quarters, v: 200;
officers' quarters in the Argonne, v: 217;
advancing near Badonville, v: 232;
A. E. F. cemetery at Romagne, Argonne, v: 233;
men of 77th Div. in the Argonne, v: 244;
A. E. F. positions on the Aisne, v: 259;
marching into Alsace, v: 267, xii: 288;
negro troops being decorated, v: 268;
N. Y. National Guardsmen in training at Camp Wadsworth, v: 283;
a tank unit in training, v: 287;
27th Div. returning home on _Leviathan_, v: 298;
student officers at Fort McPherson, v: 301;
aviator "true-ing" plane, v: 311;
assembling Liberty planes in France, v: 313;
supplies for A. E. F. on Brest docks, v: 329;
field of auto trucks, v: 333;
salvage unit at work, v: 334, viii: 346;
assembling locomotives in France, v: 335;
reveille, v: _facing p._ 354 (in color);
parade and inspection, v: _facing p._ 358 (in color);
visitors' day at camp, v: _facing p._ 362 (in color);
taps, v: _facing p._ 366 (in color);
soldier saluting grave of poilu, v: 374;
off duty, v: 376;
Chicago recruits on way to training camp, v: 377;
bringing in wounded French soldier, v: 386;
in a bombarded village, v: 387;
in Genoa, v: 394;
group of ambulances and drivers, vii: 31;
convalescent soldiers sightseeing in London, vii: 40;
medical officers treating wounded on field, vii: 46;
hospital trains, vii: 58, 107, 252, viii: 380;
type of Scotch member, vii: 176;
type of Scandinavian member, vii: 177;
type of negro member, vii: 178;
type of English member, vii: 179;
type of Armenian member, vii: 180;
type of Greek member, vii: 181;
type of Irish member, vii: 183;
type of Italian member, vii: 184;
type of Jewish member, vii: 185;
in line for inoculation at training camp, vii: 195;
dental officers at work, vii: 210, 223;
convalescing wounded soldiers in workshop, vii: 214;
A. E. F. cemetery at Luresnes, vii: 224;
entertainment for wounded, vii: 231, 347;
wounded soldier under operation, vii: 257;
class of illiterate recruits being taught, vii: 280;
42nd Div. on march, vii: 292;
playing ball, vii: 315;
soldier-students at Eagle Hut, London, vii: 320;
type of Polish member, vii: 356;
wounded arriving in New York, vii: 390;
types of rifles, viii: 98, 99, 100, 103, 105;
bayonet practice, viii: 106, 107, 108, 109, xi: 162, 166;
gas training, viii: 121;
motorized kitchen, viii: 287;
in Vaux, x: 7;
machine gunners in action, x: 103;
gravestones of A. E. F. dead, x: 115;
bugler, x: 386;
parading in Paris, July 4, '19, x: 389;
charging drill, x: 398;
National Army men in camp in winter, xi: 5;
on march at Fort Sherman, xi: 36;
training to go "Over the top," xi: 38;
French soldiers instructing Americans, xi: 44;
National Army draftees arriving at camp, xi: 156;
recruits learning manual of arms, xi: 160;
army mule getting hair-cut, xi: 164;
cavalry stunts, xi: 171;
type of American Indian in, xi: 177;
firing practice, xi: 304;
repairing telephone lines in France, xi: 305;
field telephoning, xi: 307;
operating sawmill behind the lines in France, xi: 311;
group singing, xi: 336, 338;
drilling awkward squad, xii: 104;
Secretary Baker drawing draft numbers, xii: 289.
Artillery, coast defense guns, i: 346, v: 307, viii: 27, 41;
mountain-guns, i: 371, viii: 25;
guns which took part in second Marne battle, iii: 95;
A. E. F. battery on way to front, v: 64;
heavy French gun manned by U. S. Coast Artillery
gunners in action in France, v: 166;
Marine gunners with field piece, v: 171;
French guns for A. E. F. use, v: 172;
storing shells, v: 173;
gun which fired last shot of war, v: 276;
at practice, v: 304, xi: 162;
naval gun on caterpillar mount for use on Western Front, v: 306;
training artillery officers, viii: 9;
telescopic sight on field guns, viii: 12;
3-in. gun, viii: 23;
6-in. railway-mount gun, viii: 37;
16-in. railway-mount howitzer, viii: 39;
path of shell flight of proposed 121-mile range gun, viii: 50;
sketch of 121-mile range gun, viii: 51;
range-finding, x: 132;
type of heavy railway-mount gun, xi: 276.
Congress, President Wilson addressing, on relations with Germany,
i: 329.
Declaration of war on Germany, facsimile copy, ii: 55.
Flag, presented to President Wilson by Frenchwomen, i: 394;
used by American ambulance workers in Franco-Prussian War,
vii: 319;
in St. Paul's Cathedral, London, x: 30;
original Star-spangled Banner, xi: 330.
Marines, embarking for overseas, ii: 223;
operating anti-aircraft gun on warship, iv: 338;
operating anti-aircraft machine gun on land, v: 11;
recruiting poster, v: 131, x: 316;
in Belleau Woods, v: 137;
with 3-in. field artillery, v: 171;
storing ammunition in dugout, v: 173;
advancing with hand grenades, v: 176;
in artillery contest, v: 304;
in bayonet drill, viii: 108;
scene of first stand against Germans, x: 3;
Gen. Neville decorating colors of 6th Regt., x: 199;
advancing to Belleau Woods, xi: 45.
Navy, members of War Council, iv: _Intro. xi_;
sailors in Victory Parade, New York City, iv: 138;
battleships of Atlantic fleet, iv: 161, 336;
submarine chaser, iv: 293;
types of submarines, iv: 299, viii: 280, xi: 240;
recruiting poster, iv: 316;
recruits learning to make knots, iv: 318;
returning from torpedo practice, iv: 321;
mine-laying, iv: 324, 325, 326, 327, 331, 332;
taps, iv: 334;
sailors dancing on board ship,
iv: _facing p._ 334 (in color);
anti-aircraft guns on board ship manned by marines, iv: 338;
sailors washing clothes, iv: 339;
sailors in "crow's nest," iv: 342;
supply ship taking on cargo for A. E. F., iv: 347;
naval militiamen off for service, iv: 351;
sailor's Christmas box from home,
iv: _facing p._ 366 (in color);
patrol boat in French waters, iv: 378;
signalling practice, iv: 402;
battleship taking on provisions, v: 330;
students at naval radio school at Harvard University, viii: 318;
fleet on high seas, xi: 30;
strong man of Norfolk Training Station, xi: 158;
dreadnaughts saluting President Wilson, xii: 227;
_see also_ name of vessels.
Ship-building, at Camden, N. J., xii: 30;
at Seattle, Wash., xii: 93;
at Bayonne, N. J., xii: 102.
_Utah_, U. S. battleship, iv: 341.
V
Vaux, Fort, at Verdun, ruins of, ii: 187.
Vaux, village in Marne sector, airplane view, v: 36;
ruins of, x: 6;
American troops in, x: 7.
Venice, guarding art treasures against air attack, vi: 316;
Campanile of St. Mark's, vi: 319, 320.
Verdun, views on banks of Meuse, ii: 37, iii: 61, 303;
German Crown Prince decorating troops at, ii: 38;
battlefield, ii: 39;
behind German lines at, ii: 46;
ruins of Fort Vaux, ii: 187;
trenches on Hill 304, ii: 188;
Cathedral, iii: 53;
main gateway, iii: 54;
captured German positions, iii: 315;
aviation camp near, viii: 233.
Versailles,
entry of King William of Prussia into, 1871, i: 46;
proclamation of German Empire at, 1871, i: 55;
Palace of, vi: 101, xii: 157 (Hall of Mirrors),
160 (signature of Peace Treaty);
German press representatives at, xii: 220.
Victory Way, New York City, xii: 133.
Vienna, Congress of, i: 31.
_Ville de Paris_, French dirigible, viii: 242.
Vilna, vi: 235.
Vimy Ridge, Canadians going over top, iii: 69.
_Vindictive_, British cruiser,
after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 263, 271, 273, 278;
officers of, iv: 267;
crew of, iv: 271;
being sunk in Ostend harbor, iv: 276.
_Viribus Unitis_, Austrian dreadnought, x: 298.
Vladivostok, A. E. F. base at, vi: 188;
U. S. consulate at, vi: 192;
Allied troops on parade, vi: 193.
Volunteer Motor Service, members of, vii: 32.
_Von Der Tann_, German battleship
surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389.
Vosges Mountains,
French "Blue Devils" watching long-range bombardment,
viii: _facing p._ 122 (in color).
War Savings Stamps, prize poster, x: 346.
Warneford, Lieut, R. A. J., death of, x: 224.
Warsaw, iii: 126;
unloading American relief supplies, vii: 355.
Water, canvas pipe-line for supplying troops in the field, viii: 395.
Water-boy at Salonika, xi: 63.
Waterloo, Napoleon's retreat from, i: 7.
Watervliet Arsenal, U. S. gun shop, i: 304.
Westminster, home of Duke of, transformed into war hospital, vii: 89.
William II, former Emperor of Germany,
residence at Amerongen, Holland, ix: 358.
Wilson, Woodrow, Princeton home, ix: 60;
Paris residence, ix: 67, 68;
Swiss medal cast in honor of, ix: 69.
Wireless, talking from airplane to ground by means of, viii: 316;
U. S. Naval Radio School at Harvard, viii: 318;
German station at Metz, viii: 319;
arc transmitter at Metz wireless station, viii: 321.
Wisconsin, University of, Army Training Corps on hike, xi: 172.
Woevre, plain of the, iii: 309.
Women in war industries:
American, munition workers, xii: 3;
raising hogs, xii: 54;
farm workers, xii: 84, 147 (plowing with tractor).
British, Women's Land Army recruiting poster, vi: 13;
in iron foundry, vi: 15, 22;
as munition workers, vi: 16, 59, xii: 23;
as war gardeners, vi: 19, xii: 41;
building roads, xii: 20.
Canadian, making shell fuses, vi: 32.
French, as farm laborers, ii: 375, iii: 276;
as munition workers, xi: 283.
Unidentified, girl munition worker, ii: 327;
as railroad workers, vii: 296.
For women in war activities,
_see_ American Fund for French wounded;
Canteens;
Nurses;
Red Cross;
Salvation Army;
Young Men's Christian Association.
"Workshop for Working Girls," established by Edith Wharton in France,
vii: 101.
Wounded:
American,
loading on ambulance train for transportation to
debarkation point, vii: 58;
visited by Red Cross worker on train, vii: 107;
wounded Scotch member, vii: 176;
wounded Scandinavian member, vii: 177;
wounded negro member, vii: 178;
wounded English member, vii: 179;
wounded Armenian member, vii: 180;
wounded Greek member, vii: 181;
wounded Irish member, vii: 183;
wounded Italian members, vii: 184;
wounded Jewish members, vii: 185;
being carried to first aid station, vii: 218;
at entertainment for, vii: 231;
in hospital car, vii: 252;
being helped by Knights of Columbus, vii: 336, 338;
at Debarkation Hospital No. 5, New York City, vii: 347;
wounded Polish member, vii: 356;
arriving at New York, vii: 390;
being carried on airplane ambulance, viii: 368;
on board hospital ship _Mercy_, viii: 370.
British,
being served food in France, ii: _facing p._ 190 (in color);
wounded Anzacs, iii: 169, 172;
at advance dressing-station in Palestine, iii: 326;
after a battle in Flanders, iii: 385;
being carried to dressing-station on Western Front, vii: 50;
being treated at dressing-station behind the lines, vii: 65, 97;
making souvenirs at Red Cross Gift House, London, vii: 70;
at home of Duke of Westminster, vii: 89;
at Prince of Wales Hospital, Tottenham, vii: 108;
awaiting first aid, vii: 196;
being carried by French soldiers to dressing-station, vii: 232;
awaiting transportation, vii: 238;
method of transporting in Mesopotamia, vii: 260;
Canadians at home of Lady Astor, vii: 281;
at Neuve Chapelle, xi: 187.
French, first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12;
being supported by American soldier, v: 50;
being brought in by American soldiers, v: 386;
being greeted in Switzerland, vi: 381;
being removed from field, vii: 8;
receiving first aid on field, vii: 53;
at a fête for, vii: 59;
being treated at dressing-station behind the lines, vii: 65;
at Verdun, vii: 66;
promenading with their nurses, vii: 98;
in a hospital train, vii: 239;
resting, x: 112.
German, being treated by A. E. F. medical officers, vii: 46;
too seriously wounded to be transported, vii: 80;
being brought in on improvised stretcher, vii: 88;
being nursed by Dutch nuns at Red Cross Hospital, Maastricht,
vii: 174;
getting a smoke from British Tommy, vii: 186;
being removed from field, vii: 208;
awaiting transportation, vii: 238.
Italian, being cared for by American Red Cross workers,
vii: _facing p._ 300 (in color),
_facing p._ 374 (in color).
Russian, in Siberian hospital, vii: 79;
too seriously wounded to be transported, vii: 80;
Cossack officer, vii: 363.
Unclassified, being helped by comrades, vi: 237;
being attended by medical unit men on field, vii: 182;
blind learning modelling, vii: 256;
blind learning basket-making, vii: 259;
being visited in hospitals by Y. M. C. A. workers, vii: 289, 311;
being brought to surface from dugout by windlass, vii: 304;
moved by means of trench trolley, vii: 306;
awaiting the stretcher bearers, vii: 309;
on board hospital ship, vii: 396;
being picked up by ambulance men, vii: 400.
_See also_ Ambulances;
Battle scenes;
Dead;
Hospitals;
_also_ Army under country.
Wright warplane, xi: 218.
Wright-Martin reconnaissance airplane, ii: 124.
_Wyoming_, U. S. battleship, iv: 397, x: 336.
X
X-ray, apparatus on U. S. hospital ship _Mercy_, viii: 374;
use by custom inspectors to detect smuggling, xii: 99.
Y
"Y" gun, for launching depth bombs, iv: 332.
Yarmouth, England, after German air raid, ii: 257.
Young Men's Christian Association:
American, motor kitchen, vii: 216;
Chicago gymnasium turned into sleeping quarters for service men,
vii: 262;
Brooklyn hospital unit in training, vii: 263, 278;
Eagle Hut, London, vii: 264, 288, 320;
Eagle Hut, New York City, vii: 265;
women canteen workers, vii: 269, 270;
ruins of hut blown by German mine, vii: 273;
in zone of German bombardment, vii: 274;
visiting wounded in hospitals, vii: 289, 311;
in Italy, vii: 291;
baths and beds for service men, vii: 295;
in dugouts, vii: 307;
sports for service men, vii: 315.
British, leading party of service men sightseeing in London,
vii: 285;
providing service men in London with over-night accommodation,
vii: 287;
in Egypt, vii: 325.
Canadian, at a Toronto camp, vii: 305.
Young Women's Christian Association, American,
Hostess House at Le Mans, France, vii: 272;
social center for negro troops, vii: 275;
Inter-Allied Club for Women at Le Havre, France, vii: 276;
vacation house for American women at Chaumont, France, vii: 317.
Ypres, ruins of, i: _facing p._ 98 (in color), ii: 145, x: 356;
veterans of second battle of, i: 379;
Highlanders attacking at, ii: 213.
Yser River, a Belgian bridge across, iii: 77.
Z
Zeebrugge raid,
British cruiser _Vindictive_ at, iv: 263, 271, 273, 278;
British landing party battling, iv: 265;
officers and men of _Vindictive_, iv: 266, 267, 273;
British ships sunk in canal to block channel, iv: 269;
British ferry-boats _Iris_ and _Daffodil_
after taking part in, iv: 270.
Zeppelins, being guided by lighthouse, ii: 265;
interior, ii: 269;
early type, viii: 247;
_L-49_ brought down by French, viii: 249;
fuel tanks on _L-49_, viii: 253;
pilot's gondola, x: 226;
_L-15_ sinking, x: 361.
_Zrinyi_, Austrian battleship, iv: 363.
MAPS
Africa, European colonies in, iii: 253.
Albania, ii: 34, 61, 239, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color).
Amiens, German drive on, Mar., '18, ii: 191;
battle lines, '14--'18, ii: 312.
Armistice, Nov. 11, '18,
battle lines on all fronts in Europe,
ii: _facing p. xxiv_ (in color);
battle line on Western Front,
ii: _facing p._ 86 (in color),
v: _facing p._ 372 (in color);
battle line on A. E. F. sector,
v: _facing p._ 72 (in color), 273.
Arras, area of British offensive, Apr., '17, iii: 71.
Arras-Neuve Chapelle sector, iii: 45.
Atlantic Ocean,
area of German submarine blockade,
i: _facing p._356 (in color), ii: 21.
Austro-Italian Front,
Alpine frontier, showing fortresses and mountain passes, iii: 227;
the Trentino, iii: 232;
Isonzo district, iii: 235;
battle lines, showing furthest Italian and Austrian advances,
with topography and rail communications,
iii: _facing p._ 246 (in color);
north of Venice, xi: 25;
Italian advance on Trieste, xi: 26.
Austro-Russian Front, iii: 120, 133;
battle line, Aug. 5, '15, iii: 139.
Austro-Serbian frontier, iii: 152.
Bagdad Railway, route of, ii: 293.
Balkans, national boundaries in '14, ii: 34;
territorial adjustments resulting from Balkan Wars, ii: 61;
southeastern, and Dardanelles, topography of, ii: 199;
western, and Italy, ii: 239;
topography, boundaries, and railroads, '14,
iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color).
Belgian Front, June, '17, iii: 40;
for particular sector or locality, _see_ under name.
Belgium,
German and French frontiers, ii: 7;
concentration of German armies along border before invasion,
Aug., '14, iii: 7;
and northern France, iii: 11.
Boy Scouts, distribution of, in U. S., xi: 95.
Bulgaria, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color);
boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61.
Cambrai, battle of, iii: 82.
Cantigny, battle line near, v: 124.
Carpathian passes, iii: 120, 133.
Caucasus Front, iii: 261.
Château-Thierry sector, v: 136.
Coronel, battle of,
with chart of position and movements of opposing warships, iv: 65.
Dardanelles, with topography of shores, ii: 199;
showing mine fields, location of Allied ships sunk,
and fortifications and roads on Gallipoli Peninsula, ii: 291;
with detail of southern Gallipoli, iii: 163;
with Sea of Marmora and Bosphorus, iv: 19;
with topography of shores, showing Turkish positions,
iv: _facing p._ 38 (in color).
Dixmude-Ypres line, June, '17, iii: 40.
East Prussia, iii: 107, 109.
Europe, and Near East,
showing projected German expansion from North Sea to Persian Gulf,
i: 6;
areas of German occupation, '16, i: 10;
in '14, ii: _Intro. xi_;
armistice lines, Nov. 11, '18,
ii: _Intro. facing p. xxiv_ (in color);
southeastern topography, boundaries, and railroads of,
iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color);
important battles and events of war, '14--'17, xi: 13;
food conditions after Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, xii: 43.
Falkland Islands, battle of,
with chart of position and movements of opposing fleets, iv: 71.
France, German and Belgian frontiers, ii: 7;
Marne-Aisne-Oise district, ii: 10;
northern, and Belgium, iii: 11;
A. E. F. supply depots and lines of communications, v: 5;
principal ports, v: 5;
for battle lines, _see_ name of sector or locality;
_also_ Western Front.
Gallipoli, topography, ii: 199;
with detail of elevations, roads, Turkish fortifications,
and areas of Allied occupation, ii: 291, iii: 163;
and northwestern Turkey, iv: 19;
topography with Turkish lines and forts,
iv: _facing p._ 38 (in color).
Germany, projected expansion from North Sea to Persian Gulf, i: 6;
Empire before war, i: 39;
Empire after war, i: 40;
Belgian and French frontiers, ii: 7;
Russian frontier, iii: 107, 109.
Great Britain,
showing areas of German submarine blockade around,
i: _facing p._ 356 (in color), ii: 21;
German sea raid on coast, Dec., '14, iv: 245.
Greece, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color);
boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61.
Iceland, Allied patrol areas off coast of, iv: 90.
Indian Ocean, showing trade routes and British possessions, iv: 179.
Isonzo, region of, iii: 227, 235, _facing p._ 246 (in color).
Italian Front, _see_ Austro-Italian Front.
Italy, and territories claimed under Treaty of London, ii: 239;
distribution of American Red Cross relief work in, vii: 83.
Jutland, battle of,
showing position of opposing fleets before start of engagement,
iv: 103;
charts of movements of opposing fleets during course of battle,
iv: 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 118,
120, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 134.
Keeling Island, iv: 185.
Kiau-Chau, iii: 258.
Luxemburg, ii: 7.
Lys salient, iii: 90.
Marne, first battle of,
showing position of opposing armies, iii: 30, 31.
Marne salient, battle lines, Jan.--June, '18, ii: 72;
battle lines, May 26--June 12, '18, ii: 79;
position of German armies, July, '18, ii: 322;
extent of German advance, July, '18, v: 43;
German retreat to the Vesle, July 18--Aug. 5, '18, v: 59;
battle lines, June 1--Aug. 4, '18, with position of French and
A. E. F. divisions, v: _facing p._ 184 (in color);
_see also_ Western Front.
Marne-Aisne-Oise district, ii: 10.
Mediterranean Sea,
area of German submarine blockade,
i: _facing p._ 356 (in color).
Mesopotamia, iii: 179, _facing p._ 190 (in color), xi: 50.
Messines Ridge, iii: 76.
Meuse-Argonne,
A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26--Nov. 11, '18,
with positions of divisions participating, v: 72;
towns and roads of district, v: 77;
A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26--Oct. 4, '18,
with positions of divisions participating,
v: _facing p._ 222 (in color);
A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26--Nov. 1, '18,
with positions of divisions participating,
v: _facing p._ 260 (in color);
battle line, Nov. 11, '18, with positions of A. E. F., French,
and German divisions, v: 273.
Montenegro, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212;
before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61.
Naval operations, of war, locations of,
iv: _facing p._ 166 (in color).
Neuve Chapelle-Arras sector, iii: 45.
North Sea,
area of German submarine blockade,
i: _facing p._ 356 (in color), ii: 21;
Allied mine barrage, German naval bases,
and scenes of naval battles in, iv: _facing p._ 86 (in color);
British cruising areas, iv: 89, 91.
Palestine,
iii: _facing p._ 190 (in color), 193, 197, 198, 325, xi: 50.
Red Cross, American, sectional divisions of U. S., vii: 16;
distribution of relief work in Italy, vii: 83.
Reims (Rheims)-Soissons sector, iii: 75.
Riga, Gulf of, iv: 137.
Rumania, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color), 215;
before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61.
Russia,
showing territories under German and Allied control, '18, ii: 67;
German frontier, iii: 107, 109;
Austrian frontier, iii: 120, 133;
Russo-Teuton battle line, Aug. 5, '15, iii: 139.
St. Mihiel salient,
showing battle lines and course of A. E. F. advance against,
Sept., '18, ii: 338, v: 70, _facing p._ 210
(in color, and giving positions of French and A.E.F. divisions),
385;
detail of terrain, v: 69.
Salonika Front, iii: 204.
Scapa Flow, iv: 93.
Scotland, British cruising areas off coasts of, iv: 89, 90, 91.
Serbia, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color);
boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61;
Austrian frontier, iii: 152;
encirclement by Teuton armies, iii: 157.
Sinai Peninsula, iii: 193.
Soissons, and region to the south, v: 178.
Soissons-Reims (Rheims) sector, iii: 75.
Somme, first battle, '16, area of, iii: 60;
second battle, '18, area of, iii: 87.
Somme-Oise sector,
battle lines during Allied offensive, Aug. 8--18, '18, ii: 332.
Suez Canal, iii: 193, xi: 50.
Syria, iii: _facing p._ 190 (in color), 198, xi: 50.
Tonnenberg, battle of, showing maneuvers of opposing armies, iii: 114;
_see also_ East Prussia.
Transylvania, iii: 215.
Trentino, iii: 227, 232, _facing p._ 246 (in color).
Trieste, Italian advance on, xi: 26.
Tsing Tau, iii: 258.
Turkey,
as part of German plan of Empire from North Sea to
Persian Gulf, i: 6;
with reference to Balkans,
ii: 34, 61 (territory in Europe before and after Balkan Wars),
iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color);
Dardanelles region, ii: 199, iv: 19;
route of Bagdad Railway, ii: 293;
route of British campaigns in, iii: _facing p._ 190 (in color);
in Asia, xi: 50.
United States, Red Cross sectional divisions, vii: 16;
distribution of Boy Scouts, xi: 95.
Verdun,
perspective of battlefield with battle lines,
Feb. 20--June 14, '16, iii: _facing p._ 50 (in color);
battle lines and positions of opposing armies, iii: 306.
Vimy Ridge, iii: 344.
Western Front,
battle line from North Sea to Reims, Apr., '17, ii: 54;
battle line, Mar., '18,
compared with line of furthest German advance, Sept., '14, ii: 64;
battle lines, Sept., '14--June, '18, ii: 72;
battle lines, Sept. 19--Oct. 2, '18, ii: 81;
battle line at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18,
compared with line of furthest German advance,
ii: _facing p._ 86 (in color);
plan of German concentration, Aug., '14, iii: 7;
battle line, Nov. 11, '14, iii: 39;
battle lines, Sept., '14--Sept., '18, iii: 97;
German advance, Aug.--Sept., '14,
with positions of German armies, iii: 278;
battle line, July, '18, v: 5;
position of A. E. F. divisions at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 273;
battle lines, July 18, '18, and Nov. 11, '18,
with dates and localities of principal operations
and A. E. F. divisions participating,
v: _facing p._ 372 (in color);
for particular sectors or localities, _see_ name.
World, areas inhabited by peoples not self-governing, i: 24;
sources of coal and oil supply in '14, ii: 15;
centers of live-stock production, xii: 36.
Ypres, and neighborhood, iii: 11.
Ypres-Dixmude line, June, '17, iii: 40.
Yser, battle of, iii: 43.
Zeebrugge, German submarine base, iv: 262.
Transcriber's notes:
Italics are rendered with underlines at the beginning and end e.g.
_italics_.
Bold font is rendered with equal signs at the beginning and end e.g.
=bold=.
Small caps have been replaced with all caps e.g. SMALL CAPS.
The following are believed to be typos and have been corrected.
+----+--------------+--------------+
|Page| Changed from | Changed to |
+----+--------------+--------------+
| 11| out | our |
| 15| finanical | financial |
| 17| the | be |
| 17| be | the |
| 22| Reichbank | Reichsbank |
| 24| statiticians | statisticians|
| 24| ought to to | ought to |
| 25| soliders | soldiers |
| 27| Jourial | Journal |
| 28| bonsuses | bonuses |
| 31| 311,070,250 | 60,000,000 |
| 31| 50,000,000 | 60,000,000 |
| 31| Canadaian | Canadian |
| 41| prorable | probable |
| 53| Men't | Men's |
| 54| offorded | afforded |
| 56| there | their |
| 56| pears' | years' |
| 57| everage | average |
| 59| sacrifce | sacrifice |
| 59| drastice | drastic |
| 75| exclusivevly | exclusively |
| 77| accesible | accessible |
| 77| comsumpton | consumption |
| 80| somethink | something |
| 81| rsesources | resources |
| 82| beween | between |
| 98| known | know |
| 101| urpassed | surpassed |
| 102| negotiatd | negotiated |
| 114| 743,556 | 74,556 |
| 126| oversea | overseas |
| 130| ito | into |
| 132| ecstacy | ecstasy |
| 166| show | shoe |
| 184| mmber | member |
| 199| Asociated | Associated |
| 204| givn | given |
| 205| Asociated | Associated |
| 215| space | spare |
| 216| nutral | neutral |
| 221| patricular | particular |
| 235| of | if |
| 252| that | the |
| 254| line | lines |
| 260| case | cast |
| 263| occured | occurred |
| 332| Maestricht | Maastricht |
| 353| Jaulognne | Jaulgonne |
+----+--------------+--------------+
*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Harper's Pictorial Library of the World War, Volume XII - The Great Results of the War" ***
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