Title: The Geography of Strabo, Volume III (of 3) - Literally Translated, with Notes
Author: Strabo
Language: English
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  | Transcriber's note:                                            |
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  | In this book many city names are spelled in different ways.    |
  | When the correct spelling is obvious these have been corrected |
  | for the sake of consistency. See the list of modern spellings  |
  | at the end of this volume.                                     |
  |                                                                |
  | Minor index errors have also been corrected.                   |
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   THE
   GEOGRAPHY
   OF
   STRABO.


   LITERALLY TRANSLATED, WITH NOTES.

   THE FIRST SIX BOOKS

   BY H. C. HAMILTON, ESQ.

   THE REMAINDER

   BY W. FALCONER, M.A.,

   LATE FELLOW OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD,
   RECTOR OF BUSHEY, HERTFORDSHIRE.

   IN THREE VOLUMES.

   VOL. III.

   WITH A COMPLETE INDEX.

   LONDON:
   HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
   MDCCCLVII.

   JOHN CHILDS AND SON, PRINTERS.



PREFACE.


Strabo, the author of this work, was born at Amasia, or Amasijas, a town
situated in the gorge of the mountains through which passes the river
Iris, now the Ieschil Irmak, in Pontus, which he has described in the
12th book.[1] He lived during the reign of Augustus, and the earlier
part of the reign of Tiberius; for in the 13th book[2] he relates how
Sardes and other cities, which had suffered severely from earthquakes,
had been repaired by the provident care of Tiberius the present Emperor;
but the exact date of his birth, as also of his death, are subjects of
conjecture only. Coraÿ and Groskurd conclude, though by a somewhat
different argument, that he was born in the year B. C. 66, and the
latter that he died A. D. 24. The date of his birth as argued by
Groskurd, proceeds on the assumption that Strabo was in his
thirty-eighth year when he went from Gyaros to Corinth, at which latter
place Octavianus Cæsar was then staying on his return to Rome after the
battle of Actium, B. C. 31. We may, perhaps, be satisfied with following
Clinton, and place it not later than B. C. 54.

In the 17th book our author speaks of the death of Juba as a recent
occurrence. This event took place A. D. 21, or A. D. 18 or 19, according
to other chronologists; he, therefore, outlived that king, but for how
long a period we have no means of ascertaining.

The only information which we can obtain of the personal history of
Strabo is to be collected from the scanty references made to himself in
the course of this work;[3] for although a writer of the Augustan age,
his name and his works appear to have been generally unknown to his
contemporaries, and to have been passed over in silence by subsequent
authors who occupied themselves with the same branch of study. The work
being written in Greek, and the subject itself not of a popular kind,
would be hindrances to its becoming generally known; and its voluminous
character would prevent many copies being made; moreover, the author
himself, although for some time a resident at Rome, appears to have made
Amasia his usual place of residence, and there to have composed his
work. But wherever it was, he had the means of becoming acquainted with
the chief public events that took place in the Roman Empire.

It is remarkable that of his father and his father’s family he is
totally silent, but of his mother and her connexions he has left us some
notices. She was of a distinguished family who had settled at Cnossus in
Crete, and her ancestors had been intimately connected with Mithridates
Euergetes and Mithridates Eupator, kings of Pontus; their fortunes
consequently depended on those princes.

Dorylaüs, her great grandfather, was a distinguished officer, and friend
of Euergetes; but the latter being assassinated at Sinope, whilst
Dorylaüs was engaged in levying troops in Crete, he determined to remain
there. In that island he obtained the highest honours, having
successfully, as general of the Cnossians, terminated a war between that
people and the Gortynians. He married a Macedonian lady, of the name of
Sterope; the issue of which marriage was Lagetas, Stratarchas, and a
daughter. He died in Crete. Lagetas had a daughter, who, says Strabo,
was “the mother of my mother”.

Mithridates Eupator, who succeeded to the kingdom of Pontus on the death
of his father, had formed from infancy a close friendship with another
Dorylaüs, son of Philetærus (brother of the first-mentioned Dorylaüs),
and besides conferring on him distinguished honours, appointed him high
priest of Comana Pontica. The king extended also his protection to his
cousins, Lagetas and Stratarchas, who were recalled from Crete. The
prosperity of the family suddenly terminated by the discovery of an
intrigue carried on by Dorylaüs with the Romans, for the overthrow of
his benefactor. The motives assigned by Strabo for his disaffection and
treachery were the declining prospects of the king, and the execution
of his son Theophilus and a nephew Tibius.

Dorylaüs made overtures to Lucullus for the revolt of the kingdom of
Pontus to the Romans, and in return received great promises of reward,
which were never fulfilled. Lucullus ceased to command in the war, and
was succeeded by Pompey, who, through enmity and jealousy, prevailed on
the senate not to confirm the conditions entered into by his
predecessor. As before observed, there is no mention of Strabo’s father
in the works which have come down to us. Malte-Brun, in his Life of
Strabo in the Biographie Universelle, collects several passages tending
to show that he was a Roman. The name of Strabo, or “squinting,”
originally Greek, was used by the Romans, and applied to the father of
Pompey the Great, among others. How the geographer acquired this name is
not related.

When a very young man, he received instruction in grammar and rhetoric
from Aristodemus, at Nysa in Caria.[4] He afterwards studied philosophy
under Xenarchus of Seleucia, the Peripatetic philosopher.[5] Strabo does
not say whether he heard him at Seleucia in Cilicia, or at Rome, where
he afterwards taught.

Strabo also attended the lessons of Tyrannio of Amisus,[6] the
grammarian. This must have been at Rome; for Tyrannio was made prisoner
by Lucullus, B. C. 71, and carried to Rome, probably not later than B.
C. 66.

In book xvi.,[7] Strabo states that he studied the philosophy of
Aristotle with Boethus of Sidon, who afterwards became a Stoic
philosopher. Notwithstanding all these advantages, Strabo was not
possessed of all the knowledge of his times, particularly in astronomy
and mathematics, but he was well acquainted with history and the
mythological traditions of his nation. He was a devout admirer of Homer,
and acquainted with the other great poets.

The philosophical sect to which he belonged was the Stoic, as plainly
appears from many passages in his Geography.

He wrote a History, which he describes (vol. i. p. 21) as composed in a
lucid style; it is cited by Plutarch, and also by Josephus in his
Jewish Antiquities, xiv. 7. It consisted of forty-three books, which
began where the history of Polybius ended, and was probably continued to
the battle of Actium. This valuable History is lost.

Strabo was a great traveller, and apparently had no professional or
other occupation. We may therefore conclude that his father left him a
good property. Much of his geographical information is the result of
personal observation. In a passage of his 2nd book[8] he thus speaks:
“Our descriptions shall consist of what we ourselves have observed in
our travels by land and sea, and of what we conceive to be credible in
the statements and writings of others; for in a westerly direction we
have travelled from Armenia to that part of Tyrrhenia which is over
against Sardinia; and southward, from the Euxine to the frontiers of
Ethiopia. Of all the writers on geography, not one can be mentioned who
has travelled over a wider extent of the countries described than we
have. Some may have gone farther to the west, but then they have never
been so far east as we have; again, others may have been farther east,
but not so far west; and the same with respect to north and south.
However, in the main, both we and they have availed ourselves of the
reports of others, from which to describe the form, size, and other
peculiarities of the country.” He mentions having been in Egypt, the
island Gyarus, Populonium near Elba, Comana in Cappadocia, Ephesus,
Mylasa, Nysa, and Hierapolis in Phrygia. He visited Corinth, Argos,
Athens, and Megara; but, on the whole, he does not appear to have seen
more of Greece than in passing through it on his way to Brundusium,
while proceeding to Rome. Populonium and Luna in Italy were the limit of
his travels northwards. It is probable he obtained his information as to
Spain, France, Britain, and Germany, while staying at Rome.

The first systematic writer on geography was Eratosthenes, who died at
the age of 80, about B. C. 196. His work consisted of three books.

There is no ground for considering the Geography of Strabo an improved
edition of that of Eratosthenes. Strabo’s work was intended for the
information of persons in the higher departments of administration, and
contains such geographical and historical information as those engaged
in political employments cannot dispense with. Consistently with this
object he avoids giving minute descriptions, except where the place is
of real interest, but supplies some account of the important political
events that had occurred in various countries, and sketches of the great
men who had flourished or laboured in them. It is a lively, well-written
book, intended to be read, and forms a striking contrast to the
Geography of Ptolemy. His language is simple, appropriate to the matter,
without affectation, and mostly clear and intelligible, except in those
passages where the text has been corrupted. Like many other Greeks,
Strabo looked upon Homer as the depository of all knowledge, but he
frequently labours to interpret the poet’s meaning in a manner highly
uncritical. What Homer only partially knew or conjectured, Strabo has
made the basis of his description, when he might have given an
independent description, founded on the actual knowledge of his time:
these observations apply especially to his books on Greece. He does not
duly appreciate Herodotus; nor does he discriminate between the stories
which Herodotus tells simply as stories he had heard, and the accounts
he relates as derived from personal observation. He likewise rejects the
evidence of Pytheas of Marseilles as to the northern regions of Europe,
and on more than one occasion calls him a liar, although it is very
certain that Pytheas coasted along the whole distance from Gadeira, now
Cadiz, in Spain, to the river he calls Tanaïs, but which was probably
the Elbe; however, from the extracts which have been preserved it seems
that he did not give simply the results of his own observations, but
added reports which he collected respecting distant countries, without
always drawing a distinction between what he saw himself and what was
derived from the report of others.

Strabo’s authorities are for the most part Greek, and he seems to have
neglected the Latin memoirs and historical narratives of the campaigns
of the Romans, which might have furnished him with many valuable
geographical facts for the countries as well of Asia as of Europe. He
made some use of Cæsar’s description of France, the Alps, and Britain;
he alludes to the voyage of Publius Crassus in speaking of the
Cassiterides, and also the writings of Asinius Pollio, Fabius Pictor,
and an anonymous writer whom he calls the Chorographer; but he might
have obtained much additional information if he had taken pains to
avail himself of the materials he could have procured during his stay at
Rome.

Strabo considered that mathematical and astronomical knowledge was
indispensable to the science of geography; he says in book i.,[9] that
without some such assistance it would be impossible to be accurately
acquainted with the configuration of the earth; and that every one who
undertakes to give an accurate description of a place, should describe
its astronomical and geometrical relations, and explain its extent,
distance, latitude, and climate.[10] As the size of the earth, he says,
has been demonstrated by other writers, we shall take for granted what
they have advanced. We shall also assume that the earth is spheroidal,
and that bodies have a tendency towards its centre. He likewise says,
the convexity of the sea is a further proof that the earth is spheroidal
to those who have sailed; for they cannot perceive lights at a distance
when placed at the same level as their eyes, but if raised on high, they
at once become perceptible.[11] He also observes, “our gnomons are,
among other things, evidence of the revolution of the heavenly bodies,
and common sense at once shows us that if the depth of the earth were
infinite, such a revolution could not take place.”[12] But Strabo did
not consider the exact division of the earth into climates or zones, in
the sense in which Hipparchus used the term, and the statement of the
latitudes and longitudes of places, which in many instances were pretty
well determined in his time, as essential to his geographical
description.

With regard to the lost continent of Atlantis, Strabo is very cautious
in criticising[13] Poseidonius; he observes, “he did well, too, in
citing the opinion of Plato, that the tradition concerning the island of
Atlantis might be received as something more than a mere fiction, it
having been related by Solon, on the authority of the Egyptian priests,
that this island, almost as large as a continent, was formerly in
existence, although now it had disappeared,” and remarks that
Poseidonius thought it better to quote this than to say, He who brought
it into existence can also cause it to disappear, as the poet did the
wall of the Achivi.

The measure adopted by Strabo was the stadium. In book vii. chap. vii.
§ 4, he says, “From Apollonia to Macedonia is the Egnatian Way; its
direction is towards the east, and the distance is measured by pillars
at every mile, as far as Cypsela and the river Hebrus. The whole
distance is 535 miles. But reckoning, as the generality of persons do, a
mile at eight stadia, there may be 4280 stadia. And, according to
Polybius, who adds two plethra, which are a third of a stadium, to every
eight stadia we must add 178 stadia more,—a third part of the number of
miles.” In book xi. chap. xi. § 5, he compares the parasang with the
stadium, and states that some writers reckoned it at 60, others at 40,
and others at 30 stadia.

Dr. Smith, in his Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, says, “We
think that Ukert has satisfactorily shown an accurate description of a
place should be particular to add its astronomical and geometrical
relations, explaining carefully its extent, distance, degrees of
latitude, and temperature of atmosphere. He says likewise, as the size
of the earth has been demonstrated by other writers, we shall take for
granted that the Greeks had not different standards of length, but
always used the Olympic stadium and the foot corresponding to it. He
states that the stadium was equal to 600 Greek, or 625 Roman feet, or to
125 Roman paces, and the Roman mile contained 8 stadia. Hence the
stadium contained 606 feet 9 inches, English. This standard prevailed
throughout Greece under the name of the Olympic stadium, because it was
the exact length of the stadium or foot-race course at Olympia, measured
between the pillars at the two extremities of the course.” Still Dr.
Smith further observes, “But although the stadium and the foot connected
with it were single definite measures throughout Greece, yet we find in
the eastern countries, Babylon, Syria, and Egypt, and in some
neighbouring Greek states, feet longer than the Olympic, the origin of
which is to be explained by the coëxistence, in the Babylonian system,
of a _royal_ or _sacred_ and a _common_ foot and cubit, which were so
related to one another, that the royal cubit was three finger-breadths
longer than the common.”

We may conclude that Strabo’s stadium varied considerably, as he
sometimes received his distance from personal observation or credible
report, and often quoted other writers, and reduced other standards, as
the mile, the parasang, and the schœnus, to the stadium. In addition to
this, the most ancient mode of reckoning distances was by the number of
days required to perform the journey, and this was transferred into
stadia by reckoning a certain number of stadia to a day’s journey.[14]

Siebenkees and Heeren (De Fontibus Geographicorum Strabonis) have
examined the authorities to which Strabo had, or might have had, access,
and Groskurd has availed himself of their researches.

The following is a short summary of the seventeen books from these
sources, but for a more detailed account of their contents the
translation itself must be referred to.

The first two books may be considered as an independent treatise, and by
themselves form a remarkable contrast with the rest of the work, in the
manner of treating the subjects, and in the difficulties which they
present both of language and matter.

In the 1st book, the author enters into a long discussion on the merits
of Homer, whom he considers to have been the earliest geographer, and
defends him against the errors and misconceptions of Eratosthenes. He
corrects some faults of Eratosthenes, and, in his inquiry concerning the
natural changes of the earth’s surface defends Eratosthenes against
Hipparchus. In conclusion, he again corrects Eratosthenes as regards the
magnitude and divisions of the inhabited world. The most remarkable
passage in this book is that in which he conjectures the existence of
the great Western Continents.[15]

The 2nd book is chiefly occupied with some accounts of mathematical
geography, and the Author defends against Hipparchus the division of the
inhabited world adopted by Eratosthenes into sections. Then follows a
criticism of the division of the earth into six zones, as taught by
Poseidonius and Polybius. The pretended circumnavigation of Africa by
Eudoxus is referred to, as well as some geographical errors of Polybius.
He makes observations of his own on the form and size of the earth in
general, as well as of the inhabited portion of it, describing the
method of representing it on a spherical or plane surface. A short
outline is given of seas, countries, and nations; and he concludes with
remarks on the system of climates,[16] and on the shadows projected by
the sun.

The 3rd book commences with Iberia, and the subject of Europe is
continued to the end of the 10th book. His references are the Periplus
of Artemidorus, Polybius, and Poseidonius; all three of whom wrote as
eye-witnesses. For descriptions and measurement of distances,
Artemidorus is chiefly depended upon. The information possessed by
Eratosthenes of these countries was meagre and uncertain. For the
nations of southern Iberia, he adopts the account of Asclepiades of
Myrlea, who had lived and been educated there. Some statements also are
borrowed from Roman authors.

The 4th book contains Gallia, according to the four divisions then
existing, viz. Gallia Narbonensis, Acquitanensis, Lugdunensis, and the
Belgæ; also Britain, with Ierne, and Thule; and lastly, the Alps.

Here Eratosthenes and Ephorus are of little service. His chief guide is
Julius Cæsar, whom he frequently quotes _verbatim_. Polybius is his
guide for the Alps. Pytheas is the source of some scanty information
respecting Ierne and Thule. Throughout his description he adds accounts
obtained at Rome from travellers.

The 5th book commences with a general sketch of Italy, and refers
principally to northern Italy. Dividing its history into ancient and
modern, his chief reference for the former is Polybius, and for the
latter we are indebted to the observations of the author himself, or to
accounts received from others. Still the description of Upper Italy is
poor and unsatisfactory, from the author not sufficiently availing
himself of Roman resources. Then follows some account of Etruria with
its neighbouring islands, Umbria, Samnium, Latium, and Rome, chiefly the
result of the author’s own researches and observations. The book
concludes with some remarks on the inhabitants of the mountainous
districts of Samnium and Campania.

The 6th book is a continuation of the same subject. Magna Græcia,
Sicily, and the adjacent islands, are noticed, and the author concludes
with a short discussion on the extent of the Roman Empire. Descriptions
of some places are from his own observations; but the sources whence he
takes his other account of Italy and the islands are the works of
Polybius, Eratosthenes, Artemidorus, Ephorus, Fabius Pictor, Cæcilius
(of Cale Acte in Sicily), and some others, besides an anonymous
chorographer, supposed to be a Roman, from the circumstance of his
distances being given, not in stadia, but in Roman miles.

The 7th book relates, first, to the people north of the Danube,—the
Germans, Cimbri, Getæ, Dacians (particularly the European Scythians),
and the Crimea; secondly, to the people south of the Danube, viz. those
inhabiting Illyricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, the eastern coast of Thrace to
the Euxine, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont. The latter
part of this book is not preserved entire in any manuscript, but Kramer
has, in his own opinion, succeeded in restoring from the epitomes left
to us the greater part of what was wanting. Of Germany, Strabo had
tolerable information, but he nowhere states whence it is derived; he
may have been partly indebted to Asinius Pollio, whose work he had
already examined for the Rhine. For the remaining northern countries, he
had Poseidonius and the historians of the Mithridatic war. For the
southern countries, he had a lost work of Aristotle on forms of
government, Polybius, Poseidonius, and his chief disciples, Theopompus
and Ephorus. Incidentally also he quotes Homer and his interpreters, and
Philochorus.

The three following books are dedicated to the description of Greece,
with the adjacent islands. The 8th comprises the Peloponnesus and its
well-known seven provinces, Elis, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Corinthia
with Sicyonia, Achaia, and Arcadia: the 9th, Attica, with Megaris,
Bœotia, Phocis, both Locri and Thessaly: the 10th, Eubœa, Ætolia, and
Acarnania, with the islands. After a long digression on the subject of
the Curetes, the description of Europe closes with some account of Crete
and the islands of the Ægean Sea. The design and construction of these
three books differ considerably from the preceding. Homer is adopted as
the foundation of his geographical descriptions; some things Strabo must
have learnt as an eye-witness, but more from _vivâ voce_ communications
at Athens or at Corinth. All is interwoven together without any clear
line of separation, and the result is some confusion. Athens, Corinth,
Argos, and their neighbourhood, were the only parts of Greece our author
saw. Heeren, indeed maintains that he had seen the whole of it, and the
Archipelago, but satisfactory proof of this is altogether wanting.

The 11th book commences with the description of the countries separated
from Europe by the Tanaïs or Don. Asia is divided by our author (who
here follows Eratosthenes) into two parts by the Taurus, which runs in a
direction east and west. The northern part of Asia (or this side Taurus)
is divided into four parts. The first part comprises the countries lying
between the Don, the Sea of Azoff, the Euxine, and the Caspian; the
second, the countries east of the Caspian; and the third, the countries
south of Caucasus. These three parts of the first or northern division
of Asia are contained in the 10th book; the remaining fourth part
occupies the 12th, 13th, and 14th books.

The chief authorities for the first part are, besides information
obtained from travellers and merchants at Amasia, Herodotus for the Don;
Artemidorus and Eratosthenes for distances; Poseidonius and Theophanes
of Mitylene, historians, of the Mithridatic war; Metrodorus of Skepsis;
Hypsicrates of Amisus; and Cleitarchus for the digression on the
Amazons.

For the second part, are principally Patrocles and Aristobulus,
historians of the Asiatic campaigns of Alexander. For the third part, or
Media and Armenia, are, Dellius, who wrote a history of the war against
the Parthians, in which he had served under Antony; Apollonides of
Nicæa, who wrote a Periplus of Europe; and other writers before
mentioned.

The 12th book commences with a detailed account of Anatolia, and
contains the northern part. It was to have been expected that Strabo
would have described most of these countries as an eye-witness, lying,
as they do, so near his native country, Cappadocia. But this expectation
vanishes, when we discover the meagreness of his account. With the
exception of Pontus and Cappadocia, he had seen little of the rest, and
depends upon historians and oral information. For earlier times, his
authorities are Herodotus, Hellanicus, Theopompus, Ephorus, Artemidorus,
Apollodorus, and Demetrius of Skepsis; for later times, historians of
the wars of Mithridates and Pompey. For the ancient history of the
Mysians and Phrygians, he is indebted to the celebrated Lydian historian
Xanthus, and Menecrates.

The 13th book continues the description of Anatolia. The greater part of
the book is occupied with a dissertation on the Troad. Strabo had
travelled over the country himself, but his great authority is Homer and
Demetrius of Skepsis, the author of a work in twenty-six books,
containing an historical and geographical commentary on that part of the
second book of the Iliad, in which the forces of the Trojans are
enumerated. A learned digression on the Leleges, Cilices, and Pelasgi,
who preceded the Æolians and Ionians in the occupation of the country,
is principally taken from Menecrates and Demetrius of Skepsis. The
description then turns to the interior, and the account of the Æolian
cities is probably due to Poseidonius. Throughout this book are
evidences of great care and desire for accuracy.

The 14th book continues with the remainder of Anatolia, and an account
of the islands Samos, Chios, Rhodes, and Cyprus. The authorities
followed are, on the whole, the same as in the previous book—Herodotus,
Thucydides, Ephorus, Artemidorus, Eratosthenes, and Poseidonius; besides
Pherecydes of Syros, who wrote on the Ionian migration, and Anaximenes
of Lampsacus, the author of a history in Greek of the Milesian colonies.
For Caria, he had the historians of Alexander and an author named
Philip, who wrote on the Leleges and Carians. For Cyprus he had Damastes
and Eratosthenes.

The 15th and 16th books contain a description of the second portion of
Asia, namely, the southern or the other side of Taurus. In the 15th
book, Strabo describes India and Persia, the latter in two chief
divisions, viz. Ariana or East Persia, and Persis or West Persia. These
countries Strabo never saw; his description, therefore, is founded on
the authority of travellers and historians. The topography of India is
meagre, and limited to a few towns and rivers; but his account of the
people of the country is more copious, he being supplied with materials
from the historians of Alexander and of the campaigns of Seleucus in
India. He looks on Megasthenes, Onesicritus, Deïmachus, and Cleitarchus
as fabulous writers: but his confidence rests chiefly on Patrocles,
Aristobulus (one of the companions and historians of Alexander), and
Nearchus, the chief commander of Alexander’s fleet. Artemidorus and
Nicolaus of Damascus are occasionally consulted. For Ariana or East
Persia, he had for his principal authority Eratosthenes; and for Persia
Proper, he had, besides the above authors, Herodotus, Xenophon, and
Polycletus of Larissa, an historian of Alexander.

In the 16th book, he describes the westerly half of south Asia, viz.
Assyria with Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Phœnicia, and Palestine, the
Persian and Arabian Gulfs, the coast of Ethiopia, and lastly, Arabia.
For the three first countries (the old Assyrian kingdom), his chief
authorities are, besides some of Alexander’s historians, Eratosthenes,
Poseidonius, and Herodotus; for the remainder he had, in addition to the
same writers, Artemidorus, and probably also Nicolaus of Damascus. The
account of Moses and the Jews, Heeren surmises, comes from Poseidonius,
but it probably proceeds from oral communication had in Egypt; of these
countries our author could describe nothing as an eye-witness, except
the north-west of Syria. The accounts of Arabia, the Indian and the Red
Seas, are from Agatharchides; and much that he describes of Arabia was
obtained from his friends, Ælius Gallus and the Stoic, Athenodorus.

The 17th book concludes the work with the description of Egypt,
Ethiopia, and the north coast of Africa. Strabo had travelled through
the whole of Egypt, as far as Syene and Philæ, and writes with the
decided tone of an eye-witness. Much verbal information, also, he
collected at Alexandria. His most important written authorities are, for
the Nile, Eratosthenes (who borrowed from Aristotle), Eudoxus, and
Aristo. For the most remarkable events of Egyptian history, he had
Polybius, and for later times probably Poseidonius, besides _vivâ voce_
accounts.

For the oracle at Ammon, he had the historians of Alexander; for
Ethiopia, the accounts of Petronius, who had carried on war there,
Agatharchides, and Herodotus. Of Libya or Africa Proper he had nothing
new or authentic to say. Besides Eratosthenes, Artemidorus, and
Poseidonius, his chief authorities, he had Iphicrates, who wrote on the
plants and animals of Libya. The whole concludes with a short notice of
the Roman Empire.

The dates at which particular books were written, as attempted to be
given by Groskurd and Coraÿ, must be received with caution.

In book iv. c. vi. § 9, Strabo says that the Carni and Taurisci had
quietly paid tribute for thirty-three years; and both these tribes were
reduced to subjection by Tiberius and Drusus, B. C. 14. This book was
therefore written in A. D. 19.

In book vi. c. iv. § 2, Cæsar Germanicus is spoken of as still living.
He died in Syria, A. D. 20 (19). This book was therefore written before
that year.

In book xii. c. viii. § 11, Strabo says that Cyzicus was still a free
state. It lost its liberty A. D. 25. This book was therefore written
before A. D. 25. Whether Strabo was alive or dead at this date, we have
no means of determining.

The codices or manuscripts which exist of Strabo’s work appear to be
copies of a single manuscript existing in the middle ages, but now lost.
From the striking agreement of errors and omissions in all now extant
(with such differences only as can be accounted for, arising from the
want of ability or carelessness of the copyist), it appears most
probable that to this single manuscript we are indebted for the
preservation of the work. Strabo himself describes the carelessness of
bad scribes both at Rome and Alexandria,[17] in the following expressive
language: “Some vendors of books, also, employed bad scribes and
neglected to compare the copies with the originals. This happens in the
case of other books, which are copied for sale both here and at
Alexandria.” After what Kramer has done for the text, we can hope for
little improvement, unless, what is beyond all expectation, some other
manuscript should be discovered which is either derived from another
source, or is a more correct copy.

The following is some account of those in existence:—

Codices in the Imperial Library, Paris:

1. No. 1397 of the catalogue. This is the principal codex existing in
the Imperial Library, and was written in the 12th century. It was
formerly in the Strozzi Palace at Rome, and was brought to Paris by
Maria de Medici. Not only are parts of the leaves, but even whole leaves
of the 9th book, damaged or destroyed by damp, mice, bad binding, and
careless attempts at correction. This codex contains the first nine
books; the second part, containing the last eight, is lost. Collated by
Kramer, and partly for Falconer, by Villebrune.

2. No. 1393 of the catalogue. On this codex Brequigny chiefly depended
for his edition. Montfaucon says that it is of the 12th or 13th
century; Kramer, however, judging from the character of the handwriting
and contractions, maintains that it belongs to the end of the 13th or
beginning of the 14th century. It contains the whole seventeen books of
the Geography, and was written in the East (not, however, by the same
hand throughout), and brought from Constantinople to Paris by the Abbé
Servin in 1732, to whom it had been presented by a Greek named
Maurocordato. Collated by Villebrune for Falconer, and partly by Kramer.

3. No. 1408 contains the seventeen books, and appears to have been
written towards the end of the 15th century. In general, the geography
of Strabo is divided by transcribers into two parts, the first
containing nine books, the second, the last eight; but in this codex
there is a blank leaf inserted between the 10th and 11th books, from
which it would appear that there was also another division of the work,
separating the subjects, Europe and Asia. Partly collated by Villebrune
for Falconer.

4. No. 1394. This contains the seventeen books, and is very beautifully
written, and illuminated with arabesque designs. It was made by the
order of Lorenzo the Magnificent; and its date, therefore, is after the
middle of the 15th century. Collated, as before, by Villebrune.

5. No. 1396 contains the whole seventeen books, and was probably written
about the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century. The
division of the work is into ten books and seven books. In the
beginning, it is stated to be “the gift of Antony the Eparch to Francis
the great and illustrious king of France.” Partly collated by Kramer.

6. No. 1395 contains the whole seventeen books, and served for the
Aldine edition of Strabo. The handwriting of this codex is excellent,
but the order of the words is arbitrarily changed, and there are
frequent omissions, sometimes even of whole lines: it is corrupt beyond
description, and among the worst we possess. Collated in some parts by
Kramer.

No. 1398, written about the end of the 15th century. It contains the
epitome of the first ten books, by Gemistus Pletho, and the last seven
books entire. It is a copy of No. 397, in the Library of St. Mark,
Venice. Collated by Villebrune.

Codices in the Vatican:

No. 1329 of the catalogue. This codex dates from the beginning,
probably, of the 14th century, and is remarkable for being the work of
thirteen different transcribers. It is much to be lamented, that the
greater part of it is lost; it begins from the end of the 12th book
only, and a part of the last leaf of the 17th book is also destroyed;
what remains to us surpasses all others in correctness of the text. The
whole has been collated for the first time by Kramer.

No. 174 is of the 15th century, and contains the seventeen books: the
first nine books are written by one transcriber, the last eight by
another hand. The first nine books have been collated by Kramer.

No. 173 contains the first ten books, and is of the middle of the 15th
century. It is badly and incorrectly written. The last seven books,
which would complete the codex, are, as Kramer conjectures from the
paper and handwriting, in the Library of the Grand Duchy of Parma. From
a note in Greek at the end of the 10th book, it appears to have been
brought to Rome A. D. 1466. Books 1, 2, 4, and 5, collated by Kramer.

No. 81 is tolerably well and correctly written. It contains the last
eight books, and is of the end of the 15th century. It appears to be a
copy of, or served as a copy to, the codex in the Laurentian Library,
No. 19. Partially collated by Kramer.

Medicean Codices, in the Laurentian Library, Florence:

Codex 5 is elegantly and correctly written; it is of the beginning,
probably, of the 15th century, and contains the first ten books. The 8th
and 9th books are not entire; passages are curtailed, and much is
omitted, to which the attention is not drawn, the lines being run on
without spaces left to mark omissions. Errors of the first transcriber
are corrected by a later hand, and noticed in the margin or between the
lines. Collated by Bandini for Falconer, and almost the whole by Kramer.

Codex 40 contains the first ten books; a copy, probably, of the former.
It was written after the middle of the 15th century.

Codex 15 is of the middle of the 15th century, and contains the last
seven books. It is not in any way remarkable.

Codex 19, written at the end of the 15th century. It contains the last
eight books, and resembles No. 81 of the Vatican. Collated by Bandini
for Falconer.

Venetian Codices:

No. 377 of the catalogue contains the first twelve books, and is written
in the 15th century. Formerly the property of Cardinal Bessarion.

No. 378 contains the seventeen books, of which the first twelve are
apparently copies of the above, No. 377; the remaining five are
transcribed from some other codex. This was, also, formerly the property
of Cardinal Bessarion.

No. 640 contains the last eight books. It was written, as appears from a
note A. D. 1321, by different hands. A great part of the 14th book is
wanting; eight blank pages are left for the completion of it; but this
was not done by the transcriber to whom this portion was assigned. It is
placed by Kramer in the first class of manuscripts, and was wholly
collated by him.

No. 379 is of the 15th century. It contains the Epitome of Gemistus
Pletho of the first ten books, and the whole of the last seven books. It
is the codex which served for the copy, No. 1398, in the Imperial
Library at Paris. Formerly the property of Cardinal Bessarion.

No. 606 contains the last eight books, and was written towards the end
of the 15th century. It contains nothing which is not to be found in
other manuscripts.

Codices in the Ambrosian Library, Milan:

Codex M. 53 contains all but book ii., and is of the 15th century. The
books are not written on paper of the same size, nor in consecutive
order, although by the same hand. Book ii. is to be found in Codex N.
289, together with portions of other authors, written by a different
transcriber, no doubt with the intention of completing this codex.
According to Kramer, the first ten books are copied from Codex 5 of the
Medici MS. The 13th, 14th, 12th books (the order in which they stand)
from the Medici MS. 19, and the 11th, 15th, 16th, 17th, from the Medici
MS. 15. Partly collated by Kramer.

Codex G. 53 contains the seventeen books, and is of the end of the 15th
century. Five leaves at the beginning, and two at the end, are destroyed
by damp, traces of which are to be seen throughout. Partly collated by
Kramer.

In the Library of Eton College is a codex containing the first ten
books; it was written at Constantinople. Kramer, who, however, did not
see it, conjectures that the Medici MS., Codex 15, containing the last
eight books, was formerly united to it, and completed the whole work.
Collated for Falconer.

In the Library of the Escurial is a codex completed, as we are informed
by a note at the end, A. D. 1423. Collated by Bayer for Falconer.

The Madrid Library possesses a codex written in the latter part of the
15th century, containing the seventeen books.

In the Library at Moscow is a codex containing the seventeen books; it
was written at the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th century. The
first nine books resemble the Paris Codex, No. 1397; the last eight, the
Venetian Codex, No. 640. It came from one of the monasteries of Mount
Athos, and was not destroyed, as Groskurd suspects, in the great fire of
1812, but is still to be found in the Library of the Holy Synod, under
No. 204 (Matt. ccv.), as I am informed by the Archimandrite Sabba, who
dates from the Kremlin, April 4th, 1857.

A codex also is yet to be found in one of the monasteries of Mount
Athos. From the accounts of learned travellers (Zacharias, _Reise in den
Orient_, and Fallmerayer, in the _Allgem. Zeitg. 5 Jun. 1843_), it
contains nothing which can supply the deficiencies of those MSS. with
which we are acquainted.

Besides the above codices, there exist four epitomes of the Geography of
Strabo, of which,

1. The Epitome Palatina, in the Heidelberg Library, is the oldest of all
MSS. of this work. It is probably of the beginning of the 10th century,
although Dodwell places it between 976 and 996. The codex from which it
was copied appears to have been perfect, and contained the whole of the
7th book, which is imperfect in all other codices. It is, however, to be
regretted that the author did not confine himself to following the text
of Strabo; he has not only indulged in curtailing, transposing, and
changing the words and sentences of the original, but has sometimes also
added expressions of his own.

2. The Vatican Epitome is of more value than the preceding; the extracts
are more copious, the author seldom wanders from the text of Strabo, and
in no instance inserts language of his own. The codex which served as
the basis for the Epitome contained the 7th book entire, and from this
and the Palatine Epitome Kramer collected the fragments of the last part
of the 7th book, which appear for the first time in his edition (see
vol. i. of the Translation, p. 504). This codex was written in the
middle of the 14th century, and has suffered much by time and
carelessness; several leaves are lost, and lines of the text at the top
and bottom of the pages have been cut off in the binding.

3. The Parisian Epitome, on which no great value is placed by Kramer.

4. The Epitome of Gemistus Pletho, referred to above, is of great value,
and held in the highest estimation by all editors.

The first appearance of Strabo’s work in print was a Latin translation
by Guarini, of Verona, and Gregorio of Tiferno. Of this, thirteen
editions were printed, the first in 1469 or 1471, the twelfth in 1559,
and the last in 1652. It is not known from what manuscripts the
translation was taken, nor whether they now exist; but, though the
translation itself is barbarous, and in many passages erroneous, its
fidelity to the original is so apparent, that all editors to the present
time have consulted it as a manuscript.

The first edition of the Greek text was printed at Venice by Aldus in
1516, and was taken from so corrupt a manuscript that Coraÿ compares it
to the Augean stable. The second edition was a repetition of the Aldine,
accompanied by the Latin translation of Guarini, and was published by
Hopper and Heresbach, at Bâsle, in 1549. The third edition, by Xylander,
in 1570, was also a repetition of the text of Aldus; but a new Latin
translation accompanied it. The fourth and fifth editions, which do not
essentially differ, were published in 1587 and 1620, by Isaac Casaubon.
He collated for his edition four manuscripts, which he obtained from his
father-in-law, H. Stephens, and was the first to add a commentary; but
it is not known what manuscripts were made use of. The edition of
Almeloveen, 1707, being a reprint of Casaubon, with notes, and an
edition commenced by Brequigny, Paris, 1763, but not continued beyond
the first three books, can scarcely be placed among the number of new
editions. Brequigny left a French translation in manuscript and notes in
Latin, which were consulted by the French translators.

The seventh edition was that of Thomas Falconer of Chester, and of
Brasenose College, published in 2 vols. folio, at Oxford, 1807. For the
first time since Casaubon’s last edition, nearly 200 years before,
manuscripts were collated for this edition, namely, those of Eton,
Moscow, the Escurial, and the Laurentian library; the conjectural
emendations of Tyrwhitt, and notes of the editor and others, are added.
“It has everything that is valuable in Casaubon’s edition, besides
having corrected numberless typographical errors. In the account given
of it, the public are as much wronged as we are abused; for no view
whatever is laid before them of its nature or its merits.”[18] Thos.
Falconer, having prepared the greater part of the work for the press,
died in 1792. A little more than the two first books were edited by John
Parsons, Bishop of Peterborough, and formerly Master of Balliol College,
Oxford; but the whole work was, ultimately, in 1802 given up to Thomas
Falconer (nephew of the former), of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, who
completed it and wrote the preface. A complete revisal of the text,
however, was not attempted.

The eighth edition was that of Professor J. P. Siebenkees, of which
great expectations were formed. The deficiencies of his performance are
strongly commented on by Kramer. Siebenkees lived to complete only the
first six books; the remainder of the work was undertaken by Tzchucke,
and conducted with greater skill and ability than by his predecessor. It
was published in 1811, 6 vols. 8vo.

The ninth edition is that by Coraÿ, Paris, 1815-1818, 4 vols. 8vo.
Kramer passes an unfavourable opinion on it. The editor, according to
him, did not possess an aptitude for discriminating the value of the
different manuscripts he collated, and considered more what he thought
ought to have been written than what were really the author’s words.
Hence, although he was successful in restoring the true readings of many
passages, he corrupted not a few, and left untouched many errors. Yet he
was a very able scholar, and has the merit of attempting the first
critical edition of Strabo.

The tenth edition is that by Professor Gustavus Kramer, in 3 vols. 8vo,
the first of which appeared in 1844, the last in 1852. The editor has
brought to his task great ability and unwearied labour; of the many
years spent in the preparation of it, were passed in Italy for the
purpose of collating manuscripts. This edition surpasses all others in
completeness, and little is left for correction by subsequent editors.

A. Meineke published at Leipsic, in 3 vols., 1852, a reprint of Kramer’s
text, with some emendations of his own contained in his work,
“Vindiciarum Straboniarum Liber.” Berlin, 1852.

C. Müller and F. Dübner have also published the first vol., Paris, 1852,
of a reprint of Kramer’s text, with Meineke’s corrections. It is
accompanied by a new Latin translation, of which the first six books are
by Dübner, and the remainder by Müller.

In modern languages, we have a translation by Alfonso Buonacciuoli, of
Ferrara, in Italian, 2 vols. 8vo, Venice, 1552. It is a very literal
translation from a manuscript, and is frequently quoted by the French
translators. Also a translation in German by Abr. Penzel, in 4 vols.,
Lemgow, 1775. It is not literal, and abounds with wilful additions and
alterations of the author’s meaning.

A translation in French was published at Paris in five vols. 4to, from
the year 1805 to 1819. The first three books are translated by De la
Porte du Theil and Coraÿ together. The 4th, 7th, 8th, 12th, 13th, 14th,
and 15th books are by Coraÿ; the 5th, 6th, 9th, 10th, and 11th, by De la
Porte du Theil; on the death of the latter, Letronne undertook the
translation of the 16th and 17th books. The whole is accompanied by very
copious notes by the translators, and others on geographical and
mathematical subjects, by Gossellin. As might be expected from the
united labour of such distinguished men, this translation, which was
undertaken at the command of Napoleon I., has been held in high
estimation. De la Porte du Theil, for the purpose of conveying to the
reader a more accurate idea of the state of the text of the ninth book
than could be given by description or notes, has prefaced his
translation by a copy, page for page and line for line, of the original
manuscript. The number of mutilated passages amounts to two thousand.
For the purpose of restoring the text, recourse has been had to other
manuscripts, to conjectures, to extracts from the Epitomes, and to
quotations of Strabo’s work contained in the Geographical Lexicon of
Stephanus of Byzantium, composed before the seventh century, and in the
Commentaries of Eustathius on Homer, which were written towards the end
of the twelfth century. It is an example of Kramer’s just remark, that
no work of any ancient author, which has descended to our time, has
suffered more from various causes.

A translation by F. Ambrosoli, forming part of the “Collana degli
Antichi Storici Greci,” was published in 1832, 4 vols. 8vo, Milan, and
is founded on the French translation. A translation of the third book
(Spain) by Lopez, was published at Madrid, 1788, and is well spoken of.
The best translation of the whole work—and too much cannot be said in
praise of it—is in German, by Groskurd, 4 vols. 8vo, Berlin, 1831-1834.
The last volume contains a very copious index.

In conclusion, I have to acknowledge considerable obligations to the
notes and prefaces of Groskurd, Kramer, the French translators, and
others.

The part of the translation for which I am responsible commences at
chap. iv. book vii., vol. i. p. 473, to the end of the work, and is
partly based on an incomplete translation in MS. by my late father, the
Rev. Dr. T. Falconer. The previous portion is the work of Hans C.
Hamilton, Esq., F.S.A., to whom I am indebted for his continued interest
in the translation throughout, for his care in correcting the press, and
for valuable suggestions.

A complete index, which concludes the third volume, has been compiled
with the greatest regard to accuracy, by a gentleman of tried skill and
ability. It contains every geographical name mentioned by Strabo; and
the modern names, printed in italics, are also added, as far as can be
ascertained: they are not given with perfect confidence in all cases;
discussion on doubtful points would have exceeded the limits of this
work; and reference may be advantageously made, where more minute detail
is required, to the able articles in Dr. W. Smith’s Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Geography.


   W. FALCONER.

   _Rectory, Bushey, Herts.
   September 1, 1857._


STRABO’S GEOGRAPHY.



BOOK XIV.

SUMMARY.


   The Fourteenth Book contains an account of the Cyclades
   islands and the region opposite to them, Pamphylia, Isauria,
   Lycia, Pisidia, Cilicia as far as Seleucia of Syria, and that
   part of Asia properly called Ionia.



CHAPTER I.


1. There remain to be described Ionia, Caria, and the sea-coast beyond
the Taurus, which is occupied by Lycians, Pamphylians, and
Cilicians.[19] We shall thus finish the description of the whole circuit
of the peninsula, the isthmus of which, we have said, consists of the
tract between the Euxine and the Sea of Issus.

2. The navigation around Ionia along the coast is about 3430 stadia. It
is a considerable distance, on account of the gulfs, and of the
peninsular form for the most part of the country, but the length in a
straight line is not great. The distance, for example, from Ephesus to
Smyrna is a journey in a straight line of 320 stadia; to Metropolis[20]
is 120 stadia, and the remainder to Smyrna; but this distance by sea is
little less than 2200 stadia. The extent of the Ionian coast is reckoned
from Poseidium,[21] belonging to the Milesians, [CAS. 632] and the
boundaries of Caria, as far as Phocæa,[22] and the river Hermus.[23]

3. According to Pherecydes, Miletus, Myus,[24] Mycale, and Ephesus, on
this coast, were formerly occupied by Carians; the part of the coast
next in order, as far as Phocæa, and Chios, and Samos, of which Ancæus
was king, were occupied by Leleges, but both nations were expelled by
the Ionians, and took refuge in the remaining parts of Caria.

Pherecydes says that the leader of the Ionian, which was posterior to
the Æolian migration, was Androclus, a legitimate son of Codrus king of
the Athenians, and that he was the founder of Ephesus, hence it was that
it became the seat of the royal palace of the Ionian princes. Even at
present the descendants of that race are called kings, and receive
certain honours, as the chief seat at the public games, a purple robe as
a symbol of royal descent, a staff instead of a sceptre, and the
superintendence of the sacrifices in honour of the Eleusinian Ceres.

Neleus, of a Pylian family, founded Miletus. The Messenians and Pylians
pretend that there is some affinity between them; in reference to which
later poets say that even Nestor was a Messenian, and that many Pylians
accompanied Melanthus, the father of Codrus, to Athens, and that all
this people sent out the colony in common with the Ionians. There is
also to be seen on the promontory Poseidium an altar erected by Neleus.

Myus was founded by Cydrelus, a spurious son of Codrus; Lebedos[25] by
Andropompus, who took possession of a place called Artis; Colophon by
Andræmon, a Pylian, as Mimnermus mentions in his poem of Nanno;[26]
Priene by Æpytus, son of Neleus; and afterwards by Philotas, who brought
a colony from Thebes; Teos by Athamas, its first founder, whence
Anacreon calls the city Athamantis, but at the time of the Ionian
migration of the colony it received settlers from Nauclus, a spurious
son of Codrus, and after this from Apœcus and Damasus, who were
Athenians, and from Geres, a Bœotian; Erythræ was founded by Cnopus, who
also was a spurious son of Codrus; Phocæa by Athenians, who accompanied
Philogenes; Clazomenæ by Paralus; Chios by Egertius, who brought with
him a mixed body of colonists; Samos by Tembrion, and afterwards by
Procles.

4. These are the twelve Ionian cities. At a subsequent period Smyrna
also was added to the Ionian association at the instance of the
Ephesians, for anciently they inhabited the same city, at which time
Ephesus was called Smyrna. Callinus somewhere gives it this name, and
calls the Ephesians Smyrnæans in the address to Jupiter:

   “And pity the Smyrnæans;”

and in another passage,

   “remember now, if ever, the beautiful thighs of the oxen
   [which the Smyrnæans burnt in sacrifice].”

Smyrna was an Amazon, who got possession of Ephesus; from her the
inhabitants and the city had their name, in the same manner as some
Ephesians were called Sisyrbitæ from Sisyrba; and a certain spot in
Ephesus was called Smyrna, as Hipponax testifies:

   “He lived in Smyrna, at the back of the city between Tracheia
   and Lepre Acta.”

The mountain Prion was called Lepre Acta; it overhangs the present city,
and has on it a portion of the wall. Even now the farms at the back of
the Prion retain the name in the term Opistholepria. The country along
the foot of the mountain about Coressus was called Tracheia. The city
was anciently built about the Athenæum, which is now beyond the city, at
the (fountain) Hypelæus. Smyrna therefore was situated near the present
gymnasium, at the back of the present city, but between Tracheia and
Lepre Acta. The Smyrnæans, upon quitting the Ephesians, marched to the
place where Smyrna now stood, and which was in the possession of
Leleges. They expelled these people and founded the ancient Smyrna,
which is distant from the present city about 20 stadia. They were
themselves afterwards expelled by Æolians, and took refuge at Colophon;
they then returned with a body of men from the latter place, and
recovered their own city, Smyrna. Mimnermus relates this in his poem of
Nanno, and says of Smyrna, that it was always a subject of contention;

   [CAS. 634] “after leaving Pylus, the lofty city of Neleus, we
   came in our voyage to the long wished-for Asia, and settled at
   Colophon, and hastening thence from the river Astëeis, by the
   will of the gods we took Æolian Smyrna.”

So much then on this subject.

We must, however, again describe each place in particular, beginning
with the principal cities, from which the first settlements originated,
I mean Miletus and Ephesus, for these are superior to all others, and
the most celebrated.

5. Next after the Poseidium of the Milesians, at the distance of 18[27]
stadia from the sea-coast, is the oracle of Apollo Didymeus among the
Branchidæ. This, as well as the other temples, except that at Ephesus,
was burnt by the order of Xerxes.[28] The Branchidæ delivered up the
treasures of the god to the Persian king, and accompanied him in his
flight, in order to avoid the punishment of sacrilege and treachery.

The Milesians afterwards built a temple, which exceeded in size all
others, but it remained without a roof on account of its magnitude. The
circuit of the sacred enclosure contained within it a village with a
magnificent grove, which also extended beyond it; other sacred
enclosures contain the oracle, and what belongs to the worship of the
god.

Here is laid the scene of the fable of Branchus, and Apollo’s love for
him. The temple is adorned with the most costly offerings, the
productions of ancient art.

Thence to the city the journey is not long either by land or sea.[29]

6. Ephorus relates that Miletus was first founded and fortified by the
Cretans on the spot above the sea-coast where at present the ancient
Miletus is situated, and that Sarpedon conducted thither settlers from
the Miletus in Crete,[30] and gave it the same name; that Leleges were
the former occupiers of the country, and that afterwards Neleus built
the present city.

The present city has four harbours, one of which will admit a fleet of
ships.[31] The citizens have achieved many great deeds, but the most
important is the number of colonies which they established. The whole
Euxine, for instance, and the Propontis, and many other places, are
peopled with their settlers.

Anaximenes of Lampsacus says, that the Milesians colonized both the
island Icarus and Lerus, and Limnæ on the Hellespont, in the
Chersonesus; in Asia, Abydus, Arisba, and Pæsus; on the island of the
Cyziceni, Artace and Cyzicus; in the interior of the Troad, Scepsis. We
have mentioned, in our particular description of places, other cities
which this writer has omitted.

Both the Milesians and Delians invoke Apollo Ulius, as dispensing
health and curing diseases; for οὔλειν[32] is to be in health, whence
οὐλή,[33] a wound healed, and the phrase in Homer,[34] Οὖλέ τε καὶ μέγα
χαῖρε, “health and good welcome;” for Apollo is a healer, and Artemis
has her name from making persons ἀρτεμέας, or sound. The sun, also, and
moon are associated with these deities, since they are the causes of
the good qualities of the air; pestilential diseases, also, and sudden
death are attributed to these deities.

7. Illustrious persons, natives of Miletus, were Thales, one of the
seven wise men, the first person who introduced among the Greeks
physiology and mathematics; his disciple Anaximander, and Anaximenes the
disciple of Anaximander. Besides these, Hecatæus the historian;[35] and
of our time, Æschines the orator, who was banished for having spoken
with too great freedom before Pompey the Great, and died in exile.

Miletus shut her gates against Alexander, and experienced the misfortune
of being taken by storm, which was also the fate of Halicarnassus; long
before this time it was captured by the Persians. Callisthenes relates,
that Phrynichus the tragic writer was fined a thousand drachmæ by the
Athenians for composing a play entitled “The taking of Miletus by
Darius.” [CAS. 635] The island Lade lies close in front of Miletus, and
small islands about Tragææ,[36] which afford a shelter for pirates.

8. Next follows the Gulf of Latmus, on which is situated “Heracleia
under Latmus,”[37] as it is called, a small town with a shelter for
vessels. It formerly had the same name as the mountain above, which
Hecatæus thinks was the same as that called by the poet[38] the mountain
of the Phtheiri, for he says that the mountain of the Phtheiri was
situated below Latmus; but some say that it was Grium, as being parallel
to Latmus, and extending from the Milesian territory towards the east,
through Caria, as far as Euromus and Chalcetores. However, the mountain
rises up in sight of[39] the city.

At a little distance further, after crossing a small river near Latmus,
there is seen in a cave the sepulchre of Endymion. Then from Heracleia
to Pyrrha, a small city, is about 100 stadia by sea, but a little more
from Miletus to Heracleia, if we include the winding of the bays.

9. From Miletus to Pyrrha, in a straight line by sea, is 30 stadia; so
much longer is the journey by sailing near the land.

10. When we are speaking of celebrated places, the reader must endure
with patience the dryness of such geographical descriptions.

From Pyrrha to the mouth of the Mæander are 50 stadia. The ground about
it is marshy and a swamp. In sailing up the river in vessels rowed by
oars to the distance of 30 stadia, we come to Myus,[40] one of the
twelve Ionian cities, which, on account of its diminished population, is
now incorporated with Miletus. Xerxes is said to have given this city to
Themistocles to supply him with fish, Magnesia with bread, and Lampsacus
with wine.[41]

11. At four stadia from Myus is Thymbria, a Carian village, near which
is Aornum; this is a sacred cave called Charonium, which emits
destructive vapours. Above it is Magnesia[42] on the Mæander, a colony
of the Magnesians of Thessaly and Crete. We shall speak of it very soon.

12. After the mouths of the Mæander follows the shore of Priene. Above
it is Priene,[43] and the mountain Mycale,[44] which abounds with
animals of the chace, and is covered with forests. It is situated above
the Samian territory, and forms towards it, beyond the promontory
Trogilium,[45] a strait of above 7 stadia in width. Priene is called by
some writers Cadme, because Philotus, its second founder, was a Bœotian.
Bias, one of the seven wise men, was a native of Priene, of whom
Hipponax uses this expression;

   “More just in pleadings than Bias of Priene.”

13. In front of Trogilium lies an island of the same name. Thence, which
is the nearest way, is a passage across to Sunium of 1600 stadia. At the
commencement of the voyage, on the right hand are Samos, Icaria, and the
Corsiæ islands;[46] on the left, the Melantian rocks.[47] The remainder
of the voyage lies through the middle of the Cyclades islands. The
promontory Trogilium itself may be considered as a foot of the mountain
Mycale. Close to Mycale is another mountain, the Pactyas, belonging to
the Ephesian territory, where the Mesogis terminates.

14. From Trogilium to Samos are 40 stadia. Both this and the harbour,
which has a station for vessels, have a southern aspect. A great part of
it is situated on a flat, and is overflowed by the sea, but a part also
rises towards the mountain which overhangs it. On the right hand, in
sailing towards the city, is the Poseidium, a promontory, which forms
towards Mycale the strait of 7 stadia. It has upon it a temple of
Neptune. In front is a small island, Narthecis; on the left, near the
Heræum, is the suburb, and the river Imbrasus, and the Heræum, an
ancient temple, and a large nave, which at present is a repository for
paintings. Besides the great number of paintings in the Heræum, there
are other repositories and some small chapels, filled with works of
ancient art. The Hypæthrum also is full of the best statues. Of these,
three of colossal size, the work of Myron, stand [CAS. 637] upon the
same base. Antony took them all away, but Augustus Cæsar replaced two,
the Minerva and the Hercules, upon the same base. He transported the
Jupiter to the Capitol, having built a chapel for its reception.

15. The voyage round the island Samos is 600 stadia.[48] Formerly, when
the Carians inhabited it, it was called Parthenia, then Anthemus, then
Melamphylus,[49] then Samos, either from the name of some native hero,
or from some one who conducted a colony thither from Ithaca and
Cephallenia. In it is a promontory looking towards Drepanum in Icaria,
which has the name of Ampelos, (the Vine,) but the whole mountain, which
spreads over the island, has the same name. The island is not remarkable
for good wine,[50] although the islands around, as Chios, Lesbos, Cos,
and almost all the adjacent continent, produce wines of the best kind.
The Ephesian and the Metropolites are good wines, but the Mesogis, the
Tmolus, the Catacecaumene, Cnidos, Smyrna, and other more obscure
places, are distinguished for the excellence of their wines, whether for
gratification or dietetic purposes.

Samos is not very fortunate as regards the production of wine, but in
general it is fertile, as appears from its possession being a subject of
warlike contention, and from the language of its panegyrists, who do not
hesitate to apply to it the proverb,

   “It produces even birds’ milk,”

as Menander somewhere says. This was the cause also of the tyrannies
established there, and of the enmity of the Athenians.

16. The tyrannies were at their height in the time of Polycrates and his
brother Syloson. The former was distinguished for his good fortune, and
the possession of such a degree of power as made him master of the sea.
It is related as an instance of his good fortune, that having purposely
thrown into the sea his ring, which was of great value both on account
of the stone and the engraving, a short time afterwards a fisherman
caught the fish which had swallowed it, and on cutting the fish open,
the ring was discovered. When the king of Egypt was informed of this, he
declared, it is said, with a prophetic spirit, that Polycrates, who had
been elevated to such a height of prosperity, would soon end his life
unfortunately; and this was actually the case, for he was taken by the
Persian satrap by stratagem, and crucified. Anacreon, the lyric poet,
was his contemporary, and all his poetry abounds with the praises of
Polycrates.

It is said that in his time Pythagoras, observing the growing tyranny,
left the city, and travelled to Egypt and Babylon, with a view to
acquire knowledge. On his return from his travels, perceiving that the
tyranny still prevailed, he set sail for Italy, and there passed the
remainder of his life.

So much respecting Polycrates.

17. Syloson was left by his brother in a private station. But he made a
present to Darius, son of Hystaspes, of a robe which the latter saw him
wearing, and very much desired to possess. Darius was not king at this
time, but when he became king, Polycrates received as a compensation the
tyranny of Samos. He governed with so much severity, that the city was
depopulated, which gave occasion to the proverb,

   “By the pleasure of Syloson there is room enough.”

18. The Athenians formerly sent Pericles their general, and with him
Sophocles the poet, who harassed with the evils of a siege the
refractory Samians. Afterwards[51] they sent thither a colony of two
thousand citizens, among whom was Neocles the father of Epicurus, and,
according to report, a school-master. It is said, that Epicurus was
educated here and at Teos, and was admitted among the ephebi at Athens,
having as his comrade in that class Menander the comic poet. Creophylus
was a native of Samos,[52] who, it is said, once entertained Homer as
his guest, and received, in return, his poem entitled “The taking of
Œchalia.” Callimachus, on the contrary, intimates in an epigram that it
was the composition of [CAS. 639] Creophylus, but ascribed to Homer on
account of the story of his hospitable entertainment by Creophylus:

   “I am the work of the Samian, who once entertained in his
   house, as a guest, the divine Homer. I grieve for the
   sufferings of Eurytus, and mourn for the yellow-haired Ioleia.
   I am called Homer’s writing. O Jupiter, how glorious this for
   Creophylus.”

Some say that he was Homer’s master; according to others, it was not
Creophylus, but Aristeas of Proconnesus.

19. The island of Icaria, from which the Icarian Sea has its name, is
near Samos. The island has its name from Icarus, the son of Dædalus,
who, it is said, having accompanied his father in his flight, when both
of them, furnished with wings, set out from Crete, fell on that island,
unable to sustain his flight. He had mounted too near the sun, and the
wings dropped off on the melting of the wax [with which they were
fastened].

The whole island is 300 stadia in circumference; it has no harbours, but
only anchorages, the best of which is called Histi. A promontory
stretches towards the west. There is also on the island a temple of
Diana, called Tauropolium, and a small town Œnoë; and another,
Dracanum,[53] of the same name as the promontory on which it stands,
with an anchorage for vessels. The promontory is distant from the
promontory of the Samians, called Cantharius, 80 stadia, which is the
shortest passage from one to the other. The Samians occupy it at present
in its depopulated state, chiefly for the sake of pasture which it
affords for cattle.

20. Next to the Samian strait at Mycale, on the right hand on the voyage
to Ephesus, is the sea-coast of the Ephesians, a part of which even the
Samians possess. First on the sea-coast is the Panionium,[54] distant
from the sea three stadia, where the Panionia, a common festival of the
Ionians, is celebrated, and a sacrifice is performed in honour of the
Heliconian Neptune. The priests are Prienians. We have spoken of them in
the description of Peloponnesus.

Then follows Neapolis, which formerly belonged to the Ephesians, but now
belongs to the Samians, having exchanged Marathesium[55] for it, the
more distant for the nearer place. Next is Pygela, a small town,
containing a temple of Diana Munychia. It was founded by Agamemnon, and
colonized by some of his soldiers, who had a disease in the buttocks,
and were called Pygalgeis; as they laboured under this complaint, they
settled there, and the town had the appropriate name of Pygela.[56]

Next is a harbour called Panormus, with a temple of the Ephesian Diana;
then the city.

On the same coast, at a little distance from the sea, is Ortygia, a fine
wood with trees of all kinds, but the cypress in the greatest abundance.
Through this wood flows the river Cenchrius, in which Latona is said to
have bathed after the birth of her child. For here is laid the scene of
the birth of the child, the cares of the nurse Ortygia, the cave in
which the birth took place, the neighbouring olive tree under which the
goddess first reposed when the pains of childbirth had ceased.

Above the wood is the mountain Solmissus, where, it is said, the Curetes
stationed themselves, and with the noise of their arms perplexed and
terrified Juno, who was enviously watching in secret the delivery of
Latona, who was thus assisted in concealing the birth of the child.

There are many temples in the place, some of which are ancient, others
of later times; in the former are ancient statues; in the latter are
works of Scopas, Latona holding a sceptre, and Ortygia standing by her
with a child in each arm.

A convention and festival are celebrated there every year. It is the
custom for young men to vie with each other, particularly in the
splendour of their convivial entertainments. The body of Curetes
celebrate their Symposia at the same time, and perform certain mystic
sacrifices.

21. The city of Ephesus was inhabited both by Carians and Leleges. After
Androclus had expelled the greatest part of the inhabitants, he settled
his companions about the Athenæum, and the Hypelæum, and in the
mountainous tract at the foot of the Coressus. It was thus inhabited
till the time of Crœsus. Afterwards, the inhabitants descended from the
mountainous district, and settled about the present temple, and
continued there to the time of Alexander. Then Lysimachus built a wall
round the present temple, and, perceiving the inhabitants [CAS. 640]
unwilling to remove thither, took advantage of a heavy storm of rain
which he saw approaching, and obstructed the drains so as to inundate
the city, and the inhabitants were glad to leave it for another place.

He called the city Arsinoë, after the name of his wife, but the old name
prevailed. A body of elders was enrolled, with whom were associated
persons called Epicleti, who administered all the affairs of the city.

22. Chersiphron[57] was the first architect of the temple of Diana;
another afterwards enlarged it, but when Herostratus set fire to it,[58]
the citizens constructed one more magnificent. They collected for this
purpose the ornaments of the women, contributions from private property,
and the money arising from the sale of pillars of the former temple.
Evidence of these things is to be found in the decrees of that time.
Artemidorus says, that Timæus of Tauromenium, in consequence of his
ignorance of these decrees, and being otherwise a calumniator and
detractor, (whence he had the name of Epitimæus, or Reviler,) avers that
the Ephesians restored the temple by means of the treasure deposited
there by the Persians. But at that time no treasure was deposited, and
if any had been deposited there, it must have been consumed together
with the temple: after the conflagration, when the roof was destroyed,
who would wish to have a deposit lying there, with the sacred enclosure
exposed to the air?

Besides, Artemidorus says, that Alexander promised to defray the expense
of its restoration, both what had been and what would be incurred, on
condition that the work should be attributed to him in the inscription,
but the Ephesians refused to accede to this; much less, then, would they
be disposed to acquire fame by sacrilege and spoliation. He praises also
the reply of an Ephesian to the king, “that it was not fit that a god
should provide temples in honour of gods.”

23. After the completion of the temple, which, he says, was the work of
Cheirocrates (the same person who built Alexandria, and also promised
Alexander that he would form Mount Athos into a statue of him, which
should represent him as pouring a libation into a dish out of an ewer;
that he would build two cities, one on the right hand of the mountain,
and another on the left, and a river should flow out of the dish from
one to the other,)[59]—after the completion of the temple, he says that
the multitude of other sacred offerings were purchased by the Ephesians,
at the value set on them by artificers, and that the altar was almost
entirely full of the works of Praxiteles. They showed us also some of
the performances of Thraso, namely, the Hecatesium, a Penelope,[60] and
the old woman Eurycleia.

The priests were eunuchs, who were called Megabyzi. It was the practice
to send to various places for persons worthy of this office, and they
were held in high honour. They were obliged to appoint virgins as their
colleagues in their priesthood. At present some of their rites and
customs are observed, and some are neglected.

The temple was formerly, and is at present, a place of refuge, but the
limits of the sanctity of this asylum have been frequently altered;
Alexander extended them to the distance of a stadium. Mithridates
discharged an arrow from the angle of the roof, and supposed that it
fell a little beyond the distance of a stadium. Antonius doubled this
distance, and included within the range of the sanctuary a certain
portion of the city. This was attended with much evil, as it placed the
city in the power of criminals and malefactors. On this account Augustus
Cæsar abolished the privilege.

24. The city has an arsenal and a harbour. The entrance of the harbour
was made narrow, by order of the king Attalus Philadelphus, who,
together with the persons that constructed it, was disappointed at the
result. The harbour was formerly shallow, on account of the embankment
of earth accumulated by the Caÿster; but the king, supposing that there
would be [CAS. 641] deep water for the entrance of large vessels of
burden, if a mole were thrown up before the mouth of the river, which
was very wide, gave orders for the construction of a mole; but the
contrary effect took place, for the mud, being confined within the
harbour, made the whole of it shallow to the mouth. Before the
construction of the mole, the flow and ebb of the sea cleared the mud
away entirely, by forcing it outwards.

Such then is the nature of the harbour.

The city, by the advantages which it affords, daily improves, and is the
largest mart in Asia within the Taurus.

25. Among illustrious persons in ancient times natives of Ephesus were
Heracleitus, surnamed Scoteinus, or the Obscure, and Hermodorus, of whom
Heracleitus himself says:

   “The Ephesians, youths and all, deserve hanging, for expelling
   Hermodorus, an honest citizen,[61] a citizen distinguished for
   his virtues, and saying, let there be no such amongst us; if
   there be, let it be in another place and among other people.”

Hermodorus seems to have compiled laws for the Romans. Hipponax the poet
was an Ephesian, and the painters Parrhasius and Apelles.

In more recent times was Alexander the orator, surnamed Lychnus, or the
Lamp;[62] he was an administrator of state affairs, a writer of history,
and left behind him poems which contain a description of the heavenly
phenomena and a geographical account of the continents, each of which
forms the subject of a distinct poem.

26. Next to the mouth of the Caÿster is a lake called Selinusia, formed
by the overflowing of the sea. It is succeeded by another, which
communicates with this. They afford a large revenue, of which the kings,
although it was sacred, deprived the goddess, but the Romans restored
it; then the tax-gatherers seized upon the tribute by force, and
converted it to their own use. Artemidorus, who was sent on an embassy
to Rome, as he says, recovered possession of the lakes for the goddess,
and also of the territory of Heracleotis, which was on the point of
separating from Ephesus, by proceeding in a suit at Rome. In return for
these services, the city erected in the temple to his honour a statue of
gold.

In the most retired part of the lake is a temple of a king, built, it is
said, by Agamemnon.

27. Next follows the mountain Gallesius, and Colophon, an Ionian city,
in front of which is the grove of Apollo Clarius, where was once an
ancient oracle.[63] It is said that the prophet Calchas came hither on
foot, on his return from Troy with Amphilochus, the son of Amphiaraus,
and that meeting at Clarus with a prophet superior to himself, Mopsus,
the son of Mantus, the daughter of Teiresias, he died of vexation.

Hesiod relates the fable somewhat in this manner: Calchas propounds to
Mopsus something of this kind:

   “I am surprised to see how large a quantity of figs there is
   on this small tree; can you tell the number?”

Mopsus answered:

   “There are ten thousand; they will measure a medimnus, and
   there is one over, which you cannot comprehend.”

Thus he spoke; the number and measure were exact. Then Calchas closed
his eyes in the sleep of death.

But Pherecydes says, that Calchas proposed a question respecting a
pregnant sow, and asked how many young she had; the other answered,
“three, one of which is a sow.” Upon his giving the true answer, Calchas
died of vexation. According to others, Calchas propounded the question
of the sow, and Mopsus that of the fig-tree; that Mopsus returned the
true answer, and that Calchas was mistaken, who died of vexation,
according to some oracular prophecy.

Sophocles, in his “Helen Claimed,” says that he was destined by fate to
die when he should meet with a prophet superior to himself. But this
writer transfers the scene of the rivalry, and of the death of Calchas,
to Cilicia.

These are ancient traditions.

[CAS. 643] 28. The Colophonians once possessed a considerable armament,
consisting both of ships and of cavalry. In the latter they were so much
superior to other nations, that in any obstinate engagement, on
whichever side the Colophonian horse were auxiliaries, they decided it;
whence came the proverb, “he put the Colophon to it,” when a person
brought any affair to a decisive issue.[64]

Among some of the remarkable persons born at Colophon were Mimnermus, a
flute-player and an elegiac poet; Xenophanes, the natural philosopher,
who composed Silli in verse. Pindar mentions one Polymnastus also, a
Colophonian, as distinguished for his skill in music:

   “Thou knowest the celebrated strains of Polymnastus, the
   Colophonian:”

and some writers affirm that Homer was of that city. The voyage from
Ephesus in a straight line is 70 stadia, and including the winding of
the bays, 120.

29. Next to Colophon is the mountain Coracium, and a small island sacred
to Artemis, to which it is believed that the hinds swim across to bring
forth their young.

Then follows Lebedos,[65] distant from Colophon 120 stadia. This is the
place of meeting and residence[66] of the Dionysiac artists (who travel
about) Ionia as far as the Hellespont. In Ionia a general assembly is
held, and games are celebrated every year in honour of Bacchus. These
artists formerly inhabited Teos,[67] a city of the Ionians, next in
order after Colophon, but on the breaking out of a sedition they took
refuge at Ephesus; and when Attalus settled them at Myonnesus,[68]
between Teos and Lebedos, the Teians sent a deputation to request the
Romans not to permit Myonnesus to be fortified, as it would endanger
their safety. They migrated to Lebedos, and the Lebedians were glad to
receive them, on account of their own scanty population.

Teos is distant from Lebedos 120 stadia. Between these two places is the
island Aspis,[69] which some writers call Arconnesus. Myonnesus
is situated upon high ground resembling a peninsula.

30. Teos is situated upon a peninsula, and has a port. Anacreon, the
lyric poet, was a native of this place; in his time, the Teians, unable
to endure the insults and injuries of the Persians, abandoned Teos, and
removed to Abdera, whence originated the verse—

   “Abdera, the beautiful colony of the Teians.”

Some of them returned in after-times to their own country. We have said
that Apellicon was of Teos, and Hecatæus also, the historian.

There is another port to the north, at the distance of 30 stadia from
the city, Gerrhæïdæ.[70]

31. Next follows Chalcideis, and the isthmus of the peninsula[71] of the
Teians and Erythræans; the latter inhabit the interior of the isthmus.
The Teians and Clazomenians are situated on the isthmus itself. The
Teians occupy the southern side of the isthmus, namely, Chalcideis;[72]
the Clazomenians, the northern side, whence they are contiguous to the
Erythræan district. At the commencement of the isthmus is Hypocremnus,
having on this side the Erythræan, and on the other, the Clazomenian
territory. Above Chalcideis is a grove, dedicated to Alexander, the son
of Philip, and a festival called Alexandreia is proclaimed and
celebrated there by the common body of the Ionians.

The passage across the isthmus from the Alexandrine grove and
Chalcideis, as far as the Hypocremnus, is 50 stadia (150?). The circuit
round by sea is more than 1000 stadia. Somewhere about the middle of the
voyage is Erythræ,[73] an Ionian city, with a port, having in front four
small islands, called Hippoi (the Horses).

32. But before we come to Erythræ, the first place we meet with is
Eræ,[74] a small city belonging to the Teians.

Next is Corycus, a lofty mountain; and below it, Casystes, a port;[75]
then another, called the port of Erythræ, and afterwards many others.

[CAS. 644] It is said that the whole sea-coast along the Corycus was
the haunt of pirates, who were called Corycæans, and who had contrived a
new mode of attacking vessels. They dispersed themselves among the
ports, and went among the merchants who had just arrived, and listened
to their conversation respecting the freight of their ships, and the
places whither they were bound. The pirates then collected together,
attacked the merchants at sea, and plundered the vessels. Hence all
inquisitive persons and those who listen to private and secret
conversation we call Corycæans, and say proverbially,

   “The Corycæan must have overheard it,”

when any one thinks that he has done or said anything not to be
divulged, but is betrayed by spies or persons anxious to be informed of
what does not concern them.

33. Next to Corycus is Halonnesus, a small island, then the
Argennum,[76] a promontory of the Erythræan territory, situated close to
Poseidium, belonging to the Chians, and forming a strait of about 60
stadia in width. Between Erythræ and Hypocremnus is Mimas,[77] a lofty
mountain, abounding with beasts of chase, and well wooded. Then follows
Cybelia, a village, and a promontory called Melæna,[78] (or Black,)
which has a quarry whence millstones are obtained.

34. Erythræ was the native place of the Sibyl, an ancient inspired
prophetess. In the time of Alexander there was another Sibyl, who was
also a prophetess, whose name was Athenais, a native of the same city;
and in our age there was Heracleides the Herophilian physician, a native
of Erythræ, a fellow-student of Apollonius surnamed Mus.

35. The coasting circumnavigation of Chios is 900 stadia. It has a
city[79] with a good port, and a station for eighty vessels. In the
voyage round the island, a person sailing from the city, with the island
on his right hand, first meets with Poseidium,[80] then Phanæ,[81] a
deep harbour, and a temple of Apollo, and a grove of palm trees; then
Notium, a part of the coast affording a shelter for vessels; next
Laïus,[82] which is also a place of shelter for vessels; hence to the
city is an isthmus of 60 stadia. The circumnavigation is 360 stadia, as
I have before described it. Next, the promontory Melæna,[83] opposite to
which is Psyra,[84] an island distant from the promontory 50 stadia,
lofty, with a city of the same name. The island is 40 stadia in
circumference. Next is the rugged tract, Ariusia, without harbours,
about 30 stadia in extent. It produces the best of the Grecian wines.
Then follows Pelinæum,[85] the highest mountain in the island. In the
island is a marble quarry.

Among illustrious natives of Chios were Ion[86] the tragic writer,
Theopompus the historian, and Theocritus the sophist. The two latter
persons were opposed to each other in the political parties in the
state. The Chians claim Homer as a native of their country, alleging as
a proof the Homeridæ, as they are called, descendants from his family,
whom Pindar mentions:

   “Whence also the Homeridæ, the chanters of the rhapsodies,
   most frequently begin their song.”[87]

The Chians once possessed a naval force, and aspired to the sovereignty
of the sea, and to liberty.[88]

From Chios to Lesbos is a voyage of about 400 stadia, with a south wind.

[CAS. 645] 36. After the Hypocremnus is Chytrium, a place where
Clazomenæ[89] formerly stood; then the present city, having in front
eight small islands, the land of which is cultivated by husbandmen.

Anaxagoras, the natural philosopher, was a distinguished Clazomenian; he
was a disciple of Anaximenes the Milesian, and master of Archelaus the
natural philosopher, and of Euripides the poet.

Next is a temple of Apollo, and hot springs, the bay of Smyrna, and the
city Smyrna.

37. Next is another bay, on which is situated the ancient Smyrna, at the
distance of 20 stadia from the present city. After Smyrna had been razed
by the Lydians, the inhabitants continued for about four hundred years
to live in villages. It was then restored by Antigonus, and afterwards
by Lysimachus, and at present it is the most beautiful city in Ionia.

One portion of Smyrna is built up on a hill, but the greater part is in
the plain near the harbour, the Metroum, and the Gymnasium. The division
of the streets is excellent, and as nearly as possible in straight
lines. There are paved roads, large quadrangular porticos, both on a
level with the ground and with an upper story.

There is also a library, and the Homereium, a quadrangular portico,
which has a temple of Homer and a statue. For the Smyrnæans, above all
others, urge the claims of their city to be the birth-place of Homer,
and they have a sort of brass money, called Homereium.[90]

The river Meles flows near the walls. Besides other conveniences with
which the city is furnished, there is a close harbour.

There is one, and not a trifling, defect in the work of the architects,
that when they paved the roads, they did not make drains beneath them;
the filth consequently lies on the surface, and, during rains
particularly, the receptacles of the filth spread it over the streets.

It was here that Dolabella besieged and slew Trebonius, one of the
murderers of divus Cæsar; he also destroyed many parts of the city.

38. Next to Smyrna is Leucæ,[91] a small city, which Aristonicus caused
to revolt, after the death of Attalus, the son of Philometor,[92] under
pretence of being descended from the royal family, but with the
intention of usurping the kingdom. He was, however, defeated in a naval
engagement by the Ephesians, near the Cumæan district, and expelled. But
he went into the interior of the country, and quickly collected together
a multitude of needy people and slaves, who were induced to follow him
by the hope of obtaining their freedom, whom he called Heliopolitæ. He
first surprised Thyateira,[93] he then got possession of Apollonis, and
had an intention of making himself master of other fortresses, but he
did not maintain his ground long. The cities sent immediately a large
body of troops against him, and were supported by Nicomedes the
Bithynian and the kings of Cappadocia. Afterwards five deputies of the
Romans came, then an army, and the consul Publius Crassus. These were
followed by M. Perperna, who took Aristonicus prisoner, sent him to
Rome, and thus put an end to the war. Aristonicus died in prison;
Perperna died of some disease, and Crassus fell near Leucæ, in a
skirmish with some people who had attacked him from an ambuscade. Manius
Aquillius the consul came afterwards, with ten lieutenants; he regulated
the affairs of the province, and established that form of government
which continues at present.

After Leucæ follows Phocæa,[94] situated on a bay. I have mentioned this
place in the description of Massalia.[95] Then follow the confines of
the Ionians and the Æolians. I have already spoken of these.[96]

In the interior of the Ionian maritime territory there remain to be
described the places about the road leading from Ephesus, as far as
Antioch[97] and the Mæander.

This tract is occupied by a mixed population of Lydians, Carians, and
Greeks.

39. The first place after Ephesus is Magnesia, an Æolian city, and
called Magnesia on the Mæander, for it is situated near it; but it is
still nearer the Lethæus, which discharges itself into the Mæander. It
has its source in Pactyes, a mountain in the Ephesian district. There is
another Lethæus in [CAS. 647] Gortyne, a third near Tricca, where
Asclepius is said to have been born, and the fourth among the Hesperitæ
Libyans.[98]

Magnesia lies in a plain, near a mountain called Thorax,[99] on which it
is said Daphitas the grammarian was crucified, for reviling the kings in
a distich—

   “O slaves, with backs purpled with stripes, filings of the
   gold of Lysimachus, you are the kings of Lydia and Phrygia.”

An oracle is said to have warned Daphitas to beware of the Thorax.[100]

40. The Magnesians appear to be the descendants of Delphians who
inhabited the Didymæan mountains in Thessaly, and of whom Hesiod says,

   “or, as the chaste virgin, who inhabits the sacred Didymæan
   hills in the plain of Dotium, opposite Amyrus, abounding with
   vines, and bathes her feet in the lake Bœbias—”

At Magnesia also was the temple of Dindymene, the mother of the gods.
Her priestess, according to some writers, was the daughter, according to
others, the wife, of Themistocles. At present there is no temple,
because the city has been transferred to another place. In the present
city is the temple of Artemis Leucophryene, which in the size of the
nave and in the number of sacred offerings is inferior to the temple at
Ephesus; but, in the fine proportion and the skill exhibited in the
structure of the enclosure, it greatly surpasses the Ephesian temple; in
size it is superior to all the temples in Asia, except that at Ephesus
and that at Didymi.

Anciently the Magnetes were utterly extirpated by Treres, a Cimmerian
tribe, who for a long period made successful inroads. Subsequently
Ephesians got possession of the place.[101] Callinus speaks of the
Magnetes as still in a flourishing state, and successful in the war
against the Ephesians. But Archilochus seems to have been acquainted
with the calamities which had befallen them:

   “bewail the misfortunes of the Thasians, not of the Magnetes;”

whence we may conjecture that Archilochus was posterior to Callinus. Yet
Callinus mentions some other earlier inroad of the Cimmerians, when he
says—

   “and now the army of the daring Cimmerians is advancing,”

where he is speaking of the capture of Sardis.

41. Among the illustrious natives of Magnesia were Hegesias the orator,
who first introduced the Asiatic fervour, as it was called, and
corrupted the established Attic style of eloquence; Simon (Simus?) the
lyric poet, who also corrupted the system and plan of former lyric
poets, by introducing the Simodia; it was still more corrupted by the
Lysiodi and Magodi;[102] Cleomachus the pugilist, who was enamoured of a
certain cinædus, and a female servant, who was maintained by the
cinædus, imitated the sort of dialect and the manners of the cinædi.
Sotades was the first person that employed the language of the cinædi,
and he was followed by Alexander the Ætolian; but these were only prose
writers. Lysis added verse, but this had been done before his time by
Simus.

The theatres had raised the reputation of Anaxenor, the player on the
cithara, but Antony elevated him as high as possible, by appointing him
receiver of the tribute from four cities, and by giving him a guard of
soldiers for the protection of his person. His native country also
augmented his dignity, by investing him with the sacred purple of
Jupiter Sosipolis, as is represented in the painted figure in the forum.
There is also in the theatre a figure in brass, with this inscription:

   [CAS. 648] “It is truly delightful to listen to a minstrel
   such as he is, whose voice is like that of the gods.”[103]

The artist who engraved the words was inattentive to the space which
they would occupy, and omitted the last letter of the second verse,
ΑΥΔΗΙ, (voice,) the breadth of the base not being large
enough to allow its insertion; this afforded an occasion of accusing the
citizens of ignorance, on account of the ambiguity of the inscription;
for it is not clear whether the nominative ΑΥΔΗ, or the
dative ΑΥΔΗΙ, is to be understood, for many persons write
the dative cases without the Ι, and reject the usage, as not
founded on any natural reason.

42. After Magnesia is the road to Tralles;[104] travellers have on the
left hand Mesogis,[105] and on the right hand, and from the road itself,
the plain of the Mæander, which is occupied in common by Lydians,
Carians, Ionians, Milesians, Mysians, and the Æolians of Magnesia.

The character of the sites of places is the same even as far as
Nysa[106] and Antioch.

The city of Tralles is built upon ground in the shape somewhat of a
trapezium. It has a citadel strongly fortified, and the places around
are well defended. It is as well peopled as any of the cities in Asia,
and its inhabitants are wealthy; some of them constantly occupy chief
stations in the province, and are called Asiarchs. Among the latter was
Pythodorus, originally a native of Nysa; but, induced by the celebrity
of the place, he migrated hither. He was one of the few friends of
Pompey who were fortunate. His wealth was kingly, and consisted of more
than two thousand talents, which he redeemed when it was confiscated by
divus Cæsar, on account of his attachment to Pompey, and left it
undiminished to his children. Pythodoris, who is at present queen in
Pontus, and whom we have mentioned before, is his daughter. Pythodorus
flourished in our times, and also Menodorus, an eloquent man, and a
person of dignified and grave demeanour; he was priest of Jupiter
Larisæus. He was circumvented by the adherents of Domitius Ænobarbus,
who, on the credit of informers, put him to death, for attempting, as
was supposed, the revolt of his fleet.

Tralles produced also celebrated orators, Dionysocles, and after him
Damasus, surnamed Scombrus.

It is said to have been founded by Argives and a body of Tralli
Thracians,[107] from whom it had its name. It was governed for a short
time by tyrants, sons of Cratippus, about the period of the Mithridatic
war.

43. Nysa is situated near the Mesogis, resting for the most part against
the mountain. It is as it were a double town, for a kind of torrent
watercourse divides it into two parts, and forms a valley, one part of
which has a bridge over it, connecting the two towns; the other is
adorned with an amphitheatre; underneath it is a passage through which
the waters of the torrents flow out of sight.

Near the theatre are situated[108] two heights; below one lies the
gymnasium for the young men; below the other is the forum, and a place
of exercise for older persons. To the south below the city lies the
plain, as at Tralles.

44. On the road between Tralles and Nysa is a village of the Nysæans,
not far from the city Acharaca, in which is the Plutonium, to which is
attached a large grove, a temple of Pluto and Proserpine, and the
Charonium, a cave which overhangs the grove, and possesses some singular
physical properties. The sick, it is said, who have confidence in the
cures performed by these deities, resort thither, and live in the
village near the cave, among experienced priests, who sleep at night in
the open air, on behoof of the sick, and direct the modes of cure by
their dreams. The priests invoke the gods to cure the sick, and
frequently take them into the cave, where, as in a den, they are placed
to remain in quiet without food for several days. Sometimes the sick
themselves observe their own dreams, but apply to these persons, in
their character of priests and guardians of the mysteries, to interpret
them, and to counsel what is to be done. To others the place is
interdicted and fatal.

An annual festival, to which there is a general resort, is celebrated at
Acharaca, and at that time particularly are to be [CAS. 650] seen and
heard those who frequent it, conversing about cures performed
there.[109] During this feast the young men of the gymnasium and the
ephebi, naked and anointed with oil,[110] carry off a bull by stealth at
midnight, and hurry it away into the cave. It is then let loose, and
after proceeding a short distance falls down and expires.

45. Thirty stadia from Nysa, as you cross the Mesogis towards the
southern parts of Mount Tmolus,[111] is a place called Leimon, or the
Meadow, to which the Nysæans and all the people around repair when they
celebrate a festival. Not far from this plain is an aperture in the
ground, sacred to the same deities, which aperture is said to extend as
far as Acharaca. They say that the poet mentions this meadow, in the
words,

   “On the Asian mead,”[112]

and they show a temple dedicated to two heroes, Caÿstrius and Asius, and
the Caÿster flowing near it.

46. Historians relate that three brothers, Athymbrus, Athymbradus, and
Hydrelus, coming hither from Lacedæmon, founded (three?) cities, to
which they gave their own names; that the population of these towns
afterwards declined, but that out of these jointly Nysa was peopled. The
Nysæans at present regard Athymbrus as their founder.

47. Beyond the Mæander and in the neighbourhood are considerable
settlements, Coscinia[113] and Orthosia, and on this side the river,
Briula, Mastaura,[114] Acharaca, and above the city on the mountain,
Aroma; the letter _o_ is shortened in the pronunciation. From this
latter place is obtained the Aromeus, the best Mesogitian wine.

48. Among illustrious natives of Nysa were Apollonius the Stoic
philosopher, the most eminent of the disciples of Panætius, and of
Menecrates, the disciple of Aristarchus; Aristodemus, the son of
Menecrates, whom, when I was a very young man, I heard lecturing on
philosophy, in extreme old age, at Nysa; Sostratus, the brother of
Aristodemus, and another Aristodemus, his cousin, the master of Pompey
the Great, were distinguished grammarians. My master taught rhetoric
also at Rhodes, and in his own country he had two schools; in the
morning he taught rhetoric, in the evening grammar. When he
superintended the education of the children of Pompey at Rome, he was
satisfied with teaching a school of grammar.



CHAPTER II.


1. The places beyond the Mæander, which remain to be described, belong
to the Carians. The Carians here are not intermixed with Lydians, but
occupy the whole country by themselves, if we except a small portion of
the sea-coast, of which the Milesians and Mysians have taken possession.

Caria[115] begins on the sea-coast opposite to Rhodes, and ends at
Poseidium,[116] belonging to the Milesians. In the interior are the
extremities of Taurus, which extend as far as the Mæander. For the
mountains situated above the Chelidonian islands,[117] as they are
called, which lie in front of the confines of Pamphylia and Lycia, are,
it is said, the beginning of the Taurus; for the Taurus has there some
elevation, and indeed a mountainous ridge of Taurus separates the whole
of Lycia towards the exterior and the southern part from Cibyra and its
district, as far as the country opposite to Rhodes. Even there a
mountainous tract is continued; it is, however, much lower in height,
and is not considered as any longer belonging to Taurus, nor is there
the distinction of parts lying within and parts lying without the
Taurus, on account of the eminences and depressions being scattered
about through the whole country both in breadth and length, and not
presenting anything like a separation-wall.

The whole voyage along the coast, including the winding [CAS. 651] of
the bays, is 4900 stadia, and that along the country opposite to Rhodus
1500 stadia.

2. The beginning of this tract is Dædala,[118] a stronghold; and ends at
the mountain Phœnix,[119] as it is called, both of which belong to the
Rhodian territory. In front, at the distance of 120 stadia from Rhodes,
lies Eleussa.[120] In sailing from Dædala towards the west in a straight
line along Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Lycia, in the midway is a bay called
Glaucus, with good harbours; then is the promontory Artemisium, and a
temple; next, the grove sacred to Latona; above this, and at the
distance of 60 stadia, is Calynda, a city; then Caunus,[121] and a deep
river near it, the Calbis,[122] which may be entered by vessels; between
these is Pisilis.

3. The city Caunus has a naval arsenal and a close harbour. Above the
city upon a height is Imbrus, a stronghold. Although the country is
fertile, yet the city is allowed by all to be unhealthy in summer, on
account of the heat, and in autumn, from the abundance of fruits.

Stories of the following kind are related respecting the city.
Stratonicus, the player on the cithara, seeing the Caunians somewhat
dark and yellow,[123] said that this was what the poet meant in the
line,

   “As are the leaves, so is the race of men.”[124]

When he was accused of ridiculing the unhealthiness of the city, he
answered, “Can I be so bold as to call that city unhealthy, where even
the dead walk about?”

The Caunians once revolted from the Rhodians, but, by a decision of the
Romans, they were received again by the Rhodians into favour. There is
in existence an oration of Molo against the Caunians.

It is said that they speak the same language as the Carians, that they
came from Crete, and retained their own laws and customs.[125]

4. Next is Physcus,[126] a small town; it has a port and a grove sacred
to Latona: then Loryma, a rugged line of sea-coast, and a mountain, the
highest of any in that quarter, on the summit of which is Phœnix, a
stronghold, of the same name as the mountain. In front is the island
Eleussa, at the distance of 4 stadia. Its circumference is about 8
stadia.

5. The city of the Rhodians is on the eastern promontory. With regard to
harbours, roads, walls, and other buildings, it so much surpasses other
cities, that we know of none equal, much less superior to it.

Their political constitution and laws were excellent, and the care
admirable with which they administered affairs of state generally, and
particularly those relative to their marine. Hence being for a long
period masters of the sea, they put an end to piracy, and became allies
of the Romans, and of those kings who were well affected to the Romans
and the Greeks; hence also the city was suffered to preserve her
independence, and was embellished with many votive offerings. These are
distributed in various places, but the greatest part of them are
deposited in the Dionysium and in the gymnasium. The most remarkable is
the Colossus of the Sun, which, the author of the iambics says, was

   “seventy cubits in height, the work of Chares of Lindus.”

It now lies on the ground, having been thrown down by an earthquake, and
is broken off at the knees. An oracle prohibited its being raised again.
This is the most remarkable of the votive offerings, and it is allowed
to be one of the seven wonders of the world.[127] There were also the
pictures by Protogenes,[128] the Ialysus, and the Satyr, who was
represented [CAS. 652] standing by a pillar. On the top of the pillar
was a partridge. The bird strongly attracted, as was natural, the gaping
admiration of the people, when the picture was first hung up in public,
and they were so much delighted, that the Satyr, although executed with
great skill, was not noticed. The partridge-breeders were still more
struck with the picture of the bird. They brought tame partridges,
which, when placed opposite to the picture, made their call, and drew
together crowds of people. When Protogenes observed that the principal
had become the subordinate part of his work, he obtained permission of
the curators of the temple to efface the bird, which he did.

The Rhodians, although their form of government is not democratic, are
attentive to the welfare of the people, and endeavour to maintain the
multitude of poor. The people receive allowances of corn, and the rich
support the needy, according to an ancient usage. There are also public
offices in the state, the object of which is to procure and distribute
provisions,[129] so that the poor may obtain subsistence, and the city
not suffer for want of persons to serve her, especially in manning her
fleets.

Some of the dockyards are kept private, and the multitude are prohibited
from seeing them. If any person should be found inspecting, or to have
entered them, he would be punished with death. As at Massalia and
Cyzicus,[130] so here particularly, everything relating to architects,
the manufacture of engines, stores of arms, and of other materials, is
administered with peculiar care, much more so than in other places.

6. Like the people of Halicarnassus,[131] Cnidus, and Cos, the Rhodians
are of Doric origin. Some of the Dorians, who founded Megara after the
death of Codrus, remained there; others associated themselves with the
colony which went to Crete under the conduct of Althæmenes the Argive;
the rest were distributed at Rhodus, and among the cities just
mentioned.

But these migrations are more recent than the events related by Homer.
For Cnidus and Halicarnassus were not then in existence. Rhodes and Cos
existed, but were inhabited by Heracleidæ. Tlepolemus, when he attained
manhood,

   “slew the maternal uncle of his father, the aged Licymnius. He
   immediately built ships, and, collecting a large body of
   people, fled away with them:”[132]

and adds afterwards—

   “after many sufferings on the voyage, he came to Rhodes; they
   settled there according to their tribes, in three bodies:”

and mentions by name the cities then existing[133]—

   “Lindus, Ialysus, and the white Cameirus,”

the city of the Rhodians not being yet founded.

Homer does not here mention Dorians by name, but means Æolians and
Bœotians, since Hercules and Licymnius lived in Bœotia. If however, as
others relate, Tlepolemus set out from Argos and Tiryns, even so the
colony would not be Dorian, for it was settled before the return of the
Heracleidæ.

And of the Coans also Homer says—

   “their leaders were Pheidippus and Antiphus, two sons of
   Thessalus the King, an Heracleid;”[134]

and these names designate rather an Æolian than a Dorian origin.

7. Rhodes was formerly called Ophiussa and Stadia, then Telchinis, from
the Telchines, who inhabited the island.[135]

These Telchines are called by some writers charmers and enchanters, who
besprinkle animals and plants, with a view to destroy them, with the
water of the Styx, mingled with sulphur. Others on the contrary say,
that they were persons who excelled in certain mechanical arts, and that
they were calumniated by jealous rivals, and thus acquired a bad
reputation; that they came from Crete, and first landed at Cyprus, and
then removed to Rhodes. They were the first workers in iron and brass,
and were the makers of Saturn’s scythe.

I have spoken of them before, but the variety of fables [CAS. 654]
which are related of them induces me to resume their history, and to
supply what may have been omitted.

8. After the Telchines, the Heliadæ[136] were said, according to
fabulous accounts, to have occupied the island. One of these Heliadæ,
Cercaphus, and his wife Cydippe had children, who founded the cities
called after their names—

   “Lindus, Ialysus, and the white Cameirus.”[137]

Others say, that Tlepolemus founded them, and gave to them the names of
some of the daughters of Danaüs.

9. The present city was built during the Peloponnesian war, by the same
architect,[138] it is said, who built the Piræus. The Piræus, however,
does not continue to exist, having formerly sustained injuries from the
Lacedæmonians, who threw down the walls, and then from Sylla, the Roman
general.

10. It is related of the Rhodians that their maritime affairs were in a
flourishing state, not only from the time of the foundation of the
present city, but that many years before the institution of the Olympic
festival, they sailed to a great distance from their own country for the
protection of sailors. They sailed as far as Spain, and there founded
Rhodus, which the people of Marseilles afterwards occupied; they founded
Parthenope[139] among the Opici, and Elpiæ in Daunia, with the
assistance of Coans. Some authors relate, that after their return from
Troy they colonized the Gymnasian islands. According to Timæus, the
greater of these islands is the largest known,[140] next the seven
following, Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, Crete, Eubœa,[141] Corsica, and
Lesbos; but this is a mistake, for these others are much larger. It is
said, that gymnetes (or light-armed soldiers[142]) are called by the
Phœnicians balearides, and that from hence the Gymnasian islands were
called Balearides.

Some of the Rhodians settled in the neighbourhood of Sybaris, in the
Chonian territory.[143] Homer seems to bear evidence of the former
prosperity of the Rhodians, from the very foundation of the three
cities;

   “they settled according to their tribes, in three companies,
   and were the favourites of Jupiter, who showered upon them
   great wealth.”[144]

Other writers have applied these verses to a fable, according to which,
at the birth of Minerva, it rained gold on the island from the head of
Jupiter, as Pindar has said.[145]

The island is 920 stadia in circumference.

11. In sailing from the city, and leaving the island on the right hand,
the first place we meet with is Lindus,[146] a city situated on a
mountain extending far towards the south, and particularly towards
Alexandreia (in Egypt).[147] There is here a celebrated temple of the
Lindian Diana, built by the Danaides. Formerly, the Lindians, like the
inhabitants of Cameirus,[148] and Ialyssus, formed an independent state,
but afterwards they all settled at Rhodes.

Cleobulus, one of the seven wise men, was a native of Lindus.

12. Next to Lindus is Ixia,[149] a stronghold, and Mnasyrium; then the
Atabyris,[150] the highest mountain in the island, sacred to Jupiter
Atabyrius; then Cameirus; then Ialysus a village, and above it is an
acropolis called Ochyroma (the Fortification); then, at the distance of
about 80 stadia, the city of the Rhodians. Between these is the
Thoantium, a sort of beach, immediately in front of which are situated
the Sporades islands lying about Chalcis, which we have mentioned
before.[151]

13. There have been many remarkable persons, natives of Rhodes, both
generals and athletæ, among whom were the ancestors of Panætius the
philosopher. Among statesmen, orators, and philosophers, were Panætius,
Stratocles, Andronicus the Peripatetic, Leonides the Stoic, and long
before the time of these persons, Praxiphanes, Hieronymus, and Eudēmus.
Poseidonius was concerned in the administration of the affairs of state,
and taught philosophy at Rhodes, (but he was a native of Apameia in
Syria,) as did Apollonius Malacus, and [CAS. 655] Molon, who were
natives of Alabanda, and disciples of Menecles the rhetorician.
Apollonius had resided at Rhodes long before, but Molon came late;
whence the former said to him “late comer,” Ὀψὲ μολών, instead of
ἐλθών[152] Peisander, a Rhodian poet, author of the Heracleia; Simmias
the grammarian, and Aristocles, of our time. Dionysius the Thracian, and
Apollonius, author of the Argonautics, although natives of Alexandreia,
were called Rhodians.

This is sufficient on the subject of the island of Rhodes.

14. There is a bend of the Carian coast opposite to Rhodes, immediately
after Eleus[153] and Loryma, towards the north, and then the ship’s
course is in a straight line to the Propontis,[154] and forms as it were
a meridian line of about 500 stadia in length, or somewhat less. Along
this line are situated the remainder of Caria, Ionians, Æolians, Troy,
and the parts about Cyzicus and Byzantium. Next to Loryma is the
Cynossema, or dogs’ monument,[155] and the island Syme.[156]

15. Then follows Cnidus,[157] which has two harbours, one of which is a
close harbour, fit for receiving triremes, and a naval station for 20
vessels. In front of Cnidus is an island, in circumference about 7
stadia; it rises high, in the form of a theatre, and is united by a mole
to the continent, and almost makes Cnidus a double city, for a great
part of the inhabitants occupy the island, which shelters both harbours.
Opposite to it, far out at sea, is Nisyrus.[158]

Illustrious natives of Cnidus were, first, Eudoxus the mathematician, a
disciple of Plato’s; Agatharchides, the Peripatetic philosopher and
historian; Theopompus, one of the most powerful of the friends of divus
Cæsar, and his son Artemidorus. Ctesias also, the physician of
Artaxerxes, was a native of this place. He wrote a history of Assyria
and Persia.

Next after Cnidus are Ceramus[159] and Bargasa, small towns overlooking
the sea.

16. Then follows Halicarnasus, formerly called Zephyra, the royal seat
of the dynasts of Caria. Here is the sepulchre of Mausolus, one of
the seven wonders of the world;[160] Artemisia erected it, in honour
of her husband. Here also is the fountain Salmacis, which has a bad
repute, for what reason I know not, for making those who drink of it
effeminate. Mankind, enervated by luxury, impute the blame of its
effects to different kinds of air and water, but these are not the
causes of luxury, but riches and intemperance.

There is an acropolis at Halicarnasus. In front of it lies
Arconnesus.[161] It had, among others, as its founders, Anthes and a
body of Trœzenians.[162]

Among the natives of Halicarnasus were Herodotus the historian, who was
afterwards called Thurius, because he was concerned in sending out the
colony to Thurii; Heracleitus the poet, the friend of Callimachus; and
in our time, Dionysius the historian.

17. Halicarnasus suffered, when it was taken by storm by Alexander.
Hecatomnus, who was then king of the Carians, had three sons, Mausolus,
Hidrieus, and Pixodarus, and two daughters. Mausolus, the eldest son,
married Artemisia, the eldest daughter; Hidrieus, the second son,
married Ada, the other sister. Mausolus came to the throne, and, dying
without children, left the kingdom to his wife, by whom the
above-mentioned sepulchre was erected. She pined away for grief at the
loss of her husband. Hidrieus succeeded her; he died a natural death,
and was succeeded by his wife Ada. She was ejected by Pixodarus, the
surviving son of Hecatomnus. Having espoused the party of the Persians,
Pixodarus sent for a satrap to share the kingdom with him. After the
death of Pixodarus, the satrap became master of Halicarnasus. But upon
the arrival of Alexander, he sustained a siege. His wife was Ada,
daughter of Pixodarus, and Aphneïs, a woman of Cappadocia. But Ada, the
daughter of Hecatomnus, whom Pixodarus ejected, entreated Alexander, and
endeavoured to prevail upon him to reïnstate her in the kingdom of which
she had been deprived; she promised (in return) her assistance in
reducing to obedience the parts of the country which had revolted; for
the persons who were in possession of them [CAS. 657] were her
relations and subjects. She also delivered up Alinda where she herself
resided. Alexander granted her request and proclaimed her queen, after
the city was taken, but not the acropolis, which was doubly fortified.
He assigned to Ada the siege of the acropolis, which was taken in a
short time afterwards, the besiegers having attacked it with fury and
exasperation at the resistance of the besieged.

18. Next is Termerium,[163] a promontory of the Myndians, opposite to
which lies Scandaria, a promontory of Cos, distant 40 stadia from the
continent. There is also above the promontory a fortress, Termerum.

19. The city of the Coans was formerly called Astypalæa, and was built
in another place, but is at present on the sea-coast. Afterwards, on
account of a sedition, they migrated to the present city, near
Scandarium, and changed the name to that of the island, Cos. The city is
not large, but beautifully built, and a most pleasing sight to mariners
who are sailing by the coast. The island is about 550 stadia in
circumference. The whole of it is fertile, and produces, like Chios and
Lesbos, excellent wine. It has, towards the south, the promontory
Laceter,[164] from which to Nicyrus is 60 stadia, and near Laceter is
Halisarna, a stronghold; on the west is Drecanum, and a village called
Stomalimne. Drecanum is distant about 200 stadia from the city. The
promontory Laceter adds to the length of the navigation 35 stadia. In
the suburb is the celebrated temple Asclepieium, full of votive
offerings, among which is the Antigonus of Apelles. It formerly
contained the Venus Anadyomene, (Venus emerging from the sea,) but that
is now at Rome, dedicated to divus Cæsar by Augustus, who consecrated to
his father the picture of her who was the author of his family. It is
said that the Coans obtained, as a compensation for the loss of this
painting, an abatement, amounting to a hundred talents, of their usual
tribute.

It is said, that Hippocrates learned and practised the dietetic part of
medicine from the narrative of cures suspended in the temple. He is one
of the illustrious natives of Cos. Simus, also, the physician, Philetas
the poet and critic, Nicias of our time, who was tyrant of Cos; Ariston,
the disciple and heir of Ariston the Peripatetic philosopher; and
Theomnestus, a minstrel of name, who was of the opposite political party
to Nicias.

20. On the coast of the continent opposite to the Myndian territory is
Astypalæa a promontory, and Zephyrium. The city Myndus follows
immediately after, which has a harbour; then the city Bargylia. In the
intervening distance is Caryanda[165] a harbour, and an island of the
same name, occupied by Caryandians. Scylax the ancient historian was a
native of this island. Near Bargylia is the temple of Artemis Cindyas,
round which the rain falls, it is believed, without touching it. There
was once a strong place called Cindya.

Among the distinguished natives of Bargylia was Protarchus the
Epicurean; Demetrius surnamed Lacon was his disciple.

21. Next follows Iasus, situated upon an island,[166] on the side
towards the continent. It has a port, and the inhabitants derive the
greatest part of their subsistence from the sea, which abounds with
fish, but the soil is very barren. Stories of the following kind are
related of Iasus.

As a player on the cithara was displaying his art in public, every one
listened to him attentively till the market bell rung for the sale of
fish, when he was deserted by all except one man, who was quite deaf.
The minstrel coming up to him said, “Friend, I am much obliged to you
for the honour you have done me, and I admire your love of music, for
all the others have left me at the sound of the bell.”—“What say you,
has the bell rung?”—“Yes, he replied?”—“Good bye to you,” said the man,
and away he also went.

Diodorus the Dialectician was a native of this place. He was surnamed
Cronus (or Old Time); the title was not properly his from the first; it
was his master Apollonius who (in the first instance) had received the
surname of Cronus, but it was transferred to Diodorus on account of the
want of celebrity in the true Cronus.

22. Next to Iasus is Cape Poseidium[167] of the Milesians. In the
interior are three considerable cities, Mylasa,[168] Stratoniceia,[169]
and Alabanda.[170] The others are guard forts to these or to the
maritime towns, as Amyzon, Heracleia, Euromus, Chalcetor. But we make
little account of these.

23. Mylasa is situated in a very fertile plain; a mountain, containing a
very beautiful marble quarry, overhangs the city; and it is no small
advantage to have stone for building [CAS. 659] in abundance and near
at hand, particularly for the construction of temples and other public
edifices; consequently, no city is embellished more beautifully than
this with portico and temples. It is a subject of surprise, however,
that persons should be guilty of the absurdity of building the city at
the foot of a perpendicular and lofty precipice. One of the governors of
the province is reported to have said, when he expressed his
astonishment at this circumstance, “If the founder of the city had no
fear, he had no shame.”

The Mylasians have two temples, one of Jupiter called Osogo, and another
of Jupiter Labrandenus. The former is in the city. Labranda is a village
on the mountain, near the passage across it from Alabanda to Mylasa, at
a distance from the city. At Labranda is an ancient temple of Jupiter,
and a statue of Jupiter Stratius, who is worshipped by the neighbouring
people and by the inhabitants of Mylasa. There is a paved road for a
distance of about 60 stadia from the temple to the city; it is called
the Sacred Way, along which the sacred things are carried in procession.
The most distinguished citizens are always the priests, and hold office
during life. These temples belong peculiarly to the city. There is a
third temple of the Carian Jupiter, common to all the Carians, in the
use of which the Lydians, also, and Mysians participate, as being
brethren.

Mylasa is said to have been anciently a village, but the native place
and royal residence of Hecatomnus and the Carians. The city approaches
nearest to the sea at Physcus, which is their naval arsenal.

24. Mylasa has produced in our time illustrious men, who were at once
orators and demagogues, Euthydemus and Hybreas. Euthydemus inherited
from his ancestors great wealth and reputation. He possessed commanding
eloquence, and was regarded as a person of eminence, not only in his own
country, but was thought worthy of the highest honours even in Asia. The
father of Hybreas, as he used to relate the circumstance in his school,
and as it was confirmed by his fellow-citizens, left him a mule which
carried wood, and a mule driver. He was maintained for a short time by
their labour, and was enabled to attend the lectures of Diotrephes of
Antioch. On his return he held the office of superintendent of the
market. But here being harassed, and gaining but little profit, he
applied himself to the affairs of the state, and to attend to the
business of the forum. He quickly advanced himself and became an object
of admiration, even during the lifetime of Euthydemus, and still more
after his death, as the leading person in the city. Euthydemus possessed
great power, and used it for the benefit of the city, so that if some of
his acts were rather tyrannical, this character was lost in their public
utility.

The saying of Hybreas, at the conclusion of an harangue to the people,
is applauded: “Euthydemus, you are an evil necessary to the city; for we
can live neither with thee nor without thee.”[171]

Hybreas, although he had acquired great power, and had the reputation of
being both a good citizen and an excellent orator, was defeated in his
political opposition to Labienus. For the citizens, unarmed, and
disposed to peace, surrendered to Labienus, who attacked them with a
body of troops and with Parthian auxiliaries, the Parthians being at
that time masters of Asia. But Zeno of Laodiceia and Hybreas, both of
them orators, did not surrender, but caused their own cities to revolt.
Hybreas provoked Labienus, an irritable and vain young man, by saying,
when the youth announced himself emperor of the Parthians, “Then I shall
call myself emperor of the Carians.” Upon this Labienus marched against
the city, having with him cohorts drafted from the Roman soldiery
stationed in Asia. He did not however take Hybreas prisoner, who had
retreated to Rhodes, but plundered and destroyed his house, which
contained costly furniture, and treated the whole city in the same
manner. After Labienus had left Asia, Hybreas returned, and restored his
own affairs and those of the city to their former state.

This then on the subject of Mylasa.

25. Stratoniceia is a colony of Macedonians. It was embellished by the
kings with costly edifices. In the district of the Stratoniceians are
two temples. The most celebrated, that of Hecate, is at Lagina, where
every year great multitudes assemble at a great festival. Near the city
is the temple of Jupiter Chrysaoreus,[172] which is common to all the
Carians, and whither they repair to offer sacrifice, and to deliberate
on their common interests. They call this meeting the Chrysaoreon,
[CAS. 660] which is composed of villages. Those who represent the
greatest number of villages have the precedency in voting, like the
Ceramiētæ. The Stratoniceians, although they are not of Carian race,
have a place in this assembly, because they possess villages included in
the Chrysaoric body.

In the time of our ancestors there flourished at Stratoniceia a
distinguished person, Menippus the orator, surnamed Catocas, whom
Cicero[173] commends in one of his writings above all the Asiatic
orators whom he had heard, comparing him to Xenocles, and to those who
flourished at that time.

There is another Stratoniceia, called Stratoniceia at the Taurus, a
small town adjacent to the mountain.

26. Alabanda lies at the foot of two eminences, in such a manner as to
present the appearance of an ass with panniers. On this account
Apollonius Malacus ridicules the city, and also because it abounds with
scorpions; he says, it was an ass, with panniers full of scorpions.

This city and Mylasa, and the whole mountainous tract between them,
swarm with these reptiles.

The inhabitants of Alabanda are addicted to luxury and debauchery. It
contains a great number of singing girls.

Natives of Alabanda, distinguished persons, were two orators, brothers,
Menecles, whom we mentioned a little above, and Hierocles, Apollonius,
and Molo; the two latter afterwards went to Rhodes.

27. Among the various accounts which are circulated respecting the
Carians, the most generally received is that the Carians, then called
Leleges, were governed by Minos, and occupied the islands. Then removing
to the continent, they obtained possession of a large tract of sea-coast
and of the interior, by driving out the former occupiers, who were, for
the most part, Leleges and Pelasgi. The Greeks again, Ionians and
Dorians, deprived the Carians of a portion of the country.

As proofs of their eager pursuit of war, the handles of shields, badges,
and crests, all of which are called Carian, are alleged. Anacreon says,

   “Come, grasp the well-made Caric handles;”

and Alcæus—

   “Shaking a Carian crest.”

28. But when Homer uses these expressions, “Masthles commanded the
Carians, who speak a barbarous language,”[174] it does not appear why,
when he was acquainted with so many barbarous nations, he mentions the
Carians alone as using a barbarous language, but does not call any
people Barbarians. Nor is Thucydides right, who says that none were
called Barbarians, because as yet the Greeks were not distinguished by
any one name as opposed to some other. But Homer himself refutes this
position that the Greeks were not distinguished by this name:

   “A man whose fame has spread through Greece and Argos;”[175]

and in another place—

   “But if you wish to go through Hellas and the middle of Argos.”[176]

But if there was no such term as Barbarian, how could he properly speak
of people as Barbarophonoi (i. e. speaking a barbarous language)?

Neither is Thucydides nor Apollonius the grammarian right, because the
Greeks, and particularly the Ionians, applied to the Carians a common
term in a peculiar and vituperative sense, in consequence of their
hatred of them for their animosity and continual hostile incursions.
Under these circumstances he might call them Barbarians. But we ask,
why does he call them Barbarophonoi, but not once Barbarians? Because,
replies Apollonius, the plural number does not fall in with the metre;
this is the reason why Homer does not call them Barbarians. Admitting
then that the genitive case (βαρβάρων) does not fall in with the
measure of the verse, the nominative case (βάρβαροι) does not differ
from that of Dardani (Δάρδανοι);

   “Trojans, Lycians, and Dardani;”

and of the same kind is the word Troïi[177] in this verse,

   “Like the Troïi horses” (Τρώιοι ἵπποι).

Nor is the reason to be found in the alleged excessive harshness of the
Carian language, for it is not extremely harsh; and besides, according
to Philippus, the author of a history of Caria, their language contains
a very large mixture of Greek words.

[CAS. 661] I suppose that the word “barbarian” was at first invented to
designate a mode of pronunciation which was embarrassed, harsh, and
rough; as we use the words battarizein, traulizein, psellizein,[178] to
express the same thing. For we are naturally very much disposed to
denote certain sounds by names expressive of those sounds, and
characteristic of their nature; and hence invented terms abound,
expressive of the sounds which they designate, as kelaryzein, clange,
psophos, boe, krotos,[179] most of which words are at present used in an
appropriate sense.

As those who pronounce their words with a thick enunciation are called
Barbarians, so foreigners, I mean those who were not Greeks, were
observed to pronounce their words in this manner. The term Barbarians
was therefore applied peculiarly to these people, at first by way of
reproach, as having a thick and harsh enunciation; afterwards the term
was used improperly, and applied as a common gentile term in
contradistinction to the Greeks. For after a long intimacy and
intercourse had subsisted with the Barbarians, it no longer appeared
that this peculiarity arose from any thickness of enunciation, or a
natural defect in the organs of the voice, but from the peculiarities of
their languages.

But there was in our language a bad and what might be called a barbarous
utterance, as when any person speaking Greek should not pronounce it
correctly, but should pronounce the words like the Barbarians, who, when
beginning to learn the Greek language, are not able to pronounce it
perfectly, as neither are we able to pronounce perfectly their
languages.

This was peculiarly the case with the Carians. For other nations had not
much intercourse with the Greeks, nor were disposed to adopt the Grecian
manner of life, nor to learn our language, with the exception of persons
who by accident and singly had associated with a few Greeks; but the
Carians were dispersed over the whole of Greece, as mercenary soldiers.
Then the barbarous pronunciation was frequently met with among them,
from their military expeditions into Greece; and afterwards it spread
much more, from the time that they occupied the islands together with
the Greeks: not even when driven thence into Asia, could they live
apart from Greeks, when the Ionians and Dorians arrived there.

Hence arose the expression, “to barbarize,” for we are accustomed to
apply this term to those whose pronunciation of the Greek language is
vicious, and not to those who pronounce it like the Carians.

We are then to understand the expressions, “barbarous speaking” and
“barbarous speakers,” of persons whose pronunciation of the Greek
language is faulty. The word “to barbarize” was formed after the word
“to Carize,” and transferred into the books which teach the Greek
language; thus also the word “to solœcize” was formed, derived either
from Soli or some other source.

29. Artemidorus says that the journey from Physcus, on the coast
opposite to Rhodes, towards Ephesus, as far as Lagina is 850 stadia;
thence to Alabanda 250 stadia; to Tralles 160. About halfway on the road
to Tralles the Mæander is crossed, and here are the boundaries of Caria.
The whole number of stadia from Physcus to the Mæander, along the road
to Ephesus, is 1180 stadia. Again, along the same road, from the Mæander
of Ionia to Tralles 80 stadia, to Magnesia 140 stadia, to Ephesus 120,
to Smyrna 320, to Phocæa and the boundaries of Ionia, less than 200
stadia; so that the length of Ionia in a straight line would be,
according to Artemidorus, a little more than 800 stadia.

But as there is a public frequented road by which all travellers pass on
their way from Ephesus to the east, Artemidorus thus describes it. [From
Ephesus] to Carura, the boundary of Caria towards Phrygia, through
Magnesia and Tralles, Nysa, Antioch, is a journey of 740 stadia. From
Carura, the first town in Phrygia, through Laodiceia, Apameia,
Metropolis, and Chelidoniæ,[180] to Holmi, the beginning of the
Paroreius, a country lying at the foot of the mountains, about 920
stadia; to Tyriæum,[181] the termination towards Lycaonia of the
Paroreius,[182] through Philomelium[183] is little more than 500 stadia.
Next is Lycaonia as far as Coropassus,[184] through Laodiceia in the
Catacecaumene, 840 stadia; from Coropassus [CAS. 662] in Lycaonia to
Garsaüra,[185] a small city of Cappadocia, situated on its borders, 120
stadia; thence to Mazaca,[186] the metropolis of the Cappadocians,
through Soandus and Sadacora, 680 stadia; thence to the Euphrates, as
far as Tomisa, a stronghold in Sophene, through Herphæ,[187] a small
town, 1440 stadia.

The places in a straight line with these, as far as India, are described
in the same manner by Artemidorus and Eratosthenes. Polybius says, that
with respect to those places we ought chiefly to depend upon
Artemidorus. He begins from Samosata in Commagene, which is situated at
the passage, and the Zeugma of the Euphrates, to Samosata across the
Taurus, from the mountains of Cappadocia about Tomisa, he says is a
distance of 450 stadia.



CHAPTER III.


1. After the part of the coast opposite[188] to Rhodes, the boundary of
which is Dædala, in sailing thence towards the east, we come to Lycia,
which extends to Pamphylia; next is Pamphylia, extending as far as
Cilicia Tracheia, which reaches as far as the Cilicians, situated about
the Bay of Issus. These are parts of the peninsula, the isthmus of which
we said was the road from Issus as far as Amisus,[189] or, according to
some authors, to Sinope.

The country beyond the Taurus consists of the narrow line of sea-coast
extending from Lycia to the places about Soli, the present Pompeiopolis.
Then the sea-coast near the Bay of Issus, beginning from Soli and
Tarsus, spreads out into plains.

The description of this coast will complete the account of the whole
peninsula. We shall then pass to the rest of Asia without the Taurus,
and lastly we shall describe Africa.

2. After Dædala of the Rhodians there is a mountain of Lycia, of the
same name, Dædala, and here the whole Lycian coast begins, and extends
1720 stadia. This maritime tract is rugged, and difficult to be
approached, but has very good harbours, and is inhabited by a people who
are not inclined to acts of violence. The country is similar in nature
to that of Pamphylia and Cilicia Tracheia. But the former used the
places of shelter for vessels for piratical purposes themselves, or
afforded to pirates a market for their plunder and stations for their
vessels.

At Side,[190] a city of Pamphylia, the Cilicians had places for building
ships. They sold their prisoners, whom they admitted were freemen, by
notice through the public crier.

But the Lycians continued to live as good citizens, and with so much
restraint upon themselves, that although the Pamphylians had succeeded
in obtaining the sovereignty of the sea as far as Italy, yet they were
never influenced by the desire of base gain, and persevered in
administering the affairs of the state according to the laws of the
Lycian body.

3. There are three and twenty cities in this body, which have votes.
They assemble from each city at a general congress, and select what city
they please for their place of meeting. Each of the largest cities
commands three votes, those of intermediate importance two, and the rest
one vote. They contribute in the same proportion to taxes and other
public charges. The six largest cities, according to Artemidorus, are
Xanthus,[191] Patara,[192] Pinara,[193] Olympus, Myra, Tlos,[194] which
is situated at the pass of the mountain leading to Cibyra.

At the congress a lyciarch is first elected, then the other officers of
the body. Public tribunals are also appointed for [CAS. 665] the
administration of justice. Formerly they deliberated about war and
peace, and alliances, but this is not now permitted, as these things are
under the control of the Romans. It is only done by their consent, or
when it may be for their own advantage.

Thus judges and magistrates are elected according to the proportion of
the number of votes belonging to each city.[195] It was the fortune of
these people, who lived under such an excellent government, to retain
their liberty under the Romans, and the laws and institutions of their
ancestors; to see also the entire extirpation of the pirates, first by
Servilius Isauricus, at the time that he demolished Isaura, and
afterwards by Pompey the Great, who burnt more than 1300 vessels, and
destroyed their haunts and retreats. Of the survivors in these contests
he transferred some to Soli, which he called Pompeiopolis; others to
Dyme, which had a deficient population, and is now occupied by a Roman
colony.

The poets, however, particularly the tragic poets, confound nations
together; for instance, Trojans, Mysians, and Lydians, whom they call
Phrygians, and give the name of Lycians to Carians.

4. After Dædala is a Lycian mountain, and near it is Telmessus,[196] a
small town of the Lycians, and Telmessis, a promontory with a harbour.
Eumenes took this place from the Romans in the war with Antiochus, but
after the dissolution of the kingdom of Pergamus, the Lycians recovered
it again.

5. Then follows Anticragus, a precipitous mountain, on which is
Carmylessus,[197] a fortress situated in a gorge; next is Mount Cragus,
with eight peaks,[198] and a city of the same name. The neighbourhood of
these mountains is the scene of the fable of the Chimæra; and at no
great distance is Chimæra, a sort of ravine, extending upwards from the
shore. Below the Cragus in the interior is Pinara, which is one of the
largest cities of Lycia. Here Pandarus is worshipped, of the same name
perhaps as the Trojan Pandarus;

   “thus the pale nightingale, daughter of Pandarus;”[199]

for this Pandarus, it is said, came from Lycia.

6. Next is the river Xanthus, formerly called Sirbis.[200] In sailing up
it in vessels which ply as tenders, to the distance of 10 stadia, we
come to the Letoum, and proceeding 60 stadia beyond the temple, we find
the city of the Xanthians, the largest in Lycia. After the Xanthus
follows Patara, which is also a large city with a harbour, and
containing a temple of Apollo. Its founder was Patarus. When Ptolemy
Philadelphus repaired it, he called it the Lycian Arsinoë, but the old
name prevailed.

7. Next is Myra, at the distance of 20 stadia from the sea, situated
upon a lofty hill; then the mouth of the river Limyrus, and on ascending
from it by land 20 stadia, we come to the small town Limyra. In the
intervening distance along the coast above mentioned are many small
islands and harbours. The most considerable of the islands is Cisthene,
on which is a city of the same name.[201] In the interior are the
strongholds Phellus, Antiphellus, and Chimæra, which I mentioned above.

8. Then follow the Sacred Promontory[202] and the Chelidoniæ, three
rocky islands, equal in size, and distant from each other about 5, and
from the land 6 stadia. One of them has an anchorage for vessels.
According to the opinion of many writers, the Taurus begins here,
because the summit is lofty, and extends from the Pisidian mountains
situated above Pamphylia, and because the islands lying in front exhibit
a [CAS. 666] remarkable figure in the sea, like a skirt of a mountain.
But in fact the mountainous chain is continued from the country opposite
Rhodes to the parts near Pisidia, and this range of mountains is called
Taurus.

The Chelidoniæ islands seem to be situated in a manner opposite to
Canopus,[203] and the passage across is said to be 4000 stadia.

From the Sacred Promontory to Olbia[204] there remain 367 stadia. In
this distance are Crambusa,[205] and Olympus[206] a large city, and a
mountain of the same name, which is called also Phœnicus;[207] then
follows Corycus, a tract of sea-coast.

9. Then follows Phaselis,[208] a considerable city, with three harbours
and a lake. Above it is the mountain Solyma[209] and Termessus,[210] a
Pisidic city, situated on the defiles, through which there is a pass
over the mountain to Milyas. Alexander demolished it, with the intention
of opening the defiles.

About Phaselis, near the sea, are narrow passes through which Alexander
conducted his army. There is a mountain called Climax. It overhangs the
sea of Pamphylia, leaving a narrow road along the coast, which in calm
weather is not covered with water, and travellers can pass along it, but
when the sea is rough, it is in a great measure hidden by the waves. The
pass over the mountains is circuitous and steep, but in fair weather
persons travel on the road along the shore. Alexander came there when
there was a storm, and trusting generally to fortune, set out before the
sea had receded, and the soldiers marched during the whole day up to the
middle of the body in water.

Phaselis also is a Lycian city, situated on the confines of Pamphylia.
It is not a part of the Lycian body, but is an independent city.

10. The poet distinguishes the Solymi from the Lycians, when he
despatches Bellerophon by the king of the Lycians to this second
adventure;

   “he encountered the brave Solymi;”[211]

other writers say that the Lycians were formerly called Solymi, and
afterwards Termilæ, from the colonists that accompanied Sarpedon from
Crete; and afterwards Lycians, from Lycus the son of Pandion, who, after
having been banished from his own country, was admitted by Sarpedon to a
share in the government; but their story does not agree with Homer. We
prefer the opinion of those who say that the poet called the people
Solymi who have now the name of Milyæ, and whom we have mentioned
before.



CHAPTER IV.


1. After Phaselis is Olbia; here Pamphylia begins. It is a large
fortress. It is followed by the Cataractes,[212] as it is called, a
river which descends violently from a lofty rock, with a great body of
water, like a winter torrent, so that the noise of it is heard at a
great distance.

Next is Attaleia,[213] a city, so called from its founder Attalus
Philadelphus, who also settled another colony at Corycus, a small city
near Attaleia, by introducing other inhabitants, and extending the
circuit of the walls.

It is said, that between Phaselis and Attaleia, Thebe and Lyrnessus[214]
are shown; for, according to Callisthenes, a part of the Trojan
Cilicians were driven from the plain of Thebe into Pamphylia.

2. Next is the river Cestrus;[215] on sailing up its stream 60 stadia we
find the city Perge,[216] and near it upon an elevated place, the temple
of the Pergæan Artemis, where a general festival is celebrated every
year.

Then at the distance of about 40 stadia from the sea is [Syllium],[217]
on an elevated site, and visible at Perge. Next is Capria, a lake of
considerable extent; then the river Eurymedon;[218] sailing up it to the
distance of 60 stadia, we come to Aspendus,[219] a well-peopled city,
founded by Argives. Above it is Petnelissus;[220] then another river,
and many small islands [CAS. 668] lying in front; then Side, a colony
of the Cymæans, where there is a temple of Minerva. Near it is the coast
of the Little Cibyratæ; then the river Melas,[221] and an anchorage for
vessels; then Ptolemais[222] a city; next the borders of Pamphylia, and
Coracesium,[223] where Cilicia Tracheia begins. The whole of the voyage
along the coast of Pamphylia is 640 stadia.

3. Herodotus says,[224] that the Pamphylians are descendants of the
people who accompanied Amphilochus and Calchas from Troy, a mixture of
various nations. The majority of them settled here, others were
dispersed over different countries. Callinus says that Calchas died at
Clarus, but that some of the people who, together with Mopsus, crossed
the Taurus, remained in Pamphylia, and that others were scattered in
Cilicia and Syria, and as far even as Phœnicia.



CHAPTER V.


1. Of Cilicia without the Taurus one part is called Cilicia Tracheia,
the rugged; the other, Cilicia Pedias, the flat or plain country.

The coast of the Tracheia is narrow, and either has no level ground or
it rarely occurs; besides this, the Taurus overhangs it, which is badly
inhabited as far even as the northern side, about Isaura and the
Homonadeis as far as Pisidia. This tract has the name of Tracheiotis,
and the inhabitants that of Tracheiotæ. The flat or plain country
extends from Soli and Tarsus as far as Issus, and the parts above, where
the Cappadocians are situated on the northern side of the Taurus. This
tract consists chiefly of fertile plains.

I have already spoken of the parts within the Taurus; I shall now
describe those without the Taurus, beginning with the Tracheiotæ.

2. The first place is Coracesium,[225] a fortress of the Cilicians,
situated upon an abrupt rock. Diodotus surnamed Tryphon used it as a
rendezvous at the time that he caused Syria to revolt from her kings,
and carried on war against them with various success. Antiochus, the son
of Demetrius, obliged him to shut himself up in one of the fortresses,
and there he killed himself.

Tryphon was the cause of originating among the Cilicians a piratical
confederacy. They were induced also to do this by the imbecility of the
kings who succeeded each other on the thrones of Syria and Cilicia. In
consequence of his introduction of political changes, others imitated
his example, and the dissensions among brothers exposed the country to
the attacks of invaders.

The exportation of slaves was the chief cause of inducing them to commit
criminal acts, for this traffic was attended with very great profit, and
the slaves were easily taken. Delos was at no great distance, a large
and rich mart, capable of receiving and transporting, when sold, the
same day, ten thousand slaves; so that hence arose a proverbial saying,

   “Merchant, come into port, discharge your freight—everything
   is sold.”

The Romans, having acquired wealth after the destruction of Carthage and
Corinth, employed great numbers of domestic slaves, and were the cause
of this traffic. The pirates, observing the facility with which slaves
could be procured, issued forth in numbers from all quarters, committing
robbery and dealing in slaves.

The kings of Cyprus and of Egypt, who were enemies of the Syrians,
favoured their marauding enterprises; the Rhodians were no less hostile
to the Syrians, and therefore afforded the latter no protection. The
pirates, therefore, under the pretence of trading in slaves, continued
without intermission their invasions and robbery.

The Romans paid little attention to the places situated without the
Taurus; they sent, however, Scipio Æmilianus, and afterwards some
others, to examine the people and the cities. They discovered that the
evils arose from negligence on the part of the sovereigns, but they were
reluctant to deprive the family of Seleucus Nicator of the succession,
in which he had been confirmed by themselves.

For the same reason the Parthians, who occupied the parts [CAS. 669]
beyond the Euphrates, became masters of the country; and lastly the
Armenians, who also gained possession of the country without the Taurus
as far as Phœnicia. They used their utmost to extirpate the power of the
kings and all their descendants, but surrendered the command of the sea
to the Cilicians.

The Romans were subsequently compelled to reduce the Cilicians, after
their aggrandizement, by war and expeditions, whose progress, however,
and advancement they had not obstructed; yet it would be improper to
accuse the Romans of neglect, because, being engaged with concerns
nearer at hand, they were unable to direct their attention to more
distant objects.

I thought proper to make these remarks in a short digression from my
subject.

3. Next to the Coracesium is the city Syedra;[226] then Hamaxia,[227] a
small town upon a hill, with a harbour, to which is brought down timber
for ship-building; the greatest part of it consists of cedar. This
country seems to produce this tree in abundance. It was on this account
that Antony assigned it to Cleopatra, as being capable of furnishing
materials for the construction of her fleet.

Then follows Laertes a fortress, situated upon the crest of a hill, of a
pap-like form; a port belongs to it; next, the city Selinus,[228] then
Cragus, a precipitous rock on the sea-coast; then Charadrus[229] a
fortress, which has a port (above it is the mountain Andriclus[230]) and
a rocky shore, called Platanistus, next Anemurium[231] a promontory,
where the continent approaches nearest to Cyprus, towards the promontory
Crommyum,[232] the passage across being 350 stadia.

From the boundaries of Pamphylia to Anemurium, the voyage along the
Cilician coast is 820 stadia; the remainder of it as far as Soli[233] is
about 500 stadia (1500?). On this coast, after Anemurium, the first city
is Nagidus, then Arsinoë,[234] with a small port; then a place called
Melania,[235] and Celenderis[236] a city, with a harbour.

Some writers,[237] among whom is Artemidorus, consider this place as
the commencement of Cilicia, and not Coracesium. He says, that from the
Pelusiac mouth to Orthosia are 3900 stadia, and to the river
Orontes[238] 1130 stadia; then to the gates of Cilicia 525 stadia, and
to the borders of Cilicia 1260 stadia.[239]

4. Next is Holmi,[240] formerly inhabited by the present Seleucians; but
when Seleucia on the Calycadnus was built, they removed there. On
doubling the coast, which forms a promontory called Sarpedon,[241] we
immediately come to the mouth of the Calycadnus.[242] Zephyrium[243] a
promontory is near the Calycadnus. The river may be ascended as far as
Seleucia, a city well peopled, and the manners of whose inhabitants are
very different from those of the people of Cilicia and Pamphylia.

In our time there flourished at that place remarkable persons of the
Peripatetic sect of philosophers, Athenæus and Xenarchus. The former was
engaged in the administration of the affairs of state in his own
country, and for some time espoused the party of the people; he
afterwards contracted a friendship with Murena, with whom he fled, and
with whom he was captured, on the discovery of the conspiracy against
Augustus Cæsar; but he established his innocence, and was set at liberty
by Cæsar. When he returned from Rome, he addressed the first persons who
saluted him, and made their inquiries, in the words of Euripides—

   “I come from the coverts of the dead, and the gates of
   darkness.”[244]

He survived his return but a short time, being killed by the fall,
during the night, of the house in which he lived.

Xenarchus, whose lectures I myself attended, did not long remain at
home, but taught philosophy at Alexandreia, Athens, and Rome. He enjoyed
the friendship of Areius, and afterwards of Augustus Cæsar; he lived to
old age, honoured and respected. Shortly before his death he lost his
sight, and died a natural death.

[CAS. 670] 5. After the Calycadnus, is the rock called Pœcile,[245],
which has steps, like those of a ladder, cut in the rock, on the road to
Seleucia. Then follows the promontory Anemurium,[246] of the same name
with the former, Crambusa an island, and then Corycus[247] a promontory,
above which, at the distance of 20 stadia, is the Corycian cave, where
grows the best saffron. It is a large valley of a circular form,
surrounded by a ridge of rock, of considerable height all round. Upon
descending into it, the bottom is irregular, and a great part of it
rocky, but abounding with shrubs of the evergreen and cultivated kind.
There are interspersed spots which produce the saffron. There is also a
cave in which rises a river of pure and transparent water. Immediately
at its source the river buries itself in the ground, and continues its
subterraneous course till it discharges itself into the sea. The name of
(Pikron Hydor) “bitter water” is given to it.

6. After Corycus, is the island Elæussa,[248] lying very near the
continent. Here Archelaus resided, and built a palace, after having
become master of the whole of Cilicia Tracheiotis, except Seleucia, as
Augustus had been before, and as at a still earlier period it was held
by Cleopatra. For as the country was well adapted by nature for robbery
both by sea and land, (by land, on account of the extent of the
mountains, and the nations situated beyond them, who occupy plains, and
large tracts of cultivated country easy to be overrun; by sea, on
account of the supply of timber for ship-building, the harbours,
fortresses, and places of retreat,) for all these reasons the Romans
thought it preferable that the country should be under the government of
kings, than be subject to Roman governors sent to administer justice,
but who would not always be on the spot, nor attended by an army. In
this manner Archelaus obtained possession of Cilicia Tracheia, in
addition to Cappadocia. Its boundaries between Soli and Elæussa are the
river Lamus,[249] and a village of the same name.[250]

7. At the extremity of the Taurus is Olympus a mountain,[251] the
piratical hold of Zenicetus, and a fortress of the same name. It
commands a view of the whole of Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia. When the
mountain was taken by (Servilius) Isauricus, Zenicetus burnt himself,
with all his household. To this robber belonged Corycus, Phaselis, and
many strongholds in Pamphylia, all of which were taken by (Servilius)
Isauricus.

8. Next to Lamus is Soli,[252] a considerable city, where the other
Cilicia, that about Issus, commences. It was founded by Achæans, and by
Rhodians from Lindus. Pompey the Great transferred to this city, which
had a scanty population, the survivors of the pirates, whom he thought
most entitled to protection and clemency, and changed its name to
Pompeiopolis.

Chrysippus the Stoic philosopher, the son of an inhabitant of Tarsus,
who left it to live at Soli; Philemon the comic poet; and Aratus, who
composed a poem called “the Phænomena,” were among the illustrious
natives of this place.

9. Next follows Zephyrium,[253] of the same name as that near
Calycadnus; then Anchiale, a little above the sea, built by
Sardanapalus, according to Aristobulus. (According to the same author)
the tomb of Sardanapalus is here, and a stone figure representing him
with the fingers of his right hand brought together as in the act of
snapping them, and the following inscription in Assyrian letters:
“SARDANAPALUS, THE SON OF ANACYNDARAXES, BUILT ANCHIALE AND TARSUS IN
ONE DAY. EAT, DRINK, BE MERRY; EVERYTHING ELSE IS NOT WORTH[4] THAT”—the
snapping of the fingers.

Chœrilus mentions this inscription, and the following lines are
everywhere known:

   “Meat and drink, wanton jests, and the delights of love, these
   I have enjoyed; but my great wealth I have left behind.”[254]

10. Above Anchiale is situated Cyinda a fortress, where the Macedonian
kings formerly kept their treasure. Eumenes, when he revolted from
Antigonus, took it away. Further above this place and Soli, is a
mountainous tract, where is situated Olbe a city, which has a temple of
Jupiter, founded by Ajax, son of Teucer. The priest of this temple was
master [CAS. 672] of the Tracheiotis. Subsequently many tyrants seized
upon the country, and it became the retreat of robbers. After their
extermination, the country was called, even to our times, the dominion
of Teucer; and the priesthood, the priesthood of Teucer; indeed, most of
the priests had the name of Teucer, or of Ajax. Aba, the daughter of
Xenophanes, one of the tyrants, entered into this family by marriage,
and obtained possession of the government. Her father had previously
administered it as guardian, but Antony and Cleopatra afterwards
conferred it upon Aba, as a favour, being ultimately prevailed upon to
do so by her entreaties and attentions. She was afterwards dispossessed,
but the government remained in the hands of the descendants of her
family.

Next to Anchiale are the mouths of the Cydnus[255] at the Rhegma, (the
Rent,) as it is called. It is a place like a lake, and has ancient
dockyards; here the Cydnus discharges itself, after flowing through the
middle of Tarsus. It rises in the Taurus, which overhangs the city. The
lake is a naval arsenal of Tarsus.

11. The whole of the sea-coast, beginning from the part opposite to
Rhodes, extends to this place in the direction from the western to the
eastern point of the equinoctial. It then turns towards the winter
solstice, as far as Issus, and thence immediately makes a bend to the
south to Phœnicia. The remainder towards the west terminates at the
pillars (of Hercules).[256]

The actual isthmus of the peninsula, which we have described, is that
which extends from Tarsus and the mouth of the Cydnus as far as Amisus,
for this is the shortest distance from Amisus to the boundaries of
Cilicia; from these to Tarsus are 120 stadia, and not more from Tarsus
to the mouth of the Cydnus. To Issus, and the sea near it, there is no
shorter road from Amisus than that leading through Tarsus, nor from
Tarsus to Issus is there any nearer than that leading to Cydnus; so
that it is clear, that, in reality, this is the isthmus. Yet it is
pretended that the isthmus extending as far as the Bay of Issus is the
true isthmus, on account of its presenting remarkable points.

Hence, not aiming at exactness, we say that the line drawn from the
country opposite to Rhodes, which we protracted as far as Cydnus, is the
same as that extending as far as Issus, and that the Taurus extends in a
straight direction with this line as far as India.

12. Tarsus is situated in a plain. It was founded by Argives, who
accompanied Triptolemus in his search after Io. The Cydnus flows through
the middle of it, close by the gymnasium of the young men. As the source
is not far distant, and the stream passing through a deep valley, then
flows immediately into the city, the water is cold and rapid in its
course; hence it is of advantage to men and beasts affected with
swellings of the sinews, fluxions, and gout.[257]

13. The inhabitants of this city apply to the study of philosophy and to
the whole encyclical compass of learning with so much ardour, that they
surpass Athens, Alexandreia, and every other place which can be named
where there are schools and lectures of philosophers.

It differs however so far from other places, that the studious are all
natives, and strangers are not inclined to resort thither. Even the
natives themselves do not remain, but travel abroad to complete their
studies, and having completed them reside in foreign countries. Few of
them return.

The contrary is the case in the other cities which I have mentioned,
except Alexandreia; for multitudes repair to them, and reside there with
pleasure; but you would observe that few of the natives travel abroad
from a love of learning, or show much zeal in the pursuit of it on the
spot. But both these things are to be seen at Alexandreia, a large
number of strangers is received, (into their schools,) and not a few of
their own countrymen are sent out to foreign countries (to study). They
have schools of all kinds, for instruction in the liberal arts. In other
respects Tarsus is well peopled, extremely powerful, and has the
character of being the capital.[258]

[CAS. 674] 14. The Stoic philosophers Antipater, Archedemus, and Nestor
were natives of Tarsus: and besides these, the two Athenodori, one of
whom, Cordylion, lived with Marcus Cato, and died at his house; the
other, the son of Sandon, called Cananites, from some village, was the
preceptor of Cæsar,[259] who conferred on him great honours. In his old
age he returned to his native country, where he dissolved the form of
government existing there, which was unjustly administered by various
persons, and among them by Boëthus, a bad poet and a bad citizen, who
had acquired great power by courting the favour of the people. Antony
contributed to increase his importance by having in the first instance
commended a poem which he had composed on the victory at Philippi; his
influence was still augmented by the facility which he possessed (and it
is very general among the inhabitants of Tarsus) of discoursing at great
length, and without preparation, upon any given subject. Antony also had
promised the people of Tarsus to establish a gymnasium; he appointed
Boëthus chief director of it, and intrusted to him the expenditure of
the funds. He was detected in secreting, among other things, even the
oil, and when charged with this offence by his accusers in the presence
of Antony, he deprecated his anger by this, among other remarks in his
speech, that as Homer had sung the praises of “Achilles, Agamemnon, and
Ulysses, so have I sung yours. I therefore ought not to be brought
before you on such a charge.” The accuser answered, “Homer did not steal
oil from Agamemnon[260] nor Achilles; but you have stolen it from the
gymnasium, and therefore you shall be punished.” Yet he contrived to
avert the displeasure of Antony by courteous offices, and continued to
plunder the city until the death of his protector.

Athenodorus found the city in this state, and for some time attempted to
control Boëthus and his accomplices by argument; but finding that they
continued to commit all kinds of injustice, he exerted the power given
to him by Cæsar, condemned them to banishment, and expelled them. They
had previously caused to be written upon the walls, “Action for the
young, counsel for the middle-aged, discharging wind for the old;” but
Athenodorus, accepting it as a jest, gave orders to inscribe by the side
of it, “Thunder for the old.” Some one, however, in contempt for his
good manners, having a lax state of body, bespattered the gate and wall
of his house as he passed by it at night. Athenodorus, in an assembly of
the people, accusing persons of being factiously disposed, said, “We may
perceive the sickly condition of the city, and its bad habit of body,
from many circumstances, but particularly from its discharges.”

Those men were Stoics, but Nestor, of our time, the tutor of Marcellus,
son of Octavia, the sister of Cæsar, was of the Academic sect. He was
also at the head of the government, having succeeded Athenodorus, and
continued to be honoured both by the Roman governors and by the
citizens.

15. Among the other philosophers,

   “Those whom I know, and could in order name,”[261]

were Plutiades and Diogenes, who went about from city to city,
instituting schools of philosophy as the opportunity occurred. Diogenes,
as if inspired by Apollo, composed and rehearsed poems, chiefly of the
tragic kind, upon any subject that was proposed. The grammarians of
Tarsus, whose writings we have, were Artemidorus and Diodorus. But the
best writer of tragedy, among those enumerated in “The Pleiad,” was
Dionysides. Rome is best able to inform us what number of learned men
this city has produced, for it is filled with persons from Tarsus and
Alexandreia.

Such then is Tarsus.

16. After the Cydnus follows the Pyramus,[262] which flows from
Cataonia. We have spoken of it before. Artemidorus says, that from
thence to Soli is a voyage in a straight line of 500 stadia. Near the
Pyramus is Mallus,[263] situated upon a height; it was founded by
Amphilochus, and Mopsus, the son of Apollo, and Mantus, about whom many
fables are related. I have mentioned them in speaking of Calchas, and of
the contest between Calchas and Mopsus respecting their skill in
divination. Some persons, as Sophocles, transfer the scene of this
contest to Sicily, which, after the custom of tragic poets, they call
Pamphylia, as they call Lycia, Caria, and [CAS. 676] Troy and Lydia,
Phrygia. Sophocles, among other writers, says that Calchas died there.
According to the fable, the contest did not relate to skill in
divination only, but also to sovereignty. For it is said, that Mopsus
and Amphilochus, on their return from Troy, founded Mallus; that
Amphilochus afterwards went to Argos, and being dissatisfied with the
state of affairs there, returned to Mallus, where, being excluded from a
share in the government, he engaged with Mopsus in single combat. Both
were killed, but their sepulchres are not in sight of each other. They
are shown at present at Magarsa, near the Pyramus.

Crates the grammarian was a native of this place, and Panætius is said
to have been his disciple.

17. Above this coast is situated the Aleïan plain, over which Philotas
conducted Alexander’s cavalry, he himself leading the phalanx from Soli
along the sea-coast and the territory of Mallus to Issus, against the
forces of Darius. It is said that Alexander performed sacrifices in
honour of Amphilochus, on account of their common affinity to Argos.
Hesiod says that Amphilochus was killed by Apollo at Soli; according to
others, at the Aleïan plain; and others again say, in Syria, upon his
quitting the Aleïan plain on account of the quarrel.

18. Mallus is followed by Ægææ, a small town[264] with a shelter for
vessels; then the Amanides Gates, (Gates of Amanus,[265]) with a shelter
for vessels. At these gates terminates the mountain Amanus,[266] which
extends from the Taurus, and lies above Cilicia towards the east. It was
successively in the possession of several tyrants, who had strongholds;
but, in our time, Tarcondimotus, who was a man of merit, became master
of all; for his good conduct and bravery, he received from the Romans
the title of King, and transmitted the succession to his posterity.

19. Next to Ægææ is Issus, a small town with a shelter for vessels, and
a river, the Pinarus.[267] At Issus the battle was fought between
Alexander and Darius. The bay is called the Issic Bay. The city
Rhosus[268] is situated upon it, as also the city Myriandrus,
Alexandreia,[269] Nicopolis, Mopsuestia,[270] and the Gates,[271] as
they are called, which are the boundary between Cilicia and Syria.

In Cilicia are the temple of the Sarpedonian Artemis and an oracle.
Persons possessed with divine inspiration deliver the oracles.

20. After Cilicia, the first Syrian city is Seleucia-in-Pieria;[272]
near it the river Orontes[273] empties itself. From Seleucia to Soli is
a voyage in a straight line of nearly 1000 stadia.

21. Since the Cilicians of the Troad, whom Homer mentions, are situated
at a great distance from the Cilicians without the Taurus, some writers
declare that the leaders of the latter colony were Cilicians of the
Troad, and point to Thebe and Lyrnessus in Pamphylia, places bearing the
same name as those in the Troad; other authors are of a contrary
opinion, and (considering the Cilicians of the Troad as descendants of
those from beyond the Taurus) point to an Aleïan plain (in support of
their hypothesis).

22. Having described the parts of the before-mentioned Chersonesus
without the Taurus, I must add these particulars.

Apollodorus, in his work on the catalogue of the ships mentioned in
Homer, relates, that all the allies of the Trojans, who came from Asia,
inhabited, according to the poet, the peninsula of which at its
narrowest part is the isthmus between the innermost recess of the bay at
Sinope and Issus. The exterior sides (of this peninsula), which is of a
triangular shape, are unequal. Of these, one extends from Cilicia to
Chelidoniæ, (islands,) another thence to the mouth of the Euxine, and
the third from the mouth of the Euxine to Sinope.

The assertion that the allies were only those who occupied the peninsula
may be proved to be erroneous by the same arguments by which we before
showed that those who lived within the Halys were not the only allies.
For the places about Pharnacia, where we said the Halizoni lived, are
situated without the Halys, and also without the isthmus, for they
[CAS. 677] are without the line drawn from Sinope to Issus;[274] and
not only without this line, but also without the true line of the
isthmus drawn from Amisus to Issus; for Apollodorus incorrectly
describes the isthmus and the line of its direction, substituting one
line for another (the line drawn from Sinope to Issus for the line drawn
from Amisus to Issus).

But the greatest absurdity is this, that after having said that the
peninsula was of a triangular shape, he speaks of three _exterior_
sides. For in speaking of _exterior_ sides, he seems to except the line
of the isthmus itself, considering it still a side, although not an
_exterior_ side, from its not being upon the sea. But if this line were
so shortened that the extremities of the (_exterior_) sides falling upon
Issus and Sinope nearly coincided, the peninsula might in that case be
said to be of a triangular shape; but as his own line (from Sinope to
Issus) is 3000 stadia in length, it would be ignorance, and not a
knowledge of chorography, to call such a four-sided figure a triangle.
Yet he published a work on Chorography, in the metre of comedy, (Iambic
metre,) entitled “The Circuit of the Earth.”

He is still liable to the same charge of ignorance, even if we should
suppose the isthmus to be contracted to its least dimensions, and follow
writers who erroneously estimate the distance at one-half of the sum,
namely 1500 stadia, to which it is reduced by Artemidorus; but even this
would not by any means reduce the thus contracted space to the figure of
a triangle.

Besides, Artemidorus has not correctly described the exterior sides; one
side, he says, extends from Issus to the Chelidoniæ islands, although
the whole Lycian coast, and the country opposite to Rhodes as far as
Physcus, lies in a straight line with, and is a continuation of it; the
continent then makes a bend at Physcus, and forms the commencement of
the second or western side, extending to the Propontis and Byzantium.

23. Ephorus had said that this peninsula was inhabited by sixteen
tribes, three of which were Grecian, and the rest barbarous, with the
exception of the mixed nations; he placed on the sea-coast Cilicians,
Pamphylians, Lycians, Bithynians, Paphlagonians, Mariandyni, Troes, and
Carians; and in the interior, Pisidians, Mysians, Chalybes, Phrygians,
and Milyæ.[275] Apollodorus, when discussing this position, says there
is a seventeenth tribe, the Galatians, who are more recent than the time
of Ephorus; that of the sixteen tribes mentioned, the Greeks were not
settled (in the peninsula) at the period of the Trojan war, and that
time has produced great intermixture and confusion among the barbarous
nations. Homer, he continues, recites in his Catalogue the Troes, and
those now called Paphlagonians, Mysians, Phrygians, Carians, Lycians,
Meionians, instead of Lydians and other unknown people, as Halizoni and
Caucones; nations besides not mentioned in the Catalogue but elsewhere,
as Ceteii, Solymi, the Cilicians from the plain of Thebe, and Leleges.
But the Pamphylians, Bithynians, Mariandyni, Pisidians, and Chalybes,
Milyæ, and Cappadocians are nowhere mentioned by the poet; some because
they did not then inhabit these places, and some because they were
surrounded by other tribes, as Idrieis and Termilæ by Carians, Doliones
and Bebryces by Phrygians.

24. But Apollodorus does not seem to have carefully examined the
statements of Ephorus, for he confounds and misrepresents the words of
Homer. He ought first to have inquired of Ephorus why he placed the
Chalybes within the peninsula, who were situated at a great distance
from Sinope, and Amisus towards the east. Those who describe the isthmus
of this peninsula to be on the line drawn from Issus to the Euxine, lay
down this line as a sort of meridian line, which some suppose to pass
through Sinope, others through Amisus; but no one through the Chalybes,
for such a line would be altogether an oblique line. For the meridian
passing through the Chalybes, drawn through the Lesser Armenia, and the
Euphrates, would comprise (on the east) the whole of Cappadocia,
Commagene, Mount Amanus, and the Bay of Issus. [CAS. 678] But if we
should grant (to Ephorus) that this oblique line is the direction of the
isthmus, most of these places, Cappadocia in particular, would be
included, and (the kingdom of) Pontus, properly so called, which is a
part of Cappadocia on the Euxine; so that if we were to admit the
Chalybes to be a part of the peninsula, with more reason we ought to
admit the Cataonians, the two nations of Cappadocians, and the
Lycaonians, whom even he himself has omitted. But why has he placed in
the interior the Chalybes, whom the poet, as we have shown, calls
Halizoni? It would have been better to divide them, and to place one
portion of them on the sea-coast, and another in the inland parts. The
same division ought to be made of the Cappadocians and Cilicians. But
Ephorus does not even mention the former, and speaks only of the
Cilicians on the sea-coast. The subjects, then, of Antipater of Derbe,
the Homonadeis, and many other tribes contiguous to the Pisidians,

   “men, who know not the sea, nor have ever eaten food seasoned
   with salt,”[276]

where are they to be placed? Nor does he say whether the Lydians and the
Meonians are two nations or the same nation, or whether they live
separately by themselves or are comprehended in another tribe. For it
was impossible for Ephorus to be ignorant of so celebrated a nation, and
does he not, by passing it over in silence, appear to omit a most
important fact?

25. But who are “the mixed nations”? For we cannot say that he either
named or omitted others, besides those already mentioned, whom we should
call mixed nations. Nor, indeed, should we say that they were a part of
those nations whom he has either mentioned or omitted. For if they were
a mixed people, still the majority constituted them either Greeks or
Barbarians. We know nothing of a third mixed people.

26. But how (according to Ephorus) are there three tribes of Greeks who
inhabit the peninsula? Is it because anciently the Athenians and Ionians
were the same people? In that case the Dorians and the Æolians should be
considered as the same nation, and then there would be (only) two tribes
(and not three, inhabiting the peninsula). But if, following modern
practice, we are to distinguish nations according to dialects, there
will be four nations, as there are four dialects. But this peninsula is
inhabited, especially if we adopt the division by Ephorus, not only by
Ionians, but also by Athenians, as we have shown in the account of each
particular place.

It was worth while to controvert the positions of Ephorus, Apollodorus
however disregards all this, and adds a seventeenth to the sixteen
nations, namely, the Galatians; although it is well to mention this, yet
it is not required in a discussion of what Ephorus relates or omits;
Apollodorus has assigned as the reason of the omission, that all these
nations settled in the peninsula subsequently to the time of Ephorus.

27. Passing then to Homer, Apollodorus is correct in saying that there
was a great intermixture and confusion among the barbarous nations, from
the Trojan war to the present time, on account of the changes which had
taken place; for some nations had an accession of others, some were
extinct or dispersed, or had coalesced together.

But he is mistaken in assigning two reasons why the poet does not
mention some nations, namely, either because the place was not then
occupied by the particular people, or because they were comprehended in
another tribe. Neither of these reasons could induce him to be silent
respecting Cappadocia or Cataonia, or Lycaonia itself, for we have
nothing of the kind in history relating to these countries. It is
ridiculous to be anxious to find excuses why Homer has omitted to speak
of Cappadocia [Cataonia] and Lycaonia, and not to inform us why Ephorus
omitted them, particularly as the proposed object of Apollodorus was to
examine and discuss the opinions of Ephorus; and to tell us why Homer
mentions Mæonians instead of Lydians, and also not to remark that
Ephorus has not omitted to mention either Lydians or Mæonians.[277]

28. Apollodorus remarks, that Homer mentions certain unknown nations,
and he is right in specifying Caucones, Solymi, Ceteii, Leleges, and the
Cilicians from the plain of Thebe; but the Halizones are a fiction of
his own, or rather of those who, not knowing who the Halizones were,
frequently altered the mode of writing the name, and invented the
existence of [CAS. 680] mines of silver and of many other mines, all of
which are abandoned.

With this vain intention they collected the stories related by the
Scepsian, (Demetrius,) and taken from Callisthenes and other writers,
who did not clear them from false notions respecting the Halizones; for
example, the wealth of Tantalus and of the Pelopidæ was derived, it is
said, from the mines about Phrygia and Sipylus; that of Cadmus from the
mines about Thrace and Mount Pangæum; that of Priam from the gold mines
at Astyra, near Abydos (of which at present there are small remains, yet
there is a large quantity of matter ejected, and the excavations are
proofs of former workings); that of Midas from the mines about Mount
Bermium; that of Gyges, Alyattes, and Crœsus, from the mines in Lydia
and the small deserted city between Atarneus and Pergamum, where are the
sites of exhausted mines.[278]

29. We may impute another fault to Apollodorus, that although he
frequently censures modern writers for introducing new readings at
variance with the meaning of Homer, yet in this instance he not only
neglects his own advice, but actually unites together places which are
not so represented (by Homer).

(For example), Xanthus the Lydian says, that after the Trojan times the
Phrygians came from Europe (into Asia) and the left (western) side of
the Euxine, and that their leader Scamandrius conducted them from the
Berecynti and Ascania. Apollodorus adds, that Homer mentions the same
Ascania as Xanthus,

   “Phorcys and the divine Ascanius led the Phrygians from the
   distant Ascania.”[279]

If this be so, the migration (from Europe to Asia) must be later than
the Trojan war; but in the Trojan war the auxiliaries mentioned by the
poet came from the opposite continent, from the Berecynti and Ascania.
Who then were the Phrygians,

   “who were then encamped on the banks of the Sangarius,”

when Priam says,

   “And I joined them with these troops as an auxiliary”?[280]

And how came Priam to send for the Phrygians from among the Berecynti,
between whom and himself no compact existed, and pass over the people
who were contiguous to him, and whose ally he formerly had been?

Apollodorus, after having spoken of the Phrygians in this manner,
introduces an account concerning the Mysians which contradicts this. He
says that there is a village of Mysia called Ascania, near a lake of the
same name,[281] out of which issues the river Ascanius, mentioned by
Euphorion:[282]

   “near the waters of the Mysian Ascanius;”

and by Alexander of Ætolia:

   “they who dwell on the stream of Ascanius, on the brink of the
   Ascanian lake, where lived Dolion, the son of Silenus and
   Melia.”

The district, he says, about Cyzicus, on the road to Miletopolis, is
called Dolionis and Mysia.

If this is the case, and if it is confirmed by existing places and by
the poets, what prevented Homer, when he mentioned this Ascania, from
mentioning the Ascania also of which Xanthus speaks?

I have already spoken of these places in the description of Mysia and
Phrygia, and shall here conclude the discussion.



CHAPTER VI.


1. It remains for me to describe the island Cyprus, which adjoins this
peninsula on the south. I have already said, that the sea comprised
between Egypt, Phœnice, Syria, and the remainder of the coast as far as
that opposite to Rhodes, consists, [CAS. 681] so to say, of the
Egyptian and Pamphylian seas and the sea along the Bay of Issus.

In this sea lies the island Cyprus, having its northern side approaching
to Cilicia Tracheia, and here also it approaches nearest to the
continent; on the east it is washed by the Bay of Issus, on the west by
the Pamphylian sea, and on the south by that of Egypt. The latter sea is
confluent on the west with the Libyan and Carpathian seas. On its
southern and eastern parts is Egypt, and the succeeding tract of coast
as far as Seleucia and Issus. On the north is Cyprus, and the Pamphylian
sea.

The Pamphylian sea is bounded on the north by the extremities of Cilicia
Tracheia, of Pamphylia, and of Lycia as far as the territory opposite to
Rhodes; on the west, by the island of Rhodes; on the east, by the part
of Cyprus near Paphos, and the Acamas; on the south, it unites with the
Egyptian sea.

2. The circumference of Cyprus is 3420 stadia, including the winding of
the bays. Its length from Cleides[283] to the Acamas,[284] to a
traveller on land proceeding from east to west, is 1400 stadia.

The Cleides are two small islands lying in front of Cyprus on the
eastern side, at the distance of 700 stadia from the Pyramus.[285]

The Acamas is a promontory with two paps, and upon it is a large forest.
It is situated at the western part of the island, but extends towards
the north, approaching very near Selinus in Cilicia Tracheia, for the
passage across is only 1000 stadia; to Side in Pamphylia the passage is
1600 stadia, and to the Chelidoniæ (islands) 1900 stadia.

The figure of the whole island is oblong, and in some places on the
sides, which define its breadth, there are isthmuses.

We shall describe the several parts of the island briefly, beginning
from the point nearest to the continent.

3. We have said before, that opposite to Anemyrium, a promontory of
Cilicia Tracheia, is the extremity of Cyprus, namely, the promontory of
Crommyon,[286] at the distance of 350 stadia.

From the cape, keeping the island on the right hand, and continent on
the left, the voyage to the Cleides in a straight line towards north and
east is a distance of 700 stadia.

In the interval is the city Lapathus,[287] with a harbour and dockyards;
it was founded by Laconians and Praxander. Opposite to it was Nagidus.
Then follows Aphrodisium;[288] here the island is narrow, for over the
mountains to Salamis[289] are 70 stadia. Next is the sea-beach of the
Achæans; here Teucer, the founder of Salamis in Cyprus, being it is said
banished by his father Telamon, first disembarked. Then follows the city
Carpasia,[290] with a harbour. It is situated opposite to the promontory
Sarpedon.[291] From Carpasia there is a transit across the isthmus of 30
stadia to the Carpasian islands and the southern sea; next are a
promontory and a mountain. The name of the promontory is Olympus, and
upon it is a temple of Venus Acræa, not to be approached nor seen by
women.

Near and in front lie the Cleides, and many other islands; next are the
Carpasian islands, and after these Salamis, the birth-place of Aristus
the historian; then Arsinoë, a city with a harbour; next Leucolla,
another harbour; then the promontory Pedalium, above which is a hill,
rugged, lofty, and table-shaped, sacred to Venus; to this hill from
Cleides are 680 stadia. Then to Citium[292] the navigation along the
coast is for the greater part difficult and among bays. Citium has a
close harbour. It is the birth-place of Zeno, the chief of the Stoic
sect, and of Apollonius the physician. Thence to Berytus are 1500
stadia. Next is the city Amathus,[293] and between Citium and Berytus, a
small city called Palæa, and a pap-shaped mountain, Olympus; then
follows Curias,[294] a promontory of a peninsular form, to which from
Throni[295] are 700 stadia; then the city Curium,[296] with a harbour,
founded by Argives.

Here we may observe the negligence of the author, whether Hedylus, or
whoever he was, of the elegiac lines which begin,

   “We hinds, sacred to Phœbus, hither came in our swift course;
   we traversed the broad sea, to avoid the arrows of our
   pursuers.”

He says, that the hinds ran down from the Corycian heights, [CAS. 683]
and swam across from the Cilician coast to the beach near Curias, and
adds,

   “That it was a cause of vast surprise to men to think how we
   scoured the trackless waves, aided by the vernal Zephyrs.”

For it is possible (by doubling the cape) to sail round from Corycus to
the beach of Curias, but not with the assistance of the west wind, nor
by keeping the island on the right, but on the left hand; and there is
no (direct) passage across.

At Curium is the commencement of the voyage towards the west in the
direction of Rhodes; then immediately follows a promontory, whence those
who touch with their hands the altar of Apollo are precipitated. Next
are Treta,[297] Boosura,[298] and Palæpaphus, situated about 10 stadia
from the sea, with a harbour and an ancient temple of the Paphian Venus;
then follows Zephyria,[299] a promontory with an anchorage, and another
Arsinoë, which also has an anchorage, a temple, and a grove. At a little
distance from the sea is Hierocepis.[300] Next is Paphos, founded by
Agapenor, with a harbour and temples, which are fine buildings. It is
distant from Palæpaphus 60 stadia by land. Along this road the annual
sacred processions are conducted, when a great concourse both of men and
women resort thither from other cities. Some writers say, that from
Paphos to Alexandreia are 3600 stadia. Next after Paphos is the Acamas;
then after the Acamas the voyage is easterly to Arsinoë a city, and to
the grove of Jupiter; then Soli[301] a city, where there is a harbour, a
river, and a temple of Venus and Isis. It was founded by Phalerus and
Acamas, who were Athenians. The inhabitants are called Solii. Stasanor,
one of the companions of Alexander, was a native of Soli, and was
honoured with a chief command. Above Soli in the interior is Limenia a
city, then follows the promontory of Crommyon.

4. But why should we be surprised at poets, and those particularly who
study modes of expression only, when we compare them with Damastes? The
latter gives the length of the island from north to south, from
Hierocepia, as he says, to Cleides.

Nor does even Eratosthenes give it exactly. For, when he censures
Damastes, he says that Hierocepia is not on the north, but on the south.
Yet neither is it on the south, but the west, since it lies on the
western side, where are situated Paphos and Acamas.

Such then is the position of Cyprus.

5. It is not inferior in fertility to any one of the islands, for it
produces good wine and oil, and sufficient corn to supply the wants of
the inhabitants. At Tamassus there are abundant mines of copper, in
which the calcanthus is found, and rust of copper, useful for its
medicinal properties.

Eratosthenes says, that anciently the plains abounded with timber, and
were covered with forests, which prevented cultivation; the mines were
of some service towards clearing the surface, for trees were cut down to
smelt the copper and silver. Besides this, timber was required for the
construction of fleets, as the sea was now navigated with security and
by a large naval force; but when even these means were insufficient to
check the growth of timber in the forests, permission was given to such
as were able and inclined, to cut down the trees and to hold the land
thus cleared as their own property, free from all payments.

6. Formerly the Cyprian cities were governed by tyrants, but from the
time that the Ptolemaïc kings were masters of Egypt, Cyprus also came
into their power, the Romans frequently affording them assistance. But
when the last Ptolemy that was king, brother of the father of Cleopatra,
the queen of Egypt in our time, had conducted himself in a disorderly
manner, and was ungrateful to his benefactors, he was deposed, and the
Romans took possession of the island, which became a Prætorian province
by itself.

The chief author of the deposition of the king was Pub. Claudius
Pulcher, who having fallen into the hands of the Cilician pirates, at
that time at the height of their power, and a ransom being demanded of
him, despatched a message to the king, entreating him to send it for his
release. The king sent a ransom, but of so small an amount, that the
pirates disdained to accept it, and returned it, but they dismissed
Pulcher without any payment. After his escape, he remembered what he
owed to both parties; and when he became tribune of the people, he had
sufficient influence to have Marcus [CAS. 684] Cato sent to deprive the
king of the possession of Cyprus. The latter put himself to death before
the arrival of Cato, who, coming soon afterwards, took possession of
Cyprus, sold the king’s property, and conveyed the money to the public
treasury of the Romans.

From this time the island became, as it is at present, a Prætorian
province. During a short intervening period Antony had given it to
Cleopatra and her sister Arsinoë, but upon his death all his
arrangements were annulled.



BOOK XV.

SUMMARY.


   The Fifteenth Book contains India and Persia.



CHAPTER I.


1. The parts of Asia which remain to be described are those without the
Taurus, except Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Lycia; extending from India to
the Nile, and situated between the Taurus and the exterior Southern
Sea.[302]

Next to Asia is Africa, which I shall describe hereafter. At present I
shall begin from India, the first and the largest country situated
towards the east.

2. The reader must receive the account of this country with indulgence,
for it lies at a very great distance, and few persons of our nation have
seen it; those also who have visited it have seen only some portions of
it; the greater part of what they relate is from report, and even what
they saw, they became acquainted with during their passage through the
country with an army, and in great haste. For this reason they do not
agree in their accounts of the same things, although they write about
them as if they had examined them with the greatest care and attention.
Some of these writers were fellow-soldiers and fellow-travellers, as
those who belonged to the army which, under the command of Alexander,
conquered Asia; yet they frequently contradict each other. If, then,
they differ so much respecting things which they had seen, what must we
think of what they relate from report?

3. Nor do the writers who, many ages since Alexander’s time, have given
an account of these countries, nor even those who at present make
voyages thither, afford any precise information.

Apollodorus, for instance, author of the Parthian History, when he
mentions the Greeks who occasioned the revolt of Bactriana from the
Syrian kings, who were the successors of [CAS. 686] Seleucus Nicator,
says, that when they became powerful they invaded India. He adds no
discoveries to what was previously known, and even asserts, in
contradiction to others, that the Bactrians had subjected to their
dominion a larger portion of India than the Macedonians; for Eucratidas
(one of these kings) had a thousand cities subject to his authority. But
other writers affirm that the Macedonians conquered nine nations
situated between the Hydaspes[303] and the Hypanis,[304] and obtained
possession of five hundred cities, not one of which was less than Cos
Meropis,[305] and that Alexander, after having conquered all this
country, delivered it up to Porus.

4. Very few of the merchants who now sail from Egypt by the Nile and the
Arabian Gulf to India have proceeded as far as the Ganges; and, being
ignorant persons, were not qualified to give an account of places they
have visited. From one place in India, and from one king, namely,
Pandion, or, according to others,[306] Porus, presents and embassies
were sent to Augustus Cæsar. With the ambassadors came the Indian
Gymno-Sophist, who committed himself to the flames at Athens,[307] like
Calanus, who exhibited the same spectacle in the presence of Alexander.

5. If, then, we set aside these stories, and direct our attention to
accounts of the country prior to the expedition of Alexander, we shall
find them still more obscure. It is probable that Alexander, elated by
his extraordinary good fortune, believed these accounts.

According to Nearchus, Alexander was ambitious of conducting his army
through Gedrosia,[308] when he heard that Semiramis and Cyrus had
undertaken expeditions against India (through this country), although
both had abandoned the enterprise, the former escaping with twenty, and
Cyrus with seven men only. For he considered that it would be a glorious
achievement for him to lead a conquering army safe through the same
nations and countries where Semiramis and Cyrus had suffered such
disasters. Alexander, therefore, believed these stories.

6. But how can we place any just confidence in the accounts of India
derived from such expeditions as those of Cyrus and Semiramis?
Megasthenes concurs in this opinion; he advises persons not to credit
the ancient histories of India, for, except the expeditions of Hercules,
of Bacchus, and the later invasion of Alexander, no army was ever sent
out of their country by the Indians, nor did any foreign enemy ever
invade or conquer it. Sesostris the Egyptian (he says), and Tearco the
Ethiopian, advanced as far as Europe; and Nabocodrosor, who was more
celebrated among the Chaldæans than Hercules among the Greeks,
penetrated even as far as the Pillars,[309] which Tearco also reached;
Sesostris conducted an army from Iberia to Thrace and Pontus;
Idanthyrsus the Scythian overran Asia as far as Egypt; but not one of
these persons proceeded as far as India, and Semiramis died before her
intended enterprise was undertaken. The Persians had sent for the
Hydraces[310] from India, a body of mercenary troops; but they did not
lead an army into that country, and only approached it when Cyrus was
marching against the Massagetæ.

7. Megasthenes, and a few others, think the stories respecting Hercules
and Bacchus to be credible, but the majority of writers, among whom is
Eratosthenes, regard them as incredible and fabulous, like the Grecian
stories. Dionysus, in the Bacchæ of Euripides, makes this boasting
speech:

[CAS. 687] “But now from Lydia’s field, With gold abounding, from the
Phrygian realm And that of Persia scorch’d by torrid suns, Pressing
through Bactrian gates, the frozen land Of Media, and through Araby the
Blest, With Asia’s wide extended continent——”[311]

In Sophocles, also, a person is introduced speaking the praises of
Nysa,[312] as being a mountain sacred to Bacchus:

   “whence I beheld the famed Nysa, the resort of the
   Bacchanalian bands, which the horned Iacchus makes his most
   pleasant and beloved retreat, where no bird’s clang is heard,”

and so on. [He is called also Merotraphes.][313]

Homer also mentions Lycurgus the Edonian in these words,

   “who formerly pursued the nurses of the infuriate Bacchus
   along the sacred mountain Nysa.”[314]

So much respecting Bacchus. But with regard to Hercules, some persons
say, that he penetrated to the opposite extremities on the west only,
while others maintain that he also advanced to those of the east.

8. From such stories as those related above, they gave the name of
Nysæans to some imaginary nation, and called their city Nysa, founded by
Bacchus; a mountain above the city they called Meron, alleging as a
reason for imposing these names that the ivy and vine grow there,
although the latter does not perfect its fruit; for the bunches of
grapes, in consequence of excessive rains, drop off before they arrive
at maturity.

They say, also, that the Sydracæ (Oxydracæ) are descendants of Bacchus,
because the vine grows in their country, and because their kings display
great pomp in setting out on their warlike expeditions, after the
Bacchic manner; whenever they appear in public, it is with beating of
drums, and are dressed in flowered robes, which is the common custom
among the other Indians.

When Alexander took, on the first assault, Aornos,[315] a fortress on a
rock, the foot of which is washed by the Indus near its source, his
flatterers exaggerated this act, and said that Hercules thrice assailed
this rock and was thrice repulsed.

They pretended that the Sibæ[316] were descended from the people who
accompanied Hercules in his expedition, and that they retained badges of
their descent; that they wore skins like Hercules, and carried clubs,
and branded with the mark of a club their oxen and mules. They confirm
this fable with stories about Caucasus[317] and Prometheus, for they
transferred hither from Pontus these tales, on the slight pretence that
they had seen a sacred cave among the Paropamisadæ.[318] This they
alleged was the prison of Prometheus, that Hercules came hither to
release Prometheus, and that this mountain was the Caucasus, to which
the Greeks represent Prometheus as having been bound.

9. That these are the inventions of the flatterers of Alexander is
evident, first, because the writers do not agree with one another, some
of whom speak of these things; others make no mention of them whatever.
For it is not probable, that actions so illustrious, and calculated to
foster pride and vanity, should be unknown, or if known, that they
should not be thought worthy of record, especially by writers of the
greatest credit.

Besides, the intervening people, through whose country the armies of
Bacchus and Hercules must have marched in their [CAS. 688] way to
India, do not exhibit any proofs of their passage through the country.
The kind of dress, too, of Hercules is much more recent than the
memorials of Troy, an invention of those who composed the Heracleia (or
exploits of Hercules,) whether it were Peisander or some one else who
composed it. But the ancient wooden statues do not represent Hercules in
that attire.

10. Under such circumstances, therefore, we must receive everything that
approaches nearest to probability. I have already discussed this subject
to the extent of my ability at the beginning of this work;[319] I shall
now assume those opinions as clearly proved, and shall add whatever may
seem to be required for the sake of perspicuity.

It appeared from the former discussion, that in the summary given by
Eratosthenes, in the third book of his Geography, is contained the most
credible account of the country considered as India at the time of its
invasion by Alexander.

At that period the Indus was the boundary of India and of Ariana,[320]
situated towards the west, and in the possession of the Persians, for
afterwards the Indians occupied a larger portion of Ariana, which they
had received from the Macedonians.

The account of Eratosthenes is as follows:—

11. The boundaries of India, on the north, from Ariana to the Eastern
Sea,[321] are the extremities of Taurus, to the several parts of which
the natives give, besides others, the names of Paropamisus, Emodus, and
Imaus,[322] but the Macedonians call them Caucasus; on the west, the
river Indus; the southern and eastern sides, which are much larger than
the others, project towards the Atlantic Sea, and the figure of the
country becomes rhomboïdal,[323] each of the greater sides exceeding
the opposite by 3000 stadia; and this is the extent of the extremity,
common to the eastern and southern coast, and which projects beyond the
rest of that coast equally on the east and south.

The western side, from the Caucasian mountains to the Southern Sea, is
estimated at 13,000 stadia, along the river Indus to its mouth;
wherefore the eastern side opposite, with the addition of the 3000
stadia of the promontory, will be 16,000 stadia in extent. This is both
the smallest and greatest breadth of India.[324] The length is reckoned
from west to east. The part of this extending (from the Indus) as far as
Palibothra[325] we may describe more confidently; for it has been
measured by Schœni,[326] and is a royal road of 10,000 stadia. The
extent of the parts beyond depends upon conjecture derived from the
ascent of vessels from the sea by the Ganges to Palibothra. This may be
estimated at 6000 stadia.

The whole, on the shortest computation, will amount to 16,000 stadia,
according to Eratosthenes, who says that he took it from the register of
the Stathmi (or the several stages from place to place),[327] which was
received as authentic, and Megasthenes agrees with him. But Patrocles
says, that the sum of the whole is less by 1000 stadia. If again we add
to this [CAS. 689] distance the extent of the extremity which advances
far towards the east, the greatest length of India will be 3000 stadia;
this length is reckoned from the mouths of the river Indus along the
coast, in a line with the mouths to the above-mentioned extremity and
its eastern limits. Here the people called Coniaci[328] live.

12. From what has been said, we may perceive how the opinions of the
other writers differ from one another. Ctesias says that India is not
less than the rest of Asia; Onesicritus regards it as the third part of
the habitable world; Nearchus says that it is a march of four months
through the plain only. The computations of Megasthenes and Deïmachus
are more moderate, for they estimate the distance from the Southern Sea
to Caucasus[329] at above 20,000 stadia. Deïmachus says that in some
places it exceeds 30,000 stadia.

We have replied to these writers in the early part of this work.[330] At
present it is sufficient to say that these opinions are in favour of the
writers who, in describing India, solicit indulgence if they do not
advance anything with confidence.

13. The whole of India is watered by rivers, some of which empty
themselves into the two largest, the Indus and the Ganges; others
discharge themselves into the sea by their own mouths. But all of them
have their sources in the Caucasus. At their commencement their course
is towards the south; some of them continue to flow in the same
direction, particularly those which unite with the Indus; others turn to
the east, as the Ganges. This, the largest of the Indian rivers,
descends from the mountainous country, and when it reaches the plains,
turns to the east, then flowing past Palibothra, a very large city,
proceeds onwards to the sea in that quarter, and discharges its waters
by a single mouth. The Indus falls into the Southern Sea, and empties
itself by two mouths, encompassing the country called Patalene, which
resembles the Delta of Egypt.

By the exhalation of vapours from such vast rivers, and by the Etesian
winds, India, as Eratosthenes affirms, is watered by summer rains, and
the plains are overflowed. During the rainy season flax,[331] millet,
sesamum, rice, and bosmorum[332] are sowed; and in the winter season,
wheat, barley, pulse, and other esculent fruits of the earth with which
we are not acquainted. Nearly the same animals are bred in India as in
Ethiopia and Egypt, and the rivers of India produce all the animals of
those countries, except the hippopotamus, although Onesicritus asserts
that even this animal is found in them.

The inhabitants of the south resemble the Ethiopians in colour, but
their countenances and hair are like those of other people. Their hair
does not curl, on account of the humidity of the atmosphere. The
inhabitants of the north resemble the Egyptians.

14. Taprobane[333] is said to be an island, lying out at sea, distant
from the most southerly parts of India, which are opposite the Coniaci,
seven days’[334] sail towards the south. Its length is about 8000 stadia
in the direction of Ethiopia.[335] It produces elephants.

This is the account of Eratosthenes. The accounts of other writers, in
addition to this, whenever they convey exact information, will
contribute to form the description[336] (of India).

15. Onesicritus, for example, says of Taprobane, that its magnitude is
5000 stadia, without distinction of length or breadth, and that it is
distant twenty days’ sail from the continent, but that it was a voyage
performed with difficulty and danger by vessels with sails ill
constructed, and built with prows at each end, but without holds and
keels;[337] that there are other islands between this and India, but
that Taprobane lies farthest to the south; that there are found in the
sea, about the island, animals of the cetaceous kind, in form like oxen,
horses, and other land-animals.

16. Nearchus, speaking of the accretion of earth formed [CAS. 691] by
the rivers, adduces these instances. The plains of Hermes, Caÿster,
Mæander, and Caïcus have these names, because they have been formed by
the soil which has been carried over the plains by the rivers; or rather
they were produced by the fine and soft soil brought down from the
mountains; whence the plains are, as it were, the offspring of the
rivers, and it is rightly said, that the plains belong to the rivers.
What is said by Herodotus[338] of the Nile, and of the land about it,
may be applied to this country, namely, that it is the gift of the Nile.
Hence Nearchus thinks that the Nile had properly the synonym of Egypt.

17. Aristobulus, however, says, that rain and snow fall only on the
mountains and the country immediately below them, and that the plains
experience neither one nor the other, but are overflowed only by the
rise of the waters of the rivers; that the mountains are covered with
snow in the winter; that the rains set in at the commencement of spring,
and continue to increase; that at the time of the blowing of the Etesian
winds they pour down impetuously, without intermission, night and day
till the rising of Arcturus,[339] and that the rivers, filled by the
melting of the snow and by the rains, irrigate the flat grounds.

These things, he says, were observed by himself and by others on their
journey into India from the Paropamisadæ. This was after the setting of
the Pleiades,[340] and during their stay in the mountainous country in
the territory of the Hypasii, and in that of Assacanus during the
winter. At the beginning of spring they descended into the plains to a
large city called Taxila,[341] thence they proceeded to the Hydaspes and
the country of Porus. During the winter they saw no rain, but only snow.
The first rain which fell was at Taxila. After their descent to the
Hydaspes and the conquest of Porus, their progress was eastwards to the
Hypanis, and thence again to the Hydaspes. At this time it rained
continually, and particularly during the blowing of the Etesian winds,
but at the rising of Arcturus the rains ceased. They remained at the
Hydaspes while the ships were constructing, and began their voyage not
many days before the setting of the Pleiades, and were occupied during
the whole autumn, winter, and the ensuing spring and summer, in sailing
down the river, and arrived at Patalene[342] about the rising of the
Dog-Star;[343] during the passage down the river, which lasted ten
months, they did not experience rain at any place, not even when the
Etesian winds were at their height, when the rivers were full and the
plains overflowed; the sea could not be navigated on account of the
blowing of contrary winds, but no land breezes succeeded.

18. Nearchus gives the same account, but does not agree with Aristobulus
respecting the rains in summer, but says that the plains are watered by
rain in the summer, and that they are without rain in winter. Both
writers, however, speak of the rise of the rivers. Nearchus says, that
the men encamped upon the Acesines[344] were obliged to change their
situation for another more elevated, and that this was at the time of
the rise of the river, and of the summer solstice.

Aristobulus gives even the measure of the height to which the river
rises, namely, forty cubits, of which twenty would fill the channel
beyond its previous depth up to the margin, and the other twenty are the
measure of the water when it overflows the plains.

They agree also in saying that the cities placed upon mounds become
islands, as in Egypt and Ethiopia, and that the inundation ceases after
the rising of Arcturus, when the waters recede. They add, that the
ground when half dried is sowed, after having been prepared by the
commonest labourer, yet the plant comes to perfection, and the produce
is good. The rice, according to Aristobulus, stands in water in an
enclosure. It is sowed in beds. The plant is four cubits in height, with
many ears, and yields a large produce. The harvest is about the time of
the setting of the Pleiades, and the grain is beaten out like barley. It
grows in Bactriana, Babylonia, Susis, and in the Lower Syria. Megillus
says that it is sowed before the rains, but does not require irrigation
or transplantation, being supplied with water from tanks.

The bosmorum, according to Onesicritus, is a kind of corn smaller than
wheat, and grows in places situated between [CAS. 692] rivers. After it
is threshed out, it is roasted; the threshers being previously bound by
an oath not to carry it away unroasted from the threshing floor; a
precaution to prevent the exportation of the seed.

19. Aristobulus, when comparing the circumstances in which this country
resembles, and those in which it differs from, Egypt and Ethiopia, and
observing that the swelling of the Nile is occasioned by rains in the
south, and of the Indian rivers by rains from the north, inquires why
the intermediate places have no rain; for it does not rain in the
Thebaïs as far as Syene, nor at the places near Meroë, nor in the parts
of India from Patalene to the Hydaspes. But the country situated above
these parts,[345] in which both rain and snow occur, is cultivated by
the husbandman in the same manner as the country without India; for the
rain and the snow supply the ground with moisture.

It is probable from what he relates that the country is subject to
shocks of earthquakes, that the ground is loose and hollow by excess of
moisture, and easily splits into fissures, whence even the course of
rivers is altered.

He says that when he was despatched upon some business into the country,
he saw a tract of land deserted, which contained more than a thousand
cities with their dependent villages; the Indus, having left its proper
channel, was diverted into another, on the left hand, much deeper, and
precipitated itself into it like a cataract, so that it no longer
watered the country by the (usual) inundation on the right hand, from
which it had receded, and this was elevated above the level, not only of
the new channel of the river, but above that of the (new) inundation.

20. The account of Onesicritus confirms the facts of the rising of the
rivers and of the absence of land breezes. He says that the sea-shore is
swampy, particularly near the mouths of rivers, on account of the mud,
tides, and the force of the winds blowing from the sea.

Megasthenes also indicates the fertility of India by the circumstance of
the soil producing fruits and grain twice a year. Eratosthenes relates
the same facts, for he speaks of a winter and a summer sowing, and of
the rain at the same seasons. For there is no year, according to him,
which is without rain at both those periods, whence ensues great
abundance, the ground never failing to bear crops.

An abundance of fruit is produced by trees; and the roots of plants,
particularly of large reeds, possess a sweetness, which they have by
nature and by coction; for the water, both from rains and rivers, is
warmed by the sun’s rays. The meaning of Eratosthenes seems to be this,
that what among other nations is called the ripening of fruits and
juices, is called among these _coction_, and which contributes as much
to produce an agreeable flavour as the coction by fire. To this is
attributed the flexibility of the branches of trees, from which wheels
of carriages are made, and to the same cause is imputed the growth upon
some trees of wool.[346] Nearchus says that their fine clothes were made
of this wool, and that the Macedonians used it for mattresses and the
stuffing of saddles. The Serica[347] also are of a similar kind, and are
made of dry byssus, which is obtained from some sort of bark of plants.
He says that reeds[348] yield honey, although there are no bees, and
that there is a tree from the fruit of which honey is procured, but that
the fruit eaten fresh causes intoxication.

21. India produces many singular trees. There is one whose branches
incline downwards, and whose leaves are not less in size than a shield.
Onesicritus, describing minutely the country of Musicanus, which he says
is the most southerly part[349] of India, relates, that there are some
large trees the branches of which extend to the length even of twelve
cubits. They then grow downwards, as though bent (by force), till they
touch the earth, where they penetrate and take root like layers. They
next shoot upwards and form a trunk. They again grow as we have
described, bending downwards, and implanting one layer after another,
and in the above order, so that one tree forms a long shady roof, like a
tent, supported by many pillars. In speaking of the size of the trees,
he says their trunks could scarcely be clasped by five men.[350]

Aristobulus also, where he mentions the Acesines, and its confluence
with the Hyarotis, speaks of trees with their boughs bent downwards and
of a size that fifty, but, according [CAS. 694] to Onesicritus, four
hundred horsemen might take shelter at mid-day beneath the shade of a
single tree.

Aristobulus mentions another tree, not large, bearing great pods, like
the bean, ten fingers in length, full of honey,[351] and says that those
who eat it do not easily escape with life. But the accounts of all these
writers about the size of the trees have been exceeded by those who
assert that there has been seen, beyond the Hyarotis,[352] a tree which
casts a shade at noon of five stadia.

Aristobulus says of the wool-bearing trees, that the flower pod contains
a kernel, which is taken out, and the remainder is combed like wool.

22. In the country of Musicanus there grows, he says, spontaneously
grain resembling wheat, and a vine that produces wine, whereas other
authors affirm that there is no wine in India. Hence, according to
Anacharsis, they had no pipes, nor any musical instruments, except
cymbals, drums, and crotala, which were used by jugglers.

Both Aristobulus and other writers relate that India produces many
medicinal plants and roots, both of a salutary and noxious quality, and
plants yielding a variety of colours. He adds, that, by a law, any
person discovering a deadly substance is punished with death unless he
also discover an antidote; in case he discovers an antidote, he is
rewarded by the king.

Southern India, like Arabia and Ethiopia, produces cinnamon, nard, and
other aromatics. It resembles these countries as regards the effect of
the sun’s rays, but it surpasses them in having a copious supply of
water, whence the atmosphere is humid, and on this account more
conducive to fertility and fecundity; and this applies to the earth and
to the water, hence those animals which inhabit both one and the other
are of a larger size than are found in other countries. The Nile
contributes to fecundity more than other rivers, and among other animals
of large bulk, produces the amphibious kind. The Egyptian women also
sometimes have four children at a birth, and Aristotle says that one
woman had seven children at one birth.[353] He calls the Nile most
fecundating and nutritive, on account of the moderate coction effected
by the sun’s rays, which leave behind the nutritious part of substances,
and evaporate that which is superfluous.

23. It is perhaps owing to this cause that the water of the Nile boils,
as he says, with one half of the heat which other water requires. In
proportion however, he says, as the water of the Nile traverses in a
straight line, a long and narrow tract of country, passing through a
variety of climates and of atmosphere, while the Indian rivers are
poured forth into wider and more extensive plains, their course being
delayed a long time in the same climate, in the same degree the waters
of India are more nutritious than those of the Nile; they produce larger
animals of the cetaceous kind, and in greater number (than the Nile),
and the water which descends from the clouds has already undergone the
process of coction.

24. This would not be admitted by the followers of Aristobulus, who say
that the plains are not watered by rain. Onesicritus, however, thinks
that rain-water is the cause of the peculiar properties of animals, and
alleges in proof, that the colour of foreign herds which drink of it is
changed to that of the native animals.

This is a just remark; but it is not proper to attribute to the power of
the water merely the cause of the black complexion and the woolly hair
of the Ethiopians, and yet he censures Theodectes, who refers these
peculiarities to the effects of the sun, in these words,

   “Near these approaching with his radiant car,
    The sun their skins with dusky tint doth dye,
    And sooty hue; and with unvarying forms
    Of fire, crisps their tufted hair.”

There may be reason in this, for he says that the sun does not approach
nearer to the Ethiopians than to other nations, but shines more
perpendicularly, and that on this account the heat is greater; indeed,
it cannot be correctly said that the sun approaches near to the
Ethiopians, for he is at an equal distance from all nations. Nor is the
heat the cause of the black complexion, particularly of children in the
womb, who are out of the reach of the sun. Their opinion is to be
preferred, who attribute these effects to the sun and to intense solar
heat, causing a great deficiency of moisture on the surface [CAS. 696]
of the skin. Hence we say it is that the Indians have not woolly hair,
nor is their colour so intensely[354] dark, because they live in a humid
atmosphere.

With respect to children in the womb, they resemble their parents (in
colour) according to a seminal disposition and constitution, on the same
principle that hereditary diseases, and other likenesses, are explained.

The equal distance of the sun from all nations (according to
Onesicritus) is an argument addressed to the senses, and not to reason.
But it is not an argument addressed to the senses generally, but in the
meaning that the earth bears the proportion of a point to the sun, for
we may understand such a meaning of an argument addressed to the senses,
by which we estimate heat to be more or less, as it is near or at a
distance, in which cases it is not the same; and in this meaning, not in
that of Onesicritus, the sun is said to be near the Ethiopians.

25. It is admitted by those who maintain the resemblance of India to
Egypt and Ethiopia, that the plains which are not overflowed do not
produce anything for want of water.

Nearchus says, that the old question respecting the rise of the Nile is
answered by the case of the Indian rivers, namely, that it is the effect
of summer rains; when Alexander saw crocodiles in the Hydaspes, and
Egyptian beans in the Acesines, he thought that he had discovered the
sources of the Nile, and was about to equip a fleet with the intention
of sailing by this river to Egypt; but he found out shortly afterwards
that his design could not be accomplished,

   “for in midway were vast rivers, fearful waters, and first
   the ocean,”[355]

into which all the Indian rivers discharge themselves; then Ariana, the
Persian and Arabian Gulfs, all Arabia and Troglodytica.

The above is what has been said on the subject of winds and rains, the
rising of rivers, and the inundation of plains.

26. We must describe these rivers in detail, with the particulars, which
are useful for the purposes of geography, and which have been handed
down to us by historians.

Besides this, rivers, being a kind of physical boundaries of the size
and figures of countries, are of the greatest use in every part of the
present work. But the Nile and the rivers in India have a superiority
above the rest, because the country could not be inhabited without them.
By means of the rivers it is open to navigation and capable of
cultivation, when otherwise it would not be accessible, nor could it be
occupied by inhabitants.

We shall speak of the rivers deserving notice, which flow into the
Indus, and of the countries which they traverse; with regard to the rest
we know some particulars, but are ignorant of more. Alexander, who
discovered the greatest portion of this country, first of all resolved
it to be more expedient to pursue and destroy those who had
treacherously killed Darius, and were meditating the revolt of
Bactriana. He approached India therefore through Ariana, which he left
on the right hand, and crossed the Paropamisus to the northern parts,
and to Bactriana.[356] Having conquered all the country subject to the
Persians, and many other places besides, he then entertained the desire
of possessing India, of which he had received many, although indistinct,
accounts.

He therefore returned, crossing over the same mountains by other and
shorter roads, having India on the left hand; he then immediately turned
towards it, and towards its western boundaries and the rivers Cophes and
Choaspes.[357] The latter river empties itself into the Cophes,[358]
near Plemyrium, after passing by another city Gorys, in its course
through Bandobene and Gandaritis.[359]

He was informed that the mountainous and northern parts were the most
habitable and fertile, but that the southern part was either without
water, or liable to be overflowed by rivers at one time, or entirely
burnt up at another, more fit to be the haunts of wild beasts than the
dwellings of men. He resolved therefore to get possession of that part
of India first which had been well spoken of, considering at the same
time that the rivers which it was necessary to pass, and which flowed
[CAS. 697] transversely through the country which he intended to
attack, would be crossed with more facility near their sources. He heard
also that many of the rivers united and formed one stream, and that this
more frequently occurred the farther they advanced into the country, so
that from want of boats it would be more difficult to traverse. Being
apprehensive of this obstruction, he crossed the Cophes, and conquered
the whole of the mountainous country situated towards the east.

27. Next to the Cophes was the Indus, then the Hydaspes, the Acesines,
the Hyarotis, and last, the Hypanis. He was prevented from proceeding
farther, partly from regard to some oracles, and partly compelled by his
army, which was exhausted by toil and fatigue, but whose principal
distress arose from their constant exposure to rain. Hence we became
acquainted with the eastern parts of India on this side the Hypanis, and
whatever parts besides which have been described by those who, after
Alexander, advanced beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and Palibothra.

After the river Cophes, follows the Indus. The country lying between
these two rivers is occupied by Astaceni, Masiani, Nysæi, and
Hypasii.[360] Next is the territory of Assacanus, where is the city
Masoga (Massaga?), the royal residence of the country. Near the Indus is
another city, Peucolaïtis.[361] At this place a bridge which was
constructed afforded a passage for the army.

28. Between the Indus and the Hydaspes is Taxila, a large city, and
governed by good laws. The neighbouring country is crowded with
inhabitants and very fertile, and here unites with the plains. The
people and their king Taxiles received Alexander with kindness, and
obtained in return more presents than they had offered to Alexander; so
that the Macedonians became jealous, and observed, that it seemed as if
Alexander had found none on whom he could confer favours before he
passed the Indus. Some writers say that this country is larger than
Egypt.

Above this country among the mountains is the territory of
Abisarus,[362] who, as the ambassadors that came from him reported,
kept two serpents, one of 80, and the other, according to Onesicritus,
of 140 cubits in length. This writer may as well be called the master
fabulist as the master pilot of Alexander. For all those who accompanied
Alexander preferred the marvellous to the true, but this writer seems to
have surpassed all in his description of prodigies. Some things,
however, he relates which are probable and worthy of record, and will
not be passed over in silence even by one who does not believe their
correctness.

Other writers also mention the hunting of serpents in the Emodi
mountains,[363] and the keeping and feeding of them in caves.

29. Between the Hydaspes and Acesines is the country of Porus,[364] an
extensive and fertile district, containing nearly three hundred cities.
Here also is the forest in the neighbourhood of the Emodi mountains in
which Alexander cut down a large quantity of fir, pine, cedar, and a
variety of other trees fit for ship-building, and brought the timber
down the Hydaspes. With this he constructed a fleet on the Hydaspes,
near the cities, which he built on each side of the river where he had
crossed it and conquered Porus. One of these cities he called
Bucephalia,[365] from the horse Bucephalus, which was [CAS. 699] killed
in the battle with Porus. The name Bucephalus[366] was given to it from
the breadth of its forehead. He was an excellent war-horse, and
Alexander constantly rode him in battle.

The other city he called Nicæa from the victory, ΝΙΚΗ
(Nice), which he had obtained.

In the forest before mentioned it is said there is a vast number of
monkeys,[367] and as large as they are numerous. On one occasion the
Macedonians, seeing a body of them standing in array opposite to them,
on some bare eminences, (for this animal is not less intelligent than
the elephant,) and presenting the appearance of an army, prepared to
attack them as real enemies, but being informed by Taxiles, who was then
with the king, of the real fact, they desisted.

The chase of this animal is conducted in two different manners. It is an
imitative creature, and takes refuge up among the trees. The hunters,
when they perceive a monkey seated on a tree, place in sight a basin
containing water, with which they wash their own eyes; then, instead of
water, they put a basin of bird-lime, go away, and lie in wait at a
distance. The animal leaps down, and besmears itself with the bird-lime,
and when it winks, the eyelids are fastened together; the hunters then
come upon it, and take it.

The other method of capturing them is as follows: the hunters dress
themselves in bags like trowsers, and go away, leaving behind them
others which are downy, with the inside smeared over with bird-lime.
The monkeys put them on, and are easily taken.

30. Some writers place Cathaia[368] and the country of Sopeithes, one of
the nomarchs, in the tract between the rivers (Hydaspes and Acesines);
some, on the other side of the Acesines and of the Hyarotis, on the
confines of the territory of the other Porus, the nephew of Porus who
was taken prisoner by Alexander, and call the country subject to him
Grandaris.

A very singular usage is related of the high estimation in which the
inhabitants of Cathaia hold the quality of beauty, which they extend to
horses and dogs. According to Onesicritus, they elect the handsomest
person as king. The child (selected), two months after birth, undergoes
a public inspection, and is examined. They determine whether it has the
amount of beauty required by law, and whether it is worthy to be
permitted to live. The presiding magistrate then pronounces whether it
is to be allowed to live, or whether it is to be put to death.

They dye their heads with various and the most florid colours, for the
purpose of improving their appearance. This custom prevails elsewhere
among many of the Indians, who pay great attention to their hair and
dress; and the country produces colours of great beauty. In other
respects the people are frugal, but are fond of ornament.

A peculiar custom is related of the Cathæi. The bride and the husband
are respectively the choice of each other, and the wives burn themselves
with their deceased husbands. The reason assigned for this practice is,
that the women sometimes fell in love with young men, and deserted or
poisoned their husbands. This law was therefore established in order to
check the practice of administering poison; but neither the existence
nor the origin of the law are probable facts.

It is said, that in the territory of Sopeithes there is a mountain
composed of fossile salt, sufficient for the whole of India. Valuable
mines also both of gold and silver are situated, it is said, not far off
among other mountains, according to the testimony of Gorgus, the miner
(of Alexander). The Indians, unacquainted with mining and smelting, are
ignorant of their own wealth, and therefore traffic with greater
simplicity.

31. The dogs in the territory of Sopeithes are said to possess
remarkable courage: Alexander received from Sopeithes a present of one
hundred and fifty of them. To prove them, two were set at a lion; when
these were mastered, two others were set on; when the battle became
equal, Sopeithes ordered a man to seize one of the dogs by the leg, and
to drag him away; or to cut off his leg, if he still held on. Alexander
at first refused his consent to the dog’s leg being cut off, as he
wished to save the dog. But on Sopeithes saying, “I will give you four
in the place of it,” Alexander consented; and he saw the dog permit his
leg to be cut off by a slow incision, rather than loose his hold.

[CAS. 700] 32. The direction of the march, as far as the Hydaspes, was
for the most part towards the south. After that, to the Hypanis, it was
more towards the east. The whole of it, however, was much nearer to the
country lying at the foot of the mountains than to the plains. Alexander
therefore, when he returned from the Hypanis to the Hydaspes and the
station of his vessels, prepared his fleet, and set sail on the
Hydaspes.

All the rivers which have been mentioned (the last of which is the
Hypanis) unite in one, the Indus. It is said that there are altogether
fifteen[369] considerable rivers which flow into the Indus. After the
Indus has been filled by all these rivers, so as to be enlarged in some
places to the extent of a hundred stadia, according to writers who
exaggerate, or, according to a more moderate estimate, to fifty stadia
at the utmost, and at the least to seven, [and who speak of many nations
and cities about this river,][370] it discharges itself by two mouths
into the southern sea, and forms the island called Patalene.

Alexander’s intention was to relinquish the march towards the parts
situated to the east, first, because he was prevented from crossing the
Hypanis; next, because he learnt by experience the falsehood of the
reports previously received, to the effect that the plains were burnt up
with fire, and more fit for the haunts of wild beasts than for the
habitation of man. He therefore set out in this direction, relinquishing
the other track; so that these parts became better known than the other.

33. The territory lying between the Hypanis and the Hydaspes is said to
contain nine nations and five thousand cities, not less in size than Cos
Meropis;[371] but the number seems to be exaggerated. We have already
mentioned nearly all the nations deserving of notice, which inhabit the
country situated between the Indus and the Hydaspes.

Below, and next in order, are the people called Sibæ, whom we formerly
mentioned,[372] and the great nations, the Malli[373] and Sydracæ
(Oxydracæ). It was among the Malli that Alexander was in danger of
losing his life, from a wound he received at the capture of a small
city. The Sydracæ, we have said, are fabled to be allied to Bacchus.

Near Patalene is placed the country of Musicanus, that of Sabus,[374]
whose capital is Sindomana, that of Porticanus, and of other princes who
inhabited the country on the banks of the Indus. They were all conquered
by Alexander; last of all he made himself master of Patalene, which is
formed by the two branches of the Indus. Aristobulus says that these two
branches are distant 1000 stadia from each other. Nearchus adds 800
stadia more to this number. Onesicritus reckons each side of the
included island, which is of a triangular shape, at 2000 stadia; and the
breadth of the river, where it is separated into two mouths, at about
200 stadia.[375] He calls the island Delta, and says that it is as large
as the Delta of Egypt; but this is a mistake. For the Egyptian Delta is
said to have a base of 1300 stadia, and each of the sides to be less
than the base. In Patalene is Patala, a considerable city, from which
the island has its name.

34. Onesicritus says, that the greatest part of the coast in this
quarter abounds with swamps, particularly at the mouths of the river,
which is owing to the mud, the tides, and the want of land breezes; for
these parts are chiefly under the influence of winds blowing from the
sea.

He expatiates also in praise of the country of Musicanus, and relates of
the inhabitants what is common to other Indian tribes, that they are
long-lived, and that life is protracted even to the age of 130 years,
(the Seres,[376] however, are said by some [CAS. 701] writers to be
still longer lived,) that they are temperate in their habits and
healthy; although the country produces everything in abundance.

The following are their peculiarities: to have a kind of Lacedæmonian
common meal, where they eat in public. Their food consists of what is
taken in the chase. They make no use of gold nor silver, although they
have mines of these metals. Instead of slaves, they employed youths in
the flower of their age, as the Cretans employ the Aphamiotæ, and the
Lacedæmonians the Helots. They study no science with attention but that
of medicine; for they consider the excessive pursuit of some arts, as
that of war, and the like, to be committing evil. There is no process at
law but against murder and outrage, for it is not in a person’s own
power to escape either one or the other; but as contracts are in the
power of each individual, he must endure the wrong, if good faith is
violated by another; for a man should be cautious whom he trusts, and
not disturb the city with constant disputes in courts of justice.

Such are the accounts of the persons who accompanied Alexander in his
expedition.

35. A letter of Craterus to his mother Aristopatra is circulated, which
contains many other singular circumstances, and differs from every other
writer, particularly in saying that Alexander advanced as far as the
Ganges. Craterus says, that he himself saw the river, and the
whales[377] which it produces, and [his account] of its magnitude,
breadth, and depth, far exceeds, rather than approximates, probability.
For that the Ganges is the largest of known rivers in the three
continents, it is generally agreed; next to this is the Indus; and,
thirdly, the Danube; and, fourthly, the Nile. But different authors
differ in their account of it, some assigning 30, others 3 stadia, as
the least breadth. But Megasthenes says that its ordinary width is 100
stadia,[378] and its least depth twenty orguiæ.[379]

36. At the confluence of the Ganges and of another river (the
Erannoboas[380]) is situated (the city) Palibothra, in length 80, and in
breadth 15 stadia. It is in the shape of a parallelogram, surrounded by
a wooden wall pierced with openings through which arrows may be
discharged. In front is a ditch, which serves the purpose of defence and
of a sewer for the city. The people in whose country the city is
situated are the most distinguished of all the tribes, and are called
Prasii. The king, besides his family name, has the surname of
Palibothrus, as the king to whom Megasthenes was sent on an embassy had
the name of Sandrocottus.[381]

Such also is the custom among the Parthians; for all have the name
Arsacæ,[382] although each has his peculiar name of Orodes, Phraates, or
some other appellation.

37. All the country on the other side of the Hypanis is allowed to be
very fertile, but we have no accurate knowledge of it. Either through
ignorance or from its remote situation, everything relative to it is
exaggerated or partakes of the wonderful. As, for example, the stories
of myrmeces (or ants),[383] which dig up gold; of animals and men with
peculiar shapes, and possessing extraordinary faculties; of the
longevity of the Seres, whose lives exceed the age of two hundred years.
They speak also of an aristocratical form of government, consisting of
five hundred counsellors, each of whom furnishes the state with an
elephant.

According to Megasthenes, the largest tigers are found among the Prasii,
almost twice the size of lions, and of such strength that a tame one led
by four persons seized a mule by its hinder leg, overpowered it, and
dragged it to him. The monkeys are larger than the largest dogs; they
are of a white colour, except the face, which is black. The contrary is
observed in other places. Their tails are more than two cubits in
length. They are very tame, and not of a mischievous disposition. They
neither attack people, nor steal.

Stones are found there of the colour of frankincense, and sweeter than
figs or honey.

In some places there are serpents of two cubits in length, with
membraneous wings like bats. They fly at night, and let fall drops of
urine or sweat, which occasions the skin of persons [CAS. 703] who are
not on their guard to putrefy. There are also winged scorpions of great
size.

Ebony grows there. There are also dogs of great courage, which do not
loose their hold till water is poured into their nostrils: some of them
destroy their sight, and the eyes of others even fall out, by the
eagerness of their bite. Both a lion and a bull were held fast by one of
these dogs. The bull was caught by the muzzle, and died before the dog
could be loosened.

38. In the mountainous country is a river, the Silas, on the surface of
which nothing will float. Democritus, who had travelled over a large
part of Asia, disbelieves this, and Aristotle does not credit it,
although atmospheres exist so rare that no bird can sustain its flight
in them. Vapours also, which ascend (from some substances), attract and
absorb, as it were, whatever is flying over them; as amber attracts
straw, and the magnet iron, and perhaps there may be in water a similar
power.

As these matters belong to physics and to the question of floating
bodies, these must be referred to them. At present we must proceed to
what follows, and to the subjects more nearly relating to geography.

39. It is said that the Indians are divided into seven castes. The first
in rank, but the smallest in number, are the philosophers. Persons who
intend to offer sacrifice, or to perform any sacred rite, have the
services of these persons on their private account; but the kings employ
them in a public capacity at the time of the Great Assembly, as it is
called, where at the beginning of the new year all the philosophers
repair to the king at the gate, and anything useful which they have
committed to writing, or observed, tending to improve the productions of
the earth or animals, or of advantage to the government of the state, is
then publicly declared.

Whoever has been detected in giving false information thrice is enjoined
silence by law during the rest of his life; but he who has made correct
observations is exempted from all contributions and tribute.

40. The second caste is that of husbandmen, who constitute the majority
of natives, and are a most mild and gentle people, as they are exempted
from military service, and cultivate their land free from alarm; they
do not resort to cities, either to transact private business, or take
part in public tumults. It therefore frequently happens that at the same
time, and in the same part of the country, one body of men are in battle
array, and engaged in contests with the enemy, while others are
ploughing or digging in security, having these soldiers to protect them.
The whole of the territory belongs to the king. They cultivate it on the
terms of receiving as wages a fourth part of the produce.

41. The third caste consists of shepherds and hunters, who alone are
permitted to hunt, to breed cattle, to sell and to let out for hire
beasts of burden. In return for freeing the country from wild beasts and
birds, which infest sown fields, they receive an allowance of corn from
the king. They lead a wandering life, and dwell in tents. No private
person is allowed to keep a horse or an elephant. The possession of
either one or the other is a royal privilege, and persons are appointed
to take care of them.

42. The manner of hunting the elephant is as follows: Round a bare spot
a ditch is dug, of about four or five stadia in extent, and at the place
of entrance a very narrow bridge is constructed. Into the enclosure
three or four of the tamest female elephants are driven. The men
themselves lie in wait under cover of concealed huts. The wild elephants
do not approach the females by day, but at night they enter the
enclosure one by one; when they have passed the entrance, the men
secretly close it. They then introduce the strongest of the tame
combatants, the drivers of which engage with the wild animals, and also
wear them out by famine; when the latter are exhausted by fatigue, the
boldest of the drivers gets down unobserved, and creeps under the belly
of his own elephant. From this position he creeps beneath the belly of
the wild elephant, and ties his legs together; when this is done, a
signal is given to the tame elephants to beat those which are tied by
the legs, till they fall to the ground. After they have fallen down,
they fasten the wild and tame elephants together by the neck with thongs
of raw cow-hide, and, in order that they may not be able to shake off
those who are attempting to mount them, cuts are made round the neck,
and thongs of leather are put into these incisions, so that they submit
to their bonds through pain, and so remain quiet. Among the elephants
[CAS. 705] which are taken, those are rejected which are too old or too
young for service; the remainder are led away to the stables. They tie
their feet one to another, and their necks to a pillar firmly fastened
in the ground, and tame them by hunger. They recruit their strength
afterwards with green cane and grass. They then teach them to obey; some
by words; others they pacify by tunes, accompanied with the beating of a
drum. Few are difficult to be tamed; for they are naturally of a mild
and gentle disposition, so as to approximate to the character of a
rational animal. Some have taken up their drivers, who have fallen on
the ground lifeless, and carried them safe out of battle. Others have
fought, and protected their drivers, who have crept between their
fore-legs. If they have killed any of their feeders or masters in anger,
they feel their loss so much that they refuse their food through grief,
and sometimes die of hunger.

43. They copulate like horses, and produce young chiefly in the spring.
It is the season for the male, when he is in heat and is ferocious. At
this period he discharges some fatty matter through an opening in the
temples. It is the season also for the females, when this same passage
is open. Eighteen months is the longest, and sixteen the shortest period
that they go with young. The dam suckles her young six years. Many of
them live as long as men who attain to the greatest longevity, some even
to the protracted age of two hundred years.

They are subject to many diseases, which are difficult to be cured. A
remedy for diseases of the eye is to bathe them with cow’s milk. For
complaints in general, they drink dark wine. In cases of wounds, they
drink butter; for it draws out iron instruments. Their sores are
fomented with swine’s flesh.

Onesicritus says, that they live three hundred years, and rarely five
hundred; and that they go with young ten years. He and other writers
say, that they are larger and stronger than the African elephants. They
will pull down with their trunks battlements, and uproot trees, standing
erect upon their hind feet.

According to Nearchus, traps are laid in the hunting grounds, at certain
places where roads meet; the wild elephants are forced into the toils by
the tame elephants, which are stronger, and guided by a driver. They
become so tame and docile, that they learn even to throw a stone at a
mark, to use military weapons, and to be excellent swimmers. A chariot
drawn by elephants is esteemed a most important possession, and they are
driven without bridles.[384]

A woman is greatly honoured who receives from her lover a present of an
elephant, but this does not agree with what he said before, that a horse
and an elephant are the property of kings alone.

44. This writer says that he saw skins of the myrmeces (or ants), which
dig up gold, as large as the skins of leopards. Megasthenes, however,
speaking of the myrmeces, says, among the Derdæ a populous nation of the
Indians, living towards the east, and among the mountains, there was a
mountain plain of about 3000 stadia in circumference; that below this
plain were mines containing gold, which the myrmeces, in size not less
than foxes, dig up. They are excessively fleet, and subsist on what they
catch. In winter they dig holes, and pile up the earth in heaps, like
moles, at the mouths of the openings.

The gold-dust which they obtain requires little preparation by fire. The
neighbouring people go after it by stealth, with beasts of burden; for
if it is done openly, the myrmeces fight furiously, pursuing those that
run away, and if they seize them, kill them and the beasts. In order to
prevent discovery, they place in various parts pieces of the flesh of
wild beasts, and when the myrmeces are dispersed in various directions,
they take away the gold-dust, and, not being acquainted with the mode of
smelting it, dispose of it in its rude state at any price to merchants.

45. Having mentioned what Megasthenes and other writers relate of the
hunters and the beasts of prey, we must add the following particulars.

Nearchus is surprised at the multitude and the noxious nature of the
tribe of reptiles. They retreat from the plains to the settlements,
which are not covered with water at the period of inundations, and fill
the houses. For this reason the inhabitants raise their beds at some
height from the [CAS. 706] ground, and are sometimes compelled to
abandon their dwellings, when they are infested by great multitudes of
these animals; and, if a great proportion of these multitudes were not
destroyed by the waters, the country would be a desert. Both the
minuteness of some animals and the excessive magnitude of others are
causes of danger; the former, because it is difficult to guard against
their attacks; the latter, on account of their strength, for snakes are
to be seen of sixteen cubits in length. Charmers go about the country,
and are supposed to cure wounds made by serpents. This seems to comprise
nearly their whole art of medicine, for disease is not frequent among
them, which is owing to their frugal manner of life, and to the absence
of wine; whenever diseases do occur, they are treated by the Sophistæ
(or wise men).

Aristobulus says, that he saw no animals of these pretended magnitudes,
except a snake, which was nine cubits and a span in length. And I myself
saw one in Egypt, nearly of the same size, which was brought from India.
He says also, that he saw many serpents of a much inferior size, and
asps and large scorpions. None of these, however, are so noxious as the
slender small serpents, a span long, which are found concealed in tents,
in vessels, and in hedges. Persons wounded by them bleed from every
pore, suffering great pain, and die, unless they have immediate
assistance; but this assistance is easily obtained, by means of the
virtues of the Indian roots and drugs.

Few crocodiles, he says, are found in the Indus, and these are harmless,
but most of the other animals, except the hippopotamus, are the same as
those found in the Nile; but Onesicritus says that this animal also is
found there.

According to Aristobulus, none of the sea fish ascend the Nile from the
sea, except the shad,[385] the grey mullet,[386] and dolphin, on account
of the crocodiles; but great numbers ascend the Indus. Small
craw-fish[387] go up as far as the mountains,[388] and the larger as far
as the confluence of the Indus and the Acesines.

So much then on the subject of the wild animals of India. We shall
return to Megasthenes, and resume our account where we digressed.

46. After the hunters and the shepherds, follows the fourth caste, which
consists, he says, of those who work at trades, retail wares, and who
are employed in bodily labour. Some of these pay taxes, and perform
certain stated services. But the armour-makers and ship-builders receive
wages and provisions from the king, for whom only they work. The
general-in-chief furnishes the soldiers with arms, and the admiral lets
out ships for hire to those who undertake voyages and traffic as
merchants.

47. The fifth caste consists of fighting men, who pass the time not
employed in the field in idleness and drinking, and are maintained at
the charge of the king. They are ready whenever they are wanted to march
on an expedition, for they bring nothing of their own with them, except
their bodies.

48. The sixth caste is that of the Ephori, or inspectors. They are
intrusted with the superintendence of all that is going on, and it is
their duty to report privately to the king. The city inspectors employ
as their coadjutors the city courtesans; and the inspectors of the camp,
the women who follow it. The best and the most faithful persons are
appointed to the office of inspector.

49. The seventh caste consists of counsellors and assessors of the king.
To these persons belong the offices of state, tribunals of justice, and
the whole administration of affairs.

It is not permitted to contract marriage with a person of another caste,
nor to change from one profession or trade to another, nor for the same
person to undertake several, except he is of the caste of philosophers,
when permission is given, on account of his superior qualifications.

50. Of the magistrates, some have the charge of the market, others of
the city, others of the soldiery. Some have the care of the rivers,
measure the land, as in Egypt, and inspect the closed reservoirs, from
which water is distributed by canals, so that all may have an equal use
of it. These persons have charge also of the hunters, and have the power
of rewarding or punishing those who merit either. They collect the
taxes, and superintend the occupations connected with land, as
wood-cutters, carpenters, workers in brass, and miners. They [CAS. 708]
superintend the public roads, and place a pillar at every ten stadia, to
indicate the by-ways and distances.

51. Those who have charge of the city are divided into six bodies of
five each. The first has the inspection of everything relating to the
mechanical arts; the second entertain strangers, assign lodgings,
observe their mode of life, by means of attendants whom they attach to
them, escort them out of the country on their departure; if they die,
take charge of their property, have the care of them when sick, and when
they die, bury them.

The third class consists of those who inquire at what time and in what
manner births and deaths take place, which is done with a view to tax
(on these occasions), and in order that the deaths and births of persons
both of good and bad character should not be concealed.

The fourth division consists of those who are occupied in sales and
exchanges; they have the charge of measures, and of the sale of the
products in season, by a signal. The same person is not allowed to
exchange various kinds of articles, except he pays a double tax.

The fifth division presides over works of artisans, and disposes of
articles by public notice. The new are sold apart from the old, and
there is a fine imposed for mixing them together. The sixth and last
comprises those who collect the tenth of the price of the articles sold.
Death is the punishment for committing a fraud with regard to the tax.

These are the peculiar duties performed by each class, but in their
collective capacity they have the charge both of their own peculiar
province and of civil affairs, the repairs of public works, prices[389]
of articles, of markets, harbours, and temples.

52. Next to the magistrates of the city is a third body of governors,
who have the care of military affairs. This class also consists of six
divisions, each composed of five persons. One division is associated
with the chief naval superintendent, another with the person who has the
charge of the bullock-teams, by which military engines are transported,
of provisions both for the men and beasts, and other requisites for the
army. They furnish attendants, who beat a drum, and carry gongs;[390]
and besides these, grooms, mechanists, and their assistants. They
despatch by the sound of the gong the foragers for grass, and insure
expedition and security by rewards and punishments. The third division
has the care of the infantry; the fourth, of the horses; the fifth, of
the chariots; the sixth, of the elephants. There are royal stables for
the horses and elephants. There is also a royal magazine of arms; for
the soldier returns his arms to the armoury, and the horse and elephant
to the stables. They use the elephants without bridles. The chariots are
drawn on the march by oxen. The horses are led by a halter, in order
that their legs may not be chafed and inflamed, nor their spirit damped,
by drawing chariots. Besides the charioteer, there are two persons who
fight by his side in the chariot. With the elephant are four persons,
the driver and three bowmen, who discharge arrows from his back.

53. All the Indians are frugal in their mode of life, and especially in
camp. They do not tolerate useless and undisciplined multitudes, and
consequently observe good order. Theft is very rare among them.
Megasthenes, who was in the camp of Sandrocottus, which consisted of
400,000 men, did not witness on any day thefts reported, which exceeded
the sum of two hundred drachmæ, and this among a people who have no
written laws, who are ignorant even of writing, and regulate everything
by memory. They are, however, happy on account of their simple manners
and frugal way of life. They never drink wine, but at sacrifices. Their
beverage is made from rice instead of barley, and their food consists
for the most part of rice pottage. The simplicity of their laws and
contracts appears from their not having many law-suits. They have no
suits respecting pledges and deposits, nor do they require witnesses or
seals, but make their deposits, and confide in one another. Their houses
and property are unguarded. These things denote temperance and sobriety;
others no one would approve, as their eating always alone, and their not
having all of them one common hour for their meals, but each taking it
as he likes. The contrary custom is more agreeable to the habits of
social and civil life.

54. As an exercise of the body they prefer friction in various ways, but
particularly by making use of smooth sticks of ebony, which they pass
over the surface of the body.

[CAS. 709] Their sepulchres are plain, and the tumuli of earth low.

In contrast to their parsimony in other things, they indulge in
ornament. They wear dresses worked with gold and precious stones, and
flowered (variegated) robes, and are attended by persons following them
with umbrellas; for as they highly esteem beauty, everything is attended
to, which can improve their looks.

They respect alike truth and virtue; therefore they do not assign any
privilege to the old, unless they possess superior wisdom.

They marry many wives, who are purchased from their parents, and give in
exchange for them a yoke of oxen. Some marry wives to possess obedient
attendants, others with a view to pleasure and numerous offspring, and
the wives prostitute themselves, unless chastity is enforced by
compulsion.

No one wears a garland when sacrificing, or burning incense, or pouring
out a libation. They do not stab, but strangle the victim, that nothing
mutilated, but that which is entire, may be offered to the Deity.

A person convicted of bearing false testimony suffers a mutilation of
his extremities. He who has maimed another not only undergoes in return
the loss of the same limb, but his hand also is cut off. If he has
caused a workman to lose his hand or his eye, he is put to death.

Megasthenes says, that none of the Indians employ slaves. But, according
to Onesicritus, this is peculiar to the people in the territory of
Musicanus. He speaks of this as an excellent rule, and mentions many
others to be found in that country, as the effects of a government by
good laws.

55. The care of the king’s person is committed to women, who are also
purchased of their parents. The body-guard, and the rest of the
military, are stationed without the gates. A woman, who puts to death a
king when drunk, is rewarded by becoming the wife of his successor. The
sons succeed the father. The king may not sleep during the day-time, and
at night he is obliged from time to time to change his bed, from dread
of treachery.

The king leaves his palace in time of war; he leaves it also when he
goes to sit in his court as a judge. He remains there all day thus
occupied, not suffering himself to be interrupted even though the time
arrives for attending to his person. This attention to his person
consists of friction with pieces of wood, and he continues to listen to
the cause, while the friction is performed by four attendants who
surround him.

Another occasion of leaving his palace is to offer sacrifice.

The third is a sort of Bacchanalian departure to the chace. Crowds of
women surround him, and on the outside (of these) are spear-men. The
road is set off with ropes; a man, or even a woman, who passes within
the ropes is put to death.

The king is preceded by drums and gongs. He hunts in the enclosures, and
discharges his arrows from a high seat. Near him stand two or three
armed women. When hunting in the open ground, he shoots his arrows from
an elephant; of the women some are in chariots, some on horses, and
others on elephants; they are provided with all kinds of weapons, as if
they were going on a military expedition.

56. These customs when compared with ours are very strange, but the
following are still more extraordinary. According to Megasthenes, the
nations who inhabit the Caucasus have commerce with women in public; and
eat the bodies of their relatives; the monkeys climb precipices, and
roll down large stones upon their pursuers; most of the animals which
are tame in our country are wild in theirs; the horses have a single
horn, with heads like those of deer; reeds which grow to the height of
thirty orguiæ,[391] others which grow on the ground, fifty orguiæ in
length, and in thickness some are three and others six cubits in
diameter.

57. He then deviates into fables, and says that there are men of five,
and even three spans in height, some of whom are without nostrils, with
only two breathing orifices above the mouth. Those of three spans in
height wage war with the cranes (described by Homer) and with the
partridges, which are as large as geese; these people collect and
destroy the eggs of the cranes which lay their eggs there; and nowhere
else are the eggs or the young cranes to be found; frequently a crane
escapes from this country with a brazen point of a weapon in its body,
wounded by these people.

Similar to this is the account of the Enotocoitæ,[392] of the wild men,
and of other monsters. The wild men could not be brought to
Sandrocottus, for they died by abstaining from [CAS. 711] food. Their
heels are in front, the instep and toes are turned backwards. Some have
been taken, which had no mouths, and were tame. They live near the
sources of the Ganges, and are supported by the smell of dressed meat
and the fragrance of fruits and flowers, having instead of mouths
orifices through which they breathe. They are distressed by
strong-smelling substances, and therefore their lives are sustained with
difficulty, particularly in a camp.

With respect to the other singular animals, the philosophers informed
him of a people called Ocypodæ, so swift of foot that they leave horses
behind them; of Enotocoitæ, or persons having ears hanging down to their
feet, so that they lie and sleep upon them, and so strong as to be able
to pluck up trees and to break the sinew string of a bow; of others
(Monommati) who have only one eye, and the ears of a dog, the eye placed
in the middle of the forehead, the hair standing erect, and the breasts
shaggy; of others (Amycteres) without nostrils, devouring everything,
eaters of raw meat, short-lived, and dying before they arrive at old
age; the upper part of their mouths projects far beyond the lower lip.

With respect to the Hyperboreans, who live to the age of a thousand
years, his description is the same as that of Simonides, Pindar, and
other mythological writers.

The story told by Timagenes of a shower of drops of brass, which were
raked together, is a fable. The account of Megasthenes is more probable,
namely, that the rivers bring down gold-dust, a part of which is paid as
a tax to the king; and this is the case in Iberia (of Armenia).

58. Speaking of the philosophers, he says, that those who inhabit the
mountains are worshippers of Bacchus, and show as a proof (of the god
having come among them) the wild vine, which grows in their country
only; the ivy, the laurel, the myrtle, the box-tree, and other
evergreens, none of which are found beyond the Euphrates, except a few
in parks, which are only preserved with great care. To wear robes and
turbans, to use perfumes, and to be dressed in dyed and flowered
garments, for their kings to be preceded when they leave their palaces,
and appear abroad, by gongs and drums, are Bacchanalian customs. But the
philosophers who live in the plains worship Hercules.

These are fabulous stories, contradicted by many writers, particularly
what is said of the vine and wine, for a great part of Armenia, the
whole of Mesopotamia and Media, as far as Persia and Carmania, is beyond
the Euphrates, the greater part of which countries is said to have
excellent vines, and to produce good wine.

59. Megasthenes divides the philosophers again into two kinds, the
Brachmanes[393] and the Garmanes.[394] The Brachmanes are held in
greater repute, for they agree more exactly in their opinions. Even from
the time of their conception in the womb they are under the care and
guardianship of learned men, who go to the mother, and seem to perform
some incantation for the happiness and welfare of the mother and the
unborn child, but in reality they suggest prudent advice, and the
mothers who listen to them most willingly are thought to be the most
fortunate in their offspring. After the birth of the children, there is
a succession of persons who have the care of them, and as they advance
in years, masters more able and accomplished succeed.

The philosophers live in a grove in front of the city within a
moderate-sized enclosure. Their diet is frugal, and they lie upon straw
pallets and on skins. They abstain from animal food, and from sexual
intercourse with women; their time is occupied in grave discourse, and
they communicate with those who are inclined to listen to them; but the
hearer is not permitted to speak or cough, or even to spit on the
ground; otherwise, he is expelled that very day from their society, on
the ground of having no control over himself. After living thirty-seven
years in this manner, each individual retires to his own possessions,
and lives with less restraint, wearing robes of fine linen, and rings of
gold, but without profuseness, upon the hands and in the ears. They eat
the flesh of animals, of those particularly which do not assist man in
his labour, and abstain from hot and seasoned food. They have as many
wives as they please with a view to numerous offspring, for from many
wives greater advantages are derived.

As they have no slaves, they require more the services, which are at
hand, of their children.

The Brachmanes do not communicate their philosophy to their wives, for
fear they should divulge to the profane, if [CAS. 712] they became
depraved, anything which ought to be concealed; or lest they should
abandon their husbands in case they became good (philosophers)
themselves. For no one who despises alike pleasure and pain, life and
death, is willing to be subject to the authority of another; and such is
the character of a virtuous man and a virtuous woman.

They discourse much on death, for it is their opinion that the present
life is the state of one conceived in the womb, and that death to
philosophers is birth to a real and a happy life. They therefore
discipline themselves much to prepare for death, and maintain that
nothing which happens to man is bad or good, for otherwise the same
things would not be the occasion of sorrow to some and of joy to others,
opinions being merely dreams, nor that the same persons could be
affected with sorrow and joy by the same things, on different occasions.

With regard to opinions on physical phenomena, they display, says
Megasthenes, great simplicity, their actions being better than their
reasoning, for their belief is chiefly founded on fables. On many
subjects their sentiments are the same as those of the Greeks. According
to the Brachmanes, the world was created, and is liable to corruption;
it is of a spheroïdal figure; the god who made and governs it pervades
the whole of it; the principles of all things are different, but the
principle of the world’s formation was water; in addition to the four
elements there is a fifth nature, of which the heavens and the stars are
composed; the earth is situated in the centre of the universe. Many
other peculiar things they say of the principle of generation and of the
soul. They invent fables also, after the manner of Plato, on the
immortality of the soul, and on the punishments in Hades, and other
things of this kind. This is the account which Megasthenes gives of the
Brachmanes.

60. Of the Garmanes, the most honourable, he says, are the Hylobii, who
live in the forests, and subsist on leaves and wild fruits: they are
clothed with garments made of the bark of trees,[395] and abstain from
commerce with women and from wine. The kings hold communication with
them by messengers, concerning the causes of things, and through them
worship and supplicate the Divinity.

Second in honour to the Hylobii, are the physicians, for they apply
philosophy to the study of the nature of man. They are of frugal habits,
but do not live in the fields, and subsist upon rice and meal, which
every one gives when asked, and receive them hospitably. They are able
to cause persons to have a numerous offspring, and to have either male
or female children, by means of charms. They cure diseases by diet,
rather than by medicinal remedies. Among the latter, the most in repute
are unguents and cataplasms. All others they suppose partake greatly of
a noxious nature.

Both this and the other class of persons practise fortitude, as well in
supporting active toil as in enduring suffering, so that they will
continue a whole day in the same posture, without motion.

There are enchanters and diviners, versed in the rites and customs
relative to the dead, who go about villages and towns begging. There are
others who are more civilized and better informed than these, who
inculcate the vulgar opinions concerning Hades, which, according to
their ideas, tend to piety and sanctity. Women study philosophy with
some of them, but abstain from sexual intercourse.

61. Aristobulus says, that he saw at Taxila two sophists (wise men),
both Brachmanes, the elder had his head shaved, but the younger wore his
hair; both were attended by disciples. When not otherwise engaged, they
spent their time in the market-place. They are honoured as public
counsellors, and have the liberty of taking away, without payment,
whatever article they like which is exposed for sale; when any one
accosts them, he pours over them oil of jessamine, in such profusion
that it runs down from their eyes. Of honey and sesamum, which is
exposed for sale in large quantity, they take enough to make cakes, and
are fed without expense.

They came up to Alexander’s table and took their meal standing, and they
gave an example of their fortitude by retiring to a neighbouring spot,
where the elder, falling on the ground supine, endured the sun and the
rain, which had now set in, it being the commencement of spring. The
other stood on one leg, with a piece of wood three cubits in length
raised in both hands; when one leg was fatigued he changed the support
to the other, and thus continued the whole day. The younger appeared to
possess much more self-command; for, [CAS. 714] after following the
king a short distance, he soon returned to his home. The king sent after
him, but he bade the king to come to him, if he wanted anything of him.
The other accompanied the king to the last: during his stay he changed
his dress, and altered his mode of life, and when reproached for his
conduct, answered, that he had completed the forty years of discipline
which he had promised to observe: Alexander made presents to his
children.

62. Aristobulus relates also some strange and unusual customs of the
people of Taxila. Those, who through poverty are unable to marry their
daughters, expose them for sale in the market-place, in the flower of
their age, to the sound of shell trumpets and drums, with which the
war-note is given. A crowd is thus assembled. First her back, as far as
the shoulders, is uncovered, then the parts in front, for the
examination of any man who comes for this purpose. If she pleases him,
he marries her on such conditions as may be determined upon.

The dead are thrown out to be devoured by vultures. To have many wives
is a custom common to these and to other nations. He says, that he had
heard, from some persons, of wives burning themselves voluntarily with
their deceased husbands; and that those women who refused to submit to
this custom were disgraced. The same things have been told by other
writers.[396]

63. Onesicritus says, that he himself was sent to converse with these
wise men. For Alexander heard that they went about naked, practised
constancy and fortitude, and were held in the highest honour; that, when
invited, they did not go to other persons, but commanded others to come
to them, if they wished to participate in their exercises or their
conversation. Such being their character, Alexander did not consider it
to be consistent with propriety to go to them, nor to compel them to do
anything contrary to their inclination or against the custom of their
country; he therefore despatched Onesicritus to them.

Onesicritus found, at the distance of 20 stadia from the city, fifteen
men standing in different postures, sitting or lying down naked, who
continued in these positions until the evening, and then returned to the
city. The most difficult thing to endure was the heat of the sun, which
was so powerful, that no one else could endure without pain to walk on
the ground at mid-day with bare feet.

64. He conversed with Calanus, one of these sophists, who accompanied
the king to Persia, and died after the custom of his country, being
placed on a pile of [burning] wood. When Onesicritus came, he was lying
upon stones. Onesicritus approached, accosted him, and told him that he
had been sent by the king, who had heard the fame of his wisdom, and
that he was to give an account of his interview, if there were no
objection, he was ready to listen to his discourse. When Calanus saw his
mantle, head-covering, and shoes, he laughed, and said, “Formerly, there
was abundance everywhere of corn and barley, as there is now of dust;
fountains then flowed with water, milk, honey, wine, and oil, but
mankind by repletion and luxury became proud and insolent. Jupiter,
indignant at this state of things, destroyed all, and appointed for man
a life of toil. On the reäppearance of temperance and other virtues,
there was again an abundance of good things. But at present the
condition of mankind approaches satiety and insolence, and there is
danger lest the things which now exist should disappear.”

When he had finished, he proposed to Onesicritus, if he wished to hear
his discourse, to strip off his clothes, to lie down naked by him on the
same stones, and in that manner to listen to him; while he was
hesitating what to do, Mandanis,[397] who was the oldest and wisest of
the sophists, reproached Calanus for his insolence, although he censured
such insolence himself. Mandanis called Onesicritus to him, and said, I
commend the king, because, although he governs so large an empire, he is
yet desirous of acquiring wisdom, for he is the only philosopher in arms
that I ever saw; it would be of the greatest advantage, if those were
philosophers who have the power of persuading the willing and of
compelling the unwilling to learn temperance; but I am entitled to
indulgence, if, when conversing by means of three interpreters, who,
except the language, know no more than the vulgar, I am not [CAS. 716]
able to demonstrate the utility of philosophy. To attempt it is to
expect water to flow pure through mud.

65. “The tendency of his discourse,” he said, “was this, that the best
philosophy was that which liberated the mind from pleasure and grief;
that grief differed from labour, in that the former was inimical, the
latter friendly to men; for that men exercised their bodies with labour
in order to strengthen the mental powers, by which means they would be
able to put an end to dissensions, and give good counsel to all, to the
public and to individuals; that he certainly should at present advise
Taxiles to receive Alexander as a friend; for if he entertained a person
better than himself, he might be improved; but if a worse person, he
might dispose him to good.”

After this Mandanis inquired, whether such doctrines were taught among
the Greeks. Onesicritus answered, that Pythagoras taught a similar
doctrine, and enjoined his disciples to abstain from whatever has life;
that Socrates and Diogenes, whose discourses he had heard, held the same
opinions. Mandanis replied, “that in other respects he thought them
wise, but that in one thing they were mistaken, namely, in preferring
custom to nature, for otherwise they would not be ashamed of going
naked, like himself, and of subsisting on frugal fare; for the best
house was that which required least repairs.” He says also that they
employ themselves much on natural subjects, as prognostics, rain,
drought, and diseases. When they repair to the city, they disperse
themselves in the market-places; if they meet any one carrying figs or
bunches of grapes, they take what is offered gratuitously; if it is oil,
it is poured over them, and they are anointed with it. Every wealthy
house, even to the women’s apartment, is open to them; when they enter
it, they engage in conversation, and partake of the repast. Disease of
the body they regard as most disgraceful, and he who apprehends it,
after preparing a pyre, destroys himself by fire; he (previously)
anoints himself, and sitting down upon it orders it to be lighted,
remaining motionless while he is burning.

66. Nearchus gives the following account of the Sophists. The Brachmanes
engage in public affairs, and attend the kings as counsellors; the rest
are occupied in the study of nature. Calanus belonged to the latter
class. Women study philosophy with them, and all lead an austere life.

Of the customs of the other Indians, he says, that their laws, whether
relating to the community or to individuals, are not committed to
writing, and differ altogether from those of other people. For example,
it is the practice among some tribes, to propose virgins as prizes to
the conquerors in a trial of skill in boxing; wherefore they marry
without portions; among other tribes the ground is cultivated by
families and in common; when the produce is collected, each takes a load
sufficient for his subsistence during the year; the remainder is burnt,
in order to have a reason for renewing their labour, and not remaining
inactive. Their weapons consist of a bow and arrows, which are three
cubits in length, or a javelin, and a shield, and a sword three cubits
long. Instead of bridles, they use muzzles,[398] which differ little
from a halter, and the lips are perforated with spikes.

67. Nearchus, producing proofs of their skill in works of art, says,
that when they saw sponges in use among the Macedonians, they imitated
them by sewing hairs, thin threads, and strings in wool; after the wool
was felted, they drew out the hairs, threads, and strings, and dyed it
with colours. There quickly appeared also manufactures of brushes for
the body, and of vessels for oil (lecythi). They write, he says, letters
upon cloth, smoothed by being well beaten, although other authors affirm
that they have no knowledge of writing. They use brass, which is cast,
and not wrought; he does not give the reason of this, although he
mentions the strange effect, namely, if that vessels of this description
fall to the ground, they break like those made of clay.

This following custom also is mentioned in accounts of India, that,
instead of prostrating themselves before their kings, it is usual to
address them, and all persons in authority and high station, with a
prayer.

The country produces precious stones, as crystal, carbuncles of all
kinds, and pearls.

68. As an instance of the disagreement among historians, [CAS. 717] we
may adduce their (different) accounts of Calanus. They all agree that he
accompanied Alexander, and underwent a voluntary death by fire in his
presence, but they differ as to the manner and cause of his death. Some
give the following account. Calanus accompanied the king, as the
rehearser of his praises, beyond the boundaries of India, contrary to
the common Indian custom; for the philosophers attend upon their kings,
and act as instructors in the worship of the gods, in the same manner as
the Magi attend the Persian kings. When he fell sick at Pasargadæ, being
then attacked with disease for the first time in his life, he put
himself to death at the age of seventy-three years, regardless of the
entreaties of the king. A pyre was raised, and a golden couch placed
upon it. He laid down upon it, and covering himself up, was burnt to
death.

Others say, that a chamber was constructed of wood, which was filled
with the leaves of trees, and a pyre being raised upon the roof, he was
shut up in it, according to his directions, after the procession, with
which he had been accompanied, had arrived at the spot. He threw himself
upon the pyre, and was consumed like a log of wood, together with the
chamber.

Megasthenes says, that self-destruction is not a dogma of the
philosophers, and that those who commit this act are accounted
fool-hardy; that some, who are by nature harsh, inflict wounds upon
their bodies, or cast themselves down precipices; those who are
impatient of pain drown themselves; those who can endure pain strangle
themselves; and those of ardent tempers throw themselves into the fire.
Of this last description was Calanus, who had no control over himself,
and was a slave to the table of Alexander. Calanus is censured, while
Mandanis is applauded. When Alexander’s messengers invited the latter to
come to the son of Jove, promising a reward if he would comply, and
threatening punishment if he refused, he answered, “Alexander was not
the son of Jove, for he did not govern even the smallest portion of the
earth; nor did he himself desire a gift of one who[399] was satisfied
with nothing. Neither did he fear his threats, for as long as he lived
India would supply him with food enough; and when he died, he should be
delivered from the flesh wasted by old age, and be translated to a
better and purer state of existence.” Alexander commended and pardoned
him.

69. Historians also relate that the Indians worship Jupiter Ombrius (or,
the Rainy), the river Ganges, and the indigenous deities of the country;
that when the king washes his hair,[400] a great feast is celebrated,
and large presents are sent, each person displaying his wealth in
competition with his neighbour.

They say, that some of the gold-digging myrmeces (ants) have wings; and
that the rivers, like those of Iberia,[401] bring down gold-dust.

In processions at their festivals, many elephants are in the train,
adorned with gold and silver, numerous carriages drawn by four horses
and by several pairs of oxen; then follows a body of attendants in full
dress, (bearing) vessels of gold, large basins and goblets, an
orguia[402] in breadth, tables, chairs of state, drinking-cups, and
lavers of Indian copper, most of which were set with precious stones, as
emeralds, beryls, and Indian carbuncles; garments embroidered and
interwoven with gold; wild beasts, as buffaloes,[403] panthers, tame
lions, and a multitude of birds of variegated plumage and of fine song.

Cleitarchus speaks of four-wheeled carriages bearing trees with large
leaves, from which were suspended (in cages) different kinds of tame
birds, among which the orion[404] was said to possess the sweetest note,
but the catreus[405] was the most beautiful in appearance, and had the
most variegated plumage. In shape it approached nearest to the peacock,
but the rest of the description must be taken from Cleitarchus.

70. Opposed to the Brachmanes there are philosophers, called Pramnæ,
contentious people, and fond of argument. They ridicule the Brachmanes
as boasters and fools for occupying themselves with physiology and
astronomy. Some of the Pramnæ are called Pramnæ of the mountains, others
Gymnetæ, others again are called Townsmen and Countrymen. [CAS. 719]
The Pramnæ of the mountains wear deer-skins, and carry scrips filled
with roots and drugs; they profess to practise medicine by means of
incantations, charms, and amulets.

The Gymnetæ, as their name imports, are naked and live chiefly in the
open air, practising fortitude for the space of thirty-seven years; this
I have before mentioned; women live in their society, but without
cohabitation. The Gymnetæ are held in singular estimation.

71. The (Pramnæ) Townsmen are occupied in civil affairs, dwell in
cities, and wear fine linen, or (as Countrymen they live) in the fields,
clothed in the skins of fawns or antelopes. In short, the Indians wear
white garments, white linen and muslin, contrary to the accounts of
those who say that they wear garments of a bright colour; all of them
wear long hair and long beards, plait their hair, and bind it with a
fillet.

72. Artemidorus says that the Ganges descends from the Emoda mountains
and proceeds towards the south; when it arrives at the city Ganges,[406]
it turns to the east, and keeps this direction as far as
Palibothra,[407] and the mouth by which it discharges itself into the
sea. He calls one of the rivers which flow into it Œdanes,[408] which
breeds crocodiles and dolphins. Some other circumstances besides are
mentioned by him, but in so confused and negligent a manner that they
are not to be regarded. To these accounts may be added that of Nicolaus
Damascenus.

73. This writer states that at Antioch, near Daphne,[409] he met with
ambassadors from the Indians, who were sent to Augustus Cæsar. It
appeared from the letter that several persons were mentioned in it, but
three only survived, whom he says he saw. The rest had died chiefly in
consequence of the length of the journey. The letter was written in
Greek upon a skin; the import of it was, that Porus was the writer, that
although he was sovereign of six hundred kings, yet that he highly
esteemed the friendship of Cæsar; that he was willing to allow him a
passage through his country, in whatever part he pleased, and to assist
him in any undertaking that was just.

Eight naked servants, with girdles round their waists, and fragrant with
perfumes, presented the gifts which were brought. The presents were a
Hermes (i. e. a man) born without arms, whom I have seen, large snakes,
a serpent ten cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in
length, and a partridge (?) larger than a vulture. They were accompanied
by the person, it is said, who burnt himself to death at Athens. This is
the practice with persons in distress, who seek escape from existing
calamities, and with others in prosperous circumstances, as was the case
with this man. For as everything hitherto had succeeded with him, he
thought it necessary to depart, lest some unexpected calamity should
happen to him by continuing to live; with a smile, therefore, naked,
anointed, and with the girdle round his waist, he leaped upon the pyre.
On his tomb was this inscription,—ZARMANOCHEGAS,[410] AN INDIAN, A
NATIVE OF BARGOSA,[411] HAVING IMMORTALIZED HIMSELF ACCORDING TO THE
CUSTOM OF HIS COUNTRY, HERE LIES.



CHAPTER II.

ARIANA.


1. Next to India is Ariana, the first portion of the country subject to
the Persians, lying beyond[412] the Indus, and the first [CAS. 720] of
the higher satrapies without the Taurus.[413] On the north it is bounded
by the same mountains as India, on the south by the same sea, and by the
same river Indus, which separates it from India. It stretches thence
towards the west as far as the line drawn from the Caspian Gates[414] to
Carmania,[415] whence its figure is quadrilateral.

The southern side begins from the mouths of the Indus, and from
Patalene, and terminates at Carmania and the mouth of the Persian Gulf,
by a promontory projecting a considerable distance to the south. It then
makes a bend towards the gulf in the direction of Persia.

The Arbies, who have the same name as the river Arbis,[416] are the
first inhabitants we meet with in this country. They are separated by
the Arbis from the next tribe, the Oritæ, and according to Nearchus,
occupy a tract of sea-coast of about 1000 stadia in length; this country
also is a part of India. Next are the Oritæ, a people governed by their
own laws. The voyage along the coast belonging to this people extends
1800 stadia, that along the country of the Ichthyophagi, who follow
next, extends 7400 stadia; that along the country of the Carmani as far
as Persia, 3700 stadia. The whole number of stadia is 13,900.

2. The greater part of the country inhabited by the Ichthyophagi is on a
level with the sea. No trees, except palms and a kind of thorn, and the
tamarisk, grow there. There is also a scarcity of water, and of food
produced by cultivation. Both they and their cattle subsist upon fish,
and are supplied by rain water and wells. The flesh of the animals has
the smell of fish. Their dwellings are built with the bones of large
whales and shells, the ribs furnishing beams and supports, and the
jaw-bones, door-ways. The vertebral bones serve as mortars in which
fish, which have been previously dried in the sun, are pounded. Of this,
with the addition of flour, cakes are made; for they have grinding mills
(for corn), although they have no iron. This however is not so
surprising, because it is possible for them to import it from other
parts. But how do they hollow out the mills again, when worn away? with
the same stones, they say, with which their arrows and javelins, which
are hardened in the fire, are sharpened. Some fish are dressed in ovens,
but the greater part is eaten raw. The fish are taken in nets made of
the bark of the palm.

3. Above the Ichthyophagi is situated Gedrosia,[417] a country less
exposed to the heat of the sun than India, but more so than the rest of
Asia. As it is without fruits and water, except in summer, it is not
much better than the country of the Ichthyophagi. But it produces
aromatics, particularly nard and myrrh, in such quantity, that the army
of Alexander used them on the march for tent coverings and beds; they
thus breathed an air full of odours, and at the same time more
salubrious.

The summer was purposely chosen for leaving India, for at that season it
rains in Gedrosia, and the rivers and wells are filled, but in winter
they fail. The rain falls in the higher parts to the north, and near the
mountains: when the rivers swell, the plains near the sea are watered,
and the wells are also filled. Alexander sent persons before him into
the desert country to dig wells and to prepare stations for himself and
his fleet.

4. Having separated his forces into three divisions, he set out with one
division through Gedrosia, keeping at the utmost from the sea not more
than 500 stadia, in order to secure the coast for his fleet; but he
frequently approached the sea-side, although the beach was impracticable
and rugged. The second division he sent forward under the command of
Craterus through the interior, with a view of reducing Ariana, and of
proceeding to the same places to which he himself was directing his
march. (The third division), the fleet he intrusted to Nearchus and
Onesicritus, his master pilot, giving them orders to [CAS. 721] take up
convenient positions in following him, and to sail along the coast
parallel to his line of march.

5. Nearchus says, that while Alexander was on his march, he himself
commenced his voyage, in the autumn, about the achronical rising of the
Pleiades,[418] the wind not being before favourable. The Barbarians
however, taking courage at the departure of the king, became daring, and
attempted to throw off their subjection, attacked them, and endeavoured
to drive them out of the country. But Craterus set out from the
Hydaspes, and proceeded through the country of the Arachoti and of the
Drangæ into Carmania.

Alexander was greatly distressed throughout the whole march, as his road
lay through a barren country. The supplies of provisions which he
obtained came from a distance, and were scanty and unfrequent, so much
so that the army suffered greatly from hunger, the beasts of burden
dropped down, and the baggage was abandoned, both on the march and in
the camp. The army was saved by eating dates and the marrow of the
palm-tree.[419]

Alexander however (says Nearchus), although acquainted with the
hardships of the enterprise, was ambitious of conducting this large army
in safety, as a conqueror, through the same country where, according to
the prevailing report, Semiramis escaped by flight from India with about
twenty, and Cyrus with about seven men.

6. Besides the want of provisions, the scorching heat was distressing,
as also the deep and burning sand. In some places there were sand-hills,
so that in addition to the difficulty of lifting the legs, as out of a
pit, there were ascents and descents. It was necessary also, on account
of the watering places, to make long marches of two, four, and sometimes
even of six hundred stadia, for the most part during the night.
Frequently the encampment was at a distance of 30 stadia from the
watering places, in order that the soldiers might not be induced by
thirst to drink to excess. For many of them plunged into the water in
their armour, and continued drinking until they were drowned; when
swollen after death they floated, and corrupted the shallow water of the
cisterns. Others, exhausted by thirst, lay exposed to the sun, in the
middle of the road. They then became tremulous, their hands and their
feet shook, and they died like persons seized with cold and shivering.
Some turned out of the road to indulge in sleep, overcome with
drowsiness and fatigue; some were left behind, and perished, being
ignorant of the road, destitute of everything, and overpowered by heat.
Others escaped after great sufferings. A torrent of water, which fell in
the night time, overwhelmed and destroyed many persons, and much
baggage; a great part even of the royal equipage was swept away.

The guides, through ignorance, deviated so far into the interior, that
the sea was no longer in sight. The king, perceiving the danger,
immediately set out in search of the coast; when he had discovered it,
and by sinking wells had found water fit for drinking, he sent for the
army: afterwards he continued his march for seven days near the shore,
with a good supply of water. He then again returned into the interior.

7. There was a plant resembling the laurel, which if eaten by the beasts
of burden caused them to die of epilepsy, accompanied with foaming at
the mouth. A thorn also, the fruit of which, like gourds, strewed the
ground, and was full of a juice; if drops of it fell into the eyes of
any kind of animal it became completely blind. Many persons were
suffocated by eating unripe dates. Danger also was to be apprehended
from serpents; for on the sand-hills there grew a plant, underneath
which they crept and hid themselves. The persons wounded by them died.

The Oritæ, it was said, smeared the points of their arrows, which were
of wood hardened in the fire, with deadly poisons. When Ptolemy was
wounded and in danger of his life, a person appeared in a dream to
Alexander, and showed him a root with leaves and branches, which he told
him to bruise and place upon the wound. Alexander awoke from his dream,
and remembering the vision, searched and found the root growing in
abundance, of which both he and others made use; [CAS. 723] when the
Barbarians perceived that the antidote for the poison was discovered,
they surrendered to the king. It is probable, however, that some one
acquainted with the plant informed the king of its virtues, and that the
fabulous part of the story was invented for the purpose of flattery.

Having arrived at the palace[420] of the Gedrosii on the sixtieth day
after leaving the Ori,[421] and allowed his army a short period of rest,
he set out for Carmania.

8. The position of the southern side of Ariana is thus situated, with
reference to the sea-coast, the country of the Gedrosii and the Oritæ
lying near and above it. A great part of Gedrosia extends into the
interior until it touches upon the Drangæ, Arachoti, and Paropamisadæ,
of whom Eratosthenes speaks in the following manner: we cannot give a
better description. “Ariana,” he says, “is bounded on the east by the
Indus, on the south by the Great Sea, on the north by the Paropamisus
and the succeeding chain of mountains as far as the Caspian Gates, on
the west by the same limits[422] by which the territory of the Parthians
is separated from Media, and Carmania from Parætacene and Persia.

The breadth of the country is the length of the Indus, reckoned from the
Paropamisus as far as the mouths of that river, and amounts to 12,000,
or according to others to 13,000, stadia. The length, beginning from the
Caspian Gates, as it is laid down in Asiatic Stathmi,[423] is estimated
in two different ways. From the Caspian Gates to Alexandreia among the
Arii[424] through Parthia is one and the same road. Then a road leads in
a straight line through Bactriana, and over the pass of the mountain to
Ortospana,[425] to the meeting of the three roads from Bactra, which is
among the Paropamisadæ. The other branch turns off a little from Aria
towards the south to Prophthasia in Drangiana; then the remainder leads
as far as the confines of India and of the Indus; so that the road
through the Drangæ and the Arachoti is longer, the whole amounting to
15,300 stadia. But if we deduct 1300 stadia, we shall have the remainder
as the length of the country in a straight line, namely, 14,000 stadia;
for the length of the coast is not much less, although some persons
increase this sum by adding to the 10,000 stadia Carmania, which is
reckoned at 6000 stadia. For they seem to reckon it either together with
the gulfs, or together with the Carmanian coast within the Persian Gulf.
The name also of Ariana is extended so as to include some part of
Persia, Media, and the north of Bactria and Sogdiana; for these nations
speak nearly the same language.[426]

9. The order in which these nations are disposed is as follows. Along
the Indus are the Paropamisadæ, above whom lies the mountain
Paropamisus; then towards the south are the Arachoti; then next to these
towards the south, the Gedroseni, together with other tribes who occupy
the sea-coast; the Indus runs parallel along the breadth of these
tracts. The Indians occupy [in part][427] some of the countries situated
along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander
deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his
own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a
marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants.

The Arii are situated on the west, by the side of the Paropamisadæ and
the Drangæ[428] by the Arachoti and Gedrosii. The Arii are situated by
the side of the Drangæ both on the north and west, and nearly encompass
them. Bactriana adjoins Aria on the north, and the Paropamisadæ, through
whose territory Alexander passed when he crossed the Caucasus on his way
to Bactra. Towards the west, next to the Arii, are the Parthians, and
the parts about the Caspian Gates. Towards the south of Parthia is the
desert of Carmania; then follows the remainder of Carmania and Gedrosia.

10. We shall better understand the position of the places about the
above-mentioned mountainous tract, if we further examine the route which
Alexander took from the Parthian territory to Bactriana, when he was in
pursuit of Bessus. He came first to Ariana, next to the Drangæ, where he
put to death Philotas, the son of Parmenio, having detected his
traitorous intentions. He despatched persons to Ecbatana[429] also
[CAS. 725] to put the father to death as an accomplice in the
conspiracy. It is said that these persons performed in eleven days, upon
dromedaries, a journey of 30 or 40 days, and executed their business.

The Drangæ resemble the Persians in all other respects in their mode of
life, except that they have little wine. Tin is found in the
country.[430]

Alexander next went from the Drangæ to the Euergetæ,[431] (to whom Cyrus
gave this name,) and to the Arachoti; then through the territory of the
Paropamisadæ at the setting of the Pleiad.[432] It is a mountainous
country, and at that time was covered with snow, so that the march was
performed with difficulty. The numerous villages, however, on their
march, which were well provided with everything except oil, afforded
relief in their distress. On their left hand were the summits of the
mountains.

The southern parts of the Paropamisus belong to India and Ariana; the
northern parts towards the west belong to Bactriana [towards the east to
Sogdiana * *[433] Bactrian barbarians]. Having wintered there, with
India above to the right hand, and having founded a city, he crossed the
summits of the mountains into Bactriana. The road was bare of everything
except a few trees of the bushy terminthus;[434] the army was driven
from want of food to eat the flesh of the beasts of burthen, and that in
a raw state for want of firewood; but silphium grew in great abundance,
which promoted the digestion of this raw food. Fifteen days after
founding the city and leaving winter quarters, he came to Adrapsa[435]
(Darapsa?), a city of Bactriana.

11. Chaarene is situated somewhere about this part of the country
bordering upon India. This, of all the places subject to the Parthians,
lies nearest to India. It is distant 10,000 or 9000 stadia[436] from
Bactriana,[437] through the country of the Arachoti, and the
above-mentioned mountainous tract. Craterus traversed this country,
subjugating those who refused to submit, and hastened with the greatest
expedition to form a junction with the king. Nearly about the same time
both armies, consisting of infantry, entered Carmania together, and at a
short interval afterwards Nearchus sailed with his fleet into the
Persian Gulf, having undergone great danger and distress from wandering
in his course, and among other causes, from great whales.

12. It is probable that those who sailed in the expedition greatly
exaggerated many circumstances; yet their statements prove the
sufferings to which they were exposed, and that their apprehensions were
greater than the real danger. That which alarmed them the most was the
magnitude of the whales, which occasioned great commotion in the sea
from their numbers; their blowing was attended with so great a darkness,
that the sailors could not see where they stood. But when the pilots
informed the sailors, who were terrified at the sight and ignorant of
the cause, that they were animals which might easily be driven away by
the sound of a trumpet, and by loud noises, Nearchus impelled the
vessels with violence in the direction of the impediment, and at the
same time frightened the animals with the sound of trumpets. The whales
dived, and again rose at the prow of the vessels, so as to give the
appearance of a naval combat; but they soon made off.

13. Those who now sail to India speak of the size of these animals and
their mode of appearance, but as coming neither in bodies nor
frequently, yet as repulsed by shouts and by the sound of trumpets. They
affirm that they do not approach the land, but that the bones of those
which die, bared of flesh, are readily thrown up by the waves, and
supply the Ichthyophagi with the above-mentioned material for the
construction of their cabins. According to Nearchus, the size of these
animals is three and twenty orguiæ in length.[438]

[CAS. 726] Nearchus says that he proved the confident belief of the
sailors in the existence of an island situated in the passage, and
destructive to those who anchored near it, to be false.

A bark in its course, when it came opposite to this island, was never
afterwards seen, and some men who were sent in search did not venture to
disembark upon the island, but shouted and called to the crew, when,
receiving no answer, they returned. But as all imputed this
disappearance to the island, Nearchus said that he himself sailed to it,
went ashore, disembarked with a part of his crew, and went round it. But
not discovering any trace of those of whom he was in search, he
abandoned the attempt, and informed his men that no fault was to be
imputed to the island (for otherwise destruction would have come upon
himself and those who disembarked with him), but that some other cause
(and innumerable others were possible) might have occasioned the loss of
the vessel.

14. Carmania is the last portion of the sea-coast which begins from the
Indus. Its first promontory projects towards the south into the Great
Sea.[439] After it has formed the mouth of the Persian Gulf towards the
promontory, which is in sight, of Arabia Felix, it bends towards the
Persian Gulf, and is continued till it touches Persia.

Carmania is large, situated in the interior, and extending itself
between Gedrosia and Persia, but stretches more to the north than
Gedrosia. This is indicated by its fertility, for it not only produces
everything, but the trees are of a large size, excepting however the
olive; it is also watered by rivers. Gedrosia also differs little from
the country of the Ichthyophagi, so that frequently there is no produce
from the ground. They therefore keep the annual produce in store for
several years.

Onesicritus says, that a river in Carmania brings down gold-dust; that
there are mines of silver, copper, and minium; and that there are two
mountains, one of which contains arsenic, the other salt.

There belongs to it a desert tract, which is contiguous to Parthia and
Parætacene. The produce of the ground is like that of Persia; and among
other productions the vine. The Carmanian vine, as we call it, often
bears bunches of grapes of two cubits in size; the seeds are very
numerous and very large; probably the plant grows in its native soil
with great luxuriance.

Asses, on account of the scarcity of horses, are generally made use of
even in war. They sacrifice an ass to Mars, who is the only deity
worshipped by them, for they are a warlike people. No one marries before
he has cut off the head of an enemy and presented it to the king, who
deposits the scull in the royal treasury. The tongue is minced and mixed
with flour, which the king, after tasting it, gives to the person who
brought it, to be eaten by himself and his family. That king is the most
highly respected, to whom the greatest number of heads are presented.

According to Nearchus, most of the customs and the language of the
inhabitants of Carmania resemble those of the Persians and Medes.

The passage across the mouth of the Persian Gulf does not occupy more
than one day.



CHAPTER III.


1. Next to Carmania is Persis. A great part of it extends along the
coast of the Gulf, which has its name from the country, but a much
larger portion stretches into the interior, and particularly in its
length, reckoned from the south, and Carmania to the north, and to the
nations of Media.

It is of a threefold character, as we regard its natural condition and
the quality of the air. First, the coast, extending for about 4400 or
4300 stadia, is burnt up with heat; it is sandy, producing little except
palm trees, and terminates at the greatest river in those parts, the
name of which is Oroatis.[440] Secondly, the country above the coast
produces everything, and is a plain; it is excellently adapted for the
rearing of cattle, and abounds with rivers and lakes.

The third portion lies towards the north, and is bleak and mountainous.
On its borders live the camel-breeders.

[CAS. 727] Its length, according to Eratosthenes, towards the north and
Media,[441] is about 8000, or, including some projecting promontories,
9000 stadia; the remainder (from Media) to the Caspian Gates is not more
than 3000 stadia. The breadth in the interior of the country from Susa
to Persepolis is 4200 stadia, and thence to the borders of Carmania 1600
stadia more.

The tribes inhabiting this country are those called the Pateischoreis,
the Achæmenidæ, and Magi; these last affect a sedate mode of life; the
Curtii and Mardi are robbers, the rest are husbandmen.

2. Susis also is almost a part of Persis. It lies between Persis and
Babylonia, and has a very considerable city, Susa. For the Persians and
Cyrus, after the conquest of the Medes, perceiving that their own
country was situated towards the extremities, but Susis more towards the
interior, nearer also to Babylon and the other nations, there placed the
royal seat of the empire. They were pleased with its situation on the
confines of Persis, and with the importance of the city; besides the
consideration that it had never of itself undertaken any great
enterprise, had always been in subjection to other people, and
constituted a part of a greater body, except, perhaps, anciently in the
heroic times.

It is said to have been founded by Tithonus, the father of Memnon. Its
compass was 120 stadia. Its shape was oblong. The Acropolis was called
Memnonium. The Susians have the name also of Cissii. Æschylus[442] calls
the mother of Memnon, Cissia. Memnon is said to be buried near Paltus in
Syria, by the river Badas, as Simonides says in his Memnon, a
dithyrambic poem among the Deliaca. The wall of the city, the temples
and palaces, were constructed in the same manner as those of the
Babylonians, of baked brick and asphaltus, as some writers relate.
Polycletus however says, that its circumference was 200 stadia, and that
it was without walls.

3. They embellished the palace at Susa more than the rest, but they did
not hold in less veneration and honour the palaces at Persepolis and
Pasargadæ.[443] For in these stronger and hereditary places were the
treasure-house, the riches, and tombs of the Persians. There was another
palace at Gabæ, in the upper parts of Persia, and another on the
sea-coast, near a place called Taoce.[444]

This was the state of things during the empire of the Persians. But
afterwards different princes occupied different palaces; some, as was
natural, less sumptuous, after the power of Persis had been reduced
first by the Macedonians, and secondly still more by the Parthians. For
although the Persians have still a kingly government, and a king of
their own, yet their power is very much diminished, and they are subject
to the king of Parthia.

4. Susa is situated in the interior, upon the river Choaspes, beyond the
bridge; but the territory extends to the sea: and the sea-coast of this
territory, from the borders of the Persian coast nearly as far as the
mouths of the Tigris, is a distance of about 3000 stadia.

The Choaspes flows through Susis, terminating on the same coast, and has
its source in the territory of the Uxii.[445] For a rugged and
precipitous range of mountains lies between the Susians and Persis, with
narrow defiles, difficult to pass; they were inhabited by robbers, who
constantly exacted payment even from the kings themselves, at their
entrance into Persis from Susis.

Polycletus says, that the Choaspes, and the Eulæus,[446] and the Tigris
also enter a lake, and thence discharge themselves into the sea; that on
the side of the lake is a mart, as the rivers do not receive the
merchandise from the sea, nor convey it down to the sea, on account of
dams in the river, purposely constructed, and that the goods are
transported by land a distance of 800 stadia[447] to Susa; according to
others, the rivers which flow through Susis discharge themselves by the
intermediate canals of the Euphrates into the single stream of the
Tigris, which on this account has at its mouth the name of Pasitigris.

[CAS. 729] 5. According to Nearchus, the sea-coast of Susis is swampy,
and terminates at the river Euphrates; at its mouth is a village, which
receives the merchandise from Arabia; for the coast of Arabia approaches
close to the mouths of the Euphrates and the Pasitigris; the whole
intermediate space is occupied by a lake which receives the Tigris; on
sailing up the Pasitigris 150 stadia is the bridge of rafts leading to
Susa from Persis, and is distant from Susa 60 (600?) stadia; the
Pasitigris is distant from the Oroatis about 2000 stadia; the ascent
through the lake to the mouth of the Tigris is 600 (6000?) stadia;[448]
near the mouth stands the Susian village (Aginis), distant from Susa 500
stadia; the journey by water from the mouth of the Euphrates, up to
Babylon, through a well-inhabited tract of country, is a distance of
more than 3000 stadia.

Onesicritus says that all the rivers discharge themselves into the lake,
both the Euphrates and the Tigris; and that the Euphrates, again issuing
from the lake, discharges itself into the sea by a separate mouth.

6. There are many other narrow defiles in passing out through the
territory of the Uxii, and entering Persis. These Alexander forced in
his march through the country at the Persian Gates, and at other places,
when he was hastening to see the principal parts of Persis, and the
treasure-holds, in which wealth had been accumulated during the long
period that Asia was tributary to Persis.

He crossed many rivers, which flow through the country and discharge
themselves into the Persian Gulf.

Next to the Choaspes are the Copratas[449] and the Pasitigris, which has
its source in the country of the Uxii. There is also the river Cyrus,
which flows through Cœle Persis,[450] as it is called, near Pasargadæ.
The king changed his name, which was formerly Agradatus, to that of this
river. Alexander crossed the Araxes[451] close to Persepolis. Persepolis
was distinguished for the magnificence of the treasures which it
contained. The Araxes flows out of the Parætacene,[452] and receives the
Medus,[453] which has its source in Media. These rivers run through a
very fruitful valley, which, like Persepolis, lies close to Carmania
and to the eastern parts of the country. Alexander burnt the palace at
Persepolis, to avenge the Greeks, whose temples and cities the Persians
had destroyed by fire and sword.

7. He next came to Pasargadæ,[454] which also was an ancient royal
residence. Here he saw in a park the tomb of Cyrus. It was a small
tower, concealed within a thick plantation of trees solid below, but
above consisting of one story and a shrine which had a very narrow
opening; Aristobulus says, he entered through this opening, by order of
Alexander, and decorated the tomb. He saw there a golden couch, a table
with cups, a golden coffin, and a large quantity of garments and dresses
ornamented with precious stones. These objects he saw at his first
visit, but on a subsequent visit the place had been robbed, and
everything had been removed except the couch and the coffin which were
only broken. The dead body had been removed from its place; whence it
was evident that it was the act not of the Satrap,[455] but of robbers,
who had left behind what they could not easily carry off. And this
occurred although there was a guard of Magi stationed about the place,
who received for their daily subsistence a sheep, and every month a
horse.[456] The remote distance to which the army of Alexander had
advanced, to Bactra and India, gave occasion to the introduction of many
disorderly acts, and to this among others.

Such is the account of Aristobulus, who records the following
inscription on the tomb. “O MAN, I AM CYRUS,[457] I ESTABLISHED THE
PERSIAN EMPIRE AND WAS KING OF ASIA. GRUDGE ME NOT THEREFORE THIS
MONUMENT.”

Onesicritus however says that the tower had ten stories, that Cyrus lay
in the uppermost, and that there was an inscription in Greek, cut in
Persian letters, “I CYRUS, KING OF KINGS, LIE HERE.” And another
inscription to the same effect in the Persian language.

8. Onesicritus mentions also this inscription on the tomb of Darius: “I
WAS A FRIEND TO MY FRIENDS, I WAS THE FIRST OF HORSEMEN AND ARCHERS, I
EXCELLED AS HUNTER, I COULD DO EVERYTHING.”

[CAS. 730] Aristus of Salamis, a writer of a much later age than these,
says, that the tower consisted of two stories, and was large; that it
was built at the time the Persians succeeded to the kingdom (of the
Medes); that the tomb was preserved; that the above-mentioned
inscription was in the Greek, and that there was another to the same
purport in the Persian language.

Cyrus held in honour Pasargadæ, because he there conquered, in his last
battle, Astyages the Mede, and transferred to himself the empire of
Asia; he raised it to the rank of a city, and built a palace in memory
of his victory.

9. Alexander transferred everything that was precious in Persis to Susa,
which was itself full of treasures and costly materials; he did not,
however, consider this place, but Babylon, as the royal residence, and
intended to embellish it. There too his treasure was deposited.

They say that, besides the treasures in Babylon and in the camp of
Alexander, which were not included in the sum, the treasure found at
Susa and in Persis was reckoned to amount to 40,000, and according to
some writers to 50,000, talents. But others say, that the whole
treasure, collected from all quarters, and transported to Ecbatana,
amounted to 180,000 talents, and that the 8,000 talents which Darius
carried away with him in his flight from Media became the booty of those
who put him to death.

10. Alexander preferred Babylon, because he saw that it far surpassed
the other cities in magnitude, and had other advantages. Although Susis
is fertile, it has a glowing and scorching atmosphere, particularly near
the city, as he (Aristobulus?) says. Lizards and serpents at mid-day in
the summer, when the sun is at its greatest height, cannot cross the
streets of the city quick enough to prevent their being burnt to death
midway by the heat. This happens nowhere in Persis, although it lies
more towards the south.

Cold water for baths is suddenly heated by exposure to the sun. Barley
spread out in the sun is roasted[458] like barley prepared in ovens. For
this reason earth is laid to the depth of two cubits upon the roofs of
the houses. They are obliged to construct their houses narrow, on
account of the weight placed upon them, and from want of long beams,
but, as large dwellings are required to obviate the suffocating heat,
the houses are long.

The beam made of the palm tree has a peculiar property, for although it
retains its solidity, it does not as it grows old give way downwards,
but curves upwards with the weight, and is a better support to the roof.

The cause of the scorching heat is said to be high, overhanging
mountains on the north, which intercept the northern winds. These,
blowing from the tops of the mountains at a great height, fly over
without touching the plains, to the more southern parts of Susis. There
the air is still, particularly when the Etesian winds cool the other
parts of the country which are burnt up by heat.

11. Susis is so fertile in grain, that barley and wheat produce,
generally, one hundred, and sometimes two hundred fold. Hence the
furrows are not ploughed close together, for the roots when crowded
impede the sprouting of the plant.

The vine did not grow there before the Macedonians planted it, both
there and at Babylon. They do not dig trenches, but thrust down into the
ground iron-headed stakes, which when drawn out are immediately replaced
by the plants.

Such is the character of the inland parts. The sea-coast is marshy and
without harbours; hence Nearchus says, that he met with no native
guides, when coasting with his fleet from India to Babylonia, for
nowhere could his vessels put in, nor was he able to procure persons who
could direct him by their knowledge and experience.

12. The part of Babylonia formerly called Sitacene, and afterwards
Apolloniatis,[459] is situated near Susis.

Above both, on the north and towards the east, are the Elymæi[460] and
the Parætaceni, predatory people relying for security on their situation
in a rugged and mountainous country. The Parætaceni lie more immediately
above the Apolloniatæ, and therefore annoy them the more. The Elymæi are
at war with this people and with the Susians, and the Uxii with the
Elymæi, but not so constantly at present as might be expected, on
account of the power of the Parthians, to whom all the inhabitants
[CAS. 732] of those regions are under subjection. When therefore the
Parthians are quiet, all are tranquil, and their subject nations. But
when, as frequently happens, there is an insurrection, which has
occurred even in our own times, the event is not the same to all, but
different to different people. For the disturbance has benefited some,
but disappointed the expectation of others.

Such is the nature of the countries of Persis and Susiana.

13. The manners and customs of the Persians are the same as those of the
Susians and the Medes, and many other people; and they have been
described by several writers, yet I must mention what is suitable to my
purpose.

The Persians do not erect statues nor altars, but, considering the
heaven as Jupiter, sacrifice on a high place.[461] They worship the sun
also, whom they call Mithras, the moon, Venus, fire, earth, winds, and
water. They sacrifice, having offered up prayers, in a place free from
impurities, and present the victim crowned.[462]

After the Magus, who directs the sacrifice, has divided the flesh, each
goes away with his share, without setting apart any portion to the gods;
for the god, they say, requires the soul of the victim, and nothing
more. Nevertheless, according to some writers, they lay a small piece of
the caul upon the fire.

14. But it is to fire and water especially that they offer sacrifice.
They throw upon the fire dry wood without the bark, and place fat over
it; they then pour oil upon it, and light it below; they do not blow the
flame with their breath, but fan it; those who have blown the flame with
their breath, or thrown any dead thing or dirt upon the fire, are put to
death.

They sacrifice to water by going to a lake, river, or fountain; having
dug a pit, they slaughter the victim over it, taking care that none of
the pure water near be sprinkled with blood, and thus be polluted. They
then lay the flesh in order upon myrtle or laurel branches; the Magi
touch it with slender twigs,[463] and make incantations, pouring oil
mixed with milk and honey, not into the fire, nor into the water, but
upon the earth. They continue their incantations for a long time,
holding in the hands a bundle of slender myrtle rods.

15. In Cappadocia (for in this country there is a great body of Magi,
called Pyræthi,[464] and there are many temples dedicated to the Persian
deities) the sacrifice is not performed with a knife, but the victim is
beaten to death with a log of wood, as with a mallet.

The Persians have also certain large shrines, called Pyrætheia.[465] In
the middle of these is an altar, on which is a great quantity of ashes,
where the Magi maintain an unextinguished fire. They enter daily, and
continue their incantation for nearly an hour, holding before the fire a
bundle of rods, and wear round their heads high turbans of felt,
reaching down on each side so as to cover the lips and the sides of the
cheeks. The same customs are observed in the temples of Anaïtis and of
Omanus. Belonging to these temples are shrines, and a wooden statue of
Omanus is carried in procession. These we have seen ourselves.[466]
Other usages, and such as follow, are related by historians.

16. The Persians never pollute a river with urine, nor wash nor bathe in
it; they never throw a dead body, nor anything unclean, into it. To
whatever god they intend to sacrifice, they first address a prayer to
fire.

17. They are governed by hereditary kings. Disobedience is punished by
the head and arms being cut off, and the body cast forth. They marry
many women, and maintain at the same time a great number of concubines,
with a view to a numerous offspring.

The kings propose annual prizes for a numerous family of children.
Children are not brought into the presence of their parents until they
are four years old.

Marriages are celebrated at the beginning of the vernal equinox. The
bridegroom passes into the bride-chamber, having previously eaten some
fruit, or camel’s marrow, but nothing else during the day.

18. From the age of five to twenty-four years they are taught to use the
bow, to throw the javelin, to ride, and to speak the truth. They have
the most virtuous preceptors, [CAS. 733] who interweave useful fables
in their discourses, and rehearse, sometimes with, sometimes without,
music, the actions of the gods and of illustrious men.

The youths are called to rise before day-break, at the sound of brazen
instruments, and assemble in one spot, as if for arming themselves or
for the chase. They are arranged in companies of fifty, to each of which
one of the king’s or a satrap’s son is appointed as leader, who runs,
followed at command by the others, an appointed distance of thirty or
forty stadia.

They require them to give an account of each lesson, when they practise
loud speaking, and exercise the breath and lungs. They are taught to
endure heat, cold, and rains; to cross torrents, and keep their armour
and clothes dry; to pasture animals, to watch all night in the open air,
and to eat wild fruits, as the terminthus,[467] acorns, and wild pears.

[These persons are called Cardaces, who live upon plunder, for “carda”
means a manly and warlike spirit.][468]

The daily food after the exercise of the gymnasium is bread, a cake,
cardamum,[469] a piece of salt, and dressed meat either roasted or
boiled, and their drink is water.

Their mode of hunting is by throwing spears from horseback, or with
the bow or the sling.

In the evening they are employed in planting trees, cutting roots,
fabricating armour, and making lines and nets. The youth do not eat the
game, but carry it home. The king gives rewards for running, and to the
victors in the other contests of the pentathla (or five games). The
youths are adorned with gold, esteeming it for its fiery appearance.
They do not ornament the dead with gold, nor apply fire to them, on
account of its being an object of veneration.

19. They serve as soldiers in subordinate stations, and in those of
command from twenty to fifty years of age, both on foot and on
horseback. They do not concern themselves with the public markets, for
they neither buy nor sell. They are armed with a romb-shaped shield.
Besides quivers, they have battle-axes and short swords. On their heads
they wear a cap rising like a tower. The breastplate is composed of
scales of iron.

The dress of the chiefs consists of triple drawers, a double tunic with
sleeves reaching to the knees; the under garment is white, the upper of
a variegated colour. The cloak for summer is of a purple or violet
colour, but for winter of a variegated colour. The turbans are similar
to those of the Magi; and a deep double shoe. The generality of people
wear a double tunic reaching to the half of the leg. A piece of fine
linen is wrapped round the head. Each person has a bow and a sling.

The entertainments of the Persians are expensive. They set upon their
table entire animals in great number, and of various kinds. Their
couches, drinking-cups, and other articles are so brilliantly ornamented
that they gleam with gold and silver.

20. Their consultations on the most important affairs are carried on
while they are drinking, and they consider the resolutions made at that
time more to be depended upon than those made when sober.

On meeting persons of their acquaintance, and of equal rank with
themselves, on the road, they approach and kiss them, but to persons of
an inferior station they offer the cheek, and in that manner receive the
kiss. But to persons of still lower condition they only bend the body.

Their mode of burial is to smear the bodies over with wax, and then to
inter them. The Magi are not buried, but the birds are allowed to devour
them. These persons, according to the usage of the country, espouse even
their mothers.

Such are the customs of the Persians.

21. The following, mentioned by Polvcletus, are perhaps customary
practices:

At Susa each king builds in the citadel, as memorials of the
administration of his government, a dwelling for himself,
treasure-houses, and magazines for tribute collected (in kind).

From the sea-coast they obtain silver, from the interior the [CAS. 735]
produce of each province, as dyes, drugs, hair, wool, or anything else
of this sort, and cattle. The apportionment of the tribute was settled
by Darius [Longimanus, who was a very handsome person with the exception
of the length of his arms, which reached to his knees].[470] The greater
part both of gold and silver is wrought up, and there is not much in
coined money. The former they consider as best adapted for presents, and
for depositing in store-houses. So much coined money as suffices for
their wants they think enough; but, on the other hand, money is coined
in proportion to what is required for expenditure.[471]

22. Their habits are in general temperate. But their kings, from the
great wealth which they possessed, degenerated into a luxurious way of
life. They sent for wheat from Assos in Æolia, for Chalybonian[472] wine
from Syria, and water from the Eulæus, which is the lightest of all, for
an Attic cotylus measure of it weighs less by a drachm (than the same
quantity of any other water).

23. Of the barbarians the Persians were the best known to the Greeks,
for none of the other barbarians who governed Asia governed Greece. The
barbarians were not acquainted with the Greeks, and the Greeks were but
slightly acquainted, and by distant report only, with the barbarians. As
an instance, Homer was not acquainted with the empire of the Syrians nor
of the Medes, for otherwise as he mentions the wealth of Egyptian Thebes
and of Phœnicia, he would not have passed over in silence the wealth of
Babylon, of Ninus, and of Ecbatana.

The Persians were the first people that brought Greeks under their
dominion; the Lydians (before them) did the same, they were not however
masters of the whole, but of a small portion only of Asia, that within
the river Halys; their empire lasted for a short time, during the reigns
of Crœsus and Alyattes; and they were deprived of what little glory they
had acquired, when conquered by the Persians.

The Persians, (on the contrary, increased in power and,) as soon as they
had destroyed the Median empire, subdued the Lydians and brought the
Greeks of Asia under their dominion. At a later period they even passed
over into Greece and were worsted in many great battles, but still they
continued to keep possession of Asia, as far as the places on the
sea-coast, until they were completely subdued by the Macedonians.

24. The founder of their empire was Cyrus. He was succeeded by his son
Cambyses, who was put to death by the Magi. The seven Persians who
killed the Magi delivered the kingdom into the hands of Darius, the son
of Hystaspes. The succession terminated with Arses, whom Bagous the
eunuch having killed set up Darius, who was not of the royal family.
Alexander overthrew Darius, and reigned himself twelve years.[473] The
empire of Asia was partitioned out among his successors, and transmitted
to their descendants, but was dissolved after it had lasted about two
hundred and fifty years.[474]

At present the Persians are a separate people, governed by kings, who
are subject to other kings; to the kings of Macedon in former times, but
now to those of Parthia.



BOOK XVI. [CAS. 736]

SUMMARY


   The sixteenth Book contains Assyria, in which are the great
   cities Babylon and Nisibis; Adiabene, Mesopotamia, all Syria;
   Phœnicia, Palestine; the whole of Arabia; all that part of
   India which touches upon Arabia; the territory of the
   Saracens, called by our author Scenitis; and the whole country
   bordering the Dead and Red Seas.



CHAPTER I.


1. ASSYRIA is contiguous to Persia and Susiana. This name is given to
Babylonia, and to a large tract of country around; this tract contains
Aturia,[475] in which is Nineveh, the Apolloniatis, the Elymæi, the
Parætacæ, and the Chalonitis about Mount Zagrum,[476]—the plains about
Nineveh, namely, Dolomene, Calachene, Chazene, and Adiabene,—the nations
of Mesopotamia, bordering upon the Gordyæi;[477] the Mygdones about
Nisibis, extending to the Zeugma[478] of the Euphrates, and to the great
range of country on the other side that river, occupied by Arabians, and
by those people who are properly called Syrians in the present age. This
last people extend as far as the Cilicians, Phœnicians, and Jews, to the
sea opposite the Sea of Egypt, and to the Bay of Issus.

2. The name of Syrians seems to extend from Babylonia as far as the Bay
of Issus, and, anciently, from this bay to the Euxine.

Both tribes of the Cappadocians, those near the Taurus and those near
the Pontus, are called to this time Leuco-Syrians (or White
Syrians),[479] as though there existed a nation of Black Syrians. These
are the people situated beyond the Taurus, and I extend the name of
Taurus as far as the Amanus.[480]

When the historians of the Syrian empire say that the Medes were
overthrown by the Persians, and the Syrians by the Medes, they mean no
other Syrians than those who built the royal palaces at Babylon and
Nineveh; and Ninus, who built Nineveh in Aturia, was one of these
Syrians. His wife, who succeeded her husband, and founded Babylon, was
Semiramis. These sovereigns were masters of Asia. Many other works of
Semiramis, besides those at Babylon, are extant in almost every part of
this continent, as, for example, artificial mounds, which are called
mounds of Semiramis, and walls[481] and fortresses, with subterraneous
passages; cisterns for water; roads[482] to facilitate the ascent of
mountains; canals communicating with rivers and lakes; roads and
bridges.

The empire they left continued with their successors to the time of [the
contest between] Sardanapalus and Arbaces.[483] It was afterwards
transferred to the Medes.

3. The city Nineveh was destroyed immediately upon the overthrow of the
Syrians.[484] It was much larger than Babylon, and situated in the plain
of Aturia. Aturia borders upon the places about Arbela; between these is
the river Lycus.[485] Arbela and the parts about it[486] belong to
Babylonia. In the country on the other side of the Lycus are the plains
of Aturia, which surround Nineveh.[487]

[CAS. 737] In Aturia is situated Gaugamela, a village where Darius was
defeated and lost his kingdom. This place is remarkable for its name,
which, when interpreted, signifies the Camel’s House. Darius, the son of
Hystaspes, gave it this name, and assigned (the revenues of) the place
for the maintenance of a camel, which had undergone the greatest
possible labour and fatigue in the journey through the deserts of
Scythia, when carrying baggage and provision for the king. The
Macedonians, observing that this was a mean village, but Arbela a
considerable settlement (founded, as it is said, by Arbelus, son of
Athmoneus), reported that the battle was fought and the victory obtained
near Arbela, which account was transmitted to historians.

4. After Arbela and the mountain Nicatorium[488] (a name which
Alexander, after the victory at Arbela, superadded), is the river
Caprus,[489] situated at the same distance from Arbela as the Lycus. The
country is called Artacene.[490] Near Arbela is the city Demetrias; next
is the spring of naphtha, the fires, the temple of the goddess
Anæa,[491] Sadracæ, the palace of Darius, son of Hystaspes, the
Cyparisson, or plantation of Cypresses, and the passage across the
Caprus, which is close to Seleucia and Babylon.

5. Babylon itself also is situated in a plain. The wall is 385[492]
stadia in circumference, and 32 feet in thickness. The height of the
space between the towers is 50, and of the towers 60 cubits. The roadway
upon the walls will allow chariots with four horses when they meet to
pass each other with ease. Whence, among the seven wonders of the world,
are reckoned this wall and the hanging garden: the shape of the garden
is a square, and each side of it measures four plethra. It consists of
vaulted terraces, raised one above another, and resting upon cube-shaped
pillars. These are hollow and filled with earth to allow trees of the
largest size to be planted. The pillars, the vaults, and the terraces
are constructed of baked brick and asphalt.

The ascent to the highest story is by stairs, and at their side are
water engines, by means of which persons, appointed expressly for the
purpose, are continually employed in raising water from the Euphrates
into the garden. For the river, which is a stadium in breadth, flows
through the middle of the city, and the garden is on the side of the
river. The tomb also of Belus is there. At present it is in ruins,
having been demolished, as it is said, by Xerxes. It was a quadrangular
pyramid of baked brick, a stadium in height, and each of the sides a
stadium in length. Alexander intended to repair it. It was a great
undertaking, and required a long time for its completion (for ten
thousand men were occupied two months in clearing away the mound of
earth), so that he was not able to execute what he had attempted, before
disease hurried him rapidly to his end. None of the persons who
succeeded him attended to this undertaking; other works also were
neglected, and the city was dilapidated, partly by the Persians, partly
by time, and, through the indifference of the Macedonians to things of
this kind, particularly after Seleucus Nicator had fortified Seleucia on
the Tigris near Babylon, at the distance of about 300 stadia.

Both this prince and all his successors directed their care to that
city, and transferred to it the seat of empire. At present it is larger
than Babylon; the other is in great part deserted, so that no one would
hesitate to apply to it what one of the comic writers said of
Megalopolitæ in Arcadia,

   “The great city is a great desert.”

On account of the scarcity of timber, the beams and pillars of the
houses were made of palm wood. They wind ropes of twisted reed round the
pillars, paint them over with colours, and draw designs upon them; they
cover the doors with a coat of asphaltus. These are lofty, and all the
houses are vaulted on account of the want of timber. For the country is
bare, a great part of it is covered with shrubs, and produces [CAS.
739] nothing but the palm. This tree grows in the greatest abundance in
Babylonia. It is found in Susiana also in great quantity, on the Persian
coast, and in Carmania.

They do not use tiles for their houses, because there are no great
rains. The case is the same in Susiana and in Sitacene.

6. In Babylon a residence was set apart for the native philosophers
called Chaldæans, who are chiefly devoted to the study of astronomy.
Some, who are not approved of by the rest, profess to understand
genethlialogy, or the casting of nativities. There is also a tribe of
Chaldæans, who inhabit a district of Babylonia, in the neighbourhood of
the Arabians, and of the sea called the Persian Sea.[493] There are
several classes of the Chaldæan astronomers. Some have the name of
Orcheni, some Borsippeni, and many others, as if divided into sects, who
disseminate different tenets on the same subjects. The mathematicians
make mention of some individuals among them, as Cidenas, Naburianus, and
Sudinus. Seleucus also of Seleuceia is a Chaldæan, and many other
remarkable men.

7. Borsippa is a city sacred to Diana and Apollo. Here is a large linen
manufactory. Bats of much larger size than those in other parts abound
in it. They are caught and salted for food.

8. The country of the Babylonians is surrounded on the east by the
Susans, Elymæi, and Parætaceni; on the south by the Persian Gulf, and
the Chaldæans as far as the Arabian Meseni; on the west by the Arabian
Scenitæ as far as Adiabene and Gordyæa; on the north by the Armenians
and Medes as far as the Zagrus, and the nations about that river.

9. The country is intersected by many rivers, the largest of which are
the Euphrates and the Tigris: next to the Indian rivers, the rivers in
the southern parts of Asia are said to hold the second place. The Tigris
is navigable upwards from its mouth to Opis,[494] and to the present
Seleuceia. Opis is a village and a mart for the surrounding places. The
Euphrates also is navigable up to Babylon, a distance of more than 3000
stadia. The Persians, through fear of incursions from without, and for
the purpose of preventing vessels from ascending these rivers,
constructed artificial cataracts. Alexander, on arriving there,
destroyed as many of them as he could, those particularly [on the Tigris
from the sea] to Opis. But he bestowed great care upon the canals; for
the Euphrates, at the commencement of summer, overflows. It begins fill
in the spring, when the snow in Armenia melts: the ploughed land,
therefore, would be covered with water and be submerged, unless the
overflow of the superabundant water were diverted by trenches and
canals, as in Egypt the water of the Nile is diverted. Hence the origin
of canals. Great labour is requisite for their maintenance, for the soil
is deep, soft, and yielding, so that it would easily be swept away by
the stream; the fields would be laid bare, the canals filled, and the
accumulation of mud would soon obstruct their mouths. Then, again, the
excess of water discharging itself into the plains near the sea forms
lakes, and marshes, and reed-grounds, supplying the reeds with which all
kinds of platted vessels are woven; some of these vessels are capable of
holding water, when covered over with asphaltus; others are used with
the material in its natural state. Sails are also made of reeds; these
resemble mats or hurdles.

10. It is not, perhaps, possible to prevent inundations of this kind
altogether, but it is the duty of good princes to afford all possible
assistance. The assistance required is to prevent excessive overflow by
the construction of dams, and to obviate the filling of rivers, produced
by the accumulation of mud, by cleansing the canals, and removing
stoppages at their mouths. The cleansing of the canals is easily
performed, but the construction of dams requires the labour of numerous
workmen. For the earth being soft and yielding, does not support the
superincumbent mass, which sinks, and is itself carried away, and thus a
difficulty arises in making dams at the mouth. Expedition is necessary
in closing the canals to prevent all the water flowing out. When the
canals dry up in the summer time, they cause the river to dry up also;
and if the river is low (before the canals are closed), it cannot supply
the canals in time with water, of which the country, burnt up and
scorched, requires a very large quantity; [CAS. 740] for there is no
difference, whether the crops are flooded by an excess or perish by
drought and a failure of water. The navigation up the rivers (a source
of many advantages) is continually obstructed by both the
above-mentioned causes, and it is not possible to remedy this unless the
mouths of the canals were quickly opened and quickly closed, and the
canals were made to contain and preserve a mean between excess and
deficiency of water.

11. Aristobulus relates that Alexander himself, when he was sailing up
the river, and directing the course of the boat, inspected the canals,
and ordered them to be cleared by his multitude of followers; he
likewise stopped up some of the mouths, and opened others. He observed
that one of these canals, which took a direction more immediately to the
marshes, and to the lakes in front of Arabia, had a mouth very difficult
to be dealt with, and which could not be easily closed on account of the
soft and yielding nature of the soil; he (therefore) opened a new mouth
at the distance of 30 stadia, selecting a place with a rocky bottom, and
to this the current was diverted. But in doing this he was taking
precautions that Arabia should not become entirely inaccessible in
consequence of the lakes and marshes, as it was already almost an island
from the quantity of water (which surrounded it). For he contemplated
making himself master of this country; and he had already provided a
fleet and places of rendezvous; and had built vessels in Phœnicia and at
Cyprus, some of which were in separate pieces, others were in parts,
fastened together by bolts. These, after being conveyed to Thapsacus in
seven distances of a day’s march, were then to be transported down the
river to Babylon. He constructed other boats in Babylonia, from cypress
trees in the groves and parks, for there is a scarcity of timber in
Babylonia. Among the Cossæi, and some other tribes, the supply of timber
is not great.

The pretext for the war, says Aristobulus, was that the Arabians were
the only people who did not send their ambassadors to Alexander; but the
true reason was his ambition to be lord of all.

When he was informed that they worshipped two deities only, Jupiter and
Bacchus, who supply what is most requisite for the subsistence of
mankind, he supposed that, after his conquests, they would worship him
as a third, if he permitted them to enjoy their former national
independence. Thus was Alexander employed in clearing the canals, and in
examining minutely the sepulchres of the kings, most of which are
situated among the lakes.

12. Eratosthenes, when he is speaking of the lakes near Arabia, says,
that the water, when it cannot find an outlet, opens passages
under-ground, and is conveyed through these as far as the
Cœle-Syrians,[495] it is also compressed and forced into the parts near
Rhinocolura[496] and Mount Casius,[497] and there forms lakes and deep
pits.[498] But I know not whether this is probable. For the overflowings
of the water of the Euphrates, which form the lakes and marshes near
Arabia, are near the Persian Sea. But the isthmus which separates them
is neither large nor rocky, so that it was more probable that the water
forced its way in this direction into the sea, either under the ground,
or across the surface, than that it traversed so dry and parched a soil
for more than 6000 stadia; particularly, when we observe, situated
midway in this course, Libanus, Antilibanus, and Mount Casius.[499]

[CAS. 742] Such, then, are the accounts of Eratosthenes and
Aristobulus.

13. But Polycleitus says, that the Euphrates does not overflow its
banks, because its course is through large plains; that of the mountains
(from which it is supplied), some are distant 2000, and the Cossæan
mountains scarcely 1000 stadia, that they are not very high, nor covered
with snow to a great depth, and therefore do not occasion the snow to
melt in great masses, for the most elevated mountains are in the
northern parts above Ecbatana; towards the south they are divided,
spread out, and are much lower; the Tigris also receives the greater
part of the water [which comes down from them], and thus overflows its
banks.[500]

The last assertion is evidently absurd, because the Tigris descends into
the same plains (as the Euphrates); and the above-mentioned mountains
are not of the same height, the northern being more elevated, the
southern extending in breadth, but are of a lower altitude. The quantity
of snow is not, however, to be estimated by altitude only, but by
aspect. The same mountain has more snow on the northern than on the
southern side, and the snow continues longer on the former than on the
latter. As the Tigris therefore receives from the most southern parts of
Armenia, which are near Babylon, the water of the melted snow, of which
there is no great quantity, since it comes from the southern side, it
should overflow in a less degree than the Euphrates, which receives the
water from both parts (northern and southern); and not from a single
mountain only, but from many, as I have mentioned in the description of
Armenia. To this we must add the length of the river, the large tract of
country which it traverses in the Greater and in the Lesser Armenia, the
large space it takes in its course in passing out of the Lesser Armenia
and Cappadocia, after issuing out of the Taurus in its way to Thapsacus
(forming the boundary between Syria below and Mesopotamia), and the
large remaining portion of country as far as Babylon and to its mouth, a
course in all of 36,000 stadia.

This, then, on the subject of the canals (of Babylonia).

14. Babylonia produces barley in larger quantity than any other[501]
country, for a produce of three hundred-fold is spoken of. The palm tree
furnishes everything else, bread, wine, vinegar, and meal; all kinds of
woven articles are also procured from it. Braziers use the stones of the
fruit instead of charcoal. When softened by being soaked in water, they
are food for fattening oxen and sheep.

It is said that there is a Persian song in which are reckoned up 360
useful properties of the palm.

They employ for the most part the oil of sesamum, a plant which is rare
in other places.

15. Asphaltus is found in great abundance in Babylonia. Eratosthenes
describes it as follows.

The liquid asphaltus, which is called naphtha, is found in Susiana; the
dry kind, which can be made solid, in Babylonia. There is a spring of it
near the Euphrates. When this river overflows at the time of the melting
of the snow, the spring also of asphaltus is filled, and overflows into
the river, where large clods are consolidated, fit for buildings
constructed of baked bricks. Others say that the liquid kind also is
found in Babylonia. With respect to the solid kind, I have described its
great utility in the construction of buildings. They say that boats (of
reeds) are woven,[502] which, when besmeared with asphaltus, are firmly
compacted. The liquid kind, called naphtha, is of a singular nature.
When it is brought near the fire, the fire catches it; and if a body
smeared over with it is brought near the fire, it burns with a flame,
which it is impossible to extinguish, except with a large quantity of
water; with a small quantity it burns more violently, but it may be
smothered and extinguished by mud, vinegar, alum, and glue. It is said
that Alexander, as an experiment, ordered naphtha to be poured over a
boy in a bath, and a lamp to be brought near his body. The boy became
enveloped in flames, and would have perished if the bystanders had not
mastered the fire by pouring upon him a great quantity of water, and
thus saved his life.

Poseidonius says that there are springs of naphtha in Babylonia, some of
which produce white, others black, naphtha; the first of these, I mean
the white naphtha, which attracts flame, [CAS. 743] is liquid sulphur;
the second, or black naphtha, is liquid asphaltus, and is burnt in lamps
instead of oil.

16. In former times the capital of Assyria was Babylon; it is now called
Seleuceia upon the Tigris. Near it is a large village called Ctesiphon.
This the Parthian kings usually made their winter residence, with a view
to spare the Seleucians the burden of furnishing quarters for the
Scythian soldiery. In consequence of the power of Parthia,
Ctesiphon[503] may be considered as a city rather than a village; from
its size it is capable of lodging a great multitude of people; it has
been adorned with public buildings by the Parthians, and has furnished
merchandise, and given rise to arts profitable to its masters.

The kings usually passed the winter there, on account of the salubrity
of the air, and the summer at Ecbatana and in Hyrcania,[504] induced by
the ancient renown of these places.

As we call the country Babylonia, so we call the people Babylonians, not
from the name of the city, but of the country; the case is not precisely
the same, however, as regards even natives of Seleuceia, as, for
instance, Diogenes, the stoic philosopher [who had the appellation of
the Babylonian, and not the Seleucian].[505]

17. At the distance of 500 stadia from Seleuceia is Artemita, a
considerable city, situated nearly directly to the east, which is the
position also of Sitacene.[506] This extensive and fertile tract of
country lies between Babylon and Susiana, so that the whole road in
travelling from Babylon to Susa passes through Sitacene. The road from
Susa[507] into the interior of Persis, through the territory of the
Uxii,[508] and from Persis into the middle of Carmania,[509] leads also
towards the east.

Persis, which is a large country, encompasses Carmania on the
[west][510] and north. Close to it adjoin Parætacene,[511] and the
Cossæan territory as far as the Caspian Gates, inhabited by mountainous
and predatory tribes. Contiguous to Susiana is Elymaïs, a great part of
which is rugged, and inhabited by robbers. To Elymaïs adjoin the country
about the Zagrus[512] and Media.[513]

18. The Cossæi, like the neighbouring mountaineers, are for the most
part archers, and are always out on foraging parties. For as they occupy
a country of small extent, and barren, they are compelled by necessity
to live at the expense of others. They are also necessarily powerful,
for they are all fighting men. When the Elymæi were at war with the
Babylonians and Susians, they supplied the Elymæi with thirteen thousand
auxiliaries.

The Parætaceni attend to the cultivation of the ground more than the
Cossæi, but even these people do not abstain from robbery.

The Elymæi occupy a country larger in extent, and more varied, than that
of the Parætaceni. The fertile part of it is inhabited by husbandmen.
The mountainous tract is a nursery for soldiers, the greatest part of
whom are archers. As it is of considerable extent, it can furnish a
great military force; their king, who possesses great power, refuses to
be subject, like others, to the king of Parthia. The country was
similarly independent in the time of the Persians, and afterwards[514]
in the time of the Macedonians, who governed Syria. When Antiochus the
Great attempted to plunder the temple of Belus, the neighbouring
barbarians, unassisted, attacked and put him to death. In after-times
the king of Parthia[515] heard that the temples in their country
contained great wealth, but knowing that the people would not submit,
and admonished by the fate of Antiochus, he invaded their country with a
large army; he took the temple of Minerva, and that of Diana, called
Azara, and carried away treasure to the amount of 10,000 [CAS. 744]
talents. Seleuceia also, a large city on the river Hedyphon,[516] was
taken. It was formerly called Soloce.

There are three convenient entrances into this country; one from Media
and the places about the Zagrus, through Massabatice; a second from
Susis, through the district Gabiane. Both Gabiane and Massabatice are
provinces of Elymæa. A third passage is that from Persis. Corbiane also
is a province of Elymaïs.

Sagapeni and Silaceni, small principalities, border upon Elymaïs.

Such, then, is the number and the character of the nations situated
above Babylonia towards the east.

We have said that Media and Armenia lie to the north, and Adiabene and
Mesopotamia to the west of Babylonia.

19. The greatest part of Adiabene consists of plains, and, although it
is a portion of Babylon, has its own prince. In some places it is
contiguous to Armenia.[517] For the Medes, Armenians, and Babylonians,
the three greatest nations in these parts, were from the first in the
practice, on convenient opportunities, of waging continual war with each
other, and then making peace, which state of things continued till the
establishment of the Parthian empire.

The Parthians subdued the Medes and Babylonians, but never at any time
conquered the Armenians. They made frequent inroads into their country,
but the people were not subdued, and Tigranes, as I have mentioned in
the description of Armenia,[518] opposed them with great vigour and
success.

Such is the nature of Adiabene. The Adiabeni are also called
Saccopodes.[519]

We shall describe Mesopotamia and the nations towards the south, after
premising a short account of the customs of the Assyrians.

20. Their other customs are like those of the Persians, but this is
peculiar to themselves: three discreet persons, chiefs of each tribe,
are appointed, who present publicly young women who are marriageable,
and give notice by the crier, beginning with those most in estimation,
of a sale of them to men intending to become husbands. In this manner
marriages are contracted.

As often as the parties have sexual intercourse with one another, they
rise, each apart from the other, to burn perfumes. In the morning they
wash, before touching any household vessel. For as ablution is customary
after touching a dead body, so it is practised after sexual
intercourse.[520] There is a custom prescribed by an oracle for all the
Babylonian women to have intercourse with strangers. The women repair to
a temple of Venus, accompanied by numerous attendants and a crowd of
people. Each woman has a cord round her head. The man approaches a
woman, and places on her lap as much money as he thinks proper; he then
leads her away to a distance from the sacred grove, and has intercourse
with her. The money is considered as consecrated to Venus.

There are three tribunals, one consisting of persons who are past
military service, another of nobles, and a third of old men, besides
another appointed by the king. It is the business of the latter[521] to
dispose of the virgins in marriage, and to determine causes respecting
adultery; of another to decide those relative to theft; and of the
third, those of assault and violence.

The sick are brought out of their houses into the highways, and inquiry
is made of passengers whether any of them can give information of a
remedy for the disease. There is no one so ill-disposed as not to accost
the sick person, and acquaint [CAS. 745] him with anything that he
considers may conduce to his recovery.

Their dress is a tunic reaching to the feet, an upper garment of wool,
[and] a white cloak. The hair is long. They wear a shoe resembling a
buskin. They wear also a seal, and carry a staff not plain, but with a
figure upon the top of it, as an apple, a rose, a lily, or something of
the kind. They anoint themselves with oil of sesamum. They bewail the
dead, like the Egyptians and many other nations. They bury the body in
honey, first besmearing it with wax.

There are three communities which have no corn. They live in the
marshes, and subsist on fish. Their mode of life is like that of the
inhabitants of Gedrosia.[522]

21. Mesopotamia has its name from an accidental circumstance. We have
said that it is situated between the Euphrates and the Tigris, that the
Tigris washes its eastern side only, and the Euphrates its western and
southern sides. To the north is the Taurus, which separates Armenia from
Mesopotamia. The greatest distance by which they are separated from each
other is that towards the mountains. This distance may be the same which
Eratosthenes mentions, and is reckoned from Thapsacus,[523] where there
was the (Zeugma) old bridge of the Euphrates, to the (Zeugma) passage
over the Tigris, where Alexander crossed it, a distance, that is, of
2400 stadia. The least distance between them is somewhere about
Seleuceia and Babylon, and is a little more than 200 stadia.

The Tigris flows through the middle of the lake called Thopitis[524] in
the direction of its breadth, and after traversing it to the opposite
bank, sinks under ground with a loud noise and rushing of air. Its
course is for a long space invisible, but it rises again to the surface
not far from Gordyæa. According to Eratosthenes, it traverses the lake
with such rapidity, that although the lake is saline and without
fish,[525] yet in this part it is fresh, has a current, and abounds with
fish.

22. The contracted shape of Mesopotamia extends far in length, and
somewhat resembles a ship. The Euphrates forms the larger part of its
boundary. The distance from Thapsacus to Babylon, according to
Eratosthenes, is 4800 stadia, and from the (Zeugma)[526] bridge in
Commagene, where Mesopotamia begins, to Thapsacus, is not less than 2000
stadia.

23. The country lying at the foot of the mountains is very fertile. The
people, called by the Macedonians Mygdones, occupy the parts towards the
Euphrates, and both Zeugmata, that is, the Zeugma in Commagene, and the
ancient Zeugma at Thapsacus. In their territory is Nisibis,[527] which
they called also Antioch in Mygdonia, situated below Mount Masius,[528]
and Tigranocerta,[529] and the places about Carrhæ, Nicephorium,[530]
Chordiraza,[531] and Sinnaca, where Crassus was taken prisoner by
stratagem, and put to death by Surena, the Parthian general.[532]

24. Near the Tigris are the places belonging to the Gordyæi,[533] whom
the ancients called Carduchi; their cities are Sareisa, Satalca, and
Pinaca, a very strong fortress with three citadels, each enclosed by its
own wall, so that it is as it were a triple city. It was, however,
subject to the king of Armenia; the Romans also took it by storm,
although the Gordyæi had the reputation of excelling in the art of
building, and to be skilful in the construction of siege engines. It was
for this reason Tigranes took them into his service. The rest of
Mesopotamia (Gordyæa?) was subject to the Romans. Pompey assigned to
Tigranes the largest and best portion of the country; for it has fine
pastures, is rich in plants, and produces evergreens and an aromatic,
the amomum. It breeds lions also. It furnishes naphtha, and the stone
called Gangitis,[534] which drives away reptiles.

25. Gordys, the son of Triptolemus, is related to have colonized
Gordyene. The Eretrians[535] afterwards, who were carried away by force
by the Persians, settled here. We shall soon speak of Triptolemus in our
description of Syria.

26. The parts of Mesopotamia inclining to the south, and [CAS. 747] at
a distance from the mountains, are an arid and barren district, occupied
by the Arabian Scenitæ, a tribe of robbers and shepherds, who readily
move from place to place, whenever pasture or booty begin to be
exhausted. The country lying at the foot of the mountains is harassed
both by these people and by the Armenians. They are situated above, and
keep them in subjection by force. It is at last subject for the most
part to these people, or to the Parthians, who are situated at their
side, and possess both Media and Babylonia.

27. Between the Tigris and the Euphrates flows a river called Basileios
(or the Royal river), and about Anthemusia another called the
Aborrhas.[536] The road for merchants going from Syria to Seleuceia and
Babylon lies through the country of the (Arabian) Scenitæ, [now called
Malii,][537] and through the desert belonging to their territory. The
Euphrates is crossed in the latitude of Anthemusia, a place in
Mesopotamia.[538] Above the river, at the distance of four schœni, is
Bambyce, which is called by the names of Edessa and Hierapolis,[539]
where the Syrian goddess Atargatis is worshipped. After crossing the
river, the road lies through a desert country on the borders of
Babylonia to Scenæ, a considerable city, situated on the banks of a
canal. From the passage across the river to Scenæ is a journey of five
and twenty days. There are (on the road) owners of camels, who keep
resting-places, which are well supplied with water from cisterns, or
transported from a distance.

The Scenitæ exact a moderate tribute from merchants, but [otherwise] do
not molest them: the merchants, therefore, avoid the country on the
banks of the river, and risk a journey through the desert, leaving the
river on the right hand at a distance of nearly three days’ march. For
the chiefs of the tribes living on both banks of the river, who occupy
not indeed a fertile territory, yet one less sterile than the rest (of
the country), are settled in the midst of their own peculiar domains,
and each exacts a tribute of no moderate amount for himself. And it is
difficult among so large a body of people, and of such daring habits, to
establish any common standard of tribute advantageous to the merchant.

Scenæ is distant from Seleuceia 18 schœni.

28. The Euphrates and its eastern banks are the boundaries of the
Parthian empire. The Romans and the chiefs of the Arabian tribes occupy
the parts on this side the Euphrates as far as Babylonia. Some of the
chiefs attach themselves in preference to the Parthians, others to the
Romans, to whom they adjoin. The Scenitæ nomades, who live near the
river, are less friendly to the Romans than those tribes who are
situated at a distance near Arabia Felix. The Parthians were once
solicitous of conciliating the friendship of the Romans, but having
repulsed Crassus,[540] who began the war with them, they suffered
reprisals, when they themselves commenced hostilities, and sent Pacorus
into Asia.[541] But Antony, following the advice of the Armenian,[542]
was betrayed, and was unsuccessful (against them). Phraates, his[543]
successor, was so anxious to obtain the friendship of Augustus Cæsar,
that he even sent the trophies, which the Parthians had set up as
memorials of [CAS. 748] the defeat of the Romans. He also invited Titius
to a conference, who was at that time præfect of Syria, and delivered
into his hands, as hostages, four of his legitimate sons, Seraspadanes,
Rhodaspes, Phraates, and Bonones, with two of their wives and four of
their sons; for he was apprehensive of conspiracy and attempts on his
life.[544] He knew that no one could prevail against him, unless he was
opposed by one of the Arsacian family, to which race the Parthians were
strongly attached. He therefore removed the sons out of his way, with a
view of annihilating the hopes of the disaffected.

The surviving sons, who live at Rome, are entertained as princes at the
public expense. The other kings (his successors) have continued to send
ambassadors (to Rome), and to hold conferences (with the Roman
præfects).



CHAPTER II.


1. Syria is bounded on the north by Cilicia and the mountain Amanus;
from the sea to the bridge on the Euphrates (that is, from the Issic Bay
to the Zeugma in Commagene) is a distance of 1400 stadia, and forms the
above-mentioned (northern) boundary; on the east it is bounded by the
Euphrates and the Arabian Scenitæ, who live on this side the Euphrates;
on the south, by Arabia Felix and Egypt; on the west, by the Egyptian
and Syrian Seas as far as Issus.

2. Beginning from Cilicia and Mount Amanus, we set down as parts of
Syria, Commagene, and the Seleucis of Syria, as it is called, then
Cœle-Syria, lastly, on the coast, Phœnicia, and in the interior, Judæa.
Some writers divide the whole of Syria into Cœlo-Syrians, Syrians, and
Phœnicians, and say that there are intermixed with these four other
nations, Jews, Idumæans, Gazæans, and Azotii, some of whom are
husbandmen, as the Syrians and Cœlo-Syrians, and others merchants, as
the Phœnicians.

3. This is the general description [of Syria].[545]

In describing it in detail, we say that Commagene is rather a small
district. It contains a strong city, Samosata, in which was the seat of
the kings. At present it is a (Roman) province. A very fertile but small
territory lies around it. Here is now the Zeugma, or bridge, of the
Euphrates, and near it is situated Seleuceia, a fortress of Mesopotamia,
assigned by Pompey to the Commageneans. Here Tigranes confined in prison
for some time and put to death Selene, surnamed Cleopatra, after she was
dispossessed of Syria.[546]

4. Seleucis is the best of the above-mentioned portions of Syria. It is
called and is a Tetrapolis, and derives its name from the four
distinguished cities which it contains; for there are more than four
cities, but the four largest are Antioch Epidaphne,[547] Seleuceia in
Pieria,[548] Apameia,[549] and Laodiceia.[550] They were called Sisters
from the concord which existed between them. They were founded by
Seleucus Nicator. The largest bore the name of his father, and the
strongest his own. Of the others, Apameia had its name from his wife
Apama, and Laodiceia from his mother.

In conformity with its character of Tetrapolis, Seleucis, according to
Poseidonius, was divided into four satrapies; Cœle-Syria into the same
number, but [Commagene, like] Mesopotamia, consisted of one.[551]

Antioch also is a Tetrapolis, consisting (as the name implies) [CAS.
750] of four portions, each of which has its own, and all of them a
common wall.[552]

[Seleucus] Nicator founded the first of these portions, transferring
thither settlers from Antigonia, which a short time before Antigonus,
son of Philip, had built near it. The second was built by the general
body of settlers; the third by Seleucus, the son of Callinicus; the
fourth by Antiochus, the son of Epiphanes.

5. Antioch is the metropolis of Syria. A palace was constructed there
for the princes of the country. It is not much inferior in riches and
magnitude to Seleuceia on the Tigris and Alexandreia in Egypt.

[Seleucus] Nicator settled here the descendants of Triptolemus, whom we
have mentioned a little before.[553] On this account the people of
Antioch regard him as a hero, and celebrate a festival to his honour on
Mount Casius[554] near Seleuceia. They say that when he was sent by the
Argives in search of Io, who first disappeared at Tyre, he wandered
through Cilicia; that some of his Argive companions separated from him
and founded Tarsus; that the rest attended him along the sea-coast, and,
relinquishing their search, settled with him on the banks of the
Orontes;[555] that Gordys the son of Triptolemus, with some of those who
had accompanied his father, founded a colony in Gordyæa, and that the
descendants of the rest became settlers among the inhabitants of
Antioch.

6. Daphne,[556] a town of moderate size, is situated above Antioch at
the distance of 40 stadia. Here is a large forest, with a thick covert
of shade and springs of water flowing through it. In the midst of the
forest is a sacred grove, which is a sanctuary, and a temple of Apollo
and Diana. It is the custom for the inhabitants of Antioch and the
neighbouring people to assemble here to celebrate public festivals. The
forest is 80 stadia in circumference.

7. The river Orontes flows near the city. Its source is in Cœle-Syria.
Having taken its course under-ground, it reäppears, traverses the
territory of Apameia to Antioch, approaching the latter city, and then
descends to the sea at Seleuceia. The name of the river was formerly
Typhon, but was changed to Orontes, from the name of the person who
constructed the bridge over it.

According to the fable, it was somewhere here that Typhon was struck
with lightning, and here also was the scene of the fable of the Arimi,
whom we have before mentioned.[557] Typhon was a serpent, it is said,
and being struck by lightning, endeavoured to make its escape, and
sought refuge in the ground; it deeply furrowed the earth, and (as it
moved along) formed the bed of the river; having descended under-ground,
it caused a spring to break out, and from Typhon the river had its name.

On the west the sea, into which the Orontes discharges itself, is
situated below Antioch in Seleuceia, which is distant from the mouth of
the river 40, and from Antioch 120 stadia. The ascent by the river to
Antioch is performed in one day.

To the east of Antioch are the Euphrates, Bambyce,[558] Berœa,[559] and
Heracleia, small towns formerly under the government of Dionysius, the
son of Heracleon. Heracleia is distant 20 stadia from the temple of
Diana Cyrrhestis.

8. Then follows the district of Cyrrhestica,[560] which extends as far
as that of Antioch. On the north near it are Mount Amanus and Commagene.
Cyrrhestica extends as far as these places, and touches them. Here is
situated a city, Gindarus, the acropolis of Cyrrhestica, and a
convenient resort for robbers, and near it a place called Heracleium. It
was near these places that Pacorus, the eldest of the sons of the
Parthian king, who had invaded Syria, was defeated by Ventidius, and
killed.

Pagræ,[561] in the district of Antioch, is close to Gindarus. It [CAS.
751] is a strong fortress situated on the pass over the Amanus, which
leads from the gates of the Amanus into Syria. Below Pagræ lies the
plain of Antioch, through which flow the rivers Arceuthus, Orontes, and
Labotas.[562] In this plain is also the trench of Meleagrus, and the
river Œnoparas,[563] on the banks of which Ptolemy Philometor, after
having defeated Alexander Balas, died of his wounds.[564]

Above these places is a hill called Trapezon from its form,[565] and
upon it Ventidius engaged Phranicates[566] the Parthian general.

After these places, near the sea, are Seleuceia[567] and Pieria, a
mountain continuous with the Amanus and Rhosus, situated between Issus
and Seleuceia.

Seleuceia formerly had the name of Hydatopotami (rivers of water). It is
a considerable fortress, and may defy all attacks; wherefore Pompey,
having excluded from it Tigranes, declared it a free city.

To the south of Antioch is Apameia, situated in the interior, and to the
south of Seleuceia, the mountains Casius and Anti-Casius.

Still further on from Seleuceia are the mouths of the Orontes, then the
Nymphæum, a kind of sacred cave, next Casium, then follows
Poseidium[568] a small city, and Heracleia.[569]

9. Then follows Laodiceia, situated on the sea; it is a very well-built
city, with a good harbour; the territory, besides its fertility in other
respects, abounds with wine, of which the greatest part is exported to
Alexandreia. The whole mountain overhanging the city is planted almost
to its summit with vines. The summit of the mountain is at a great
distance from Laodiceia, sloping gently and by degrees upwards from the
city; but it rises perpendicularly over Apameia.

Laodiceia suffered severely when Dolabella took refuge there. Being
besieged by Cassius, he defended it until his death, but he involved in
his own ruin the destruction of many parts of the city.[570]

10. In the district of Apameia is a city well fortified in almost every
part. For it consists of a well-fortified hill, situated in a hollow
plain, and almost surrounded by the Orontes, which, passing by a large
lake in the neighbourhood, flows through wide-spread marshes and meadows
of vast extent, affording pasture for cattle and horses.[571] The city
is thus securely situated, and received the name Cherrhonesus (or the
peninsula) from the nature of its position. It is well supplied from a
very large fertile tract of country, through which the Orontes flows
with numerous windings. Seleucus Nicator, and succeeding kings, kept
there five hundred elephants, and the greater part of their army.

It was formerly called Pella by the first Macedonians, because most of
the soldiers of the Macedonian army had settled there; for Pella, the
native place of Philip and Alexander, was held to be the metropolis of
the Macedonians. Here also the soldiers were mustered, and the breed of
horses kept up. There were in the royal stud more than thirty thousand
brood mares and three hundred stallions. Here were employed
colt-breakers, instructors in the method of fighting in heavy armour,
and all who were paid to teach the arts of war.

The power Trypho, surnamed Diodotus, acquired is a proof of the
influence of this place; for when he aimed at the empire of Syria, he
made Apameia the centre of his operations. He was born at Casiana, a
strong fortress in the Apameian district, and educated in Apameia; he
was a favourite of the king and the persons about the court. When he
attempted to effect a revolution in the state, he obtained his supplies
from Apameia and from the neighbouring cities, Larisa,[572] Casiana,
Megara, Apollonia, and others like them, all of which were reckoned to
belong to the district of Apameia. He was proclaimed king of this
country, and maintained his sovereignty for a long time. Cæcilius
Bassus, at the head of two legions, caused Apameia to revolt, and was
besieged by two large Roman armies, but his resistance was so vigorous
and long that he only surrendered voluntarily and on his own
conditions.[573] For the country supplied his army with provisions,
[CAS. 753] and a great many of the chiefs of the neighbouring tribes
were his allies, who possessed strongholds, among which was Lysias,
situated above the lake, near Apameia, Arethusa,[574] belonging to
Sampsiceramus and Iamblichus his son, chiefs of the tribe of the
Emeseni.[575] At no great distance were Heliopolis and Chalcis,[576]
which were subject to Ptolemy, son of Mennæus,[577] who possessed the
Massyas[578] and the mountainous country of the Ituræans. Among the
auxiliaries of Bassus was Alchædamnus,[579] king of the Rhambæi, a tribe
of the Nomades on this side of the Euphrates. He was a friend of the
Romans, but, considering himself as having been unjustly treated by
their governors, he retired to Mesopotamia, and then became a tributary
of Bassus. Poseidonius the Stoic was a native of this place, a man of
the most extensive learning among the philosophers of our times.

11. The tract called Parapotamia, belonging to the Arab chiefs, and
Chalcidica, extending from the Massyas, border upon the district of
Apameia on the east; and nearly all the country further to the south of
Apameia belongs to the Scenitæ, who resemble the Nomades of Mesopotamia.
In proportion as the nations approach the Syrians they become more
civilized, while the Arabians and Scenitæ are less so. Their
governments are better constituted [as that of Arethusa under
Sampsiceramus, that of Themella under Gambarus, and other states of this
kind].[580]

12. Such is the nature of the interior parts of the district of
Seleuceia.

The remainder of the navigation along the coast from Laodiceia is such
as I shall now describe.

Near Laodiceia are the small cities, Poseidium, Heracleium, and Gabala.
Then follows the maritime tract[581] of the Aradii, where are
Paltus,[582] Balanæa, and Carnus,[583] the arsenal of Aradus, which has
a small harbour; then Enydra,[584] and Marathus, an ancient city of the
Phœnicians in ruins. The Aradii[585] divided the territory by lot. Then
follows the district Simyra.[586] Continuous with these places is
Orthosia,[587] then the river Eleutherus, which some make the boundary
of Seleucis towards Phœnicia and Cœle-Syria.

13. Aradus is in front of a rocky coast without harbours, and situated
nearly between its arsenal[588] and Marathus. It is distant from the
land 20 stadia. It is a rock, surrounded by the sea, of about seven
stadia in circuit, and covered with dwellings. The population even at
present is so large that the houses have many stories. It was colonized,
it is said, by fugitives from Sidon. The inhabitants are supplied with
water partly from cisterns containing rain water, and partly [CAS. 754]
from the opposite coast. In war time they obtain water a little in front
of the city, from the channel (between the island and the mainland), in
which there is an abundant spring. The water is obtained by letting down
from a boat, which serves for the purpose, and inverting over the spring
(at the bottom of the sea), a wide-mouthed funnel of lead, the end of
which is contracted to a moderate-sized opening; round this is fastened
a (long) leathern pipe, which we may call the neck, and which receives
the water, forced up from the spring through the funnel. The water first
forced up is sea water, but the boatmen wait for the flow of pure and
potable water, which is received into vessels ready for the purpose, in
as large a quantity as may be required, and carry it to the city.[589]

14. The Aradii were anciently governed by their own kings in the same
manner as all the other Phœnician cities. Afterwards the Persians,
Macedonians, and now the Romans have changed the government to its
present state.

The Aradii, together with the other Phœnicians, consented to become
allies of the Syrian kings; but upon the dissension of the two brothers,
Callinicus Seleucus and Antiochus Hierax, as he was called, they
espoused the party of Callinicus; they entered into a treaty, by which
they were allowed to receive persons who quitted the king’s dominions,
and took refuge among them, and were not obliged to deliver them up
against their will. They were not, however, to suffer them to embark and
quit the island without the king’s permission. From this they derived
great advantages; for those who took refuge there were not ordinary
people, but persons who had held the highest trusts, and apprehended the
worst consequences (when they fled). They regarded those who received
them with hospitality as their benefactors; they acknowledged their
preservers, and remembered with gratitude the kindness which they had
received, particularly after their return to their own country. It was
thus that the Aradii acquired possession of a large part of the opposite
continent, most of which they possess even at present, and were
otherwise successful. To this good fortune they added prudence and
industry in the conduct of their maritime affairs; when they saw their
neighbours, the Cilicians, engaged in piratical adventures, they never
on any occasion took part with them in such (a disgraceful)
occupation.[590]

15. After Orthosia and the river Eleutherus is Tripolis, which has its
designation from the fact of its consisting of three cities, Tyre,
Sidon, and Aradus. Contiguous to Tripolis is Theoprosopon,[591] where
the mountain Libanus terminates. Between them lies a small place called
Trieres.

16. There are two mountains, which form Cœle-Syria, as it is called,
lying nearly parallel to each other; the commencement of the ascent of
both these mountains, Libanus and Antilibanus, is a little way from the
sea; Libanus rises above the sea near Tripolis and Theoprosopon, and
Antilibanus, above the sea near Sidon. They terminate somewhere near the
Arabian mountains, which are above the district of Damascus and the
Trachones as they are there called, where they form fruitful hills. A
hollow plain lies between them, the breadth of which towards the sea is
200 stadia, and the length from the sea to the interior is about twice
that number of stadia. Rivers flow through it, the largest of which is
the Jordan, which water a country fertile and productive of all things.
It contains also a lake, which produces the aromatic rush and reed. In
it are also marshes. The name of the lake is Gennesaritis. It produces
also balsamum.[592]

Among the rivers is the Chrysorrhoas, which commences [CAS. 755] from
the city and territory of Damascus, and is almost entirely drained by
water-courses; for it supplies with water a large tract of country, with
a very deep soil.

The Lycus[593] and the Jordan are navigated upwards chiefly by the
Aradii, with vessels of burden.

17. Of the plains, the first reckoning from the sea is called Macras and
Macra-pedium. Here Poseidonius says there was seen a serpent lying dead,
which was nearly a plethrum in length, and of such a bulk and thickness
that men on horseback standing on each side of its body could not see
one another; the jaws when opened could take in a man on horseback, and
the scales of the skin were larger than a shield.

18. Next to the plain of Macras is that of Massyas, which also contains
some mountainous parts, among which is Chalcis, the acropolis, as it
were, of the Massyas. The commencement of this plain is at
Laodiceia,[594] near Libanus. The Ituræans and Arabians, all of whom are
freebooters, occupy the whole of the mountainous tracts. The husbandmen
live in the plains, and when harassed by the freebooters, they require
protection of various kinds. The robbers have strongholds from which
they issue forth; those, for example, who occupy Libanus have high up on
the mountain the fortresses Sinna, Borrhama, and some others like them;
lower down, Botrys and Gigartus, caves also near the sea, and the castle
on the promontory Theoprosopon. Pompey destroyed these fastnesses, from
whence the robbers overran Byblus,[595] and Berytus[596] situated next
to it, and which lie between Sidon and Theoprosopon.

Byblus, the royal seat of Cinyrus, is sacred to Adonis. Pompey delivered
this place from the tyranny of Cinyrus, by striking off his head. It is
situated upon an eminence at a little distance from the sea.

19. After Byblus is the river Adonis,[597] and the mountain Climax, and
Palæ-Byblus, then the river Lycus, and Berytus. This latter place was
razed by Tryphon, but now the Romans have restored it, and two legions
were stationed there by Agrippa, who also added to it a large portion of
the territory of Massyas, as far as the sources of the Orontes. These
sources are near Libanus, the Paradeisus, and the Egyptian
Fort near the district of Apameia. These places lie near the sea.

20. Above the Massyas is the Royal Valley, as it is called, and the
territory of Damascus, so highly extolled. Damascus is a considerable
city, and in the time of the Persian empire was nearly the most
distinguished place in that country.

Above Damascus are the two (hills) called Trachones; then, towards the
parts occupied by Arabians and Ituræans promiscuously, are mountains of
difficult access, in which were caves extending to a great depth. One of
these caves was capable of containing four thousand robbers, when the
territory of Damascus was subject to incursions from various quarters.
The Barbarians used to rob the merchants most generally on the side of
Arabia Felix,[598] but this happens less frequently since the
destruction of the bands of the robbers under Zenodorus, by the good
government of the Romans, and in consequence of the security afforded by
the soldiers stationed and maintained in Syria.

21. The whole country[599] above Seleucis, extending towards Egypt and
Arabia, is called Cœle-Syria, but peculiarly the tract bounded by
Libanus and Antilibanus, of the remainder one part is the coast
extending from Orthosia[600] as far as Pelusium,[601] and is called
Phœnicia, a narrow strip of land along the sea; the other, situated
above Phœnicia in the interior between Gaza and Antilibanus, and
extending to the Arabians, called Judæa.

22. Having described Cœle-Syria properly so called, we pass on to
Phœnicia, of which we have already described[602] the part extending
from Orthosia to Berytus.

Next to Berytus is Sidon, at the distance of 400 stadia. Between these
places is the river Tamyras,[603] and the grove of Asclepius and
Leontopolis.

Next to Sidon is Tyre,[604] the largest and most ancient city of the
Phœnicians. This city is the rival of Sidon in magnitude, fame, and
antiquity, as recorded in many fables. For although poets have
celebrated Sidon more than Tyre (Homer, however, does not even mention
Tyre), yet the colonies sent into Africa and Spain, as far as, and
beyond the Pillars, extol [CAS. 756] much more the glory of Tyre. Both
however were formerly, and are at present, distinguished and illustrious
cities, but which of the two should be called the capital of Phœnicia is
a subject of dispute among the inhabitants.[605] Sidon is situated upon
a fine naturally-formed harbour on the mainland.

23. Tyre is wholly an island, built nearly in the same manner as Aradus.
It is joined to the continent by a mound, which Alexander raised, when
he was besieging it. It has two harbours, one close, the other open,
which is called the Egyptian harbour. The houses here, it is said,
consist of many stories, of more even than at Rome; on the occurrence,
therefore, of an earthquake, the city was nearly demolished.[606] It
sustained great injury when it was taken by siege by Alexander, but it
rose above these misfortunes, and recovered itself both by the skill of
the people in the art of navigation, in which the Phœnicians in general
have always excelled all nations, and by (the export of) purple-dyed
manufactures, the Tyrian purple being in the highest estimation. The
shell-fish from which it is procured is caught near the coast, and the
Tyrians have in great abundance other requisites for dyeing. The great
number of dyeing works renders the city unpleasant as a place of
residence, but the superior skill of the people in the practice of this
art is the source of its wealth. Their independence was secured to them
at a small expense to themselves, not only by the kings of Syria, but
also by the Romans, who confirmed what the former had conceded.[607]
They pay extravagant honours to Hercules.

The great number and magnitude of their colonies and cities are proofs
of their maritime skill and power.

Such then are the Tyrians.

24. The Sidonians are said by historians to excel in various kinds of
art, as the words of Homer also imply.[608] Besides, they cultivate
science and study astronomy and arithmetic, to which they were led by
the application of numbers (in accounts) and night sailing, each of
which (branches of knowledge) concerns the merchant and seaman; in the
same manner the Egyptians were led to the invention of geometry by the
mensuration of ground, which was required in consequence of the Nile
confounding, by its overflow, the respective boundaries of the country.
It is thought that geometry was introduced into Greece from Egypt, and
astronomy and arithmetic from Phœnicia. At present the best
opportunities are afforded in these cities of acquiring a knowledge of
these, and of all other branches of philosophy.

If we are to believe Poseidonius, the ancient opinion about atoms
originated with Mochus, a native of Sidon, who lived before the Trojan
times. Let us, however, dismiss subjects relating to antiquity. In my
time there were distinguished philosophers, natives of Sidon, as
Boethus, with whom I studied the philosophy of Aristotle,[609] and
Diodotus his brother. Antipater was of Tyre, and a little before my time
Apollonius, who published a table of the philosophers of the school of
Zeno, and of their writings.

Tyre is distant from Sidon not more than 200 stadia. Between the two is
situated a small town, called Ornithopolis, (the city of birds); next a
river[610] which empties itself near Tyre into the sea. Next after Tyre
is Palæ-tyrus (ancient Tyre), at the distance of 30 stadia.[611]

[CAS. 758] 25. Then follows Ptolemaïs, a large city, formerly called
Ace.[612] It was the place of rendezvous for the Persians in their
expeditions against Egypt. Between Ace and Tyre is a sandy beach, the
sand of which is used in making glass. The sand, it is said, is not
fused there, but carried to Sidon to undergo that process. Some say that
the Sidonians have, in their own country, the vitrifiable sand;
according to others, the sand of every place can be fused. I heard at
Alexandria from the glass-workers, that there is in Egypt a kind of
vitrifiable earth, without which expensive works in glass of various
colours could not be executed, but in other countries other mixtures are
required; and at Rome, it is reported, there have been many inventions
both for producing various colours, and for facilitating the
manufacture, as for example in glass wares, where a glass bowl may be
purchased for a copper coin,[613] and glass is ordinarily used for
drinking.

26. A phenomenon[614] of the rarest kind is said to have occurred on the
shore between Tyre and Ptolemaïs. The people of Ptolemaïs had engaged in
battle with Sarpedon the general, and after a signal defeat were left in
this place, when a wave from the sea, like the rising tide, overwhelmed
the fugitives; some were carried out to sea and drowned, others perished
in hollow places; then again the ebb succeeding, uncovered and displayed
to sight the bodies lying in confusion among dead fish.

A similar phenomenon took place at Mount Casium in Egypt. The ground, to
a considerable distance, after a violent and single shock fell in parts,
at once exchanging places; the elevated parts opposed the access of the
sea, and parts which had subsided admitted it. Another shock occurred,
and the place recovered its ancient position, except that there was an
alteration (in the surface of the ground) in some places, and none in
others. Perhaps such occurrences are connected with periodical returns
the nature of which is unknown to us. This is said to be the case with
the rise of the waters of the Nile, which exhibits a variety in its
effects, but observes (in general) a certain order, which we do not
comprehend.

27. Next to Ace is the Tower of Strato, with a station for
vessels.[615] Between these places is Mount Carmel, and cities of which
nothing but the names remain, as Sycaminopolis, Bucolopolis,
Crocodeilopolis, and others of this kind; next is a large forest.[616]

28. Then Joppa,[617] where the coast of Egypt, which at first stretches
towards the east, makes a remarkable bend towards the north. In this
place, according to some writers, Andromeda was exposed to the
sea-monster. It is sufficiently elevated; it is said to command a view
of Jerusalem, the capital of the Jews,[618] who, when they descended to
the sea, used this place as a naval arsenal. But the arsenals of robbers
are the haunts of robbers. Carmel, and the forest, belonged to the Jews.
The district was so populous that the neighbouring village Iamneia,[619]
and the settlements around, could furnish forty thousand soldiers.

Thence to Casium,[620] near Pelusium, are little more than 1000 stadia,
and 1300 to Pelusium itself.

29. In the interval is Gadaris,[621] which the Jews have appropriated to
themselves, then Azotus and Ascalon.[622] From Iamneia to Azotus and
Ascalon are about 200 stadia. The country of the Ascalonitæ produces
excellent onions; the town is small. Antiochus the philosopher, who
lived a little before our time, was a native of this place. Philodemus
the Epicurean was a native of Gadara, as also Meleagrus, Menippus the
satirist, and Theodorus the rhetorician, my contemporary.

[CAS. 759] 30. Next and near Ascalon is the harbour of the Gazæi. The
city is situated inland at the distance of seven stadia. It was once
famous, but was razed by Alexander, and remains uninhabited. There is
said to be a passage thence across, of 1260 stadia, to the city
Aila[623] (Aelana), situated on the innermost recess of the Arabian
Gulf. This recess has two branches, one, in the direction of Arabia and
Gaza, is called Ailanites, from the city upon it; the other is in the
direction of Egypt, towards Heroopolis,[624] to which from Pelusium is
the shortest road (between the two seas). Travelling is performed on
camels, through a desert and sandy country, in the course of which
snakes are found in great numbers.

31. Next to Gaza is Raphia,[625] where a battle was fought between
Ptolemy the Fourth and Antiochus the Great.[626] Then Rhinocolura,[627]
so called from the colonists, whose noses had been mutilated. Some
Ethiopian invaded Egypt, and, instead of putting the malefactors to
death, cut off their noses, and settled them at Rhinocolura, supposing
that they would not venture to return to their own country, on account
of the disgraceful condition of their faces.

32. The whole country from Gaza is barren and sandy, and still more so
is that district next to it, which contains the lake Sirbonis,[628]
lying above it in a direction almost parallel to the sea, and leaving a
narrow pass between, as far as what is called the Ecregma.[629] The
length of the pass is about 200, and the greatest breadth 50 stadia. The
Ecregma is filled up with earth. Then follows another continuous tract
of the same kind to Casium,[630] and thence to Pelusium.

33. The Casium is a sandy hill without water, and forms a promontory:
the body of Pompey the Great is buried there, and on it is a temple of
Jupiter Casius.[631] Near this place Pompey the Great was betrayed by
the Egyptians, and put to death. Next is the road to Pelusium, on which
is situated Gerrha;[632] and the rampart, as it is called, of Chabrias,
and the pits near Pelusium, formed by the overflowing of the Nile in
places naturally hollow and marshy.

Such is the nature of Phœnicia. Artemidorus says, that from Orthosia to
Pelusium is 3650 stadia, including the winding of the bays, and from
Melænæ or Melania in Cilicia to Celenderis,[633] on the confines of
Cilicia and Syria, are 1900 stadia; thence to the Orontes 520 stadia,
and from Orontes to Orthosia 1130 stadia.

34. The western extremities of Judæa towards Casius are occupied by
Idumæans, and by the lake [Sirbonis]. The Idumæans are Nabatæans. When
driven from their country[634] by sedition, they passed over to the
Jews, and adopted their customs.[635] The greater part of the country
along the coast to Jerusalem is occupied by the Lake Sirbonis, and by
the tract contiguous to it; for Jerusalem is near the sea, which, as we
have said,[636] may be seen from the arsenal of Joppa.[637] These
districts (of Jerusalem and Joppa) lie towards the north; they are
inhabited generally, and each place in particular, by mixed tribes of
Egyptians, Arabians, and Phœnicians. Of this description are the
inhabitants of Galilee, of the plain of Jericho, and of the territories
of Philadelphia and Samaria,[638] surnamed Sebaste by Herod;[639] but
although there is such a mixture of inhabitants, the report most
credited, [one] among many things believed respecting the temple [and
the inhabitants] of Jerusalem, is, that the Egyptians were the ancestors
of the present Jews.[640]

35. An Egyptian priest named Moses, who possessed a portion of the
country called the Lower [Egypt] * * * *, being dissatisfied with the
established institutions there, left it and came to Judæa with a large
body of people who worshipped the Divinity. He declared and taught that
the Egyptians and Africans entertained erroneous sentiments, [CAS. 761]
in representing the Divinity under the likeness of wild beasts and
cattle of the field; that the Greeks also were in error in making images
of their gods after the human form. For God [said he] may be this one
thing which encompasses us all, land and sea, which we call heaven, or
the universe, or the nature of things.[641] Who then of any
understanding would venture to form an image of this Deity, resembling
anything with which we are conversant? on the contrary, we ought not to
carve any images, but to set apart some sacred ground and a shrine
worthy of the Deity, and to worship Him without any similitude.[642] He
taught that those who made fortunate dreams were to be permitted to
sleep in the temple, where they might dream both for themselves and
others; that those who practised temperance and justice, and none else,
might expect good, or some gift or sign from the God, from time to time.

36. By such doctrine Moses[643] persuaded a large body of right-minded
persons to accompany him to the place where Jerusalem now stands. He
easily obtained possession of it, as the spot was not such as to excite
jealousy, nor for which there could be any fierce contention; for it is
rocky, and, although well supplied with water, it is surrounded by a
barren and waterless territory.[644] The space within [the city] is 60
stadia [in circumference], with rock underneath the surface.

Instead of arms, he taught that their defence was in their sacred things
and the Divinity, for whom he was desirous of finding a settled place,
promising to the people to deliver such a kind of worship and religion
as should not burthen those who adopted it with great expense, nor
molest them with [so-called] divine possessions, nor other absurd
practices.

Moses thus obtained their good opinion, and established no ordinary kind
of government. All the nations around willingly united themselves to
him, allured by his discourses and promises.

37. His successors continued for some time to observe the same conduct,
doing justly, and worshipping God with sincerity. Afterwards
superstitious persons were appointed to the priesthood, and then
tyrants. From superstition arose abstinence from flesh, from the eating
of which it is now the custom to refrain, circumcision, excision,[645]
and other practices which the people observe. The tyrannical government
produced robbery; for the rebels plundered both their own and the
neighbouring countries. Those also who shared in the government seized
upon the property of others, and ravaged a large part of Syria and of
Phœnicia.

Respect, however, was paid to the Acropolis; it was not abhorred as the
seat of tyranny, but honoured and venerated as a temple.

38. This is according to nature, and common both to Greeks and
barbarians. For, as members of a civil community, they live according to
a common law; otherwise it would be impossible for the mass to execute
any one thing in concert (in which consists a civil state), or to live
in a social state at all. Law is two-fold, divine and human. The ancients
regarded and respected divine, in preference to human, law; in those
times, therefore, the number of persons was very great who consulted
oracles, and, being desirous of obtaining the advice of Jupiter, hurried
to Dodona,

   “to hear the answer of Jove from the lofty oak.”

The parent went to Delphi,

   “anxious to learn whether the child which had been exposed (to
   die) was still living;”

while the child itself

   “was gone to the temple of Apollo, with the hope of
   discovering its parents.”

And Minos among the Cretans,

   “the king who in the ninth year enjoyed converse with Great
   Jupiter,”

every nine years, as Plato says, ascended to the cave of Jupiter,
received ordinances from him, and conveyed them to men. Lycurgus, his
imitator, acted in a similar manner; for he was often accustomed, as it
seemed, to leave his own country to inquire of the Pythian goddess what
ordinances he was to promulgate to the Lacedæmonians.

[CAS. 762] 39. What truth there may be in these things I cannot say;
they have at least been regarded and believed as true by mankind. Hence
prophets received so much honour as to be thought worthy even of
thrones, because they were supposed to communicate ordinances and
precepts from the gods, both during their lifetime and after their
death; as for example Teiresias,

   “to whom alone Proserpine gave wisdom and understanding after
   death: the others flit about as shadows.”[646]

Such were Amphiaraus, Trophonius, Orpheus, and Musæus: in former times
there was Zamolxis, a Pythagorean, who was accounted a god among the
Getæ; and in our time, Decæneus, the diviner of Byrebistas. Among the
Bosporani, there was Achaïcarus; among the Indians, were the
Gymnosophists; among the Persians, the Magi and Necyomanteis,[647] and
besides these the Lecanomanteis[648] and Hydromanteis;[649] among the
Assyrians, were the Chaldæans; and among the Romans, the Tyrrhenian
diviners of dreams.[650]

Such was Moses and his successors; their beginning was good, but they
degenerated.

40. When Judæa openly became subject to a tyrannical government, the
first person who exchanged the title of priest for that of king was
Alexander.[651] His sons were Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. While they were
disputing the succession to the kingdom, Pompey came upon them by
surprise, deprived them of their power, and destroyed their fortresses,
first taking Jerusalem itself by storm.[652] It was a stronghold,
situated on a rock, well fortified and well supplied with water[653]
within, but externally entirely parched with drought. A ditch was cut
in the rock, 60 feet in depth, and in width 250 feet. On the wall of the
temple were built towers, constructed of the materials procured when the
ditch was excavated. The city was taken, it is said, by waiting for the
day of fast, on which the Jews were in the habit of abstaining from all
work. Pompey [availing himself of this], filled up the ditch, and threw
bridges over it. He gave orders to raze all the walls, and he destroyed,
as far as was in his power, the haunts of the robbers and the
treasure-holds of the tyrants. Two of these forts, Thrax and Taurus,
were situated in the passes leading to Jericho. Others were Alexandrium,
Hyrcanium, Machærus, Lysias, and those about Philadelphia, and
Scythopolis near Galilee.

41. Jericho is a plain encompassed by a mountainous district, which
slopes towards it somewhat in the manner of a theatre. Here is the
Phœnicon (or palm plantation), which contains various other trees of the
cultivated kind, and producing excellent fruit; but its chief production
is the palm tree. It is 100 stadia in length; the whole is watered with
streams, and filled with dwellings. Here also is a palace and the garden
of the balsamum.[654] The latter is a shrub with an aromatic smell,
resembling the cytisus[655] and the terminthus.[656] Incisions are made
in the bark, and vessels are placed beneath to receive the sap, which is
like oily milk. After it is collected in vessels, it becomes solid. It
is an excellent remedy for headache, incipient suffusion of the eyes,
and dimness of sight. It bears therefore a high price, especially as it
is produced in no other place.[657] This is the case also with the
Phœnicon, which alone contains the caryotes[658] palm, if we except the
Babylonian plain, and the country above it towards the east: a large
revenue is derived from the palms and balsamum; xylobalsamum[659] is
also used as a perfume.

[CAS. 764] 42. The Lake Sirbonis[660] is of great extent. Some say that
it is 1000 stadia in circumference. It stretches along the coast, to the
distance of a little more than 200 stadia. It is deep, and the water is
exceedingly heavy, so that no person can dive into it; if any one wades
into it up to the waist, and attempts to move forward, he is immediately
lifted out of the water.[661] It abounds with asphaltus, which rises,
not however at any regular seasons, in bubbles, like boiling water, from
the middle of the deepest part. The surface is convex, and presents the
appearance of a hillock. Together with the asphaltus, there ascends a
great quantity of sooty vapour, not perceptible to the eye, which
tarnishes copper, silver, and everything bright—even gold. The
neighbouring people know by the tarnishing of their vessels that the
asphaltus is beginning to rise, and they prepare to collect it by means
of rafts composed of reeds. The asphaltus is a clod of earth, liquefied
by heat; the air forces it to the surface, where it spreads itself. It
is again changed into so firm and solid a mass by cold water, such as
the water of the lake, that it requires cutting or chopping (for use).
It floats upon the water, which, as I have described, does not admit of
diving or immersion, but lifts up the person who goes into it. Those who
go on rafts for the asphaltus cut it in pieces, and take away as much as
they are able to carry.

43. Such are the phenomena. But Posidonius says, that the people being
addicted to magic, and practising incantations, (by these means)
consolidate the asphaltus, pouring upon it urine and other fetid fluids,
and then cut it into pieces. (Incantations cannot be the cause), but
perhaps urine may have some peculiar power (in effecting the
consolidation) in the same manner that chrysocolla[662] is formed in
the bladders of persons who labour under the disease of the stone, and
in the urine of children.

It is natural for these phenomena to take place in the middle of the
lake, because the source of the fire is in the centre, and the greater
part of the asphaltus comes from thence. The bubbling up, however, of
the asphaltus is irregular, because the motion of fire, like that of
many other vapours, has no order perceptible to observers. There are
also phenomena of this kind at Apollonia in Epirus.

44. Many other proofs are produced to show that this country is full of
fire. Near Moasada[663] are to be seen rugged rocks, bearing the marks
of fire; fissures in many places; a soil like ashes; pitch falling in
drops from the rocks; rivers boiling up, and emitting a fetid odour to a
great distance; dwellings in every direction overthrown; whence we are
inclined to believe the common tradition of the natives, that thirteen
cities[664] once existed there, the capital of which was Sodom, but that
a circuit of about 60 stadia around it escaped uninjured; shocks of
earthquakes, however, eruptions of flames and hot springs, containing
asphaltus and sulphur, caused the lake to burst its bounds, and the
rocks took fire; some of the cities were swallowed up, others were
abandoned by such of the inhabitants as were able to make their escape.

But Eratosthenes asserts, on the contrary, that the country was once a
lake, and that the greater part of it was uncovered by the water
discharging itself through a breach, as was the case in Thessaly.[665]

45. In the Gadaris, also, there is a lake of noxious water. If beasts
drink it, they lose their hair, hoofs, and horns. At the place called
Taricheæ,[666] the lake supplies the best fish for curing. [CAS. 765]
On its banks grow trees which bear a fruit like the apple. The Egyptians
use the asphaltus for embalming the bodies of the dead.

46. Pompey curtailed the territory which had been forcibly appropriated
by the Jews, and assigned to Hyrcanus the priesthood. Some time
afterwards, Herod, of the same family, and a native of the country,[667]
having surreptitiously obtained the priesthood, distinguished himself so
much above his predecessors, particularly in his intercourse, both civil
and political, with the Romans, that he received the title and authority
of king,[668] first from Antony, and afterwards from Augustus Cæsar. He
put to death some of his sons, on the pretext of their having conspired
against him;[669] other sons he left at his death, to succeed him, and
assigned to each, portions of his kingdom. Cæsar bestowed upon the sons
also of Herod marks of honour,[670] on his sister Salome,[671] and on
her daughter Berenice. The sons were unfortunate, and were publicly
accused. One[672] of them died in exile among the Galatæ Allobroges,
whose country was assigned for his abode. The others, by great interest
and solicitation, but with difficulty, obtained leave to return[673] to
their own country, each with his tetrarchy restored to him.



CHAPTER III.


1. Above Judæa and Cœle-Syria, as far as Babylonia and the river tract,
along the banks of the Euphrates towards the south, lies the whole of
Arabia, except the Scenitæ in Mesopotamia. We have already spoken of
Mesopotamia, and of the nations that inhabit it.[674]

The parts on the other (the eastern) side of the Euphrates, towards its
mouth, are occupied by Babylonians and the nation of the Chaldæans. We
have spoken of these people also.[675]

Of the rest of the country which follows after Mesopotamia, and extends
as far as Cœle-Syria, the part approaching the river, as well as [a part
of] Mesopotamia,[676] are occupied by Arabian Scenitæ, who are divided
into small sovereignties, and inhabit tracts which are barren from want
of water. They do not till the land at all, or only to a small extent,
but they keep herds of cattle of all kinds, particularly of camels.
Above these is a great desert; but the parts lying still more to the
south are occupied by the nations inhabiting Arabia Felix, as it is
called. The northern side of this tract is formed by the above-mentioned
desert, the eastern by the Persian, the western by the Arabian Gulf, and
the southern by [CAS. 766] the great sea lying outside of both the
gulfs, the whole of which is called the Erythræan Sea.[677]

2. The Persian Gulf has the name also of the Sea of Persia. Eratosthenes
speaks of it in this manner: “They say that the mouth is so narrow, that
from Harmozi,[678] the promontory of Carmania, may be seen the
promontory at Macæ, in Arabia. From the mouth, the coast on the right
hand is circular, and at first inclines a little from Carmania towards
the east, then to the north, and afterwards to the west as far as
Teredon and the mouth of the Euphrates.[679] In an extent of about
10,000 stadia, it comprises the coast of the Carmanians, Persians, and
Susians, and in part of the Babylonians. (Of these we ourselves have
before spoken.) Hence directly as far as the mouth are 10,000 stadia
more, according, it is said, to the computation of Androsthenes of
Thasos, who not only had accompanied Nearchus, but had also alone sailed
along the sea-coast of Arabia.[680] It is hence evident that this sea is
little inferior in size to the Euxine.

“He says that Androsthenes, who had navigated the gulf with a fleet,
relates, that in sailing from Teredon with the continent on the right
hand, an island Icaros[681] is met with, lying in front, which contained
a temple sacred to Apollo, and an oracle of [Diana] Tauropolus.

3. “Having coasted the shore of Arabia to the distance of 2400 stadia,
there lies, in a deep gulf, a city of the name of Gerrha,[682] belonging
to Chaldæan exiles from Babylon, who inhabit the district in which salt
is found, and who have houses constructed of salt: as scales of salt
separated by the burning heat of the sun are continually falling off,
the houses are sprinkled with water, and the walls are thus kept firm
together. The city is distant 200 stadia from the sea. The merchants of
Gerrha generally carry the Arabian merchandise and aromatics by land;
but Aristobulus says, on the contrary, that they frequently travel into
Babylonia on rafts, and thence sail up the Euphrates to Thapsacus[683]
with their cargoes, but afterwards carry them by land to all parts of
the country.

4. “On sailing further, there are other islands, Tyre[684] and
Aradus,[685] which have temples resembling those of the Phœnicians. The
inhabitants of these islands (if we are to believe them) say that the
islands and cities bearing the same name as those of the Phœnicians are
their own colonies.[686] These islands are distant from Teredon ten
days’ sail, and from the promontory at the mouth of the gulf at Macæ one
day’s sail.

5. “Nearchus and Orthagoras relate, that an island Ogyris lies to the
south, in the open sea, at the distance of 2000 stadia[687] from
Carmania. In this island is shown the sepulchre of Erythras, a large
mound, planted with wild palms. He [CAS. 767] was king of the country,
and the sea received its name from him. It is said that Mithropastes,
the son of Arsites, satrap of Phrygia, pointed out these things to them.
Mithropastes was banished by Darius, and resided in this island; he
joined himself to those who had come down to the Persian Gulf, and hoped
through their means to have an opportunity of returning to his own
country.

6. “Along the whole coast of the Red Sea, in the deep part of the water
grow trees resembling the laurel and the olive. When the tide ebbs, the
whole trees are visible above the water, and at the full tide they are
sometimes entirely covered. This is the more singular because the coast
inland has no trees.”

This is the description given by Eratosthenes of the Persian Sea, which
forms, as we have said, the eastern side of Arabia Felix.

7. Nearchus says, that they were met by Mithropastes, in company with
Mazenes, who was governor of one of the islands, called Doracta
(Oaracta?)[688] in the Persian Gulf; that Mithropastes, after his
retreat from Ogyris, took refuge there, and was hospitably received;
that he had an interview with Mazenes, for the purpose of being
recommended to the Macedonians, in the fleet of which Mazenes was the
guide.

Nearchus also mentions an island, met with at the recommencement of the
voyage along the coast of Persia, where are found pearls in large
quantities and of great value; in other islands there are transparent
and brilliant pebbles; in the islands in front of the Euphrates there
are trees which send forth the odour of frankincense, and from their
roots, when bruised, a (perfumed) juice flows out; the crabs and sea
hedgehogs are of vast size, which is common in all the exterior seas,
some being larger than Macedonian hats;[689] others of the capacity of
two cotyli; he says also that he had seen driven on shore a whale fifty
cubits in length.



CHAPTER IV.


1. Arabia commences on the side of Babylonia with Mæcene.[690] In front
of this district, on one side lies the desert of the Arabians, on the
other are the marshes[691] opposite to the Chaldæans, formed by the
overflowing of the Euphrates, and in another direction is the Sea of
Persia. This country has an unhealthy and cloudy atmosphere; it is
subject to showers, and also to scorching heat; still its products are
excellent. The vine grows in the marshes; as much earth as the plant may
require is laid upon hurdles of reeds;[692] the hurdle is frequently
carried away by the water, and is then forced back again by poles to its
proper situation.

2. I return to the opinions of Eratosthenes, which he next delivers
respecting Arabia. He is speaking of the northern and desert part, lying
between Arabia Felix, Cœle-Syria, and Judæa, to the recess of the
Arabian Gulf.

From Heroopolis, situated in that recess of the Arabian Gulf which is on
the side of the Nile, to Babylon, towards Petra of the Nabatæi, are 5600
stadia. The whole tract lies in the direction of the summer solstice
(i. e. east and west), and passes through the adjacent Arabian tribes,
namely Nabatæi, Chaulotæi, and Agræi. Above these people is Arabia
Felix, stretching out 12,000 stadia towards the south to the Atlantic
Sea.[693]

[CAS. 768] The first people, next after the Syrians and Jews, who
occupy this country are husbandmen. These people are succeeded by a
barren and sandy tract, producing a few palms, the acanthus,[694] and
tamarisk; water is obtained by digging [wells] as in Gedrosia. It is
inhabited by Arabian Scenitæ, who breed camels. The extreme parts
towards the south, and opposite to Ethiopia, are watered by summer
showers, and are sowed twice, like the land in India. Its rivers are
exhausted in watering plains, and by running into lakes. The general
fertility of the country is very great; among other products, there is
in particular an abundant supply of honey; except horses,[695] there are
numerous herds of animals, mules (asses?), and swine; birds also of
every kind, except geese and the gallinaceous tribe.

Four of the most populous nations inhabit the extremity of the
above-mentioned country; namely, the Minæi the part towards the Red Sea,
whose largest city is Carna or Carnana.[696] Next to these are the
Sabæans, whose chief city is Mariaba.[697] The third nation are the
Cattabaneis,[698] extending to the straits and the passage across the
Arabian Gulf. Their royal seat is called Tamna. The Chatramotitæ[699]
are the furthest of these nations towards the east. Their city is
Sabata.

3. All these cities are governed by one monarch, and are flourishing.
They are adorned with beautiful temples and palaces. Their houses, in
the mode of binding the timbers together, are like those in Egypt. The
four countries comprise a greater territory than the Delta of
Egypt.[700]

The son does not succeed the father in the throne, but the son who is
born in a family of the nobles first after the accession of the king. As
soon as any one is invested with the government, the pregnant wives of
the nobles are registered, and guardians are appointed to watch which of
them is first delivered of a son. The custom is to adopt and educate the
child in a princely manner as the future successor to the throne.

4. Cattabania produces frankincense, and Chatramotitis myrrh; these and
other aromatics are the medium of exchange with the merchants. Merchants
arrive in seventy days at Minæa from Ælana.[701] Ælana is a city on the
other recess of the Arabian Gulf, which is called Ælanites, opposite to
Gaza, as we have before described it.[702] The Gerrhæi arrive in
Chatramotitis in forty days.

The part of the Arabian Gulf along the side of Arabia, if we reckon from
the recess of the Ælanitic bay, is, according to the accounts of
Alexander and Anaxicrates, 14,000 stadia in extent; but this computation
is too great. The part opposite to Troglodytica, which is on the right
hand of those who are sailing from Heroopolis[703] to Ptolemaïs, to the
country where elephants are taken, extends 9000 stadia to the south, and
inclines a little towards the east. Thence to the straits are about 4500
stadia, in a direction more towards the east. The straits at Ethiopia
are formed by a promontory called Deire.[704] There is a small town upon
it of the same name. The Ichthyophagi inhabit this country. Here it is
said is a pillar of Sesostris the Egyptian, on which is inscribed, in
hieroglyphics, an account of his passage (across the Arabian Gulf). For
he appears to have subdued first Ethiopia and Troglodytica,[705] and
afterwards to have passed over into Arabia. He then overran the whole of
Asia. Hence in many places there are dykes called the dykes of
Sesostris, and temples built in honour of Egyptian deities.

The straits at Deire are contracted to the width of 60 stadia; not
indeed that these are now called the Straits, for ships proceed to a
further distance, and find a passage of about 200 [CAS. 769] stadia
between the two continents;[706] six islands contiguous to one another
leave a very narrow passage through them for vessels, by filling up the
interval between the continents. Through these goods are transported
from one continent to the other on rafts; it is this passage which is
called the Straits. After these islands, the subsequent navigation is
among bays along the Myrrh country, in the direction of south and east,
as far as the Cinnamon country, a distance of about 5000 stadia;[707]
beyond this district no one to this time, it is said, has penetrated.
There are not many cities upon the coast, but in the interior they are
numerous and well inhabited. Such is the account of Arabia given by
Eratosthenes. We must add what is related also by other writers.

5. Artemidorus[708] says, that the promontory of Arabia, opposite to
Deire, is called Acila,[709] and that the persons who live near Deire
deprive themselves of the prepuce.

In sailing from Heroopolis along Troglodytica, a city is met with called
Philotera,[710] after the sister of the second Ptolemy; it was founded
by Satyrus, who was sent to explore the hunting-ground for the
elephants, and Troglodytica itself. Next to this is another city,
Arsinoë; and next to this, springs of hot water, which are salt and
bitter; they are precipitated from a high rock, and discharge themselves
into the sea. There is in a plain near (these springs) a mountain, which
is of a red colour like minium. Next is Myus Hormus, which is also
called Aphrodites Hormus;[711] it is a large harbour with an oblique
entrance. In front are three islands; two are covered with olive trees,
and one (the third) is less shaded with trees, and abounds with
guinea-fowls.[712] Then follows Acathartus (or Foul Bay), which, like
Myus Hormus, is in the latitude of the Thebaïs. The bay is really foul,
for it is very dangerous from rocks (some of which are covered by the
sea, others rise to the surface), as also from almost constant and
furious tempests. At the bottom of the bay is situated the city
Berenice.[713]

6. After the bay is the island Ophiodes,[714] so called from the
accidental circumstance [of its having once been infested with
serpents]. It was cleared of the serpents by the king,[715] on account
of the destruction occasioned by those noxious animals to the persons
who frequented the island, and on account of the topazes found there.
The topaz is a transparent stone, sparkling with a golden lustre, which
however is not easy to be distinguished in the day-time, on account of
the brightness of the surrounding light, but at night the stones are
visible to those who collect them. The collectors place a vessel over
the spot [where the topazes are seen] as a mark, and dig them up in the
day. A body of men was appointed and maintained by the kings of Egypt to
guard the place [CAS. 770] where these stones were found, and to
superintend the collection of them.

7. Next after this island follow many tribes of Ichthyophagi and of
Nomades; then succeeds the harbour of the goddess Soteira (the
Preserver), which had its name from the circumstance of the escape and
preservation of some masters [of vessels] from great dangers by sea.

After this the coast and the gulf seem to undergo a great change: for
the voyage along the coast is no longer among rocks, and approaches
almost close to Arabia; the sea is so shallow as to be scarcely of the
depth of two orguiæ,[716] and has the appearance of a meadow, in
consequence of the sea-weeds, which abound in the passage, being visible
through and under the water. Even trees here grow from under the water,
and the sea abounds with sea-dogs.

Next are two mountains,[717] the Tauri (or the Bulls), presenting at a
distance a resemblance to these animals. Then follows another mountain,
on which is a temple of Isis, built by Sesostris; then an island planted
with olive trees, and at times overflowed. This is followed by the city
Ptolemaïs, near the hunting-grounds of the elephants,[718] founded by
Eumedes, who was sent by Philadelphus to the hunting-ground. He
enclosed, without the knowledge of the inhabitants, a kind of peninsula
with a ditch and wall, and by his courteous address gained over those
who were inclined to obstruct the work, and instead of enemies made them
his friends.

8. In the intervening space, a branch of the river Astaboras[719]
discharges itself. It has its source in a lake, and empties part of its
waters [into the bay], but the larger portion it contributes to the
Nile. Then follow six islands, called Latomiæ,[720] after these the
Sabaïtic mouth,[721] as it is called, and in the inland parts a
fortress built by Suchus.[722] Then a lake called Elæa, and the island
of Strato;[723] next Saba[724] a port, and a hunting-ground for
elephants of the same name. The country deep in the interior is called
Tenessis. It is occupied by those Egyptians who took refuge from the
government of Psammitichus.[725] They are surnamed Sembritæ,[726] as
being strangers. They are governed by a queen, to whom also Meroë, an
island in the Nile near these places, is subject. Above this, at no
great distance, is another island in the river, a settlement occupied by
the same fugitives. From Meroë to this sea is a journey of fifteen days
for an active person.

Near Meroë is the confluence of the Astaboras,[727] the Astapus,[728]
and of the Astasobas with the Nile.

9. On the banks of these rivers live the Rhizophagi (or root-eaters) and
Heleii (or marsh-men). They have their name from digging roots in the
adjacent marsh, bruising them with stones, and forming them into cakes,
which they dry in the sun for food. These countries are the haunts of
lions. The wild beasts are driven out of these places, at the time of
the rising of the dog-star, by large gnats.

Near these people live the Spermophagi (or seed-eaters), who, when seeds
of plants fail, subsist upon seeds of trees,[729] [CAS. 771] which they
prepare in the same manner as the Rhizophagi prepare their roots.

Next to Elæa are the watch-towers of Demetrius, and the altars of Conon.
In the interior Indian reeds grow in abundance. The country there is
called the country of Coracius.

Far in the interior was a place called Endera, inhabited by a naked
tribe,[730] who use bows and reed arrows, the points of which are
hardened in the fire. They generally shoot the animals from trees,
sometimes from the ground. They have numerous herds of wild cattle among
them, on the flesh of which they subsist, and on that of other wild
animals. When they have taken nothing in the chase, they dress dried
skins upon hot coals, and are satisfied with food of this kind. It is
their custom to propose trials of skill in archery for those who have
not attained manhood.

Next to the altars of Conon is the port of Melinus, and above it is a
fortress called that of Coraus and the chase of Coraus, also another
fortress and more hunting-grounds. Then follows the harbour of
Antiphilus, and above this a tribe, the Creophagi, deprived of the
prepuce, and the women are excised after the Jewish custom.[731]

10. Further still towards the south are the Cynamolgi,[732] called by
the natives Agrii, with long hair and long beards, who keep a breed of
very large dogs for hunting the Indian cattle which come into their
country from the neighbouring district, driven thither either by wild
beasts or by scarcity of pasturage. The time of their incursion is from
the summer solstice to the middle of winter.

Next to the harbour of Antiphilus is a port called the Grove of the
Colobi (or the Mutilated), the city Berenice[733] of Sabæ, and Sabæ[734]
a considerable city; then the grove of Eumenes.[735]

Above is the city Darada, and a hunting-ground for elephants, called “At
the Well.” The district is inhabited by the Elephantophagi (or
Elephant-eaters), who are occupied in hunting them. When they descry
from the trees a herd of elephants directing their course through the
forest, they do not [then] attack, but they approach by stealth and
hamstring the hindmost stragglers from the herd. Some kill them with
bows and arrows, the latter being dipped in the gall of serpents. The
shooting with the bow is performed by three men, two, advancing in
front, hold the bow, and one draws the string. Others remark the trees
against which the elephant is accustomed to rest, and, approaching on
the opposite side, cut the trunk of the tree low down. When the animal
comes and leans against it, the tree and the elephant fall down
together. The elephant is unable to rise, because its legs are formed of
one piece of bone which is inflexible; the hunters leap down from the
trees, kill it, and cut it in pieces. The Nomades call the hunters
Acatharti, or impure.

11. Above this nation is situated a small tribe the Struthophagi[736]
(or Bird-eaters), in whose country are birds of the size of deer, which
are unable to fly, but run with the swiftness of the ostrich. Some hunt
them with bows and arrows, others covered with the skins of birds. They
hide the right hand in the neck of the skin, and move it as the birds
move their necks. With the left hand they scatter grain from a bag
suspended to the side; they thus entice the birds, till they drive them
into pits, where the hunters despatch them with cudgels. The skins are
used both as clothes and as coverings for beds. The Ethiopians called
Simi are at war with these people, and use as weapons the horns of
antelopes.

12. Bordering on this people is a nation blacker in complexion than the
others,[737] shorter in stature, and very short-lived. They rarely live
beyond forty years; for the flesh [CAS. 772] of their bodies is eaten
up with worms.[738] Their food consists of locusts, which the south-west
and west winds, when they blow violently in the spring-time, drive in
bodies into the country. The inhabitants catch them by throwing into the
ravines materials which cause a great deal of smoke, and light them
gently. The locusts, as they fly across the smoke, are blinded and fall
down. They are pounded with salt, made into cakes, and eaten as food.

Above these people is situated a desert tract with extensive pastures.
It was abandoned in consequence of the multitudes of scorpions and
tarantulas, called tetragnathi (or four-jawed), which formerly abounded
to so great a degree as to occasion a complete desertion of the place
long since by its inhabitants.

13. Next to the harbour of Eumenes, as far as Deire and the straits
opposite the six islands,[739] live the Ichthyophagi, Creophagi, and
Colobi, who extend into the interior.

Many hunting-grounds for elephants, and obscure cities and islands, lie
in front of the coast.

The greater part are Nomades; husbandmen are few in number. In the
country occupied by some of these nations styrax grows in large
quantity. The Icthyophagi, on the ebbing of the tide, collect fish,
which they cast upon the rocks and dry in the sun. When they have well
broiled them, the bones are piled in heaps, and the flesh trodden with
the feet is made into cakes, which are again exposed to the sun and used
as food. In bad weather, when fish cannot be procured, the bones of
which they have made heaps are pounded, made into cakes and eaten, but
they suck the fresh bones. Some also live upon shell-fish, when they are
fattened, which is done by throwing them into holes and standing pools
of the sea, where they are supplied with small fish, and used as food
when other fish are scarce. They have various kinds of places for
preserving and feeding fish, from whence they derive their supply.

Some of the inhabitants of that part of the coast which is without water
go inland every five days, accompanied by all their families, with
songs and rejoicings, to the watering-places, where, throwing themselves
on their faces, they drink as beasts until their stomachs are distended
like a drum. They then return again to the sea-coast. They dwell in
caves or cabins, with roofs consisting of beams and rafters made of the
bones and spines of whales, and covered with branches of the olive tree.

14. The Chelonophagi (or Turtle-eaters) live under the cover of shells
(of turtles), which are large enough to be used as boats. Some make of
the sea-weed, which is thrown up in large quantities, lofty and
hill-like heaps, which are hollowed out, and underneath which they live.
They cast out the dead, which are carried away by the tide, as food for
fish.

There are three islands which follow in succession, the island of
Tortoises, the island of Seals, and the island of Hawks. Along the whole
coast there are plantations of palm trees, olive trees, and laurels, not
only within, but in a great part also without the straits.

There is also an island [called the island] of Philip, opposite to it
inland is situated the hunting-ground for elephants, called the chase of
Pythangelus; then follows Arsinoë, a city with a harbour; after these
places is Deire, and beyond them is a hunting-ground for elephants.

From Deire, the next country is that which bears aromatic plants. The
first produces myrrh, and belongs to the Icthyophagi and the Creophagi.
It bears also the persea, peach or Egyptian almond,[740] and the
Egyptian fig. Beyond is Licha, a hunting-ground for elephants. There are
also in many places standing pools of rain-water. When these are dried
up, the elephants, with their trunks and tusks, dig holes and find
water.

On this coast there are two very large lakes extending as far as the
promontory Pytholaus.[741] One of them contains salt water, and is
called a sea; the other, fresh water, and is the haunt of hippopotami
and crocodiles. On the margin grows the papyrus. The ibis is seen in the
neighbourhood of this place. The people who live near the promontory of
Pytholaus (and beginning from this place) do not [CAS. 774] undergo any
mutilation in any part of their body. Next is the country which produces
frankincense; it has a promontory and a temple with a grove of poplars.
In the inland parts is a tract along the banks of a river bearing the
name of Isis, and another that of Nilus,[742] both of which produce
myrrh and frankincense. Also a lagoon filled with water from the
mountains; next the watch-post of the Lion, and the port of Pythangelus.
The next tract bears the false cassia. There are many tracts in
succession on the sides of rivers on which frankincense grows, and
rivers extending to the cinnamon country. The river which bounds this
tract produces (phlous) rushes[743] in great abundance. Then follows
another river, and the port of Daphnus,[744] and a valley called
Apollo’s, which bears, besides frankincense, myrrh and cinnamon. The
latter is more abundant in places far in the interior.

Next is the mountain Elephas,[745] a mountain projecting into the sea,
and a creek; then follows the large harbour of Psygmus, a watering-place
called that of Cynocephali, and the last promontory of this coast,
Notu-ceras (or the Southern Horn).[746] After doubling this cape towards
the south, we have no more descriptions, he says, of harbours or
places, because nothing is known of the sea-coast beyond this
point.[747]

15. Along the coast there are both pillars and altars of Pytholaus,
Lichas, Pythangelus, Leon, and Charimortus, that is, along the known
coast from Deire as far as Notu-ceras; but the distance is not
determined. The country abounds with elephants and lions called myrmeces
(ants).[748] They have their genital organs reversed. Their skin is of a
golden colour, but they are more bare than the lions of Arabia.

It produces also leopards of great strength and courage, and the
rhinoceros. The rhinoceros is little inferior to the elephant; not,
according to Artemidorus, in length to the crest,[749] although he says
he had seen one at Alexandreia, but it is somewhat about [* * *
less][750] in height, judging at least from the one I saw. Nor is the
colour the pale yellow of box-wood, but like that of the elephant.[751]
It was of the size of a bull. Its shape approached very nearly to that
of the wild boar, and particularly the forehead; except the front, which
is furnished with a hooked horn, harder than any bone. It uses it as a
weapon, like the wild boar its tusks. It has also two hard welts, like
folds of serpents, encircling the body from the chine to the belly, one
on the withers, the other on the loins. This description is taken from
one which I myself saw. Artemidorus adds to his account of this animal,
that it is peculiarly inclined to dispute with the elephant for the
place of pasture; thrusting its forehead under the belly [of the
elephant] and ripping it up, unless prevented by the trunk and tusks of
his adversary.

16. Camel-leopards are bred in these parts, but they do not in any
respect resemble leopards, for their variegated skin is more like the
streaked and spotted skin of fallow deer. The [CAS. 775] hinder
quarters are so very much lower than the fore quarters, that it seems as
if the animal sat upon its rump, which is the height of an ox; the fore
legs are as long as those of the camel. The neck rises high and straight
up, but the head greatly exceeds in height that of the camel. From this
want of proportion, the speed of the animal is not so great, I think, as
it is described by Artemidorus, according to whom it is not to be
surpassed. It is not however a wild animal, but rather like a
domesticated beast; for it shows no signs of a savage disposition.

This country, continues Artemidorus, produces also sphinxes,[752]
cynocephali,[753] and cebi,[754] which have the face of a lion, and the
rest of the body like that of a panther; they are as large as deer.
There are wild bulls also, which are carnivorous, and greatly exceed
ours in size and swiftness. They are of a red colour. The crocuttas[755]
is, according to this author, the mixed progeny of a wolf and a dog.
What Metrodorus the Scepsian relates, in his book “on Custom,” is like
fable, and is to be disregarded.

Artemidorus mentions serpents also of thirty cubits in length, which can
master elephants and bulls: in this he does not exaggerate.[756] But the
Indian and African serpents are of a more fabulous size, and are said to
have grass growing on their backs.

17. The mode of life among the Troglodytæ is nomadic. Each tribe is
governed by tyrants. Their wives and children are common, except those
of the tyrants. The offence of corrupting the wife of a tyrant is
punished with the fine of a sheep.

The women carefully paint themselves with antimony. They wear about
their necks shells, as a protection against fascination by witchcraft.
In their quarrels, which are for pastures, they first push away each
other with their hands, they then use stones, or, if wounds are
inflicted, arrows and daggers. The women put an end to these disputes,
by going into the midst of the combatants and using prayers and
entreaties.

Their food consists of flesh and bones pounded together, wrapped up in
skins and then baked, or prepared after many other methods by the cooks,
who are called Acatharti, or impure. In this way they eat not only the
flesh, but the bones and skins also.

They use (as an ointment for the body?) a mixture of blood and milk; the
drink of the people in general is an infusion of the paliurus
(buckthorn);[757] that of the tyrants is mead; the honey being expressed
from some kind of flower.

Their winter sets in when the Etesian winds begin to blow (for they have
rain), and the remaining season is summer.

They go naked, or wear skins only, and carry clubs. They deprive
themselves of the prepuce,[758] but some are circumcised like Egyptians.
The Ethiopian Megabari have their clubs armed with iron knobs. They use
spears and shields which are covered with raw hides. The other
Ethiopians use bows and lances. Some of the Troglodytæ, when they bury
their dead, bind the body from the neck to the legs with twigs of the
buckthorn. They then immediately throw stones over the body, at the same
time laughing and rejoicing, until they have covered the face. They then
place over it a ram’s horn, and go away.

They travel by night; the male cattle have bells fastened to them, in
order to drive away wild beasts with the sound. They use torches also
and arrows in repelling them. They watch during the night, on account of
their flocks, and sing some peculiar song around their fires.

18. Having given this account of the Troglodytæ and of the neighbouring
Ethiopians, Artemidorus returns to the Arabians. Beginning from
Poseidium, he first describes those who border upon the Arabian Gulf,
and are opposite to the Troglodytæ. He says that Poseidium is situated
within the bay of [Heroopolis],[759] and that contiguous to
Poseidium[760] is a grove of palm trees,[761] well supplied with water,
which is [CAS. 776] highly valued, because all the district around is
burnt up and is without water or shade. But there the fertility of the
palm is prodigious. A man and a woman are appointed by hereditary right
to the guardianship of the grove. They wear skins, and live on dates.
They sleep in huts built on trees, the place being infested with
multitudes of wild beasts.

Next is the island of Phocæ (Seals),[762] which has its name from those
animals, which abound there. Near it is a promontory,[763] which extends
towards Petra, of the Arabians called Nabatæi, and to the country of
Palestine, to this [island] the Minæi,[764] Gerrhæi, and all the
neighbouring nations repair with loads of aromatics.

Next is another tract of sea-coast, formerly called the coast of the
Maranitæ,[765] some of whom were husbandmen, others Scenitæ; but at
present it is occupied by Garindæi, who destroyed the former possessors
by treachery. They attacked those who were assembled to celebrate some
quinquennial festival, and put them to death; they then attacked and
exterminated the rest of the tribe.[766]

Next is the Ælanitic[767] Gulf and Nabatæa, a country well peopled, and
abounding in cattle. The islands which lie near, and opposite, are
inhabited by people who formerly lived without molesting others, but
latterly carried on a piratical warfare in rafts[768] against vessels on
their way from Egypt. But they suffered reprisals, when an armament was
sent out against them, which devastated their country.

Next is a plain, well wooded and well supplied with water; it abounds
with cattle of all kinds, and, among other animals, mules, wild camels,
harts, and hinds; lions also, leopards, and wolves are frequently to be
found. In front lies an island called Dia. Then follows a bay of about
500 stadia in extent, closed in by mountains, the entrance into which is
of difficult access. About it live people who are hunters of wild
animals.

Next are three desert islands, abounding with olive trees, not like
those in our own country, but an indigenous kind, which we call Ethiopic
olives, the tears (or gum) of which have a medicinal virtue.

Then follows a stony beach, which is succeeded by a rugged coast,[769]
not easily navigated by vessels, extending about 1000 stadia. It has few
harbours and anchorages, for a rugged and lofty mountain stretches
parallel to it; then the parts at its base, extending into the sea, form
rocks under water, which, during the blowing of the Etesian winds and
the storms of that period, present dangers, when no assistance can be
afforded to vessels.

Next is a bay in which are some scattered islands,[770] and continuous
with the bay, are three very lofty mounds[771] of black sand. After
these is Charmothas[772] a harbour, about 100 stadia in circumference,
with a narrow entrance very dangerous for all kinds of vessels. A river
empties itself into it. In the middle is a well-wooded island, adapted
for cultivation.

Then follows a rugged coast, and after that are some bays and a country
belonging to Nomades, who live by their camels. They fight from their
backs; they travel upon them, and subsist on their milk and flesh. A
river flows [CAS. 777] through their country, which brings down
gold-dust, but they are ignorant how to make any use of it. They are
called Debæ;[773] some of them are Nomades, others husbandmen.

I do not mention the greater part[774] of the names of these nations, on
account of the obscurity of the people, and because the pronunciation of
them is strange[775] [and uncouth].

Near these people is a nation more civilized, who inhabit a district
with a more temperate climate; for it is well watered, and has frequent
showers.[776] Fossil gold is found there, not in the form of dust, but
in lumps, which do not require much purification. The least pieces are
of the size of a nut, the middle size of a medlar, the largest of a
walnut. These are pierced and arranged alternately with transparent
stones strung on threads and formed into collars. They are worn round
the neck and wrists. They sell the gold to their neighbours at a cheap
rate, exchanging it for three times the quantity of brass, and double
the quantity of iron,[777] through ignorance of the mode of working the
gold, and the scarcity of the commodities received in exchange, which
are more necessary for the purposes of life.

19. The country of the Sabæi,[778] a very populous nation, is
contiguous, and is the most fertile of all, producing myrrh,
frankincense, and cinnamon. On the coast is found balsamum and another
kind of herb of a very fragrant smell, but which is soon dissipated.
There are also sweet-smelling palms and the calamus. There are snakes
also of a dark red colour, a span in length, which spring up as high as
a man’s waist, and whose bite is incurable.

On account of the abundance which the soil produces, the people are lazy
and indolent in their mode of life. The lower class of people live on
roots, and sleep on the trees.

The people who live near each other receive, in continued succession,
the loads [of perfumes] and deliver them to others, who convey them as
far as Syria and Mesopotamia. When the carriers become drowsy by the
odour of the aromatics, the drowsiness is removed by the fumes of
asphaltus and of goat’s beard.

Mariaba,[779] the capital of the Sabæans, is situated upon a mountain,
well wooded. A king resides there, who determines absolutely all
disputes and other matters; but he is forbidden to leave his palace, or
if he does so, the rabble immediately assail him with stones, according
to the direction of an oracle. He himself, and those about his person,
pass their lives in effeminate voluptuousness.

The people cultivate the ground, or follow the trade of dealing in
aromatics, both the indigenous sort and those brought from Ethiopia; in
order to procure them, they sail through the straits in vessels covered
with skins. There is such an abundance of these aromatics, that
cinnamon, cassia, and other spices are used by them instead of sticks
and firewood.

In the country of the Sabæans is found the larimnum, a most fragrant
perfume.

By the trade [in these aromatics] both the Sabæans and the Gerrhæi have
become the richest of all the tribes, and possess a great quantity of
wrought articles in gold and silver, [CAS. 778] as couches, tripods,
basins, drinking-vessels, to which we must add the costly magnificence
of their houses; for the doors, walls, and roofs are variegated with
inlaid ivory, gold, silver, and precious stones.

This is the account of Artemidorus.[780] The rest of the description is
partly similar to that of Eratosthenes, and partly derived from other
historians.

20. Some of these say, that the sea is red from the colour arising from
reflection either from the sun, which is vertical, or from the
mountains, which are red by being scorched with intense heat; for the
colour, it is supposed, may be produced by both these causes. Ctesias of
Cnidus speaks of a spring which discharges into the sea a red and
ochrous water. Agatharchides, his fellow-citizen, relates, on the
authority of a person of the name of Boxus, of Persian descent, that
when a troop of horses was driven by a lioness in heat as far as the
sea, and had passed over to an island, a Persian of the name of Erythras
constructed a raft, and was the first person who crossed the sea to it;
perceiving the island to be well adapted for inhabitants, he drove the
herd back to Persia, and sent out colonists both to this and the other
islands and to the coast. He [thus] gave his own name to the sea. But
according to others, it was Erythras the son of Perseus who was the king
of this country.

According to some writers, from the straits in the Arabian Gulf to the
extremity of the cinnamon country is a distance of 5000 stadia,[781]
without distinguishing whether (the direction is) to the south or to the
east.

It is said also that the emerald and the beryl are found in the gold
mines. According to Poseidonius, an odoriferous salt is found in Arabia.

21. The Nabatæans and Sabæans, situated above Syria, are the first
people who occupy Arabia Felix. They were frequently in the habit of
overrunning this country before the Romans became masters of it, but at
present both they and the Syrians are subject to the Romans.

The capital of the Nabatæans is called Petra. It is situated on a spot
which is surrounded and fortified by a smooth and level rock (petra),
which externally is abrupt and precipitous, but within there are
abundant springs of water both for domestic purposes and for watering
gardens. Beyond the enclosure the country is for the most part a desert,
particularly towards Judæa. Through this is the shortest road to
Jericho, a journey of three or four days, and five days to the Phœnicon
(or palm plantation). It is always governed by a king of the royal race.
The king has a minister who is one of the Companions, and is called
Brother. It has excellent laws for the administration of public affairs.

Athenodorus, a philosopher, and my friend, who had been at Petra, used
to relate with surprise, that he found many Romans and also many other
strangers residing there. He observed the strangers frequently engaged
in litigation, both with one another and with the natives; but the
natives had never any dispute amongst themselves, and lived together in
perfect harmony.

22. The late expedition[782] of the Romans against the Arabians, under
the command of Ælius Gallus, has made us acquainted with many
peculiarities of the country. Augustus Cæsar despatched this general to
explore the nature of these [CAS. 779] places and their inhabitants, as
well as those of Ethiopia; for he observed that Troglodytica, which is
contiguous to Egypt, bordered upon Ethiopia; and that the Arabian Gulf
was extremely narrow, where it separates the Arabians from the
Troglodytæ. It was his intention either to conciliate or subdue the
Arabians. He was also influenced by the report, which had prevailed from
all time, that this people were very wealthy, and exchanged their
aromatics and precious stones for silver and gold, but never expended
with foreigners any part of what they received in exchange. He hoped to
acquire either opulent friends, or to overcome opulent enemies. He was
moreover encouraged to undertake this enterprise by the expectation of
assistance from the Nabatæans, who promised to co-operate with him in
everything.

23. Upon these inducements Gallus set out on the expedition. But he was
deceived by Syllæus, the [king’s] minister of the Nabatæans, who had
promised to be his guide on the march, and to assist him in the
execution of his design. Syllæus was however treacherous throughout; for
he neither guided them by a safe course by sea along the coast, nor by a
safe road for the army, as he promised, but exposed both the fleet and
the army to danger, by directing them where there was no road, or the
road was impracticable, where they were obliged to make long circuits,
or to pass through tracts of country destitute of everything; he led the
fleet along a rocky coast without harbours, or to places abounding with
rocks concealed under water, or with shallows. In places of this
description particularly, the flowing and ebbing of the tide did them
the most harm.

The first mistake consisted in building long vessels [of war] at a time
when there was no war, nor any likely to occur by sea. For the Arabians,
being mostly engaged in traffic and commerce, are not a very warlike
people even on land, much less so at sea. Gallus, notwithstanding, built
not less than eighty biremes and triremes and galleys (phaseli) at
Cleopatris,[783] near the old canal which leads from the Nile. When he
discovered his mistake, he constructed a hundred and thirty vessels of
burden, in which he embarked with about ten thousand infantry, collected
from Egypt, consisting of Romans and allies, among whom were five
hundred Jews and a thousand Nabatæans, under the command of Syllæus.
After enduring great hardships and distress, he arrived on the fifteenth
day at Leuce-Come, a large mart in the territory of the Nabatæans, with
the loss of many of his vessels, some with all their crews, in
consequence of the difficulty of the navigation, but by no opposition
from an enemy. These misfortunes were occasioned by the perfidy of
Syllæus, who insisted that there was no road for an army by land to
Leuce-Come, to which and from which place the camel-traders travel with
ease and in safety from Petra, and back to Petra, with so large a body
of men and camels as to differ in no respect from an army.

24. Another cause of the failure of the expedition was the fact of king
Obodas not paying much attention to public affairs, and especially to
those relative to war (as is the custom with all Arabian kings), but
placed everything in the power of Syllæus the minister. His whole
conduct in command of the army was perfidious, and his object was, as I
suppose, to examine as a spy the state of the country, and to destroy,
in concert with the Romans, certain cities and tribes: and when the
Romans should be consumed by famine, fatigue, and disease, and by all
the evils which he had treacherously contrived, to declare himself
master of the whole country.

Gallus however arrived at Leuce-Come, with the army labouring under
stomacacce and scelotyrbe, diseases of the country, the former affecting
the mouth, the other the legs, with a kind of paralysis, caused by the
water and the plants [which the soldiers had used in their food]. He was
therefore compelled to pass the summer and the winter there, for the
recovery of the sick.

Merchandise is conveyed from Leuce-Come to Petra, thence to Rhinocolura
in Phœnicia, near Egypt, and thence to other nations. But at present the
greater part is transported by the Nile to Alexandreia. It is brought
down from Arabia and India to Myus Hormus, it is then conveyed on camels
to Coptus[784] of the Thebaïs, situated on a canal of the Nile, and to
Alexandreia. Gallus, setting out again from Leuce-Come on his return
with his army, and through the treachery of his guide, traversed such
tracts of country, that the army was obliged to carry water with them
upon camels. After a [CAS. 781] march of many days, therefore, he came
to the territory of Aretas, who was related to Obodas. Aretas received
him in a friendly manner, and offered presents. But by the treachery of
Syllæus, Gallus was conducted by a difficult road through the country;
for he occupied thirty days in passing through it. It afforded barley, a
few palm trees, and butter instead of oil.

The next country to which he came belonged to Nomades, and was in great
part a complete desert. It was called Ararene. The king of the country
was Sabos. Gallus spent fifty days in passing through this territory,
for want of roads, and came to a city of the Negrani, and to a fertile
country peacefully disposed. The king had fled, and the city was taken
at the first onset. After a march of six days from thence, he came to
the river. Here the barbarians attacked the Romans, and lost about ten
thousand men; the Romans lost only two men. For the barbarians were
entirely inexperienced in war, and used their weapons unskilfully, which
were bows, spears, swords, and slings; but the greater part of them
wielded a double-edged axe. Immediately afterwards he took the city
called Asca, which had been abandoned by the king. He thence came to a
city Athrula, and took it without resistance; having placed a garrison
there, and collected provisions for the march, consisting of corn and
dates, he proceeded to a city Marsiaba, belonging to the nation of the
Rhammanitæ, who were subjects of Ilasarus. He assaulted and besieged it
for six days, but raised the siege in consequence of a scarcity of
water. He was two days’ march from the aromatic region, as he was
informed by his prisoners. He occupied in his marches a period of six
months, in consequence of the treachery of his guides. This he
discovered when he was returning; and although he was late in
discovering the design against him, he had time to take another road
back; for he arrived in nine days at Negrana, where the battle was
fought, and thence in eleven days he came to the “Seven Wells,” as the
place is called from the fact of their existing there. Thence he marched
through a desert country, and came to Chaalla a village, and then to
another called Malothas, situated on a river. His road then lay through
a desert country, which had only a few watering-places, as far as
Egra[785] a village. It belongs to the territory of Obodas, and is
situated upon the sea. He accomplished on his return the whole distance
in sixty days, in which, on his first journey, he had consumed six
months. From Negra he conducted his army in eleven days to Myus Hormus;
thence across the country to Coptus, and arrived at Alexandreia with so
much of his army could be saved. The remainder he lost, not by the
enemy, but by disease, fatigue, famine, and marches through bad roads;
for seven men only perished in battle. For these reasons this expedition
contributed little in extending our knowledge of the country. It was
however of some small service.

Syllæus, the author of these disasters, was punished for his treachery
at Rome. He affected friendship, but he was convicted of other offences,
besides perfidy in this instance, and was beheaded.

25. The aromatic country, as I have before said,[786] is divided into
four parts. Of aromatics, the frankincense and myrrh are said to be the
produce of trees, but cassia the growth of bushes; yet some writers say,
that the greater part (of the cassia) is brought from India, and that
the best frankincense is that from Persia.

According to another partition of the country, the whole of Arabia Felix
is divided into five kingdoms (or portions), one of which comprises the
fighting men, who fight for all the rest; another contains the
husbandmen, by whom the rest are supplied with food; another includes
those who work at mechanical trades. One division comprises the myrrh
region; another the frankincense region, although the same tracts
produce cassia, cinnamon, and nard. Trades are not changed from one
family to another, but each workman continues to exercise that of his
father.

The greater part of their wine is made from the palm.

A man’s brothers are held in more respect than his children. The
descendants of the royal family succeed as kings, and are invested with
other governments, according to primogeniture. Property is common among
all the relations. The eldest is the chief. There is one wife among them
all. He who enters [CAS. 783] the house before any of the rest, has
intercourse with her, having placed his staff at the door; for it is a
necessary custom, which every one is compelled to observe, to carry a
staff. The woman however passes the night with the eldest. Hence the
male children are all brothers. They have sexual intercourse also with
their mothers. Adultery is punished with death, but an adulterer must
belong to another family.

A daughter of one of the kings was of extraordinary beauty, and had
fifteen brothers, who were all in love with her, and were her unceasing
and successive visitors; she, being at last weary of their importunity,
is said to have employed the following device. She procured staves to be
made similar to those of her brothers; when one left the house, she
placed before the door a staff similar to the first, and a little time
afterwards another, and so on in succession, but making her calculation
so that the person who intended to visit her might not have one similar
to that at her door. On an occasion when the brothers were all of them
together at the market-place, one left it, and came to the door of the
house; seeing the staff there, and conjecturing some one to be in her
apartment, and having left all the other brothers at the market-place,
he suspected the person to be an adulterer; running therefore in haste
to his father, he brought him with him to the house, but it was proved
that he had falsely accused his sister.

26. The Nabatæans are prudent, and fond of accumulating property. The
community fine a person who has diminished his substance, and confer
honours on him who has increased it. They have few slaves, and are
served for the most part by their relations, or by one another, or each
person is his own servant; and this custom extends even to their kings.
They eat their meals in companies consisting of thirteen persons. Each
party is attended by two musicians. But the king gives many
entertainments in great buildings. No one drinks more than eleven
[appointed] cupfuls, from separate cups, each of gold.

The king courts popular favour so much, that he is not only his own
servant, but sometimes he himself ministers to others. He frequently
renders an account [of his administration] before the people, and
sometimes an inquiry is made into his mode of life.

The houses are sumptuous, and of stone. The cities are without walls, on
account of the peace [which prevails among them]. A great part of the
country is fertile, and produces everything except oil of olives;
[instead of it], the oil of sesamum is used. The sheep have white
fleeces, their oxen are large; but the country produces no horses.[787]
Camels are the substitute for horses, and perform the [same kind of]
labour. They wear no tunics, but have a girdle about the loins, and walk
abroad in sandals.[788] The dress of the kings is the same, but the
colour is purple.

Some merchandise is altogether imported into the country, others are not
altogether imports, especially as some articles are native products, as
gold and silver, and many of the aromatics; but brass and iron, purple
garments, styrax, saffron, and costus (or white cinnamon), pieces of
sculpture, paintings, statues, are not to be procured in the country.

They look upon the bodies of the dead as no better than dung, according
to the words of Heracleitus, “dead bodies more fit to be cast out than
dung;” wherefore they bury even their kings beside dung-heaps. They
worship the sun, and construct the altar on the top of a house, pouring
out libations and burning frankincense upon it every day.

27. When the poet says,

   “I went to the country of the Ethiopians, Sidonians, and Erembi,”[789]

it is doubtful, what people he means by Sidonians, whether those who
lived near the Persian Gulf, a colony from which nation are the
Sidonians in our quarter (in the same manner as historians relate, that
some Tyrian islanders are found there, and Aradii, from whom the Aradii
in our country derive their origin), or whether the poet means actually
the Sidonians themselves.

But there is more doubt about the Erembi, whether we are to suppose that
he means the Troglodytæ, according to the opinion of those who, by a
forced etymology, derive the word Erembi from ἔραν ἐμβαίνειν, that is,
“entering into the earth,” or whether he means the Arabians. Zeno the
philosopher of our sect alters the reading in this manner,

   “And Sidoni, and Arabes;”

[CAS. 784] but Poseidonius alters it with a small variation,

   “And Sidonii, and Arambi,”

as if the poet gave the name Arambi to the present Arabians, from their
being so called by others in his time. He says also, that the situation
of these three nations close to one another indicates a descent from
some common stock, and that on this account they are called by names
having a resemblance to one another, as Armenii, Aramæi, Arambi. For as
we may suppose one nation to have been divided into three (according to
the differences of latitude [in which they lived], which successively
became more marked [in proceeding from one to the other]), so in like
manner we may suppose that several names were adopted in place of one.
The proposed change of reading to Eremni is not probable, for that name
is more applicable to the Ethiopians. The poet mentions also the Arimi,
whom Poseidonius says are meant here, and not a place in Syria or
Cilicia, or any other country, but Syria itself. For the Aramæi lived
there. Perhaps these are the people whom the Greeks called Arimæi or
Arimi. But the alterations of names, especially of barbarous nations,
are frequent, Thus Darius was called Darieces; Parysatis, Pharziris;
Athara, Atargata, whom Ctesias again calls Derceto.[790]

Alexander might be adduced to bear witness to the wealth of the
Arabians, for he intended, it is said, after his return from India, to
make Arabia the seat of empire. All his enterprises terminated with his
death, which happened suddenly; but certainly one of his projects was to
try whether the Arabians would receive him voluntarily, or resist him by
force of arms; for having found that they did not send ambassadors to
him, either before or after his expedition to India, he was beginning to
make preparations for war, as we have said in a former part of this
work.



BOOK XVII.

SUMMARY.


   The Seventeenth Book contains the whole of Egypt and Africa.



CHAPTER I.


When we were describing Arabia, we included in the description the gulfs
which compress and make it a peninsula, namely the Gulfs of Arabia and
of Persis. We described at the same time some parts of Egypt, and those
of Ethiopia, inhabited by the Troglodytæ, and by the people situated
next to them, extending to the confines of the Cinnamon country.[791]

We are now to describe the remaining parts contiguous to these nations,
and situated about the Nile. We shall then give an account of Africa,
which remains to complete this treatise on Geography.

And here we must previously adduce the opinions of Eratosthenes.

2. He says, that the Nile is distant from the Arabian Gulf towards the
west 1000 stadia, and that it resembles (in its course) the letter N
reversed. For after flowing, he says, about 2700 stadia from Meroë
towards the north, it turns again to the south, and to the winter
sunset, continuing its course for about 3700 stadia, when it is almost
in the latitude of the places about Meroë. Then entering far into
Africa, and having made another bend, it flows towards the north, a
distance of 5300 stadia, to the great cataract;[792] and inclining a
little to the east, traverses a distance of 1200 stadia to the smaller
cataract at Syene,[793] and 5300 stadia more to the sea.[794]

[CAS. 786] Two rivers empty themselves into it, which issue out of
some lakes towards the east, and encircle Meroë, a considerable
island.[795] One of these rivers is called Astaboras,[796] flowing along
the eastern side of the island. The other is the Astapus, or, as some
call it, Astasobas. But the Astapus[797] is said to be another river,
which issues out of some lakes on the south, and that this river forms
nearly the body of the (stream of the) Nile which flows in a straight
line, and that it is filled by the summer rains; that above the
confluence of the Astaboras and the Nile, at the distance of 700 stadia,
is Meroë, a city having the same name as the island; and that there is
another island above Meroë, occupied by the fugitive Egyptians, who
revolted in the time of Psammitichus,[798] and are called Sembritæ, or
foreigners. Their sovereign is a queen, but they obey the king of Meroë.

The lower parts of the country on each side Meroë, along the Nile
towards the Red Sea, are occupied by Megabari and Blemmyes, who are
subject to the Ethiopians, and border upon the Egyptians; about the sea
are Troglodytæ. The Troglodytæ, in the latitude of Meroë, are distant
ten or twelve days’ journey from the Nile. On the left of the course of
the Nile live Nubæ in Libya, a populous nation. They begin [CAS. 787]
from Meroë, and extend as far as the bends (of the river). They are not
subject to the Ethiopians, but live independently, being distributed
into several sovereignties.

The extent of Egypt along the sea, from the Pelusiac to the Canobic
mouth, is 1300 stadia.

Such is the account of Eratosthenes.

3. We must, however, enter into a further detail of particulars. And
first, we must speak of the parts about Egypt, proceeding from those
that are better known to those which follow next in order.

The Nile produces some common effects in this and the contiguous tract
of country, namely, that of the Ethiopians above it, in watering them at
the time of its rise, and leaving those parts only habitable which have
been covered by the inundation; it intersects the higher lands, and all
the tract elevated above its current on both sides, which however are
uninhabited and a desert, from an absolute want of water. But the Nile
does not traverse the whole of Ethiopia, nor alone, nor in a straight
line, nor a country which is well inhabited. But Egypt it traverses both
alone and entirely, and in a straight line, from the lesser cataract
above Syene and Elephantina, (which are the boundaries of Egypt and
Ethiopia,) to the mouths by which it discharges itself into the sea. The
Ethiopians at present lead for the most part a wandering life, and are
destitute of the means of subsistence, on account of the barrenness of
the soil, the disadvantages of climate, and their great distance from
us.

Now the contrary is the case with the Egyptians in all these respects.
For they have lived from the first under a regular form of government,
they were a people of civilized manners, and were settled in a
well-known country; their institutions have been recorded and mentioned
in terms of praise, for they seemed to have availed themselves of the
fertility of their country in the best possible manner by the partition
of it (and by the classification of persons) which they adopted, and by
their general care.

When they had appointed a king, they divided the people into three
classes, into soldiers, husbandmen, and priests. The latter had the care
of everything relating to sacred things (of the gods), the others of
what related to man; some had the management of warlike affairs, others
attended to the concerns of peace, the cultivation of the ground, and
the practice of the arts, from which the king derived his revenue.

The priests devoted themselves to the study of philosophy and astronomy,
and were companions of the kings.

The country was at first divided into nomes.[799] The Thebaïs contained
ten, the Delta ten, and the intermediate tract sixteen. But according to
some writers, all the nomes together amounted to the number of chambers
in the Labyrinth. Now these were less than thirty [six]. The nomes were
again divided into other sections. The greater number of the nomes were
distributed into toparchies, and these again into other sections; the
smallest portions were the arouræ.

An exact and minute division of the country was required by the frequent
confusion of boundaries occasioned at the time of the rise of the Nile,
which takes away, adds, and alters the various shapes of the bounds, and
obliterates other marks by which the property of one person is
distinguished [CAS. 787] from that of another. It was consequently
necessary to measure the land repeatedly. Hence it is said geometry
originated here, as the art of keeping accounts and arithmetic
originated with the Phœnicians, in consequence of their commerce.[800]

As the whole population of the country, so the separate population in
each nome, was divided into three classes; the territory also was
divided into three equal portions.

The attention and care bestowed upon the Nile is so great to cause
industry to triumph over nature. The ground by nature, and still more by
being supplied with water, produces a great abundance of fruits. By
nature also a greater rise of the river irrigates a larger tract of
land; but industry has completely succeeded in rectifying the deficiency
of nature, so that in seasons when the rise of the river has been less
than usual, as large a portion of the country is irrigated by means of
canals and embankments, as in seasons when the rise of the river has
been greater.

Before the times of Petronius there was the greatest plenty, and the
rise of the river was the greatest when it rose to the height of
fourteen cubits; but when it rose to eight only, a famine ensued. During
the government of Petronius, however, when the Nile rose twelve cubits
only, there was a most abundant crop; and once when it mounted to eight
only, no famine followed. Such then is the nature of this provision for
the physical state of the country. We shall now proceed to the next
particulars.

4. The Nile, when it leaves the boundaries of Ethiopia, flows in a
straight line towards the north, to the tract called the Delta, then
“cloven at the head,” (according to the expression of Plato,) makes this
point the vertex, as it were, of a triangle, the sides of which are
formed by the streams, which separate on each side, and extend to the
sea, one on the right hand to Pelusium, the other on the left to Canobus
and the neighbouring Heracleium, as it is called; the base is the coast
lying between Pelusium and the Heracleium.

An island was therefore formed by the sea and by both streams of the
river, which is called Delta from the resemblance of its shape to the
letter (Δ) of that name. The spot at the vertex of the triangle has the
same appellation, because it is the beginning of the above-mentioned
triangular figure. The village, also, situated upon it is called Delta.

These then are two mouths of the Nile, one of which is called the
Pelusiac, the other the Canobic and Heracleiotic mouth. Between these
are five other outlets, some of which are considerable, but the greater
part are of inferior importance. For many others branch off from the
principal streams, and are distributed over the whole of the island of
the Delta, and form many streams and islands; so that the whole Delta is
accessible to boats, one canal succeeding another, and navigated with so
much ease, that some persons make use of rafts[801] floated on earthen
pots, to transport them from place to place.

The whole island is about 3000 stadia in circumference, and is called,
as also the lower country, with the land on the opposite sides of the
streams, the Delta.

But at the time of the rising of the Nile, the whole country is covered,
and resembles a sea, except the inhabited spots, which are situated upon
natural hills or mounds; and considerable cities and villages appear
like islands in the distant prospect.

The water, after having continued on the ground more than forty days in
summer, then subsides by degrees, in the same manner as it rose. In
sixty days the plain is entirely exposed to view, and dries up. The
sooner the land is dry, so much the sooner the ploughing and sowing are
accomplished, and it dries earlier in those parts where the heat is
greater.

The country above the Delta is irrigated in the same manner, except that
the river flows in a straight line to the distance of about 4000 stadia
in one channel, unless where some island intervenes, the most
considerable of which comprises the Heracleiotic Nome; or, where it is
diverted by a canal into a large lake, or a tract of country which it is
capable of irrigating, as the lake Mœris and the Arsinoïte Nome, or
where the canals discharge themselves into the Mareotis.

[CAS. 789] In short, Egypt, from the mountains of Ethiopia to the vertex
of the Delta, is merely a river tract on each side of the Nile, and
rarely if anywhere comprehends in one continued line a habitable
territory of 300 stadia in breadth. It resembles, except the frequent
diversions of its course, a bandage rolled out.[802]

The mountains on each side (of the Nile), which descend from the parts
about Syene to the Egyptian Sea,[803] give this shape to the river tract
of which I am speaking, and to the country. For in proportion as these
mountains extend along that tract, or recede from each other, in the
same degree is the river contracted or expanded, and they impart to the
habitable country its variety of shape. But the country beyond the
mountains is in a great measure uninhabited.

5. The ancients understood more by conjecture than otherwise, but
persons in later times learnt by experience as eye-witnesses, that the
Nile owes its rise to summer rains, which fall in great abundance in
Upper Ethiopia, particularly in the most distant mountains. On the rains
ceasing, the fulness of the river gradually subsides. This was
particularly observed by those who navigated the Arabian Gulf on their
way to the Cinnamon country, and by those who were sent out to hunt
elephants, or for such other purposes as induced the Ptolemies, kings of
Egypt, to despatch persons in that direction. These sovereigns had
directed their attention to objects of this kind, particularly Ptolemy
surnamed Philadelphus, who was a lover of science, and on account of
bodily infirmities always in search of some new diversion and amusement.
But the ancient kings paid little attention to such inquiries, although
both they and the priests, with whom they passed the greater part of
their lives, professed to be devoted to the study of philosophy. Their
ignorance therefore is more surprising, both on this account and because
Sesostris had traversed the whole of Ethiopia as far as the Cinnamon
country, of which expedition monuments exist even to the present day,
such as pillars and inscriptions. Cambyses also, when he was in
possession of Egypt, had advanced with the Egyptians as far even as
Meroë; and it is said that he gave this name both to the island and to
the city, because his sister, or according to some writers his wife,
Meroë died there. For this reason therefore he conferred the appellation
on the island, and in honour of a woman. It is surprising how, with such
opportunities of obtaining information, the history of these rains
should not have been clearly known to persons living in those times,
especially as the priests registered with the greatest diligence in the
sacred books all extraordinary facts, and preserved records of
everything which seemed to contribute to an increase of knowledge. And,
if this had been the case, would it be necessary to inquire what is even
still a question, what can possibly be the reason why rain falls in
summer, and not in winter, in the most southerly parts of the country,
but not in the Thebaïs, nor in the country about Syene? nor should we
have to examine whether the rise of the water of the Nile is occasioned
by rains, nor require such evidence for these facts as Poseidonius
adduces. For he says, that Callisthenes asserts that the cause of the
rise of the river is the rain of summer. This he borrows from Aristotle,
who borrowed it from Thrasyalces the Thasian (one of the ancient writers
on physics), Thrasyalces from some other person, and he from Homer, who
calls the Nile “heaven-descended:”

   “back to Egypt’s heaven-descended stream.”[804]

But I quit this subject, since it has been discussed by many writers,
among whom it will be sufficient to specify two, who have (each)
composed in our times a treatise on the Nile, Eudorus and Aristo the
Peripatetic philosopher. [They differ little from each other] except in
the order and disposition of the works, for the phraseology and
execution is the same in both writers. (I can speak with some confidence
in this matter), for when at a loss (for manuscripts) for the purpose of
comparison and copy, I collated both authors.[805] But which of them
surreptitiously substituted the other’s account as his own, we may
[CAS. 790] go to the temple of Ammon to be informed. Eudorus accused
Aristo, but the style is more like that of Aristo.

The ancients gave the name of Egypt to that country only which was
inhabited and watered by the Nile, and the extent they assigned to it
was from the neighbourhood of Syene to the sea. But later writers, to
the present time, have included on the eastern side almost all the tract
between the Arabian Gulf and the Nile (the Æthiopians however do not
make much use of the Red Sea); on the western side, the tract extending
to the Auases and the parts of the sea-coast from the Canobic mouth of
the Nile to Catabathmus, and the kingdom of Cyrenæa. For the kings who
succeeded the race of the Ptolemies had acquired so much power, that
they became masters of Cyrenæa, and even joined Cyprus to Egypt. The
Romans, who succeeded to their dominions, separated Egypt, and confined
it within the old limits.

The Egyptians give the name of Auases (Oases) to certain inhabited
tracts, which are surrounded by extensive deserts, and appear like
islands in the sea. They are frequently met with in Libya, and there are
three contiguous to Egypt, and dependent upon it.

This is the account which we have to give of Egypt in general and
summarily. I shall now describe the separate parts of the country and
their advantages.

6. As Alexandreia and its neighbourhood occupy the greatest and
principal portion of the description, I shall begin with it.

In sailing towards the west, the sea-coast from Pelusium to the Canobic
mouth of the Nile is about 1300 stadia in extent, and constitutes, as we
have said, the base of the Delta. Thence to the island Pharos are 150
stadia more.

Pharos is a small oblong island, and lies quite close to the continent,
forming towards it a harbour with a double entrance. For the coast
abounds with bays, and has two promontories projecting into the sea. The
island is situated between these, and shuts in the bay, lying lengthways
in front of it.

Of the extremities of the Pharos, the eastern is nearest to the
continent and to the promontory in that direction, called Lochias, which
is the cause of the entrance to the port being narrow. Besides the
narrowness of the passage, there are rocks, some under water, others
rising above it, which at all times increase the violence of the waves
rolling in upon them from the open sea. This extremity itself of the
island is a rock, washed by the sea on all sides, with a tower upon it
of the same name as the island, admirably constructed of white marble,
with several stories. Sostratus of Cnidus, a friend of the kings,
erected it for the safety of mariners, as the inscription imports.[806]
For as the coast on each side is low and without harbours, with reefs
and shallows, an elevated and conspicuous mark was required to enable
navigators coming in from the open sea to direct their course exactly to
the entrance of the harbour.

The western mouth does not afford an easy entrance, but it does not
require the same degree of caution as the other. It forms also another
port, which has the name of Eunostus, or Happy Return: it lies in front
of the artificial and close harbour. That which has its entrance at the
above-mentioned tower of Pharos is the great harbour. These (two) lie
contiguous in the recess called Heptastadium, and are separated from it
by a mound. This mound forms a bridge from the continent to the island,
and extends along its western side, leaving two passages only through it
to the harbour of Eunostus, which are bridged over. But this work served
not only as a bridge, but as an aqueduct also, when the island was
inhabited. Divus Cæsar devastated the island, in his war against the
people of Alexandreia, when they espoused the party of the kings. A few
sailors live near the tower.

The great harbour, in addition to its being well enclosed by the mound
and by nature, is of sufficient depth near the shore to allow the
largest vessel to anchor near the stairs. It is also divided into
several ports.

The former kings of Egypt, satisfied with what they possessed, and not
desirous of foreign commerce, entertained a dislike to all mariners,
especially the Greeks (who, on account of the poverty of their own
country, ravaged and coveted the property of other nations), and
stationed a guard here, who had orders to keep off all persons who
approached. To the guard was assigned as a place of residence the spot
called Rhacotis, which is now a part of the city of Alexandreia,
situated above the arsenal. At that time, however, it was a village. The
country about the village was given up to herdsmen, [CAS. 792] who were
also able (from their numbers) to prevent strangers from entering the
country.

When Alexander arrived, and perceived the advantages of the situation,
he determined to build the city on the (natural) harbour. The prosperity
of the place, which ensued, was intimated, it is said, by a presage
which occurred while the plan of the city was tracing. The architects
were engaged in marking out the line of the wall with chalk, and had
consumed it all, when the king arrived; upon which the dispensers of
flour supplied the workmen with a part of the flour, which was provided
for their own use; and this substance was used in tracing the greater
part of the divisions of the streets. This, they said, was a good omen
for the city.

7. The advantages of the city are of various kinds. The site is washed
by two seas; on the north, by what is called the Egyptian Sea, and on
the south, by the sea of the lake Mareia, which is also called Mareotis.
This lake is filled by many canals from the Nile, both by those above
and those at the sides, through which a greater quantity of merchandise
is imported than by those communicating with the sea. Hence the harbour
on the lake is richer than the maritime harbour. The exports by sea from
Alexandreia exceed the imports. This any person may ascertain, either at
Alexandreia or Dicæarchia, by watching the arrival and departure of the
merchant vessels, and observing how much heavier or lighter their
cargoes are when they depart or when they return.

In addition to the wealth derived from merchandise landed at the
harbours on each side, on the sea and on the lake, its fine air is
worthy of remark: this results from the city being on two sides
surrounded by water, and from the favourable effects of the rise of the
Nile. For other cities, situated near lakes, have, during the heats of
summer, a heavy and suffocating atmosphere, and lakes at their margins
become swampy by the evaporation occasioned by the sun’s heat. When a
large quantity of moisture is exhaled from swamps, a noxious vapour
rises, and is the cause of pestilential disorders. But at Alexandreia,
at the beginning of summer, the Nile, being full, fills the lake also,
and leaves no marshy matter which is likely to occasion malignant
exhalations. At the same period, the Etesian winds blow from the north,
over a large expanse of sea, and the Alexandrines in consequence pass
their summer very pleasantly.

8. The shape of the site of the city is that of a chlamys or military
cloak. The sides, which determine the length, are surrounded by water,
and are about thirty stadia in extent; but the isthmuses, which
determine the breadth of the sides, are each of seven or eight stadia,
bounded on one side by the sea, and on the other by the lake. The whole
city is intersected by roads for the passage of horsemen and chariots.
Two of these are very broad, exceeding a plethrum in breadth, and cut
one another at right angles. It contains also very beautiful public
grounds and royal palaces, which occupy a fourth or even a third part of
its whole extent. For as each of the kings was desirous of adding some
embellishment to the places dedicated to the public use, so, besides the
buildings already existing, each of them erected a building at his own
expense; hence the expression of the poet may be here applied,

   “one after the other springs.”[807]

All the buildings are connected with one another and with the harbour,
and those also which are beyond it.

The Museum is a part of the palaces. It has a public walk and a place
furnished with seats, and a large hall, in which the men of learning,
who belong to the Museum, take their common meal. This community
possesses also property in common; and a priest, formerly appointed by
the kings, but at present by Cæsar, presides over the Museum.

A part belonging to the palaces consists of that called Sema, an
enclosure, which contained the tombs of the kings and that of Alexander
(the Great). For Ptolemy the son of Lagus took away the body of
Alexander from Perdiccas, as he was conveying it down from Babylon; for
Perdiccas had turned out of his road towards Egypt, incited by ambition
and a desire of making himself master of the country. When Ptolemy had
attacked [and made him prisoner], he intended to [spare his life and]
confine him in a desert island, but he met with a miserable end at the
hand of his own soldiers, who rushed upon and despatched him by
transfixing him with the long Macedonian spears. The kings who were with
him, Aridæus, and the children of Alexander, and Roxana his wife,
departed to Macedonia. Ptolemy carried away the body [CAS. 794] of
Alexander, and deposited it at Alexandreia in the place where it now
lies; not indeed in the same coffin, for the present one is of hyalus
(alabaster?) whereas Ptolemy had deposited it in one of gold: it was
plundered by Ptolemy surnamed Cocce’s son and Pareisactus, who came from
Syria and was quickly deposed, so that his plunder was of no service to
him.

9. In the great harbour at the entrance, on the right hand, are the
island and the Pharos tower; on the left are the reef of rocks and the
promontory Lochias, with a palace upon it: at the entrance, on the left
hand, are the inner palaces, which are continuous with those on the
Lochias, and contain numerous painted apartments and groves. Below lies
the artificial and close harbour, appropriated to the use of the kings;
and Antirrhodus a small island, facing the artificial harbour, with a
palace on it, and a small port. It was called Antirrhodus, a rival as it
were of Rhodes.

Above this is the theatre, then the Poseidium, a kind of elbow
projecting from the Emporium, as it is called, with a temple of Neptune
upon it. To this Antony added a mound, projecting still further into the
middle of the harbour, and built at the extremity a royal mansion, which
he called Timonium. This was his last act, when, deserted by his
partisans, he retired to Alexandreia after his defeat at Actium, and
intended, being forsaken by so many friends, to lead the [solitary] life
of Timon for the rest of his days.

Next are the Cæsarium, the Emporium, and the Apostaseis, or magazines:
these are followed by docks, extending to the Heptastadium. This is the
description of the great harbour.

10. Next after the Heptastadium is the harbour of Eunostus, and above
this the artificial harbour, called Cibotus (or the Ark), which also has
docks. At the bottom of this harbour is a navigable canal, extending to
the lake Mareotis. Beyond the canal there still remains a small part of
the city. Then follows the suburb Necropolis, in which are numerous
gardens, burial-places, and buildings for carrying on the process of
embalming the dead.

On this side the canal is the Sarapium and other ancient sacred places,
which are now abandoned on account of the erection of the temples at
Nicopolis; for [there are situated] an amphitheatre and a stadium, and
there are celebrated quinquennial games; but the ancient and customs
are neglected.

In short, the city of Alexandreia abounds with public and sacred
buildings. The most beautiful of the former is the Gymnasium, with
porticos exceeding a stadium in extent. In the middle of it are the
court of justice and groves. Here also is a Paneium, an artificial mound
of the shape of a fircone, resembling a pile of rock, to the top of
which there is an ascent by a spiral path. From the summit may be seen
the whole city lying all around and beneath it.

The wide street extends in length along the Gymnasium from the
Necropolis to the Canobic gate. Next is the Hippodromos (or
race-course), as it is called, and other buildings[808] near it, and
reaching to the Canobic canal. After passing through the Hippodromos is
the Nicopolis, which contains buildings fronting the sea not less
numerous than a city. It is 30 stadia distant from Alexandreia. Augustus
Cæsar distinguished this place, because it was here that he defeated
Antony and his party of adherents. He took the city at the first onset,
and compelled Antony to put himself to death, but Cleopatra to surrender
herself alive. A short time afterwards, however, she also put an end to
her life secretly, in prison, by the bite of an asp, or (for there are
two accounts) by the application of a poisonous ointment. Thus the
empire of the Lagidæ, which had subsisted many years, was dissolved.

11. Alexander was succeeded by Ptolemy the son of Lagus, the son of
Lagus by Philadelphus, Philadelphus by Euergetes; next succeeded
Philopator the lover[809] of Agathocleia, then Epiphanes, afterwards
Philometor, the son (thus far) always succeeding the father. But
Philometor was succeeded by his brother, the second Euergetes, who was
also called Physcon. He was succeeded by Ptolemy surnamed Lathurus,
Lathurus by Auletes of our time, who was the father of Cleopatra. All
these kings, after the third Ptolemy, were corrupted by luxury and
effeminacy, and the affairs of government were very badly administered
by them; but worst of all by the fourth, the seventh, and the last
(Ptolemy), Auletes (or the Piper), [CAS. 796] who, besides other deeds
of shamelessness, acted the piper; indeed he gloried so much in the
practice, that he scrupled not to appoint trials of skill in his palace;
on which occasions he presented himself as a competitor with other
rivals. He was deposed by the Alexandrines; and of his three daughters,
one, the eldest, who was legitimate, they proclaimed queen; but his two
sons, who were infants, were absolutely excluded from the succession.

As a husband for the daughter established on the throne, the
Alexandrines invited one Cybiosactes from Syria, who pretended to be
descended from the Syrian kings. The queen after a few days, unable to
endure his coarseness and vulgarity, rid herself of him by causing him
to be strangled. She afterwards married Archelaus, who also pretended to
be the son of Mithridates Eupator, but he was really the son of that
Archelaus[810] who carried on war against Sylla, and was afterwards
honourably treated by the Romans. He was grandfather of the last king of
Cappadocia in our time, and priest of Comana in Pontus.[811] He was then
(at the time we are speaking of) the guest of Gabinius, and intended to
accompany him in an expedition against the Parthians,[812] but unknown
to Gabinius, he was conducted away by some (friends) to the queen, and
declared king.

At this time Pompey the Great entertained Auletes as his guest on his
arrival at Rome, and recommended him to the senate, negotiated his
return, and contrived the execution of most of the deputies, in number a
hundred, who had undertaken to appear against him: at their head was
Dion the academic philosopher.

Ptolemy (Auletes) on being restored by Gabinius, put to death both
Archelaus and his daughter;[813] but not long after[814] he was
reinstated in his kingdom, he died a natural death, leaving two sons and
two daughters, the eldest of whom was Cleopatra.

The Alexandrines declared as sovereigns the eldest son and Cleopatra.
But the adherents of the son excited a sedition, and banished
Cleopatra, who retired with her sister into Syria.[815]

It was about this time that Pompey the Great, in his flight from
Palæpharsalus,[816] came to Pelusium and Mount Casium. He was
treacherously slain by the king’s party. When Cæsar arrived, he put the
young prince to death, and sending for Cleopatra from her place of
exile, appointed her queen of Egypt, declaring also her surviving
brother, who was very young, and herself joint sovereigns.

After the death of Cæsar and the battle at Pharsalia, Antony passed over
into Asia; he raised Cleopatra to the highest dignity, made her his
wife, and had children by her. He was present with her at the battle of
Actium, and accompanied her in her flight. Augustus Cæsar pursued them,
put an end to their power, and rescued Egypt from misgovernment and
revelry.

12. At present Egypt is a (Roman) province, pays considerable tribute,
and is well governed by prudent persons, who are sent there in
succession. The governor thus sent out has the rank of king. Subordinate
to him is the administrator of justice, who is the supreme judge in many
causes. There is another officer, who is called Idiologus, whose
business it is to inquire into property for which there is no claimant,
and which of right falls to Cæsar. These are accompanied by Cæsar’s
freedmen and stewards, who are intrusted with affairs of more or less
importance.

Three legions are stationed in Egypt, one in the city, the rest in the
country. Besides these there are also nine Roman cohorts, three
quartered in the city, three on the borders of Ethiopia in Syene, as a
guard to that tract, and three in other parts of the country. There are
also three bodies of cavalry distributed in convenient posts.

Of the native magistrates in the cities, the first is the expounder of
the law, who is dressed in scarlet; he receives the customary honours of
the country, and has the care of providing what is necessary for the
city. The second is the writer of records, the third is the chief judge.
The fourth is the commander of the night guard. These magistrates
existed in the time of the kings, but in consequence of the bad
administration of affairs by the latter, the prosperity of the city was
ruined by [CAS. 797] licentiousness. Polybius expresses his indignation
at the state of things when he was there: he describes the inhabitants
of the city to be composed of three classes; the (first) Egyptians and
natives, acute but indifferent citizens, and meddling with civil
affairs. The second, the mercenaries, a numerous and undisciplined body;
for it was an ancient custom to maintain foreign soldiers, who, from the
worthlessness of their sovereigns, knew better how to govern than to
obey. The third were the Alexandrines, who, for the same reason, were
not orderly citizens;[817] but still they were better than the
mercenaries, for although they were a mixed race, yet being of Greek
origin, they retained the customs common to the Greeks. But this class
was extinct nearly about the time of Euergetes Physcon, in whose reign
Polybius came to Alexandreia. For Physcon, being distressed by factions,
frequently exposed the multitude to the attacks of the soldiery, and
thus destroyed them. By such a state of things in the city the words of
the poet (says Polybius) were verified:

   “The way to Egypt is long and vexatious.”[818]

13. Such then, if not worse, was the condition of the city under the
last kings. The Romans, as far as they were able, corrected, as I have
said, many abuses, and established an orderly government, by appointing
vice-governors, nomarchs, and ethnarchs, whose business it was to
superintend affairs of minor importance.

The greatest advantage which the city possesses arises from its being
the only place in all Egypt well situated by nature for communication
with the sea by its excellent harbour, and with the land by the river,
by means of which everything is easily transported and collected
together into this city, which is the greatest mart in the habitable
world.

These may be said to be the superior excellencies of the city. Cicero,
in one of his orations,[819] in speaking of the revenues of Egypt,
states that an annual tribute of 12,500 talents was paid to (Ptolemy)
Auletes, the father of Cleopatra. If then a king, who administered his
government in the worst possible manner, and with the greatest
negligence, obtained so large a revenue, what must we suppose it to be
at present, when affairs are administered with great care, and when the
commerce with India and with Troglodytica has been so greatly increased?
For formerly not even twenty vessels ventured to navigate the Arabian
Gulf, or advance to the smallest distance beyond the straits at its
mouth; but now large fleets are despatched as far as India and the
extremities of Ethiopia, from which places the most valuable freights
are brought to Egypt, and are thence exported to other parts, so that a
double amount of custom is collected, arising from imports on the one
hand, and from exports on the other. The most expensive description of
goods is charged with the heaviest impost; for in fact Alexandreia has a
monopoly of trade, and is almost the only receptacle for this kind of
merchandise and place of supply for foreigners. The natural convenience
of the situation is still more apparent to persons travelling through
the country, and particularly along the coast which commences at the
Catabathmus; for to this place Egypt extends.

Next to it is Cyrenæa, and the neighbouring barbarians, the Marmaridæ.

14. From the Catabathmus[820] to Parætonium is a run of 900 stadia for a
vessel in a direct course. There is a city and a large harbour of about
40 stadia in extent, by some called the city Parætonium,[821] by others,
Ammonia. Between these is the village of the Egyptians, and the
promontory Ænesisphyra, and the Tyndareian rocks, four small islands,
with a harbour; then Drepanum a promontory, and Ænesippeia an island
with a harbour, and Apis a village, from which to Parætonium are 100
stadia; [from thence] to the temple of Ammon is a journey of five days.
From Parætonium to Alexandreia are about 1300 stadia. Between these are,
first, a promontory of white earth, called Leuce-Acte, then Phœnicus a
harbour, and Pnigeus a village; after these the island Sidonia
(Pedonia?) with a harbour; then a little further off from the sea,
Antiphræ. The whole of this country produces no wine of a good quality,
and the earthen jars contain more sea-water than wine, which is called
Libyan;[822] this and beer are the [CAS. 799] principal beverage of the
common people of Alexandria. Antiphræ in particular was a subject of
ridicule (on account of its bad wine).

Next is the harbour Derrhis,[823] which has its name from an adjacent
black rock, resembling δέῤῥις, a hide. The neighbouring place is called
Zephyrium. Then follows another harbour, Leucaspis (the white shield),
and many others; then the Cynossema (or dog’s monument); then
Taposeiris, not that situated upon the sea; here is held a great public
festival. There is another Taposeiris,[824] situated at a considerable
distance beyond the city (Alexandreia). Near this, and close to the sea,
is a rocky spot, which is the resort of great numbers of people at all
seasons of the year, for the purpose of feasting and amusement. Next is
Plinthine,[825] and the village of Nicium, and Cherronesus a fortress,
distant from Alexandreia and the Necropolis about 70 stadia.

The lake Mareia, which extends as far as this place, is more than 150
stadia in breadth, and in length less than 300 stadia. It contains eight
islands. The whole country about it is well inhabited. Good wine also is
produced here, and in such quantity that the Mareotic wine is racked in
order that it may be kept to be old.[826]

15. The byblus[827] and the Egyptian bean grow in the marshes and lakes;
from the latter the ciborium is made.[828] The stalks of the bean are
nearly of equal height, and grow to the length of ten feet. The byblus
is a bare stem, with a tuft on the top. But the bean puts out leaves and
flowers in many parts, and bears a fruit similar to our bean, differing
only in size and taste. The bean-grounds present an agreeable sight, and
afford amusement to those who are disposed to recreate themselves with
convivial feasts. These entertainments take place in boats with cabins;
they enter the thickest part of the plantation, where they are
overshadowed with the leaves, which are very large, and serve for
drinking-cups and dishes, having a hollow which fits them for the
purpose. They are found in great abundance in the shops in Alexandreia,
where they are used as vessels. One of the sources of land revenue is
the sale of these leaves. Such then is the nature of this bean.

The byblus does not grow here in great abundance, for it is not
cultivated. But it abounds in the lower parts of the Delta. There is one
sort inferior to the other.[829] The best is the hieratica. Some persons
intending to augment the revenue, employed in this case a method which
the Jews practised with the palm, especially the caryotic, and with the
balsamum.[830] In many places it is not allowed to be cultivated, and
the price is enhanced by its rarity: the revenue is indeed thus
increased, but the general consumption [of the article] is injured.

16. On passing through the Canobic gate of the city, on the right hand
is the canal leading to Canobus, close to the lake. They sail by this
canal to Schedia, to the great river, and to Canobus, but the first
place at which they arrive is Eleusis. This is a settlement near
Alexandreia and Nicopolis, and situated on the Canobic canal. It has
houses of entertainment which command beautiful views, and hither [CAS.
800] resort men and women who are inclined to indulge in noisy revelry,
a prelude to Canobic life, and the dissolute manners of the people of
Canobus.

At a little distance from Eleusis, on the right hand, is the canal
leading towards Schedia. Schedia is distant four schœni from
Alexandreia. It is a suburb of the city, and has a station for the
vessels with cabins, which convey the governors when they visit the
upper parts of the country. Here is collected the duty on merchandise,
as it is transported up or down the river. For this purpose a bridge of
boats is laid across the river, and from this kind of bridge the place
has the name of Schedia.

Next after the canal leading to Schedia, the navigation thence to
Canobus is parallel to the sea-coast, extending from Pharos to the
Canobic mouth. For between the sea and the canal, is a narrow band of
ground, on which is situated the smaller Taposeiris, which lies next
after Nicopolis, and Zephyrium a promontory, on which is a small temple
dedicated to Venus Arsinoë.

Anciently, it is said, a city called Thonis stood there, which bears the
name of the king, who entertained as his guests Menelaus and Helen. The
poet thus speaks of the drugs which were given to Helen,

   “the potent drugs, which Polydamna, the wife of Thon, gave
   to Helen.”

17. Canobus is a city, distant by land from Alexandreia 120 stadia. It
has its name from Canobus, the pilot of Menelaus, who died there. It
contains the temple of Sarapis, held in great veneration, and celebrated
for the cure of diseases; persons even of the highest rank confide in
them, and sleep there themselves on their own account, or others for
them. Some persons record the cures, and others the veracity of the
oracles which are delivered there. But remarkable above everything else
is the multitude of persons who resort to the public festivals, and come
from Alexandreia by the canal. For day and night there are crowds of men
and women in boats, singing and dancing, without restraint, and with the
utmost licentiousness. Others, at Canobus itself, keep hostelries
situated on the banks of the canal, which are well adapted for such kind
of diversion and revelry.

18. Next to Canobus is Heracleium, in which is a temple of Hercules;
then follows the Canobic mouth,[832] and the commencement of the Delta.

On the right of the Canobic canal is the Menelaïte Nome, so called from
the brother of the first Ptolemy, but certainly not from the hero
(Menelaus), as some writers assert, among whom is Artemidorus.

Next to the Canobic mouth is the Bolbitine, then the Sebennytic, and the
Phatnitic, which is the third in magnitude compared with the first two,
which form the boundaries of the Delta. For it branches off into the
interior, not far from the vertex of the Delta. The Mendesian is very
near the Phatnitic mouth; next is the Tanitic, and lastly the Pelusiac
mouth. There are others, which are of little consequence, between these,
since they are as it were false mouths.

The mouths have entrances which are not capable of admitting large
vessels, but lighters only, on account of the shallows and marshes. The
Canobic mart is principally used as a mart for merchandise, the harbours
at Alexandreia being closed, as I have said before.

After the Bolbitine mouth there runs out to a great distance a low and
sandy promontory. It is called Agnu-ceras (or Willow Point). Then
follows the watch-tower of Perseus,[833] and the fortress of the
Milesians. For in the time of Psammitichus, and when Cyaxares was king
of the Medes, some Milesians with 30 vessels steered into the Bolbitine
mouth, disembarked there, and built the above-mentioned fortress. Some
time afterwards they sailed up to the Saïtic Nome, and having conquered
Inarus in an engagement at sea, founded the city Naucratis, not far
above Schedia.

Next after the fortress of the Milesians, in proceeding towards the
Sebennytic mouth, are lakes, one of which is called Butice, from the
city Butus; then the city Sebennytice and Sais, the capital of the lower
country; here Minerva is worshipped. In the temple there of this
goddess, is the tomb of Psammitichus. Near Butus is Hermopolis, situated
in an island, and at Butus is an oracle of Latona.

[CAS. 802] 19. In the interior above the Sebennytic and Phatnitic mouths
is Xoïs, both an island and a city in the Sebennytic Nome. There are
also Hermopolis, Lycopolis, and Mendes, where Pan[834] is worshipped,
and of animals a goat. Here, according to Pindar, goats have intercourse
with women.

Near Mendes are Diospolis, and the lakes about it, and Leontopolis; then
further on, the city Busiris,[835] in the Busirite Nome, and Cynospolis.

Eratosthenes says, “That to repel strangers is a practice common to all
barbarians, but that this charge against the Egyptians is derived from
fabulous stories related of (one) Busiris and his people in the Busirite
Nome, as some persons in later times were disposed to charge the
inhabitants of this place with inhospitality, although in truth there
was neither king nor tyrant of the name of Busiris: that besides there
was a common saying,

   ‘The way to Egypt is long and vexatious,’[836]

which originated in the want of harbours, and in the state of the
harbour at Pharos, which was not of free access, but watched and guarded
by herdsmen, who were robbers, and attacked those who attempted to sail
into it. The Carthaginians drown [he says] any strangers who sail past,
on their voyage to Sardinia or to the Pillars. Hence much of what is
related of the parts towards the west is discredited. The Persians also
were treacherous guides, and conducted the ambassadors along circuitous
and difficult ways.”

20. Contiguous to the Busirite Nome are the Athribite Nome and the city
Athribis; next the Prosopite Nome, in which latter is Aphroditopolis
(the city of Venus). Above the Mendesian and the Tanitic mouths are a
large lake, and the Mendesian and Leontopolite Nomes, and a city of
Aphrodite (or Venus) and the Pharbetite Nome. Then follows the Tanitic,
which some call the Saïtic mouth, and the Tanite Nome,[837] and in it
Tanis a large city.

21. Between the Tanitic and the Pelusiac mouths are lakes and large and
continuous marshes, among which are numerous villages. Pelusium itself
has many marshes lying around it, which some call Barathra (or water
holes), and swamps. It is situated at a distance of more than 20 stadia
from the sea. The circumference of the wall is 20 stadia. It has its
name from the mud (πηλοῦ) of the swamps.[838] On this quarter Egypt is
difficult of access, i. e. from the eastern side towards Phœnicia and
Judæa, and on the side of Arabia Nabatæa, which is contiguous; through
which countries the road to Egypt lies.

The country between the Nile and the Arabian Gulf is Arabia, and at its
extremity is situated Pelusium. But the whole is desert, and not
passable by an army. The isthmus between Pelusium and the recess of the
Arabian Gulf near Heroopolis is 1000 stadia; but, according to
Poseidonius, less than 1500 stadia in extent. Besides its being sandy
and without water, it abounds with reptiles, which burrow in the sand.

22. In sailing up the river from Schedia to Memphis,[839] on the right
hand, are a great many villages extending as far as the lake Mareia,
among which is that called the village of Chabrias. Upon the river is
Hermopolis, then Gynæcopolis, and the Gynæcopolite Nome; next Momemphis
and the Momemphite Nome. Between these places are many canals, which
empty themselves into the lake Mareotis. The Momemphitæ worship Venus,
and a sacred cow is kept there, as Apis is maintained at Memphis, and
Mneyis[840] at Heliopolis. [CAS. 803] These animals are regarded as
gods, but there are other places, and these are numerous, both in the
Delta and beyond it, in which a bull or a cow is maintained, which are
not regarded as gods, but only as sacred.

23. Above Momemphis are two nitre mines, which furnish nitre in large
quantities, and the Nitriote Nome. Here Sarapis is worshipped, and they
are the only people in Egypt who sacrifice a sheep. In this nome and
near this place is a city called Menelaus. On the left hand in the
Delta, upon the river, is Naucratis. At the distance of two schœni from
the river is Saïs,[841] and a little above it the asylum of Osiris, in
which it is said Osiris is buried. This, however, is questioned by many
persons, and particularly by the inhabitants of Philæ, which is situated
above Syene and Elephantina. These people tell this tale, that Isis
placed coffins of Osiris in various places, but that one only contained
the body of Osiris, so that no one knew which of them it was; and that
she did this with the intention of concealing it from Typhon,[842] who
might come and cast the body out of its place of deposit.

24. This is the description of the country from Alexandreia to the
vertex of the Delta.

Artemidorus says, that the navigation up the river is 28 schœni, which
amount to 840 stadia, reckoning the schœnus at 30 stadia. When we
ourselves sailed up the river, schœni of different measures were used at
different places in giving the distances, so that sometimes the received
schœnus was a measure of 40 stadia and even more. That the measure of
the schœnus was unsettled among the Egyptians, Artemidorus himself shows
in a subsequent place. In reckoning the distance from Memphis to
Thebaïs, he says that each schœnus consists of 120 stadia, and from the
Thebaïs to Syene of 60 stadia. In sailing up from Pelusium to the same
vertex of the Delta, is a distance, he says, of 25 schœni, or 750
stadia, and he employs the same measure.

On setting out from Pelusium, the first canal met with is that which
fills the lakes, “near the marshes,” as they are called. There are two
of these lakes, situated upon the left hand of the great stream above
Pelusium in Arabia. He mentions other lakes also, and canals in the same
parts beyond the Delta.

The Sethroïte Nome extends along one of the two lakes. He reckons this
as one of the ten nomes in the Delta. There are two other canals, which
discharge themselves into the same lakes.

25. There is another canal also, which empties itself into the Red Sea,
or Arabian Gulf, near the city Arsinoë, which some call Cleopatris.[843]
It flows through the Bitter Lakes, as [CAS. 804] they are called, which
were bitter formerly, but when the above-mentioned canal was cut, the
bitter quality was altered by their junction with the river, and at
present they contain excellent fish, and abound with aquatic birds.

The canal was first cut by Sesostris before the Trojan times, but
according to other writers, by the son of[844] Psammitichus, who only
began the work, and afterwards died; lastly, Darius the First succeeded
to the completion of the undertaking, but he desisted from continuing
the work, when it was nearly finished, influenced by an erroneous
opinion that the level of the Red Sea was higher than Egypt, and that if
the whole of the intervening isthmus were cut through, the country would
be overflowed by the sea. The Ptolemaïc kings however did cut through
it, and placed locks upon the canal,[845] so that they sailed, when they
pleased, without obstruction into the outer sea, and back again [into
the canal].

We have spoken of the surfaces of bodies of water in the first part of
this work.[846]

26. Near Arsinoë are situated in the recess of the Arabian Gulf towards
Egypt, Heroopolis and Cleopatris; harbours, suburbs, many canals, and
lakes are also near. There also is the Phagroriopolite Nome, and the
city Phagroriopolis. The canal, which empties itself into the Red Sea,
begins at the village Phaccusa, to which the village of Philon is
contiguous. The canal is 100 cubits broad, and its depth sufficient to
float a vessel of large burden. These places are near the apex of the
Delta.

27. There also are the city Bubastus[847] and the Bubastite Nome, and
above it the Heliopolite Nome. There too is Heliopolis, situated upon a
large mound. It contains a temple of the sun, and the ox Mneyis, which
is kept in a sanctuary, and is regarded by the inhabitants as a god, as
Apis is regarded by the people of Memphis. In front of the mound are
lakes, into which the neighbouring canal discharges itself. At present
the city is entirely deserted. It has an ancient temple constructed
after the Egyptian manner, bearing many proofs of the madness and
sacrilegious acts of Cambyses, who did very great injury to the temples,
partly by fire, partly by violence, mutilating [in some] cases, and
applying fire [in others]. In this manner he injured the obelisks, two
of which, that were not entirely spoilt, were transported to Rome.[848]
There are others both here and at Thebes, the present Diospolis, some of
which are standing, much corroded by fire, and others lying on the
ground.

28. The plan of the temples is as follows.

At the entrance into the temenus is a paved floor, in breadth about a
plethrum, or even less; its length is three or four times as great, and
in some instances even more. This part is called Dromos, and is
mentioned by Callimachus,

   “this is the Dromos, sacred to Anubis.”

Throughout the whole length on each side are placed stone sphinxes, at
the distance of 20 cubits or a little more from each other, so that
there is one row of sphinxes on the right hand, and another on the left.
Next after the sphinxes is a large propylon, then on proceeding further,
another propylon, and then another. Neither the number of the propyla
nor of the sphinxes is determined by any rule. They are different in
different temples, as well as the length and breadth of the Dromi.

[CAS. 805] Next to the propyla is the naos, which has a large and
considerable pronaos; the sanctuary in proportion; there is no statue,
at least not in human shape, but a representation of some of the brute
animals. On each side of the pronaos project what are called the wings.
These are two walls of equal height with the naos. At first the distance
between them is a little more than the breadth of the foundation of the
naos.[849] As you proceed onwards, the [base] lines incline towards one
another till they approach within 50 or 60 cubits. These walls have
large sculptured figures, very much like the Tyrrhenian (Etruscan) and
very ancient works among the Greeks.

There is also a building with a great number of pillars, as at Memphis,
in the barbaric style; for, except the magnitude and number and rows of
pillars, there is nothing pleasing nor easily described,[850] but rather
a display of labour wasted.

29. At Heliopolis we saw large buildings in which the priests lived. For
it is said that anciently this was the principal residence of the
priests, who studied philosophy and astronomy. But there are no longer
either such a body of persons or such pursuits. No one was pointed out
to us on the spot, as presiding over these studies, but only persons who
performed sacred rites, and who explained to strangers [the
peculiarities of] the temples.

A person of the name of Chæremon accompanied the governor, Ælius Gallus,
in his journey from Alexandreia into Egypt, and pretended to some
knowledge of this kind, but he was generally ridiculed for his boasting
and ignorance. The houses of the priests, and the residences of Plato
and of Eudoxus, were shown to us. Eudoxus came here with Plato, and,
according to some writers, lived thirteen years in the society of the
priests. For the latter were distinguished for their knowledge of the
heavenly bodies, but were mysterious and uncommunicative, yet after a
time were prevailed upon by courtesy to acquaint them with some of the
principles of their science, but the barbarians concealed the greater
part of them. They had, however, communicated the knowledge of the
additional portions of the day and night, in the space of 365 days,
necessary to complete the annual period; and, at that time, the length
of the year was unknown to the Greeks, as were many other things, until
later astronomers received them from the persons who translated the
records of the priests into the Greek language, and even now derive
knowledge from their writings and from those of the Chaldeans.[851]

30. After Heliopolis is the “Nile above the Delta.” The country on the
right hand, as you go up the Nile, is called Libya, as well as that near
Alexandreia and the lake Mareotis; the country on the left hand is
called Arabia. The territory belonging to Heliopolis is in Arabia, but
the city Cercesura is in Libya, and situated opposite to the observatory
of Eudoxus. For there is shown an observing station in front of
Heliopolis, as there is in front of Cnidus, where Eudoxus marked certain
motions of the heavenly bodies. This is the Letopolite Nome.

In sailing up the river we meet with Babylon, a strong fortress, built
by some Babylonians who had taken refuge there, and had obtained
permission from the kings to establish a settlement in that place. At
present it is an encampment for one of the three legions which garrison
Egypt. There is a mountainous ridge, which extends from the encampment
as far as the Nile. At this ridge are wheels and screws, by which water
is raised from the river, and one hundred and fifty prisoners are [thus]
employed.

The pyramids on the other side [of the river] at Memphis may be clearly
discerned from this place, for they are not far off.

31. Memphis itself also, the residence of the kings of Egypt, is near,
being only three schœni distant from the Delta. It contains temples,
among which is that of Apis, who is the same as Osiris. Here the ox Apis
is kept in a sort of sanctuary, and is held, as I have said, to be a
god. The forehead and some other small parts of its body are white; the
other parts are black. By these marks the fitness of the successor
[CAS. 807] is always determined, when the animal to which they pay these
honours dies. In front of the sanctuary is a court, in which there is
another sanctuary for the dam of Apis. Into this court the Apis is let
loose at times, particularly for the purpose of exhibiting him to
strangers. He is seen through a door in the sanctuary, and he is
permitted to be seen also out of it. After he has frisked about a little
in the court, he is taken back to his own stall.

The temple of Apis is near the Hephæsteium (or temple of Vulcan); the
Hephæsteium[852] itself is very sumptuously constructed, both as regards
the size of the naos and in other respects. In front of the Dromos is a
colossal figure consisting of a single stone. It is usual to celebrate
bull-fights in this Dromos; the bulls are bred expressly for this
purpose, like horses. They are let loose, and fight with one another,
the conqueror receiving a prize.

At Memphis also there is a temple of Venus, who is accounted a Grecian
deity. But some say that it is a temple dedicated to Selene, or the
moon.[853]

32. There is also a temple of Sarapis, situated in a very sandy spot,
where the sand is accumulated in masses by the wind. Some of the
sphinxes which we saw were buried in this sand up to the head, and one
half only of others was visible. Hence we may conceive the danger,
should any one, in his way to the temple, be surprised by a [sand]
storm.

The city is large and populous; it ranks next to Alexandreia, and, like
that place, is inhabited by mixed races of people. There are lakes in
front of the city and of the palaces, which at present are in ruins and
deserted. They are situated upon an eminence, and extend as far as the
lower part of the city.

Close to this place are a grove and a lake.

33. At the distance of 40 stadia from Memphis is a brow of a hill, on
which are many pyramids, the tombs of the kings.[854] Three of them are
considerable. Two of these are reckoned among the seven wonders [of the
world]. They are a stadium in height, and of a quadrangular shape. Their
height somewhat exceeds the length of each of the sides.[855] One
pyramid is a little larger than the other. At a moderate height in one
of the sides[856] is a stone, which may be taken out; when that is
removed, there is an oblique passage [leading] to the tomb. They are
near each other, and upon the same level. Farther on, at a greater
height of the mountain, is the third pyramid, which is much less than
the two others, but constructed at much greater expense; for from the
foundation [CAS. 808] nearly as far as the middle, it is built of black
stone. Mortars are made of this stone, which is brought from a great
distance; for it comes from the mountains of Ethiopia, and being hard
and difficult to be worked, the labour is attended with great expense.
It is said to be the tomb of a courtesan, built by her lovers, and whose
name, according to Sappho the poetess, was Doriche. She was the mistress
of her brother Charaxus, who traded to the port of Naucratis with wine
of Lesbos. Others call her Rhodopis.[857]

A story is told of her, that, when she was bathing, an eagle snatched
one of her sandals from the hands of her female attendant and carried it
to Memphis; the eagle soaring over the head of the king, who was
administering justice at the time, let the sandal fall into his lap. The
king, struck with the shape of the sandal, and the singularity of the
accident, [CAS. 808] sent over the country to discover the woman to
whom it belonged. She was found in the city of Naucratis, and brought to
the king, who made her his wife. At her death she was honoured with the
above-mentioned tomb.

34. One extraordinary thing which I saw at the pyramids must not be
omitted. Heaps of stones from the quarries lie in front of the pyramids.
Among these are found pieces which in shape and size resemble
lentils.[858] Some contain substances like grains half peeled. These, it
is said, are the remnants of the workmen’s food converted into stone;
which is not probable.[859] For at home in our country (Amasia), there
is a long hill in a plain, which abounds with pebbles of a porus
stone,[860] resembling lentils. The pebbles of the sea-shore and of
rivers suggest somewhat of the same difficulty [respecting their
origin]; some explanation may indeed be found in the motion [to which
these are subject] in flowing waters, but the investigation of the above
fact presents more difficulty. I have said elsewhere,[861] that in sight
of the pyramids, on the other side in Arabia, and near the stone
quarries from which they are built, is a very rocky mountain, called the
Trojan mountain; beneath it there are caves, and near the caves and the
river a village called Troy, an ancient settlement of the captive
Trojans who had accompanied Menelaus and settled there.[862]

35. Next to Memphis is the city Acanthus, situated also in Libya, and
the temple of Osiris, and the grove of the Thebaïc acantha, from which
gum is procured. Next is the Aphroditopolite Nome, and the city in
Arabia of the same name, where is kept a white cow, considered sacred.
Then follows the Heracleote Nome, in a large island, near which is the
canal on the right hand, which leads into Libya, in the direction of the
Arsinoïte Nome; so that the canal has two entrances, a part of the
island on one side being interposed between them.[863] This nome is the
most considerable of all in appearance, natural properties, and
embellishment. It is the only nome planted with large, full-grown olive
trees, which bear fine fruit. If the produce were carefully collected,
good oil might be obtained; but this care is neglected, and although a
large quantity of oil is obtained, yet it has a disagreeable smell. (The
rest of Egypt is without the olive tree, except the gardens near
Alexandreia, which are planted with olive trees, but do not furnish any
oil.) It produces wine in abundance, corn, pulse, and a great variety of
other grains. It has also the remarkable lake Mœris, which in extent is
a sea, and the colour of its waters resembles that of the sea. Its
borders also are like the sea-shore, so that we may make the same
suppositions respecting these as about the country near Ammon. For they
are not very far distant from one another and from Parætonium; and we
may conjecture from a multitude of proofs, that as the temple of Ammon
was once situated upon the sea, so this tract of country also bordered
on the sea at some former period. But Lower Egypt and the country as far
as the Lake Sirbonis were sea, and confluent perhaps [CAS. 809] with
the Red Sea at Heroopolis, and the Ælanitic recess of the gulf.

36. We have treated these subjects at length in the First Book of the
Geography. At present we shall make a few remarks on the operations of
nature and of Providence conjointly.—On the operations of nature, that
all things converge to a point, namely, the centre of the whole, and
assume a spherical shape around it. The earth is the densest body, and
nearer the centre than all others: the less dense and next to it is
water; but both land and water are spheres, the first solid, the second
hollow, containing the earth within it.—On the operations of Providence,
that it has exercised a will, is disposed to variety, and is the
artificer of innumerable works. In the first rank, as greatly surpassing
all the rest, is the generation of animals, of which the most excellent
are gods and men, for whose sake the rest were formed. To the gods
Providence assigned heaven; and the earth to men, the extreme parts of
the world; for the extreme parts of the sphere are the centre and the
circumference. But since water encompasses the earth, and man is not an
aquatic, but a land-animal, living in the air, and requiring much light,
Providence formed many eminences and cavities in the earth, so that
these cavities should receive the whole or a great part of the water
which covers the land beneath it; and that the eminences should rise and
conceal the water beneath them, except so much as was necessary for the
use of the human race, the animals and plants about it.

But as all things are in constant motion, and undergo great changes,
(for it is not possible that things of such a nature, so numerous and
vast, could be otherwise regulated in the world,) we must not suppose
the earth or the water always to continue in this state, so as to retain
perpetually the same bulk, without increase or diminution, or that each
preserves the same fixed place, particularly as the reciprocal change of
one into the other is most consonant to nature from their proximity; but
that much of the land is changed into water, and a great portion of
water becomes land, just as we observe great differences in the earth
itself. For one kind of earth crumbles easily, another is solid and
rocky, and contains iron; and so of others. There is also a variety in
the quality of water; for some waters are saline, others sweet and
potable, others medicinal, and either salutary or noxious, others cold
or hot. Is it therefore surprising that some parts of the earth which
are now inhabited should formerly have been occupied by sea, and that
what are now seas should formerly have been inhabited land? so also
fountains once existing have failed, and others have burst forth; and
similarly in the case of rivers and lakes: again, mountains and plains
have been converted reciprocally one into the other. On this subject I
have spoken before at length,[864] and now let this be said:

37. The lake Mœris, by its magnitude and depth, is able to sustain the
super-abundance of water which flows into it at the time of the rise of
the river, without overflowing the inhabited and cultivated parts of the
country. On the decrease of the water of the river, it distributes the
excess by the same canal at each of the mouths; and both the lake and
the canal preserve a remainder, which is used for irrigation. These are
the natural and independent properties of the lake, but in addition, on
both mouths of the canal are placed locks, by which the engineers store
up and distribute the water which enters or issues from the canal.

We have here also the Labyrinth, a work equal to the Pyramids, and
adjoining to it the tomb of the king who constructed the Labyrinth.[865]
After proceeding beyond the first entrance of the canal about 30 or 40
stadia, there is a table-shaped plain, with a village and a large palace
composed of as many palaces as there were formerly nomes. There are an
equal number of aulæ, surrounded by pillars, and contiguous to one
another, all in one line and forming one building, like a long wall
having the aulæ in front of it. The entrances into the aulæ are opposite
to the wall. In front of the entrances there are long and numerous
covered ways, with winding passages communicating with each other, so
that no stranger could find his way into the aulæ or out of them without
a guide. The (most) surprising circumstance is that the roofs of these
dwellings consist of a single stone each, and that the covered ways
through their whole range were roofed in the same manner with single
slabs of stone of extraordinary size, without the intermixture of timber
or of any other material. On ascending the roof,—which is not of great
height, for it [CAS. 811] consists only of a single story,—there may be
seen a stone-field, thus composed of stones. Descending again and
looking[866] into the aulæ, these may be seen in a line supported by
twenty-seven pillars, each consisting of a single stone. The walls also
are constructed of stones not inferior in size to these.

At the end of this building, which occupies more than a stadium, is the
tomb, which is a quadrangular pyramid, each side of which is about four
plethra in length, and of equal height. The name of the person buried
there is Imandes.[867] They built, it is said, this number of aulæ,
because it was the custom for all the nomes to assemble there together
according to their rank, with their own priests and priestesses, for the
purpose of performing sacrifices and making offerings to the gods, and
of administering justice in matters of great importance. Each of the
nomes was conducted to the aula appointed for it.

38. Sailing along to the distance of 100 stadia, we come to the city
Arsinoë, formerly called Crocodilopolis; for the inhabitants of this
nome worship the crocodile. The animal is accounted sacred, and kept
apart by himself in a lake; it is tame, and gentle to the priests, and
is called Suchus. It is fed with bread, flesh, and wine, which strangers
who come to see it always present. Our host, a distinguished person, who
was our guide in examining what was curious, accompanied us to the lake,
and brought from the supper table a small cake, dressed meat, and a
small vessel containing a mixture of honey and milk. We found the animal
lying on the edge of the lake. The priests went up to it; some of them
opened its mouth, another put the cake into it, then the meat, and
afterwards poured down the honey and milk. The animal then leaped into
the lake, and crossed to the other side. When another stranger arrived
with his offering, the priests took it, and running round the lake,
caught the crocodile, and gave him what was brought, in the same manner
as before.

39. Next after the Arsinoïte and Heracleotic Nomes, is the city of
Hercules, in which the ichneumon is worshipped, in opposition to the
Arsinoïtes, who worship crocodiles; hence the canal and the lake Mœris
is full of these animals; for they venerate them, and are careful to do
them no harm: but the Heracleotæ worship the ichneumon, which is most
destructive both to crocodiles and asps. The ichneumons destroy not only
the eggs of the latter, but the animals themselves. The ichneumons are
protected by a covering of mud, in which they roll, and then dry
themselves in the sun. They then seize the asps by the head or tail, and
dragging them into the river, so kill them.

They lie in wait for the crocodiles, when the latter are basking in the
sun with their mouths open; they then drop into their jaws, and eating
through their intestines and belly, issue out of the dead body.

40. Next follows the Cynopolite Nome and Cynopolis, where they worship
the dog Anubis, and pay certain honours to dogs; a subsistence is there
provided for them, as sacred animals.

On the other side of the river is the city Oxyrynchus,[868] and a nome
of the same name. They worship the oxyrynchus, and have a temple
dedicated to this animal; but all the other Egyptians worship the
oxyrynchus.[869] For all the Egyptians worship in common certain
animals; three among the land animals, the ox, the dog, and the cat; two
among the winged tribe, the hawk and the ibis; and two of the aquatic
animals, the fish lepidotus and the oxyrynchus. There are also other
animals which each people, independently of others, worship; as the
Saïtæ and Thebaïtæ, a sheep; the Latopolitæ, the latus, a fish
inhabiting the Nile; the people of Lycopolis, a wolf; those of
Hermopolis,[870] the cynocephalus; those of Babylon,[871] near Memphis,
a cephus, which has the countenance of a satyr, and in other respects is
between a dog and a bear; it is bred in Ethiopia. The inhabitants of
Thebes worship an eagle; the Leontopolitæ, a lion; the Mendesians, a
male and female goat; the Athribitæ, a shrew-mouse; different people
worshipping different animals. They do not, however, assign the same
reasons for this difference of worship.

[CAS. 813] 41. Then follows the Hermopolite Castle, a place where is
collected the toll on merchandise brought down from the Thebaïs. At this
place begins the reckoning by schœni of sixty stadia each, which is
continued to Syene and Elephantina. Next is the Thebaïc Keep, and a
canal leading to Tanis. Then follow Lycopolis, Aphroditopolis, and
Panopolis, an old settlement belonging to masons and weavers of linen.

42. Then follows Ptolemaïs,[872] the largest city in the Thebaïs, not
inferior to Memphis, with a form of government after the Grecian mode.
Above this city is Abydos, where is the palace of Memnon, constructed in
a singular manner, entirely of stone,[873] and after the plan of the
Labyrinth, which we have described, but not composed of many parts. It
has a fountain situated at a great depth. There is a descent to it
through an arched passage built with single stones, of remarkable size
and workmanship.

There is a canal which leads to this place from the great river. About
the canal is a grove of Egyptian acanthus, dedicated to Apollo. Abydos
seems once to have been a large city, second to Thebes. At present it is
a small town. But if, as they say, Memnon is called Ismandes by the
Egyptians, the Labyrinth might be a Memnonium, and the work of the same
person who constructed those at Abydos and at Thebes; for in those
places, it is said, are some Memnonia. In the latitude of Abydos is the
first Auasis (Oasis) of the three which are said to be in Africa. It is
distant from Abydos a journey of seven days through a desert. It is an
inhabited place, well supplied with good water and wine, and
sufficiently provided with other articles. The second is that near the
lake Mœris. The third is that at the oracle of Ammon: these are
considerable settlements.

43. Having before spoken at length of the temple of Ammon, we wish to
add this only, that in ancient times divination in general and oracles
were held in greater esteem than at present. Now they are greatly
neglected; for the Romans are satisfied with the oracles of the Sibyl,
and with Tyrrhenian divination by the entrails of animals, the flight of
birds, and portentous appearances. Hence the oracle of Ammon, which was
formerly held in great esteem, is now nearly deserted. This appears
chiefly from the historians who have recorded the actions of Alexander,
adding, indeed, much that has the appearance of flattery, but yet
relating what is worthy of credit. Callisthenes, for instance, says that
Alexander was ambitious of the glory of visiting the oracle, because he
knew that Perseus and Hercules had before performed the journey thither.
He set out from Parætonium, although the south winds were blowing, and
succeeded in his undertaking by vigour and perseverance. When out of his
way on the road, he escaped being overwhelmed in a sand-storm by a fall
of rain, and by the guidance of two crows, which directed his course.
These things are stated by way of flattery, as also what follows: that
the priest permitted the king alone to pass into the temple in his usual
dress, whereas the others changed theirs; that all heard the oracles on
the outside of the temple, except Alexander, who was in the interior of
the building; that the answers were not given, as at Delphi and at
Branchidæ, in words, but chiefly by nods and signs, as in Homer;

   “the son of Saturn nodded with his sable brows,”[874]

the prophet imitating Jupiter. This, however, the man told the king, in
express terms, that he was the son of Jupiter. Callisthenes adds, (after
the exaggerating style of tragedy,) that when Apollo had deserted the
oracle among the Branchidæ, on the temple being plundered by the
Branchidæ (who espoused the party of the Persians in the time of
Xerxes,) and the spring had failed, it then reappeared (on the arrival
of Alexander); that the ambassadors also of the Milesians carried back
to Memphis numerous answers of the oracle respecting the descent of
Alexander from Jupiter, and the future victory which he should obtain at
Arbela, the death of Darius, and the political changes at Lacedæmon. He
says also that the Erythræan Athenais, who resembled the ancient
Erythræan Sibyl, had declared the high descent of Alexander. Such are
the accounts of historians.

44. At Abydos Osiris is worshipped; but in the temple of Osiris no
singer, nor player on the pipe, nor on the cithara, is permitted to
perform at the commencement of the ceremonies celebrated in honour of
the god, as is usual in rites celebrated in honour of the other gods.
Next to Abydos is [CAS. 814] the lesser Diospolis,[875] then the city
Tentyra,[876] where the crocodile is held in peculiar abhorrence, and is
regarded as the most odious of all animals. For the other Egyptians,
although acquainted with its mischievous disposition, and hostility
towards the human race, yet worship it, and abstain from doing it harm.
But the people of Tentyra track and destroy it in every way. Some
however, as they say of the Psyllians of Cyrenæa, possess a certain
natural antipathy to snakes, and the people of Tentyra have the same
dislike to crocodiles, yet they suffer no injury from them, but dive and
cross the river when no other person ventures to do so. When crocodiles
were brought to Rome to be exhibited, they were attended by some of the
Tentyritæ. A reservoir was made for them with a sort of stage on one of
the sides, to form a basking-place for them on coming out of the water,
and these persons went into the water, drew them in a net to the place,
where they might sun themselves and be exhibited, and then dragged them
back again to the reservoir. The people of Tentyra worship Venus. At the
back of the fane of Venus is a temple of Isis; then follow what are
called the Typhoneia, and the canal leading to Coptos,[877] a city
common both to the Egyptians and Arabians.

45. Then follows the isthmus, extending to the Red Sea near
Berenice,[878] which has no harbour, but good landing-places, because
the isthmus is conveniently situated. Philadelphus is said to be the
first person that opened, by means of his army, this road, which had no
supply of water, and to have provided stations.[879] This he did because
the navigation of the Red Sea was difficult, particularly to those who
set out from the recess of the bay. Experience showed the great utility
of this plan, and at present all the Indian, Arabian, and such Ethiopian
merchandise as is imported by the Arabian Gulf is carried to Coptos,
which is the mart for such commodities. Not far from Berenice is Myos
Hormus,[880] a city with a naval station for vessels which navigate
this sea; at no great distance from Coptos is the city of Apollo, so
that two cities are the boundaries of the isthmus, one on each side. But
at present Coptos and Myos Hormus are in repute, and they are
frequented.

Formerly, the camel-merchants travelled in the night, directing their
course by observing the stars, and, like mariners, carried with them a
supply of water. But now watering-places are provided: water is also
obtained by digging to a great depth, and rain-water is found, although
rain rarely falls, which is also collected in reservoirs. It is a
journey of six or seven days.

On this isthmus are mines, in which the emeralds and other precious
stones are found by the Arabians, who dig deep subterraneous passages.

46. Next to the city of Apollo is Thebes, now called Diospolis,

   “with her hundred gates, through each of which issue two
   hundred men, with horses and chariots,”[881]

according to Homer, who mentions also its wealth;

   “not all the wealth the palaces of Egyptian Thebes
   contain.”[882]

Other writers use the same language, and consider Thebes as the
metropolis of Egypt. Vestiges of its magnitude still exist, which extend
80 stadia in length. There are a great number of temples, many of which
Cambyses mutilated. The spot is at present occupied by villages. One
part of it, in which is the city, lies in Arabia; another is in the
country on the other side of the river, where is the Memnonium. Here are
two colossal figures near one another, each consisting of a single
stone. One is entire; the upper parts of the other, from the chair, are
fallen down, the effect, it is said, of an earthquake. It is believed,
that once a day a noise as of a slight blow issues from the part of the
statue which remains [CAS. 816] in the seat and on its base. When I was
at those places with Ælius Gallus, and numerous friends and soldiers
about him, I heard a noise at the first hour (of the day), but whether
proceeding from the base or from the colossus, or produced on purpose by
some of those standing around the base, I cannot confidently assert. For
from the uncertainty of the cause, I am disposed to believe anything
rather than that stones disposed in that manner could send forth sound.

Above the Memnonium are tombs of kings in caves, and hewn out of the
stone, about forty in number; they are executed with singular skill, and
are worthy of notice. Among the tombs[883] are obelisks with
inscriptions, denoting the wealth of the kings of that time, and the
extent of their empire, as reaching to the Scythians, Bactrians,
Indians, and the present Ionia; the amount of tribute also, and the
number of soldiers, which composed an army of about a million of men.

The priests there are said to be, for the most part, astronomers and
philosophers. The former compute the days, not by the moon, but by the
sun, introducing into the twelve months of thirty days each five days
every year. But in order to complete the whole year, because there is
(annually) an excess of a part of a day, they form a period from out of
whole days and whole years, the supernumerary portions of which in that
period, when collected together, amount to a day.[884] They ascribe to
Mercury all knowledge of this kind. To Jupiter, whom they worship above
all other deities, a virgin of the greatest beauty and of the most
illustrious family (such persons the Greeks call pallades) is dedicated.
She prostitutes herself with whom she pleases, until the time occurs for
the natural purification of the body; she is afterwards married; but
before her marriage, and after the period of prostitution, they mourn
for her as for one dead.

47. Next after Thebes is the city Hermonthis, in which both Apollo and
Jupiter are worshipped. They also keep an ox there (for worship).

Next is the city of Crocodiles, the inhabitants of which worship this
animal; then Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus),[885] and next to it,
Latopolis, where Minerva is worshipped, and the (fish) Latus; next, the
city of Eileithyia, and a temple. In the country on the other side of
the river is Hieraconpolis (the city of hawks), where a hawk is
worshipped; then Apollonopolis, the inhabitants of which are at war with
crocodiles.

48. Syene is a city situated on the borders of Ethiopia and Egypt.
Elephantina is an island in the Nile, at the distance of half a stadium
in front of Syene; in this island is a city with a temple of Cnuphis,
and a nilometer like that at Memphis. The nilometer is a well upon the
banks of the Nile, constructed of close-fitting stones, on which are
marked the greatest, least, and mean risings of the Nile; for the water
in the well and in the river rises and subsides simultaneously. Upon the
wall of the well are lines, which indicate the complete rise of the
river, and other degrees of its rising. Those [CAS. 817] who examine
these marks communicate the result to the public for their information.
For it is known long before, by these marks, and by the time[886]
elapsed from the commencement, what the future rise of the river will
be, and notice is given of it. This information is of service to the
husbandmen with reference to the distribution of the water; for the
purpose also of attending to the embankments, canals, and other things
of this kind. It is of use also to the governors, who fix the revenue;
for the greater the rise of the river, the greater it is expected will
be the revenue.

At Syene there is a well which indicates the summer solstice, because
these places lie under the tropical circle,[887] [and occasions the
gnomons to cast no shadows at mid-day].[888] For on proceeding from the
places in our country, in Greece I mean, towards the south, the sun is
there first over our head, and occasions the gnomons to be without
shadows at noon. When the sun is vertical to us, it must necessarily
cast its rays down wells, however deep they may be, to the water. For we
ourselves stand in a perpendicular position, and wells are dug
perpendicular to the surface.

Here are stationed three Roman cohorts as a guard.

49. A little above Elephantine is the lesser cataract, where the boatmen
exhibit a sort of spectacle to the governors.

The cataract is in the middle of the river, and is formed by a ridge of
rock, the upper part [or commencement] of which is level, and thus
capable of receiving the river, but terminating in a precipice, where
the water dashes down. On each side towards the land there is a stream,
up which is the chief ascent for vessels. The boatmen sail up by this
stream, and, dropping down to the cataract, are impelled with the boat
to the precipice, the crew and the boats escaping unhurt.

A little above the cataract is Philæ, a common settlement, like
Elephantina, of Ethiopians and Egyptians, and equal in size, containing
Egyptian temples, where a bird, which they call hierax, (the hawk,) is
worshipped; but it did not appear to me to resemble in the least the
hawks of our country nor of Egypt, for it was larger, and very different
in the marks of its plumage. They said that the bird was Ethiopian, and
is brought from Ethiopia when its predecessor dies, or before its death.
The one shown to us when we were there was sick and nearly dead.

50. We came from Syene to Philæ in a waggon, through a very flat
country, a distance of about 100 stadia.[889] Along the whole road on
each side we could see, in many places, very high rocks, round, very
smooth, and nearly spherical, of black hard stone, of which mortars are
made: each rested upon a greater stone, and upon this another: they were
like hermæa.[890] Sometimes these stones consisted of one mass. The
largest was not less than twelve feet in diameter, and all of them
exceeded this size by one half. We crossed over to the island in a
pacton, which is a small boat made of rods, [CAS. 818] whence it
resembles woven-work. Standing then in the water, (at the bottom of the
boat,) or sitting upon some little planks, we easily crossed over, with
some alarm indeed, but without good cause for it, as there is no danger
if the boat is not overloaded.

51. Throughout the whole of Egypt, the palm tree is of a bad species,
and produces no good edible fruit in the places about the Delta and
Alexandreia; yet the best kind is found in the Thebaïs. It is a subject
of surprise how countries in the same latitude as Judæa, and bordering
upon the Delta and Alexandreia, should be so different; for Judæa, in
addition to other kinds of date-palms, produces the caryotic, which is
not inferior to the Babylonian. There are, however, two kinds of dates
in the Thebaïs and in Judæa, the caryotic and another. The Thebaïc is
firmer, but the flavour is more agreeable. There is an island remarkable
for producing the best dates, and it also furnishes the largest revenue
to the governors. It was appropriated to the kings, and no private
person had any share in the produce; at present it belongs to the
governors.

52. Herodotus[891] and other writers trifle very much when they
introduce into their histories the marvellous, like (an interlude of)
music and song, or some melody; for example, in asserting that the
sources of the Nile are near the numerous islands, at Syene and
Elephantina, and that at this spot the river has an unfathomable depth.
In the Nile there are many islands scattered about, some of which are
entirely covered, others in part only, at the time of the rise of the
waters. The very elevated parts are irrigated by means of screw-pumps.

53. Egypt was from the first disposed to peace, from having resources
within itself, and because it was difficult of access to strangers. It
was also protected on the north by a harbourless coast and the Egyptian
Sea; on the east and west by the desert mountains of Libya and Arabia,
as I have said before.[892] The remaining parts towards the south are
occupied by Troglodytæ, Blemmyes, Nubæ, and Megabari, Ethiopians above
Syene. These are nomades, and not numerous nor warlike, but accounted so
by the ancients, because frequently, like robbers, they attacked
defenceless persons. Neither are the Ethiopians, who extend towards the
south and Meroë, numerous nor collected in a body; for they inhabit a
long, narrow, and winding tract of land on the river-side, such as we
have before described; nor are they well prepared either for war or the
pursuit of any other mode of life.

At present the whole country is in the same pacific state, a proof of
which is, that the upper country is sufficiently guarded by three
cohorts, and these not complete. Whenever the Ethiopians have ventured
to attack them, it has been at the risk of danger to their own country.
The rest of the forces in Egypt are neither very numerous, nor did the
Romans ever once employ them collected into one army. For neither are
the Egyptians themselves of a warlike disposition, nor the surrounding
nations, although their numbers are very large.

Cornelius Gallus, the first governor of the country appointed by
(Augustus) Cæsar, attacked the city Heroopolis, which had revolted,[893]
and took it with a small body of men. He suppressed also in a short time
an insurrection in the Thebaïs, which originated as to the payment of
tribute. At a later period Petronius resisted, with the soldiers about
his person, a mob of myriads of Alexandrines, who attacked him by
throwing stones. He killed some, and compelled the rest to desist.

We have before[894] related how Ælius Gallus, when he invaded Arabia
with a part of the army stationed in Egypt, exhibited a proof of the
unwarlike disposition of the people; and if Syllæus had not betrayed
him, he would have conquered the whole of Arabia Felix.

54. The Ethiopians, emboldened in consequence of a part of the forces in
Egypt being drawn off by Ælius Gallus, who was engaged in war with the
Arabs, invaded the Thebaïs, and attacked the garrison, consisting of
three cohorts, near Syene; surprised and took Syene, Elephantina, and
Philæ, by a sudden inroad; enslaved the inhabitants, and threw down the
statues of Cæsar. But Petronius, marching with less than 10,000 infantry
and 800 horse against an army of 30,000 men, first compelled them to
retreat to Pselchis, an Ethiopian city. He then sent deputies to demand
restitution of what they had taken, and the reasons which had induced
them to begin the [CAS. 820] war. On their alleging that they had been
ill treated by the nomarchs, he answered, that these were not the
sovereigns of the country, but Cæsar. When they desired three days for
consideration, and did nothing which they were bound to do, Petronius
attacked and compelled them to fight. They soon fled, being badly
commanded, and badly armed; for they carried large shields made of raw
hides, and hatchets for offensive weapons; some, however, had pikes, and
others swords. Part of the insurgents were driven into the city, others
fled into the uninhabited country; and such as ventured upon the passage
of the river escaped to a neighbouring island, where there were not many
crocodiles on account of the current. Among the fugitives, were the
generals of Candace, queen of the Ethiopians in our time, a masculine
woman, and who had lost an eye. Petronius, pursuing them in rafts and
ships, took them all and despatched them immediately to Alexandreia. He
then attacked Pselchis[895] and took it. If we add the number of those
who fell in battle to the number of prisoners, few only could have
escaped.

From Pselchis Petronius went to Premnis,[896] a strong city, travelling
over the hills of sand, beneath which the army of Cambyses was
overwhelmed by the setting in of a whirlwind. He took the fortress at
the first onset, and afterwards advanced to Napata.[897] This was the
royal seat of Candace; and her son was there, but she herself was in a
neighbouring stronghold. When she sent ambassadors to treat of peace,
and to offer the restitution of the prisoners brought from Syene, and
the statues, Petronius attacked and took Napata, from which her son had
fled, and then razed it. He made prisoners of the inhabitants, and
returned back again with the booty, as he judged any farther advance
into the country impracticable on account of the roads. He strengthened,
however, the fortifications of Premnis, and having placed a garrison
there, with two years’ provisions for four hundred men, returned to
Alexandreia. Some of the prisoners were publicly sold as booty, and a
thousand were sent to Cæsar, who had lately returned from the
Cantabrians,[898] others died of various diseases.

In the mean time Candace[899] attacked the garrison with an army of many
thousand men. Petronius came to its assistance, and entering the
fortress before the approach of the enemy, secured the place by many
expedients. The enemy sent ambassadors, but he ordered them to repair to
Cæsar: on their replying, that they did not know who Cæsar was, nor
where they were to find him, Petronius appointed persons to conduct them
to his presence. They arrived at Samos, where Cæsar was at that time,
and from whence he was on the point of proceeding into Syria, having
already despatched Tiberius into Armenia. The ambassadors obtained all
that they desired, and Cæsar even remitted the tribute which he had
imposed.



CHAPTER II.


1. In the preceding part[900] of this work we have spoken at length of
Ethiopia, so that its description may be said to be included in that of
Egypt.

In general, then, the extreme parts of the habitable world adjacent to
the intemperate region, which is not habitable by reason either of heat
or cold, must necessarily be defective and inferior, in respect to
physical advantages, to the temperate [CAS. 821] region. This is
evident from the mode of life of the inhabitants, and their want of what
is requisite for the use and subsistence of man. For the mode of life
[of the Ethiopians] is wretched; they are for the most part naked, and
wander from place to place with their flocks. Their flocks and herds are
small in size, whether sheep, goats, or oxen; the dogs also, though
fierce and quarrelsome, are small.[901] It was perhaps from the
diminutive size of these people, that the story of the Pygmies
originated, whom no person, worthy of credit has asserted that he
himself has seen.

2. They live on millet and barley, from which also a drink is prepared.
They have no oil, but use butter and fat instead.[902] There are no
fruits, except the produce of trees in the royal gardens. Some feed even
upon grass, the tender twigs of trees, the lotus, or the roots of reeds.
They live also upon the flesh and blood of animals, milk, and cheese.
They reverence their kings as gods, who are for the most part shut up in
their palaces.

Their largest royal seat is the city of Meroë, of the same name as the
island. The shape of the island is said to be that of a shield. Its size
is perhaps exaggerated. Its length is about 3000, and its breadth 1000
stadia. It is very mountainous, and contains great forests. The
inhabitants are nomades, who are partly hunters and partly husbandmen.
There are also mines of copper, iron, gold, and various kinds of
precious stones. It is surrounded on the side of Libya by great hills of
sand, and on that of Arabia by continuous precipices. In the higher
parts on the south, it is bounded by the confluent[903] streams of the
rivers Astaboras,[904] Astapus,[905] and Astasobas. On the north is the
continuous course of the Nile to Egypt, with its windings, of which we
have spoken before.

The houses in the cities are formed by interweaving split pieces of
palm wood or of bricks.[906] They have fossil salt, as in Arabia. Palm,
the persea[907] (peach), ebony, and carob trees are found in abundance.
They hunt elephants, lions, and panthers. There are also serpents, which
encounter elephants, and there are many other kinds of wild animals,
which take refuge, from the hotter and parched districts, in watery and
marshy districts.

3. Above Meroë is Psebo,[908] a large lake, containing a well-inhabited
island. As the Libyans occupy the western bank of the Nile, and the
Ethiopians the country on the other side of the river, they thus dispute
by turns the possession of the islands and the banks of the river, one
party repulsing the other, or yielding to the superiority of its
opponent.

The Ethiopians use bows of wood four cubits long, and hardened in the
fire. The women also are armed, most of whom wear in the upper lip a
copper ring. They wear sheep-skins, without wool; for the sheep have
hair like goats. Some go naked, or wear small skins or girdles of
well-woven hair round the loins.

They regard as God one being who is immortal, the cause of all things;
another who is mortal, a being without a name, whose nature is not
clearly understood.

In general they consider as gods benefactors and royal persons, some of
whom are their kings, the common saviours and guardians of all; others
are private persons, esteemed as gods by those who have individually
received benefits from them.

Of those who inhabit the torrid region, some are even supposed not to
acknowledge any god, and are said to abhor even the sun, and to apply
opprobrious names to him, when they behold him rising, because he
scorches and tortures them with his heat; these people take refuge in
the marshes.

The inhabitants of Meroë worship Hercules, Pan, and Isis, besides some
other barbaric deity.[909]

Some tribes throw the dead into the river; others keep them in the
house, enclosed in hyalus (oriental alabaster?). [CAS. 822] Some bury
them around the temples in coffins of baked clay. They swear an oath by
them, which is reverenced as more sacred than all others.

Kings are appointed from among persons distinguished for their personal
beauty, or by their breeding of cattle, or for their courage, or their
riches.

In Meroë the priests anciently held the highest rank, and sometimes sent
orders even to the king, by a messenger, to put an end to himself, when
they appointed another king in his place. At last one of their kings
abolished this custom, by going with an armed body to the temple where
the golden shrine is, and slaughtering all the priests.

The following custom exists among the Ethiopians. If a king is mutilated
in any part of the body, those who are most attached to his person, as
attendants, mutilate themselves in the same manner, and even die with
him. Hence the king is guarded with the utmost care. This will suffice
on the subject of Ethiopia.

4. To what has been said concerning Egypt, we must add these peculiar
products; for instance, the Egyptian bean, as it is called, from which
is obtained the ciborium,[910] and the papyrus, for it is found here and
in India only; the persea (peach) grows here only, and in Ethiopia; it
is a lofty tree, and its fruit is large and sweet; the sycamine, which
produces the fruit called the sycomorus, or fig-mulberry, for it
resembles a fig, but its flavour is not esteemed. The corsium also (the
root of the Egyptian lotus) grows there, a condiment like pepper, but a
little larger.

There are in the Nile fish in great quantity and of different kinds,
having a peculiar and indigenous character. The best known are the
oxyrynchus,[911] and the lepidotus,[912] the latus,[913] the
alabes,[914] the coracinus,[915] the chœrus, the phagrorius, called also
the phagrus. Besides these are the silurus, the citharus,[916] the
thrissa,[917] the cestreus,[918] the lychnus, the physa, the bous (or
ox), and large shell-fish which emit a sound like that of wailing.

The animals peculiar to the country are the ichneumon and the Egyptian
asp, having some properties which those in other places do not possess.
There are two kinds, one a span in length, whose bite is more suddenly
mortal than that of the other; the second is nearly an orguia[919] in
size, according to Nicander, the author of the Theriaca.

Among the birds, are the ibis and the Egyptian hawk, which, like the
cat, is more tame than those elsewhere. The nycticorax is here peculiar
in its character; for with us it is as large as an eagle, and its cry is
harsh; but in Egypt it is the size of a jay, and has a different note.
The tamest animal, however, is the ibis; it resembles a stork in shape
and size. There are two kinds, which differ in colour; one is like a
stork, the other is entirely black. Every street in Alexandreia is full
of them. In some respects they are useful; in others troublesome. They
are useful, because they pick up all sorts of small animals and the
offal thrown out of the butchers’ and cooks’ shops. They are
troublesome, because they devour everything, are dirty, and with
difficulty prevented from polluting in every way what is clean and what
is not given to them.

5. Herodotus[920] truly relates of the Egyptians, that it is a practice
peculiar to them to knead clay with their hands, and the dough for
making bread with their feet. Caces is a peculiar kind of bread which
restrains fluxes. Kiki (the castor-oil bean) is a kind of fruit sowed in
furrows. An oil is expressed from it which is used for lamps almost
generally throughout the country, but for anointing the body only by the
poorer sort of people and labourers, both men and women.

The coccina are Egyptian textures made of some plant,[921] woven like
those made of rushes, or the palm-tree.

[CAS. 824] Barley beer is a preparation peculiar to the Egyptians. It
is common among many tribes, but the mode of preparing it differs in
each.

This, however, of all their usages is most to be admired, that they
bring up all children that are born. They circumcise the males, and spay
the females, as is the custom also among the Jews, who are of Egyptian
origin, as I said when I was treating of them.[922]

According to Aristobulus, no fishes ascend the Nile from the sea, except
the cestreus, the thrissa, and dolphins, on account of the crocodiles;
the dolphin, because it can get the better of the crocodile; the
cestreus, because it is accompanied by the chœri along the bank, in
consequence of some physical affinity subsisting between them. The
crocodiles abstain from doing any hurt to the chœri, because they are of
a round shape, and have spines on their heads, which are dangerous to
them. The cestreus runs up the river in spring, when in spawn; and
descends a little before the setting of the pleiad, in great numbers,
when about to cast it, at which time they are taken in shoals, by
falling into inclosures (made for catching them). Such also, we may
conjecture, is the reason why the thrissa is found there.

So much then on the subject of Egypt.



CHAPTER III.


1. We shall next describe Africa, which is the remaining portion of the
whole description of the earth.

We have before said much respecting it; but at present I shall further
describe what suits my purpose, and add what has not been previously
mentioned.[923]

The writers who have divided the habitable world according to
continents, divide it unequally. But a threefold division denotes a
division into three equal parts. Africa, however, wants so much of being
a third part of the habitable world, that, even if it were united to
Europe, it would not be equal to Asia; perhaps it is even less than
Europe; in resources it is very much inferior, for a great part of the
inland and maritime country is desert. It is spotted over with small
habitable parts, which are scattered about, and mostly belonging to
nomade tribes. Besides the desert state of the country, its being a
nursery of wild beasts is a hindrance to settlement in parts which could
be inhabited. It comprises also a large part of the torrid zone.

All the sea-coast in our quarter, situated between the Nile and the
Pillars, particularly that which belonged to the Carthaginians, is
fertile and inhabited. And even in this tract, some spots destitute of
water intervene, as those about the Syrtes, the Marmaridæ, and the
Catabathmus.

The shape of Africa is that of a right-angled triangle, if we imagine
its figure to be drawn on a plane surface. Its base is the coast
opposite to us, extending from Egypt and the Nile to Mauretania and the
Pillars; at right angles to this is a side formed by the Nile to
Ethiopia, which side we continue to the ocean; the hypothenuse of the
right angle is the whole tract of sea-coast lying between Ethiopia and
Mauretania.

As the part situated at the vertex of the above-mentioned figure, and
lying almost entirely under the torrid zone, is inaccessible, we speak
of it from conjecture, and therefore cannot say what is the greatest
breadth of the country. In a former[924] part of this work we have said,
that the distance proceeding from Alexandreia southwards to Meroë, the
royal seat of the Ethiopians, is about 10,000 stadia; thence in a
straight line to the borders of the torrid zone and the habitable
country, 3000 stadia. The sum, therefore, may be assumed as the greatest
breadth of Africa, which is 13,000 or 14,000 stadia: its length may be a
little less than double this sum. So much then on the subject of Africa
in general. I am now to describe its several parts, beginning from the
most celebrated on the west.

[CAS. 825] 2. Here dwell a people called by the Greeks Maurusii, and by
the Romans and the natives Mauri, a populous and flourishing African
nation, situated opposite to Spain, on the other side of the strait, at
the Pillars of Hercules, which we have frequently mentioned before. On
proceeding beyond the strait at the Pillars, with Africa on the left
hand, we come to a mountain which the Greeks call Atlas, and the
barbarians Dyris. Thence projects into the sea a point formed by the
foot of the mountain towards the west of Mauretania, and called the
Coteis.[925] Near it is a small town, a little above the sea, which the
barbarians call Trinx; Artemidorus, Lynx; and Eratosthenes, Lixus.[926]
It lies on the side of the strait opposite to Gadeira,[927] from which
it is separated by a passage of 800 stadia, the width of the strait at
the Pillars between both places. To the south, near Lixus and the
Coteis, is a bay called Emporicus,[928] having upon it Phœnician
mercantile settlements. The whole coast continuous with this bay abounds
with them. Subtracting these bays, and the projections of land in the
triangular figure which I have described, the continent may rather be
considered as increasing in magnitude in the direction of south and
east. The mountain which extends through the middle of Mauretania, from
the Coteis to the Syrtes, is itself inhabited, as well as others running
parallel to it, first by the Maurusii, but deep in the interior of the
country by the largest of the African tribes, called Gætuli.

3. Historians, beginning with the voyage of Ophelas (Apellas?),[929]
have invented a great number of fables respecting the sea-coast of
Africa beyond the Pillars. We have mentioned them before, and mention
them now, requesting our readers to pardon the introduction of
marvellous stories, whenever we may be compelled to relate anything of
the kind, being unwilling to pass them over entirely in silence, and so
in a manner to mutilate our account of the country.

It is said, that the Sinus Emporicus (or merchants’ bay) has a cave
which admits the sea at high tide to the distance even of seven stadia,
and in front of this bay a low and level tract with an altar of Hercules
upon it, which, they say, is not covered by the tide. This I, of course,
consider to be one of the fictitious stories. Like this is the tale,
that on other bays in the succeeding coast there were ancient
settlements of Tyrians, now abandoned, which consisted of not less than
three hundred cities, and were destroyed by the Pharusii[930] and the
Nigritæ. These people, they say, are distant thirty days’ journey from
Lynx.

4. Writers in general are agreed that Mauretania is a fertile country,
except a small part which is desert, and is supplied with water by
rivers and lakes. It has forests of trees of vast size, and the soil
produces everything. It is this country which furnishes the Romans with
tables, formed of one piece of wood, of the largest dimensions, and most
beautifully variegated. The rivers are said to contain crocodiles and
other kinds of animals similar to those in the Nile. Some suppose that
even the sources of the Nile are near the extremities of Mauretania. In
a certain river leeches are bred seven cubits in length, with gills,
pierced through with holes, through which they respire. This country is
also said to [CAS. 826] produce a vine, the girth of which two men can
scarcely compass, and bearing bunches of grapes of about a cubit in
size. All plants and pot-herbs are tall, as the arum and
dracontium;[931] the stalks of the staphylinus,[932] the
hippomarathum,[933] and the scolymus[934] are twelve cubits in height,
and four palms in thickness. The country is the fruitful nurse of large
serpents, elephants, antelopes, buffaloes, and similar animals; of lions
also, and panthers. It produces weasels (jerboas?) equal in size and
similar to cats, except that their noses are more prominent; and
multitudes of apes, of which Poseidonius relates, that when he was
sailing from Gades to Italy, and approached the coast of Africa, he saw
a forest low upon the sea-shore full of these animals, some on the
trees, others on the ground, and some giving suck to their young. He was
amused also with seeing some with large dugs, some bald, others with
ruptures, and exhibiting to view various effects of disease.

5. Above Mauretania, on the exterior sea (the Atlantic), is the country
of the western Ethiopians, as they are called, which, for the most part,
is badly inhabited. Iphicrates[935] says, that camel-leopards are bred
here, and elephants, and the animals called rhizeis,[936] which in shape
are like bulls, but in manner of living, in size, and strength in
fighting, resemble elephants. He speaks also of large serpents, and says
that even grass grows upon their backs; that lions attack the young of
the elephants, and that when they have wounded them, they fly on the
approach of the dams; that the latter, when they see their young
besmeared with blood, kill them; and that the lions return to the dead
bodies, and devour them; that Bogus king of the Mauretanians, during his
expedition against the western Ethiopians, sent, as a present to his
wife, canes similar to the Indian canes, each joint of which contained
eight chœnices,[937] and asparagus of similar magnitude.

6. On sailing into the interior sea, from Lynx, there are Zelis[938] a
city and Tingis,[939] then the monuments of the Seven Brothers,[940] and
the mountain lying below, of the name of Abyle,[941] abounding with
wild animals and trees of a great size. They say, that the length of the
strait at the pillars is 120 stadia, and the least breadth at
Elephas[942] 60 stadia. On sailing further along the coast, we find
cities and many rivers, as far as the river Molochath,[943] which is the
boundary between the territories of the Mauretanians and of the
Masæsyli. Near the river is a large promontory, and Metagonium,[944] a
place without water and barren. The mountain extends along the coast,
from the Coteis nearly to this place. Its length from the Coteis to the
borders of the Masæsylii[945] is 5000 stadia. Metagonium is nearly
opposite to New Carthage.[946] Timosthenes is mistaken in saying that it
is opposite to Massalia.[947] The passage across from New Carthage to
Metagonium is 3000 stadia, but the voyage along the coast to Massalia is
above 6000 stadia.

7. Although the Mauretanians inhabit a country, the greatest part of
which is very fertile, yet the people in general continue even to this
time to live like nomades. They bestow care to improve their looks by
plaiting their hair, trimming their beards, by wearing golden ornaments,
cleaning their teeth, and paring their nails; and you would rarely see
them [CAS. 828] touch one another as they walk, lest they should
disturb the arrangement of their hair.

They fight for the most part on horseback, with a javelin; and ride on
the bare back of the horse, with bridles made of rushes. They have also
swords. The foot-soldiers present against the enemy, as shields, the
skins of elephants. They wear the skins of lions, panthers, and bears,
and sleep in them. These tribes, and the Masæsylii next to them, and for
the most part the Africans in general, wear the same dress and arms, and
resemble one another in other respects; they ride horses which are
small, but spirited and tractable, so as to be guided by a switch. They
have collars[948] made of cotton or of hair, from which hangs a
leading-rein. Some follow, like dogs, without being led.

They have a small shield of leather, and small lances with broad heads.
Their tunics are loose, with wide borders; their cloak is a skin, as I
have said before, which serves also as a breastplate.

The Pharusii and Nigretes, who live above these people, near the western
Ethiopians, use bows and arrows, like the Ethiopians. They have chariots
also, armed with scythes. The Pharusii rarely have any intercourse with
the Mauretanians in passing through the desert country, as they carry
skins filled with water, fastened under the bellies of their horses.
Sometimes, indeed, they come to Cirta,[949] passing through places
abounding with marshes and lakes. Some of them are said to live like the
Troglodytæ, in caves dug in the ground. It is said that rain falls there
frequently in summer, but that during the winter drought prevails. Some
of the barbarians in that quarter wear the skins of serpents and fishes,
and use them as coverings for their beds. Some say that the
Mauretanians[950] are Indians, who accompanied Hercules hither. A little
before my time, the kings Bogus and Bocchus, allies of the Romans,
possessed this country; after their death, Juba succeeded to the
kingdom, having received it from Augustus Cæsar, in addition to his
paternal dominions. He was the son of Juba who fought, in conjunction
with Scipio, against divus Cæsar. Juba died[951] lately, and was
succeeded by his son Ptolemy, whose mother was the daughter of Antony
and Cleopatra.

8. Artemidorus censures Eratosthenes for saying that there is a city
called Lixus, and not Lynx, near the extremities of Mauretania; that
there are a very great number of Phœnician cities destroyed,[952] of
which no traces are to be seen; and that among the western Ethiopians,
in the evenings and the mornings, the air is misty and dense;—for how
could this take place where there is drought and excessive heat? But he
himself relates of these same parts what is much more liable to
objection. For he speaks of some tribes of Lotophagi, who had left their
own country, and might have occupied the tract destitute of water; whose
food might be a lotus, a sort of herb, or root, which would supply the
want of drink; that these people extend as far as the places above
Cyrene, and that they live there on milk and flesh, although they are
situated in the same latitude.

Gabinius, the Roman historian, indulges in relating marvellous stories
of Mauretania. He speaks of a sepulchre of Antæus at Lynx, and a
skeleton of sixty feet in length, which Sertorius exposed, and
afterwards covered it with earth.[953] His stories also about elephants
are fabulous. He says, that other animals avoid fire, but that elephants
resist and fight against it, because it destroys the forests; that they
engage with men in battle, and send out scouts before them; that when
they perceive their enemies fly, they take to flight themselves; and
that when they are wounded, they hold out as suppliants branches of a
tree, or a plant, or throw up dust.

9. Next to Mauretania is the country of the Masæsylii, beginning from
the river Molocath, and ending at the promontory which is called
Tretum,[954] the boundary of the country of [CAS. 829] the Masæsyli and
of the Masylies. From Metagonium to Tretum are 6000 stadia; according to
others, the distance is less.

Upon the sea-coast are many cities and rivers, and a country which is
very fertile. It will be sufficient to mention the most renowned. The
city of Siga,[955] the royal seat of Syphax, is at the distance of 1000
stadia from the above-mentioned boundaries. It is now razed. After
Syphax, the country was in the possession of Masanasses, then of
Micipsa, next of his successors, and in our time of Juba, the father of
the Juba who died lately. Zama,[956] which was Juba’s palace, was
destroyed by the Romans. At the distance of 600 stadia from Siga is
Theon-limen (port of the gods);[957] next are some other obscure places.

Deep in the interior of the country are mountainous and desert tracts
scattered here and there, some of which are inhabited and occupied by
Gætuli extending to the Syrtes. But the parts near the sea are fertile
plains, in which are numerous cities, rivers, and lakes.

10. Poseidonius says, but I do not know whether truly, that Africa is
traversed by few, and those small rivers; yet he speaks of the same
rivers, namely those between Lynx and Carthage, which Artemidorus
describes as numerous and large. This may be asserted with more truth of
the interior of the country, and he himself assigns the reason of it,
namely, that in the northern parts of Africa (and the same is said of
Ethiopia) there is no rain; in consequence therefore of the drought,
pestilence frequently ensues, the lakes are filled with mud only, and
locusts appear in clouds.

Poseidonius besides asserts that the eastern parts are moist, because
the sun quickly changes its place after rising; and that the western
parts are dry, because the sun there turns in his course. Now, drought
and moisture depend upon the abundance or scarcity of water, and on the
presence or absence of the sun’s rays. But Poseidonius means to speak of
the effects produced by the sun, which all writers determine by the
latitude, north or south; but east and west, as applied to the residence
of men, differ in different places, according to the position of each
inhabited spot and the change of horizon; so that it cannot be asserted
generally of places indefinite in number, that those lying to the east
are moist, and those to the west dry: but as applied to the whole earth
and such extremes of it as India and Spain, his expressions (east and
west) may be just; yet what truth or probability is there in his
(attempted) explanation (of the causes of drought and moisture)? for in
the continuous and unceasing circuit of the sun, what turn can there be
in his course? The rapidity too of his passage through every part is
equal. Besides, it is contrary to evidence to say, that the extreme
parts of Spain or Mauretania towards the west are drier than all other
places, when at the same time they are situated in a temperate climate
and have water in great abundance. But if we are to understand the
turning of the sun in this way, that there at the extremities of the
habitable world he is above the earth, how does that tend to produce
drought? for there, and in other places situated in the same latitude,
he leaves them for an equal portion of the night and returns again and
warms the earth.

11. Somewhere there, also, are copper mines; and a spring of asphaltus;
scorpions of enormous size,[958] both with and without wings, are said
to be found there, as well as tarantulas, remarkable for their size and
numbers. Lizards also are mentioned of two cubits in length. At the base
of the mountains precious stones are said to be found, as those called
the Lychnitis (the ruby) and the Carchedonius (the carbuncle?). In the
plains are found great quantities of oyster and mussel shells, similar
to those mentioned in our description of Ammon. There is also a tree
called melilotus, from which a wine is made. Some obtain two crops from
the ground and have two harvests, one in the spring, the other in the
summer. The straw is five cubits in height, and of the thickness of the
little finger; the produce is 250-fold. They do not sow in the spring,
but bush-harrow the ground with bundles of the paliurus, and find the
seed-grain sufficient which falls from [CAS. 831] the sheaves during
harvest to produce the summer crop. In consequence of the number of
reptiles, they work with coverings on the legs; other parts of the body
also are protected by skins.

12. On this coast was a city called Iol,[959] which Juba, the father of
Ptolemy, rebuilt and changed its name to Cæsarea. It has a harbour and a
small island in front of it. Between Cæsarea and Tretum[960] is a large
harbour called Salda,[961] which now forms the boundary between the
territories subject to Juba and the Romans; for the country has been
subject to many changes, having had numerous occupants; and the Romans,
at various times, have treated some among them as friends, others as
enemies, conceding or taking away territories without observing any
established rule.

The country on the side of Mauretania produced a greater revenue and was
more powerful, whilst that near Carthage and of the Masylies was more
flourishing and better furnished with buildings, although it suffered
first in the Carthaginian wars, and subsequently during the war with
Jugurtha, who successfully besieged Adarbal in Ityca (Utica),[962] and
put him to death as a friend of the Romans, and thus involved the whole
country in war. Other wars succeeded one another, of which the last was
that between divus Cæsar and Scipio, in which Juba lost his life. The
death of the leaders was accompanied by the destruction of the cities
Tisiæus,[963] Vaga,[964] Thala,[965] Capsa[966] (the treasure-hold of
Jugurtha), Zama,[967] and Zincha. To these must be added those cities in
the neighbourhood of which divus Cæsar obtained victories over Scipio,
namely, first at Ruspinum,[968] then at Uzita, then at Thapsus and the
neighbouring lake, and at many others. Near are the free cities Zella
and Acholla.[969] Cæsar also captured at the first onset the island
Cercinna,[970] and Thena, a small city on the sea-coast. Some of these
cities utterly disappeared, and others were abandoned, being partly
destroyed. Phara was burnt by the cavalry of Scipio.

13. After Tretum follows the territory of the Masylies, and that of the
Carthaginians which borders upon it. In the interior is Cirta, the royal
residence of Masanasses and his successors. It is a very strong place
and well provided with everything, which it principally owes to Micipsa,
who established a colony of Greeks in it, and raised it to such
importance, that it was capable of sending out 10,000 cavalry and twice
as many infantry. Here, besides Cirta, are the two cities Hippo,[971]
one of which is situated near Ityca, the other further off near Tretum,
both royal residences. Ityca is next to Carthage in extent and
importance. On the destruction of Carthage it became a metropolis to the
Romans, and the head quarters of their operations in Africa. It is
situated in the very bay itself of Carthage, on one of the promontories
which form it, of which the one near Ityca is called Apollonium, the
other Hermæa. Both cities are in sight of each other. Near Ityca flows
the river Bagradas.[972] From Tretum to Carthage are 2,500 stadia, but
authors are not agreed upon this distance, nor on the distance (of
Carthage) from the Syrtes.

14. Carthage is situated upon a peninsula, comprising a circuit of 360
stadia, with a wall, of which sixty stadia in length are upon the neck
of the peninsula, and reach from sea to sea. Here the Carthaginians kept
their elephants, it being a wide open place. In the middle of the city
was the acropolis, which they called Byrsa, a hill of tolerable height
with dwellings round it. On the summit was the temple of Esculapius,
which was destroyed when the wife of Asdrubas burnt herself to death
there, on the capture of the city. Below the Acropolis were the harbours
and the Cothon, a circular island, surrounded by a canal communicating
with the sea (Euripus), and on every side of it (upon the canal) were
situated sheds for vessels.

[CAS. 832] 15. Carthage was founded by Dido, who brought her people
from Tyre. Both this colony and the settlements in Spain and beyond the
Pillars proved so successful to the Phœnicians, that even to the present
day they occupy the best parts on the continent of Europe and the
neighbouring islands. They obtained possession of the whole of Africa,
with the exception of such parts as could only be held by nomade tribes.
From the power they acquired they raised a city to rival Rome, and waged
three great wars against her. Their power became most conspicuous in the
last war, in which they were vanquished by Scipio Æmilianus, and their
city was totally destroyed. For at the commencement of this war, they
possessed 300 cities in Africa, and the population of Carthage amounted
to 700,000 inhabitants. After being besieged and compelled to surrender,
they delivered up 200,000 complete suits of armour and 3000[973] engines
for throwing projectiles, apparently with the intention of abandoning
all hostilities; but having resolved to recommence the war, they at once
began to manufacture arms, and daily deposited in store 140 finished
shields, 300 swords, 500 lances, and 1000 projectiles for the engines,
for the use of which the women-servants contributed their hair. In
addition to this, although at this moment they were in possession of
only twelve ships, according to the terms of the treaty concluded in the
second war, and had already taken refuge in a body at the Byrsa, yet in
two months they equipped 120 decked vessels; and, as the mouth of the
Cothon was closed against them, cut another outlet (to the sea) through
which the fleet suddenly made its appearance. For wood had been
collected for a long time, and a multitude of workmen were constantly
employed, who were maintained at the public expense.

Carthage, though so great, was yet taken and levelled to the ground.

The Romans made a province of that part of the country which had been
subject to Carthage, and appointed ruler of the rest Masanasses and his
descendants, beginning with Micipsa. For the Romans paid particular
attention to Masanasses on account of his great abilities and friendship
for them. For he it was who formed the nomades to civil life, and
directed their attention to husbandry. Instead of robbers he taught them
to be soldiers. A peculiarity existed among these people; they inhabited
a country favoured in everything except that it abounded with wild
beasts; these they neglected to destroy, and so to cultivate the soil in
security; but turning their arms against each other, abandoned the
country to the beasts of prey. Hence their life was that of wanderers
and of continual change, quite as much as that of those who are
compelled to it by want and barrenness of soil or severity of climate.
An appropriate name was therefore given to the Masæsylii, for they were
called Nomades.[974] Such persons must necessarily be sparing livers,
eaters of roots more than of flesh, and supported by milk and cheese.
Carthage remained a desolate place for a long time, for nearly the same
period, indeed, as Corinth, until it was restored about the same time
(as the latter city) by divus Cæsar, who sent thither such Romans to
colonize it as elected to go there, and also some soldiers. At present
it is the most populous city in Africa.

16. About the middle of the gulf of Carthage is the island Corsura.[975]
On the other side of the strait opposite to these places is Sicily and
Lilybæum,[976] at the distance of (about) 1500 stadia; for this is said
to be the distance from Lilybæum to Carthage. Not far from Corsura and
Sicily are other islands, among which is Ægimurus.[977] From Carthage
there is a passage of 60 stadia to the nearest opposite coast, from
whence there is an ascent of 120 stadia to Nepheris, a fortified city
built upon a rock. On the same gulf as Carthage, is situated a city
Tunis; hot springs and stone quarries are also found there; then the
rugged promontory Hermæa,[978] [CAS. 834] on which is a city of the
same name; then Neapolis; then Cape Taphitis,[979] on which is a hillock
named Aspis, from its resemblance (to a shield), at which place
Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, collected inhabitants when he made his
expedition against Carthage. These cities were destroyed by the Romans,
together with Carthage. At the distance of 400 stadia from Taphitis is
an island Cossuros, with a city of the same name, lying opposite to the
river Selinus in Sicily. Its circuit is 150 stadia, and its distance
from Sicily about 600 stadia. Melite,[980] an island, is 500 stadia
distant from Cossuros. Then follows the city Adrumes,[981] with a naval
arsenal; then the Taracheiæ, numerous small islands; then the city
Thapsus,[982] and near it Lopadussa,[983] an island situated far from
the coast; then the promontory of Ammon Balithon, near which is a
look-out for[984] the approach of thunny; then the city Thena, lying at
the entrance of the Little Syrtis.[985] There are many small cities in
the intervening parts, which are not worthy of notice. At the entrance
of the Syrtis, a long island stretches parallel to the coast, called
Cercinna; it is of considerable size, with a city of the same name;
there is also another smaller island Cercinnitis.

17. Close, in the neighbourhood (of these islands), is the Little
Syrtis, which is also called the Syrtis Lotophagitis (or the
lotus-eating Syrtis). The circuit of this gulf is 1600, and the breadth
of the entrance 600 stadia; at each of the promontories which form the
entrance and close to the mainland is an island, one of which, just
mentioned, is Cercinna, and the other Meninx;[986] they are nearly equal
in size. Meninx is supposed to be the “land of the lotus-eaters”[987]
mentioned by Homer. Certain tokens (of this) are shown, such as an altar
of Ulysses and the fruit itself. For the tree called the lotus-tree is
found in abundance in the island, and the fruit is very sweet to the
taste. There are many small cities in it, one of which bears the same
name as the island. On the coast of the Syrtis itself are also some
small cities. In the recess (of the Syrtis) is a very considerable mart
for commerce, where a river discharges itself into the gulf. The effects
of the flux and reflux of the tides extend up to this point, and at the
proper moment the neighbouring inhabitants eagerly rush (to the shore)
to capture the fish (thrown up).

18. After the Syrtis, follows the lake Zuchis, 400 stadia (in circuit?),
with a narrow entrance, where is situated a city of the same name,
containing factories for purple dyeing and for salting of all kinds;
then follows another lake much smaller; after this the city
Abrotonon[988] and some others. Close by is Neapolis, which is also
called Leptis.[989] From hence the passage across to the Locri
Epizephyrii[990] is a distance of 3600 stadia. Next is the river
[Cinyps].[991] Afterwards is a walled dam, constructed by the
Carthaginians, who thus bridged over some deep swamps which extend far
into the country. There are some places here without harbours, although
the rest of the coast is provided with them. Next is a lofty wooded
promontory, which is the commencement of the Great Syrtis, and called
Cephalæ (The Heads),[992] from whence to Carthage is a distance of a
little more than 5000 stadia.

19. Above the sea-coast from Carthage to Cephalæ (on the one hand) and
to the territory of the Masæsyli (on the other) lies the territory of
the Libo-Phœnicians, extending (into the interior) to the mountainous
country of the Gætuli, which belongs to Africa Proper. Above the Gætuli
is the country of the Garamantes, lying parallel to the former, and from
whence are brought the Carthaginian pebbles (carbuncles). The Garamantes
are said to be distant from the Ethiopians, who live on the borders of
the ocean, nine or ten days’ journey, and from the temple of Ammon
fifteen days. Between the Gætuli and the coast of our sea (the
Mediterranean) there are many plains and many mountains, great lakes and
rivers, some of which sink into the earth and disappear. The inhabitants
are simple in their mode of life and in their dress; they marry numerous
wives, and have a numerous offspring; in other respects they resemble
the nomade Arabians. The [CAS. 835] necks both of horses and oxen are
longer than in other countries.

The breeding of horses is most carefully attended to by the kings (of
the country); so much so, that the number of colts is yearly calculated
at 100,000. Sheep are fed with milk and flesh, particularly near
Ethiopia. These are the customs of the interior.

20. The circuit of the Great Syrtis is about 3930 stadia,[993] its depth
to the recess is 1500 stadia, and its breadth at the mouth is also
nearly the same. The difficulty of navigating both these and the Lesser
Syrtis [arises from the circumstances of] the soundings in many parts
being soft mud. It sometimes happens, on the ebbing and flowing of the
tide, that vessels are carried upon the shallows, settle down, and are
seldom recovered. Sailors therefore, in coasting, keep at a distance
(from the shore), and are on their guard, lest they should be caught by
a wind unprepared, and driven into these gulfs. Yet the daring
disposition of man induces him to attempt everything, and particularly
the coasting along a shore. On entering the Great Syrtis on the right,
after passing the promontory Cephalæ, is a lake of about 300 stadia in
length, and 70 stadia in breadth, which communicates with the gulf, and
has at its entrance small islands and an anchorage. After the lake
follows a place called Aspis, and a harbour, the best of all in the
Syrtis. Near this place is the tower Euphrantas, the boundary between
the former territory of Carthage and Cyrenaïca under Ptolemy (Soter).
Then another place, called Charax,[994] which the Carthaginians
frequented as a place of commerce, with cargoes of wine, and loaded in
return with silphium and its juice, which they received from merchants
who brought it away clandestinely from Cyrene; then the Altars of the
Philæni;[995] after these Automola, a fortress defended by a garrison,
and situated in the recess of the whole gulf. The parallel passing
through this recess is more to the south than that passing through
Alexandreia by 1000 stadia, and than that passing through Carthage by
less than 2000 stadia; but it would coincide with the parallel passing,
on one side, through Heroopolis, which is situated in the recess[996] of
the Arabian Gulf, and passing, on the other, through the interior of the
territory of the Masæsylii and the Mauretanians. The rest of the
sea-coast, to the city Berenice,[997] is 1500 stadia in length. Above
this length of coast, and extending to the Altars of the Philæni, are
situated an African nation called Nasamones. The intervening distance
(between the recess of the Syrtis and Berenice) contains but few
harbours, and watering-places are rare.

On a promontory called Pseudopenias is situated Berenice, near a lake
Tritonis, in which is to be observed a small island with a temple of
Venus upon it. There also is a lake of the Hesperides, into which flows
a river (called) Lathon. On this side of Berenice is a small promontory
called Boreion[998] (or North Cape), which with Cephalæ forms the
entrance of the Syrtis. Berenice lies opposite to the promontories of
Peloponnesus, namely, those called Ichthys[999] and [Chelonatas],[1000]
and also to the island Zacynthus,[1001] at an interval of 3600 stadia.
Marcus Cato marched from this city, round the Syrtis, in thirty days, at
the head of an army composed of more than 10,000 men, separated into
divisions on account of the watering-places; his course lay through deep
sand, under burning heat. After Berenice is a city Taucheira,[1002]
called also Arsinoë; then Barca,[1003] formerly so called, but now
Ptolemaïs; [CAS. 837] then the promontory Phycus,[1004] which is low,
but extends further to the north than the rest of the African coast; it
is opposite to Tænarum,[1005] in Laconia, at the distance[1006] of 2800
stadia; on it there is also a small town of the same name as the
promontory. Not far from Phycus, at a distance of about 170 stadia, is
Apollonias, the naval arsenal of Cyrene; from Berenice it is distant
1000 stadia, and 80 stadia from Cyrene, a considerable city situated on
a table-land, as I observed it from the sea.

21. Cyrene was founded by the inhabitants of Thera,[1007] a Lacedæmonian
island which was formerly called Calliste, as Callimachus says,

   “Calliste once its name, but Thera in later times, the mother
   of my home, famed for its steeds.”

The harbour of Cyrene is situated opposite to Criu-Metopon,[1008] the
western cape of Crete, distant 2000 stadia. The passage is made with a
south-south-west wind. Cyrene is said to have been founded by
Battus,[1009] whom Callimachus claims to have been his ancestor. The
city flourished from the excellence of the soil, which is peculiarly
adapted for breeding horses, and the growth of fine crops. It has
produced many men of distinction, who have shown themselves capable of
worthily maintaining the freedom of the place, and firmly resisting the
barbarians of the interior; hence the city was independent in ancient
times, but subsequently[1010] it was attacked [successfully] by the
Macedonians, (who had conquered Egypt, and thus increased their power,)
under the command of Thibron the murderer of Harpalus: having continued
for some time to be governed by kings, it finally came under the power
of the Romans, and with Crete forms a single province. In the
neighbourhood of Cyrene are Apollonia, Barca, Taucheira, Berenice, and
other small towns close by.

22. Bordering upon Cyrenaïca is the district which produces silphium,
and the juice called Cyrenaic, which the silphium discharges from
incisions made in it. The plant was once nearly lost, in consequence of
a spiteful incursion of barbarians, who attempted to destroy all the
roots. The inhabitants of this district are nomades.

Remarkable persons of Cyrene were Aristippus,[1011] the Socratic
philosopher, who established the Cyrenaïc philosophy, and his daughter
named Arete, who succeeded to his school; she again was succeeded by her
son Aristippus, who was called Metrodidactos, (mother-taught,) and
Anniceris, who is supposed to have reformed the Cyrenaïc sect, and to
have introduced in its stead the Anniceric sect. Callimachus and
Eratosthenes[1012] were also of Cyrene, both of whom were held in honour
by the kings of Egypt; the former was both a poet and a zealous
grammarian; the latter followed not only these pursuits, but also
philosophy, and was distinguished above all others for his knowledge of
mathematics. Carneades[1013] also came from [CAS. 838] thence, who by
common consent was the first of the Academic philosophers, and
Apollonius Cronos, the master of Diodorus the Dialectician, who was also
called Cronos, for the epithet of the master was by some transferred to
the scholar.

The rest of the sea-coast of Cyrene from Apollonia to Catabathmus is
2200 stadia in length; it does not throughout afford facilities for
coasting along it; for harbours, anchorage, habitations, and
watering-places are few. The places most in repute along the coast are
the Naustathmus,[1014] and Zephyrium with an anchorage, also another
Zephyrium, and a promontory called Chersonesus,[1015] with a harbour
situated opposite to and to the south of Corycus[1016] in Crete, at the
distance of 2500 stadia; then a temple of Hercules, and above it a
village Paliurus; then a harbour Menelaus, and a low promontory
Ardanixis, (Ardanis,)[1017] with an anchorage; then a great harbour,
which is situated opposite to Chersonesus in Crete, at a distance of
about 3000 (2000?) stadia; for the whole of Crete, which is (a) long and
narrow (island), lies opposite and nearly parallel to this coast. After
the great harbour is another harbour, Plynos, and about it Tetra-pyrgia
(the four towers). The place is called Catabathmus.[1018] Cyrenæa
extends to this point; the remainder (of the coast) to Parætonium,[1019]
and from thence to Alexandreia, we have spoken of in our account of
Egypt.[1020]

23. The country deep in the interior, and above the Syrtis and Cyrenæa,
a very sterile and dry tract, is in the possession of Libyans. First are
the Nasamones, then Psylli, and some Gætuli, then Garamantes; somewhat
more towards the east (than the Nasamones) are the Marmaridæ, who are
situated for the most part on the boundaries of Cyrenæa, and extend to
the temple of Ammon. It is asserted, that persons directing their course
from the recess of the Great Syrtis, (namely,) from about the
neighbourhood of Automala,[1021] in the direction of the winter
sunrise, arrive on the fourth day at Augila.[1022] This place resembles
Ammon, and is productive of palm trees, and is well supplied with water.
It is situated beyond Cyrenæa to the south: for 100 stadia the soil
produces trees; for another 100 stadia the land is only sown, but from
excessive heat does not grow rice.

Above these parts is the district which produces silphium, then follows
the uninhabited tract, and the country of the Garamantes. The district
which produces silphium is narrow, long, and dry, extending in an
easterly direction about 1000 stadia, but in breadth 300 stadia, or
rather more, at least as far as has been ascertained. For we may
conjecture that all countries which lie on the same parallel (of
latitude) have the same climate, and produce the same plants; but since
many deserts intervene, we cannot know every place. In like manner, we
have no information respecting the country beyond (the temple of) Ammon,
nor of the oases, as far as Ethiopia, nor can we state distinctly what
are the boundaries of Ethiopia, nor of Africa, nor even of the country
close upon Egypt, still less of the parts bordering on the ocean.

24. Such, then, is the disposition of the parts of the world which we
inhabit.[1023] But since the Romans have surpassed (in power) all former
rulers of whom we have any record, and possess the choicest and best
known parts of it, it will be suitable to our subject briefly to refer
to their Empire.

It has been already stated[1024] how this people, beginning from [CAS.
839] the single city of Rome, obtained possession of the whole of Italy,
by warfare and prudent administration; and how, afterwards, following
the same wise course, they added the countries all around it to their
dominion.

Of the three continents, they possess nearly the whole of Europe, with
the exception only of the parts beyond the Danube, (to the north,) and
the tracts on the verge of the ocean, comprehended between the Rhine and
the Tanaïs (Don).

Of Africa, the whole sea-coast on the Mediterranean is in their power;
the rest of that country is uninhabited, or the inhabitants only lead a
miserable and nomade life.

Of Asia likewise, the whole sea-coast in our direction (on the west) is
subject to them, unless indeed any account is to be taken of the Achæi,
Zygi, and Heniochi,[1025] who are robbers and nomades, living in
confined and wretched districts. Of the interior, and of the parts far
inland, the Romans possess one portion, and the Parthians, or the
barbarians beyond them, the other; on the east and north are Indians,
Bactrians, and Scythians; then (on the south) Arabians and Ethiopians;
but territory is continually being abstracted from these people by the
Romans.

Of all these countries some are governed by (native) kings, but the rest
are under the immediate authority of Rome, under the title of provinces,
to which are sent governors and collectors of tribute; there are also
some free cities, which from the first sought the friendship of Rome, or
obtained their freedom as a mark of honour. Subject to her also are some
princes, chiefs of tribes, and priests, who (are permitted) to live in
conformity with their national laws.

25. The division into provinces has varied at different periods, but at
present it is that established by Augustus Cæsar; for after the
sovereign power had been conferred upon him by his country for life, and
he had become the arbiter of peace and war, he divided the whole empire
into two parts, one of which he reserved to himself, the other he
assigned to the (Roman) people. The former consisted of such parts as
required military defence, and were barbarian, or bordered upon nations
not as yet subdued, or were barren and uncultivated, which though ill
provided with everything else, were yet well furnished with strongholds,
and might thus dispose the inhabitants to throw off the yoke and rebel.
All the rest, which were peaceable countries, and easily governed
without the assistance of arms, were given over to the (Roman) people.
Each of these parts was subdivided into several provinces, which
received respectively the titles of “provinces of Cæsar” and “provinces
of the People.”

To the former provinces Cæsar appoints governors and administrators, and
divides the (various) countries sometimes in one way, sometimes in
another, directing his political conduct according to circumstances.

But the people appoint commanders and consuls to their own provinces,
which are also subject to divers divisions when expediency requires it.

(Augustus Cæsar) in his first organization of (the Empire) created two
consular governments, namely, (1.) the whole of Africa in possession of
the Romans, excepting that part which was under the authority, first of
Juba, but now of his son Ptolemy; and (2.) Asia within the Halys and
Taurus, except the Galatians and the nations under Amyntas, Bithynia,
and the Propontis. He appointed also ten consular governments in Europe
and in the adjacent islands. Iberia Ulterior (Further Spain) about the
river Bætis[1026] and Celtica Narbonensis[1027] (composed the two
first). The third was Sardinia, with Corsica; the fourth Sicily; the
fifth and sixth Illyria, districts near Epirus, and Macedonia; the
seventh Achaia, extending to Thessaly, the Ætolians, Acarnanians, and
the Epirotic nations who border upon Macedonia; the eighth Crete, with
Cyrenæa; the ninth Cyprus; the tenth Bithynia, with the Propontis and
some parts of Pontus.

Cæsar possesses other provinces, to the government of which he appoints
men of consular rank, commanders of armies, or knights;[1028] and in his
(peculiar) portion (of the empire) there are and ever have been kings,
princes, and (municipal) magistrates.


END OF VOL. III.


FOOTNOTES:

[1] Book xii. c. iii. 39. Vol. ii. page 311, 312.

[2] Book xiii. c. iv. § 8. Vol. ii. page 405.

[3] Book x. c. iv. § 10, and book xii. c. iii. § 33. Vol. ii. pp. 197,
307, of this Translation.

[4] Book xiv. c. i. § 48. Vol. iii. p. 26.

[5] Book xiv. c. v. § 4. Vol. iii. p. 53.

[6] Book xii. c. iii. § 16. Vol. ii. p. 296, 380.

[7] c. ii. § 24. Vol. iii. p. 173.

[8] Book ii. c. v. § 10. Vol. i. p. 176, of this Translation.

[9] Chap. i. § 20.

[10] Chap. i. § 13.

[11] Chap. i. § 20.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Book ii. c. 3, § 6. Vol. i. p. 154.

[14] Herodotus iv. 85, 86.

[15] Book i. c. iv. § 6. Vol. i. p. 102, of the Translation.

[16] Book ii. c. i. § 20. Vol. i. p. 119, of the Translation.

[17] Book xiii. c. i. § 54, vol. ii. p. 380.

[18] “A Reply to the Calumnies of the Edinburgh Review against Oxford,”
page 98, by Dr. Copleston, late Bishop of Landaff. Oxford, 1810.

[19] That is, the maritime parts of Asia Minor, from Cape Coloni
opposite Mitilini to Bajas, the ancient Issus. The coast of Ionia
comprehended between Cape Coloni and the Mæander (Bojuk Mender Tschai)
forms part of the modern pachalics, Saruchan and Soghla; Caria and Lycia
are contained in the pachalic, Mentesche; Pamphylia and Lycia in those
of Teke and Itsch-ili. Mount Taurus had its beginning at the promontory
Trogilium, now Cape Samsoun, or Santa Maria opposite Samos.

[20] Jenikoi.

[21] Cape Arbora.

[22] Karadscha-Fokia.

[23] Gedis-Tschai.

[24] Derekoi.

[25] Lebedigli, Lebeditzhissar.

[26] A portion of this poem by Mimnermus is quoted in Athenæus, b. xi.
39, p. 748 of the translation, Bohn’s Class. Library.

[27] Pliny, v. 29, says the distance is 20 stadia.

[28] The Branchidæ were descendants of Branchus, who himself was
descended from Macæreus, who killed Neoptolemus, son of Achilles.
According to Herodotus, the temple was burnt by order of Darius, Herod.
v. 36; vi. 19.

[29] Pliny, v. 29, says that the distance is 180 stadia.

[30] According to Pausanias, vii. 2, a friend of Sarpedon, named
Miletus, conducted the colony from Crete, founded Miletus, and gave his
name to it. Before his arrival the place bore the name of Anactoria, and
more anciently Lelegis.

[31] More than 80, according to Pliny, v. 29.

[32] To be well.

[33] Hence the English weal, the mark of a stripe.

[34] Od. xxiv. 402.

[35] Coraÿ, who is followed by Groskurd, supposes the words “and Cadmus”
to be here omitted. Kramer considers this correction to be very
doubtful; see b. i. c. ii. § 6.

[36] Chandler says that the Tragææ were sand-banks or shallows.

[37] Bafi.

[38] Il. ii. 868.

[39] ἐν ὕψει, according to Groskurd’s emendation, in place of ἐν ὄψει.

[40] Derekoi.

[41] Two other towns, Percote and Palæscepsis, were also given to
Themistocles, the first to supply him with dress, the second with
bed-room furniture.—_Plutarch, Life of Themistocles._

[42] Aineh-Basar.

[43] Samsun.

[44] Samsun Dagh.

[45] Cape Santa Maria.

[46] The Furni islands.

[47] Stapodia.

[48] According to Pliny, it is 716 stadia.

[49] In b. x. ch. ii. § 17, Strabo informs us that Samos was first
called Melamphylus, then Anthemis, and afterwards Parthenia. These names
appear in this passage in a reversed but, as appears from Pliny, b. v.
31, in their true chronological order.

[50] Either an error of our author, or he speaks of its wine in
comparison with that of other islands.

[51] After the death of Pericles.

[52] Among distinguished natives of Samos, Strabo has omitted to mention
Melissus the philosopher, who commanded the fleet of the island, and was
contemporary with Pericles.—_Plutarch, Life of Pericles._

[53] Before called Drepanum.

[54] Ischanli.

[55] Scala Nova.

[56] Pliny and Mela give a different origin and name to this town: by
them it is called Phygela from Φυγὴ, flight or desertion of the sailors,
who, wearied with the voyage, abandoned Agamemnon.

[57] Chersiphron was of Gnossus in Crete. The ground being marshy on
which the temple was to be built, he prepared a foundation for it of
pounded charcoal, at the suggestion of Theodorus, a celebrated statuary
of Samos.

[58] The temple is said to have been burnt the night Alexander the Great
was born.—_Cicero, de Nat. Deo._ ii. 27.

[59] Plutarch says that the artist offered Alexander to make a statue of
Mount Athos, which should hold in the left hand a city, capable of
containing 10,000 inhabitants, and pouring from the right hand a river
falling into the sea.

[60] For the word κρήνη, a fountain, which occurs in the text before
Penelope, and is here unintelligible, Kramer proposes to read κηρίνη.
The translation of the passage, thus corrected, would be, “a figure in
wax of Penelope.” Kramer does not adopt the reading, on the ground that
no figures in wax are mentioned by ancient authors.

[61] ὀνήιστος.

[62] Coraÿ is of opinion that the name of Artemidorus of Ephesus has
been omitted by the copyist in this passage, before the name of
Alexander. Kramer thinks that if the name had existed in the original
manuscript, it would have been accompanied, according to the practice of
Strabo, with some notice of the writings of Artemidorus. The omission of
the name is remarkable, as Artemidorus is one of the geographers most
frequently quoted by Strabo. He flourished about 100 B. C. His geography
in eleven books is lost. An abridgement of this work was made by
Marcianus, of which some portions still exist, relating to the Black Sea
and its southern shore.

[63] It must have been in existence in the time of Strabo.—_Tacit. Ann._
ii. 54.

[64] Another explanation is given to the proverb, from the circumstance
of Colophon having a casting vote in the deliberations of the twelve
cities forming the Panionium.

[65] Lebedigli Lebeditz hissar.

[66] During the season when these actors, dancers, and singers were not
on circuit at festivals.

[67] Budrun.

[68] Ouvriokasli.

[69] Ypsilo Nisi.

[70] Called by Livy, xxvii. 27, Portus Geræsticus.

[71] Which forms the Gulf of Smyrna.

[72] The district called Chalcitis by Pausanias, xii. 5, 12.

[73] Ritri.

[74] Sighadschik.

[75] Koraka, or Kurko.

[76] Called in Thucyd. viii. 34, Arginum.

[77] Karaburun-Dagh.

[78] Karaburun, which has the same meaning.

[79] Groskurd is of opinion that “of the same name” is omitted after
“city.”

[80] Cape Mastico.

[81] Porto Mastico.

[82] This name is doubtful. Coraÿ suggests Elæus; Groskurd, Lainus,
which Kramer does not approve of, although this part of the coast is now
called Lithi. It seems to be near a place called Port Aluntha.

[83] Cape Nicolo.

[84] Psyra.

[85] Ilias.

[86] Ion was a contemporary of Sophocles. Theopompus was the disciple of
Socrates, and the author of an epitome of the history of Herodotus, of a
history of Greece, of a history of Philip, father of Alexander the
Great, and of other works. He was of the aristocratic or Macedonian
party. Theocritus, his contemporary, was a poet, orator, and historian;
he was of the democratic party. To these, among illustrious natives of
Chios, may be added Œnopides the astronomer and mathematician, who was
the discoverer of the obliquity of the ecliptic and the cycle of 59
years, for bringing the lunar and solar years into accordance; Nessus
the philosopher; his disciple Metrodorus (about B. C. 330) the sceptic,
and master of Hippocrates; Scymnus the geographer, and author of a
description of the earth.

[87] The Homeridæ may have been at first descendants of Homer; but in
later times those persons went by the name Homeridæ, or Homeristæ, who
travelled from town to town for the purpose of reciting the poems of
Homer. They did not confine themselves to that poet alone, but recited
the poetry of Hesiod, Archilochus, Mimnermus, and others; and finally
passages from prose writers.—_Athenæus_, b. xiv. c. 13.

[88] Of the 283 vessels sent by the eight cities of Ionia in the war
with Darius, one hundred came from Chios.

[89] Kelisman.

[90] Still to be found in collections of coins.

[91] Leokaes?

[92] B. xiii. c. iv. § 2.

[93] Ak-Hissar.

[94] Karadscha-Fokia.

[95] Marseilles, b. iv. ch. i. § 4.

[96] B. xiii. ch. i. § 2.

[97] Jenidscheh.

[98] Western Africa.

[99] Gumusch-dagh.

[100] According to Suidas, Daphnidas ridiculed oracles, and inquired of
the oracle of Apollo, “Shall I find my horse?” when he had none. The
oracle answered that he would find it. He was afterwards, by the command
of Attalus, king of Pergamum, taken and thrown from a precipice called
the Horse.

[101] The incursions of the Treres, with Cimmerians, into Asia and
Europe followed after the Trojan war. The text is here corrupt. The
translation follows the amendments proposed partly by Coraÿ, and partly
by Kramer, τὸ δ’ ἑξῆς Ἐφεσίους.

[102] These innovations or corruptions were not confined to the
composition of pieces intended for the theatre, but extended also to the
manner of their representation, to music, dancing, and the costume of
the actors. It was an absolute plague, which corrupted taste, and
finally destroyed the Greek theatre. We are not informed of the detail
of these innovations, but from what we are able to judge by comparing
Strabo with what is found in Athenæus, (b. xiv. § 14, p. 990, of Bohn’s
Classical Library,) Simodia was designated by the name of Hilarodia,
(joyous song,) and obtained the name Simodia from one Simus, or Simon,
who excelled in the art. The Lysiodi and Magodi, or Lysodia and Magodia,
were the same thing, according to some writers. Under these systems
decency appears to have been laid aside.

[103] Od. ix. 3.

[104] Aidin-Gusel-Hissar.

[105] The chain of mountains between the Caÿster and the Mæander, the
different eminences of which bear the names of Samsun-dagh,
Gumusch-dagh, Dsehuma-dagh, &c.

[106] Sultan-Hissar.

[107] The Tralli Thracians appear to have acted as mercenary soldiers,
according to Hesychius.

[108] Groskurd supplies the word πρόσκεινται.

[109] Groskurd reads τοιούτων, for τοσούτων in the text. Coraÿ proposes
νοσούντων.

[110] Meineke’s conjecture is followed, λίπα ἀληλιμμένοι, for
ἀπαληλιμμένοι.

[111] Groskurd’s emendation of this corrupt passage is adopted,
ὑπερβᾶσι τὴν Μεσωγίδα ἐπὶ τὰ πρὸς τὸν νότον μέρη Τμώλου τοῦ ὄρους.

[112] Il. ii. 461.

[113] Arpas-Kalessi.

[114] Mastauro.

[115] Adopting Kramer’s correction of Καρίας for
παραλίας.

[116] Cape Arbora.

[117] Schelidan Adassi islands, opposite Cape Chelidonia.

[118] Near Gudschek, at the bottom of the Gulf of Glaucus, now Makri.

[119] The Phœnix (Phinti?) rises above the Gulf of Saradeh.

[120] Alessa, or, according to others, Barbanicolo.

[121] Dalian.

[122] Doloman-Ischai.

[123] Kramer suggests the words ὑπομέλανας καὶ, for the corrupt reading,
ἐπιμελῶς.

[124] Il. vi. 146.

[125] The Caunians were aborigines of Caria, although they affected to
come from Crete.—_Herod._ i. 72.

[126] Castro Marmora. The gulf on which it stands is still called Porto
Fisko.

[127] Chares flourished at the beginning of the third century B. C. The
accounts of the height of the Colossus of Rhodes differ slightly, but
all agree in making it 105 English feet. It was twelve years in
erecting, (B. C. 292-280,) and it cost 300 talents. There is no
authority for the statement that its legs extended over the mouth of the
harbour. It was overthrown 56 years after its erection. The fragments of
the Colossus remained on the ground 923 years, until they were sold by
Moawiyeh, the general of the Caliph Othman IV., to a Jew of Emessa, who
carried them away on 900 camels, A. D. 672. Hence Scaliger calculated
the weight of the bronze at 700,000 pounds.—_Smith’s Dict. of Biog. and
Mythology._

[128] Protogenes occupied seven years in painting the Jalysus, which was
afterwards transferred to the Temple of Peace at Rome. The Satyr was
represented playing on a flute, and was entitled, The Satyr
Reposing.—_Plutarch, Demetr._; _Pliny_, xxxv. 10.

[129] ὀψωνιασμοῦ, Kramer’s proposed correction, is adopted for
ὀψωνιαζόμενοι.

[130] Marseilles and Artaki.

[131] Bodrum.

[132] Il. ii. 662.

[133] Il. ii. 656.

[134] Il. ii. 678.

[135] Formerly, says Pliny, it was called Ophiussa, Asteria, Æthræa,
Trinacria, Corymbia, Pœeessa, Atabyria, from a king of that name; then
Macaria and Oloëssa. B. v. 31. To these names may be added Lindus and
Pelagia. Meineke, however, suspects the name Stadia in this passage to
be a corruption for Asteria.

[136] That is, Children of the Sun. They were seven in number,
Cercaphus, Actis, Macareus, Tenages, Triopes, Phaethon, and Ochimus,
born of the Sun and of a nymph, or, according to others, of a heroine
named Rhodus.

[137] Il. ii. 656.

[138] Hippodamus of Miletus.

[139] Naples.

[140] Majorca.

[141] Negropont.

[142] Called light-armed probably from the use of the sling, common
among the Rhodians, as it was also among the Cretans. The use of the
sling tends to prove the Rhodian origin of the inhabitants of the
Balearic islands. The Athenian expedition to Sicily (Thucyd. vi. 43) was
accompanied by 700 slingers from Rhodes.

[143] Strabo here omits to mention the Rhodian origin of Agrigentum and
Gela in Sicily.

[144] Il. ii. 668.

[145] Ol. vii. 61.

[146] Lindo.

[147] According to Strabo, Alexandria and Rhodes were upon the same
meridian.

[148] Camiro.

[149] Lanathi?

[150] Abatro.

[151] B. x. c. v. § 14.

[152] The original, which is a play upon words, cannot be rendered in
English.

[153] Called before, Eleussa, c. ii. § 2.

[154] The Sea of Marmora.

[155] Capo Volpe, or Alepo Kavo, meaning the same thing.

[156] Isle of Symi.

[157] Crio.

[158] Indschirli, or Nisari.

[159] Keramo.

[160] The word ἔργον, “a work,” suggests that there is some omission in
the text. Coraÿ supposes that the name of the architect or architects is
wanting. Groskurd would supply the words Σκόπα καὶ ἄλλων τεχνιτῶν, “the
work of Scopas and other artificers.” See Pliny, N. H. xxxvi., and
Vitruvius Præf. b. vii.

[161] Coronata.

[162] Mela says, of Argives. B. i. c. xvi. § 19.

[163] Petera, or Petra Termera.

[164] Cape Kephala.

[165] Pascha-Liman.

[166] Assem-Kalessi.

[167] Cape Arbore.

[168] Mylassa, or Marmora.

[169] Eski-hissar.

[170] Arab-hissar.

[171] This is a parody on a passage in Aristophanes. Lysis. v. 1038.

[172] Of the golden rays (around the head).

[173] Cicero. _Brut._, c. 91.

[174] Il. ii. 867, in which the reading is Νάστης, but Μέσθλης in Il.
ii. 864.

[175] Od. i. 344.

[176] Il. xv. 80.

[177] Il. v. 222.

[178] βατταρίζειν, τραυλίζειν, ψελλίζειν.

[179] κελαρύζειν, κλαγγὴ, ψόφος, βοὴ, κρότος.

[180] Chelidoniæ, in this passage, is probably an error. Groskurd adopts
the name Philomelium.

[181] Ilgun.

[182] At the base of Sultan-dagh.

[183] Ak-Schehr.

[184] Sultan Chan.

[185] Ak-Sera.

[186] Kaiserieh.

[187] Called Herpa, b. xii. ch. ii. § 6, pages 281, 283.

[188] Μετὰ τὴν Ῥοδίων Περαίαν, or, “After the Peræa of Rhodes.” Peræa
was the name of the coast of Caria opposite to Rhodes, which for several
centuries formed a dependency of that opulent republic. In the time of
Scylax, the Rhodians possessed only the peninsula immediately in face of
their island. As a reward for their assistance in the Antiochian war,
the Romans gave them a part of Lycia, and all Caria as far as the
Mæander. By having adopted a less prudent policy in the second Macedonic
war, they lost it all, including Caunus, the chief town of Peræa. It was
not long, however, before it was restored to them, together with the
small islands near Rhodes; and from this time Peræa retained the limits
which Strabo has described, namely, Dædala on the east and Mount Loryma
on the west, both included. Vespasian finally reduced Rhodes itself into
the provincial form, and joined it to Caria.—_Leake._

[189] Samsun.

[190] Eski Adalia, Old Attaleia; but the Greeks gave the name παλαιὰ
Ἀττάλεια, Old Attaleia, to Perge.—_Leake._

[191] Gunik.

[192] Patera.

[193] Minara.

[194] Duvar.

[195] Gillies, in his translation of Aristotle, makes use of this
example of the Lycians to prove that representative government was not
unknown to the ancients. The deputies sent from the twenty-three cities
formed a parliament. The taxes and public charges imposed on the several
towns were in proportion to the number of representatives sent from each
city.—_Gillies_, vol. ii. p. 64, &c.

[196] Makri.

[197] Site unknown.

[198] Efta Kavi, the Seven Capes.

[199] Od. xix. 518.

[200] Kodscha.

[201] The passage in the original, in which all manuscripts agree, and
which is the subject of much doubt, is—

   ὧν καὶ μεγίστη νῆσος καὶ πόλις ὁμώνυμος, ἡ Κισθήνη.

Groskurd would read καὶ before ἡ, and translates,—“Among others is
Megiste an island, and a city of the same name, and Cisthene.”

Later writers, says Leake, make no mention of Cisthene; and Ptolemy,
Pliny, Stephanus, agree in showing that Megiste and Dolichiste were the
two principal islands on the coast of Lycia: the former word Megiste,
_greatest_, well describing the island Kasteloryzo or Castel Rosso, as
the latter word (longest) does that of Kakava. Nor is Scylax less
precise in pointing out Kasteloryzo as Megiste, which name is found in
an inscription copied by M. Cockerell from a rock at Castel Rosso. It
would seem, therefore, that this island was anciently known by both
names, (Megiste and Cisthene,) but in later times perhaps chiefly by
that of Megiste.

[202] Cape Chelidonia.

[203] Aboukir, nearly under the same meridian.

[204] Tschariklar.

[205] Garabasa.

[206] Tschiraly. Deliktasch.—_Leake._

[207] Ianartasch.

[208] Tirikowa.

[209] Solyma-dagh.

[210] Gulik-Chan?

[211] Il. vi. 184.

[212] Duden-su.

[213] Adalia.

[214] Ernatia.

[215] Ak-su.

[216] Murtana.

[217] Tekeh.

[218] Kopru-su.

[219] Balkesu.

[220] Kislidscha-koi.

[221] Menavgat-su.

[222] Alara.

[223] Alaja, or Castel Ubaldo.

[224] Herod. vii. 91. According to this passage, therefore, the name
Pamphylians is derived from πᾶν, “all,” and φῦλον, “nation.”

[225] Alaja.

[226] Syedra probably shared with Coraresium (Alaja), a fertile plain
which here borders on the coast. But Syedra is Tzschucke’s emendation of
Arsinoë in the text.

[227] Not mentioned by any other author.

[228] Selindi.

[229] Charadran.

[230] Kara-Gedik.

[231] Inamur.

[232] Cape Kormakiti.

[233] Mesetlii.

[234] Softa-Kalessi.

[235] Mandane?

[236] Kilandria, or Gulnar.

[237] According to Pliny, Cilicia anciently commenced at the river
Melas, which Strabo has just said belongs to Pamphylia. Ptolemy fixes
upon Coracesium as the first place in Cilicia, which, according to Mela,
was separated from Pamphylia by Cape Anemurium, which was near Nagidus.

[238] Nahr-el-Asy.

[239] B. xvi. c. ii. § 33.

[240] Selefke.

[241] Cape Lissan.

[242] Gok-su.

[243] Cape Cavaliere.

[244] Eurip. Hec. 1.

[245] Its distance (40 stadia) from the Calycadnus, if correct, will
place it about Pershendi, at the north-eastern angle of the sandy plain
of the Calycadnus.

[246] Anamur.

[247] Ianartasch; but, according to Leake, it still preserves its name.

[248] A sandy plain now connects Elæussa with the coast.—_Leake._

[249] Lamas-su, of which Lamuzo-soui is an Italian corruption.

[250] Lamas.

[251] Tschirlay, or Porto Venetico.

[252] Mesetlii.

[253] Cape Zafra.

[254] What better inscription, said Aristotle, could you have for the
tomb, not a king, but of an ox? Cicero, Tusc. Quæs. iii. 35.

[255] Mesarlyk-tschai.

[256] Strabo means to say, that the coast, from the part opposite
Rhodes, runs E. in a straight line to Tarsus, and then inclines to the
S.E.; that afterwards it inclines to the S., to Gaza, and continues in a
westerly direction to the Straits of Gibraltar.

[257] The translation follows the reading proposed by Groskurd,
παχυνευροῦσι καὶ ῥοïζομένοις καὶ ποδαγριζομένοις, who quotes Vitruv.
viii. 3, and Pliny xxxi. 8.

[258] Kramer does not approve of the corrections proposed in this
passage by Groskurd. The translation follows the proposed emendation of
Falconer, which Kramer considers the least objectionable.

[259] Augustus.

[260] Groskurd, with some probability, supposes the name of Achilles to
be here omitted.

[261] Il. iii. 235.

[262] Dschehan-tschai.

[263] Chun.

[264] Ajas.

[265] Demir-Kapu.

[266] The ridge extending N. E., the parts of which bear various names,
Missis, Durdan-dagh, &c.

[267] Deli-tschai.

[268] Arsus.

[269] Iskenderun.

[270] Its name under the Byzantine empire was corrupted to Mampsysta, or
Mamista; of which names the modern Mensis appears to be a further
corruption.—_Leake._

[271] The passage is defended by the fortress of Merkes.

[272] Suveidijeh.

[273] Nahr-el-Asy.

[274] Groskurd is desirous of reading Tarsus for Issus. See above, c. v.
§ 11. But Strabo is here considering the two opinions held respecting
the isthmus.

[275] Scymnus of Chios counts fifteen nations who occupied this
peninsula, namely, three Greek and twelve barbarian. The latter were
Cilicians, Lycians, Carians, Maryandini, Paphlagonians, Pamphylians,
Chalybes, Cappadocians, Pisidians, Lydians, Mysians, and Phrygians. In
this list the Bithynians, Trojans, and Milyæ are not mentioned; but in
it are found the Cappadocians and Lydians—two nations whom, according to
Strabo, Ephorus has not mentioned. This discrepancy is the more
remarkable as Scymnus must have taken the list from Ephorus himself.

[276] Od. xi. 122.

[277] Apollodorus, like Scymnus, had probably found the Lydians
mentioned in the list of Ephorus, as also the Cappadocians.

[278] Kramer says that he is unable to decide how this corrupt passage
should be restored. The translation follows the conjectures of Coray.

[279] Il. ii. 862.

[280] Il. iii. 187.

[281] Isnik.

[282] Euphorion acquired celebrity as a voluminous writer. Vossius, i.
16, gives a catalogue of his works. According to Suidas, he was born in
Chalcis, in Negropont, at the time Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was defeated
by the Romans. He acquired a considerable fortune by his writings and by
his connexion with persons of eminent rank. He was invited to the court
of Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, who intrusted him with the care
of his library. According to Sallust, (Life of Tiberius,) he was one of
the poets whom Tiberius took as his model in writing Greek verse. Fecit
et Græca poemata, imitatus Euphorionem, et Rhianum et Parthenium.

[283] The Clides, off Cape Andrea.

[284] Cape Arnauti.

[285] Dschehan-Tschai.

[286] Kormakiti.

[287] Lapito.

[288] Near Artemisi.

[289] To the north of Tamagousta.

[290] Carpas.

[291] Lissan el Cape, in Cilicia.

[292] Near the present Larnaka.

[293] Limasol.

[294] Cape Gata.

[295] Cape Grego.

[296] Piscopia.

[297] Capo Bianco.

[298] Bisur.

[299] Point Zephyro.

[300] Jeroskipo.

[301] Solea.

[302] The Indian Ocean.

[303] Behul or Jelum.

[304] Beas.

[305] The island Cos, or Stanco, one of the earlier names of which was
Meropis.

[306] ἢ κατ’ ἄλλους for καὶ ἄλλου.—_Groskurd._

[307] See ch. i. § 73.

[308] Mekran.

[309] It is evident that the name Pillars misled Megasthenes or the
writers from whom he borrowed the facts; for it is impossible to suppose
that Tearcho, who reigned in Arabia, or that Nabuchodonosor, who reigned
at Babylon, ever conducted an army across the desert and through the
whole breadth of Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar, to which place
nothing invited them, and the existence of which, as well as that of the
neighbouring countries, must have been unknown. The Egyptians, Arabians,
and Babylonians directed their invasions towards the north, to
Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Iberia, and Colchis. This was
the line of march followed by Sesostris.

Ptolemy indicates the existence of “Pillars,” which he calls “the
Pillars of Alexander,” above Albania and Iberia, at the commencement of
the Asiatic Sarmatia. But as it is known that Alexander never penetrated
into these regions, it is clear that the title “of Alexander” was added
by the Greeks to the names of mountains, which separated a country
partly civilized from that entirely occupied by hordes of savages.
Everything therefore seems to show, that these Pillars near Iberia in
Asia, and not the Pillars of Hercules in Europe, formed the boundary of
the expeditions of Sesostris, Tearcho, and Nabuchodonosor.—_Gossellin._

[310] As the Oxydraci are here meant, Groskurd adopts this name in the
text. They were settled in Sagur and Outch, of the province of Lahore.

[311] Eurip. Bacchæ, v. 13.—_Wodehull._

[312] Many cities and mountains bore the name of Nysa; but it is
impossible to confound the mountain Nysa, spoken of by Sophocles, with
the Nysa of India, which became known to the Greeks by the expedition
only of Alexander, more than a century after the death of the poet.

[313] Probably interpolated.

[314] Il. vi. 132. Nysa in India was unknown to Homer, who here refers
to Mount Nysa in Thrace.

[315] Strabo takes for the source of the Indus the place where it passes
through the mountains to enter the Punjab. The site of Aornos seems to
correspond with Renas.—_Gossellin_.

[316] The Sibæ, according to Quintus Curtius, who gives them the name of
Sobii, occupied the confluent of the Hydaspes and the Acesines.

This people appear to have been driven towards the east by one of those
revolutions so frequent in all Asia. At least, to the north of Delhi,
and in the neighbourhood of Hardouar, a district is found bearing the
name of Siba.

[317] That is, the Macedonians transferred the name of the Caucasus,
situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian, to the mountains of
India. The origin of their mistake arose from the Indians giving, as at
present, the name of Kho, which signifies “white,” to the great chain of
mountains covered with snow, from whence the Indus, and the greater part
of the rivers which feed it, descend.

[318] This people occupied the Paropamisus, where the mountains now
separate Candahar from Gaour.

[319] Book ii. c. i. 2.

[320] Under the name of Ariana, the ancients comprehended almost all the
countries situated between the Indus and the meridian of the Caspian
Gates. This large space was afterwards divided by them according to the
position of the different nations which occupied it.—_Gossellin._ There
can be no doubt the modern Iran represents the ancient Ariana. See
_Smith_, art. Ariana, and b. ii. c. v. § 32, vol. i. p. 196, note^{903}.

[321] Eratosthenes and Strabo believed that the eastern parts of Asia
terminated at the mouth of the Ganges, and that, consequently, this
river discharged itself into the Eastern Ocean at the place where
terminated the long chain of Taurus.

[322] According to Major Rennell, Emodus and Imaus are only variations
of the same name, derived from the Sanscrit word Himmaleh, which
signifies “covered with snow.”

[323] In some MSS. the following diagram is to be found.

[Illustration: The River Indus.]

[324] The extremity of India, of which Eratosthenes speaks, is Cape
Comorin, which he placed farther to the east than the mouth of the
Ganges.

[325] Patelputer or Pataliputra near Patna, see b. ii. ch. i. §9.

[326] The reading is σχοινίοις, which Coraÿ changes σχοίνοις, Schœni:
see Herod. i. 66. The Schœnus was 40 stadia. B. xii. ch. ii. §12.

[327] Athenæus (b. xi. ch. 103, page 800, Bohn’s Classical Library)
speaks of Amyntas as the author of a work on the Stations of Asia. The
Stathmus, or distance from station to station, was not strictly a
measure of distance, and depended on the nature of the country and the
capability of the beasts of burthen.

[328] The reading Coliaci in place of Coniaci has been proposed by
various critics, and Kramer, without altering the text, considers it the
true form of the name. The Coliaci occupied the extreme southern part of
India. Cape Comorin is not precisely the promontory Colis, or Coliacum,
which seems to answer to Panban, opposite the island Ramanan Kor.

[329] The Indian Caucasus.

[330] Book ii. ch. i. § 3.

[331] λίνον, probably the λίνον τὸ ἀπὸ δενδρέων, or cotton, of Arrian.

[332] βόσμορον. § 18.

[333] Ceylon.

[334] The voyage from the Ganges to Ceylon, in the time of Eratosthenes,
occupied seven days, whence he concluded that Ceylon was seven days’
sail from the continent.

[335] Groskurd reads 5000 stadia. B. ii. c. i. § 14.

[336] εἰδοποιήσουσι. _Coraÿ._

[337] The text is, as Coraÿ observes, obscure, if not corrupt. The
proposed emendations of Coraÿ and Kramer are followed.

[338] Herod. ii. 5.

[339] At the beginning of autumn.

[340] At the beginning of winter.

[341] Taxila seems to have been situated at some distance to the east of
Attock.

[342] At the delta formed by the Indus.

[343] Towards the end of summer.

[344] The Chenab.

[345] The district between Moultan and the mountains.

[346] Herod. ii. 86. Velleraque ut foliis depectant tenuia Seres? Virg.
Geor. ii. 121.

[347] Cloth of silk.

[348] The sugar-cane.

[349] C. i. § 33.

[350] The Banyan tree.

[351] Probably the Caroubba (Lotus Zizyphus), but it does not produce
the effect here mentioned.

[352] The Ravee.

[353] Arist. Hist. An. vii. 4, who speaks however of five only.

[354] πεπλησμένως. _Coraÿ._

[355] Od. ii. 157.

[356] That is to say, he crossed the Paropamisus, or Mount Ghergistan,
from the western frontier of Cabul, by the pass of Bamian, to enter the
district of Balk.

[357] The Attock.

[358] The river of Cabul.

[359] The Gandaræ were a widely extended people of Indian or Arianian
origin, who occupied a district extending more or less from the upper
part of the Punjab to the neighbourhood of Candahar, and variously
called Gandaris and Gandaritis. See Prof. Wilson’s _Ariana Antiqua_.

[360] Aspasii. _Coraÿ._

[361] Peucela, in Arrian iv. 22. Rennell supposes it to be Puckholi, or
Pehkely.

[362] Abisarus was king of the mountainous part of India, and, according
to the conjecture of Vincent, which is not without some probability, his
territory extended to Cashmir.

[363] India is bordered to the north, from Ariana to the Eastern Sea, by
the extremities of Taurus, to which the aboriginal inhabitants give the
different names of Paropamisus, Emodon, Imaon, and others, while the
Macedonians call them Caucasus. The Emodi mountains were the Western
Himalaya. See _Smith_, art. Emodi Montes.

[364] The name of the modern city Lahore, anciently Lo-pore, recalls
that of Porus. It is situated on the Hyarotis or Hydraotes (Ravee),
which does not contradict our author; for, as Vincent observes, the
modern Lahore represents the capital of the second Porus, whom Strabo
will mention immediately; and the Lahore situate between the Hydaspes
(the Behut or Jelum) and the Acesines (the Chenab), the exact position
of which is unknown, was that of the first Porus. Probably these two
districts, in which the two cities were situated, formed a single
district only, one part of which was occupied and governed by Porus the
uncle, and the other by Porus the nephew. It is probable, also, that
these two princes took their name from the country itself, Lahore, as
the prince of Taxila was called Taxiles, and the prince of Palibothra,
Palibothrus.

[365] Strabo’s Bucephalia was on the Hydaspes, between Beherat and
Turkpoor, not far from Rotas. _Groskurd._ The exact site is not
ascertained, but the probabilities seem to be in favour of Jelum, at
which place is the ordinary passage of the river, or of Jellapoor, about
16 miles lower down. _Smith._

[366] Ox-headed.

[367] Cercopitheces.

[368] Hence the Cathay of the Chinese and Modern Europe.

[369] So also Arrian, who takes the number from Megasthenes. Pliny says
that nineteen rivers unite with the Indus.

[370] Probably an interpolation.

[371] The island Cos.

[372] B. xv. c. i. § 7.

[373] The Malli occupied a part of Moultan.

[374] The Sambus of Arrian. Porticanus is the Oxycanus of Arrian. Both
Porticanus and Musicanus were chiefs of the cicar of Sehwan. _Vincent’s
Voyage of Nearchus_, p. 133.

[375] This number is too large. There is probably an error in the text.
Groskurd reads 20; but Kramer refers to Arrian’s expedition of
Alexander, v. 20, and suggests that we may here read 100 (ρ) instead of
200 (σ).

[376] The Seres are here meant, whose country and capital still preserve
the name of Serhend. It was the Serica India of the middle ages, and to
this country Justinian sent to procure silkworms’ eggs, for the purpose
of introducing them into Europe. Strabo was not acquainted with the
Seres of Scythia, whose territory is now called Serinagar, from whence
the ancients procured the wool and fine fabrics which are now obtained
from Cashmir; nor was he acquainted with the Seres who inhabited the
peninsula of India, and whose territory and capital have retained the
name of Sera. Pliny is the only ancient author who seems to have spoken
of these latter Seres. _Gossellin._ The passage in brackets is supposed
by Groskurd to be an interpolation. Meineke would retain it, by reading
καί τοι for καὶ γὰρ.

[377] The passage is corrupt, and for κήτη, “whales or cetaceous
animals,” Groskurd proposes λέγει. The whole would therefore thus be
translated, “and speaks of what he saw on it, of its magnitude,” &c.

[378] The exaggeration of Megasthenes is nothing in comparison of Ælian,
who gives to the Ganges a breadth of 400 stadia. Modern observations
attribute to the Ganges a breadth of about three quarters of a
geographical mile, or 30 stadia.

[379] About 120 feet.

[380] Hiranjavahu.

[381] B. ii. c. i. § 9.

[382] B. xvi. c. i. § 28.

[383] Herodotus iii. 102. The marmot?

[384] The passage is corrupt. Groskurd proposes to add the word ὥς
before καὶ καμήλους, “as camels.” Coraÿ changes the last word to
ἀχαλίνους, which is adopted in the translation. See below, § 53.

[385] θρίσσα.

[386] κεστρεύς.

[387] καρίδες.

[388] In the text, μέχρι ὄρους, “to a mountain.” Coraÿ changes the last
word to the name of a people, Οὔρων, but Strabo does not appear to have
been acquainted with them; Groskurd, to ὀρῶν. The translation adopts
this correction, with the addition of the article, which, as Kramer
observes, is wanting if we follow Groskurd.

[389] Groskurd proposes τειχῶν, “walls,” in place of, τιμῶν, “prices.”

[390] Κώδων, “a bell,” or gong, or trumpet?

[391] The orguia was equal to four cubits, or six feet one inch.

[392] Men who slept on their ears. See b. i. c. ii. § 35.

[393] The Brahmins.

[394] Sarmanes, Clem. Alex. Strom. i. 305.

[395] Meineke’s conjecture, ἐσθητοὺς φλοιῷ δενδρείῳ.

[396] According to Diodorus Siculus, xix. 33, an exception was made for
women with child, or with a family; but otherwise, if she did not comply
with this custom, she was compelled to remain a widow during the rest of
her life, and to take no part in sacrifices or other rites, as being an
impious person.

[397] By Arrian and Plutarch he is called Dandamis.

[398] By φιμοῖς, probably here is meant a circular segment, or band of
iron, furnished with slightly raised points in the inside; it passes
over the bone of the nose, and is fastened below by a cord which is
continued as a bridle. Such a contrivance is still in use for mules and
asses in the East.

[399] Coraÿ reads πόθος instead of κόρος in the text. The translation
would then be, “who required nothing;” but ἐκείνου here refers to
Alexander.

[400] On the day of his birth, Herod. ix. 109.

[401] Of Armenia.

[402] About 6 feet.

[403] The text is corrupt. Tzschucke’s emendation is adopted, viz.
βόνασοι. Groskurd translates the word by “hump-backed oxen,” or zebus.

[404] Ælian de Nat. Animal. xvii. 21.

[405] Bird of paradise?

[406] Not far from the present Anopschir on the Ganges, south-east from
Delhi. _Groskurd._

[407] Patalputer, b. ii. c. i. § 9.

[408] Probably the Iomanes.

[409] A subordinate town in the pachalic of Aleppo, and its modern name
is still Antakieh. It was anciently distinguished as Antioch by the
Orontes, because it was situated on the left bank of that river, where
its course turns abruptly to the west, after running northwards between
the ranges of Lebanon and Antilebanon, and also Antioch by Daphne,
because of the celebrated grove of Daphne which was consecrated to
Apollo, in the immediate neighbourhood.

[410] In Dion Cassius, liv. ix. he is called Zarmanus, a variation
probably of Garmanus, see above, § 60. Chegas, or Sheik, seems to be the
Tartar title Chan or Khan, which may be detected also in the names
Musi-canus, Porti-canus, Oxy-canus, Assa-canus, _Vincent, Voyage of
Nearchus_, p. 129. Groskurd writes Zarmanos Chanes.

[411] Bargosa is probably a corruption of Barygaza mentioned in Arrian’s
Periplus of the Red Sea. It was a large mart on the north of the river
Nerbudda, now Baroatsch or Barutsch. _Groskurd._

[412] “Beyond,” as Strabo has just been speaking of India, with
reference to which Ariana is to the west of the Indus.

[413] To the south of the great chain bearing that name, extending from
west to east of Asia.

[414] The exact place corresponding with the Caspiæ Pylæ is probably a
spot between Hark-a-Koh and Siah-Koh, about 6 parasangs from Rey, the
name of the entrance of which is called Dereh. _Smith_, art. Caspiæ
Pylæ.

[415] An extensive province of Asia along the northern side of the
Persian Gulf, extending from Carpella (either C. Bombareek or C. Isack)
on the E. to the river Bagradas (Nabend) on the W. According to Marcian
the distance between these points was 4250 stadia. It appears to have
comprehended the coast-line of the modern Laristan, Kirman, and
Moghostan. It was bounded on the N. by Parthia and Ariana; on the E. by
Drangiana and Gedrosia; on the S. by the Persian Gulf, and on the W. by
Persis. _Smith_, art. Carmania.

[416] The Purali.

[417] Mekran.

[418] By the achronical rising of the Pleiades is meant the rising of
this constellation, or its first becoming visible, after sunset.
Vincent (Voyage of Nearchus) fixes on the 23rd October, 327 B. C., as
the date of the departure of Alexander from Nicæa; August, 326 B. C., as
the date of his arrival at Pattala; and the 2nd of October, 326 B. C.,
as the date of the departure of the fleet from the Indus.

[419] The pith in the young head-shoot of the palm-tree.

[420] Called Pura by Arrian.

[421] The Oritæ are no doubt here meant.

[422] By the line drawn from the Caspian Gates to Carmania.

[423] See above, c. i. § 12.

[424] Herat.

[425] Candahar.

[426] See b. xi. c. viii. § 9.

[427] The text is corrupt: ἐκ μέρους is probably taken from some other
part of the text and here inserted.

[428] The same as Zarangæ; they probably dwelt on the lake Zarah, which
undoubtedly retains its Zend name. _Wilson’s_ Ariana.

[429] Corresponding nearly with the present Hamadan.

[430] None is said to be found there at the present day.

[431] They were called Ariaspi; Cyrus, son of Cambyses, gave them the
name Euergetæ, “benefactors,” in consideration of the services which
they had rendered in his expedition against the Scythians.

[432] At the beginning of winter.

[433] The text is corrupt; the words between brackets are supplied by
Kramer’s conjecture. See b. xi. c. xi. § 2.

[434] Theophrastus, iv. 5. The Pistatia-nut tree.

[435] Bamian, see b. xi. c. xi. § 2.

[436] In the text 19,000. Kramer’s proposed reading is adopted of
separating the amount.

[437] Ariana in the text. Groskurd proposes to read Carmania; Kramer,
Bactriana.

[438] About 140 feet. Arrian says twenty-five orguiæ, or about 150 feet.

[439] Groskurd proposes to supply after “Sea” words which he thinks are
here omitted; upon insufficient grounds, however, according to Kramer.

[440] The Arosis of Arrian, now the Tab.

[441] This passage is very corrupt, and many words, according to Kramer,
appear to be omitted. See b. ii. c i. § 26. We read with Groskurd
“Media” for “Caspian Gates” in the text: and insert “9000 stadia,” here
from b. ii. c. i. § 26, and, following the same authority, 3000 for 2000
stadia in the text below.

[442] Persæ, v. 17 and 118.

[443] Pasa or Fesa.

[444] Taug or Taüog, on the river Grâ.

[445] The Uxii occupied the district of Asciac.

[446] There seems little doubt that the Karun represents the ancient
Eulæus (on which some authors state Susa to have been situated), and the
Kerkhah the old Choaspes. See _Smith_, art. Choaspes.

[447] Groskurd adds 1000 stadia to this amount.

[448] Quin. Curtius, v. 10. Diod. Sic. xvii. 67.

[449] Ab-Zal.

[450] Hollow Persis.

[451] Bendamir.

[452] The capital of Parætacene is Ispahan.

[453] Probably the Ab-Kuren.

[454] Pasa or Fesa.

[455] Orxines, Quint. Cur. x. c. 1.

[456] For sacrifice to Cyrus. Arrian, vi. c. 29.

[457] Arrian adds, “Son of Cambyses.”

[458] Groskurd reads, ἅλλεσθαι, hops or jumps up.

[459] Founded probably by the Macedonians.

[460] The Elymæi reached to the Persian Gulf. Ptolem. vi. 1. They appear
to have left vestiges of their name in that of a gulf, and a port called
Delem.

[461] The account of the Persians is taken from Herodotus, i. 131, &c.

[462] According to Herodotus, the priest who sacrificed was crowned.

[463]

   Roused the sacred fire, as the law bids,
   Touching the god with consecrated wand.

   _Athenæus_ xii. 40, p. 850. Bohn’s Classical Library.

[464] i. e. “who kindle fire.”

[465] i. e. places where fire is kindled.

[466] B. xi. c. viii. § 4.

[467] Not the same plant as mentioned above, c. i. § 10, but the
pistacia terebinthus.

[468] An interpolation. The Cardaces were not Persians, but foreign
soldiers. “Barbari milites quos Persæ Cardacas appellant,” (Cornel.
Nepos.) without doubt were Assyrian and Armenian Carduci. See b. xvi. c.
i. § 24, and Xenoph. Anab. iv. 3. Later Gordyæi or Gordyeni, now the
Kurds. _Groskurd._

[469] Cardamum is probably the “lepidum perfoliatum” of Linnæus, or the
“nasturtium orientale” of Tournefort. Xenophon also, Expedit. Cyr. iii.
5 and vii. 8, speaks of the great use made of this plant by the
Persians.

[470] The length of the arms and the surname “Longhand” here given to
Darius are assigned by others to Artaxerxes. It was in fact the latter
to whom this surname was given, according to Plutarch, in consequence of
the right arm being longer than the left. Therefore Falconer considers
this passage an interpolation. _Coraÿ._

[471] This, says Gossellin, may account for the rarity of the Persian
Darius, badly struck, and coined long before the time of Alexander, and
appearing to belong to a period anterior to the reign of Darius
Hystaspes.

[472] Chalybon was the name of the modern Aleppo, but the wine of
Damascus must have possessed the same qualities, and had the same name.
“The Chalybonian wine, Posidonius says, is made in Damascus in Syria,
from vines which were planted there by the Persians.” _Athenæus_, b. i.
page 46, Bohn’s Classical Library.

[473] In the text “ten or eleven years,” which reading is contrary to
all other authorities, and is rejected by Kramer.

[474] This is only an approximation. From the conquest of the Medes by
Cyrus to the death of Darius Codomanus, last king of Persia, is a period
of 225 years.

[475] According to Dion Cassius, xviii. § 26, Aturia is synonymous with
Assyria, and only differs from it by a barbarous pronunciation; which
shows that the name Assyria belonged peculiarly to the territory of
Nineveh.

[476] Aiaghi-dagh.

[477] It is to be remarked that the people bordering upon the Gordyæi
are the only people of Mesopotamia here mentioned, for the whole of
Mesopotamia, properly so called, is comprised under the name of Assyria.

[478] The bridge or passage at the foot of the modern fortress
Roum-Kala.

[479] B. xii. c. iii. § 5; Herod. i. 6 and 72.

[480] Al. Lucan. b. xi. c. xii. § 4; b. xiv. c. v. § 18; b. xvi. c. ii.
§ 8.

[481] Probably walls built for the protection of certain districts. Such
was the διατείχισμα Σεμιράμιδος, constructed between the Euphrates and
the Tigris, and intended, together with canals brought from those
rivers, to protect Babylon from the incursions of the Arabian Scenitæ or
Medes. B. ii.

[482] κλίμακες, roads of steep ascent, with steps such as may be seen in
the Alps of Europe; the word differs from ὁδοὶ, roads below, inasmuch as
the former roads are only practicable for travellers on foot and beasts
of burthen, the latter for carriages also.

[483] The union of these two names, says Kramer, is remarkable, and
still more so is the insertion of the article τῆς before them: he,
therefore, but with some hesitation, suggests that the word μάχης has
been omitted in the text by the copyist.

[484] Assyrians.

[485] Erbil.

[486] Called also Zabus, Zabatus, and Zerbes, now the Great Zab.

[487] Adopting Kramer’s reading, καὶ ἃ.

[488] Probably a branch of the Karadgeh-dagh.

[489] The Little Zab, or Or.

[490] As the name Artacene occurs nowhere else, Groskurd, following
Cellarius (v. Geogr. Ant. i. 771), suspects that here we ought to read
Arbelene, and would understand by it the same district which is called
Arbelitis by Ptolemy, vi. 1, and by Pliny, H. N. vi. 13, § 16, but as
this form of the national name is nowhere to be found, it would appear
improper to introduce it into the text. It is more probable, continues
Kramer, that Strabo wrote Adiabene, of which Arbelitis was a part,
according to Pliny, loco citato.

[491] The same, no doubt, as the goddess Anaïtis. B. xi. c. viii. § 4,
and b. xv. c. iii. § 15.

[492] All manuscripts agree in giving this number, but critics agree
also in its being an error for 365. The number of stadia in the wall,
according to ancient authors, corresponded with the number of days in
the year.

[493] That is, at a short distance from the Persian Gulf, a little more
to the south than the modern town Basra.

[494] Some extensive ruins near the angle formed by the Adhem (the
ancient Physcus) and the Tigris, and the remains of the Nahr-awan canal,
are said to mark the site of Opis.

[495] The name Cœle-Syria, or Hollow Syria, which was properly applied
to the district between Libanus and Antilibanus, was extended also to
that part of Syria which borders upon Egypt and Arabia; and it is in
this latter sense that Strabo here speaks of Cœle-Syria. So also
Diodorus Siculus, i. § 30, speaks of “Joppa in Cœle-Syria;” and
Polybius, v. 80, § 2, of “Rhinocolura, the first of the cities in
Cœle-Syria;” and Josephus, Ant. Jud. xiii. 13, § 2, “of Scythopolis of
Cœle-Syria.”

[496] El-Arish.

[497] El-Kas near Sebakit-Bardoil, the ancient lake Serbonis.

[498] Barathra.

[499] Strabo has misunderstood the meaning of Eratosthenes, who had said
that the excess of the waters of the Euphrates sunk into the ground and
reappeared under the form of torrents, which became visible near
“Rhinocolura in Cœle-Syria and Mt. Casius,” the Casius near Egypt. Our
author properly observes that the length and nature of the course
contradicts this hypothesis: but, misled by the names Cœle-Syria and
Casius, he forgets that the Casius of Egypt and the district bordering
upon Egypt, improperly called Cœle-Syria, are here in question; he
transfers the first name to Cœle-Syria of Libanus, and the second to Mt.
Casius near Seleucia and Antioch, and adds that, according to the notion
of Eratosthenes, the waters of the Euphrates would have to traverse
Libanus, Antilibanus, and the Casius (of Syria), whilst Eratosthenes has
not, and could not, say any such thing. The hypothesis of Eratosthenes
could not, indeed, be maintained, but Strabo renders it absurd. The
error of our author is the more remarkable, as the name of the city
Rhinocolura ought necessarily to have suggested to him the sense in
which the words Casius and Cœle-Syria should be understood.

[500] καὶ οὕτως πλημμυρεῖν. These words are, as Kramer proposes,
transferred from below. There can be no meaning given to them as they
stand in the text, which is here corrupt.

[501] Herod. i. 193.

[502] Herod. i. 194.

[503] Al-Madain.

[504] Strabo probably here refers to Hecatompylos, which, in b. xi. c.
ix. § 1, he calls “the royal seat of the Parthians,” and which shared
with Ecbatana the honour of being a residence of the Parthian kings. The
name Hyrcania has here a wide meaning; the proper name would have been
Parthia.

[505] Cicero de Nat. Deor. i. § 5.

[506] Descura. _D’Anville._

[507] Sus.

[508] Asciac part of Khosistan.

[509] Kerman.

[510] Groskurd here supposes an omission by the copyist of the words
ἑσπέραν καὶ πρὸς before ἄρκτον.

[511] Parætacene, Cossæa, and Elymaïs occupied the mountainous parts of
Irak Adjami.

[512] Aiaghi-dagh.

[513] Media extended partly into Irak Adjami, and partly into Kurdistan.

[514] ὕστερον in the text must be omitted, or altered to πρότερον,
unless, as Kramer proposes, the words καὶ πρὸς τοὺς Πέρσας be introduced
into the text. Strabo frequently mentions together the three successive
governments of Persians, Macedonians, and Parthians. B. xi. c. xiii. §
4, and c. xiv. § 15.

[515] Mithridates I., son of Phraates, 163 B. C., and 124 years after
the expedition of Antiochus.

[516] Probably the Djerrahi.

[517] On comparing this passage with others, (b. xi. c. xiv. § 12, and
b. xvi. c. i. § 1, and c. i. § 8,) in which Strabo speaks of Adiabene,
we perceive that he understood it to be a part of the country below the
mountains of Armenia, and to the north of Nineveh, on both banks of the
Tigris. Other authors have given a more extended meaning to the name,
and applied it to the country on the north of the two rivers Zab, from
whence (Amm. Marcel. xxiii. 5, 6) the name Adiabene appears to be
derived. In this sense Adiabene may be considered the same as Assyria
Proper.

[518] B. xi. c. xiv. § 15.

[519] Groskurd proposes reading Saulopodes, delicate walkers, in place
of Saccopodes, sack-footed.

[520] Herod. i. 198. Almost all the details concerning the Babylonian
customs are taken from Herodotus, who sets them forth with greater
clearness; there are, however, some differences, as, for example, the
disposal of young women in marriage, and the different tribunals, which
prove that Strabo had other sources of information.

[521] Groskurd here suspects a corruption of the text, and for τούτου
reads τοῦ πρώτου, “of the first,” and for ἄλλου, “of another,” δευτέρου,
“of the second.”

[522] Merkan.

[523] El-der.

[524] The Van. B. xi. c. xiv. § 8.

[525] In b. xi. c. xiv. § 8, Strabo says that this lake contains one
kind of fish only.

[526] Now Roumkala, from the fortress which defends the passage of the
river.

[527] Nisibin.

[528] Kara-dagh.

[529] Sered.

[530] Haran.

[531] Racca.

[532] B. C. 51.

[533] Gordyæa was the most northerly part of Assyria, or Kurdistan, near
the lake Van. From Carduchi, the name of the inhabitants, is derived the
modern name Kurds.

[534] Pliny, x. c. iii. and xxxvi. c. xix., calls it “Gagates lapis;” a
name derived, according to Dioscorides, from a river Gagas in Lycia.

[535] Herod. vi. 199.

[536] These appear to be the rivers found in the neighbourhood of Roha
or Orfa, the ancient Edessa. One of these rivers bears the name of
Beles, and is perhaps the Basileios of Strabo. Chabur is the Aborrhas.

[537] Probably an interpolation.

[538] The passage of the Euphrates here in question was effected at the
Zeugma of Commagene, called by Strabo the present passage. On passing
the river you entered Anthemusia, a province which appears to have
received, later on, the name of Osroene. It extended considerably
towards the north, for in it the Aborrhas, according to Strabo, had its
source; but it is doubtful whether it extended to the north of Mount
Masius, where the latitudes, as given by Ptolemy, would place it. I do
not exactly know whether Strabo intends to speak of a city or a
province, for the position of the city is unknown; we only learn from a
passage in Pliny, vi. c. xxvi., that it was not on the Euphrates. The
word τόπος is not, I think, so applicable to a province as to a city,
and in this last sense I have understood it, giving also to κατὰ the
meaning of latitude, in which it is so often applied by Strabo; strictly
speaking, the sense of “vis-à-vis,” “opposite to,” might be given to
it.—_Letronne._

[539] This is an error of the author or of the copyist. Edessa (now
Orfa) is not to be confounded with Bambyce (Kara-Bambuche, or Buguk
Munbedj) of Cyrrhestica in Syria, which obtained its Hellenic name from
Seleucus Nicator.

[540] B. C. 54.

[541] The Parthians became masters of Syria under Pacorus, and of Asia
Minor under Labienus. B. C. 38.

[542] Artavasdes, king of the Armenians. B. xi. c. xiii. § 4.

[543] The text would lead us to suppose that Phraates succeeded Pacorus,
whereas below, § 8, Pacorus, the eldest son of the Parthian king, died
before his father, Orodes. Letronne, therefore, and Groskurd suppose
that the words, “the son of Orodes,” are omitted after “Pacorus” above,
and “his” in the translation would then refer to Orodes.

[544] See b. vi. c. iv. § 2, in which the motives for getting rid of
these members of his family are not mentioned.

[545] Judging from Arrian (Anab. v. § 25; vii. § 9; iii. § 8), the
historians of Alexander, as well as more ancient authors, gave the name
of Syria to all the country comprehended between the Tigris and the
Mediterranean. The part to the east of the Euphrates, afterwards named
Mesopotamia, was called “Syria between the rivers;” that to the west was
called by the general name Cœle-Syria, and although Phœnicia and
Palestine were sometimes separated from it, yet it often comprehended
the whole country as far as Egypt. Strabo below, c. ii. § 21, refers to
this ancient division, when he says that the name Cœle-Syria extends to
the whole country as far as Egypt and Arabia, although in its peculiar
acceptation it applied only to the valley between Libanus and
Antilibanus.

[546] B. C. 70.

[547] Antakieh.

[548] Modern conjecture has identified it with Shogh and Divertigi.

[549] Kulat-el-Mudik.

[550] Ladikiyeh.

[551] Mesopotamia in the text is no doubt an error of the copyist. We
ought probably to read Commagene. Groskurd proposes to read “Commagene,
like Mesopotamia, consisted of one satrapy.” Groskurd’s emendation of
the text is followed, although not approved of, by Kramer.

[552] These four portions were no doubt formed by the four hills
contained within the circuit of Antioch. The circuit wall existed in the
time of Pococke. The detailed and exact description given of it by this
learned traveller, as also his plan of Antioch, agree with Strabo’s
account. _Pococke, Descrip. of the East_, ii. p. 190.

[553] C. i. § 25.

[554] Mount Soldin.

[555] Orontes, or Nahr-el-Asy.

[556] Beit-el-Ma.

[557] B. xii. c. viii. § 19; b. xiii. c. iv. § 6.

[558] Also Hierapolis, the modern Kara Bambuche.

[559] Berœa owes its name to Seleucus Nicator, and continued to be so
called till the conquest of the Arabs under Abu Obeidah, A. D. 638, when
it resumed its ancient name of Chaleb, or Chalybon.

[560] The territory subject to the town Cyrrhus, now Coro.

[561] Baghras.

[562] The modern names of the Arceuthus and Labotas are unknown.

[563] The Afreen.

[564] B. C. 145.

[565] A table.

[566] Called Phraates by Pseudo-Appian, in Parthicis, p. 72.

[567] Selefkeh.

[568] Posidi, on the southern side of the bay, which receives the
Orontes.

[569] On Cape Ziaret.

[570] B. C. 40.

[571] The text is corrupt. The translation follows the proposed
corrections of Letronne and Kramer.

[572] Shizar, on the Orontes.

[573] Cæcilius Bassus was besieged twice in Apameia, first by C.
Antistius, afterwards by Marcus Crispus and Lucius Statius Marcius.
Cassius succeeded in dispersing the troops of this rebel without much
difficulty, according to Dion Cassius, xlvii. 27.

[574] Arethusa, now Restan, was founded by Seleucus Nicator. According
to Appian, Pompey subdued Sampsiceramus, who was king of Arethusa. On
this account Cicero, in his letters to Atticus (ii. 14, 16, 17, 23),
calls Pompey in derision Sampsiceramus. Antony put Iamblicus, son of
Sampsiceramus, to death; but Augustus restored the small state of
Arethusa to another Iamblicus, son of the former.

[575] The people of Emesa, now Hems.

[576] Balbek and Kalkos.

[577] This Ptolemy, son of Mennæus, was master chiefly of Chalcis, at
the foot of Libanus, from whence he made incursions on the territory of
Damascus. Pompey was inclined to suppress his robberies, but Ptolemy
softened his anger by a present of 1000 talents, which the Roman general
applied to the payment of his troops. He remained in possession of his
dominion until his death, and was succeeded by his son Lysanias, whom
Cleopatra put to death, on the pretext that he had induced the Parthians
to come into the country. _Josephus, Bell. Jud._

[578] One of the branches of Antilibanus.

[579] This Alchædamnus is constantly called Alchaudonius, by Dion
Cassius, whom he calls the “Arabian dynast.” Falconer therefore inferred
that here we ought to read Ἀράβων instead of Ῥαμβαίων, but Letronne does
not adopt this reading, and supposes the Rhambæi may have been a tribe
of the Arabians.

[580] The text is here corrupt, and the passage, according to Kramer,
probably introduced into the text from a marginal note.

[581] παραλία, but this is a correction for παλαιά, which Letronne
proposes to correct for περαία, which is supported in § 13, below. The
part of the continent opposite, and belonging to an island, was properly
called Peræa, of which there are many examples. That part of Asia Minor
which is opposite Rhodes was so called, b. xiv. c. v. § 11, as also the
coast opposite Tenedos, b. xiii. c. i. § 46. Peræa was also adopted as a
proper name. Livy, xxxiii. 18.

[582] Pococke places Paltus at Boldo; Shaw, at the ruins at the mouth of
the Melleck, six miles from Jebilee, the ancient Gabala.

[583] Carnoon.

[584] Ain-el-Hiyeh.

[585] According to Pococke, the ruins of Aradus (Ruad) are half a mile
to the north of Tortosa (Antaradus). It is remarkable that Strabo makes
no mention of Antaradus, situated on the continent opposite Aradus;
Pliny is the first author who speaks of it. Probably the place only
became of note subsequent to the time of Strabo, and acquired power at
the expense of some of the small towns here mentioned. Antaradus,
reëstablished by Constantine, assumed the name of Constantia.

[586] Sumrah.

[587] Ortosa.

[588] Carnus.

[589] The resistance of the sea water to the ascent of the fresh water
is cut off by this ingenious contrivance, and the fresh water rises
above the level of the sea through the pipe, by natural causes, the head
or source of the spring being in the upper ground of the mainland. This
fountain is now known by the name of Ain Ibrahim, Abraham’s fountain.

[590] B. xiv. c. v. § 2.

[591] Greego.

[592] If the words of the text, φέρει δὲ καὶ, “it produces also,” refer
to the lake, our author would contradict himself; for below, § 41, he
says that Jericho alone produces it. They must therefore be referred to
“a hollow plain” above; and the fact that they do so arises from the
remarkable error of Strabo, in placing Judæa in the valley formed by
Libanus and Antilibanus. From the manner in which he expresses himself,
it is evident that he supposed the Jordan to flow, and the Lake
Gennesaret to be situated, between these two mountains. As to the Lycus
(the Nahr el Kelb), Strabo, if he had visited the country, would never
have said that the Arabians transported upon it their merchandise. It is
evident that he has confused the geography of all these districts, by
transferring Judæa, with its lakes and rivers, to Cœle-Syria Proper; and
here probably we may find the result of his first error in confounding
Cœle-Syria Proper with Cœle-Syria understood in a wider meaning. See
above, c. i. § 12.

[593] Nahr-el-Kelb.

[594] Iouschiah.

[595] Gebail.

[596] Beyrout.

[597] Nahr-Ibrahim.

[598] Josephus, i. 1.

[599] Above, c. ii. § 3.

[600] Ortosa.

[601] Tineh.

[602] Above, c. i. § 12, 15.

[603] Nahr-Damur.

[604] Sour.

[605] Tyre—daughter of Zidon. Isaiah xxiii. 12.

[606] In B. v. c. iii. § 7, Strabo tells us that Augustus prohibited
houses being erected of more than 70 Roman feet in height.

[607] Josephus (Antiq. Jud. xv. 4, § 1) states, that Mark Antony gave
Cleopatra all the coast of Phœnicia, from Eleutheria to Egypt, with the
exception of Tyre and Sidon, which he left in the enjoyment of their
ancient independence. But according to Dion Cassius (liv., 7), Augustus
arrived in the East in the spring of the year 734, B. C., or eighteen
years before the Christian era, and deprived the Tyrians and Sidonians
of their liberty, in consequence of their seditious conduct. It follows
therefore, that if Strabo had travelled in Phœnicia, he must have
visited Tyre before the above date, because his account refers to a
state of things anterior to the arrival of Augustus in Syria; and in
this case the information he gives respecting the state of the
neighbouring cities must belong to the same date; but he speaks above (§
19) of the order reëstablished by Agrippa at Beyrout, which was effected
four years after the coming of Augustus into Syria. We must conclude,
therefore, that Strabo speaks only by hearsay of the Phœnician cities,
and that he had never seen the country itself. _Letronne._

[608] Il. xxiii. 743.

[609] Probably under Zenarchus of Seleucia, the Peripatetic philosopher
whose lectures he attended. B. xiv. c. v. § 4.

[610] Nahr-Quasmieh.

[611] Vestiges of the ancient city still remain. Here was the celebrated
temple of the Phœnician Hercules, founded according to Herodotus, ii.
44, before 2700 B. C.

[612] Acre.

[613] Letronne estimates this at a penny.

[614] Athenæus, p. 742, Bohn’s Class. Library.

[615] The Tower of Strato was an ancient city almost in ruins, which was
repaired, enlarged, and embellished by Herod with magnificent buildings;
for he found there excellent anchorage, the value of which was increased
by the fact of its being almost the only one on that dangerous coast. He
gave it the name of Cæsarea, in honour of Augustus, and raised it to the
rank of a city of the first order. The repairs of the ancient city, the
Tower of Strato, or rather the creation of the new city Cæsarea, took
place about eight or nine years B. C.; so that this passage of Strabo
refers to an earlier period.

[616] Josephus (Ant. Jud. xiv. 13, § 3) calls a district near Mount
Carmel Drumos, employing the word Δρυμός, a forest, as a proper name.

[617] Jaffa.

[618] Van Egmont (Travels, vol. i. p. 297) considers it impossible, from
the character of the intervening country, to see Jerusalem from Joppa.
Pococke, on the contrary, says, that it would not be surprising to see
from the heights of Joppa, in fine weather, the summit of one of the
high towers of Jerusalem; and this is not so unlikely, for according to
Josephus the sea was visible from the tower of Psephina at Jerusalem.

[619] Jebna.

[620] Ras-el-Kasaroun.

[621] Esdod.

[622] Asculan.

[623] Akaba or Akaba-Ila.

[624] Near Suez.

[625] Refah.

[626] B. C. 218.

[627] El Arish.

[628] Sebaki-Bardoil.

[629] The passage through which the lake discharged itself into the sea.

[630] El-Cas.

[631] It appears that in the time of Strabo and Josephus the temple of
Jupiter only remained; at a later period a town was built there, of
which Steph. Byzant., Ammianus Marcellinus, and others speak, and which
became the seat of a bishopric.

[632] B. xvi. c. iii. §3.

[633] B. xiv. c. v. §3.

[634] Arabia Petræa. Petra, now called Karac, was the capital.

[635] Josephus, Ant. Jud. xiii. 9. 1.

[636] §27, above.

[637] Jaffa.

[638] Rabbath-Ammon, or Amma.

[639] Herod rebuilt Samaria, and surrounded it with a vast enclosure.
There also he erected a magnificent temple, and gave to the city the
surname of Sebaste, in honour of Augustus.

[640] In b. xiii. c. ii. §5, our author again says that the Jews were
originally Egyptians. So also Josephus, xiv. 7. 2.

[641] “Judæi mente solâ, unumque numen intelligunt, summum illud et
eternum, neque mutabile, neque interiturum.” Tacitus, Hist. v. c. 5.

[642] Strabo here attributes to Moses the opinions of the Stoics.

[643] Strabo appears to have had little acquaintance with the Jewish
history previous to the return from captivity, nor any exact knowledge
until the arrival of the Romans in Judæa. Of the Bible he does not seem
to have had any knowledge.

[644] Probably Strabo copies from accounts when the country was not well
cultivated.

[645] αἱ γυναῖκες Ἰουδαïκῶς ἐκτετμημέναι, below, c. iv. Section 9.

[646] Od. xix. 494.

[647] Diviners by the dead.

[648] Diviners by a dish into which water was poured and little waxen
images made to float.

[649] Diviners by water.

[650] ὡροσκόποι is the reading of the text, which Groskurd supposes to
be a corruption of the Latin word Haruspex. I adopt the reading
οἰωνοσκόποι, approved by Kramer, although he has not introduced it into
the text.

[651] According to Josephus, Johannes Hyrcanus dying, B. C. 107, was
succeeded by Aristobulus, who took the title of king, this being the
first instance of the assumption of that name among the Jews since the
Babylonish captivity. Aristobulus, was succeeded by Alexander Jannæus,
whose two sons were Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus II., successively kings
of Judæa, B. C. 67, 68.

[652] B. C. 63.

[653] Solomon’s conduit was constructed on the hydraulic principle, that
water rises to its own level. The Romans subsequently, being ignorant of
this principle, constructed an aqueduct.

[654] Balsamodendron Giliadense. Pliny xii. 25.

[655] Medicago arborea.

[656] The pistachia, b. xv. c. ii. § 10.

[657] In. b. xvi. c. ii. § 16, our author says that it is found on the
borders of the Lake Gennesareth.

[658] It yields, during the hot season, an immense quantity of toddy or
palm wine.

[659] Obtained by boiling the branches of the balsamodendron in water,
and skimming off the resin.

[660] Strabo here commits the singular error of confounding the Lake
Asphaltites, or the Dead Sea, with the Lake Sirbonis. Letronne attempts
to explain the origin of the error. According to Josephus, the Peræa, or
that part of Judæa which is on the eastern side of the Jordan, between
the lake of Tiberias and the Dead Sea, contained a district (the exact
position of which is not well known, but which, according to Josephus,
could not be far from the Lake Asphaltites) called Silbonitis. The
resemblance of this name to Sirbonis probably misled our author.

[661] Specific gravity 1·211, a degree of density scarcely to be met
with in any other natural water. Marcet’s Analysis. Philos. Trans. part
ii. page 298. 1807.

[662] By chrysocolla of the ancients is generally understood borax,
which cannot however be meant in this passage. It may probably here mean
uric acid, the colour of which is golden.

[663] A place near the Lake Asphaltites, called Masada by Josephus, de
B. Jud. iv. 24, v. 3.

[664] Genesis xiv. and Wisdom x. 6: “the fire which fell down on the
five cities.”

[665] In this quotation from Eratosthenes we are probably to understand
the Lake Sirbonis, and not the Dead Sea; a continuation, in fact, of
Strabo’s first error. The translator adopts Kramer’s suggestion of
Θετταλίαν for θάλατταν in the text.

[666] “The salting station,” on the lake of Gennesareth.

[667] It has been a subject of dispute whether Herod was of Jewish or
Idumæan origin.

[668] Herod went to Rome B. C. 38, and obtained from the senate the
title of king. In the dispute between Octavius and Antony, he espoused
the cause of the latter. Octavius not only pardoned him and confirmed
him in his title, but also added other cities to his dominions. B. C.
18.

[669] The chief promoters of the crimes of Herod were Salome his sister,
who desired to gratify her hatred; and Antipater, who aimed at the
throne. Herod, influenced by their misrepresentations, put to death
Mariamne his wife, Aristobulus her brother, and Alexandra her mother;
also his sons Aristobulus and Alexander, besides Antipater, a third son,
who had conspired against his life.

[670] Augustus conferred on Archelaus the half of the kingdom of Herod
with the title of ethnarch, promising to grant the title of king, should
he prove worthy of it. The other half of the kingdom was separated into
two tetrarchies, and divided between Philip and Antipas, two other sons
of Herod.

[671] Augustus not only confirmed to Salome the legacy made to her by
Herod, of the towns Jamneia, Azoth, and Phasaëlis, but granted to her
also the royal palace and domains of Ascalon.

[672] This was Archelaus, whose tyranny was insupportable. He was
accused by the chief Jews and Samaritans before Augustus, who exiled him
to Vienne, to the south of Lyons, where he died the following year, A.
D. 7.

[673] This refers to the journey of Philip and Antipas to Rome. At the
death of Herod, Archelaus went to Rome, A. D. 2, to solicit the
confirmation of his father’s will, in which he had been named king. The
two brothers, Antipas and Philip, also went there, and the kingdom of
Herod was divided as above stated. After the exile of Archelaus, his
dominions were administered by his two brothers.

Strabo does not appear to have been acquainted with the history of the
two brothers after their return to Judæa; for otherwise he would not
have omitted to mention the exile of Antipas. This tetrarch, it is
known, went to Rome A. D. 38, to intrigue against his brother, of whom
he was jealous; but he was himself accused by Agrippa of having
intelligence with the Parthians, and was exiled to Lyons, A. D. 39.

[674] C. i. § 21.

[675] C. i. § 6.

[676] C. iii. § 4.

[677] The name Erythræan, or Red Sea, was extended to the whole of the
Arabian Gulf, to the sea which surrounds Arabia to the south, and to a
great part of the Persian Gulf.

[678] The cape Harmozi, or Harmozon, is the cape Kuhestek of Carmania,
Kerman, situated opposite to the promontory Maceta, so called from the
Macæ, an Arabian tribe living in the neighbourhood. This last promontory
is now called Mocandon, and is the “Asaborum promontorium” of Ptolemy.

[679] For a long period the Euphrates has ceased to discharge itself
directly into the Persian Gulf, and now unites with the Tigris above 100
miles from the sea.

[680] The reading followed, but not introduced into the text, by Kramer
is that suggested by the corrections of Letronne and Groskurd, καὶ τὴν
Ἀράβων παραλίαν παραπλεύσαντα καθ’ αὑτόν.

[681] Peludje, at the entrance of the Gulf of Gran.

[682] Heeren (Comment. Gotting. 1793. Vol. xi. pp. 66, 67) supposes that
this city was founded by Chaldæans solely for the purpose of a depôt for
the transit of goods to Babylon, the trade having for a long time been
in the hands of the Phœnicians. He also conjectures that the most
flourishing period of the town was when the Persians, for political
reasons, destroyed the commerce of Babylon, and Gerrha then became the
sole depôt for the maritime commerce of India.

[683] El-Der.

[684] The island Ormus, which before the year 1302 was called Turun or
Gerun, from which the Greeks formed the names Tyros, Tyrine, Gyris,
Gyrine, Ogyris, and Organa. _Gossellin._

[685] Arek.

[686] Besides the islands Tyre and Aradus, there existed even in the
time of Alexander, and near the present Cape Gherd, a city called Sidon
or Sidodona, which was visited by Nearchus, as may be seen in his
Periplus. The Phœnician inhabitants of these places appear to have
afterwards removed to the western side of the Persian Gulf, and to the
islands Bahraïn, to which they gave the names Tylos, or Tyre, and
Aradus. The latter name still exists; it was from this place that the
Phœnicians moved, to establish themselves on the shores of the
Mediterranean, and transferred the name of Sidon, their ancient capital,
and those of Tyre and Aradus, to the new cities which they there
founded. _Gossellin._

[687] As Nearchus in his voyage kept along the coast, this distance must
not be understood as so much to the south of Carmania in the open sea,
but as the distance from Cape Jask, the commencement of Carmania.

[688] In Ptolemy, this island is called Vorochtha, now Vroct, or Kismis,
or Dschisme.

[689] ἡ καυσία, a broad-brimmed Macedonian hat.

[690] Pliny, v. 21, mentions a place which he calls Massica, situated on
the Euphrates, near the mouth of a canal which communicated with the
Tigris near Seleucia. It is now called Masseib-khan, and is at a short
distance above Babylon, on the borders of the desert. I do not know
whether this is the Mæcene of Strabo. _Gossellin._

[691] Strabo here refers to the marsh lakes now called Mesdjed Hosaïn,
Rahémah, Hour, &c. The Chaldæans whom he mentions occupied the country
along the banks of the Euphrates to the coast of the Persian Gulf.

[692] In Cashmir melons are now grown in the same manner. Humboldt
remarks that the same contrivance is adopted in Mexico for the
cultivation of vegetables.

[693] Letronne here proposes to read Erythræan or Ethiopian Sea.

[694] Mimosa Nilotica.

[695] This is remarkable.

[696] Carn Almanazil.

[697] Mariaba was not the name of a city, but the title of a city
acquired by the residence of their sovereigns. “Mariana oppidum,” says
Pliny, vi. 32, “significat dominos omnium.” The capital was called Saba,
now Sabbea; and the country in which it is situated is called Sabieh.

[698] Yemen.

[699] The people of Hadramaüt.

[700] The extent was six times as large as the Delta.

[701] Ailah, or Hœle, or Acaba-Ila.

[702] C. ii. § 30.

[703] The ruins are still visible at Abu-Keyschid.

[704] Deire, or the “neck,” so called from its position on a headland of
the same name, was a town situated on the African shore of the straits
of Bab-el-Mandeb, at their narrowest part.

[705] The Troglodytica extended along the western side of the Arabian
Gulf, from about the 19th degree of latitude to beyond the strait.
According to Pliny, vi. c. 34, Sesostris conducted his army as far as
the promontory Mossylicus, which I think is Cape Mète of the modern
kingdom of Adel. _Gossellin._

[706] The 60 and 200 stadia assigned to the straits refer to the two
passages there to be found. The 60 stadia agree with the distance of the
eastern cape of Bab-el-Mandeb, the ancient Palindromos, to the island
Mehun; and the 200 stadia to the distance of this island from the coast
of Africa. In this last interval are the six islands of which Strabo
speaks.

[707] This passage has sometimes been mistaken to mean, that the region
producing myrrh and cinnamon refers to the southern coast of Arabia. Our
author here speaks of the coast of Africa, which extends from the Strait
of Bab-el-Mandeb to Cape Guardafui. This space in following the coast is
160 or 165 leagues, which are equivalent to 5000 olympic stadia.
_Gossellin._

[708] The long and interesting passage from § 5 to the end of § 20 is
taken from Artemidorus, with the exception of a very few facts, which
our author has taken from other sources, accompanied by observations of
his own. On comparing this fragment of Artemidorus with the extracts of
Agatharchides preserved by Photius, and the description of Arabia and
Troglodytica which Diodorus Siculus (b. iii. 31) says he derived from
Agatharchides, we find an identity, not only in almost all the details,
but also in a great number of the expressions. It is, therefore, evident
that Artemidorus, for this part of his work, scarcely did anything more
than copy Agatharchides. Agatharchides, in his youth, held the situation
of secretary or reader to Heraclides Lembus, who (according to Suidas)
lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philometor. This king died B. C. 146. He
wrote a work on Asia in 10 books, and one on Europe in 49 books; a
geographical work on the Erythræan Sea in 5 books; a treatise on the
Troglodytæ in 5 books; and other works. He wrote in the Attic dialect.
His style, according to Photius, was dignified and perspicuous, and
abounded in sententious passages, which inspired a favourable opinion of
his judgment. In the composition of his speeches he was an imitator of
Thucydides, whom he equalled in dignity, and excelled in clearness. His
rhetorical talents also are highly praised by Photius. He was acquainted
with the language of the Ethiopians, and appears to have been the first
who discovered the true cause of the inundations of the Nile. See Smith,
art. Agatharchides.

[709] Ghela.

[710] Kosseir.

[711] Mouse Harbour, or Harbour of Venus.

[712] Meleagrides.

[713] Bender-el-Kebir.

[714] Zemorget or Zamargat. The “Agathonis Insula” of Ptolemy.

[715] Ptolemy Philadelphus.

[716] About 12 feet.

[717] The whole of this description is so vague that it would be
difficult to recognise the position of the places mentioned by Strabo
without the assistance of scattered notices by other authors. The result
of many comparisons leads me to fix upon 16° 58´ as about the latitude
of Ptolemaïs Epitheras. Mount Taurus was 22 leagues higher up, and the
harbour of the goddess Soteira 12 leagues beyond. _Gossellin._

[718] Letronne translates Πτολεμαῒς πρὸς τῇ θήρᾳ as Ptolemaïs Epitheras;
see c. iv. § 4.

[719] Tacazze, which however does not appear to have such a branch.

[720] These islands are to the north of Arkiko.

[721] Gulf of Matzua.

[722] From the position here assigned to the fortress of Suchus, it is
impossible to place it at Suachem, as is commonly done. _Gossellin._

[723] An island Stratioton is mentioned in Pliny vi. 29, as though he
had read in our author the word Στρατιωτῶν, “the island of soldiers.” As
the island of Strato is named only in this extract from Artemidorus, we
might be tempted to correct the text of Strabo by the text of Pliny. But
as it is not certain that the two authors speak of one and the same
island, it is more prudent to make no change. _Du Theil._

[724] I am not acquainted with this place. The ancients speak only of
one town of the name of Saba (c. iv. § 19). Was there a town Saba which
gave its name to the Sabaïtic Gulf? but the one in question does not
appear to have been situated there. _Gossellin._

[725] B. C. 658.

[726] The modern Senaar corresponds with the territory of the Sembritæ.
See also b. xvii. c. i. § 2. Herodotus, b. ii. 30.

[727] Tacazze.

[728] The Blue Nile.

[729] ἀκροδρύων is expressed in the Periplus of Agatharchides by the
words τὸν καρπὸν π ί π τ ο ν τ α ἀ π ὸ τῶν δένδρων, “the fruit falling
from the trees.” The Periplus adds another tribe, the Hylophagi,
“wood-eaters,” who subsisted on the tender branches of certain trees.
Strabo refers to them, b. xvii. c. ii. § 2, but without giving their
name. The pods of the Lotus Zizyphus are eatable, and may here be meant.

[730] Gymnetæ. Between the Spermophagi and the Creophagi, Agatharchides
places another people called Cynegetæ. Strabo and Pliny do not mention
them; but the sort of life the Gymnetæ, of which they both speak, lead
resembles that of the Cynegetæ or Cynegi of Agatharchides and Diodorus
Siculus (iii. 25). It seems therefore that these two authors, as well as
Strabo and Pliny, meant here to speak of one and the same tribe of
Ethiopian Gymnetæ, which might have been distinguished by the particular
name of Cynegetæ, or Cynegi. _Du Theil._

[731] Above, c. ii. § 37.

[732] Milkers of bitches.

[733] This Berenice was also surnamed Epi Dire, because it was nearer
the promontory Dire than the other cities of the same name. It is
probably Bailul, about 12 leagues to the north-west of Assab.

[734] Assab or As-Sab.

[735] Below, Artemidorus calls it the harbour of Eumenes, § 13.

[736] Agatharchides, as quoted by Diodorus Sic. iii. 27, says expressly
that this bird is the ostrich. May it be the cassowary?

[737] Groskurd supposes the name of this nation has been omitted in the
text, and proposes Acridophagi, or Locust-eaters.

[738] According to Agatharchides and Diodorus Sic. iii. 28, the habit of
living on locusts produced a kind of winged louse in the interior of the
body; but this is denied by Niebuhr.

[739] Above, § 4.

[740] Pliny, xiii. 17; xv. 13.

[741] Perhaps Zeila. Strabo is here describing the coast of the modern
kingdom of Adel.

[742] The Periplus of the Erythræan Sea indicates on this coast a place
called Niloptolemæum, which appears to correspond with the mouth of the
river Pedra. _Gossellin._

[743] Phleus schæoris. _Linn._

[744] Daphnus Parvus of the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea.

[745] Now Fellis or Fel, which signifies Elephant in Arabic.

[746] I think that there is something here omitted and wanting in the
text of Strabo, as he seems to make Artemidorus say, that a little after
Mount Elephas we find the Horn, or the Cape of the South; for this last
appellation appears to have been applied to Cape Guardafui. But this
cape, from the time of Philadelphus, and consequently before the period
in which Artemidorus wrote, was known by the name of the Promontory of
the Aromatics; this author therefore could not have confounded it with
the Southern Horn. I have already come to the conclusion that the
Southern Horn corresponds with the Southern Cape of Bandel-caus, where
commences the desert coast of Ajan, the ancient Azania, respecting which
Artemidorus confesses that he was unable to procure any information. It
therefore appears to me, that the description which this author must
have given of the coast of Africa, from Mount Elephas to the Southern
Horn, and which Strabo should have copied, is now wanting in the text.
This omission seems to have been noticed by some copyist, who thought to
supply it by naming again, to the south of Mount Elephas, the altars of
Pytholaus, Lichas, Pythangelus, and Leon, which Artemidorus had already
spoken of, and which navigators meet with on the west, and before
arriving at Mount Elephas. _Gossellin._

[747] The text of this paragraph is corrupt; but the reading followed is
that suggested in a note by Kramer.

[748] λέων μύρμηξ. Agatharchides calls them μυρμηκολέων, and Ælian
simply μύρμηξ. What animal is intended by the name is uncertain. In b.
xv. c. i. §44, the marmot seems to be described.

[749] What the words ἐπὶ σειρὰν mean is doubtful. Casaubon supposes that
some words are wanting in the text; Groskurd proposes to read ἀπὸ
κεφαλῆς ἐπὶ οὐρὰν, “from the head to the tail.”

[750] The passage is corrupt, and some words are wanting to complete the
sense. Groskurd proposes, “a span less.”

[751] Pliny, viii. 29.

[752] Ancient authors, under the name of Sphinx, generally describe the
ape, _Simia troglodyte_ of Gmelin. _Du Theil._

[753] Simia innuus.

[754] Simia cepus.

[755] The spotted hyæna.

[756] See b. xv. c. 1, §45.

[757] The juice of the berries is a strong purge.

[758] Above, § 5.

[759] The bay of Heroopolis is the modern bay of Suez. In the text
“Ælanitic bay,” which is an error of the author or of the copyist.

[760] An altar to Poseidon (Neptune), which was erected by Aristo, whom
one of the Ptolemies had sent to explore the Arabian Gulf.

[761] Φοινικών, a grove of palm trees, is taken as a proper name by
Diodorus Siculus, b. iii. 41.

[762] Sheduan. The “Saspirene insula” of Ptolemy.

[763] Ras Mahomet, which terminates the south of the peninsula formed by
the two bays, the Ælanitic running up to Petra, and that of Heroopolis
running up to Suez. The meaning of Strabo seems to be, that this cape is
in a direction due south of Petra and Palestine.

[764] There is a wide difference of opinion among geographers with
regard to the position of this important tribe in the modern map of
Arabia. See Smith, art. Minæi.

[765] The Maraneitæ appear to me to be the same people whom other
geographers call Pharanitæ, and who received their name from their
proximity to Cape Pharan, now Ras Mahomet. _Gossellin._

[766] Diodorus Siculus, iii. § 41, following Agatharchides, narrates the
fact with greater precision. The Garindæi took advantage of the absence
of the greater part of the Maraneitæ, and put to death those that
remained. They then laid in wait for and massacred all those who were
returning from the festival.

[767] Gulf of Akaba.

[768] “Light vessels.” Diodorus Sic.

[769] Thamud, formerly occupied by the ancient Thamudeni.

[770] Shaur and Iobab?

[771] Gibel Seik, Gibel el Hawene, and Gibel Hester.

[772] The harbour of Charmothas seems to be the ancient Iambo, the
“Iambia” of Ptolemy, which now, from the accumulation of soil, is more
than a day’s journey into the interior of the country. It is in a
fertile territory. The Arabs call it Iambo el Nakel, or Iambo of Palm
Trees, to distinguish it from the new Iambo situated on an arid soil on
the sea-coast. Al Charm, in Arabic, signifies a fissure or opening in
the mountains. It seems as if the Greeks had formed the name Charmothas
from this word, mistaking the epithet given to the narrow entrance of
the harbour of Iambo for the name of the town itself. _Gossellin._

[773] The Debæ occupied Sockia. The river which flows through the
country is called Bætius by Ptolemy.

[774] τὰ πλείω is Kramer’s correction for παλαιὰ.

[775] Some are called by Diodorus Siculus, iii. 44, and Agatharchides,
Asilæi and Casandres or Gasandres.

[776] Instead of εὔομβρος, Groskurd reads πάμφορος, “produces
everything,” following the fragments the Agatharchides and Diodorus Sic.
b. iii 44.

[777] Groskurd’s correction, σιδήρου for ἀργύρου, in the text, is
adopted. But the passage is probably corrupt, and after σιδήρου we may
read καὶ δεκαπλάσιον τοῦ ἀργύρου, “for ten times the quantity of
silver,” according to Bochart, and approved by Kramer.

[778] The precise boundaries of Sabæa it is impossible to ascertain. The
area we have presumed is comprised within the _Arabian Sea_ W., the
_Persian Gulf_ E., the _Indian Ocean_ S., and an irregular line skirting
the desert, and running up in a narrow point to Idumæa N. See Smith,
Dict. of Greek and Roman Geography, art. Saba.

Milton appears to have been acquainted with the following passage from
Diodorus Siculus, b. iii. 46, descriptive of Sabæa: “It is impossible to
enumerate the peculiarities and nature of all these trees and plants, on
account of the surpassing variety and body of perfume which fall upon
and excite the senses, in a manner divine and beyond description. The
mariner, as he sails even at a distance along the coast, has his share
of enjoyment; for when the breezes of spring blow from off the land, the
fragrance of the trees and shrubs is carried down to the shore; nor is
it of the kind with which we are acquainted, proceeding from old and
stored aromatics, but fresh and in full perfection from new-blown
flowers, striking the inmost sense.”

[779] The same as Saba; see c. iv. § 2.

[780] The above details derived from Artemidorus, and by him from
Agatharchides, would not be found in Eratosthenes, who lived before the
time of Agatharchides.

[781] We must not confound this measure with the 5000 stadia mentioned
in c. iv. § 4. The distance here in question is that taken along the
southern coast of Arabia from the straits to Kesem, the ancient Cane,
through which passes now, as in former times, the greater part of the
perfumes collected in Hadramaut and Seger. But this harbour is about the
middle, and not at the extremity of the cinnamon-bearing country.
_Gossellin._

[782] Cardinal Noris places these facts in the year of Rome 730, and
quotes, besides Strabo, the historian Josephus. In following the last
author, the Cardinal places the death of Obodas in the prefecture of C.
Sentius Saturninus, about the year of Rome 740. After the death of
Obodas, Æneas, afterwards called Aretas, took possession of the kingdom
of the Nabatæans. Upon this Syllæus, the late king’s minister, went to
Rome, and declared before Augustus that Æneas, or Aretas, had no right
to the kingdom. How this corrupt minister was punished by Augustus may
be seen in Nicolas of Damascus and in Josephus. This Aretas must have
reigned for a long time, to at least the last years of Tiberius. _Du
Theil._ “The interest attaching to this expedition, which promises so
much for the elucidation of the classical geography of Arabia, has
hitherto served only still further to perplex it.” The author of the
article Marsyabæ in _Smith’s Dict. of Greek and Roman Geography_, where
the subject is discussed at some length.

[783] Called also Arsinoë, b. xvii. c. i. § 25. It was near Heroopolis,
or Suez.

[784] Koft.

[785] This name is variously written in manuscripts. If Negra be
adopted, as by Letronne, it is not the same town as the city of the
Negrani above mentioned, which was in the interior; but, as Kramer
observes, “Mire corrupta est hæc ultima libri pars.”

[786] B. xvi. c. iv. § 2.

[787] See above, § 2.

[788] This reminds us of the prophet Elijah and John the Baptist.

[789] Od. iv. 84.

[790] This subject was discussed in b. i. c. ii. § 34.

[791] B. xvi. c. iv, § 2 and § 14.

[792] Genadil.

[793] Assouan.

[794] Thus Eratosthenes calculated, in following the windings of the
Nile, 12,900 stadia, which is 7900 stadia more than he calculated in a
straight line, as he made the distance between the same points (Meroë
and Syene, b. ii. c. v. § 7) to be 5000 stadia. M. Falconer suspects
that there is an error in the text; but the error lies further off. I
believe that it is attributable to Eratosthenes himself, and that that
geographer did nothing more than convert the days’ marches into stadia.
According to Pliny, Timosthenes, commander of the fleet of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, and consequently anterior to Eratosthenes, said that from
Syene to Meroë was a march of 60 days; and this statement agrees
tolerably well with that of Herodotus, who calculated 56 days’ march
between Elephantina and Meroë, besides a small distance the extent of
which he does not state.

Procopius, a learned writer, estimates a day’s march at 210 stadia; and
employment of this value, in the whole course of his history, proves
that it was generally adopted. Now, if we multiply 60 by 210, we shall
have 12,600 stadia, and dividing 12,900 by 60, we have 215 stadia, or
nearly the amount of a day’s march according to Procopius. I am
therefore of opinion that Eratosthenes did nothing more than multiply
210 or 215 by the number of 60 days, furnished by Timosthenes; and as
the excessive length of 12,900 stadia could not agree with the 5000
stadia, which he had calculated in a straight line for the same
interval, he imagined this great difference arose from the excessive
winding course of the Nile; consequently he supposed the Nile to change
frequently the direction of its course.

This opinion had its influence in the construction of Ptolemy’s map,
which presents to us nearly all the inflexions which Eratosthenes
imagined; in calculating the intervals of positions assigned by Ptolemy
along the river, we find a total of 1260 minutes; and adding about 1/6
for the small windings, we have a total of 1470 minutes, which are equal
to 12,400 stadia of the module (700 to the degree) adopted by that
geographer.

According to this hypothesis, the distance in Strabo will be thus
divided: Setting out from Meroë, the Nile runs,

                                               days.
   1. 2700 stadia to the north                 12·8
   2. 3700 to the S. and S. W.                 17·6
   3. 5300 to the N. 1/4 E.                    25
   4. 1200 to the N.                            5·7
                                              —————
                                               61·1

which nearly corresponds with the account of Timosthenes. The number of
days corresponds tolerably well with the distance given by the explorers
sent by Nero for the discovery of Meroë: they reported the distance to
be 873 miles. If we divide this number by 60, we shall have for the
day’s mean march 14·55 Roman miles, or 11·64 geographical miles, which
is in fact the day’s mean march, according to Major Rennell. _Letronne._

In carefully measuring, upon a large map of Egypt in 47 sheets, the
course of the Nile through all its windings, and with the compass opened
to 1000 metres, I find—

                                                                metres.
   From the middle of Syene to Luxor in the ancient territory
     of Thebes                                                  218,900
   From Luxor to Becous situated at the point of the Delta      727,500
   From Becous following the Damietta branch to that city       234,000
                                                              —————————
                                                              1,180,400

This measure reduced to mean degrees of the earth equals 637° 25´, and
represents 5312 stadia of 500 (to the degree). I certainly did not
expect to find such an agreement between the new and the ancient
measures. The periodic rising of the Nile, I think, must have produced,
since the time of Eratosthenes, some partial changes in the windings of
the river; but we must acknowledge that these changes, for greater or
for less, compensate one another on the whole.

We observe, moreover, as I have already often observed, that the use of
the stadium of 500 to the degree is anterior to the Alexandrine school;
for at the time of Eratosthenes the stadium of 700 was more particularly
made use of in Egypt. _Gossellin._

[795] Although generally described as an island, it was, like
Mesopotamia, a district included between rivers: the city Meroë was
situated in lat. 16° 44´.

[796] Tacazze.

[797] Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue river.

[798] See b. xvi. c. iv. § 8, and Herod. ii. 30, who calls the Sembritæ,
Automoloi, that is, persons who had voluntarily quitted their abode.

[799] The Nile valley was parcelled out into a number of cantons,
varying in size and number. Each of these cantons was called a nome
(νομὸς) by the Greeks, “præfectura oppidorum” by the Romans. Each had
its civil governor, the Nomarch, who collected the crown revenues, and
presided in the local capital and chief court of justice. Each nome too
had its separate priesthood, its temple, chief and inferior towns, its
magistrates, registration and peculiar creed, ceremonies and customs;
and each was apparently independent of every other nome. At certain
seasons, delegates from the various cantons met in the palace of the
Labyrinth, for consultation on public affairs (b. xvii. c. i. § 37).
According to Diodorus, the nomes date from Sesostris. But they did not
originate from that monarch, but emanated probably from the distinctions
of animal worship; and the extent of the local worship probably
determined the boundary of the nome. Thus in the nome of Thebaïs, where
the ram-headed deity was worshipped, the sheep was sacred, the goat was
eaten and sacrificed: in that of Mendes, where the goat was worshipped,
the sheep was a victim and an article of food. Again, in the nome of
Ombos, divine honours were paid to the crocodile: in that of Tentyra, it
was hunted and abominated: and between Ombos and Tentyra there existed
an internecine feud.

   Ardet adhuc Ombos et Tentyra: summus utrinque
   Inde furor vulgo, quod numina vicinorum
   Odit uterque locus, cum solos credat habendos
   Esse deos, quos ipse colit.

   Juv. xv. 35.

The extent and number of the nomes cannot be ascertained. They probably
varied with the political state of Egypt. See _Smith_, art. Ægyptus.

[800] See b. xvi. c. ii. § 24.

[801] In the text ὀστράκινα πορθμεῖα “earthenware ferry boats.” The
translation is not literal, but a paraphrase.

   Hac sævit rabie imbelle et inutile vulgus
   Parvula fictilibus solitum dare vela phaselis,
   Et brevibus pictæ remis incumbere testæ.

   Juv. xv. 126.

[802] In the text κειρίᾳ ψυχομένῃ ἐπὶ μῆκος, which is evidently corrupt.
Kramer proposes to read ἀναπτυσσομένῃ or ἀνεπτυγμένῃ, and Groskurd reads
αὐξομένῃ for ψυχομένῃ “lengthened out.” Alii alia proposuerunt,
infelicia omnia.

[803] The Mediterranean.

[804] Od. iv. 581.

[805] ἐγὼ γοῦν ἀπορούμενος ἀντιγράφων εἰς τὴν ἀντιβολὴν ἐκ θατέρου
θάτερον ἀντέβαλον. Casaubon, who narrates a similar circumstance which
occurred to himself, thus explains the passage: Our author, being in
want of codices to correct imperfections in his own, and to form a
complete copy, availed himself of another author whose account was
identical, being either, as he says, the original or a transcript from
the first.

[806] The words “Sostratus of Cnidus, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods
preservers,” are rejected by Kramer as being introduced from the margin.

[807] Od. xvii. 266.

[808] Some word, such as κατοικίαι, seems here to be wanting; ὁδοὶ,
which some commentators suppose to be here understood, would be
unsuitable to the passage, nor would it convey a proper meaning.
_Kramer._

[809] The word ἐραστής must be here understood, and not υἱὸς.
_Groskurd._

[810] The celebrated general of Mithridates.

[811] See b. xii. c. i. § 2.

[812] He was prevented from carrying on this war by the senate. See b.
xii. c. iii. § 34.

[813] The elder sister of Cleopatra.

[814] Six months after.

[815] About B. C. 49.

[816] B. ix. c. v. § 6.

[817] I have adopted the reading, ἀπολιτικὸν, “not understanding or
ill-adapted for the duties of citizens,” suggested by Kramer.

[818] Od. iv. 481.

[819] No longer existing.

[820] Akabet el Kebira or Marsa Sollom.

[821] Baretoun, or Berek-Marsa. “Alexander, after passing 1600 stadia
through that part of the desert where water was to be found to
Parætonium, then turned inland to visit the oracle of Ammon.” _Arrian_,
b. iii. § 3.

[822] “Wines which have been very carefully prepared with sea-water
never cause head-aches.” _Athenæus_, b. i. c. i. 59, p. 54. Bohn’s
Classical Library.

[823] Cape Deras.

[824] The exact site is not ascertained, but it was not far from
Aboukir.

[825] “Hellanicus says that the vine was first discovered in Plinthine,
a city of Egypt,” and that for those “who, on account of their poverty,
could not get wine, there was introduced a custom of drinking beer made
of barley.” _Athenæus_, b. i. c. i. 61, p. 56. Bohn’s Classical Library.

[826] “The Mareotic wine is erroneously stated by Athenæus (p. 55.
Bohn’s Classical Library) to have obtained its name from a fountain
called Marea. The fountain and town derived their name from Maro, who
was one of the companions of Bacchus.” The wine is praised by Horace,
Odes I. xxxvii. 14:

   Mentemque lymphatam Mareotico
   Redegit in veros timores.

Virgil, Geor. ii. 91, calls a vine by this name:

   Sunt Thasiæ vites, sunt et Mareotides albæ.

[827] The Papyrus.

[828] “There is also the ciborium. Hegesander the Delphian says that
Euphorion the poet, when supping with Prytanis, his host, exhibited to
him some ciboria, which appeared to be made in a most exquisite and
costly manner. Didymus says that it is a kind of drinking-cup, and
perhaps it may be the same as that which is called scyphium, which
derives its name from being contracted to a narrow space at the bottom,
like the Egyptian ciboria.” _Athenæus_, b. xi. § 54, p. 761. Bohn’s
Classical Library.

[829] The two kinds known at present are the Egyptian and the Syracusan,
which, according to Professor Parlatori, have the same general
appearance, but differ in the number of flower-lobes.

[830] That is, the juice was extracted for its sugar; see b. xvi. c. ii.
§ 41, and Pliny, xiii. 12.

[831] Od. iv. 228.

[832] The Canobic mouth was situated in the bay of Aboukir; the
Bolbitine is the Rosetta mouth; the Sebennytic is the Burlos mouth; the
Phatnitic, the Damietta mouth; the Mendesian is that at Dibeh; the
Tanitic, that at Omm. Faregeh; the Pelusiac, that at Terraneh.

[833] The watch-tower of Perseus was at the western end of the Delta,
according to Herodotus, ii. 15.

[834] The horned Pan.

[835] The people of Busiris worshipped Isis, and at one epoch, according
to Hellenic tradition, sacrificed red men, who came over the sea, i. e.
the nomades of Syria and Arabia.

[836] Od. iv. 481.

[837] In this nome tradition affirmed that the Hebrew legislator was
born and educated.

[838] καὶ is omitted in the translation, as Groskurd proposes.

[839] Memphis was the residence of the Pharaohs, who succeeded
Psammitichus, B. C. 616. The Memphite Nome rose into importance on the
decline of the kingdom of Thebaïs, and was itself in turn eclipsed by
the Hellenic kingdom of Alexandria. The village of Mitranieh, half
concealed in a grove of palm trees, about ten miles south of Gizeh,
marks the site of the ancient Memphis. The successive conquerors of the
land, indeed, have used its ruins as a stone quarry, so that its exact
situation has been a subject of dispute. Major Rennell, however, brings
incontestable evidence of the correspondence of Mitranieh with Memphis.
Its remains extend over many hundred acres of ground, which are covered
with blocks of granite, broken obelisks, columns, and colossal statues.
The principal mound corresponds probably with the area of the great
temple of Ptah. _Smith._

[840] The Egyptians say that the ox Mneyis is sacred to the sun, and
that Apis is dedicated to the moon. Ælian de Nat. Animal. ii. 11.

[841] Saïs stood in lat. 30° 4′ N., on the right bank of the Canopic arm
of the Nile. The site of the ancient city is determined not only by the
appellation of the modern town Sa-el-Hadjar, which occupies a portion of
its area, but also by mounds of ruin corresponding in extent to the
importance of Saïs, at least, under the later Pharaohs. The city was
artificially raised high above the level of the Delta to be out of the
reach of the inundations of the Nile, and served as a landmark to all
who ascended the arms of the river, from the Mediterranean to Memphis.
Its ruins have been very imperfectly explored, yet traces have been
found of the lake on which the mysteries of Isis were performed, as well
as of the temple of Neith (Athene) and the necropolis of the Saïte
kings. The wall of unburnt brick which surrounded the principal
buildings of the city was 70 feet thick, and probably, therefore, at
least 100 feet high. It enclosed an area 2325 feet in length by 1960 in
breadth. Beyond this enclosure were also two large cemeteries, one for
the citizens generally, and the other reserved for the nobles and
priests of the higher orders.

Saïs was one of the sacred cities of Egypt: its principal deities were
Neith, who gave oracles there, and Isis. The mysteries of the latter
were celebrated with unusual pomp on the evening of the Feast of Lamps.
Herodotus (ii. 59) terms this festival the third of the great feasts in
the Egyptian calendar. It was held by night; and every one intending to
be present at the sacrifices was required to light a number of lamps in
the open air around his house. At what season of the year the feast of
burning lamps was celebrated, Herodotus knew, but deemed it wrong to
tell (ii. 62); it was, however, probably at either the vernal or
autumnal equinox, since it apparently had reference to one of the
capital revolutions in the solar course. An inscription, in the temple
of Neith, declared her to be the Mother of the Sun. It ran thus, “I am
the things that have been, and that are, and that will be; no one has
uncovered my skirts; the fruit which I brought forth became the Sun.” It
is probable, accordingly, that the kindling of the lamps referred to
Neith, as the author of light. On the same night, apparently, were
performed what the Egyptians designated as the “Mysteries of Isis.” Saïs
was one of the supposed places of interment of Osiris, for that is
evidently the deity whom Herodotus will not name (ii. 171), when he says
that there is a burial-place of _him_ at Saïs in the temple of Athene.
The mysteries were symbolical representations of the sufferings of
Osiris, especially his dismemberment by Typhon. They were exhibited on
the lake behind the temple of Neith. Portions of the lake may be still
discerned near the hamlet Sa-el-Hadjar. _Smith, Dict. of Greek and Roman
Geography, Art._ Saïs.

[842] The evil or destroying genius.

[843] Suez.

[844] Pharaoh Necho, under whom and in the execution of the work 120,000
labourers perished. Herod. ii. 158.

[845] κλειστὸν ἐποίησαν τὸν Εὔριπον, “closed the Euripus.” Diodorus
Siculus, i. 33, thus speaks of this same work. “Darius the Persian left
the canal unfinished, as he was informed by some persons, that by
cutting through the isthmus he would be the cause of inundating Egypt;
for they pointed out to him that the Red Sea was higher than the level
of Egypt. The second Ptolemy afterwards completed the canal, and in the
most convenient part constructed an artfully contrived barrier,
(διάφραγμα,) which he could open when he liked for the passage of
vessels, and quickly close again, the operation being easily performed.”

The immediate communication therefore between the sea and the canal was
cut off by a lock; and as there must have been two, there would be a
flux and reflux of water between them on the passage of vessels. This
probably suggested to our author the word Euripus, and is to be
understood as applying to that portion of the canal included between the
locks. By the word Euripus is generally understood the channel between
Negropont and the mainland, which is subject to an ebb and flow of the
sea. The storing up of water, and the distribution of it for the
purposes of irrigation, was no doubt well known to the Egyptians.
Diodorus, b. i. 19, ascribes to Osiris the invention. “Osiris confined
the Nile by embankments on both sides, so that at the period of its
rising it might not inconveniently spread over the country, but that, by
gates (διὰ θυρῶν) adapted for the purpose, the stream might be gently
discharged as occasion required.

[846] B. i. c. i. § 20.

[847] Bubastis or Artemis, Diana. Herod. ii. 59, 67, 137.

[848] Among those no doubt now at Rome.

[849] This description is illustrated by the remains of the great temple
at Philæ, dedicated to Ammon Osiris.

[850] οὐδὲ γραφικόν. These words have been understood by some writers as
signifying that there were no paintings, but Letronne has clearly shown
that they do not convey this meaning.

[851] George (Syncellus, or companion of the Patriarch), a writer of the
eighth century, and who had the reputation of being well versed in
history, says that “Ptolemy Philadelphus collected all the writings of
Greeks, Chaldæans, Egyptians, and Romans, and had such of them as were
not Greek translated into that language, and deposited 100,000 volumes
at Alexandria. M. Letronne is disposed to think that Hipparchus,
Eratosthenes, Ptolemy, and others borrowed from these sources.

[852] “Sesoosis (Sesostris) raised two obelisks of hard stone, 120
cubits in height, on which were inscribed the greatness of his power,
the amount of his revenue, and the number of the nations which he had
conquered. At Memphis, in the temple of Vulcan, he erected monolithe
images of himself and his wife, 30 cubits in height, and images of his
sons, 20 cubits in height,” in memory of his escape from fire when his
brother Armais attempted to burn him with his wife and children. Diod.
Sic. i. 57.

[853] Probably the statue of Venus bore a crescent on the forehead.

[854] We have reason to be surprised that Strabo, who had seen the
pyramids, has said so little concerning them. Herodotus and Diodorus
Siculus enter into more particulars, and in general are more exact. Some
idea of the immense labour required may be obtained from considerations
such as follow:—

The base and height being given, we find for the solid contents—

                              cubic yards.
   1. of the great pyramid      2,864,000
   2. of Chephren               2,056,000
   3. of Mycerinus                211,000

So that if a wall of (three metres) about 9-1/4 feet in height, and a
foot in thickness, were built with the materials of these pyramids, we
should have a wall—

                                           miles.
   1. from the great pyramid in length      1626
   2. from Chephren or Cheops               1167
   3. from Mycerinus                         117

The stones, therefore, of the three pyramids would form such a wall 2910
miles in length, or one sufficient to reach from Alexandreia to the
coast of Guinea. _Letronne._

[855] This is a palpable error, and greater than that of Herodotus, who
makes the base equal to the height. The ratio of the height to the base
in the great pyramid was as 0·627 to 1; and in the second, as 0·640 to
1. Diodorus approaches nearest of all to the truth, as he makes this
ratio to be as 6 to 7 or as 0·817 to 1. Strabo should rather have said,
“the sides are rather greater than the height;” but all that he says
respecting the pyramids is vague and inexact.

[856] ἐν ὕψει μέσως πως μιᾶς τῶν πλευρῶν· μιᾶς is adopted, although not
introduced into the text, by Kramer; μέσως πως is connected with ἐν
ὕψει, and not with τῶν πλευρῶν, in the sense of “moderately,” in which
it is also used in b. xi. c. ii. § 18. “The kings who succeeded to the
possession of the country, (μέσως ἔπραττον) were moderately successful.”
The moveable stone has been taken away, and the aperture is at most at
about one-twelfth the whole height of the pyramid from its base.

[857] Chembes the Memphite built the largest of the three pyramids,
which are reckoned among the seven most remarkable works in the world.
They are situated by the side of Libya, distant 120 stadia from Memphis,
and 45 from the Nile. These works, by their size and by the artifice and
labour employed in their construction, strike the beholder with
astonishment and wonder. The base of the largest, the plan of which is
quadrilateral, is seven plethra on each side; the height is more than
six plethra; the pyramid gradually contracts towards the top, of which
each side measures six cubits, and the whole is built of hard stone. Its
construction must have been accompanied with great difficulty, but its
permanence will be eternal; for although, it is said, not less than a
thousand years have passed away to our day (some even say more than 3400
years) since they were built, yet the stones still remain, preserving
their original position, and their whole arrangement uninjured by time.
The stone is said to have come from a great distance in Arabia, and the
process of building was carried on by raising mounds of earth; for at
that period no machines had been invented. But it is most marvellous
that although such an immense undertaking has been completed, and the
whole country around is composed of sand, not a single trace remains of
the mounds raised, nor of the fragments of stone broken off by the
workmen: indeed the pyramids do not seem to have been raised by the
gradual labour of man, but to have been placed by some divine hand in a
mass, perfectly formed, down upon the surrounding sands. Some Egyptians
undertake to narrate wondrous stories respecting them, such, for
instance, that the mounds above-mentioned were composed of salt and
nitre, which melted away upon the rising of the river, and completely
disappeared without the intervention of human labour. But this cannot be
true, for the same number of hands which constructed the mounds would be
able to reduce them again to their former state; and 360,000 men, it is
said, were employed in the undertaking. The whole was completed in a
little less than twenty years.

On the death of this king, he was succeeded by his brother Chephren, who
reigned 56 years. According to some writers, it was not a brother, but a
son, named Chabryis, who was his successor. But all agree that the
successor, whoever he was, desired to imitate his predecessor’s
conception, and built the second pyramid, which resembled the first in
its artificial construction, but was inferior to it in size, the sides
of the base being a stadium each in length.

On the greater pyramid is an inscription which states the amount
expended on herbs and radishes for the workmen, and it informs us that
1600 talents were paid for this purpose.

The lesser pyramid bears no inscription, and it has an ascent formed in
it through an opening in one of the sides. But although the kings built
these pyramids for their own tombs, yet it has so happened that none of
them have ever been buried in them. For the population, in consequence
of the misery to which these works exposed them, and of the cruelty and
tyranny of the kings, were incensed against them as the causes of their
sufferings; and moreover threatened to tear their bodies in pieces, and
to cast them out with insult from their place of burial. Every king
therefore, on the approach of death, enjoined his relations to bury his
body secretly in a place undistinguished by marks.

These were succeeded by king Mycerinus, (whom some call Mecherinus,) son
of the king who built the first pyramid. He designed to build a third,
but died before he accomplished it. Each side of the base of this
pyramid was three plethra in length, and fifteen tiers of the building
were raised of black stone like the Thebaic stone, but the rest was
filled up with a stone resembling that of the other pyramids. This work
is inferior to the two former in size, but far surpasses them in
artificial construction and in the expensiveness of the stone. On its
northern side the name of Mycerinus is inscribed, as the person who
caused it to be built. He is said to have held in abhorrence the cruelty
of his predecessors, and to have been ambitious of leading a just life,
and beneficial to his subjects. He performed many actions by which he
called forth the affection of his people towards him; and among others
he expended a great sum of money in public causes, rewarding the judges
who delivered upright judgments, which was not commonly the case.

There are three other pyramids, the sides of which are two plethra in
length; in workmanship they entirely resemble the others, except in
magnitude. These pyramids, it is said, were built by the three
before-mentioned kings in honour of their own wives. These works by
universal consent are the most remarkable in Egypt, not only in their
ponderous construction, but also in the art displayed. We ought, we are
told, to admire more the architects than the kings, who supplied the
means, for the architects brought their designs to completion by force
of mind and the influence of an honourable ambition, but the kings by
the power of that wealth which was their portion, or by injuries
inflicted on others. There is no agreement whatever, either between the
natives of the country or between authors, respecting the pyramids; for
some assert that the kings before mentioned built them, others that they
were not the builders, but that Armæus built the first and largest;
Amasis, the second; and Inaro, the third: but this last is said by some
to be the burial-place of Rhodopis, a courtesan, whose lovers were
certain governors of nomes, who from affection towards her undertook
this great work, and completed at their common charge. Diodorus Siculus,
b. i. 63, 64.

[858] Niebuhr says, that in these stones are found small petrified
substances in the form of lentils, which appear to be of the same kind
of shell of which he collected several at Bushir. Clarke also says, that
at the base of the pyramids a variety of calcareous stone is found in
detached masses, exactly such as Strabo has described, and appear to be
the petrified remains of some unknown animal. Forskal calls them
“testacea fossilia kakiensia.” Diodorus, as quoted above, says that
there are no vestiges of fragments.

[859] The translation follows Letronne’s correction, ἐπέοικε for ἀπέοικε.

[860] In the text λίθου πωρείας, Groskurd reads πωρίνου, which word
occurs in Herod. v. 62, and translates it “tufstein.”

[861] No passage is to be found in his Geography to this effect, it has
either been lost from the text, or existed in his other works.

[862] “It is said that the captives from Babylon revolted from the king
(Sesostris), being unable to endure the sufferings to which they were
exposed in the public works. They seized upon a strong place on the
banks of the river, and maintained for some time a contest with the
Egyptians, destroying the neighbouring district. At last, having
obtained security from molestation, they made a regular settlement of
the place, and called it Babylon, after their native city. Under similar
circumstances, it is said, a place received the name of Troy which still
exists on the banks of the Nile. For Menelaus, on his return from Troy
with captives, came to Egypt. The Trojan captives revolted, took up a
position, and carried on a war, until having obtained safety for
themselves by treaty, they founded a city bearing the name of their
native place.” I am aware that Ctesias gives a different account of
these cities, and says that some of the soldiers who accompanied
Semiramis in her invasion of Egypt founded these cities, and gave to
them the names of their native cities. Diod. Sic. i. 56.

[863] This passage presents great difficulties. Kramer expresses himself
dissatisfied with any explanation hitherto given. Und so dass der Kanal
zwei Mündungen hat, zwischen welche ein Theil der Insel seitwärts
anfält. _Groskurd._

[864] Book i. c. iii. § 4.

[865] Herod. ii. 148; Diod. i. 66. See below, § 42.

[866] The translator adopts Kramer’s suggestion, of reading εἰσβλέποντα
for ἐκπίπτοντα.

[867] The founder, according to Diodorus Siculus, was Mendes or Marrus.
B. i. 61.

[868] Bekneseh.

[869] This fish, a species of sturgeon, received its name from the shape
of the head (sharp-pointed), and was said to have been produced from the
blood of the wounded Osiris. Ælian. Hist. Animal. x. 46.

[870] Eshmoon.

[871] Babout.

[872] The ruins are supposed to be at the modern hamlet of Mensieh.

[873] ὁλόλιθον, probably an interpolation. _Kramer._

[874] Il. i. 528.

[875] Hu.

[876] Dendera.

[877] Keft.

[878] The ruins are situated lat. 23° 56’ N., and about 35° 34’ E.

[879] After σταθμοὺς, in the text, follows ὥσπερ τοὶς ἐμπορίοις ὁδεύμασι
καὶ διὰ τῶν καμήλων, which Kramer considers to be an interpolation.
Groskurd corrects, and reads σταθμοὺς προσφόρους τοῖς ἐμπόροις ὁδεύουσι
καὶ πεζῇ καὶ διὰ τῶν καμήλων, “stations for the service of travellers on
foot and on camels.”

[880] Near old Kosseir; the “Veneris Portus” of Pliny. It was founded by
Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. 274. The Greek name may signify, “Harbour of
the Mouse,” but more probably it means the “Harbour of the Mussel,”
(μύειν, to close, e. g. the shell,) since on the neighbouring coast the
pearl-mussel is collected in large quantities. It is uncertain whether
the ruins at the village of Abuschaar, represent the site of the ancient
Myos Hormus. See Smith’s Dict., art. _Myos Hormus_.

[881] Il. ix. 383.

[882] Il. ix. 381.

[883] For θήκαις, “tombs,” in the text, Kramer is of opinion that we
should read Θήβαις, Thebes, which is also the translation of the passage
by Guarini.

[884] The meaning of the passage is clear, and can be understood, as
critics have already explained, only as implying the intercalation of a
366th day every fourth year. Some have asserted that Julius Cæsar
adopted this method of intercalating a day from the civil practice of
the Alexandrines; others, on the contrary, appear disposed to believe
that J. Cæsar was the first to give an idea of it, according to the
advice of Sosigenes. There is truth and error in both these opinions.

On the one hand, it is certain that Strabo, who visited Egypt a short
time after the conquest of the country by the Romans, would not have
omitted to attribute to them the institution of this year, if it really
belonged to them. So far from doing so, he says (above, § 29)
distinctly, that this method of intercalation was known and practised by
the priests of Heliopolis and Thebes. Diodorus Siculus, who visited
Egypt just at the time of the first arrival of the Romans, gives the
same account as Strabo. Can we therefore believe that the Egyptians
before this period were ignorant of the bissextile intercalation?

On the other hand, it is not less certain that this method of
intercalation was only introduced into civil use at Alexandria from the
time of Julius Cæsar: before this period, the incomplete year of 365
days was adopted throughout the whole of Egypt, as is attested by a host
of authorities, and confirmed by the date of the Rosetta stone, which
only applies to this method of reckoning. Hence we see (I.) that Julius
Cæsar really obtained the idea of a fixed year of 365-1/4 days from the
Egyptians, where it was employed for scientific or religious purposes
only, whilst the incomplete year was the vulgar and common year; (II.)
that he made this fixed year the common year, both among the Romans and
Alexandrines, who were a people most readily disposed to adopt foreign
innovations. It is, however, probable that the rest of Egypt preserved
the ancient use of the incomplete year.

[885] Strabo, I think, is the only author who places Crocodilopolis and
Aphroditopolis in this part of Egypt. _Letronne._

[886] For καὶ τῶν ἡμερῶν of the text, Casaubon reads τεκμηρίων, “signs.”
Coray proposes καὶ μέτρων, “measures.” The expression in the text is
obscure, and the translation is a conjecture of the meaning.

[887] This was the general opinion of antiquity, and was reproduced by
Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and others; in short, by all the
Alexandrine school.

At the time of Eratosthenes, the obliquity of the ecliptic was 23° 45’
17”. Syene was therefore 20’ 6” from being exactly under the tropic; for
24° 5’ 23” (latitude of Syene)—23° 45’ 17” = 20’ 6”. This would be the
distance of the centre of the sun from the zenith of Syene; whence it
follows that the northern limb of the sun was about 5’ from it.

In the time of Strabo, the obliquity was only 23° 42’ 22”; the
difference between the zenith of Syene and the northern limb of the sun
was about 8’.

Lastly, about 140 of the vulgar era, the obliquity was reduced to 23°
41’ 7”. Syene was then 24’ 16” from the tropic, and its zenith was about
10’ from the northern limb of the sun; when the shadows of gnomons of
any tolerable size must have been perceptible, and Syene could not have
been any longer considered as lying under the tropic.

As regards the well which served to ascertain the instant of the
solstice, Pliny and Arrian both mention it. The formation of it no doubt
belonged to a very remote period. In the time of Strabo, the rays of the
sun could not have reached entirely to the bottom, but the shadow was so
small that it was not sufficient to shake the ancient opinion. In fact,
the angle being about 8’, and supposing the depth to have been 50 feet,
the northern side would have projected a shadow of about 18 lines; the
rest would have remained in full light, and the reflexion would have
caused the whole circumference of the well to appear illuminated.
_Letronne._

[888] Kramer considers the passage between brackets to be an
interpolation, as the same sense is conveyed in the passage which
immediately follows.

[889] The number here given is nearly twice too great. Kramer quotes G.
Parthey (de Philis insula) for correcting the error to 50 stadia, and
for perceiving that it arose from the very frequent substitution in
manuscripts of the letter P (100) for N (50).

[890] Unhewn stones, with a head of Mercury upon them.

[891] Herod. ii. 28, who, however, seems to doubt the veracity of his
informant.

[892] Above, § 8.

[893] B. C. 28.

[894] B. xvi. c. 4, § 23.

[895] The modern hamlet of Dakkeh occupies a portion of the site of
ancient Pselchis.

[896] Called Primis by Ptolemy and Pliny. It is placed by the former
beyond Napata, and just above Meroë. Hence it is identified with Ibrim.

[897] There is great difficulty in determining the true position of
Napata, as our author places it much farther north than Pliny; and there
is reason for supposing that it is the designation of a royal residence,
which might be moveable, rather than of a fixed locality. Ritter brings
Napata as far north as Primis and the ruins at Ipsambul, while Mannert,
Ukert, and other geographers, believe it to have been Merawe, on the
farthest northern point of the region of Meroë. It is, however,
generally placed at the east extremity of that great bend of the Nile
which skirts the desert of Bahiouda, and near Mount Birkel.

Among the ruins which probably cover the site of the ancient Napata are
two lions of red granite, one bearing the name of Amuneph III., the
other Amuntuonch. They were brought to England by Lord Prudhoe, and now
stand at the entrance of the Gallery of Antiquities in the British
Museum. See Smith’s Dict., art. _Napata_.

[898] The inhabitants of Biscay. See b. iii. c. iii. § 8.

[899] This name was common to the queens of Ethiopia. Acts viii. 27.

[900] B. xvi. c. iv. § 8 et seqq.

[901] Groskurd corrects the text, and translates, “the inhabitants also
are small.”

[902] The translation follows the proposed correction of the text by
Kramer.

[903] ταῖς συμβολαῖς. The passage presents a great difficulty, because
Strabo has before asserted that Meroë is surrounded by these rivers, and
that their union takes place below, that is, to the north, and not to
the south of the city and island; and this notion corresponds with all
the ancients have said on the subject. I declare, without hesitation,
that I do not understand my author. _Letronne._ Groskurd attempts to
avoid the difficulty by translating, “is within the compass of.”

[904] The Tacazze.

[905] Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River.

[906] Reading διαπλεκομένων ἢ πλίνθων for διαπλεκόμεναι τοίχων ἢ
πλίνθων.

[907] The trees called persiai (or perseai) produce a fruit of great
sweetness, which was introduced from Ethiopia by the Persians, when
Cambyses conquered that country. Diod. Sic. i. 34.

[908] Tsana.

[909] According to Diod. Sic. iii. 9, this was Jupiter.

[910] Above, c. i. § 15.

[911] The sturgeon.

[912] Cyprinus bynni.

[913] Perea Nilotica. _Cuvier_, Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, xii. 5.

[914] Silurus anguillaris. _Linn._

[915] Pliny, xxxii. 5. Coracini pisces Nilo quidem peculiares sunt.
Athenæus, b. vii. c. 83, p. 484. Bohn’s Classical Library.

[916] Called by the Arabs Gamor-el-Lelleh, or star of the night.
_Cuvier._

[917] The shad.

[918] The mullet.

[919] About six feet. Nicander is the author of two Greek poems that are
still extant, and of several others that have been lost. He may be
supposed to have been in reputation for about fifty years, cir. B. C.
185-135. The longest of his poems that remains is named Theriaca. It
treats (as the name implies) of venomous animals, and the wounds
inflicted by them, and contains some curious and interesting zoological
passages, together with numerous absurd fables. The other treats of
poisons and their antidotes. His works are only consulted by those who
are interested in points of zoological and medical antiquities. He is
frequently quoted by Athenæus. See Smith’s Dict. of Greek and Roman
Biography, art. _Nicander_.

[920] Herod. ii. 36.

[921] Strabo does not appear to have been acquainted with the plant from
which these tissues were made. Their true name seems to have been
cucina, and were made from a palm-tree (the Doum palm), called by
Theophrastus (Hist. Plant. 4, 2) κουκιοφόρον, and by Pliny “cuci” (b.
xiii. 9): “At e diverso, cuci in magno honore, palmæ similis, quando et
ejus foliis utuntur ad textilia.”

[922] B. xvi. c. 2, § 34.

[923] B. ii. c. 3, § 4; and c. 4, § 3.

[924] B. i. c. 4, § 2.

[925] Cape Spartel, or Espartel. Ampelusia, vine-clad, was the Greek
name,—a translation of the native name.

[926] Groskurd reads Tinx, and also with Letronne observes that our
author has mistaken two places for one. Tinx, or Trinx=Tangiers.
Lixus = Al-Harâtch, or Laraiche.

[927] Cadiz.

[928] Situated between the town Sala (Salee) and Lixus (El-Harâch).

[929] Tyrwhitt reads Apellas, for Ophellas of the text. Apellas was a
Cyrenæan navigator, whose Periplus is mentioned by Marcianus of
Heracleia. There was an Ophellas of Cyrene, who advanced at the head of
an army along the coast, to unite himself to Agathocles, who was then
besieging Carthage, B. C. 310. He was put to death by Agathocles soon
after his arrival, and no Periplus of his said to have existed; his
course also to Carthage was by land.

[930] A people on the west coast of N. Africa, about the situation of
whom Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy are in perfect agreement with one
another, if the thirty days’ journey of Strabo between them and Lixus on
the west coast of Morocco, to the south of Cape Spartel, be set aside,
as an error either of his information or of the text; which latter is
not improbable, as numbers in MSS. are so often corrupt. Nor is this
mere conjecture, because Strabo contradicts himself, by asserting in
another place (b. xvii. c. 3. § 7) that the Pharusii had a great desert
between them and Mauretania. When Ezekiel prophesies the fall of Tyre,
it is said, (xxvii. 10,) “The men of Pheres (the common version reads
Persia) and Lud and Phut were in thine armies.” These Pheres thus joined
with Phut, or Mauretanians, and the Ludim, who were nomads of Africa
(the Septuagint and the Vulgate understand the Lydians), may be
reasonably supposed to belong to the same region. Without the vowel
points, the name will represent the powerful and warlike tribe whom the
Greeks call Pharusii. _Smith_, art. Pharusii.

[931] Arum esculentum (snake-weed), and arum dracunculus.

[932] Parsnip (?).

[933] Fennel.

[934] Artichoke.

[935] Groskurd reads Hypsicrates.

[936] The rhinoceros.

[937] About six quarts, according to the lowest value of the (chœnix).

[938] Arzila.

[939] Tiga in the text.

[940] The Septem-Fratres of Pliny.

[941] Jebel-el-Mina, or Ximiera, near Ceuta (a corruption of ἑπτὰ, or
septem?).

[942] Ape mountain.

[943] The Muluwi, which now forms the frontier between Morocco and
Algeria, as it did anciently between the Mauretanians and Numidians.

[944] Cape Hone, or Ras-el-Harsbak. Groskurd corrects the text, and
translates: “Near the river is a large promontory, and a neighbouring
settlement called Metagonium.” Kramer’s proposed correction is followed.

[945] Numidia is the central tract of country on the north coast of
Africa, which forms the largest portion of the country now occupied by
the French, and called Algeria, or Algérie. The continuous system of
highlands which extends along the coast of the Mediterranean was in the
earliest period occupied by a race of people consisting of many tribes,
of whom the _Berbers_ of the Algerine territories, or the _Kabyles_ or
_Quabaily_, as they are called by the inhabitants of the cities, are the
representatives. These people, speaking a language which was once spoken
from the Fortunate Islands in the west to the cataracts of the Nile, and
which still explains many names in ancient African topography, and
embracing tribes of quite different characters, whites as well as blacks
(though not negroes), were called by the Romans Numidæ; not a proper
name, but a common denomination from the Greek form, νομάδες. Afterwards
Numida and Numidia became the name of the nation and the country.
Sometimes they were called Maurusii Numidæ, while the later writers
always speak of them under the general name of Mauri. The most powerful
among these tribes were the Massyli, whose territories extended from the
river Ampsaga to Tretum promontory; and the Massæsyli, occupying the
country to the west, as far as the river Mulucha. _Smith, Dict._ art.
Numidia.

[946] Cartagena.

[947] Marseilles.

[948] The words περιτραχήλια ξύλινα offer some difficulty. Paul Louis
Courier, who is of authority on this subject, says that Strabo, having
little experience in horses, has mistaken the first word for another,
and intended to speak of the horse’s nose, and not his neck. Letronne
and Groskurd both agree that ξύλιναn is rightly to be translated, “of
cotton.”

[949] Constantine.

[950] The Pharusii, and not the Mauretanians, came with Hercules from
the East, according to Pliny, Mela, and Sallust; hence Letronne
conjectures that we should read here Pharusii.

[951] A. D. 18 or 19 at latest, but the exact date is uncertain.

[952] Groskurd corrects the text, and translates, “there existed in the
Bay Emporicus very many Phœnician cities.”

[953] _Plutarch._ Sertorius.

[954] Ebba-Ras.

[955] Probably Tafna.

[956] Jama.

[957] According to Shaw, who however did visit the place, its ruins are
still to be seen by the present Tucumbrit; others identify it with
Areschkul of the Arabs, at the mouth of the Tafna near Rasgun.

[958] In the text μεγέθει δὲ ἑπτασπονδύλων, scorpions “of seven joints”
in the tail; the correction of Letronne, which Kramer supports, is
adopted. Groskurd however retains the text, and reads μεγέθει δὲ
[ὑπερβαλλόντων καὶ ἐσθ’ ὅτε] ἑπτασπονδύλων, “of enormous size, and
sometimes of seven joints.”

[959] Cherchell, a corruption of Cæsarea-Iol.

[960] Ebba Ras (the seven capes) or Bougaron.

[961] Bougie.

[962] Shaw has the merit of having first pointed out the true situation
of this celebrated city. Before his time it was sought sometimes at
Biserta, sometimes at Farina, but he fixed it near the little miserable
“Douar,” which has a holy tomb called Boushatter, and with this view
many writers have agreed. Adherbal, however, was besieged and captured
in Cirta (Constantine), B. C. 109.

[963] An unknown name. Letronne supposes Thisica to be meant, mentioned
by Ptolemy, iv. 3.

[964] Vaga or Vacca, now Bayjah.

[965] Shaw takes Ferreanah to have been the ancient Thala or Telepte,
but Lapie seeks it at Haouch-el-Khima.

[966] Cafsa.

[967] Jama.

[968] Probably near the ruins of Leptis Parva.

[969] El Aliah.

[970] Karkenah or Ramlah.

[971] Hippo Regius, Bonah; and Hippo Zaritus, Bizerta.

[972] Wady Mejerdah.

[973] Letronne corrects this reading to 2000, which is the number given
by Polybius and Arrian.

[974] By the Romans, Numidæ.

[975] Pantellaria.

[976] Marsala.

[977] Kramer is of opinion that this passage from the beginning of the
section is an interpolation. Cossura (the island Pantellaria) is nowhere
else spelt Corsura; Cossuros is the spelling observed immediately below.
Its distance from Aspis is differently stated in b. vi. c. ii. § 11, to
be 88 miles from Aspis.

Ægimurus is the small island Zembra, near Cape Bon; near it is also
another small low rocky island. From the shape and appearance of the
former, more especially in some positions, we may attribute the name Aræ
(altars), given to them, as in Pliny: “Ægimuræ Aræ, scopuli verius quam
insulæ;” and they are the “Aræ” of Virgil, Æn. i. 108.

[978] i. e. sacred to Mercury. Cape Bon.

[979] Cape Aclibia, from the Latin Clypea. B. vi. c. 2, § 11.

[980] Malta.

[981] Sousah.

[982] Demass.

[983] Lampedusa.

[984] Kramer’s proposed emendation is followed.

[985] Gulf of Cabes.

[986] Jerba or Zerbi. It produced the “lotus-zizyphus” or the carob, now
common in the islands of the Mediterranean and on the continent.

[987] Od. ix. 84.

[988] Sabrata?

[989] Lebida.

[990] Gerace. See b. vi. c. i. § 7, 8.

[991] The Cinifo or Wadi-Quasam.

[992] Cape Canan or Mesrata.

[993] See b. ii. c. v. § 20.

[994] Its position, like that of so many places on the Great Syrtis, can
hardly be determined with certainty. A full discussion of these
localities will be found in Barth’s Wanderungen.

[995] About the middle of the fourth century, B. C., according to a
story in Sallust, these monuments commemorated the patriotic sacrifice
of two Philæni, Carthaginian envoys.

[996] Gulf of Suez.

[997] Ben Ghazi. Berenice previously bore the name Hesperides, which
name seems to have been derived from the fancy which found the fabled
Gardens of the Hesperides in the fertile terraces of Cyrenaïca.

[998] Ras-Teyonas.

[999] Cape Catacolo.

[1000] Groskurd justly supposes that the name Chelonatas (Cape Tornese)
is here wanting in the text.

[1001] Zante.

[1002] Tochira.

[1003] The name has survived to the present day in that of the district
of which it was the capital, the province of Barca, in the regency of
Tripoli. The position of Barca is accurately described by Scylax, who
places its harbour 500 stadia from Cyrene, and 620 from Hesperides, and
the city itself 100 stadia from the sea. It stood on the summit of the
terraces which overlook the west coast of the Greater Syrtis, in a plain
now called El-Merjeh; and the same name is often given to the ruins
which mark the site of Barca, but the Arabs call them El-Medinah. See
Smith, art. _Barca_.

[1004] Ras-al-Razat or Ras Sem. Scylax here placed the gardens and lake
of the Hesperides.

[1005] Cape Matapan, which is more than a degree and a half more to the
east than Phycus.

[1006] In b. viii. c. v. § 1, it is stated to be 3000.

[1007] Santorin.

[1008] Kavo Krio.

[1009] B. C. 631.

[1010] B. C. 330.

[1011] Flourished about B. C. 366. The Cyrenaïc system resembles in most
points those of Heracleitus and Protagoras, as given in Plato’s
Theætetus. The doctrines that a subject only knows objects through the
prism of the impression which he receives, and that man is the measure
of all things, are stated or implied in the Cyrenaïc system, and lead at
once to the consequence, that what we call reality is appearance; so
that the whole fabric of human knowledge becomes a fantastic picture.
The principle on which it rests, viz. that knowledge is sensation, is
the foundation of Locke’s Modern Ideology, though he did not perceive
its connexion with the consequences to which it led the Cyrenaïcs. To
revive these was reserved for Hume. _Smith’s Greek and Roman Biography
and Mythology._

[1012] This great astronomer and learned man, whose name so frequently
occurs in the course of this work, was born about B. C. 276. He was
placed, by Ptolemy Euergetes, over the library of Alexandria. His
greatest work, and that which must always make his name conspicuous in
scientific history, is the attempt which he made to measure the
magnitude of the earth, in which he brought forward and used the method
which is employed to this day. See vol. i. page 9, of this translation,
note^{42}.

[1013] Carneades was born about B. C. 213. In the year B. C. 155, when
he was fifty-eight years old, he was chosen with Diogenes the Stoic, and
Critolaus the Peripatetic, to go as ambassador to Rome, to deprecate the
fine of 500 talents, which had been imposed on the Athenians, for the
destruction of Oropus. During his stay at Rome, he attracted great
notice from his eloquent declamations on philosophical subjects, and it
was here that, in the presence of Cato the Elder, he delivered his
famous orations on Justice. The first oration was in commendation of
virtue; in the second justice was proved not to be a virtue, but a mere
matter of compact, for the maintenance of civil society. The honest mind
of Cato was shocked at this, and he moved the senate to send the
philosopher home to his school, and save the Roman youth from his
demoralizing doctrines. He left no writings, and all that is known of
his lectures is derived from his intimate friend and pupil,
Cleitomachus. See Smith, Dict. of Greek and Roman Biography.

[1014] Marsa-al-Halal or Al Natroun.

[1015] Ras-al-Tyn.

[1016] Grabusa.

[1017] Ras-el-Milhr.

[1018] Marsa Sollom, or Akabet-el-Kebira, the present boundary of
Tripoli and Egypt.

[1019] Baretoun or Berek Marsa.

[1020] Kramer’s reading of this passage is followed.

[1021] Groskurd has a long note on this passage, and reads τοὺς κατ’
αὐτὸν Νασαμῶνας. The words in the original text, τοὺς κατ’ αὐτὸ μαλακῶς,
present the great difficulty; but Kramer reads τοῦ for τοὺς, and has
adopted in the text Falconer’s proposed correction, κατ’ Αὐτόμαλά πως.
The name Augila is wanting in the text; it is supplied by Groskurd, and
approved by Kramer, who refers to Herod. iv. 172, 182.

[1022] Aujela, an oasis in the desert of Barca; it still retains its
ancient name, and forms one of the chief stations on the caravan route
from Cairo to Fezzan.

[1023] Τῆς καθ’ ἡμᾶς οἰκουμένης, Groskurd translates as inhabited to our
time; but Strabo refers to the then known world, having before, b. i. c.
iv. § 6, in a remarkable manner conjectured the existence of other
habitable worlds (such as America) in the latitude of Athens. “We call
that (part of the temperate zone) the habitable earth (οἰκουμένην) in
which we dwell, and with which we are acquainted; but it is possible,
that in the same temperate zone there may be two or even more habitable
earths, especially near the circle of latitude drawn through Athens and
the Atlantic Ocean.” The latitudes of Athens and Washington do not
differ by one degree.

[1024] B. vi. c. iv. § 2.

[1025] B. ii. c. v. § 31.

[1026] Guadalquiver (Wad-el-Kebir, the Great River).

[1027] B. iv. c. i. § 6.

[1028] B. iii. c. iv. § 20.


INDEX.


   Aarassus, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324.

   Aba, daughter of Zenophanes, iii. 56.

   ——, Abæ, t. of Phocis, ii. 122, 151.

   Abaïtæ, ii. 402.

   Abaïtis, district of Phrygia, ii. 333.

   Abantes (Eubœans), ii. 151.

   Abantis (Eubœa), ii. 151.

   Abaris, i. 463.

   Abas, great-grandson of Erectheus, ii. 151.

   ——, ii. 133.

   Abdēra, t. of Thrace, i. 515; ii. 272, 298; iii. 17.

   ——, t. of Spain (_Adra_), i. 235, 238.

   Abderus, i. 515.

   Abeacus, ii. 239.

   Abella, t. of Campania (_Avella Vecchia_), i. 370.

   Abii, i. 453, 454, 458, 461, 465, 479; ii. 302.

   Abilyx, Abyle (_Jebel-el-Mina_), mtn in Mauritania, i. 255; iii. 278.

   Abisarus, iii. 90.

   Abōniteichos, t. of Paphlagonia, (_Ineboli_), ii. 291.

   Aborace, ii. 223.

   Aborrhas, r. of Mesopotamia, iii. 158.

   _Aboukir._ _See_ Canopus.

   Abrettene, district of Mysia, ii. 330, 332.

   Abrettenus, Jupiter, ii. 330.

   Abrotonon (_Sabrata_), iii. 289.

   Absyrtides (_Cherso and Ossero_), i. 186.

   Abus, mtn in Armenia, ii. 268, 273.

   Abydeni, ii. 353.

   Abydon. _See_ Amydon.

   Abydos, t. of Mysia, i. 164, 188, 508; ii. 338-354, 366, 374;
     iii. 5, 66.

   ——, strait of, i. 517.

   ——, t. of Egypt, iii. 258, 259.

   _Ab-Zal._ _See_ Copratas.

   Acacesium, i. 459.

   Academy, philosophers of the, iii. 294.

   Acalandrus, r. i. 427.

   Acamas, Athenian, iii. 71.

   ——, prom. of Cyprus (_Cape Arnauti_), iii. 68, 70, 71.

   Acanthian gulf, i. 511.

   Acanthus, t. of Egypt, iii. 253.

   ——, t. of Macedonia, i. 511-513.

   Acara, i. 322.

   Acarnan, ii. 174, 178.

   Acarnania, i. 493, 499, 501; ii. 3, 5, 14, 25, 58, 129, 150, 161-163,
     167, 171-174.

   Acarnanians, Acarnanes, i. 410, 494, 498; ii. 2, 6, 75, 114, 128, 130,
     131, 158-162, 169, 172-175, 178; iii. 297.

   Acatharti, iii. 197.

   Acathartic gulf, Acathartus, iii. 193.

   Ace, city of Phœnicia. _See_ Ptolemaïs.

   Acerræ, i. 367, 370.

   Acesines, r. of India (_Chenab_), iii. 83, 85, 90-92, 102.

   Achæan league, ii. 59, 70.

   —— cities, ii. 73.

   Achææ, rocks, ii. 21.

   Achæi, Achæans, i. 55, 96, 195, 328, 395, 399; ii. 3, 5, 7, 13, 27,
     42, 49, 50, 51, 53, 66-68, 70, 71, 73, 118, 132, 160, 181, 182,
     195, 219, 224-226, 329, 366.

   ——, Phthiōtæ, ii. 224.

   ——, in Bosporus, ii. 224.

   ——, in Pontus, ii. 113.

   ——, robbers, iii. 296.

   ——, harbour, in the Troad, ii. 358, 363.

   ——, in Æolis, ii. 397.

   ——, in Cyprus, iii. 69.

   Achæium, t. of the Troad, ii. 360, 371-373.

   Achæmenidæ, iii. 130.

   Achæus, son of Xuthus, ii. 67.

   ——, father of Antiochis, ii. 400.

   Achaia, Achæa, i. 506; ii. 6, 8, 43, 68, 72, 77, 132, 160; iii. 297.

   ——, t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 224.

   ——, t. of Aria, ii. 252.

   Achaïcarus, iii. 180.

   Acharaca, t. of Lydia, ii. 335; iii. 25, 26.

   Achardeus, r. of the Caucasus, ii. 239.

   Achelōus, r. of Acarnania (_Aspro-potamo_), i. 44, 93, 410, 411, 501;
     ii. 6, 25, 158, 159, 170-173.

   ——, r. of Achæa, ii. 14, 158.

   ——, r. of Thessaly, ii. 136, 158.

   Acheron, r. of Triphylia, ii. 17.

   ——, of Italy, i. 382.

   ——, of Epirus, i. 497.

   Acherræ, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 367.

   ——, t. of Campania, i. 367, 370.

   Acherusian Lake, marsh in Campania (_Mare Morto_), i. 39, 362-364.

   Achilleium, in the Troad, ii. 366, 372.

   ——, in the Cimmerian Bosporus, i. 477; ii. 222.

   Achilles, i. 71, 73, 470, 472, 500; ii. 22, 35-37, 115, 126, 181,
     132-138, 140, 157, 168, 342, 343, 345, 358, 359, 363, 366, 377,
     383, 384, 394; iii. 58.

   Achilles, course of, peninsula, i. 472, 473.

   ——, rampart of, in Mysia, ii. 386.

   ——, temple of, ii. 222, 359.

   Achivi, rampart of the, i. 154.

   Acholla, t. of the Carthaginians (_El Aliah_), iii. 285.

   Acidon, r. of Triphylia, ii. 22, 26.

   Acila, prom. of Arabia (_Ghela_), iii. 193.

   Acilisene, distr. of Armenia, ii. 260, 268, 269, 272, 274, 305.

   Aciris, r. of Leucania (_Agri_), i. 397.

   Acisene, ii. 269.

   Acmon, ii. 191.

   Aconites, people of Sardinia, i. 334.

   Acontia (Acuteia?), t. of Spain, i. 228.

   Acontium, mtn of Bœotia, i. 113.

   Acqui. _See_ Aquæ-Statiellæ.

   Acra (_C. Takli_), ii. 222.

   Acræa, Venus, iii. 69.

   Acrææ, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 41.

   Acræphiæ, Acræphium, t. of Bœotia, ii. 107, 109, 110.

   Acragas, city of Sicily (_Girgenti_), i. 411, 415.

   Acrathos (_C. Monte Santo_), i. 512.

   Acrisius, ii. 118, 211.

   Acritas, prom. of Messenia, i. 36.

   Acrocorinthus, ii. 38, 60, 61, 62, 70.

   Acrolissus. _See_ Lissus, i. 485.

   Acropolis, ii. 86.

   Acrothōï, t. on Mount Athos, i. 512, 513.

   Acta, Lepre, iii. 3.

   Actæon, ii. 87.

   Acte, ii. 77, 79, 174.

   Acte, Actice. _See_ Attica, ii. 80.

   Actē. _See_ Acarnania.

   Actia, Actian games, i. 499.

   Actian war, i. 36; ii. 330.

   Actis, ii. 375.

   Actium, prom. of Acarnania (_La Punta_), ii. 115, 161.

   ——, t. of Acarnania, ii. 73, 115, 159, 161, 171.

   ——, battle of, ii. 208; iii. 230, 233.

   Acusilaus, Argive, ii. 189.

   Acyphas, or Pindus, ii. 128.

   ——, in the Œtæan district, ii. 136.

   Ada, dr of Hecatomnus, iii. 35, 36.

   ——, dr of Pixodarus, iii. 35.

   _Ada._ _See_ Patræus.

   Adada, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324.

   Adæ, town of Æolis, iii. 397.

   Adarbal, Adherbal, iii. 284.

   _Adda_, r. of Gaul, i. 287, 304, 312, 317.

   Adeimantus, ii. 350.

   Adiabene, ii. 272; iii. 142, 146, 154.

   Adiatorix, son of Domnecleus, ii. 288.

   ——, f. of Dyteutus, ii. 308.

   Admetus, i. 72; ii. 155.

   Adobogion, ii. 401.

   Adonis, iii. 170.

   ——, river of Phœnicia (_Nahr-Ibrahim_), iii. 170.

   Ador, ii. 270.

   _Adra._ _See_ Abdera.

   Adramyttene, district of Mysia, ii. 370, 400.

   Adramytteni, ii. 383, 384.

   Adramyttium, t. of Mysia (_Adramytti_), ii. 339, 340, 371, 374, 376,
     384, 386, 387.

   ——, gulf of, ii. 342, 374, 386, 400.

   Adrapsa, iii. 126.

   Adrasteia, district of Mysia, ii. 317, 332, 337, 348.

   ——, t. of Mysia, ii. 345-348.

   ——, mtn near Cyzicus, ii. 331.

   —— (Nemesis), ii. 348.

   Adrastus, ii. 59, 97.

   ——, ii. 174, 346, 348.

   Adria, city and naval station of Picenum (_Atri_), i. 358.
     _See_ Atria.

   Adrias, r. i. 487.

   Adriatic (_Gulf of Venice_), i. 31, 72, 73, 75, 89, 96, 139, 141, 158,
     159, 163, 164, 186, 193, 291, 303, 307, 308, 314, 315, 319, 324-326,
     336, 338, 357, 373, 425, 432, 435, 442, 463, 475, 481, 483, 486,
     487, 492, 495, 505, 506; ii. 119, 289, 290, 301, 378.

   Adrion, mtn of Dalmatia. _See_ Ardium, i. 484.

   Adrumes (_Sousah_), iii. 288.

   _Adshane._ _See_ Canæ.

   Adula, Adulas, mtn, i. 287, 304, 317.

   Æa, city, i. 31, 32, 72-74.

   ——, ftn, i. 509, 510.

   Æacidæ, i. 496; ii. 83.

   Æacus, ii. 57.

   Ææa, i. 6, 32, 73.

   Æaneium, ii. 126.

   Æanes, ii. 126.

   Æanis, ii. 126.

   Æas, r. of Illyria. _See_ Aias.

   ——, son of Telamon. _See_ Ajax.

   Æclus, i. 493; ii. 152, 154.

   Ædepsus, t. of Eubœa (_Dipso_) i. 94; ii. 125, 152.

   Ædui, i. 278, 286-288.

   Æeta, i. 72, 73.

   Æetes, i. 72-74.

   Æga, prom. of Æolis, ii. 388.

   ——, city of Achaia, ii. 71-73.

   Ægæ, t. of Mysia, ii. 397.

   ——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 72, 98.

   Ægææ, Ægæ, t. of Cilicia (_Ajas_), iii. 60.

   ——, t. of Laconia, ii. 42.

   Ægæan Sea (_Egio-Pelago_), i. 42, 187-190, 195, 487, 496, 505, 512,
     518, 519; ii. 72, 152, 193, 207, 341, 388.

   Ægæi, ii. 71.

   Ægaleum, mtn of Messenia, ii. 35.

   Ægeira, t. of Achæa, ii. 71, 73.

   Ægeirus, t. in Lesbos, ii. 391.

   Ægesta, t. of Sicily, i. 379, 411, 415; ii. 378.

   Ægestani, i. 401, 411.

   Ægestes, Trojan, i. 378, 411.

   Ægeus, ii. 81.

   Ægialeia, Ægialus, ii. 3, 23, 67, 68, 72, 288.

   Ægiali (Sicyon), ii. 66.

   Ægialians, ii. 53, 67, 68.

   Ægialus, Ægialeia, in Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291.

   Ægieis, Ægienses, ii. 73, 157.

   Ægilieis, in Attica, ii. 89.

   Ægilips, ii. 161, 163.

   Ægimius, ii. 128.

   Ægimurus (_Al Djamur_), i. 185, 422; iii. 287.

   Ægina, t. of Argolis, ii. 57, 58.

   ——, island, i. 84, 187; ii. 47, 49, 54, 57, 58, 82, 136.

   ——, city, ii. 55, 58.

   Æginetæ, ii. 57, 58, 83.

   Æginium, t. of Thessaly, i. 501.

   Ægirussa, ii. 84.

   Ægisthus, i. 25.

   Ægium, city of Achæa (_Vostitza_), ii. 5, 6, 8, 59, 71-73, 77.

   Ægletes Apollo. _See_ Anaphe.

   Ægos-potami, t. and r., i. 438, 518.

   Ægua, t. of Spain, i. 213.

   Ægys, city and district of Laconia, ii. 42, 153.

   Ælana, Aila (_Ailah_), t. of Arabia Petræa, iii. 176, 191.

   Ælanitic Bay, iii. 176, 191, 204, 254.

   Ælius Gallus, i. 178; iii. 209-212, 246, 262, 267.

   —— (Catus), i. 466.

   Æmilian road, i. 323.

   Æmilianus, Q. Fabius Maximus, i. 277, 285.

   ——, Scipio, iii. 51, 286.

   Æmilius, Paulus, i. 495.

   Ænarium. _See_ Arnarium, ii. 73.

   Ænea, t. of the Troad, ii. 372.

   ——, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 510. _See_ Enea _and_ Nea.

   Æneas, i. 76, 225, 339, 346, 347; ii. 317, 344, 353, 356, 357, 360,
     377, 378, 383.

   Ænesippeia, isl., iii. 235.

   Ænesisphyra, prom. of Egypt, iii. 235.

   Æniana (Ænia), ii. 242.

   Æniānes, people of Thessaly, i. 96; ii. 128, 147, 158, 241, 273.

   Æniates, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302.

   Ænius, r. of the Troad, ii. 371.

   Ænobarbus (Cnæus), i. 277.

   —— (Domitius), i. 285; iii. 24.

   Ænus, mtn of Cephallenia (_Monte Nero_), ii. 167.

   ——, city of Thrace, i. 490, 516, 519.

   Æolia, i. 17, 64, 187, 195, 224; ii. 153; iii. 140.

   Æolian nation, ii. 3.

   —— colony, ii. 94.

   Æolians, i. 96, 328; ii. 2, 3, 154, 366, 374, 382-386; iii. 34.

   Æolic dialect, ii. 2, 3.

   —— expedition, ii. 93.

   —— migration, iii. 2.

   Æolis, ii. 339-341, 346, 366, 384, 398.

   Æolus, king, i. 31, 35, 36, 39, 194, 403, 417, 419; ii. 142.

   ——, Islands of (_Lipari Islands_), i. 84, 89, 185, 194, 383, 403, 420.

   ——, Play of Euripides, ii. 32.

   Æpasian plain, region of Triphylia, ii. 22.

   Æpeia, town of Messenia, ii. 35, 37.

   Æpeia Methone, ii. 37.

   Æpy, town of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24.

   Æpytus, son of Neleus, iii. 2.

   Æqui, i. 339, 343, 344, 353.

   Æquum-Faliscum, i. 335.

   Aëria, t. of the Cavari (_Le mont Ventoux_), i. 277.

   Æsar, r. of Etruria, i. 330.

   Æsarus, r. near Crotona (_Esaro_), i. 393.

   Æschines, Athenian, ii. 188.

   ——, Milesian, iii. 5.

   Æschylus, i. 52, 68, 329, 386, 458, 462; ii. 13, 73, 82, 154, 187,
     337, 390; iii. 130.

   Æsculapius. _See_ Asclepius.

   Æsēpus, r. of Mysia, _Satal-dere_, ii. 300, 316, 317, 330, 332,
     337-341, 344-348, 353, 357, 369, 371, 372.

   Æsernia, city of the Samnites (_Isernia_), i. 353, 371.

   Æsis, r. of Umbria (_Fiumesino_), i. 324, 337, 357, 435.

   Æsyetes, tomb of, ii. 361, 364.

   Æthalia, island (_Elba_), i. 185, 332-334.

   Æthaloeïs, r. of Scepsia, ii. 190.

   Æthices, people of Epirus and Thessaly, i. 499, 501; ii. 131, 137,
     144.

   Æthicia, i. 501.

   Æthiopia. _See_ Ethiopia.

   Ætna, Mount, i. 31, 35, 84, 368, 369, 386, 403, 404, 406, 411,
     413-415, 418.

   Ætnæans, i. 405.

   Ætolia, i. 493, 499, 501, 505; ii. 6, 10, 33, 72, 75, 114, 129,
     136, 150, 155, 156, 159, 160, 171, 172, 174.

   Ætna, town of Sicily, i. 405, 414.

   Ætōli, Ætolians, i. 381; ii. 2, 6, 12, 30, 33, 121, 122, 127-131, 146,
     158-161, 169, 172, 175, 176, _passim_.

   Ætolian mountains, ii. 115, 131.

   —— promontories, i. 93.

   —— polity, i. 494.

   Ætolicus, Demetrius, ii. 160.

   Ætōlus, ii. 33, 122, 176, 177.

   Æxoneis, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.

   Æxonici, ii. 89.

   _Afium-karahissar._ _See_ Synnada.

   Afranius, legate of Pompey, i. 242.

   _Afreen._ _See_ Oenoparas.

   _Africa._ _See_ Libya, iii. 274-278.

   African coast, i. 76.

   —— sea, ii. 193, 194, 199, 212.

   Agamedes, ii. 119.

   Agamemnon, i. 17, 63, 499; ii. 22, 35, 36, 53, 56, 57, 59, 83, 115,
     174, 186, 340, 356, 368, 374; iii. 10, 15, _passim_.

   Agapenor, iii. 70.

   Agatha, a city of Gaul (_Agde_), i. 269, 272.

   Agatharchides, iii. 34, 208.

   Agathocleia, iii. 231.

   Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, i. 383, 427; iii. 288.

   Agathocles, father of Lysimachus, ii. 399.

   ——, son of Lysimachus, ii. 400.

   Agathyrnum, i. 401.

   _Agde._ _See_ Agatha.

   Agdistis, the goddess Rhea, ii. 184.

   ——, temple of, ii. 320.

   _Agénois._ _See_ Nitiobriges.

   Agesilaus, i. 427.

   Agidæ, ii. 44.

   Agis, ii. 43, 44.

   _Aglio, L’Osteria dell’._ _See_ Algidum.

   Agnu-Ceras, promontory of Egypt, iii. 239.

   Agoracritus, ii. 87.

   Agra, village of Attica, ii. 91.

   Agradates, iii. 132.

   Agræa, district of Ætolia, ii. 10.

   Agræi, a people of Ætolia, ii. 158, 160, 179.

   ——, people of Arabia, iii. 189.

   Agræus, ii. 77.

   Agri, ii. 223.

   _Agri._ _See_ Aciris.

   Agriades, ii. 8.

   Agriānes, a people of Thrace, i. 488, 514, 515.

   Agrigentini, i. 401.

   Agrigentum. _See_ Acragas.

   Agrii, a people of Ethiopia, iii. 196.

   Agrippa, i. 289, 310, 350, 364; ii. 36, 350; iii. 170.

   Agrius, ii. 175, 179.

   Agylla, t. of Etruria, i. 328, 335.

   Agyllæi, i. 328.

   _Aiaghi-dagh._ _See_ Zagrum.

   Aias, _or_ Aous, i. 410, 411, 486.

   Aigan, ii. 388.

   Aila. _See_ Ælana.

   _Ain-el-Hiyeh._ _See_ Enydra.

   _Aix._ _See_ Sextiæ.

   _Ajas._ _See_ Ægææ.

   Ajax, son of Teucer, iii. 55, 56.

   ——, temple of, ii. 357, 359.

   ——, son of Telamon, ii. 83, 84, 102.

   ——, the Locrian, ii. 126, 367.

   _Ajazzo, Aias, Bay of._ _See_ Issus.

   _Ak-Su._ _See_ Cestrus.

   _Akaba._ _See_ Aila.

   _Akabel-el-Kebira._ _See_ Catabathmus.

   _Ak-Liman._ _See_ Armene, ii. 291.

   _Ak-Schehr._ _See_ Philomelium.

   _Ala Schehr._ _See_ Philadelphia.

   Alabanda, t. of Caria (_Arab-Nissar_), ii. 347; iii. 34, 37, 38, 40.

   Alæan Minerva, ii. 75.

   Alæis Æxōnici, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.

   Alæsa, t. of Sicily (_I Bagni_), i. 401, 411.

   Alalcŏmĕnæ, t. of Bœotia, i. 501; ii. 107, 110.

   ——, t. of Asteria, ii. 168.

   Alalcomenium, temple of Minerva, ii. 106, 110.

   _Alara._ _See_ Ptolemaïs.

   _Alatri._ _See_ Aletrium.

   Alazia, t. of Mysia, ii. 299.

   Alazōnes, ii. 298, 299.

   Alazonia, Alazonium, t. of the Troad, ii. 300, 371.

   Alazonius, r. of Albania, ii. 230, 231, 234.

   Alba (_Albi_), i. 340, 344, 349, 353, 356.

   Alban wine, i. 347.

   Albania (_Shirvan_), ii. 217, 226, 230-235, 238, 243, 267, 268.

   Albanians, i. 178, 195, 341, 344, 440; ii. 217, 232-235, 248, 260,
     267-272, 307.

   Albanus, Mount (_Monte Albano_), i. 340, 351; (_Monte Cavo_), 355,
     356.

   _Albi._ _See_ Alba.

   Albia, Alpionia, i. 300.

   Albienses, i. 302.

   Albii, i. 482.

   Albingaunum (_Albinga_), i. 300, 301.

   Albiœci, i. 302.

   Albis, r. (_Elbe_), i. 22, 444-447, 451.

   Albium Intemelium (_Vintimille_), i. 300, 301.

   Albius, Mount, i. 300, 483.

   Albūla, cold waters, i. 354.

   Alcæus, poet of Mitylene, i. 58; ii. 108, 109, 366, 375, 391, 393;
     iii. 40.

   Alcestis, i. 72.

   Alchædamnus, iii. 166.

   Alcimedon, ii. 42.

   Alcimus, ii. 42.

   Alcmæōn, i. 499; ii. 122, 174.

   Alcmæonis, the poem, ii. 162.

   Alcman, i. 68, 458; ii. 13, 153, 172, 203, 337.

   Alcmene, ii. 30.

   _Alcolea._ _See_ Ilipa.

   Alcyonis Sea, ii. 6, 82, 92.

   _Al-Djamur._ _See_ Ægimurus.

   _Al-Djezira._ _See_ Mesopotamia.

   Alea Athena, ii. 75.

   Alece, r. of the Bruttii. _See_ Halex.

   Aleïan plain, ii. 304; iii. 60, 61.

   Aleisium, Aleisius, t. and hill of, in, ii. 12, 14.

   Aleisius, r. in Elis, ii. 14.

   _Alento._ _See_ Elees.

   Alesia, i. 285.

   Alesiæum, t. of Elis, ii. 14.

   Alesius, tumulus of, ii. 27.

   Alētes, ii. 77.

   Alētia, t. of Calabria, i. 430.

   Aletrium, t. of Latium (_Alatri_), i. 352.

   Alĕus, ii. 389.

   Alexander, son of Priam, i. 65, 90.

   ——, poet of Ætolia, ii. 318; iii. 23, 67.

   —— Lychnus, the orator, iii. 14.

   —— Philalethes, ii. 336.

   ——, son of Antiochus, iii. 401.

   —— Balas, iii. 164.

   ——, king of Judæa, iii. 180.

   —— of the Molossi, i. 382, 427.

   —— the Great, son of Philip, i. 22, 77, 104, 108, 109, 122, 137, 257,
        463, 464, 512, 513; ii. 237, 238, 241, 243, 253, _et passim_.

   Alexandria, city of Egypt, i. 13, 38, 91, 98, 118, 130, 131, 140, 153,
     171, 172, 189, 190, 197, 200-202, 318; ii. 213, 235, 249, 252, 274,
     276; iii. 33, 34, 53, 57, 59, 162, 164, 211, 213-273, 275, 294.

   ——, in the Troad, i. 202; ii. 355, 361, 364, 373, 377, 385.
        _See_ Troad.

   ——, city of Syria, iii. 59.

   ——, mtn of Mysia, ii. 376.

   Alexandrian merchants, i. 178.

   Alexandrini, ii. 190, 373.

   Alexandrium (near Teos), iii. 17.

   —— (in Judæa), iii. 181.

   Alexarchus, i. 513.

   Algidum, city (_L’Osteria dell’ Aglio_), i. 351.

   Algidus, Mount, i. 355.

   _Algiers and Fez._ _See_ Maurusia.

   Alinda, t. of Caria, iii. 36.

   Alliphæ (_Allife_), i. 353.

   Allitrochades, i. 109.

   Allobroges, i. 277, 289, 302.

   Allotriges, i. 233.

   _Al-Madain._ _See_ Ctesiphon.

   Alobe, Alope, Alybe, ii. 300.

   Alope, t. of the Opuntian Locrians, i. 95; ii. 126, 128, 132, 135.

   ——, t. of the Locri Ozolæ, ii. 128.

   ——, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 128, 135.

   Alōpecia, ii. 221.

   Alopeconnesii, i. 516.

   Alopeconnesus, t. of Thrace, i. 517.

   Alōrium, t. of Triphylia, ii. 24.

   Alōrus, t. of Bottiæa, i. 508, 509.

   Alpheius, r. of Elis (_the Carbonaro_, _Ruféa_), i. 402, 403, 408-410,
     417; ii. 7, 11, 15, 17, 20, 22-28, 32, 33, 76.

   Alpōnus, t. near Thermopylæ, i. 95.

   Alps, i. 110, 193, 264-269, 276-280, 286, 287, 291, 296, 300-315, 317,
     319, 322-324, 337, 357, 439, 444, 448, 450, 481-483.

   Alps, Pennine, i. 305, 309, 310.

   Alsium, t. of Etruria, i. 335.

   Altes, ii. 344; iii. 395.

   Althæa, ii. 179.

   Althæmenes, Argive, ii. 201, 203; iii. 30.

   Altinum, city of Cisalp. Gaul (_Altino_), i. 318.

   _Altun-Suyi_, r. _See_ Lycus.

   Alus, ii. 132.

   Alyattes, ii. 118, 405; iii. 66, 141.

   Alybe, Alope, or Alobe, ii. 298, 299, 372.

   Alybes, ii. 297, 298, 299.

   Alyzeus, ii. 162.

   Alyzia, t. of Acarnania (_Kandili_), ii. 159, 171.

   Amadocus, i. 516.

   Amaltheia, i. 226; ii. 170.

   Amanides Gates, iii. 60, 164.

   Amanus, ii. 259, 278, 279; iii. 60, 63, 143, 160, 163.

   Amardi, ii. 241, 245, 248, 263.

   Amarynces, king, ii. 12.

   Amarynthia Diana, ii. 155.

   Amarynthium, the, ii. 156.

   Amarynthus, t. of Eubœa, ii. 155.

   Amaseia, city of Pontus (_Amasija_), ii. 295, 306, 311, 312; iii. 252.

   Amasenses, ii. 312.

   Amasias, r. of Germany (_Ems_), i. 444, 445.

   Amasis, ii. 311.

   Amastris, city of Paphlagonia, (_Amassera_), i. 475; ii. 285, 289,
     290, 291, 302.

   Amastris, wife of Dionysius, tyrant of Heracleia, ii. 291.

   Amathus, r. of Elis, ii. 7, 11, 26, 38.

   ——, t. of Cyprus (_Limasol_), iii. 69.

   ——, t. of Laconia, ii. 41.

   Amathusii, ii. 13.

   Amazones, plain of the, i. 82, 190.

   Amazonides, ii. 298.

   Amazons, ii. 300, 301, 328, _passim_.

   Ambarvia, i. 341.

   Ambiani, i. 289, 309.

   Amblada, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324.

   —— wine, ii. 324.

   Ambracia, t. of Thesprotia (_Arta_), i. 498, 499; ii. 159, 161.

   Ambracian Gulf, Ambracian Sea, (_The Gulf of Arta_), i. 186, 495,
     496-498, 501, 505; ii. 4, 129, 158, 161, 171.

   Ambrōnes, i. 274.

   Ambryseis, ii. 123.

   Ambrysus, t. of Phocis (_Distomo_), ii. 122.

   _Amelia._ _See_ Ameria.

   Amĕnanus, r. of Sicily (_Judicello_), i. 356.

   Ameria, t. of Umbria (_Amelia_), i. 338.

   ——, t. of Pontus, ii. 306.

   Amisēne, ii. 290, 294, 296.

   Amiseni, ii. 290, 294, 296, 310, 311.

   Amisus (_Samsun_), i. 106, 107, 109, 113, 114, 190; ii. 227, 256, 289,
     294, 296, 302, 310; iii. 44, 56, 62, 63.

   Amiternum, city of the Sabines, i. 338, 359.

   Ammon Balithon, prom., iii. 288.

   ——, seat of oracle, i. 504; iii. 226, 253, 258, 283.

   ——, temple of, i. 78, 79, 87, 88; iii. 253, 258, 289, 294, 295.

   Ammonia, iii. 235.

   Amnias, r. of Paphlagonia (_Gok-Irmak_), ii. 313.

   Amnisus, port of Cnossus, ii. 196.

   Amorgos, isl. (_Amorgo_), ii. 211.

   Amorium, t. of Phrygia (_Hergan-Kelêh_), ii. 332.

   Ampelus, prom. of Samos, ii. 212; iii. 8.

   Amphaxītis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 506, 509.

   Amphiale, prom. of Attica, ii. 84.

   Amphiaræum, ii. 90.

   Amphiaraus, ii. 90, 96, 97, 174; iii. 15.

   Amphictyons, ii. 116-120, 128, 130.

   Amphictyonic body, ii. 55, 109, 118.

   Amphidolia, Amphidolis, t. of Elis, ii. 14, 23.

   Amphigeneia, t. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24.

   Amphilochi, t. of Spain, i. 236.

   Amphilochians, i. 410, 493, 499; ii. 131, 158, 174.

   Amphilochic Argos. _See_ Argos.

   Amphilochus, i. 236, 410, 499; ii. 174, 175; iii. 15, 50, 59, 60.

   Amphimalla, t. of Crete, ii. 194.

   Amphinomus, i. 405, 502.

   Amphion, ii. 36, 107.

   Amphipolis (_Emboli_), i. 202, 513, 514, 516.

   Amphiscii, i. 146.

   Amphissa (_Salona_, or _Lampeni_), ii. 127, 128.

   Amphissenses, ii. 116.

   Amphistratus, ii. 224.

   Amphitryōn, ii. 166, 170, 173.

   Amphius, ii. 346.

   Amphrysus, r. of Thessaly, ii. 135, 138.

   Ampsani. See Campsiani, i. 447.

   _Ampurias._ See Emporium.

   Amulius, i. 340.

   Amyclæ, city of Laconia, i. 424; ii. 40-42.

   Amycteres, iii. 108.

   Amydōn, t. of Macedonia, i. 508-510.

   Amymōne, mother of Nauplius, ii. 48.

   ——, fountain at Lerna, ii. 52.

   Amynander, ii. 128.

   Amyntas, father of Philip, i. 472, 492, 500, 509, 510; ii. 39, 111.

   ——, successor of king Deiotarus, ii. 320-325, 333; iii. 297.

   Amyntor, ii. 142, 143.

   Amyrus, ii. 147; iii. 22.

   Amythaonidæ, ii. 52,

   Amyzōn, t. of Caria, iii. 37.

   Anabūra, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324.

   Anacharsis, i. 463, 465; iii. 86.

   Anacreon, i. 226; iii. 2, 9, 17, 40.

   Anactorium, t. of Acarnania, ii. 159, 161.

   Anacyndaraxes, iii. 55.

   Anadatus, ii. 246.

   Anæa, Anaïtis, iii. 137, 144. _See_ Anaïtis.

   Anagnia, t. of the Hernici (_Anagni_), i. 353.

   Anagurasii, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.

   Anaïtis, ii. 246.

   ——, temple of, ii. 274, 275, 309.

   Anaphe, isl. (_Nanfio_), i. 73; ii. 206, 207.

   Anaphlystii, ii. 89.

   Anaphlystus, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.

   Anapias, i. 406.

   Anariacæ, ii. 240-242, 248.

   Anariace, ii. 241.

   Anas (_Guadiana_), r. of Spain, i. 208-212, 214, 222, 228, 230, 243.

   Anaurus, r. of Magnesia, ii. 139.

   Anaxagoras, iii. 20.

   Anaxarchus, ii. 356.

   Anaxēnor, iii. 23.

   Anaxicrates, iii. 191.

   Anaxilas, the tyrant of Rhegium, i. 384, 385.

   Anaximander, the Milesian, i. 1, 12; iii. 5.

   Anaximenes of Lampsacus, disciple of Anaximander, ii. 350; iii. 5, 20.

   Ancæus, iii. 2.

   Anchiale, a town of Pontus, i. 490.

   ——, t. of Cilicia, iii. 55, 56.

   Anchialus, ii. 166.

   Anchises, i. 339; ii. 344, 353, 378.

   Anchoë, ii. 100.

   Ancon, Ancona, i. 315, 337, 357, 435, 483.

   Ancus Martius, i. 326, 345, 348.

   Ancyra, t. of Galatia (_Angora_), i. 279; ii. 320.

   ——, t. of Phrygia (_Simau-Gol_), ii. 320, 332.

   ——, t. of Gaul, i. 279.

   Andania, t. of Arcadia, ii. 11, 24, 37, 156.

   Andeira, city of Mysia, ii. 381, 386, 387.

   Andeirene, ii. 387.

   Andetrium, t. of Dalmatia, i. 484.

   Andirus, r. of the Troad, ii. 370.

   Andizetii, i. 483.

   Andræmōn, iii. 2.

   Andriace, t. of Thrace, i. 490.

   Andriclus, mtn of Cilicia (_Kara Gedik_), iii. 52.

   Andrii, i. 511.

   Androclus, iii. 2, 11.

   Andromache, ii. 343, 356, 363, 394.

   Andromeda, i. 68; iii. 175.

   Andron, ii. 81, 167, 195.

   Andronicus, iii. 33.

   Andropompus, iii. 2.

   Andros, isl. (_Andro_), ii. 156, 208, 210.

   Androsthenes, iii. 186.

   Anemurium, prom. of Cilicia (_Inamur_), iii. 52, 54, 68.

   Anemoreia, Anemoleia, t. of Phocis, ii. 123.

   _Angelo-Castron._ _See_ Arsinoë.

   _Angora._ _See_ Ancyra.

   Anias, r. of Arcadia, ii. 76.

   Anigriades, ii. 19, 20.

   Anigrus, r. of Triphylia, ii. 20, 21.

   Anio, r. of Latium (_Teverone_), i. 349.

   Anniceric sect, iii. 293.

   Anniceris, iii. 293.

   Annius, ii. 17.

   Ansander, i. 479.

   Antæus, iii. 281.

   _Antakieh._ _See_ Epidaphne.

   Antalcidas, i. 438.

   Antandria, ii. 375, 384.

   Antandrians, ii. 386.

   Antandros (_San Dimitri_), ii. 186.

   ——, t. of the Troad (_Antandro_), ii. 375, 376, 384.

   Antemnæ, t. of Latium, i. 341.

   Antenor, i. 76, 225, 236, 316; ii. 289, 377.

   Antenoridæ, ii. 360, 377.

   Anthedon, c. of Bœotia, i. 25; ii. 92, 98, 102, 103, 106.

   Antheia, ii. 35, 37.

   Anthemis, ii. 168.

   Anthemus, iii. 8.

   Anthemusia, iii. 158.

   Anthes, ii. 56; iii. 35.

   _Antibes._ _See_ Antipolis.

   Anticasius, mtn of Syria, iii. 164.

   Anticeites, r. of the Mæotæ, ii. 221, 222.

   Anti-Cinolis, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291.

   Anticlides, i. 329.

   Anticragus, iii. 46.

   Anticyra, t. of Phocis (_Aspra-Spitia_), ii. 114, 116, 122, 129.

   ——, t. of Locris, ii. 137.

   ——, t. on the Maliac bay, ii. 116, 137.

   Antigonia, t. of Bithynia, ii. 318.

   ——, t. of the Troad, ii. 355, 361.

   ——, t. of Syria, iii. 162.

   Antigonus, son of Philip, ii. 318, 355, 361; iii. 20, 55, 162.

   ——, king of Macedonia, ii. 70.

   ——, of Apelles, iii. 36.

   Antilibanus, mtn of Syria, iii. 149, 169, 171.

   Antilochus, ii. 359.

   Antimachus, ii. 18, 42, 74, 104, 348.

   Antimenidas, ii. 391.

   Antimnestus, i. 385.

   Antioch, i. 416; ii. 307, 409; iii. 21, 24, 43, 118, 159, 161-164.

   ——, city of Mygdonia, iii. 157.

   Antiocheia, city of Caria, ii. 409; iii. 21, 24, 43.

   ——, city of Phrygia (_Ialobatsch_), ii. 307, 322, 333.

   ——, city of Margiana, ii. 252.

   Antiochis, dr of Achæus, and mother of Attalus, ii. 400.

   Antiochus, the Syracusan, i. 360, 379, 385, 394, 398, 399, 424.

   —— the Great, i. 439; ii. 269, 273, 285, 355, 400; iii. 46, 153, 176.

   —— Sōter, ii. 252, 333, 400.

   ——, son of Demetrius, iii. 51.

   ——, son of Epiphanes, iii. 162.

   —— Ierax, iii. 198.

   ——, philosopher of Ascalon, iii. 175.

   Antiope, ii. 97.

   _Antiparos._ _See_ Oliarus.

   Antipater, of Macedon, i. 513; ii. 56, 136, 318.

   Antipater, son of Sisis, ii. 304.

   Antipater, Derbētes, the robber, ii. 278, 322; iii. 64.

   —— of Tarsus, the Stoic, iii. 58.

   —— of Tyre, iii. 173.

   Antiphanes, the Bergæan, i. 74, 152, 154.

   Antiphellus, t. of Lycia, iii. 47.

   Antiphilus, harbour of, iii. 196.

   Antiphræ, iii. 235, 236.

   Antiphus, ii. 149, 403; iii. 31.

   Antipolis, t. of Gaul (_Antibes_), i. 267, 275, 276, 301.

   Antirrhium, prom. of Ætolia (_Castle of Roumelia_), ii. 6, 73, 79, 128,
     171.

   —— cape, ii. 6.

   Antirrhodus, isl. iii. 230.

   Antissa, t. of Lesbos, i. 93; ii. 393.

   Antitaurus (_Dudschik Dagh_), ii. 259, 260.

   Antium, t. of the Volsci (_Capo d’ Anzo_), i. 344-346, 355.

   Antonius, Marcus, ii. 166.

   ——, Caius, ii. 166.

   Antony, i. 213, 499; ii. 36, 263, 271, 274, 285, 294, 330, 334, 357,
     358; iii. 23, 52, 56, 58, 72, 159, 184, 230, 231, 233, 281.

   Antrōn, t. of Thessaly, ii. 24, 135, 138, 139.

   ——, Ass of, ii. 139.

   Anubis, iii. 245, 257.

   _Anzo, Capo d’._ _See_ Antium.

   Aones, i. 493; ii. 88, 93.

   Aonian plain, ii. 108.

   Aornum, castle of India, iii. 6.

   Aornus, bay of Campania, i. 39.

   Aorsi, ii. 219, 239.

   Aōus, r. of Illyria, i. 486. _See_ Aias.

   _Aouste._ _See_ Augusta.

   Apæsus, t. of the Troad. _See_ Pæsus, ii. 346, 349.

   Apama, wife of Seleucus Nicator, ii. 334; iii. 161.

   ——, wife of Prusias, ii. 315.

   Apameia, city of Syria (_Kulat-el-Mudik_), ii. 250; iii. 33, 161-166,
     171.

   Apameia, city of Phrygia (_Aphiom Kara Hissar_), ii. 322, 323,
     332-336, 407, 410; iii. 43.

   ——, city of Media, ii. 250, 264.

   ——, city of Bithynia, ii. 315.

   Apameis, ii. 316.

   Aparni, _see_ Parni, ii. 245, 246.

   Apasiacæ, ii. 248.

   Apaturum, ii. 223.

   Apellas. _See_ Ophelas.

   Apelles, philosopher, i. 23.

   ——, painter, iii. 14.

   ——, Antigonus of, iii. 36.

   Apellicon, ii. 379, 380; iii. 17.

   Apennine Mount, the, i. 308.

   Apennines, i. 193, 300, 314-316, 322, 324-326, 331, 336-338, 344, 347,
     357, 388, 431, 432, 437.

   Aphamiōtæ, iii. 76.

   Aphetæ, t. of Thessaly, ii. 139, 143.

   Aphidna, Aphidnæ, vill. of Attica, ii. 39, 86, 88.

   _Aphiom Kara Hissar._ _See_ Apameia.

   Aphneii, ii. 317, 346.

   Aphnēïs, wife of Pixodarus, iii. 35.

   Aphnitis, lake of, same as Dascylītis, in Mysia (_Diaskillo_, al.
     _Biga_), i. 92; ii. 346.

   Aphrodisias, city of Phrygia (_Geira_), ii. 332, 409.

   Aphrodisium, city of Cyprus, iii. 69.

   ——, temple of Venus, i. 271, 272.

   Aphrodite (Venus), i. 346; ii. 62, 136, 155, 376.

   —— Acrocorinthus, temple of, at, ii. 62.

   —— Acræa, iii. 69.

   —— Anadyomene, painting of Apelles, iii. 36.

   —— Apatura, ii. 223.

   —— Arsinoë, iii. 238.

   ——, Cyprian, iii. 69.

   —— Castnietis, ii. 141.

   —— Colias, ii. 89.

   ——, Paphian, iii. 70.

   ——, Pyrenæan, temple of, i. 267, 272.

   ——, temple of, at Comana, ii. 309.

   ——, at Corinth, ii. 61, 309

   Aphrodite, temple of, in Elis, ii. 16.

   ——, at Erycina, i. 412.

   ——, at Lavinium, i. 345.

   ——, at Memphis, iii. 248.

   ——, in Tritonis, iii. 291.

   ——, at Pyrrha, ii. 376.

   Aphrodites Hormus, iii. 193.

   Aphroditopolis, iii. 240, 253, 258, 263.

   Aphytis, t. of Pallene, i. 511.

   Apia, plain of, in Mysia, ii. 390.

   Apia, Apian land (_Morea_), i. 15; ii. 52.

   Apidanus, r. of Thessaly (_Gura_), ii. 32, 134.

   Apidones, ii. 52.

   Apiola, t. of the Volsci, i. 344.

   Apis, vill. of Marmara, iii. 235.

   ——, god of the Egyptians, iii. 241, 245, 247, 248.

   Apobathra, near Sestos, ii. 352.

   Apœcus, iii. 2.

   Apollo, i. 385, 491, 499, 504; ii. 55, 64, 89, 95, 109, 115, 119-121,
     155, 162, 190, 208, 334; iii. 70, 146, 179, 186, 258, 259, 261, 263.

   —— Actius, i. 498, 499; ii. 158, 161, 384.

   —— Ægletes, ii. 206.

   ——, Cataonian, ii. 280.

   —— Cillæus, ii. 384, 385, 393.

   —— Clarius, ii. 15.

   ——, Delphian, temple of the, i. 268.

   —— Didymeus, iii. 4.

   —— Erythibius, ii. 386.

   —— Gryneus, ii. 393.

   —— Hecatus, ii. 393.

   —— Laphrius, ii. 171.

   —— Larisæus, ii. 396.

   —— Leucatas, ii. 162.

   —— Marmarinus, ii. 153.

   —— Musegetes, ii. 183.

   ——, Phyllæan, ii. 138.

   —— Pornopion, ii. 386.

   ——, Pythian, ii. 115.

   —— Selinuntius, ii. 152.

   —— Smintheus, ii. 210, 372-374, 384, 385, 393.

   —— Teneates, temple of, ii. 63.

   —— Thymbræus, ii. 363.

   Apollo, Tilphōsian, ii. 107.

   ——, Ulius, iii. 5.

   ——, Colossus of, i. 490.

   ——, temples of, i. 73, 490; iii. 19, 20, 162.

   ——, temple of, at Actium, i. 498.

   ——, at Adrasteia, ii. 348.

   ——, at Amyclæ, ii. 40.

   ——, in Argolis and Bœotia, ii. 47.

   ——, at Anapha, ii. 206.

   ——, at Calydon, ii. 171.

   ——, at Ceos, ii. 210.

   ——, at Chalcia, ii. 213.

   ——, in Chios, iii. 20.

   ——, at Chrysa, ii. 374, 384-386.

   ——, at Cyprus, iii. 69.

   ——, at Delos, ii. 207.

   ——, at Delphi, i. 417.

   ——, at Grynium, ii. 397.

   ——, at Orobiæ, ii. 152.

   ——, at Rhodes, ii. 386.

   ——, between Smyrna and Clazomene, iii. 20.

   Apollocrates, i. 389.

   Apollodorean sect, ii. 402.

   Apollodorus, the grammarian, i. 378, 457, 460, 466, 502; ii. 10, 11,
     48, 50, 98, 300; iii. 61, 63-67, 73.

   —— of Artemita, the historian, i. 49, 68, 71, 78, 96, 178; ii. 250,
        252, 253, 264.

   ——, orator, ii. 402.

   Apollonia, t. of Mœsia, i. 490.

   ——, city of Macedonia, i. 509, 512, 513, 518.

   ——, city of Epirus (_Polina_), i. 202, 411, 486, 495, 500; ii. 33,
         124; iii. 183.

   ——, city of Lydia, ii. 402.

   ——, city of Cyrenæa, iii. 292, 294.

   ——, city of Syria, iii. 165.

   ——, city of Mysia, ii. 331.

   Apollonias, arsenal of Cyrene, iii. 292.

   ——, city of Phrygia (_Tschol-Abad_), ii. 322, 332.

   Apolloniatæ, i. 486, 490; iii. 135.

   Apolloniatis, district of Babylon, ii. 264; iii. 135, 142.

   ——, lake of Mysia (_Loubadi_), ii. 331, 332.

   Apollōnides, i. 475; ii. 262, 269.

   Apollōnis, wife of Attalus, ii. 400, 402.

   ——, city of Lydia, ii. 402; iii. 21.

   Apollonium, prom. in the bay of Carthage, iii. 285.

   Apollonius of Erythræ, iii. 18.

   —— Cronos, iii. 37, 294.

   ——, physician, iii. 69.

   ——, grammarian, iii. 41.

   ——, Stoic, iii. 26.

   —— Malacus, iii. 33, 40, 41.

   —— the Cyrenæan. _See_ Cronos.

   —— Alabanda, iii. 34, 40, 41.

   —— of Rhodes, iii. 34.

   —— of Tyre, iii. 173.

   Apollonnesoi, Hecatonnesoi, ii. 393.

   Apollonopolis, city of Egypt, iii. 261, 263.

   Appaïtæ, ii. 296.

   Appia Via, i. 346, 347, 351, 352, 355, 370, 431, 432.

   Apsus, r. of Illyria, i. 486.

   Apsynthis, district of Thrace, i. 519.

   Apsyrtides (islands), i. 484.

   Apsyrtus, i. 484.

   Aptera, t. of Crete, ii. 200.

   Apuli, i. 360, 432, 436.

   Apulia. _See_ Daunia, i. 423, 432.

   Aquæ-Statiellæ, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Acqui_), i. 323.

   Aquileia, i. 186, 307, 309, 310, 319, 321, 324, 435, 448, 482.

   Aquinum, t. of Latium (_Aquino_), i. 352.

   Aquitani, i. 264, 265, 282, 283, 284.

   Aquitania, Aquitaine, i. 242, 247, 282-285, 296, 310.

   Arabia, i. 63, 197, 458; iii. 86, 88, 89, 132, 148, 149, 171, 176,
     185, 186, 189-217, 241, 243, 247, 252, 261, 266.

   ——, Felix, i. 41, 63, 129, 130, 178, 196; iii. 128, 159, 171, 176,
         185, 186, 189, 209, 213; iii. 76.

   Arabia Nabatæa, iii. 241.

   Arabian Gulf, the (_Red Sea_), i. 47, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 67, 75, 79,
     87, 123, 129, 130, 149, 152, 178, 183, 196, 200, 458; ii. 210;
     iii. 74, 88, 176, 185, 189, 191, 194-208, 210, 217, 224, 226, 235,
     241, 243, 244, 260, 270, 271, 291.

   Arabians, i. 63, 66, 67, 196, 458; ii. 154, et passim.

   ——, Skenitæ, ii. 146, 158, 159.

   ——, Troglodyte, i. 2, 67.

   Arabs, tribes of, i. 440.

   Arabus, daughter of, i. 67.

   Araby the Blest, iii. 76.

   Arachōsia, distr. of Ariana, ii. 252.

   Arachōti, ii. 249.

   ——, people of Ariana, ii. 248; iii. 122, 124, 126.

   Aracynthus, a mtn of Ætolia (_M. Zigos_), ii. 160, 172.

   Aradii, iii. 167, 168, 170, 215.

   Aradus, isl. in the Persian Gulf, (_Arek_), iii. 187.

   ——, city of Phœnicia, iii. 167, 169, 172.

   Aræthyrea, distr. of Argolis, ii. 59, 66.

   Aragus, r. (_Arak_), ii. 230, 231.

   _Arak._ _See_ Aragus.

   Arambi, iii. 216. _See_ Arabians.

   Aramæi, Arammæans, i. 66; ii. 404; iii. 216.

   Arar, r. of Gaul (_Saone_), i. 277, 278, 281, 286, 287, 288.

   Ararene, distr. of Arabia, iii. 212.

   Arathus, r. of Epirus, i. 498, 501.

   Aratus, poet, i. 4, 156; ii. 42, 73, 199, 207, 209; iii. 55.

   ——, leader of the Achæi, ii. 66, 70.

   Arausio, t. of the Cavari (_Orange_), i. 277.

   Araxēnæ, distr. of Armenia, i. 113; ii. 242.

   Araxenian plain, ii. 268, 270.

   Araxēnus, ii. 268.

   Araxes, r. of Armenia (_Eraskh_, or _Aras_), i. 96; ii. 217, 232, 263,
     268, 270, 272.

   Araxes, r. of Scythia, ii. 247.

   ——, r. of Persis (_Bendamir_), iii. 132.

   Araxus, prom. of Elis (_Cape Papa_), ii. 5, 6, 7, 8, 15, 74, 169.

   Arbaces, iii. 143.

   Arbēla, t. of Assyria (_Erbil_), i. 123; ii. 274; iii. 143, 144, 259.

   Arbēlus, iii. 144.

   Arbies, iii. 120.

   Arbis, r. of Gedrosia (_Purali_), iii. 120.

   Arcadia, i. 94, 343, 416; ii. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 22, 28, 32, 33,
     37, 52, 74-77, 142, 153, 156, 327, 339; iii. 145.

   Arcadian mountains, ii. 40.

   —— cities, ii. 71.

   Arcadians, Arcades, i. 328, 329, 432; ii. 3, 8, 22, 24, 31, 39, 76.

   Arcadicus, ii. 16.

   Arcesilaus, i. 23; ii. 387.

   Arceuthus, r. of Syria, iii. 164.

   Archæanax, ii. 365.

   Archan, ii. 388.

   Archedēmus, the Stoic, iii. 58.

   Archelaus, king, ii. 277, 278, 282, 284, 285, 305-308; iii. 54, 232.

   ——, priest, ii. 308; iii. 232.

   ——, father of priest, ii. 308; iii. 232.

   ——, son of Penthilus, ii. 340.

   ——, physician, iii. 20.

   ——, play of Euripides, i. 329.

   Archemachus, ii. 178.

   Archias, Corinthian, founder of Syracuse, i. 394, 406, 407; ii. 63.

   ——, general of Antipater, ii. 55.

   Archidamus, i. 427.

   Archilochus, ii. 50, 169, 210, 298; iii. 23.

   Archimedes, i. 85, 87.

   Archytas, i. 427.

   Arconnesus, iii. 16, 35.

   Arctic Circle, i. 4, 5, 144, 200.

   —— constellation, i. 5.

   Arcton, mtn, ii. 331.

   Arcturus, i. 201; iii. 82, 83.

   Ardania, prom. of Marmara, i. 64.

   Ardanis, Ardanixis (_Ras-el-Milhr_), iii. 294.

   Ardea, city of the Rutuli, i. 339, 346, 371.

   _Ardgeh._ _See_ Argæus.

   Ardia, distr. of Dalmatia, i. 481.

   Ardiæi, i. 483-485, 487, 488, 489, 505.

   Ardium, mtn of Dalmatia, i. 484.

   Arduenna (_forest of Ardennes_), i. 290.

   Arēcomisci. _See_ Volcæ.

   Arēgon, ii. 16.

   Areion, ii. 97.

   Areius, iii. 53.

   _Arek._ _See_ Aradus.

   Arelate, t. of Gaul (_Arles_), i. 272.

   Arēne, t. of Triphylia, ii. 20-23, 27, 38.

   Areopagite code, i. 390.

   Arēs. _See_ Mars.

   Aretas, iii. 212.

   Arēte, iii. 212, 293.

   Arethusa, castle of Syria, iii. 166, 167.

   ——, ftn of Chalcis, ii. 157.

   ——, ftn of the Island of Ortygia, i. 408, 409.

   ——, city of Macedonia, i. 514.

   _Arezzo._ _See_ Arretium.

   Argæsus, mtn of Cappadocia (_Ardgeh or Edschise Dagh_), i. 113;
     ii. 282.

   Arganthōnius, king of Tartessus, i. 226.

   ——, mtn of Bithynia, ii. 315.

   Argeadæ, i. 506, 508.

   Argeia. _See_ Argia.

   Argennum, prom. of Ionia, iii. 18.

   _Argentière._ _See_ Cimolus.

   Argestes (N.W. wind), i. 45; ii. 80.

   Argia, Argolis, Argeia, i. 187, 416; ii. 6, 51, 66.

   Argian territory, ii. 52, 58.

   Argillæ (under-ground passages), i. 363.

   Argilus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512.

   Arginussæ, islands, ii. 388, 391.

   Argissa, Argūra, t. of Pelasgiotis, ii. 143, 144.

   Argive territory, ii. 51-55, 76, 158.

   Argives, i. 55, 102; ii. 8, 39, 47, 48, 49, 51-55, 58-60, 66, 97, 174,
     175.

   Argo, the ship, i. 72, 73, 332; ii. 139, 315.

   Argolic Bay (_Gulf of Napoli_), ii. 6, 47.

   Argolica, ii. 58, 75.

   Argolis (_see_ Argia), i. 410, 416; ii. 58.

   Argonautic expedition, i. 31.

   Argonautics, iii. 34.

   Argonauts, i. 71-73, 332; ii. 21, 111, 139, 148, 331.

   Argos, i. 35, 329, 410, 486; ii. 12, 42, 43, 48-56, 58-60, 71, 76, 77,
     97, 110, 124, 133, 203; iii. 41, 60.

   ——, Pelasgic, i. 328; ii. 50, 52, 132, 133.

   ——, Inachian, ii. 74.

   ——, Achæan, ii. 43, 49, 50.

   ——, castle of Cappadocia, ii. 281.

   ——, Amphilochian, city of Acarnania (_Neochori_), i. 410, 499;
         ii. 159, 174, 175.

   ——, Hippium, i. 320, 433; ii. 49.

   ——, Jasum, ii. 49, 50, 52.

   ——, Orestic, city of Epirus or Macedonia, i. 500.

   ——, distr. of Peloponnesus, ii. 50-55.

   Argoüs, harbour of Æthalia, i. 332.

   Argūra. _See_ Argissa.

   Argyria, city of the Troad, ii. 300, 371.

   Argyrippa. _See_ Argos-Hippium.

   Argyrippeni, port of, i. 433.

   _Argyrokastro._ _See_ Phyle.

   Argyrusci, i. 344.

   Aria, distr. of Persia, i. 112-114; ii. 246, 251, 252; iii. 124, 125.

   Ariamazas, rock of, ii. 254.

   Ariana, i. 121, 125, 127-129; ii. 218, 252, 253, 263; iii. 78, 88,
     119-129.

   Ariani, i. 66, 104, 196; iii. 125.

   Ariarathes, ii. 277, 283, 401.

   Aricia, t. of Latium (_La Riccia_), i. 344, 355.

   Aridæus, iii. 229.

   Arii (_Herat_), ii. 245, 248, 249, 254; iii. 124, 125.

   Arima, mtns of Cilicia, ii. 405.

   Arimæi. _See_ Aramæi.

   Arimaspi, i. 32; ii. 240.

   Arimaspian poems, ii. 349.

   Arimi, ii. 304, 403-405; iii. 163, 216.

   Ariminum, t. of Umbria (_Rimini_), i. 314, 315, 322, 324, 326, 336,
     337, 357.

   Ariminus, r. of Umbria, i. 323.

   Arimus, ii. 406.

   Ariobarzanes, ii. 285.

   Arion, ii. 393.

   Arisba, t. of the Troad, ii. 344, 350, 351; iii. 5.

   Arisbus, in Thrace, ii. 351.

   Aristarcha, i. 268, 269.

   Aristarchus, i. 48, 49, 51, 57, 156; ii. 380; iii. 26.

   Aristeas, of Proconnesus, i. 32; ii. 349; iii. 10.

   Aristeides, painter, ii. 64.

   Aristera, or left coast of Pontus, ii. 286.

   Aristio, ii. 89.

   Aristippus, Socratic philosopher, iii. 293.

   —— Metrodidactos, iii. 293.

   Aristo, Athenian, i. 23.

   ——, of Ceos, ii. 210; iii. 225, 226.

   ——, of Cos, iii. 36.

   ——, of Rhegium, i. 390, 391.

   Aristobulus, ii. 243, 254; iii. 55, 83-86, 95, 102, 111, 112, 133,
     148, 150, 187, 274.

   ——, king of Judæa, iii. 180.

   Aristocles, iii. 34.

   Aristocrates, ii. 39.

   Aristodemus, iii. 26, 27.

   Aristonicus, grammarian, i. 60.

   ——, iii. 20, 21.

   Aristopatra, iii. 96.

   Aristotle, i. 44, 143, 144, 156, 229, 273, 459, 494, 512, 513;
     ii. 18, 55, 56, 64, 151, 154, 156, 363, 378-382, 392, 393;
     iii. 86, 98, 173, 225.

   Aristoxenus, i. 25.

   Aristus, of Salamis, iii. 69, 134.

   Arius, r. of Aria, ii. 252, 254.

   Ariusia, in Chios, iii. 19.

   _Arles._ _See_ Arelate.

   Armĕne, t. of Paphlagonia (_Ak-Liman_), ii. 291.

   Armĕnia, i. 72, 76, 78, 95, 113, 115, 120, 122, 123, 126, 127, 177,
     195; ii. 217, 218, 226, 227, 230-235, 238, 245, 259, 260-272, 276,
     284-286, 304-306, 309, 310; iii. 108, 109, 147, 150, 154, 156, 157.

   ——, Greater, ii. 260, 262, 305; iii. 150.

   ——, the Lesser, ii. 260, 267, 269, 286, 294, 296, 304, 305, 310;
         iii. 63, 150.

   ——, gates of, i. 123, 124.

   ——, mountains, i. 96, 115, 120, 122, 126, 127; ii. 226, 241.

   Armenians, i. 66, 196, 440; ii. 216, 230, 239, 260, 263-277, 294, 296,
     304, 309; iii. 216.

   Armenium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 235, 272.

   Armenius, i. 446.

   Armenus, ii. 235, 272.

   _Armyrus._ _See_ Itonus.

   Arnæi, inhabitants of Thessaly, ii. 93.

   Arnæus, ii. 300.

   Arnarium, ii. 70.

   _Arnauti._ _See_ Acamas.

   Arnè, city of Thessaly, i. 92; ii. 107, 110, 138, 143.

   Arnus, r. of Etruria (_Arno_), i. 330.

   Arŏma, t. of Lydia, iii. 26.

   Arotrebæ. _See_ Artabri.

   Arotria. _See_ Eretria.

   _Arpas-Kalessi._ _See_ Coscinia.

   Arpi, t. of the Daunii. _See_ Argos Hippium and Argyrippa, i. 433.

   Arpina, ii. 32.

   Arrechi, ii. 223.

   Arrētium, city of Etruria (_Arezzo_), i. 330, 335, 336.

   Arrhabæus, i. 500.

   Arsacæ, iii. 97, 160.

   Arsaces, a Scythian, ii. 248, 251.

   Arsaces, son of Pharnaces, ii. 311.

   Arsacia, city of Media, same as Rhaga, ii. 264.

   Arsēne, lake of Armenia (_Thospitis or Van_), ii. 270.

   Arses, iii. 141.

   Arsinoë, t. of Cilicia (_Softa-Kalessi_), iii. 52.

   ——, two towns of Cyprus, iii. 69, 70, 72.

   ——, t. of Ethiopia, iii. 193, 199.

   ——, t. of Cyrene, iii. 291.

   ——, t. of Egypt, iii. 243, 244.

   ——, formerly _Crocodilopolis_, iii. 256, 257.

   ——, t. of Œtolia (_Angelo-Castron_), ii. 172.

   ——, same as Ephesus, iii. 12.

   ——, same as Patara, iii. 47.

   ——, prom. of Cyprus, iii. 70.

   Arsinoite nome, iii. 223, 253, 256.

   Arsinoïtes, iii. 256.

   Arsīnus. _See_ Erasīnus.

   Arsites, satrap of Phrygia, iii. 188.

   _Arsus._ _See_ Rhosus.

   _Arta, Gulf of._ _See_ Ambracic Gulf.

   Artabazus, ii. 334.

   Artabri, Arotrebæ, people of Lusitania, i. 181, 206, 221, 230, 262.

   ——, port of the, i. 230.

   Artacaëna, city of Aria, ii. 252.

   Artace, mtn, ii. 332.

   ——, island, ii. 332; iii. 5.

   ——, t. there situated, ii. 340; iii. 5.

   Artacēne, iii. 144.

   Artagēræ, castle of Armenia, ii. 270.

   _Artaki._ _See_ Cyzicus.

   Artamita, Apollodorus of, ii. 252.

   Artanes, ii. 273.

   Artavasdes, ii. 263, 270, 271, 274.

   Artaxata, city of Armenia, ii. 269, 270.

   Artaxerxes, i. 78; iii. 34.

   Artaxias, ii. 269, 270, 273.

   Artaxiasata, _see_ Artaxata, ii. 270.

   Artemidorus, of Ephesus, i. 207, 208, 223, 235, 236, 239, 246, 251,
     255, 258, 274, 277, 295, 332, 364, 393, 402, 435, 518; ii. 5, 48,
     77; iii. 12, 15, 34, 43-45, 53, 59, 62, 118, 192, 201-203, 208,
     239, 243, 276, 281, 282.

   Artemidorus, of Cnidus, iii. 34.

   ——, of Tarsus, iii. 59.

   Artemis. _See_ Diana.

   Artemisia, iii. 35.

   Artemisium, Dianium, t. of Iberia, i. 239.

   ——, prom. of Caria, with temple of Diana, iii. 28.

   ——, or Grove of Diana, i. 355, 356.

   ——, at Ephesus, ii. 73.

   Artemita, t. of Assyria (_Shirban_), ii. 257, 264; iii. 152.

   ——, one of the Echinades, i. 93.

   Artimachus, ii. 348.

   Artis, iii. 2.

   Aruaci, i. 243.

   Arupenum, t. of the Iapodes (_Auersperg, or the Flecken Mungava_),
     i. 309, 483.

   Arverni (_inhabitants of Vélai_), i. 281, 284, 285, 289, 291, 293.

   Arxata, city of Armenia, ii. 270.

   _Arzila._ _See_ Zelis.

   Asander, i. 479; ii. 224, 401.

   Asbystæ, i. 198.

   Asca, t. of Arabia, iii. 212.

   Ascæus, ii. 307.

   Ascalon, city of Judæa (_Asculan_), iii. 175, 176.

   Ascalonitæ, iii. 175.

   Ascania, region of Phrygia, ii. 300, 316-318; iii. 66, 67.

   ——, region of Mysia or Bithynia, ii. 316-318; iii. 66, 67.

   ——, vill. of Mysia, iii. 67.

   Ascanius, lake of Bithynia (_Isnik-Gol_), ii. 314, 318; iii. 66, 67.

   ——, son of Æneas, i. 339, 340; ii. 377, 378.

   ——, leader of the Phrygians and Mysians, ii. 316, 317.

   Asclēpiadæ, in Thessaly, ii. 136, 142.

   Asclepiades, of Prusa, ii. 318.

   ——, the Myrlean, i. 235, 249.

   Asclepieium, iii. 36.

   Asclepius, i. 114; ii. 9, 56, 141; iii. 22.

   ——, temple of, at Carthage, iii. 285.

   ——, Celæni, in the Troad, ii. 371.

   ——, in the Island of Cos, iii. 36.

   ——, of Epidaurus, ii. 56, 321.

   ——, of Gerenia, ii. 36.

   ——, of Olenus, ii. 71.

   ——, of Tricca, ii. 36, 56, 141.

   ——, grove of, between Berytus and Sidon, iii. 171.

   Ascra, t. of Bœotia, ii. 104, 105, 110, 122, 398.

   Asculum Picēnum (_Ascoli_), i. 358.

   Asdrubal, i. 238.

   ——, wife of, iii. 285.

   Asea, a village of Arcadia, ii. 15.

   Asia, i. 22, 50, 55, 56, 88, 103, 105, 156, 161, 162, 179, 183, 187,
     188, 190, 191, 194, 197, 213, 431, 437, 439-441, 453, 465, 466, 477,
     478, 490, 510, 517, 518; ii. 2, 32, 60, 62, 68, 93, 145, 154, 209;
     iii. 38, 39, 98, _et passim_.

   ——, Upper, ii. 244.

   ——, Eastern, ii. 244.

   ——, a Roman province, ii. 401.

   ——, within the Taurus, ii. 333.

   Asiatic coast, ii. 491.

   Asii, ii. 245.

   Asinæan Gulf. _See_ Messenian Gulf, ii. 35.

   Asinæus, ii. 36.

   Asine, city of Messenia, ii. 35-37, 54, 55.

   ——, city of Laconia, ii. 41.

   ——, city of Argolis (_Fornos_), ii. 49, 54, 58.

   ——, Hermionic, ii. 36.

   Asinius, i. 287.

   Asioneis, Esioneis, ii. 405.

   Asisium, i. 338.

   Asius, son of Dymas, ii. 351.

   ——, poet, i. 399.

   ——, Hyrtacides, the Trojan, ii. 344, 345, 350, 351.

   ——, meadow of, iii. 26.

   Asius, temple to, iii. 26.

   Asōpia, vill. of Sicyonia, ii. 103.

   Asōpian district, ii. 66.

   ——, Thebes, ii. 74.

   Asōpus, r. of Sicyon, i. 410; ii. 66, 103.

   ——, r. of Bœotia, ii. 103, 104, 108.

   ——, r. of Phthiotis, ii. 67, 129.

   ——, r. of the isl. of Paros, ii. 66.

   ——, city of Laconia, ii. 41.

   Aspaneus, near Ida, ii. 376.

   Aspasiacæ, _see_ Apasiacæ, ii. 248.

   Aspendus, t. of Pamphylia (_Balkesi_), ii. 323; iii. 49.

   Asphalius (name of Neptune), i. 90.

   Aspiōnus, satrapy of, ii. 253.

   Aspis, t. by the Greater Syrtis, iii. 290.

   ——, t. of the Carthaginians, i. 421; iii. 288.

   ——, island, iii. 16.

   Asplēdon, city of Bœotia, ii. 113.

   Aspordēnum, ii. 393.

   Asporēne, Aspordēne, ii. 393.

   _Aspra-Spitia._ _See_ Anticyra.

   _Aspro-potamo_, r. _See_ Achelōus.

   _Aspro-vuna._ _See_ Luca.

   Aspurgiani, a nation of Mœotis, ii. 223, 305.

   Assacanus, land of, in India, iii. 82, 90.

   _Assouan._ _See_ Syene.

   Assus, t. of Mysia (_Beramkoi_), ii. 339, 376, 386, 390; iii. 140.

   ——, people of, ii. 375, 381, 382.

   Assyria, iii. 34, 142-160.

   Assyrians, i. 66.

   Asta, city of Iberia, i. 211, 213, 215.

   Astaboras, r. of Ethiopia (_Tacazze_), iii. 194, 195, 219, 270.

   Astacēni, iii. 90.

   Astacus, t. of Bithynia, ii. 171.

   ——, t. of Acarnania, ii. 171.

   ——, Gulf of (_Ismid_), ii. 171, 315.

   Astæ, people of Thrace, i. 516.

   Astapus, r. of Ethiopia (_The Blue Nile_), iii. 195, 219, 270.

   Astasobas, r. of Ethiopia, iii. 195, 219, 270.

   Astëeis, iii. 4.

   Asteria, Asteris, isl. (_Dascaglio_), i. 93; ii. 168.

   Asterium, ii. 142, 143.

   Asteropæus, i. 514.

   Asti, people of Thrace, i. 490, 492.

   Asturian mountains, i. 250.

   Asturians, i. 229, 233, 241, 243, 250.

   Asty, ii. 85, 87, 91.

   Astyages, ii. 264; iii. 134.

   Astygis, t. of Spain (_Ecija_), i. 213.

   Astyochea, ii. 9.

   Astypalæa, prom. of Attica, ii. 89.

   ——, prom. of Caria, iii. 37.

   ——, old city of the Coans, iii. 36.

   ——, one of the Sporades (_Istanpolia or Stanpalia_), ii. 212, 213.

   Astypalæans, inhabitants of Rhætium, ii. 368.

   Astyra, t. of Mysia, ii. 376, 386, 387.

   ——, t. of the Troad, ii. 353; iii. 66.

   Atabyris, mtn of Rhodes (_Abatro_), ii. 164; iii. 33.

   Atagis (_Aude_), r. of Rhætia, i. 308.

   Atalanta, isl. near Attica, ii. 85, 125.

   —— opposite Eubœa (_Talanta_), i. 95; ii. 85, 125.

   Atargata, iii. 216.

   Atargatis, iii. 158.

   Atarneitæ, ii. 383.

   Atarneus, city of Mysia (_Dikeli-Koi_), ii. 339, 376, 382, 389, 398;
     iii. 66.

   ——, city of the Troad, ii. 387.

   Atax, r. of Gaul, i. 272, 282.

   Ateas, king of the Bospori, i. 472.

   Ategua, t. of Spain, i. 213.

   Atella, t. of Campania, i. 370.

   Ateporix, ii. 310.

   Aternum, t. of the Vestini (_Pescara_), i. 359, 360.

   Aternus, r. of Italy, i. 359.

   Atēsinus, r. of Rhætia, i. 308.

   Athamanes, nation of Epirus, i. 493, 499; ii. 128, 130, 131, 137, 144,
     158, 160; iii. 30.

   Athamania, ii. 138, 147.

   Athamantis, iii. 2.

   Athamas, ii. 135; iii. 2.

   Athara, iii. 216.

   Athenæ Diades, ii. 153.

   ——, city of, ii. 55, 87.

   Athenæum, i. 93, 368.

   ——, promontory of Campania (_Punta della Campanella_), i. 34, 360.

   Athenæus, the Peripatetic, iii. 53.

   Athenais, son of Attalus, ii. 400; iii. 18, 259.

   Athene. _See_ Minerva.

   Athenian legation, i. 75.

   —— colony, i. 513.

   Athenians, i. 102, 155, 329, 365, 392, 396, 404, 478, 517; ii. 2, 35,
     36, 39, 57-59, 67, 68, 79, 80-83, 85-90, 95, 108, 111, 121, 136,
     140, 152-154, 374, _et passim_.

   Athenocles, ii. 294.

   Athenodorus, Cananites, iii. 58, 59, 209.

   ——, Cordylion, iii. 58.

   ——, the Natural Philosopher, i. 8, 86, 259.

   Athens, i. 23, 24, 101, 102, 105-107, 123, 126, 127, 131, 133, 173,
     271, 329, 335; ii. 39, 68, 80-83, 95, 108, 121, 124, 125, 164, 166,
     170, _et passim_.

   ——, captured by Sylla, ii. 380.

   ——, town of Bœotia, ii. 101.

   Athmoneus, iii. 144.

   Athos, Athon (_Monte Santo_), i. 9, 41, 511-513; ii. 154; iii. 13.

   Athribis, town of Egypt, iii. 240.

   Athribitæ, iii. 257.

   Athribite nome, iii. 240.

   Athrulla, town of Arabia, iii. 212.

   Athymbradus, iii. 26.

   Athymbrus, iii. 26.

   Athyras, r. of Thrace, i. 518.

   Atintānes, i. 499.

   Atlantic Ocean, Exterior Sea, i. 7, 8, 39, 46, 51, 62, 78, 81, 82, 87,
     101, 102, 170, 184, 192, 194, 196, 200, 206, 210, 236, 261, 451;
     iii. 189, 278.

   Atlantides, daughters of Atlas, ii. 19.

   Atlantis, island of, i. 154.

   Atlas, father of Calypso, i. 39.

   ——, mtn of Mauritania, iii. 276.

   Atmŏni, tribe of the Bastarnæ, i. 470.

   Atrax, city of Pelasgiotis, ii. 142, 146.

   Atrebates, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290.

   Atreus, i. 25, 35; ii. 53.

   _Atri._ _See_ Adria.

   Atria, city of Cisalpine Gaul (_Adria_), i. 319.

   Atropatene, Atropatia, or Atropatian Media, ii. 238, 263, 267, 270.

   Atropateni, Atropatii, ii. 264, 274.

   Atropates, satrap of Media, ii. 262.

   Attaleia, city of Pamphylia (_Adalia_), iii. 49.

   Attalic kings, kings of Pergamus, ii. 320.

   Attalici, ii. 315.

   Attalus, first king of Pergamus, i. 440; ii. 390, 400.

   —— Philadelphus, ii. 400; iii. 13, 49.

   —— Philometor, ii. 401; iii. 21.

   ——, brother of Philetærus, ii. 400.

   Attasii, tribe of the Massagetæ, ii. 248.

   Attea, t. of the Troad, ii. 376.

   Atthis, daughter of Cranaüs, ii. 87.

   Attica, i. 40, 43, 105, 187; ii. 2, 3, 87.

   ——, Silver mines of, i. 221.

   Attic dialect, ii. 2.

   —— miners, i. 221.

   Attica, i. 493, 506, 507; ii. 57, 62, 67, 78-81, 84, 86-91, 95-97,
     99, _passim_.

   _Attock._ _See_ Choaspes.

   Aturia, part of Assyria, iii. 142-144.

   Atys, father of Tyrrhenus, i. 326, 329.

   Auases _or_ Oases, in Libya, i. 197; iii. 226, 258.

   _Aude._ _See_ Atagis.

   Aufidus, r. of Apulia (_Ofanto_), i. 346, 433.

   Auge, daughter of Aleus, ii. 389.

   Augeas, king of the Epeii, ii. 10, 13, 27, 30, 31, 170.

   Augeiæ, city of Laconia, ii. 42.

   ——, city of Locris, ii. 42.

   Augila (_Aujela_), iii. 295.

   Augusta, city of the Salassi, (_Aouste_), i. 306.

   —— Emerita, t. of the Turduli in Spain (_Merida_), i. 227, 250.

   Aulis, city of Bœotia (_Vathi_), i. 16, 457; ii. 58, 92-97, 103, 151.

   Aulon, valley in Messenia, ii. 24.

   ——, royal, valley of Syria, iii. 171.

   Aulōnia. _See_ Caulōnia.

   Auscii, people of Aquitania, i. 284.

   Ausonian Sea, i. 185, 193, 346, 497.

   Ausonians, people of Campania, i. 346, 360, 381.

   Autariatæ, nation of Illyria, i. 481, 485, 488, 489, 505.

   Autĕsion, father of Thera, ii. 21.

   Autochthones, i. 339; ii. 2, 75.

   Autolycus, founder of Sinope, ii. 143, 293.

   Autŏmala, t. of Cyrene, i. 186; iii. 290, 294.

   Automedon, ii. 42.

   Auxumon, t. of Picenum (_Osimo_), i. 357.

   _Avella Vecchia._ _See_ Abella.

   Avenio, t. of the Cavari (_Avignon_), i. 277.

   Aventine mount, i. 270, 384.

   Avernus, Lake (_Lago d’Averno_), i. 362, 364.

   Axine. _See_ Pontus Axenus.

   Axius, r. of Macedonia (_the Vardari_), i. 9, 501, 504, 506, 508-510,
     514.

   Azamora, t. of Cataonia, ii. 280.

   Azānes, a people of Arcadia, ii. 7, 75.

   Azani, Azanitis, t. and district of Phrygia, ii. 332.

   Azara, Zara, t. of Armenia, ii. 268.

   ——, t. of Elymais, iii. 153.

   Azaritia, ii. 315.

   Azenieis, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.

   _Azof, Sea of._ _See_ Palus Mœotis.

   Azorus, t. of Pelagonia, i. 501.

   Azōtii, iii. 106.

   Azōtus, city of Judæa, iii. 175.

   _Azzila._ _See_ Zelis.


   _Baba Kalessi._ _See_ Lectum.

   Babanomum, t. of Pontus, ii. 312.

   Babas, iii. 130.

   _Babout._ _See_ Babylon in Egypt.

   Babylon, i. 13, 120, 123-126, 129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 137, 165;
     ii. 233, 262, 267, 271; iii. 9, 130, 132, 134, 135, 140, 143-158,
     186, 189, 229.

   ——, t. of Egypt (_Babout_), iii. 247, 257.

   Babylonia, i. 201; ii. 239, 260, 267, 271; iii. 83, 130, 135, 142,
     146, 148, 150, 151, 158, 159, 185, 187, 189.

   Babylonians, i. 155, 196, 463; ii. 391.

   Babyrsa, fortress of Armenia, ii. 270.

   Babys, father of Pherecydes, ii. 211.

   Bacchæ, ii. 180, 183.

   ——, tragedy of Euripides, i. 40; ii. 186; iii. 75.

   Bacchantes, i. 295.

   Bacchiadæ, i. 500; ii. 60.

   Bacchides, ii. 292.

   Bacchus, i. 41, 76, 257, 459; ii. 40, 64, 183-187, 238, 347;
     iii. 16, 74-76, 108.

   ——, Bromius, ii. 185.

   ——, Pyrigenes, ii. 406.

   ——, temple of, ii. 40.

   Bacchylides, ii. 210, 390.

   Bactra (_Balk_), i. 106, 109, 115, 117, 202; ii. 249, 253; iii. 124,
     125, 133.

   Bactria, Bactriana, i. 22, 41, 106, 107, 112-117, 141, 178, 179;
     ii. 188, 245, 246, 248, 251-255; iii. 73, 83, 89, 124-127.

   Bactrian gates, iii. 76.

   Bactrians, Bactrii, i. 112, 195; ii. 248, 253, 273, 296.

   Badas, r. of Syria, iii. 130.

   Bænis, r. of Lusitania. _See_ Minius, i. 230.

   Bætera, city of Gaul (_Beziers_), i. 272.

   Bætica, i. 240, 243, 250.

   Bætis, r. of Spain (_Guadalquiver_), i. 209-214, 222, 227, 228, 243,
     253; iii. 297.

   ——, city of Spain, i. 213.

   Bætorix, father of Deudorix, i. 446.

   Bæturia, district of Spain, i. 214.

   Bætylus, Œtylus, t. of Laconia, ii. 36.

   Bagadania, distr. of Cappadocia, i. 113; ii. 284.

   Bagas, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302.

   Bagōus, a eunuch, iii. 141.

   Bagradas, r. of Africa (_Wady Mejerdah_), iii. 285.

   _Bagras._ _See_ Pagræ.

   Baiæ, t. of Campania, i. 336, 362, 364, 366, 369.

   Baïus, companion of Ulysses, i. 39, 364.

   _Bakyr-Tschai._ _See_ Caïcus.

   _Bala Hissar._ _See_ Pessinus.

   Balanæa, t. of Syria, iii. 167.

   Balari, people of Sardinia, i. 334.

   _Balbek._ _See_ Chalcis.

   Balbura, t. of Lycia (_Giaur-Kalessi_), ii. 410.

   Balbus, the Gaditanian, i. 253, 254.

   Baleares, Balearic islands, i. 251, 252; iii. 32.

   Balearicus, Metellus, i. 252.

   Balithōn. _See_ Ammon.

   _Balk._ _See_ Bactra.

   _Balkesi._ _See_ Aspendus.

   _Ballyk._ _See_ Metropolis.

   Bambyce, t. of Syria, iii. 158, 163.

   Bamōnītis, part of Pontus, ii. 302.

   Bandobēne, distr. of India, iii. 89.

   _Bara._ _See_ Paros.

   Barathra, Berethra, ii. 76; iii. 241.

   Barbarian laws, i. 240.

   Barbarians, i. 17, 18, 77, 104, 114.

   Barbarium, Cape, prom. of Lusitania (_Capo Espichel_), i. 227.

   Barca, city of Cyrene, same as Ptolemais, iii. 291, 292.

   Barcas, Hamilcar, father of Hannibal, i. 226, 238.

   Bards, Celtic poets, i. 294.

   Bardyli, Bardyali, Bardyētæ, Bardyītæ, people of Spain, i. 233, 243.

   _Baretoun._ _See_ Parætonium.

   Bargasa, t. of Caria, iii. 34.

   Bargosa, city of India, iii. 119.

   Bargus, r. of Illyria, i. 488.

   Bargylia, t. of Caria, ii. 383; iii. 37.

   Baris (Zaris), temple of, ii. 273.

   Baris, city, i. 429.

   Barium (_Bari_), i. 432, 433.

   Barnichius, r. of Elis. _See_ Enipeus, ii. 32.

   Barnus, city of Macedonia, i. 495.

   Basgœdariza, fortress of Armenia, ii. 304.

   Basileius, r. of Mesopotamia, iii. 158.

   Basilii, i. 470.

   Basoropeda, district of Armenia, ii. 269.

   Bassus, Cecilius, iii. 166.

   Bastarnæ, i. 141, 177, 194, 443, 451-453, 468-471.

   Bastetani, Bastuli, i. 210, 212, 234, 243, 245.

   Bastetania, i. 232, 235.

   Bata, t. of Pontus (_Pschate_), ii. 225.

   Bathynias, i. 518.

   Bathys Limen (Deep Harbour), in Aulis, ii. 95.

   Batiæ, city of the Cassopæi, i. 497.

   Batieia, ii. 328, 361, 399.

   Batōn, leader of the Pannonii, i. 483.

   Batōn, historian, ii. 293.

   Battus, founder of Cyrene, iii. 292.

   _Baubola._ _See_ Bilbilis.

   _Bayjah._ _See_ Vaga.

   Bear, the (constellation), i. 4, 5.

   ——, Greater, i. 21, 117-120.

   ——, Lesser, i. 117-120, 200.

   _Beas._ _See_ Hypanis.

   _Beaucaire._ _See_ Ugernum.

   Bebryces, a people of Thrace, i. 453; ii. 287, 304, 346; iii. 63.

   _Beit-el-ma._ _See_ Daphne.

   Beitylus, ii. 36. _See_ Œtylus.

   _Beja._ _See_ Pax Augusta.

   _Beknesch._ _See_ Oxyrynchus.

   Belbina, an island, ii. 57, 89.

   Belgæ, i. 264, 266, 286, 290-293.

   Bĕlio, r. of Lusitania (_see_ Limæa), i. 229.

   Bellerophon, ii. 62, 328, 409; iii. 48.

   Bellovaci, a people of Gaul (_inhabitants of the Beauvoisin_),
     i. 289, 293, 310.

   Bĕlō (_Rio Barbate_), i. 210.

   Belus, i. 67.

   ——, tomb of, iii. 145; temple of, 153.

   Bembina, city of Argolis, ii. 60.

   _Ben-Ghazi._ _See_ Berenice.

   Bēnacus, lake of Italy, i. 311.

   _Bendamir._ _See_ Araxes.

   _Bender-el-Kebir._ _See_ Berenice.

   Bendidæan rites, ii. 186, 188.

   Beneventum, t. of Samnium (_Benevento_), i. 370, 371, 431.

   _Bengal, Bay of._ _See_ Ocean, Eastern.

   Berecyntes, people of Phrygia, ii. 184, 337; iii. 66, 67.

   Berecyntia, distr. of Phrygia, ii. 337.

   Berecyntian pipes, ii. 187.

   Berenice, dr. of Salome, iii. 184.

   ——, t. of Cyrene, (_Ben Ghazi_), iii. 291, 292.

   ——, t. in the Troglodytic, iii. 197, 260.

   ——, t. of Egypt (_Bender-el-kebir_), ii. 200; iii. 193, 260.

   Berenice, Hair of (constellation), i. 4.

   Berga, i. 514.

   Bergæan, the. _See_ Antiphanes.

   Bērisades, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516.

   Bermium, Bermius, mtn of Macedonia (_Buræus_), i. 510, 511; iii. 66.

   _Bernic._ _See_ Hesperides.

   Berœa, t. of Macedonia (_Karafaja_), i. 511.

   ——, t. of Syria, iii. 163.

   Bērones, people of Spain, i. 238, 243.

   Bertiscus, mtn of Macedonia, i. 505.

   Bērytus (_Beyrout_), city of Phœnicia, iii. 69, 170, 171.

   Bēsæeis, Bēsæenses, ii. 127.

   Besbicus, isl. (_Imrali_ or _Kalo-limno_), ii. 332.

   Bēssa, in Locris, ii. 127.

   Bessi, nation of Thrace, i. 489, 516.

   Bēssus, ii. 248, 255.

   Betarmones, ii. 190.

   Betteres, t. of Spain, i. 240.

   _Bevagna._ _See_ Mevania.

   _Beyrout._ _See_ Berytus.

   _Beziers._ _See_ Bætera.

   Bias, iii. 7.

   Biasas, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302.

   Bibracte, fortress of the Ædui, i. 286.

   _Bieda._ _See_ Blera.

   Bilbilis, t. of the Celtiberians, (_Baubola_), i. 244.

   Billarus, sphere of, ii. 293.

   Bion, philosopher, i. 23, 24; ii. 210.

   ——, astronomer, i. 45.

   Bīsa, ftn of Elis. _See_ Pīsa, ii. 32.

   Bisalti, Bisaltæ, people of Macedonia, i. 506, 514.

   Biscay, people of. _See_ Cantabrians.

   Bistones, race of Thrace, i. 515.

   Bistonis, lake of Thrace (_Burum_), i. 92, 515.

   Bisurgis. _See_ Visurgis.

   Bithynia, ii. 289, 293, 313-318, 329, 356, 402; iii. 297.

   Bithynians, i. 195, 453; ii. 277, 286, 287, 289, 290, 314, 316, 319,
     320, 330; iii. 63.

   ——, of Thrace, ii. 287.

   Bithynium (_Boli_), ii. 317.

   Bituitus, son of Luerius, i. 285.

   Bituriges Cubi, i. 283, 284.

   —— Vivisci, people of Gaul, i. 283.

   Bizōne, t. of Mœsia, i. 84, 490.

   Bizya, t. of Thrace, i. 516.

   Black Forest, the. _See_ Hercynia.

   Black Sea, i. 6, _n._, 457, 468, 469.
     _See_ Euxine.

   Blaēnē, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 313.

   Blascōn, isl., i. 271.

   Blaudus, t. of Phrygia (_Suleimanli_), ii. 320.

   Bleminātis, in Laconia, ii. 15.

   Blemmyes, a people of Ethiopia, iii. 219, 266.

   Blera, t. of Etruria (_Bieda_), i. 335.

   Blēsino, t. of Corsica, i. 333.

   Blessed, Isles of the (_Canary Islands_), i. 3, 226.

   Blucium (Luceium?), fortress of the Tolistobogii, ii. 320.

   Boagrius, r. of Locris (_Boagrio_), i. 95; ii. 126.

   Bōcalia (?), Bōcarus, r. of Salamis, ii. 83.

   Bocchus, king of Mauritania, iii. 280.

   Bœa, t. of Laconia, ii. 41.

   Bœbē, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139, 142, 272.

   Bœbēis or Bœbias, lake of Thessaly, ii. 131, 139, 142, 146-148, 235;
     iii. 22.

   Bœi, people of Gaul, i. 291-485.

   Bœōnōa, t. of Elis, ii. 9.

   Bœoti, t. of Laconia, ii. 2.

   —— (Athenians), ii. 81.

   Bœotia, i. 6, _n._, 16, 94, 493, 494, 506, 507; ii. 4, 6, 36, 48, 62,
     78, 79, 82, 90-115, 122-125, 136, 138, 142, 151, 154, _et passim_;
     iii. 31.

   Bœotian coast, ii. 98.

   Bœotians, i. 102, 493; ii. 98, 101, 102, 105, 134, 175, _et passim_.

   Bœōtus, son of Melanippe, i. 399.

   Bœrebistas, king of the Getæ. _See_ Byrebistas.

   Boēthus, Sidonian, iii. 173.

   ——, of Tarsus, iii. 58.

   Bœum, city of the Dorians, i. 505; ii. 128, 195.

   _Bog._ _See_ Hypanis.

   _Bogdana._ _See_ Hyampolis.

   Bogodiatarus (? Deïotarus), ii. 320.

   Bogus, king of Mauritania, i. 151, 153, 154; ii. 36; iii. 278, 280.

   Boïanum, city of the Samnites (_Bojano_), i. 371.

   Boii, i. 291, 306, 307, 317, 321, 322, 448, 450, 454, 466, 482, 485.

   Bolbe, lake of Macedonia, i. 514.

   Bolbitine mouth of the Nile, iii. 239.

   _Boli._ _See_ Bithynium.

   _Bologna._ _See_ Bononia.

   _Bolsena._ _See_ Volsinii.

   Bōmianes, a nation of Ætolia, ii. 160.

   _Bondoniza._ _See_ Scarpheia.

   Bonōnes, son of Phraates, iii. 160.

   Bonōnia, city of Italy (_Bologna_), i. 322, 324.

   Boos-Aule, cave of Eubœa, ii. 152.

   Boosura, city of Cyprus (_Bisur_), iii. 70.

   _Bordeaux._ _See_ Burdegala.

   Boreas, Borras, i. 42, 44, 97.

   Boreion, prom. of Cyrene (_Ras-Teyonas_), iii. 291.

   Borrhama, iii. 170.

   Borsippa, t. of Babylonia, iii. 146.

   Borsippeni, Chaldæans, iii. 146.

   Borus, ii. 110.

   Borysthenes (_Dnieper_), i. 98-100, 110, 111, 113, 114, 116, 162,
     172-175, 188, 190, 191, 202, 203, 442, 443, 451, 457, 470-472,
     475, 478; ii. 222, 298.

   Bosporani, Asian, ii. 223.

   ——, European, ii. 223.

   ——, Bosporiani, Bosporians, ii. 223, 224; iii. 180.

   Bosporii, i. 476.

   Bosporus, Cimmerian (_Straits of Kertch or Zabache, Azof_), i. 8, 31,
     114, 164, 189, 223, 441, 450, 463, 472, 475-478, 480; ii. 216,
     219-222, 224, 225, 239, 294, 302, 305, 318, 401, 402.

   ——, Thracian, i. 138, 189; ii. 318.

   ——, Mysian, ii. 318.

   Botrys, fortress of Syria, iii. 170.

   Bottiæa, distr. of Macedonia, i. 430, 508, 509.

   Bottiæi, people of Macedonia, i. 425, 506, 508.

   Bottōn, i. 506.

   _Bougie._ _See_ Salda.

   _Bouz Dagh._ _See_ Tmolus.

   Boxos, Boxes, iii. 208.

   _Bracchiano, Lago di._ _See_ Sabatus.

   Brachmānes, philosophers of India, iii. 109-111, 114, 117.

   Branchidæ, priests of Apollo, ii. 254; iii. 4, 259.

   ——, their city in Sogdiana, ii. 254.

   Branchus, ii. 120; iii. 4.

   Braurōn, t. of Attica, ii. 52, 88, 89.

   Breasts, the (_Stethè_), i. 79, 82.

   Brĕnæ, people of Thrace, i. 516.

   Brennus, i. 280.

   Brentĕsium, t. of Iapygia (_Brindisi_), i. 347, 370, 423, 428-435,
     497.

   Brescia, i. 317.

   Brettii, i. 315-441.

   Breuci, people of Hungary, i. 483.

   Breuni, nation of Illyria, i. 306.

   Brigantii, a people of the Vindelici, i. 307.

   Brigantium (_Briançon_), i. 268, 307.

   Briges, people of Thrace, i. 453, 510.

   Brilessus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90.

   _Brindes._ _See_ Brundusium.

   _Brindisi._ _See_ Brentesium.

   Briseïs, ii. 343, 384.

   Britain, i. 99, 100, 111, 116, 117, 141, 157, 172-175, 181, 193, 263,
     264, 281, 283, 288-290, 295-298.

   Britannic Islands, British Islands, i. 172, 173, 194, 196, 221.

   British Channel, i. 192.

   Britomartis, ii. 199, 200.

   Britons, i. 116, 177, 298, 299.

   Briula, iii. 26.

   Brixia, t. of the Insubri, i. 317.

   Brothers, Seven, monuments of the, iii. 278.

   Bructeri, a people of Germany, i. 444, 445, 447.

   Brundusians, i. 430.

   Bruttii, i. 315, 339, 374, 377-383, 391, 431.

   Brutus, the Gallician, i. 228, 230, 233.

   ——, Decimus, vanquished at Philippi, i. 305, 515.

   Bryanium, t. of Macedonia, i. 501.

   Bryges, Brygi, Phryges, ii. 298.

   Brygi, people of Epirus, i. 500, 501.

   Bubastite nome, iii. 245.

   Bubastus, t. of Egypt, iii. 245.

   Bubōn, t. of Lycia (_Ebedschek-Dirmil_), ii. 410.

   Buca, t. of the Frentani, i. 359, 436.

   Bucephālia, city of India, iii. 91.

   Bucephalus, the horse of Alexander, iii. 91, 92.

   Buchetium, city of the Cassopæi, i. 497.

   Bucolopolis, t. of Judæa, iii. 175.

   Budŏrus, r. of Eubœa, ii. 153.

   ——, mtn of Salamis, ii. 153.

   _Budrun._ _See_ Teos.

   Bujæmum, i. 444.

   Bulliones, people of Illyria, i. 500.

   Buprasian district, ii. 18.

   Buprasii, Buprasians, ii. 12, 13, 27.

   Buprasium, ii. 12, 14, 23, 28, 74.

   ——, t. of Elis, ii. 12, 13, 27, 32, 162.

   Būra, city of Achæa (_Diakopton_), i. 84, 92; ii. 71, 73.

   Burdegala (_Bordeaux_), i. 283.

   _Burum, Lake._ _See_ Bistonis.

   Busiris, king of the Egyptians, iii. 240.

   ——, city of Egypt, iii. 240.

   Busirite nome, iii. 240.

   Būthrōtum, t. of Epirus (_Butrinto_), i. 497.

   Butice-limnè, lake of Egypt, iii. 239.

   Būtrium, t. of the Umbri (_Butrio_), i. 318.

   Būtus, t. of Egypt, iii. 239.

   Byblos (_Gebail_), city of the Phœnicians, iii. 170.

   Bylliace, district of Illyria, i. 486.

   Byrchanis, island (_Borcum_), i. 445.

   Byrebistas, Bœrebistas, king of the Getæ, i. 457, 466, 467; iii. 180.

   Byrsa, acropolis of Carthage, iii. 285, 286.

   Byzacii, people of Libya, i. 198.

   Byzantines, ii. 292, 332.

   ——, Horn of the, i. 491.

   Byzantium (_Constantinople_), i. 78, 81, 100, 109, 110, 114, 160,
     172-174, 188, 189, 202, 203, 491, 492, 505, 518; ii. 2, 286, 318;
     iii. 34, 62.

   ——, Strait of, i. 80, 110, 189; ii. 314, 318.

   ——, temple of, i. 491.

   Byzēres, a nation of Pontus, ii. 297.


   Cabæum, prom. of the Ostimii (_Cape St. Mahé_), i. 101.

   Cabaleis, same as Solymi, ii. 409.

   Cabalis, c. and distr. of Phrygia and Lycia, ii. 408, 409.

   Caballa, t. of Armenia, ii. 271.

   Caballiō, t. of Gaul (_Cavaillon_), i. 268, 276.

   Cabeira, t. of Pontus, ii. 190, 306.

   Cabeirides, ii. 190.

   Caberus, mtn of Berecyntia, ii. 189.

   _Cabes, Gulf of._ _See_ Syrtis, Lesser.

   Cabesus, ii. 367.

   Cabiorides, ii. 190.

   Cabiri, i. 516; ii. 180, 189, 190.

   _Cabul._ _See_ Cophes.

   Cabyllīnum, t. of Gaul (_Châlons-sur-Saone_), i. 286.

   Cadēna, t. of Cappadocia, ii. 281.

   Cadi, t. of Phrygia (_Gadis_), ii. 332.

   _Cadiz._ _See_ Gades, Gadeira.

   Cadmē, same as Priene, iii. 7.

   Cadmeia, citadel of Thebes, ii. 108, 109.

   Cadmeian victory, i. 224.

   ——, territory, i. 493; ii. 93.

   Cadmus, founder of Cadmeia, i. 493, 500; ii. 93, 154.

   ——, Melesian, i. 281; iii. 66.

   ——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334.

   ——, mtn of Phrygia, ii. 334.

   Cadurci, a people of Gaul (_Querci_), i. 284.

   Cadusii, a people of Asia, ii. 240-242, 245, 248, 249, 263, 264.

   Cæcias, name of a wind (N.E.), i. 45.

   Cæcilius Bassus, iii. 165.

   Cæcubum, distr. of Latium, i. 345, 347.

   Cælius, Mount, i. 348.

   Cænepolis, ii. 36.

   Cæni, people of Thrace, ii. 401.

   Cænys, prom. of Italy, i. 385, 400.

   Cæpio, Q. S., a Roman general, i. 280.

   ——, tower of, i. 211.

   Cæratus, same as Cnossus, ii. 190.

   Cærea, c. of Etruria, i. 328.

   Cæretana, hot-springs, i. 328.

   Cæretani, i. 327, 335.

   Cæsar, i. 213, 241, 242, 270, 271, 285, 290, 305; ii. 44, 270, 274,
     278, 297.

   —— Augusta, c. of the Celtiberi (_Saragossa_), i. 227, 242, 244.

   ——, Augustus, i. 234, 265, 275, 286, 298, 304, 306, 308, 349-351,
         369, 388, 404, 408, 411, 439, 441, 444, 446, 448, 467, 483,
         484; ii. 294, 309, 334, 356-358, 392, 402; iii. 36, 53, 54,
         58, 59, 74, 118, 159, 184, 209, 231, 233, 281, 296, 297.

   ——, Julius or divus, i. 265, 285, 288, 297, 298, 317, 350, 439, 457,
         497-499; ii. 65, 294, 308; iii. 20, 24, 227, 284, 287.

   Cæsarea, c. of Numidia, iii. 284.

   Cæsarium, temple of Alexandria, iii. 230.

   Cæsēna, c. of Italy, i. 322.

   _Cafsa._ _See_ Capsa.

   Caiata, gulf of (_Gaëta_), i. 347.

   ——, promontory of, i. 347.

   Caïcus, r. of Mysia (_Bakyr-Tschai_), ii. 326, 327, 339, 376, 383,
     387-390, 395, 397, 401.

   ——, plain of, ii. 332, 388-390, 401; iii. 82.

   Caieta, nurse of Æneas, i. 347.

   Cainochorion, fortress of Pontus, ii. 306.

   Calabri, i. 422, 423.

   Calabria, i. 430.

   Calachene, distr. of Assyria, ii. 235, 272; iii. 142.

   Calaguris, t. of Spain (_Calahorra_), i. 242.

   Calamis, i. 490.

   Calanus, iii. 74, 112, 113, 115, 116.

   Calasarna, t. of Lucania, i. 379.

   Calatia, c. of Campania (_Le Galazze_), i. 431.

   Calauria, island (_Poros_), i. 187; ii. 49, 55.

   Calbis, r. of Caria (_Doloman Ischai_), iii. 28.

   Calchas the prophet, iii. 15, 50, 59, 60.

   ——, shrine of, i. 434; ii. 324.

   Calche, the, ii. 271.

   Cale-Peuce, ii. 371.

   Calenian wine, i. 361.

   Calēs, c. of Campania (_Calvi_), i. 352, 370.

   Caleti, people of Gaul, i. 281, 289.

   Callaïci, people of Spain, i. 222-251.

   Callanian plain, ii. 407.

   Callas, r. of Eubœa, ii. 152.

   Callateria (_Galazze_), i. 370.

   Callatis, t. of Mœsia (_Mangalia_), i. 489, 490; ii. 288.

   Calliarus, t. of Locris, ii. 127.

   Callias, ii. 393.

   Callicolōnē, ii. 362.

   Callidromus, part of Œta, ii. 129.

   Callimachus, i. 70-72, 321, 459; ii. 21, 29, 87, 141, 199, 206;
     iii. 9, 35, 245, 292.

   Callinicus, iii. 162, 168. _See_ Seleucus.

   Callīnus, ii. 373, 405; iii. 3, 22, 23, 50.

   Calliŏpe, ii. 189.

   Callipidæ, nation of Scythia, ii. 298.

   Callipolis, t. of Sicily, i. 412.

   ——, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus (_Gallipoli_), i. 518; ii. 349.

   ——, t. of Macedonia, i. 514.

   _Calliste._ _See_ Thēra.

   Callisthenes, ii. 39, 254, 288, 356, 383, 405; iii. 5, 49, 66, 225,
     245, 261, _passim_.

   Callydium, fortress of Mysia, ii. 330.

   Calpas, r. of Bithynia, ii. 288.

   Calpè, t. of Spain, i. 81, 210, 212.

   ——, rock of Spain (_Gibraltar_), i. 164, 234, 235, 253, 255.

   _Calvi._ _See_ Cales.

   Calybe, t. of the Asti, i. 492.

   Calycadnus, r. of Cilicia (_Kelikdni_), ii. 405; iii. 53-55.

   Calydna, same as Tenedos, ii. 214, 372.

   Calydnæ, islands, ii. 212-214, 372.

   Calydōn, c. of Ætolia, ii. 127, 155, 159, 160, 171, 172, 175, 179.

   Calymna, Calymnæ, isl. (_Calimno_), ii. 214.

   Calynda, c. of Caria, iii. 28.

   Calypso, island of, i. 459.

   Camarina, c. of Sicily (_Torre di Camarana_), i. 401, 411.

   _Camasch._ _See_ Commagene.

   Cambysene, distr. of Armenia, ii. 232, 234, 269.

   Cambyses, ii. 190; iii. 141, 224, 245, 261.

   Cameirus, t. of Rhodes (_Camiro_), iii. 31, 33.

   Camertes, t. of Umbria, i. 338.

   Camici, t. of Sicily, i. 413, 425.

   Camillus, son of Vulcan, ii. 189.

   Camisa, fortress of Pontus, ii. 310.

   Camisene, distr. of Cappadocia, ii. 293, 310.

   _Campanella, Puntadella._ _See_ Athenæum and Sirenussæ.

   Campani, Campanians, i. 352, 357, 361, 366, 369, 371, 373, 377, 387,
     404.

   Campania, i. 326, 344, 346, 360, 361, 369-371, 373, 379, 429, 431,
     432.

   Campodunum, t. of the Vindelici, i. 307.

   Campsiani, people of Germany, i. 445.

   Campus Martius, i. 350, 371.

   Camuni, people of the Rhæti, i. 306.

   Canæ, c. of Æolia, ii. 153, 388.

   ——, mtns (_Adschane_), ii. 339, 342, 376, 388, 390, 391.

   _Canary Islands._ _See_ Blessed, Islands of the.

   _Canan, Cape._ _See_ Cephalæ.

   Canastræum, prom. of Macedonia (_Cape Pailuri_), i. 510.

   Canastrum, prom. of Pallene (_Cape Pailuri_), i. 511, 512.

   Candace, queen of Ethiopia, iii. 268, 269.

   Candavia, mtns of Illyria, i. 495, 500.

   _Candia._ _See_ Crete.

   Canēthus, hill of Eubœa, ii. 154.

   Canidius, ii. 231.

   Cannæ, t. of Apulia, i. 436.

   Canopic mouth of the Nile, i. 101; iii. 237, 238. _See_ Nile.

   —— gate of Alexandria, iii. 231, 237.

   —— canal, iii. 231, 237, 239.

   Canōpus, constellation, i. 4, 180.

   ——, c. of Egypt (_Aboukir_), i. 130; iii. 48, 222, 237, 238.

   Cantabria, i. 236, 247.

   Cantabrian mtns, i. 250.

   Cantabrians, i. 230, 233, 234, 239, 241, 243, 246-248, 250, 439.

   ——, Conish, the, i. 243.

   Cantharius, prom. of Samos, iii. 10.

   Cantharōlĕthron, i. 511.

   Cantium. _See_ Kent.

   Canusitæ, emporium of the, i. 433.

   Canusium, t. of Apulia (_Canosa_), i. 431, 433.

   Capedunum, t. of the Scordisci, i. 488.

   Caphareus, prom. of Eubœa, ii. 48.

   Caphyeis, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.

   Capitol, the, i. 298, 342, 348, 351, 424, 490; iii. 8.

   Capitūlum, t. of Latium, i. 353.

   Capnobatæ, i. 454, 455.

   _Capo Boeo._ _See_ Lilybæum.

   Cappadocia, i. 113, 195, 262, 279; ii. 216, 218, 246, 259-261, 265,
     273, 276-286, 301, 307, 310, 314, 319-322; iii. 35, 44, 54, 63-65,
     137, 150, 232.

   ——, the Great, ii. 278, 293, 294, 307, 321.

   ——, Upper, ii. 259.

   ——, on Pontus, ii. 278.

   Cappadocians, i. 440; ii. 273-286, 290, 301, 320, 322.

   Capreæ, Capriæ, Capria, isl. (_Capri_), i. 34, 93, 185, 368, 369, 387.

   Capria, l. of Paphlagonia, iii. 49.

   Caprus, port of _Chalcidia_, i. 512, 513.

   ——, island, i. 512, 513.

   ——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334.

   ——, r. of Assyria (_The Little Zab_), iii. 144.

   Capsa, t. of Numidia (_Cafsa_), iii. 284.

   Capua, (_S. Maria di Capoa_), i. 351, 360, 370, 431.

   Capyæ, t. of Arcadia, ii. 378.

   Capys, ii. 378.

   Caracoma, i. 516.

   Caralis, t. of Sardinia (_Cagliari_), i. 333.

   _Caraman._ _See_ Laranda.

   Carambis, prom. of Paphlagonia (_Kerempi-Burun_), i. 188, 476;
     ii. 225, 291, 293.

   Carana, t. of Pontus, ii. 310.

   Caranītis, ii. 310.

   Carcathiocerta, t. of Armenia (_Kharput_), ii. 268.

   _Carchi._ _See_ Chalcia.

   Carcinites Gulf, i. 471, 473, 474, 478.

   Carcoras, r. of Noricus, i. 482.

   Cardaces, iii. 138.

   Cardamylæ, t. of Messenia (_Scardamula_), ii. 35-37.

   Cardia, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus, i. 517.

   _Cardiana._ _See_ Lagusa.

   Cardūchi, people of Asia, iii. 157

   Carēnitis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 269.

   Carēsēnē, distr. of the Troad, ii. 371.

   Carēsus, t. of the Troad, ii. 304, 371.

   ——, r. of the Troad, ii. 357, 371.

   Caria, i. 8, 102, 103, 133, 140, 172, 187, 190, 195, 202, 493;
     ii. 56, 68, 259, 298, 313, 329, 333, 334, 383, 407, 409;
     iii. 1, 2, 6, 27-44, 59.

   ——, coast, iii. 34.

   Carians, i. 96, 103, 493, 494; ii. 50, 56, 88, 277, 327-329, 383;
     iii. 2, 35, 38-43, 63.

   Cariatæ, ii. 254.

   Carmalas, r. of Cataonia, ii. 280-283.

   Carmania (_Kerman_), i. 121-126, 129, 131, 132, 135, 196, 201;
     iii. 109, 120, 122, 124, 125, 127-133, 146, 152, 186, 187.

   Carmanians, iii. 120.

   Carmēl, mtn of Judæa, iii. 175.

   Carmentis, mother of Evander, i. 343.

   Carmō, t. of Spain (_Carmona_), i. 213.

   Carmylessus, t. of Lycia, iii. 46.

   Carna, Carnana, c. of Arabia, iii. 190.

   Carneades, iii. 293.

   Carneates, mtn of Sicyonia, ii. 66.

   Carni, i. 307-309, 321, 448, 482, 483.

   Carnus, t. of Syria (_Carnoon_), iii. 167.

   Carnutes (_people of the Chartrain_), i. 284, 289.

   Carpasia, t. of Cyprus, iii. 69.

   Carpasian islands, iii. 69.

   Carpathian Sea, i. 187; ii. 212; iii. 68.

   Carpathus, ii. 212, 213.

   Carpetani, i. 209, 212, 228, 229, 243.

   Carpetania, distr. of Spain, i. 214.

   Carrhæ, c. of Mesopotamia, iii. 157.

   Carseoli, t. of Latium (_Carsoli_), i. 353.

   Carsūli, t. of Umbria, i. 337.

   Carta, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 242.

   Cartalia, t. of Spain, i. 239.

   Carteïa, c. of Spain, i. 210, 213, 218, 226.

   Cartera, Comè, vill. of Thrace, i. 515.

   _Cartero._ _See_ Heracleium.

   Carthæ, ii. 210.

   Carthage, in Africa, i. 101, 140, 180, 184, 197, 198, 201, 403, 411,
     439; ii. 331; iii. 51, 282, 284-291.

   Carthagena, in Spain, i. 222, 234, 238, 239, 245, 251, 262, 334;
     iii. 279.

   Carthaginian Bay, iii. 285, 287.

   —— wars, iii. 284.

   Carthaginians, i. 104, 226, 238, 334, 377, 403, 404, 408, 424, 438,
     439; ii. 71, 73; iii. 240, 275, 285.

   Carura, t. of Phrygia, ii. 334, 336, 409; iii. 43.

   Caryanda, t. and isl. of Caria, ii. 318, 340; iii. 37.

   Caryandians, iii. 37.

   Carystian marble, ii. 140, 153.

   Carystus (_Castel Rosso_), t. of Eubœa, ii. 153.

   ——, in Laconia, ii. 153.

   Casiana, fortress of Syria, iii. 165.

   Casii, ii. 213, 214.

   Casilīnum, t. of Campania (_Nova Capua_), i. 351-353, 370, 431.

   Casīnum, t. of Latium, i. 352.

   Casium, mtn of Egypt (_El Kas_), i. 62, 79, 87, 91; iii. 149, 233.

   ——, mtn of Syria (_Ras el Kasaroun_), iii. 162, 164, 174-177.

   _Caslona._ _See_ Castulōn.

   Caspian Sea, i. 54, 102, 109, 115, 122, 123, 132, 135-138, 183, 194,
     451, 471; ii. 216-218, 226, 227, 230, 232, 235, 239, 240-246, 249,
     255, 256, 260, 267, 270, 272.

   Caspian Gates (_Firouz-Koh_), i. 94, 100, 121, 124, 125, 127, 130-132,
     136-139, 202; ii. 218, 237, 242, 249, 250, 259-265; iii. 120, 124,
     125, 130, 153.

   —— tribes, ii. 234.

   Caspiana, distr. of Albania, ii. 234, 269.

   Caspii, ii. 226, 248, 253, 258.

   Caspius, mtn. of the Caucasus, i. 137-139; ii. 226.

   Cassander, king of Macedonia, i. 509-511; ii. 88, 89.

   Cassandra, i. 398, 511; ii. 367.

   Cassandria, i. 511.

   Cassiŏpē, port of Epirus (_Cassiopo_), i. 497.

   Cassiopeia, constellation, i. 202.

   Cassiterides (_Scilly Islands_), i. 181, 194, 221, 262.

   Cassius, i. 515; iii. 164.

   Cassōpæi, people of Epirus, i. 493, 496-498.

   Castabala, t. of Cilicia, ii. 278, 281.

   Castalian fountain, ii. 116.

   _Castel Franco._ _See_ Phœnix.

   _Castel Rosso._ _See_ Carystus.

   Castellum, port of Firmum Picenum (_Porto di Fermo_), i. 357.

   _Castezzio._ _See_ Clastidium.

   Casthanæa, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148.

   Castor, father of Deiotarus, ii. 314.

   ——, son of Saocondarus, ii. 321.

   Castor and Pollux. _See_ Dioscuri.

   Castrum, Castrum Novum, t. of Picenum (_Giulia Nova_), i. 357, 358.

   Castulōn, Castlōn (_Caslona_), t. of Spain, i. 214, 222, 228, 241,
     250.

   Casus, ii. 212-214.

   Casystes, iii. 17.

   Catabathmus, mtn and t. of Egypt, _Akabet-el-Kebira_, iii. 226, 235,
     275, 294.

   Catacecaumene, distr. of Mysia, or Lydia, ii. 332, 335, 336, 403, 404,
     406; iii. 8, 43.

   Catacecaumene, wine of, ii. 406; iii. 8.

   _Catacolo, Cape._ _See_ Ichthys.

   Catana, c. of Sicily (_Catania_), i. 356, 367, 402, 403-405, 411, 415.

   Catanæa, i. 405, 411.

   Catanæi, Catanæans, i. 405, 406, 412.

   Cataones, Cataonians, people inhabiting the Taurus, ii. 269, 276, 277;
     iii. 64.

   Cataonia, part of Cappadocia, i. 82, 202; ii. 259, 276-279, 280;
     iii. 59, 65.

   Cataractes, r. of Pamphylia, iii. 49.

   Cataracts, of Teverone, i. 353.

   ——, of the Euphrates, iii. 147.

   ——, of the Nile, iii. 217, 265.

   Catennenses, mtn of Pisidia, ii. 324.

   Cathæa (? Cathay), distr. of India, iii. 92.

   Cathæi, iii. 93.

   Cathylci, people of Germany. _See_ Caulci, i. 447.

   Cato, Marcus, ii. 250; iii. 58, 72, 291.

   Catocas. _See_ Menippus.

   Catopterius, near Parnassus, ii. 123.

   Catoriges, an Alpine nation, i. 303.

   Cattabaneis, people of Arabia, iii. 190.

   Cattabania, iii. 191.

   Caucasian mtns, i. 106, 115-117, 130, 131, 162, 177, 195, 273;
     ii. 219, 220, 230-232, 235, 258, 269; iii. 79.

   —— tribes, ii. 227.

   Caucasus, ii. 224-226, 229-235, 238, 239, 245, 267; iii. 77, 78, 80,
     107, 125.

   Cauci, a people of Germany, i. 445.

   Caucon, r. i. 14, 15; ii. 74.

   ——, monument of a, ii. 18.

   Caucōnes, in Elis, i. 493, 494; ii. 8, 14, 15, 18, 19, 28, 31, 74,
     286-288, 290, 327, 383, 394.

   Cauconia, ancient name of Elis, ii. 18.

   Cauconiatæ, Cauconītæ, in Paphlagonia, ii. 18, 286-288; iii. 63, 65.

   Cauconis, Cauconitis, ii. 14, 74.

   Caudium, t. of the Samnites ( _S. Maria di Goti_, _Paolisi_), i. 370,
     431.

   Caulci, people of Germany, i. 445.

   Caulōnia, t. of the Bruttii, i. 392. _See_ Aulonia.

   Caunians, iii. 28.

   Caunus, t. of Caria (_Dalian_), iii. 28.

   _Cavaillon._ _See_ Caballio.

   _Cavaliere._ _See_ Zephyrium.

   Cavari, people of Gaul, i. 276-278.

   _Cavo, Monte._ _See_ Albanus.

   Caÿster, r. of Ionia, ii. 145, 396, 397, 402-407; iii. 10, 14, 26.

   ——, plain of, ii. 397; iii. 82.

   ——, Larisæans in the, ii. 397.

   Caÿstrius, iii. 26.

   Ceans, ii. 210.

   Cĕbrēn, Cebrēnē, t. of the Troad, ii. 373, 375, 376.

   Cĕbrēni, in the Troad, ii. 361, 375.

   ——, in Thrace, ii. 351.

   Cĕbrēnia, a part of the Troad, ii. 360, 362.

   Cĕbriŏnes, ii. 360.

   Cecrŏpia, citadel of Athens, ii. 88.

   Cĕcrops, i. 493; ii. 87, 88, 101.

   Ceii, inhabitants of Ceus, ii. 253.

   Cĕladōn, r. of Elis, ii. 15, 22.

   Celænæ, hill of the Troad, ii. 333, 390.

   ——, t. of Phrygia, ii. 333, 335, 407.

   Celæno, one of the Danaids, ii. 335.

   Celænus, son of Neptune, ii. 335.

   Celenderis, t. of Cilicia (_Kilandria_), iii. 52, 177.

   Cĕlia, t. of Apulia (_Ceglie_), i. 431.

   Celmis, one of the Dactyls, ii. 191.

   Cēlōssa, mtn of Sicyonia, ii. 66.

   Celsa, t. of Spain (_Xelsa_), i. 241, 242.

   Celtica. _See_ Keltica.

   Cemmenus, mtn (_the Cevennes_), i. 193, 264-267, 272, 276, 277, 279,
     282, 283, 285, 310.

   Cēnæum, prom. of Eubœa (_C. Lithada_), i. 94; ii. 126, 130, 137, 150.

   Cenchreæ, port of the Corinthians, (_Kankri_), i. 85, 88; ii. 49, 62,
     63.

   ——, t. of Argolis, ii. 58.

   Cencrius, r. near Ephesus, iii. 11.

   Cenomani, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 321.

   Centauri, Centaurs, ii. 20.

   Centoripa, t. of Sicily (_Centorbe_), i. 411, 414.

   Centrones, Alpine ntn, i. 303, 305, 309.

   Ceōs, island (_Zia_), ii. 156, 208, 210.

   _Ceperano._ _See_ Fregellæ.

   Cephalæ, prom. (_Cape Canan_), iii. 289, 290, 291.

   Cephallēnes, Cephallenians, ii. 83, 161, 162, 166, 167, 173.

   Cephallenia (_Cephalonia_), i. 187; ii. 5, 9, 15, 25, 161-169;
     iii. 8.

   Cephalœdium, t. of Sicily (_Cefalu_), i. 401, 411.

   Cephalōn, ii. 350.

   Cephalus, son of Deïonius, ii. 162, 166, 170, 173.

   Cēphēnes, i. 67.

   Cephisia, t. of Attica, ii. 88.

   Cēphissis, lake of Bœotia, ii. 102, 107.

   Cēphissus, r. of Phocis and Bœotia (_Mauro-potamos_), i. 25; ii. 91,
     98, 100-102, 123, 124, 128.

   ——, r. of Attica, ii. 91, 124.

   ——, r. of Salamis, ii. 124.

   ——, r. of Sicyonia, Scyrus, Argolis, ii. 124.

   ——, ftn of Apollonia, ii. 124.

   Cephisus, r. ii. 351.

   Cēpi, t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 223.

   Ceramietæ, iii. 40.

   Ceramus, t. of Caria, iii. 34.

   Cerasus, t. of Pontus, ii. 296.

   Cerata, mtns of Attica, ii. 84.

   Ceraunia, part of the Caucasus, ii. 232, 235.

   Ceraunian mtns, on the coast of Albania, i. 31, 159, 429, 432, 435,
     486, 487, 489, 497, 500; ii. 78, 79.

   Cerberus, ii. 40.

   Cerbesii, people of Phrygia, ii. 337.

   Cercaphus, father of Ormenus, ii. 142; iii. 32.

   Cercesura, t. of Egypt, iii. 247.

   Cercetæ, people of Asia, ii. 219, 225.

   Cerceteus, mtn of Icaria, ii. 212.

   Cercinna, isl. and town (_Karkenah_), i. 185; iii. 285, 288.

   Cercinnītis, island, iii. 288.

   Cercītæ, people of Pontus, ii. 296.

   Cercyra. _See_ Corcyra.

   Cereate, t. of Latium (_Cerretano_), i. 353.

   Ceres. _See_ Demeter, i. 95, 295, 516; ii. 66, 118, 130, 138, 139,
     183.

   ——, Eleusinian, temple of the, ii. 84; iii. 2.

   ——, temples of, i. 411; ii. 17, 138, 139.

   ——, grove of, ii. 17.

   Cēreus, r. of Eubœa, ii. 137.

   _Cerigo, isl._ _See_ Cythera.

   _Cerretano._ _See_ Cereate.

   Cērilli, t. of the Bruttii (_Cirella_), i. 380.

   Cērinthus, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152, 153.

   Cerne, island. _See_ Kerne.

   Cersobleptes, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516.

   Ceryneia, t. of Achæa, ii. 73.

   Cestrus, r. of Pamphylia (_Ak-su_), ii. 325; iii. 49.

   Cētæi, ii. 389, 395; iii. 63, 65.

   Cēteium, r. of Mysia, ii. 389.

   _Cevennes, the._ _See_ Cemmenus.

   _Ceylon._ _See_ Taprobane.

   Chaa, c. of Triphylia, ii. 22.

   Chaalla, c. of Arabia, iii. 212.

   Chaarene, distr. of Ariana, iii. 126.

   Chabaca, c. of Pontus, ii. 296.

   Chabrias, iii. 241.

   ——, rampart of, vill. in the Delta of Egypt, iii. 177.

   Chabum, c. of the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 479.

   Chæanœtæ, Chamæeunæ, Chamæcœtæ, people of the Caucasus, ii. 239.

   Chærēmōn, iii. 246.

   Chærōneia, c. of Bœotia (_Kapurna_), ii. 101, 110, 111, 123.

   Chalcēdōn, c. of Bithynia, i. 491; ii. 286, 289, 314, 315, 318, 380.

   ——, temple at, i. 491; ii. 289, 315.

   Chalcedonian shore, i. 491.

   Chalcēdonians, i. 491, 492.

   Chalcētŏres, Chalcētōr, c. of Caria, iii. 6, 37.

   Chalcia, Chalcis, mtn of Ætolia (_Varassova_), ii. 160, 171, 172.

   ——, one of the Sporades (_Carchi_), ii. 212, 213.

   Chalcideis, in Eubœa, iii. 17.

   Chalcidenses, Chalcidians, in Eubœa, i. 361, 365, 369, 385, 404, 506;
     ii. 154, 157, 158.

   ——, in Ionia, iii. 17.

   ——, in Thrace, i. 506.

   Chalcidic cities, i. 513.

   Chalcidica, distr. of Syria, iii. 166.

   Chalcis, iii. 33.

   ——, c. of Eubœa, i. 65, 86, 90; ii. 96, 151-156, 160, 162, 178, 188.

   ——, or Hypochalcis, c. of Ætolia, ii. 127, 155, 160, 172.

   ——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 16, 25, 26.

   ——, c. of Syria (_Balbek and Kalkos_), iii. 166, 170.

   ——, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16.

   ——, or Chalcia, mtn of Ætolia (_Varassova_), ii. 160, 171, 172.

   Chaldæans, i. 35; iii. 185.

   Chaldæi, people of Pontus, ii. 296, 297, 300, 304, 305.

   Chalestra, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, 509, 510.

   _Châlons-sur-Saone._ _See_ Cabyllinum.

   Chalybē, c. of Pontus, ii. 297.

   Chalybes, people of Pontus, ii. 269, 297, 298, 300; iii. 63, 64.

   Chalybonian wine, iii. 140.

   Chalonītis, distr. of Assyria, ii. 271; iii. 142.

   Chamæcœtæ, ii. 239.

   Chamanēnē, prefecture of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 284, 285.

   Chanes, r. of Albania, ii. 230.

   Chaones, nation of Epirus, i. 496, 497.

   Charadra, c. of Messenia, ii. 36.

   Charadrūs, fortress of Cilicia (_Charadran_), iii. 52.

   Charax, t. of Corsica, i. 333.

   Charax, place near the Greater Syrtis, iii. 290.

   ——, Chabriou. _See_ Chabrias.

   ——, Patrŏclou. _See_ Patrŏclus.

   Charaxus, iii. 250.

   Chares, of Lindus, iii. 29.

   ——, r. of Colchis, ii. 229.

   Charilaus, king of Sparta, ii. 204

   Charimortus, altar of, on the coast of Egypt, iii. 201.

   Charmides, father of Phidias, ii. 29.

   Charmŏlĕo, i. 247.

   Charmŏthas, c. and port of Arabia, iii. 205.

   Charon, of Lampsacus, ii. 340, 350.

   Charondas, ii. 284.

   Charonia, ii. 385. _See_ Plutonium.

   Charonitis, ii. 271.

   Charonium, sacred cave, iii. 6, 25.

   Charybdis, in the frith of Sicily (_Garafalo_), i. 31, 32, 35, 37, 39,
     69, 404, 416.

   Chatramōtītæ, people of Arabia Felix, iii. 190.

   Chatramōtītis, iii. 191.

   Chatti, people of Germany, i. 445-447.

   Chattuarii, people of Germany, 445-447.

   Chaubi, i. 445.

   Chaulotæi, people of Arabia, iii. 189.

   Chazēnē, distr. of Assyria, iii. 142.

   Cheimĕrium, prom. of Epirus, i. 497.

   Cheirocrates (_leg._ Deinocrates), architect, iii. 12.

   Chelidoniæ, islands, near the coast of Pamphylia (_Schelidan Adassi_),
     ii. 259; iii. 27, 43, 47, 48, 61, 62, 68.

   Chĕlōnatas, prom. of Elis (_Cape Tornese_), ii. 5, 9, 15, 22, 167;
     iii. 291.

   Chĕlōnophagi, iii. 199.

   _Chenab._ _See_ Acesines.

   Cherronesus, t. of Spain (_Peniscola_), i. 239.

   Chersicrates, i. 407.

   Chersiphron, iii. 12.

   _Cherso and Ossero._ _See_ Absyrtides.

   Chersonesus, c. of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 474-480; ii. 288.

   ——, same as Apamea in Syria, iii. 165.

   ——, port of Lyctus in the isl. of Crete, ii. 199, 200; iii. 294.

   ——, fortress of Egypt, iii. 236.

   ——, prom. and port of Cyrenæa (_Ras-el-Tyn_), iii. 294.

   ——, Thracian, by the Hellespont (_Peninsula of Gallipoli_), i. 140,
         506, 517; ii. 171, 291, 349, 357, 358.

   ——, Tauric or Scythian, by the Palus Mæotis, i. 474-480; ii. 291;
         iii. 61.

   ——, Greater, i. 471, 474, 475, 478.

   ——, Smaller, i. 475.

   Chersonitæ, i. 475-480.

   Cherūsci, people of Germany, i. 445-447.

   Chian pottery, i. 487.

   Chiana, i. 349.

   Chians, ii. 396; iii. 19.

   Chieti. _See_ Teatea.

   Chiliocōmon, ii. 312.

   Chimæra, monster, iii. 46.

   ——, valley of Lycia, iii. 46, 47.

   ——, mtns of, in Albania. _See_ Ceraunian mountains.

   Chimerium, promontory, i. 497.

   Chios, isl. (_Skio_), i. 187; ii. 204, 213, 349, 368, 394; iii. 2, 3,
     8, 19.

   ——, wine of, iii. 36.

   _Chiusi._ _See_ Clusium.

   _Chlomos._ _See_ Cnemis.

   Chlōris, mother of Nestor, ii. 20.

   Choaspes, r. of India (_Attock_), iii. 89.

   ——, r. of Persia (_Ab-Zal_), i. 75; iii. 131, 132.

   Chœnicides, ii. 292.

   Chœrilus, poet, i. 465; iii. 55.

   Chōne, c. of Lucania, i. 378, 380.

   Chōnes, inhabitants of Lucania, i. 377, 378, 380.

   Chōnia, iii. 33.

   Chorasmii, people of the Sacæ or Massagetæ, ii. 248.

   Chordiraza, c. of the Mygdones in Mesopotamia (_Racca_), iii. 157.

   Chorene, ii. 250.

   Chorzēne, distr. of Armenia (_Kars_), ii. 269.

   Chrysa, c. of the Troad, ii. 373, 374, 384-386.

   ——, Cilician, ii. 385.

   Chrysaoreōn, Chrysaoric body, in Caria, iii. 39, 40.

   Chryseïs, ii. 343, 384, 385.

   Chryses, ii. 385.

   Chrysippus, Stoic, i. 463; ii. 382; iii. 55.

   _Chryso._ _See_ Crisa.

   Chrysopolis, vill. in Bithynia, ii. 315.

   Chrysorrhoas, r. of Syria, iii. 169.

   _Chun._ _See_ Mallus.

   Chytrium, place near Clazomene, iii. 20.

   Cibotus, port of Alexandria, iii. 230.

   Cibyra, Great, city of Phrygia (_Chorsum_), ii. 499, 410; iii. 27, 45.

   Cibyratæ, ii. 409, 410; iii. 50.

   ——, the Little, in Pamphylia, iii. 50.

   Cibyrātis, Cibyratica, ii. 408, 410; iii. 27.

   Cicero, ii. 166; iii. 40, 234.

   Cichyrus, i. 497; ii. 10.

   Cicŏnes, people of Thrace, i. 508, 515, 519.

   Cicynēthus, isl. (_Trikeri_), ii. 140.

   Cicysium, ii. 32.

   Cidēnas, iii. 146.

   Cierus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 138.

   Cilbianum, plain, in Lydia, ii. 407.

   Cilicia, i. 75, 76, 82, 96, 105, 107, 109, 110, 130, 189, 190;
     ii. 74, 115, 244, 259, 276, 278-281, 285, 404; iii. 28, 44, 50-64,
     73, 160, 162, 177, 216.

   Cilicia, Tracheia, ii. 276-278, 281, 285, 322; iii. 44, 45, 50, 54,
     68.

   ——, Lyrnessian, ii. 345.

   —— Pedias, iii. 50.

   ——, sea of, i. 129; ii. 218, 281.

   Cilician Gates, ii. 281, 283; iii. 53, 61.

   Cilicians, i. 196; ii. 197, 216, 345, 322, 327, 329; iii. 1, 50-64.

   ——, in the Troad, ii. 375, 383, 385, 389, 394, 395; iii. 49, 63.

   Cilla, t. of the Troad, ii. 384, 385.

   Cillæum, mtn of the Troad, ii. 384.

   ——, mtn of Lesbos, ii. 384.

   Cillæan Apollo, ii. 384, 385.

   Cillanian plain, in Phrygia, ii. 407.

   Cillus, r. near Cilla, ii. 385.

   ——, charioteer of Pelops, ii. 385.

   Cimarus, prom. of Crete, ii. 193, 195.

   Cimbri, nation of Germany, i. 154, 288, 292, 319, 445, 448-451.

   Cimiata, fortress of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.

   Cimiatēnē, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.

   Ciminius, lake, in Etruria (_Lago di Vico_ or _di Ronciglione_),
     i. 336.

   Cimmerian Bosporus. _See_ Bosporus.

   ——, village, ii. 222.

   Cimmerians, Cimmerii, Kimmerii, i. 8, 31, 96, 223, 224, 363, 364, 476;
     ii. 221, 246, 301, 329, 405.

   ——, Cimbri Cimmerii, i. 450.

   Cimmericum, city of the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 221.

   Cimmeris, i. 459.

   Cimmerium, hill in the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 476.

   Cimōlus, isl. _Argentière_, ii. 207, 208.

   Cindya, vill. of Caria, iii. 37.

   Cindyas Artemis, iii. 37.

   Cineas, historian, i. 503.

   Cingulum, Mount, i. 337.

   _Cinifo_, r. _See_ Cinyps.

   Cinnamon country, i. 99, 111, 115, 144, 171, 179-181, 199, 200.

   Cinōlis, t. of Paphlagonia (_Kinoli_), ii. 291.

   Cinōlis, Anti, ii. 291.

   Cinyras, tyrant of Byblus, i. 63; iii. 170.

   Circæum, prom. of Latium (_Monte Circello_), i. 35, 344, 346.

   Circe, i. 31, 69, 70, 73, 332, 346; ii. 85.

   _Circello, Monte._ _See_ Circæum.

   _Cirella._ _See_ Cerilli.

   Cirphis, t. of Phocis, ii. 114.

   ——, mtn of Phocis, ii. 116.

   Cirra, t. of Phocis, ii. 114, 116.

   Cirrha, ii. 77.

   Cirta, c. of Numidia (_Constantine_), iii. 280, 285.

   Cisamus, t. of Crete (_Kisamos_), ii. 200.

   Cispadana, i. 316, 321, 322, 323.

   Cisseus, i. 509, 510.

   Cissia, mother of Memnon, iii. 130.

   Cissii, same as Susii, iii. 130.

   Cissus, father of Althæmenes, ii. 77, 203.

   Cissus, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 510.

   Cisthēnē, t. of Mysia, ii. 376.

   ——, isl. and t. near Lycia, iii. 47.

   Cithærōn, i. 40; ii. 62, 82, 97, 99, 103, 107, 108.

   Citium, c. of Cyprus, i. 24; ii. 382; iii. 69.

   Citrum, t. of Macedonia, i. 509.

   Cius, friend of Hercules, ii. 315.

   ——, c. of Bithynia, ii. 314.

   _Civita Lavinia._ _See_ Lanuvium.

   Cizari, citadel of Phazemonitis, ii. 311.

   Clanis, r. in the Norican Alps, i. 308.

   ——, r. of Latium, i. 347.

   Clarus, c. of Ionia, iii. 15, 50.

   Clastidium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Castezzio_), i. 323.

   Claterna (_Quaderna_), i. 322.

   Clautinatii, people of the Vindelici, i. 307.

   Clazomenæ, c. of Ionia (_Kelisman_), i. 91; iii. 3, 20.

   Clazomenians, i. 517; ii. 221; iii. 17.

   Cleanactidæ, tyrants of Mitylene, ii. 391.

   Cleandria, t. of the Troad, ii. 371.

   Cleandridas, leader of the Thurii, i. 398.

   Cleanthes, Stoic, ii. 382.

   ——, painter, ii. 16.

   Cleides, islands, iii. 68-70.

   Cleitor, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.

   Cleobūlus, iii. 33.

   Cleomachus, iii. 23.

   Cleombrotus, founder of Heræa, ii. 8.

   Cleōn, ii. 330.

   Cleōnæ, t. on Mt Athos, i. 512, 513.

   ——, city of Argolis, ii. 59, 60, 66.

   Cleōnæi, ii. 60.

   Cleonymus, i. 427; ii. 8.

   Cleopatra, daughter of Auletes, i. 440, 499; iii. 52-56, 71, 72,
     231-234, 281.

   ——, wife of Euergetes II., i. 149, 150.

   —— Selene, iii. 161.

   Cleopatris, t. of Egypt, iii. 210, 243, 244.

   Cleophanes, rhetorician, ii. 318.

   Cleuas, leader of the Æolians, ii. 340.

   Climax, mtn of Lycia, iii. 48.

   ——, mtn of Cœle-Syria, iii. 170.

   Clitarchus, i. 332, 449; ii. 217, 237; iii. 117.

   Clusium (_Chiusi_), city of Etruria, i. 327, 336, 349.

   Clymĕnē, i. 52.

   Clypea, city of the Carthaginians. _See_ Aspis.

   Clytemnestra, i. 25.

   Cnemīdes, t. of the Locrians, ii. 126.

   Cnemis, mtn in Locris (_Chlomos_), ii. 114, 125.

   Cnidian wine, iii. 8.

   —— territory, ii. 213.

   Cnidii, Cnidians, i. 417, 484; iii. 30.

   Cnidus, city of Caria (_Crio_), i. 180, 187; iii. 8, 31, 34, 227, 247.

   Cnōpia, Thebaïc, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 96.

   Cnōpus, son of Codrus, iii. 2.

   Cnossus, city of Crete (_Makro Teichos_), i. 430; ii. 195-197, 200,
     202.

   Cnuphis, god of the Egyptians, iii. 263.

   Coa, same as Cos.

   Coans, iii. 31, 36.

   Cōbialus, vill. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291.

   Cōbus, of Trerus, i. 96.

   Cōcalus, i. 413, 425.

   Coccēius, i. 364.

   Coccēs. _See_ Ptolemy.

   Cŏdridæ, ii. 68.

   Cŏdrus, i. 493; ii. 68, 82; iii. 2, 3, 30.

   Cœle-Syria, i. 201.

   ——, Elis, ii. 7, 8.

   Cœlius, Roman historian, i. 343.

   Cœus, ii. 208.

   Cōgæōnus, mtn and r. of the Getæ, i. 457.

   Colapis, r. (_Kulp_), i. 309, 483.

   Colchis (_Mingrelia_), i. 8, 22, 31, 72, 76, 82, 89, 95, 96, 106, 107,
     109, 137, 142, 195, 440, 476; ii. 216, 217, 226, 227, 230, 231, 238,
     269, 273, 276, 286, 294, 296, 304, 305, 315.

   Colchians, i. 73, 321; ii. 188, 225, 229, 235, 238.

   Colchic Sea (_Euxine_), ii. 217.

   Colias, ii. 89.

   Collatia, i. 341.

   Colline (or Quirinal) Gate, at Rome, i. 339, 348, 412.

   Colobi, iii. 196, 198.

   Coloë, lake of Lydia, ii. 403, 405.

   Colōnæ, t. near Lampsacus, ii. 350.

   ——, in the Troad, ii. 350, 373, 384.

   _Colonna, Cape._ _See_ Sunium.

   Colophōn, city of Ionia, iii. 2-4, 15, 16.

   Colophonii, iii. 16.

   Colossæ, t. of Phrygia (_Konos_), ii. 332.

   Colosseni, ii. 334.

   Cŏlōtes, sculptor, ii. 9.

   Columna Rheginorum, i. 384, 400, 404.

   Colus, i. 480.

   Colyttus, vill. of Attica, i. 102, 103.

   Cŏmana, city of Cataonia, ii. 259, 279, 281, 306-310, 330.

   ——, city of Pontus, ii. 279, 295, 308, 309; iii. 232.

   Comarus, port of Epirus (_Porto Fanari_), i. 497.

   Comisēnē, distr. of Parthia (?), ii. 250.

   ——, distr. of Armenia, ii. 268.

   Commagene, distr. of Syria (_Camasch_), ii. 259, 261, 267, 276, 278;
     iii. 44, 63, 157, 160-163.

   Commageni, ii. 267, 268.

   _Comminges, canton of._ _See_ Convenæ.

   Como, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 287, 304, 306, 317.

   ——, Lake of, _See_ Larius.

   Concordia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 319.

   Coniaci, people of Spain, i. 234.

   ——, people of India, iii. 80, 81.

   Conisalus, ii. 347.

   Conisci. _See_ Cantabri.

   Conistorgis, t. of Spain, i. 213.

   Cŏnōn, altars of, in the Troglodytic, iii. 196.

   Cōnōpa, city of Ætolia. _See_ Arsinoë.

   _Constantine._ _See_ Cirta.

   Constantinople, Strait of, i. 32, 86.

   Convĕnæ, people of Gaul (_the canton of Comminges_), i. 284.

   Cōpæ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 100, 106, 107.

   Cōpaïs, lake, i. 92; ii. 100-102, 107-109, 113, 124.

   Cophēs, r. of India (_river of Cabul_), iii. 90.

   Cophus-Limen (Deaf-Harbour), port of Pallene, i. 511.

   Cŏpiæ, _see_ Thurii, i. 397.

   Cŏpratas, r. of Susiana (_Ab-Zal_), iii. 132.

   Coptus, city of Egypt (_Koft_), iii. 211, 213, 260, 261.

   Cŏra, t. of Latium (_Core_), i. 352.

   Coracēsium, t. of Cilicia, iii. 50, 52, 53.

   Coracium, mtn of Ionia, iii. 16.

   Coracius, Country of, in Ethiopia, iii. 196.

   Cŏrălis, lake, in Lycaonia, ii. 322.

   Cŏralius, r. of Bœotia, ii. 108.

   Coralli, people of Thrace, i. 489.

   Corassiæ, or Corsiæ, islands, _the Furni_, ii. 212; iii. 7.

   Coraus, iii. 196.

   Cŏrax, mtn of Ætolia (_M. Coraca_), i. 505; ii. 115, 160.

   Coraxi, i. 217.

   Corbiane, province of the Elymæi, iii. 154.

   Corbilōn, t. of Gaul, i. 283.

   _Corcan._ _See_ Hyrcania.

   Corcoras, r., i. 482.

   Corcyra, Cercyra (_Pantalaria ? Corfu_), i. 71, 159, 161, 187, 407,
     459, 497, 500, 505; ii. 158.

   ——, Black (_Curzola_), i. 186, 484.

   Corcyræan Sea, i. 505.

   Corcyræans, Corcyræi, Cercyræi, i. 485, 486, 504.

   Corduba, c. of Bætica (_Cordova_), i. 212-214, 241.

   Corean Games, i. 149.

   Coressia, ii. 210.

   Coressus, mtn near Ephesus, iii. 11.

   Corfinium (_Pentima_ near _Popoli_), i. 353, 358, 359; iii. 3.

   _Corfu._ _See_ Corcyra.

   Corinth, i. 326; ii. 5, 21, 38, 53, 58-61, 63-66, 77, 129, 208, 209,
     309, 347; iii. 287.

   ——, isthmus of, i. 85, 256, 406, 497; ii. 49, 79, 80.

   ——, Gulf of (_Gulf of Lepanto_), i. 85, 186, 187, 496; ii. 2, 4-6,
         25, 63, 79, 105, 158, 159, 192.

   Corinthian territory, ii. 62-64, 66.

   Corinthians, i. 486, 511; ii. 49, 63, 64, 78, 82, 111.

   Coriscus, ii. 378.

   Cornelius Gallus, prefect of Egypt, iii. 267.

   Corœbus, ii. 30.

   Corocondamē, t. of the Cimmerian Bosporus (_Taman_), ii. 222, 225.

   Corocondamitis, lake, ii. 222.

   Corōne, city of Messenia, ii. 37.

   Corōneia, city of Bœotia, ii. 101, 107, 108, 111, 136.

   ——, city of Thessaly, ii. 136.

   ——, Messenian, ii. 108, 136.

   Corōnii, Coronenses, ii. 108.

   Coropassus, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 322; iii. 43.

   Corpīli, people of Thrace, i. 516.

   Corpilice, in the Hellespont, i. 519.

   _Corsica._ _See_ Cyrnus.

   Corsiæ, the Furni Islands, ii. 212; iii. 7.

   Corsūra, island (_Pantalaria_), iii. 287.

   Corus, r. of Iberia, same as Cyrus, ii. 230.

   Corybantes, i. 516; ii. 180, 184, 188, 191.

   Corybantium, ii. 190.

   Cŏrybissa, near Scepsis, ii. 190.

   Corybus, ii. 188.

   Cōrycæans, pirates of Ionia, iii. 18.

   Cōrycian cave, ii. 405; iii. 54.

   Corycium, ii. 115.

   Cōrycus, mtn and prom. of Ionia, iii. 17, 18.

   ——, prom. of Crete (_Grabusa_), ii. 41; iii. 294.

   ——, prom. of Cilicia, iii. 54, 70.

   ——, coast of Lycia, iii. 48.

   ——, city of Lycia, iii. 49, 55.

   Corydalleis, ii. 85.

   Corydallus, mtn of Attica (_San Giorgio_), ii. 85, 90.

   Coryphantis, t. of the Mitylenæans, ii. 376.

   Coryphasium, mtn and prom. of Messenia (_Mount St. Nicolas_), ii. 11,
     21, 22, 26, 28, 35.

   ——, t. of Messenia, ii. 211.

   Cos, island (_Stanko_), i. 187, 519; ii. 212-214; iii. 8, 30, 36, 74,
     94.

   ——, city, ii. 56, 328; iii. 74, 94.

   Cŏssa, r. of Latium, i. 352.

   Coscinia, t. of Caria (_Arpas-Kalessi_), iii. 26.

   Coscinii, ii. 347.

   Cosentia (_Cosenza_), i. 382.

   Cossa, Cossæ, city of Etruria, i. 330, 334, 335.

   Cossæa, distr. of Asia, iii. 153.

   Cossæan mtns, iii. 150.

   Cossæi, ii. 261, 264; iii. 148, 153.

   Cossūra, island and town (_Pantalaria_), i. 185, 421; iii. 288.

   Cōteis, prom. of Mauritania (_Cape Espartel_), iii. 276, 279.

   Cōthōn, island and port of the Carthaginians, iii. 285, 286.

   Cŏthus, i. 493; ii. 152, 154.

   Cŏtiaeium, t. of Phrygia (_Kiutaha_), ii. 332.

   Cotinæ, t. of Bætica, i. 214.

   Cottius, country of, in the Alps, i. 268, 303, 323.

   Cŏtuantii, i. 307.

   Cotyliæ, waters at, i. 338.

   Cŏtylus, summit of Mt. Ida, ii. 369.

   Cŏtys, prince of the Sapæi, ii. 305.

   ——, king of the Odrysæ, i. 516.

   ——, goddess of the Edoni, ii. 187, 189.

   Cotytia, rites of, ii. 186.

   Cragus, c. of Lycia, iii. 46.

   ——, mtn. and prom. of Lycia, iii. 46.

   ——, rocks of Cilicia, iii. 52.

   Crambūsa, t. of Lycia (_Garabusa_), iii. 48.

   ——, isl. of Cilicia, iii. 54.

   Cranaë, island, ii. 90.

   Cranaï, ii. 87.

   Cranaüs, king of the Athenians, ii. 87.

   Cranes, battles of the, i. 109.

   Cranii, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166, 167.

   Crannōn, t. of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 146, 147.

   Crannonii, i. 507; ii. 10, 147.

   Crapathus or Carpathus, ii. 212-214.

   Crassus, Publius, i. 263; iii. 21.

   ——, triumvir, iii. 157, 159.

   Crater (_Bay of Naples_), i. 360, 369.

   Craterus, iii. 96, 121, 127.

   Crates, the miner of Chalcis, ii. 101.

   ——, of Mallos, i. 4, 6, 48, 49, 57, 60, 155, 156, 176, 237; ii. 143,
         380; iii. 60.

   Crāthis, r. of Achæa, ii. 72.

   ——, r. of Italy (_Crati_), i. 396; ii. 72, 157.

   Cratippus, iii. 25.

   Crĕmaste, t. of Thessaly, ii. 138.

   Cremna, t. of Pisidia, ii. 323.

   Crĕmōna, t. of Italy, i. 322, 367.

   Crenides, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 515.

   Creontiades, founder of Elea, i. 376.

   Creophagi, a nation of Ethiopia, iii. 196, 198, 199.

   Creōphylus, iii. 9, 10.

   Creopōlus, mtn of Argolis, ii. 58.

   Cresphontes, ii. 38, 77.

   Crestonia, t. of Thrace, i. 515.

   Cretan code, i. 390.

   —— sea, i. 187, 496; ii. 6, 49, 57, 193, 212.

   —— rites, ii. 185.

   Cretans, i. 425, 428, 430; ii. 58, 83, 287, 328; iii. 4.

   Crēte (_Candia_), i. 40, 72, 78, 89, 160, 186, 187, 328, 400; ii. 21,
     41, 58, 175, 180-206, 212, 213, 328, 373, 374; iii. 4, 7, 10, 28,
     30-32, 49, 292, 294, 297.

   Creūsa, Creusia, t. of Bœotia, ii. 6, 92, 99, 104, 105.

   Crimissa, fortress of Lucania, i. 378.

   Crinacus, i. 493.

   Crinagoras, ii. 392.

   Crisa, city of Phocis (_Krisso_), i. 399; ii. 79, 114, 116.

   Crisæans, ii. 116, 117, 120.

   Crissæan Sea, ii. 99.

   —— Gulf, i. 388, 496, 506; ii. 4, 6, 62, 79, 92, 99, 104-106, 114-116.

   Crissæan plain, ii. 116, 128.

   Critasirus, king of the Boii, i. 466, 482.

   Crithōte, prom. of Acarnania (_Dragomestre_), ii. 171.

   ——, t. of the Thracian Chersonesus, i. 518; ii. 171.

   Criu-metopon, prom. of Crete (_Cape Krio_), i. 160; ii. 193-195;
     iii. 292.

   ——, prom. of the Tauric Chersonesus (_Karadje-Burun_), i. 188, 475,
         476; ii. 225, 291.

   Crobyzi, a Thracian race, i. 489.

   Crocian plain, in Thessaly, ii. 135, 138.

   Crocodeilopŏlis, t. of Egypt iii. 256, 263.

   ——, t. of Judæa, iii. 175.

   Crocyleia, ii. 58, 161, 163.

   Crœsus, ii. 118, 119, 277, 316, 354, 368, 403, 405; iii. 11, 66, 141.

   Crommyōn, t. of Megaris, ii. 63, 78, 80.

   Crommyonia, ii. 63, 81.

   Crommyonian sow, ii. 63.

   Crommyum Acra, prom. of Cyprus (_Kormakiti_), iii. 52, 68, 70.

   Crōmna, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291.

   Crŏnium, temple of Saturn, i. 254

   Crŏtōn, ii. 73.

   Crotona, i. 378, 388, 392-395, 407.

   Crotoniatæ, i. 391, 392, 395, 396, 407.

   Crotoniātis, i. 378, 392, 411.

   Crows, the Port of Two, i. 295.

   Crucis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 509.

   Cruni, t. of Mœsia, i. 490.

   ——, ftn of Triphylia, ii. 16, 25, 26, 155.

   Ctĕnus, port of the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 475, 480.

   Ctesias, Cnidian, i. 69; ii. 241; iii. 34, 80, 208, 216.

   Ctesiphōn, city of Assyria (_Al-Madain_), iii. 152.

   Ctimĕnē, ii. 163.

   Ctistæ, i. 454.

   Cuarius, r. of Thessaly and Bœotia, ii. 108, 109, 138.

   Cubi. _See_ Bituriges.

   Cucūlum, t. of Latium, i. 353.

   Cūlūpēnē, distr. of Pontus, ii. 310.

   Cumæ (_Grotta di Pausilipo_), i. 39, 361, 362, 364, 366, 369.

   Cumæa, in Campania, i. 369, 415.

   Cumæa, in Æolis, i. 369; ii. 350, 397; iii. 21.

   ——, gulf of, i. 34.

   Cumæi, Cumæans, i. 360, 361, 364, 365, 516; ii. 398; iii. 50.

   _Cume_, in Ætolia, ii. 104, 145.

   Cumē, city of Æolis, ii. 237, 298, 395-399, 404.

   Cūneus, prom. of Lusitania, i. 206.

   Cupid, statue of, ii. 105.

   Cupra, Tyrrhenian name of Juno, i. 357.

   Curalius, r. of Thessaly, ii. 142.

   Curbantes, i. 516.

   Cures, vill., i. 338.

   Curētes, i. 516; ii. 12, 202; iii. 11.

   Curētĕs, people of Ætolia, i. 494; ii. 130, 160, 175-192.

   Curētis, Curētica, same as Pleurōnia, ii. 178.

   Curias, prom. of Cyprus (_Cape Gata_), iii. 69, 70.

   Curium, t. of Cyprus (_Piscopia_), iii. 69, 70.

   ——, mtn of Ætolia, ii. 160, 179.

   Curtii, people of Media, ii. 263.

   _Curzola._ _See_ Corcyra, Black.

   _Curzolari._ _See_ Echinades.

   Cyanæan rocks, same as the Symplēgades, i. 32, 137, 138, 224, 490,
     491, 518; ii. 292.

   Cyané, lake. _See_ Mantianē.

   Cyaxares, king of the Medes, iii. 239.

   Cybēbe, same as Cybĕle.

   Cybĕla, mtn of Phrygia, ii. 321.

   Cybĕle, or Cybĕbe, name of Rhea, ii. 184-186, 321.

   Cybĕlia, t. of Ionia, iii. 18.

   Cybiosactes, king of the Egyptians, iii. 232.

   Cybistra, t. of Cataonia (_Eregli_), ii. 278, 281, 284.

   Cybrene, ii. 360.

   Cychreia, same as Salamis, ii. 82.

   Cychreus, ii. 83.

   Cychrides, serpent, ii. 83.

   Cyclades, islands, i. 90, 187; ii. 47, 192, 207-214; iii. 7.

   Cyclopæ, Cyclops, i. 31-33, 64; ii. 54, 354.

   Cyclopean mode of life, ii. 233.

   Cyclopeia, ii. 48.

   Cycnus, king of the Colonæ, ii. 64, 350, 373.

   Cydippe, wife of Cercaphus, iii. 32.

   Cydnus, r. of Cilicia (_Karasu_), i. 75; iii. 56, 57, 59.

   Cydonia, city of Crete, ii. 58, 195, 198, 200.

   Cydonians, people of Crete, i. 328; ii. 195.

   Cydoniatæ, ii. 199, 200.

   Cydrēlus, son of Codrus, iii. 2.

   Cydriæ, t. of Epirus, i. 501.

   Cyinda, fortress of Cilicia, iii. 55.

   Cyllēnē, city of Elis, ii. 9, 13.

   ——, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 75, 76.

   Cynætha, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.

   Cynamolgi, people of Ethiopia, iii. 196.

   Cynia, lake, in Ætolia, ii. 171.

   Cynocephali, people of Ethiopia, i. 68, 458; iii. 200.

   ——, in Thessaly, ii. 146.

   Cynōpolis, city of Egypt, iii. 240, 257.

   Cynopolite nome, iii. 257.

   Cynossema, ii. 357; iii. 34, 236.

   Cynthus, Cythnus, mtn of Delos, ii. 208.

   Cynthus (_Thermia_), ii. 207.

   Cynūria, distr. of Argolis, ii. 51, 58.

   Cȳnus, t. and prom. of Locris (_Kyno_), i. 95; ii. 125, 126, 153, 388.

   Cynyps, r. (_Cinifo_), iii. 289.

   Cyparisseïs, r. of Messenia, ii. 24.

   ——, r. of Triphylia, ii. 24.

   Cyparissenses, Cyparissii, ii. 18, 22, 36.

   Cyparissia, t. of Triphylia, ii. 22, 35.

   ——, t. of Messenia, ii. 24, 35, 37.

   ——, t. of Laconia, ii. 41.

   Cyparisson, iii. 144.

   Cyparissus, ii. 122.

   Cyphus, mtn. of Thessaly, ii. 147.

   ——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 145, 147.

   Cypria, same as Cyprus.

   Cyprian copper, i. 245.

   Cyprians, ii. 13.

   Cyprus, i. 8, 15, 41, 59, 61, 63, 65, 82, 189, 381; ii. 13, 92, 213,
     280; iii. 31, 32, 51, 52, 67-72, 148, 226, 297.

   Cypsela, city of Thrace (_Ipsala_), i. 495, 505, 516, 518.

   Cypselus, tyrant of Corinth, i. 498; ii. 29, 60, 61, 161.

   Cyra, city of Bactriana, ii. 254.

   Cyrbantes, same as Corybantes.

   Cyrēnæa, ii. 21; iii. 226, 235, 260, 294, 295, 297.

   Cyrenæans, ii. 206.

   Cyrenaic, the, i. 89, 185, 186, 196-198.

   —— juice, iii. 292.

   —— philosophy, iii. 293.

   —— sect, iii. 293.

   Cyrenaica, ii. 41, 193-195; iii. 290, 292-294.

   Cyrene, i. 78, 88, 89, 201, 237; iii. 281, 290, 292-294.

   Cyrictica, i. 186, 484.

   Cyrinius (Quirinus), ii. 323.

   Cyrnus (_Corsica_), i. 185, 332, 333, 335, 376; iii. 32, 297.

   Cyrrhēstica, part of Syria, iii. 163.

   Cyrsilus, historian, ii. 272.

   Cyrus, king of the Persians, i. 96, 376; ii. 246, 247, 254, 264, 283,
     316, 405; iii. 74, 75, 122, 126, 133, 141.

   ——, r. of Persia (_Kur_), i. 96; iii. 132.

   ——, r. of Iberia and Albania (_Kur or Kour_), ii. 217, 227, 230-233,
         240, 243, 268-270, 403, 407.

   Cytæan Œeta. _See_ Œeta.

   Cythēra, island and town (_Cerigo_), i. 187; ii. 41, 48, 195.

   Cytherius, r. of Pisatis, ii. 32.

   Cytherus, t. of Attica, ii. 88.

   Cythnus, island, ii. 208.

   Cytinium, t. of Locris, ii. 128, 195.

   Cytōrum, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 288, 291.

   Cytōrus, t. of Pontus, ii. 296.

   ——, son of Phrixus, ii. 291.

   Cyzicene, ii. 317, 338-341, 347.

   Cyziceni, i. 189; ii. 299, 331, 332, 340, 341, 347, 349; iii. 5.

   Cyzicus, island and city (_Artaki_), i. 71, 152, 189, 518; ii. 316,
     330-332, 346, 348, 349, 402; iii. 5, 30, 34, 67.


   Daci, Dacians, Daæ, i. 309, 317, 467, 468, 481.

   Dactyli, Idæan, ii. 30, 180, 191.

   Dædala, t. of Caria, iii. 28, 45, 46.

   ——, mtn of Lycia, iii. 45, 46.

   Dædalus, father of Iapyx, i. 425; ii. 197; iii. 10.

   Daēs, of Colonæ, ii. 384.

   Dahæ, ii. 241, 245, 257.

   Daisitiatæ, nation of Hungary, i. 483.

   _Dalian._ _See_ Caunus.

   Daliōn, r. of Triphylia, ii. 17.

   Dalmatæ, Dalmatians, i. 484, 487.

   Dalmatia, Dalmatice, i. 483, 484.

   Dalmatium, city of the Dalmatæ, i. 484.

   Damascus, city of Syria, iii. 169-171.

   Damasia, t. of the Licattii, i. 307.

   Damastes, historian, i. 74, 75; ii. 340; iii. 70, 71.

   Damastium, in Epirus, i. 500.

   Damasus the Athenian, iii. 2.

   —— Scombrus, iii. 25.

   Damnamenus, one of the Idæan Dactyli, ii. 191.

   Danaë, mother of Perseus, ii. 211.

   ——, play of Æschylus, i. 329.

   Danai, i. 329; ii. 49, 52, 133, 329.

   Danaïdes, ii. 52, 335; iii. 33.

   Danala, fortress of the Galatæ, ii. 320.

   Danaus, i. 35, 329, 493; ii. 52, 53; iii. 51.

   Dandarii, ii. 223, 224.

   Danthēlētæ, people of Thrace, i. 489.

   _Danube._ _See_ Ister.

   Daorizi, a nation of Dalmatia, i. 484.

   Daphitas, the grammarian, iii. 22.

   Daphne, city of Syria (_Beit-el-ma_), iii. 118, 162.

   Daphnus, t. of Phocis or Locris, (?) i. 95; ii. 114, 124-126.

   ——, port of Ethiopia, iii. 200.

   Darada, city of, iii. 197.

   Darapsa, city of Bactriana, ii. 253.

   _Dardanelles, Strait of the._ _See_ Hellespont.

   Dardani, Dardanii, Dardanians, i. 485, 489; ii. 77, 162, 353, 375;
     iii. 41.

   Dardania, distr. of the Troad, i. 481, 516; ii. 317, 353, 354, 360,
     369, 371, 375.

   Dardaniatæ, Dardanii, a people of Illyria, i. 485, 505; ii. 3.

   Dardanica, a region of Illyria, i. 485.

   Dardanis, Dardanian prom. ii. 357.

   Dardanium, i. 347.

   Dardanus, t. of the Troad, ii. 347, 352, 357, 366.

   ——, brother of Jasion, i. 516; ii. 19, 353, 354.

   Darieces, name of Darius, iii. 216.

   Darius, i. 148, 152, 462, 463, 465, 468, 469; ii. 347; iii. 60, 89,
     133, 134, 141, 144, 188, 216, 244, 259.

   ——, son of Hystaspes, iii. 5, 9, 163.

   ——, father of Xerxes, ii. 352.

   ——, conquered by Alexander, ii. 291.

   —— Longimanus, iii. 140.

   Dasarētii, a people of Illyria, i. 485, 489.

   Dascylītis, lake of Mysia (_Jaskili_), ii. 329-332, 346.

   Dascylium, t. of Mysia, ii. 331, 340.

   _Daskalio._ _See_ Asteria.

   Dasmenda, fortress of Cappadocia, ii. 284.

   Dastarcum, a fortress of Cataonia, ii. 280.

   Dasteira, city of Armenia, ii. 305.

   Dateni, people of Macedonia, i. 513.

   Datis, ii. 90.

   Datum, city of Thrace, i. 512-514.

   Daulia, Daulis, city of Phocis, ii. 114, 122.

   Daulieis, i. 493; ii. 123.

   Daulius, king of Crissa, i. 399.

   Daunia, _see_ Apulia, i. 425, 434; iii. 32.

   Daunii, i. 320, 360, 422, 428, 431-433, 436.

   Davi, i. 467.

   Dazimonitis, distr. of Pontus (_Kas Owa_), ii. 295.

   Debæ, people of Arabia, iii. 206.

   Dēcæneus, Getæan bard, i. 457, 467; iii. 180.

   Deceleia, t. of Attica, ii. 88.

   Deciētæ, a people of the Ligurians, i. 301.

   Decimus Brutus, i. 305.

   Degmenus, ii. 33.

   Deïaneira, daughter of Œneus, ii. 64, 160, 170.

   Deïmachus, historian, i. 107-109, 112, 114, 117, 118, 120; iii. 80.

   Deïoneus, father of Cephalus, ii. 162, 166, 170.

   Deïŏtarus, prince of the Galatæ, ii. 320, 321.

   ——, king of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.

   Deïphontes, ii. 77.

   Deire, c. and prom. of Ethiopia, iii. 191, 193, 198, 199, 201.

   ——, straits of, iii. 191.

   _Dekoie._ _See_ Sinda.

   Deliaca, iii. 130.

   Delians, iii. 5.

   Delium, city of Bœotia (_Dramesi_), ii. 95.

   ——, temple of Apollo, in Argolis, ii. 47.

   Dellius, ii. 263.

   Delos, isl. (_Dhiles_), i. 410; ii. 55, 95, 207-210; iii. 51.

   ——, city of, ii. 207-210.

   Delphi, a city of Phocis (_Kastri_), i. 280, 318, 328, 385, 391, 398,
     399, 406, 502; ii. 21, 97, 114-123, 176, 204; iii. 179.

   Delphi, inhabitants of ii. 116, 120-123; iii. 22.

   ——, temple at, ii. 114-123.

   Delphinium, t. and port of Bœotia, ii. 95.

   Delta, of the Nile, i. 47, 103; iii. 95, 221-223, 239, 242, 245, 266.

   ——, of India, iii. 95.

   ——, vill. of Egypt, iii. 223.

   Demaratus, father of Lucumo, i. 326; ii. 61.

   _Demass._ _See_ Thapsus.

   Dēmēter. _See_ Ceres.

   Demetrias, city of Assyria, iii. 144.

   ——, city of Thessaly, ii. 130, 139, 140, 142, 146, 148.

   Demetrium, temple of Ceres, ii. 64, 138.

   Demetrius, watch-towers of, iii. 196.

   ——, of Callatis, i. 94.

   ——, grandson of Poliorcĕtes, i. 85, 345; ii. 139.

   ——, of Pharos, i. 484; ii. 38.

   ——, of Phalaris, i. 221; ii. 88.

   ——, Ætolian, ii. 160.

   —— Lacōn, iii. 37.

   ——, son of Rathenus, ii. 296.

   ——, son of Seleucus, ii. 401.

   ——, of Skepsis, i. 71, 74, 90, 502, 513, 518; ii. 10, 11, 17, 56, 142,
         143, 168, 189, 190, 298-300, 355, 360, 364, 375, 377, 380, 383,
         404, 405; iii. 66.

   ——, son of Euthydemus, ii. 253.

   Demi, ii. 90.

   Dēmocles, historian, i. 91.

   Dēmŏcŏōn, son of Priam, ii. 344.

   Dēmocritus, i. 95, 102, 103; iii. 98.

   Demosthenes, i. 182; ii. 55, 56, 123, 152, 188.

   Dēmus, i. 460; ii. 374.

   _Denia._ _See_ Dianium.

   _Deras, Cape._ _See_ Derhis.

   Derbe, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 278, 322; iii. 64.

   Derbices, people of Margiana, i. 249, 258.

   Dercĕto. _See_ Atargatis.

   Derdæ, iii. 101.

   _Derekoi._ _See_ Myus.

   Derhis, a port of Marmara (_Deras_), iii. 236.

   Derrhis, prom. of Macedonia, i. 511, 512.

   Derthon (_Tortona_), i. 323.

   Dertōssa, t. of Spain (_Tortosa_), i. 239, 241.

   _Descura._ _See_ Sitacene.

   Deucalion, king of Thessaly, i. 494; ii. 67, 125, 134, 139, 140, 149.

   ——, island, ii. 139.

   Deudorix, the Sicambrian, i. 446.

   Deuriŏpes, people of Macedonia, i. 501.

   Deuriŏpus, district of Macedonia, i. 500.

   Dexia, or the right of Pontus, ii. 286.

   _Dhiles._ _See_ Delos.

   Dïa, temple of, at Sicyon, ii. 66.

   ——, isl. near Crete (_Standia_), ii. 207.

   ——, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 205.

   Diacŏpēne, district of Pontus, ii. 312.

   Diades. _See_ Athenæ Diades.

   Diagesbes, people of Sardinia, i. 333.

   _Diakopton._ _See_ Bura.

   Diana (Artemis), i. 270, 385; ii. 16, 73, 208, 348; iii. 146, 153,
     162.

   ——, of Ephesus, i. 268, 269.

   ——, of Ephesus, temple of (the Ephesium), i. 238-240, 268, 275;
         iii. 11.

   —— Brauronia, ii. 90.

   —— Perasia, ii. 281.

   —— Astyrene, ii. 376, 386.

   —— Munychia, iii. 10.

   —— Leucophryēne, iii. 22.

   ——, Pergæan, iii. 49.

   ——, Sarpedŏnian, iii. 61.

   Diana, Coloēne, ii. 403.

   —— Taurica, temple of, i. 355.

   ——, Lindian, temple of, iii. 33.

   —— Daphnia, ii. 16.

   —— Elaphia, ii. 16.

   —— Amarynthia, ii. 155.

   —— Tauropola, ii. 90, 279, 281; iii. 186.

   ——, temple of, ii. 16; iii. 10.

   —— Cyrrhestis, iii. 163.

   —— Nemydia (? Nemeæa), temple of, ii. 14.

   ——, Eleian, ii. 24.

   —— in Limnæ (in the marshes), ii. 39.

   ——, Limnæan (in Sparta), ii. 39.

   ——, grove of the Ætolian, i. 320.

   —— Alpheiŏnia, Alpheiusa, ii. 16.

   —— Artemisium, Dianium. _See_ Artemisium.

   Dianium, t. of Spain (_Denia_), i. 239.

   Dicæa, t. of Thrace, i. 515.

   Dicæarchia, city of Campania (_Puteoli_), i. 39, 150, 217, 364-366,
     369; iii. 228.

   Dicæarchus, the geographer, i. 1, 157-159, 256.

   Dicte, mtn of Crete (_Mt Sitia_), ii. 189, 199.

   ——, place near Scepsis, in the Troad, ii. 189.

   Dictynna, _see_ Britomartis, ii. 199, 200.

   Dictynnæan prom., ii. 207.

   Dictys, ii. 211.

   Dido, queen, iii. 286.

   Didyma, city of the Branchidæ, ii. 120.

   ——, isl. near Sicily, i. 419, 421.

   ——, city of Spain, i. 254. _See_ Gadeira.

   Didymæan mountains, iii. 22.

   Didymi, ii. 254; iii. 22.

   Diēgylis, king of the Cæni, ii. 401.

   _Dikeli-koi._ _See_ Atarneus.

   Dindymene, mother of the gods, ii. 184, 186, 321, 331, 403; iii. 22.

   Dindymum, mtn near Pessinus, ii. 321.

   ——, near Cyzicus, ii. 331.

   _Dinear._ _See_ Apameia, ii. 332.

   Diochares, gate of, at Athens, ii. 88.

   Diocles, ii. 46.

   Diodōrus, grammarian of Tarsus, iii. 59.

   ——, leader of the Adramyteni, ii. 386.

   ——, Zonas, the orator, ii. 405.

   ——, junior, friend of Strabo, ii. 405.

   ——, Cronus, the Dialectician, iii. 37, 294.

   Diodotus, the Sidonian, iii. 173.

   ——, sculptor, ii. 87.

   ——, Tryphōn, ii. 251; iii. 51, 165, 173.

   Diogenes, the Cynic, ii. 293; iii. 114.

   ——, of Tarsus, iii. 59, 114.

   ——, of Seleucia, the Babylonian Stoic, iii. 152.

   Diolcus, ii. 49, 63.

   Diomēdes, king of Argos, i. 26, 225, 320, 433, 434, 499, 515; ii. 122,
     174.

   ——, king of the Bistones, i. 515.

   ——, plain of, i. 433.

   Diomede, islands of (_Islands of Tremiti_), i. 186, 320, 433, 434.

   ——, temple of, i. 319.

   Dion, the Syracusan, i. 380.

   ——, the Academician, iii. 232.

   Dione, worshipped at Dodona, i. 503.

   Dionysides, tragic poet, iii. 59.

   Dionysius (the Elder), tyrant of Sicily, i. 316, 335, 357, 387, 392.

   —— (the Younger), i. 380, 387, 389.

   Dionysius, tyrant of Heraclæa, ii. 291.

   ——, Bithynian, ii. 318.

   ——, of Attica, ii. 402.

   Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, the historian, iii. 35.

   ——, the Thracian, iii. 34.

   ——, the Syrian, iii. 163.

   Dionysocles, the orator, iii. 25.

   Dionysodorus, the mathematician, ii. 296.

   Dionysus. _See_ Bacchus.

   Diophanes, the Mytilenæan, ii. 292.

   Diophantus, general of Mithridates, i. 471, 479.

   Dioscūri (_Castor and Pollux_), i. 76, 345, 391; ii. 42, 86, 224.

   Dioscurias, city of Colchis (_Iskuriah_), i. 75, 138, 188, 190;
     ii. 225-229, 238.

   Diospolis, city of Pontus, ii. 306.

   ——, city of Egypt, iii. 240.

   ——, same as Thebes, iii. 245, 261.

   ——, Lesser (_Hu_), iii. 260.

   Diotimus, son of Strombichus, i. 75.

   Diotrephes, the Sophist, of Antioch, ii. 409; iii. 38.

   Diphilus, comic poet, ii. 293.

   _Dipso._ _See_ Edepsus.

   Dircæan Thebes, ii. 74.

   Dirce, ftn near Thebes, ii. 74, 103.

   ——, near Phara, ii. 74.

   _Distomo._ _See_ Ambrysus.

   Ditiōnes, nation of Hungary, i. 483.

   Dium, t. of Macedonia, near Olympus, i. 507, 508, 512, 513.

   ——, at Athone, i. 512, 513.

   ——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 153.

   Dius, i. 399.

   ——, father of Hesiod, ii. 104, 398.

   _Djanik._ _See_ Themiscyra.

   _Dnieper._ _See_ Borysthenes.

   Dniester, r. _See_ Tyras, i. 22, 162.

   Dobera, mtn of Macedonia, i. 514.

   Docimia, t. of Phrygia, ii. 333.

   Dōdōna, city of Epirus, seat of an oracle, i. 441, 496, 501, 502,
     504; ii. 42, 94, 145, 146; iii. 179.

   ——, oak of, i. 504.

   Dodonæan Jove, i. 501.

   Dodone, ii. 145.

   Dœdalsus, ii. 315.

   Dolabella, Dolobella, iii. 20, 164.

   Dolicha. _See_ Dulichium, ii. 169.

   Doliŏnes, people of Mysia, ii. 316, 330; iii. 63, 67.

   Doliŏnis, district of Mysia, ii. 332; iii. 67.

   _Doloman-Ischai._ _See_ Calbis.

   Dolomēnē, district of Assyria, iii. 142.

   Dolopes, Dolopians, i. 43; ii. 133, 135, 137, 141, 144, 158.

   Dolopia, ii. 132, 133, 135, 141.

   Domanītis, district of Paphlagonia, ii. 313.

   Domitius, Domētius Ænobarbus, i. 285; iii. 24.

   Domnecleius, tetrarch of Galatia, ii. 288.

   _Don_, r. _See_ Tanaïs.

   Doracta or Oaracta, an island in the Persian Gulf, iii. 188.

   Doria Baltea, r. _See_ Durias.

   Doria Riparia, r. _See_ Durias.

   Dorian Tetrapolis, ii. 195.

   Dorians, i. 96, 328, 404, 407; ii. 2, 3, 43, 58, 67, 81, 82, 114, 115,
     125, 128, 131, 147; iii. 30, 31, 40, 43.

   Doric dialect, ii. 2, 3.

   Doricha, courtesan, iii. 250.

   Dōris, at Parnassus, ii. 55, 136.

   Doris, or Histiæotis, in Thessaly, ii. 141, 195.

   Doriscus, t. of Thrace, i. 5, 6.

   Dorium, in Messenia, ii. 23, 24.

   Dōrus, son of Hellen, ii. 67, 340.

   Dorylæum, t. of Phrygia (_Eski-Schehr_), ii. 332.

   Dorylaüs, the tactician, great-great-grandfather of Strabo, ii. 198,
     307.

   ——, son of Philetærus, ii. 198, 307.

   Dosci, a Mæotic race, ii. 223.

   Dotium, c. and plain of Thessaly, i. 96; ii. 147.

   _Doubs_, r. of Gaul, i. 278, 281, 286. _See_ Dubis.

   _Douro_, r. _See_ Durius.

   Drabēscus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512.

   Drabus, t. of Thrace, i. 517.

   Drabus (_Drave_), r. of Noricus and Hungary, i. 483.

   Dracanum, t. of Icaria, iii. 36.

   Draco, companion of Ulysses, tomb of, i. 376.

   ——, Python, ii. 120.

   _Dragomestre._ _See_ Crithote.

   _Dragone, Monte._ _See_ Sinuessa.

   _Dramesi._ _See_ Delium.

   Drangæ, people of Ariana, iii. 122, 124-126.

   Drangē, Drangianē, district of Ariana, (_Sigistan_), ii. 249;
     iii. 142.

   _Drave_, r. _See_ Drabus.

   Drecanum, in the island of Cos, iii. 10, 36.

   Drepanum, prom. of Achaia, ii. 6.

   ——, of Icaria, iii. 8, 10.

   ——, of Marmara, iii. 235.

   Drilon, r. of Dalmatia (_Drin_), i. 485.

   Drium, hill in Daunia, i. 434.

   ——, c. of Macedonia, i. 509.

   Dromi, iii. 245.

   Dromichætes, king of the Getæ, i. 464, 469.

   Dromos, iii. 245, 248.

   Druentia, i. 268.

   ——, r. of Gaul (_Durance_), i. 276, 303, 323.

   Druids, Keltic priests, i. 294, 295.

   Drusus Germanicus, brother of Tiberius, i. 307, 444, 445.

   ——, son of Tiberius, i. 441.

   Drymas, i. 493.

   Drymus, ii. 152.

   Drynemĕtum, in Galatia, ii. 320.

   Dryŏpes, people of Greece, i. 493; ii. 55, 136, 346.

   Dryopis, ii. 136.

   Dryops, ii. 55.

   _Dscheham-Tschai._ _See_ Pyramus.

   Dubis, r. of Gaul (_Doubs_), i. 278, 281, 286.

   Dulichium, island, ii. 5, 12, 162, 163, 166-170.

   Dunax, mtn of Thrace, i. 311.

   _Durance._ _See_ Druentia.

   Duras, r. in the Norican Alps, i. 308.

   _Durazzo._ _See_ Epidamnus.

   Durias, r. of Italy (_Doria Baltea_), i. 305.

   ——, r. of Italy (_Doria Riparia_), i. 303, 323.

   Duricortora, t. of Gaul, i. 290.

   Duris, the historian, i. 94.

   Durius, r. of Spain (_Douro_), i. 228, 229, 231, 243, 250.

   Dymæa, ii. 32.

   Dymæi, ii. 14, 74.

   Dymas, ii. 351.

   Dyme, city of Achæa, ii. 8, 12, 13-15, 18, 19, 67, 69, 71, 74, 145,
     158; iii. 46.

   Dyras, r. of Thessaly, ii. 129.

   Dyris, or Atlas, iii. 276.

   Dyrrachium, city of Illyria (_Durazzo_), i. 485, 506.

   Dyspontium, city of Pisatis, ii. 32.

   Dyteutus, son of Adiatorix, ii. 308-310.


   Eastern Sea (_Bay of Bengal_), i. 194, 196.

   _Ebba Ras._ _See_ Tretum.

   _Ebedschek-Dirmil._ _See_ Bubon.

   _Ebro_, r. _See_ Iberus.

   Ebrodunum, vill. of Gaul (_Embrun_), i. 268.

   Ebura, t. of Spain, i. 211.

   Eburōnes, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290.

   Ebusus, isl. and t. (_Iviça_), i. 185, 239, 251.

   Ecbatana (_Hamedan_), i. 123; ii. 262, 264, 273; iii. 125, 134, 140,
     150, 152.

   Echedōrus, r. of Macedonia (_Gallico_), i. 509.

   Echeiæ, t. of Laconia, ii. 37.

   Echinades, islands (_Curzolari_), i. 93, 187; ii. 5, 12, 25, 162, 167,
     169-171.

   Echīnus, t. of Phthiotis (_Echino_), i. 94; ii. 136, 138, 147.

   _Ecija._ _See_ Astygis.

   Ecrēgma (mouth of the lake Sirbonis), i. 102; iii. 176.

   Edessa, city of Macedonia (_Vodina_), i. 495; ii. 157.

   Edessa, city of Syria, iii. 158. _See_ Bambyce.

   Edōtani, people of Spain, i. 234, 235, 243. _See_ Sidētani.

   Edōni, people of Thrace, i. 506, 514.

   _Edschise-Dagh._ _See_ Argæus.

   Eētiōn, king of Thebes, ii. 343, 384, 394.

   Egelastæ, t. of Spain (_Yniesta_), i. 241.

   Egĕria, ftn, i. 356.

   Egertius, founder of Chios, iii. 3.

   Egnatia, city and port of Apulia (_Torre d’ Agnazzo_), i. 431, 432.

   Egnatian Way, i. 495, 500, 506, 507, 509.

   Egra, city of Arabia, iii. 212.

   _Egripo._ _See_ Eubœa.

   Egypt, i. 8, 15, 25, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 55-64, 67, 68, 79, 87, 88,
     90, 91, 103, 129, 130, 134, 136, 143, 149, 150, 178, 183, 189, 197,
     198, 201, 262, 274, 458, 467, 493; ii. 89, 92, 280; iii. 51, 67, 74,
     81-84, 88, 90, 95, 102, 103, 190, 210, 211, 217-270, 272, 273, 275,
     292-294.

   ——, name of the Nile, i. 46, 56.

   ——, Lower, i. 47, 103, 316; iii. 177.

   Egyptian screws, i. 221.

   ——, exiles, island of the, i. 179.

   —— Sea, same as Mediterranean, i. 56, 91, 185, 189, 458; iii. 68,
        142, 160, 224, 228, 266.

   Egyptians, i. 41, 49, 63-65, 155, 197, 233, 440, 456, 463; ii. 304,
     308.

   ——, priests of the, i. 35, 96, 154, 180, 196.

   ——, island of the, i. 99.

   Eidomene, t. of Macedonia. _See_ Idomene.

   Eileithyia, city of Egypt, iii. 263.

   Eilesium, ii. 106.

   Eïones, vill. of Argolis, ii. 54, 55, 58.

   Eisadici, ii. 239.

   _Eksemil._ _See_ Lysimachia.

   _Eksenide._ _See_ Xanthus.

   _El-Aliah._ _See_ Acholla.

   _El-Arish._ _See_ Rhinocolura.

   _El-Asi._ _See_ Orontes.

   _El-Baretun._ _See_ Parætonium.

   _El-Der._ _See_ Thapsacus.

   _El-Kas._ _See_ Casius.

   Ela. _See_ Hyela or Elea.

   Elæa, t. of Mysia (_Ialea_), ii. 326, 376, 387, 389, 396-398.

   ——, port on the Arabian Gulf, iii. 196.

   Elæussa, isl. and t. of Cilicia (_Alessa_), ii. 278, 281, 387;
     iii. 28, 29, 54.

   Elaitic Gulf, ii. 339, 376, 387, 388, 397, 400.

   Elaïtis, ii. 326, 389.

   Elara, mother of Tityus, ii. 123.

   Elarium, cave in Eubœa, ii. 123.

   Elateia, t. of Phocis (_Elefta_), i. 95; ii. 101, 115, 123, 126.

   Elatria, t. of the Cassopæi, i. 497.

   _Elba._ _See_ Æthalia.

   _Elbe._ _See_ Albis.

   Elea, Velia, city of Lucania, i. 375; ii. 145, 155.

   Eleātis, i. 376.

   Electrides, islands, i. 320.

   Eleēs, r. of Lucania (_Alento_), i. 376.

   Eleia, ii. 7-9, 12, 13, 25-27, 30, 31, 33, 45, 74, 347.

   Eleian territory, ii. 7, 35, 45, 67, 74.

   Eleians, ii. 3, 8, 9, 12-14, 26-28, 30, 31, 34, 39, 176, 177.

   ——, philosophers of, ii. 83.

   Eleithyia, temple of, ii. 196.

   Eleon, ii. 106, 143.

   Elephantina, isl., iii. 220, 243, 258, 263-266.

   Elephantophagi, iii. 197.

   Elephas, mtn of Mauritania, iii. 279.

   Elephas, mtn of Ethiopia (_Fellis_ or _Fel_), iii. 200.

   Eleus, city of Thrace, i. 517, 518.

   Eleusiniac Gulf, ii. 63.

   Eleusis, city and village of Attica, ii. 81, 83, 84, 86, 88.

   ——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 101.

   ——, t. of Egypt, iii. 237, 238.

   Eleüssa, or Elisa, isl. near Attica, ii. 89.

   ——, near Rhodes (_Alessa_), iii. 28, 29, 34.

   Eleutheræ, city of Bœotia, ii. 57, 108.

   Eleutherius, the Eleutherian, ii. 108.

   Eleutherus, r. of Syria, iii. 167, 169.

   Elian district, ii. 74.

   Elimia, i. 500.

   Elimiotæ, ii. 137.

   Elis, i. 502; ii. 5, 7, 8-10, 12-15, 17-19, 25, 27, 28, 31-33, 45, 73,
     77, 122, 126, 156, 162, 167, 169, 170, 176, 177.

   ——, Cœlē, _or_ Hollow, ii. 7-9, 12, 18, 23, 25, 30.

   Elisa, modern name of Eleüssa.

   Elisson, or Elissa, r., ii. 9.

   Elixus, ii. 210.

   Ellopia, ii. 152, 153.

   Ellopians, ii. 152, 153.

   Ellops, ii. 152.

   Elōne, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143, 145.

   Elpiæ, city of the Daunii, iii. 32.

   Elui, people of Gaul (_inhabitants of Vivarais_), i. 284.

   Elymæa, Elymaïs, district of Persis, ii. 264; iii. 153, 154.

   Elymæi, ii. 261, 264; iii. 135, 142, 146.

   Elymus, Trojan, ii. 378.

   Elysian Fields, in Spain, i. 3, 62, 225.

   Emathia, district of Macedonia, i. 41, 506.

   ——, city of Macedonia, i. 506.

   Emathoeis, Emathois, same as Pylus, ii. 7, 11, 16.

   _Emboli._ _See_ Amphipolis.

   _Embrun._ _See_ Ebrodunum.

   Emerita. _See_ Augusta.

   Emesēni, people of Syria, iii. 166.

   Emōdi mtns, ii. 245; iii. 91, 118.

   Emodus, iii. 78.

   Empedocles, philosopher, i. 414, 418; ii. 42.

   Emporicus, bay, on the Mauritanian shore, iii. 276, 277.

   Emporītæ, in Spain, i. 240.

   Emporium, t. of Spain (_Ampurias_), i. 239.

   ——, of Alexandria, iii. 230.

   ——, of Medma, i. 383.

   ——, of the Segestani (_Castel à Mare_), i. 401, 411.

   _Ems._ _See_ Amasias.

   Enchelii, people of Epirus, i. 500.

   Endĕra, city of Ethiopia, iii. 196.

   Endymiōn, father of Ætolus, ii. 176; iii. 6.

   Enea (_see_ Ænea), t. of the Troad, ii. 300.

   Eneta. _See_ Heneta.

   Eneti, people of Paphlagonia, i. 316. _See_ Heneti.

   _Engia, Gulf of._ _See_ Saronic Sea.

   Enicŏniæ, t. of Corsica, i. 333.

   Enienes, ii. 145.

   Enipeus, r. of Pisatis, ii. 32.

   ——, r. of Thessaly (_Vlacho_), ii. 32, 134.

   Enispe, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.

   Enna, t. of Sicily (_Castro Johanni_), i. 411, 413.

   Ennea-Hodoi, t. of Macedonia, i. 513.

   Ennius, the poet, i. 429.

   Enŏpe, t. of Messenia, ii. 35, 37.

   Enops, ii. 394.

   Enotocoitæ, iii. 107.

   Enydra, t. of Syria (_Ain-el-Hiyeh_), iii. 167.

   Enyus (Bellona), temple of, ii. 279.

   Eordi, people of Macedonia, i. 495, 500.

   _Eoube._ _See_ Olbia.

   Epacria, t. of Attica, ii. 88.

   Epaminondas, ii. 75, 92, 111.

   Epaphus, ii. 152.

   Epeius, i. 397; ii. 122.

   Ephesians, ii. 284; iii. 3, 10.

   Ephesium, the, _See_ Diana.

   Ephesus, city of Ionia, i. 268; ii. 73, 237, 298, 299, 333, 396;
     iii. 1-4, 10, 11, 14, 15, 21, 22, 43.

   Ephialtes, traitor, i. 17.

   ——, i. 29.

   Ephorus, i. 1, 51, 52, 207, 296, 328, 329, 363, 388, 390, 394, 399,
     402, 403, 407, 425, 449, 464, 465, 469, 499, 501; ii. 1, 3, 33, 38,
     42, 44, 55, 58, 77, 92, 93, 120, 127, 162, 174, 176, 177, 196, 197,
     200, 201, 204, 291, 298, 299, 341, 366, 398, 399; iii. 4, 62-65.

   Ephyra, t. of Elis, i. 502; ii. 9, 10, 52.

   ——, t. of Epirus, i. 497.

   ——, t. of Thesprotia, i. 502; ii. 9, 10, 149.

   ——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 9, 10.

   ——, t. of Perrhæbia, ii. 10.

   ——, vill. of Ætolia, ii. 9, 10. _See_ Corinth, Crannōn.

   Ephyri, i. 507; ii. 10, 147.

   ——, Thesprotic, ii. 10.

   Epicarus. _See_ Epidaurus.

   Epicharmus, poet, ii. 42.

   Epicnemidii. _See_ Locri.

   Epicteti, in Phrygia, ii. 314, 330, 402.

   Epictetus, Ætolia, ii. 159, 172.

   ——, Phrygia, ii. 277, 289, 315, 316, 332.

   Epicurus, philosopher, ii. 350; iii. 9.

   Epidamnus, city of Illyria (_Durazzo_), i. 140, 161, 432, 485, 495,
     500; ii. 33, 134.

   Epidanus (_the Jura_), ii. 134.

   Epidaphne (_Antakieh_), iii. 161.

   Epidaurian territory, ii. 47, 75.

   Epidaurii, Epidaurians, ii. 58.

   Epidaurus, city of Argolis (_Pidauro_), ii. 54-57, 321.

   ——, Limēra, t. of Laconia, ii. 48.

   Epigoni, expedition of the, i. 499; ii. 93, 109, 111, 174.

   Epii, people of Elis, ii. 7-10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 25-28, 30, 33, 167,
     176.

   Epimenides, of Crete, ii. 200

   Epirōtæ;, i. 493, 495, 498-500, 506; ii. 2, 128, 131, 137; iii. 297.

   Epirotic nations, i. 495, 496, 516; ii. 2, 3, 114, 131.

   Epirus, i. 186, 187, 194, 329, 429, 432, 481, 496, 497, 501, 506;
     ii. 161, 163, 164, 174, 183; iii. 297.

   Episarosis, a religious rite, ii. 82.

   Epistrophus, leader of the Halizoni, ii. 297-299, 343, 384, 394.

   Epitalium, t. of Triphylia, ii. 16, 23, 24.

   Epitimæus. _See_ Timæus.

   Epizephyrii, ii. 128.

   Epōmeus, Mount, i. 369.

   Eporĕdia (_Ivrea_), i. 306.

   Eræ, t. of Ionia (_Sighadschik_), iii. 17.

   Erana, t. of Messenia, ii. 22, 37.

   Erannoboas (_Hiranjavahu_), iii. 97.

   Erasīnus, Arsīnus, r. of Argolis, i. 416; ii. 52, 76.

   Erasistratus, physician of Ceos, ii. 210, 337.

   Erastus, the Scepsian, ii. 378.

   Eratosthenes, i. 1, 9, 12, 13, 22-26, 28, 29, 33-36, 38, 39, 42, 43,
     45, 61, 70, 74, 77, 80, 84-88, 97, 98, 100, 103-110, 114, 117-120,
     122-135, 138-142, 144, 147, 157, 158, 161, 163, 164, 171, 185, 189,
     190, 199, 202, 203, 239, 255, 256, 332, 457, 460, 462, 487; ii. 70,
     76, 195, 240, 243, 244, 248, 261, 271; iii. 44, 70, 71, 75, 78, 79,
     84, 124, 130, 149-151, 156, 183, 186, 188, 189, 192, 208, 220, 276,
     281, 293.

   Eratyra, t. of Macedonia, i. 50.

   _Erbil._ _See_ Arbela _and_ Lycus.

   Erechtheus, ii. 67.

   _Eregli._ _See_ Cibistra.

   _Erekli._ _See_ Heracleia.

   Erembi, i. 2, 41, 46, 60, 66, 67; iii. 215.

   Eremni, iii. 216.

   Eressus, t. of Lesbos (_Eresso_), ii. 392.

   Eretria, city of Eubœa (_Vathy_), i. 65; ii. 95, 152, 154-156, 162.

   ——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 136, 154.

   ——, vill. of Attica (_Paleocastro_), ii. 95, 152, 154.

   Eretrici, a sect of philosophers, ii. 82, 156.

   Eretrieis, Eretrians, i. 368; ii. 152, 155.

   Eretrieus, founder of Eretria, ii. 155.

   Erētum, t. of the Sabines, i. 338, 339, 354.

   Erginus, king of the Orchomenii, ii. 112.

   Ericthonius, ii. 374.

   Ericūssa, Ericōdes, one of the Æolian islands, i. 419, 421.

   Eridanus, r. of Attica, i. 320; ii. 88.

   Erigōn, r. of Macedonia, i. 501, 506, 508, 509.

   ——, r. of Thrace, i. 516.

   Erineum, ii. 39, 195.

   Erineus, t. of Doris, ii. 128, 361, 363.

   ——, of Phthiotis, ii. 136.

   Erōs, a work of Praxiteles, ii. 105.

   Erymanthus, r. of Arcadia, ii. 15, 33.

   Erymnæ, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148.

   Eryschæi, people of Ætolia, ii. 172.

   Erythia, isl., i. 222, 223, 254, 406.

   Erythīni, Erythrīni rocks, ii. 288, 291.

   Erythræ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 97, 104, 106.

   ——, of Ionia (_Ritri_), ii. 97, 259; iii. 2, 17, 18.

   Erythræan Sea (_Red Sea_), i. 52, 68, 87, 88, 91, 102, 261; iii. 186.

   ——, Gulf, i. 87.

   Erythræans, ii. 349, 350, 386; iii. 17, 18.

   Erythras, iii. 187, 208.

   Eryx, mtn of Sicily, i. 378, 412, 413, 378.

   ——, t. of Sicily, i. 412; ii. 378.

   _Esaro._ _See_ Æsar.

   _Esdod._ _See_ Gadaris.

   _Eshinoon._ _See_ Hermopolis.

   _Esino._ _See_ Æsis.

   Esioneis, Asioneis, ii. 405.

   _Eski-Hissar._ _See_ Stratoniceis and Laodicea.

   _Eski-Scheur._ _See_ Dorylæum.

   _Eski-Stamboul._ _See_ Alexandria, Troad, in the.

   Esōpis, mtn (_Monte Esope_), i. 389.

   _Espartel, Cape._ _See_ Coteis.

   _Espichel, Capo._ _See_ Barbarium.

   Esquiline hill, i. 348.

   ——, plain, i. 352.

   ——, gate, i. 348, 352.

   Estiōnes, people of the Vindelici, i. 307.

   Eteocles, king of Orchomenus, ii. 112.

   Eteocrētans, people of Crete, ii. 195, 199.

   Eteōnus, t. of Bœotia, i. 457; ii. 103, 104.

   Ethiopia, Æthiopia, i. 2, 4, 13, 15, 32, 46-54, 60, 64, 67, 68, 96,
     97, 100, 111, 130, 142, 148, 153, 177, 178, 197, 274, 458; ii. 257,
     304; iii. 81-86, 88, 190, 191, 207, 210, 217, 220, 222, 224, 233,
     235, 250, 257, 263, 265, 269-275, 282, 290, 295.

   Ethiopian zone, i. 147.

   Ethiopians, i. 3, 16, 25, 41, 47-55, 60, 62-67, 143, 151, 155, 156,
     181, 196, 197, 458, 462; iii. 296.

   ——, Western, i. 3, 153, 236.

   ——, Egyptian, i. 54, 156.

   ——, of Libya, i. 155.

   Etrusci. _See_ Tyrrheni.

   Euæmōn, son of Ormenus, ii. 142.

   Euanthes, leads a colony to Locris, i. 388.

   Eubœa, isl. (_Negropont_), i. 65, 90, 94, 95, 187, 502, 506; ii. 24,
     81, 85, 90, 92, 95, 98, 99, 114, 115, 122, 125, 127, 131, 138, 141,
     142, 150-158, 162, 175, 181; iii. 32.

   ——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 32.

   ——, t. of Sicily, i. 404, 412; ii. 158.

   Eubœa, t. of Macedonia, ii. 158.

   —— in Lemnos, ii. 158.

   —— in Corcyra, ii. 158.

   ——, a hill in Argolis, ii. 158.

   Eubœan Sea, ii. 92, 124.

   —— talent, i. 221.

   Eucarpia, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332.

   Euclides, ii. 82.

   Eucratidas, king of the Bactrians, ii. 251, 253; iii. 74.

   Eucratidia, city of the Bactrians, ii. 253.

   Eudeielus, _See_ Asplēdōn, ii. 113.

   Eudēmus, Rhodian, iii. 33.

   Eudorus, iii. 225, 226.

   Eudoxus of Cyzicus, i. 1, 149-153, 156, 180, 517; ii. 61, 78, 79.

   ——, mathematician, of Cnidus, ii. 110, 177, 193, 298, 340; iii. 34,
         246, 247.

   Euergetæ, people of Ariana, iii. 126.

   Euergetes. _See_ Mithridates, Ptolemy.

   _Eugubbio._ _See_ Iguvium.

   Euhēmerus, Messenian, i. 74, 154, 157, 158, 459.

   Eulæus, r. of Susiana, iii. 131, 140.

   Eumæus, ii. 364.

   Eumēdes, founder of Ptolemaïs, iii. 194.

   Eumēlus, son of Admētus, i. 72; ii. 139, 143, 146, 148.

   Eumeneia, city of Phrygia (_Ischekli_), ii. 332.

   Eumenes, brother of Philetærus, ii. 400.

   ——, son of Eumenes, ii. 400.

   ——, son of Attalus, ii. 281, 333, 400; iii. 46, 55.

   ——, grove of, iii. 197.

   ——, harbour of, iii. 198.

   Eumolpus, Thracian, i. 493; ii. 67, 187.

   Eunēos, son of Jason, i. 66, 71, 73.

   Eunomia, elegy of Tyrtæus, ii. 39.

   Eunomus, i. 390, 391.

   Eunostus, harbour of, near Alexandria, iii. 227, 230.

   Eunus, i. 412, 413.

   Euōnymus, one of the Lipari islands, i. 420.

   Eupalium, ii. 128, 159.

   Eupator. _See_ Mithridates.

   Eupatŏria, t. of Pontus, _see_ Magnopolis, ii. 306.

   Eupatŏrium, t. of the Tauric Chersonnesus, i. 479.

   Euphŏriōn, poet, ii. 42, 318; iii. 67.

   Euphrantas, tower, iii. 290.

   Euphrates (_the Forat, Ferat, or Frat_), i. 75, 100, 101, 122-124,
     126, 127, 129, 134, 135, 137, 196, 440; ii. 251, 259-263, 267, 268,
     270, 274, 278, 283, 343, 345; iii. 44, 52, 63, 108, 109, 131, 132,
     142, 145-151, 156-163, 166, 185, 186-188.

   Euphrŏnius, poet, ii. 66.

   Eureïs, r. of Mysia, ii. 190.

   Euripides, tragic poet, i. 52, 274, 329; ii. 32, 45, 52, 60, 62, 185,
     189, 389, 390; iii. 20, 53, 75.

   Euripus, ii. 92, 96.

   ——, Chalcidian, i. 17, 57, 94; ii. 96, 130, 148, 151, 154.

   ——, Pyrrhæan, ii. 391.

   Eurōmus, t. of Caria, iii. 6, 37.

   Europe, i. 22, 52, 78, 88, 103, 140, 157-164, 183, 188, 191-194, 205,
     206, 303, 442, 453, 464, 477, 480, 490, 505, 517; ii. 1, 4,
     _passim_.

   Europeans, ii. 240.

   Eurōpus, city of Media, ii. 264.

   ——, same as Rhaga, ii. 284.

   ——, city of Macedonia, i. 501.

   ——, r. of Thessaly, i. 501, 507.

   Eurōtas, r. of Laconia (_the Iri or Vasili Potamo_), i. 417, 507;
     ii. 15, 41, 42, 76, 145.

   Eurus (south-east wind), i. 45.

   Eurycleia, iii. 13.

   Eurycles, leader of the Lacedæmonians, ii. 41, 44.

   Eurycydeium, grove, in Elis, ii. 19.

   Eurydice, mother of Philip, i. 500.

   Eurylochus, ii. 83.

   ——, Thessalian, ii. 116, 120.

   Eurymachus, ii. 173.

   Eurymedōn, leader of the Athenians, ii. 35.

   ——, r. of Pamphylia (_Kopru-su_), ii. 325; iii. 49.

   Eurypōn, son of Procles, ii. 44.

   Eurypōntidæ, ii. 44.

   Eurypylus, son of Euæmon, ii. 134, 136, 138, 142, 143.

   ——, son of Telephus, ii. 343, 345, 389, 395.

   Eurysthenes, brother of Procles, ii. 42-44, 77.

   Eurysthĕnidæ, ii. 44.

   Eurystheus, king of Mycenæ, ii. 59.

   Eurystheus’s-head, ii. 59.

   Eurytānes, people of Ætolia, ii. 156, 160, 179.

   Eurytus, ii. 10, 11, 23, 24, 142; iii. 10.

   Eusebeia, ii. 281, 282. _See_ Tyana _and_ Mazaca.

   Euthydēmus, king of the Bactrians, ii. 251, 253.

   ——, orator, iii. 38, 39.

   Euthymus, i. 381.

   Eutresis, ii. 106.

   Euxine, i. 8, 31, 32, 68, 75, 76, 78-81, 84, 86, 89, 95, 96, 102, 106,
     113, 139, 163, 177, 183, 188-190, 193-195, 202, 245, 440, 442, 443,
     451, 452, 467, 474, 476, 481, 491, 492, 496, 506; ii. 216, 218, 221,
     226, 227, 231, 238, 240, 243, 246, 270, 273, 276, 277, 282, 286,
     290, 295; iii. 1, 61, 63, 64, 142, 186. _See_ Pontus.

   Euxynthetus, ii. 199.

   Evander, i. 343.

   Evenus, r. of Ætolia (_Fidari_), i. 501; ii. 6, 160, 171.

   ——, r. of Mysia, ii. 387.

   Exitani, city of the, in Bætica, i. 235, 255.

   Exterior Sea. _See_ Atlantic.


   Fabius, the historian, i. 339.

   —— Maximus, i. 424.

   Fabrateria (_Falvaterra_), i. 352.

   _Faenza._ _See_ Faventia.

   Falerium (_Sta Maria di Falari_), i. 335.

   Falernian wine, i. 347, 361.

   Falisci, i. 335.

   Faliscum, i. 335.

   _Falkadi._ _See_ Phabra.

   _Falvaterra._ _See_ Fabrateria.

   Fanum Fortunæ (_Fano_), i. 337.

   _Faro, Cape._ _See_ Pelorus.

   _Fasz._ _See_ Phasis.

   Faustulus, i. 340.

   Faventia, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Faenza_), i. 322.

   _Fellis._ _See_ Elephas.

   Ferentīnum, t. of Etruria, i. 335.

   ——, t. of Latium (_Ferentino_), i. 352.

   Feronia, t. of Etruria, i. 336.

   _Fesa._ _See_ Pasaryadæ.

   Festi, i. 341.

   Fidēnæ, i. 335, 341.

   Fimbrias, ii. 356.

   _Finisterre, Cape._ _See_ Nerium.

   Firmum Picenum (_Fermo_), i. 357.

   _Firouz-Koh._ _See_ Caspian, Gates of the.

   _Fiumesino._ _See_ Æsis.

   Flaminia Via, in Italy, i. 323, 336, 337.

   Flaminius, Caius, consul, i. 323.

   ——, Titus, proprætor of Sicily, i. 421.

   Formiæ, t. of Latium (_Mola di Gaeta_), i. 347.

   Fortune, temple of, i. 354, 370.

   Fortunate Islands. _See_ Blest, Isles of the.

   Foruli, i. 338.

   Forum Julium, t. of Gaul (_Frejus_), i. 275, 276.

   —— Vulcani (_La Solfa-terra_), i. 365.

   —— Cornelium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Imola_), i. 322.

   —— Flaminium, t. of Umbria, i. 337.

   —— Semprōnium, t. of Umbria (_Fossembruno_), i. 337.

   _France._ _See_ Keltica.

   Fregellæ, t. of Latium (_Ceperano_), i. 347, 352, 353.

   Fregēna, t. of Etruria (_Torre Macarese_), i. 335.

   _Frejus._ _See_ Forum Julium.

   Frentani, people of Italy, i. 358-360, 432, 436.

   Frozen Sea, i. 99.

   Frūsino, c. of Latium (_Frusinone_), i. 352.

   Fucinus, Lake, i. 356.

   Fugitives, t. of, i. 73.

   Fundi, t. of Latium, i. 347.

   Furies, the, i. 262.

   _Furni Islands._ _See_ Corsiæ.

   _Fusaro, Lago di._ _See_ Acherusian Lake.


   Gabæ, city of Persis, iii. 131.

   Gabala, city of Syria, iii. 167.

   Gabales, a people of Aquitania, i. 284.

   Gabianē, a province of Elymais, iii. 154.

   Gabii, t. of Latium (_L’Osteria del Pantano_), i. 353, 354.

   Gabinius, historian, iii. 281.

   ——, consul, ii. 308; iii. 232.

   Gabreta, forest of Germany, i. 448.

   Gadara, t. of Judæa, iii. 175.

   Gadaris (_Esdod_), iii. 175, 183.

   Gades, Gadeira (_Cadiz_), i. 60, 150, 152, 153, 157, 161, 164, 180,
     208, 210-212, 222, 223, 226, 235, 236, 241, 253-262, 296; iii. 276,
     278.

   ——, Gates of, i. 256, 258.

   Gadilōn (_Wesir Kopti_), ii. 294.

   Gadilonītis, ii. 294.

   Gaditanians, i. 212, 213, 255, 260.

   Gæsatæ, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 317, 322.

   _Gaëta._ _See_ Caiata.

   _Gaeta, Mola di._ _See_ Formiæ.

   Gætuli, people of Libya, i. 198; iii. 276, 282, 289, 294.

   Galabrii, people of Illyria, i. 485.

   Galactophagi, i. 453, 458, 461, 465, 479; ii. 304.

   Galatæ (_see_ Celtæ), in Europe, i. 96, 161, 219, 264, 270, 271, 282,
     286, 327, 482, 485; ii. 71.

   ——, Cisalpine, i. 313.

   Galatæ, Scordisci, i. 482.

   ——, Alabroges, iii. 184.

   Galatia, part of Phrygia, i. 195; ii. 310, 319-321.

   Galatians, ii. 282-284, 286, 290, 293, 294, 310, 319, 320, 329, 355;
     iii. 297.

   Galatic or Gallic race, i. 282, 283, 291, 443.

   —— or Celtic Gulf (_Gulf of Lyons_), i. 160, 174, 184, 192, 206, 249,
        271, 283.

   —— (_Gulf of Aquitaine_), i. 192, 249.

   Galēpsus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513, 515.

   _Galazze._ _See_ Callateria.

   Galilee, district of Judæa, iii. 177, 181.

   Gallesius, mtn of Ionia, iii. 15.

   Gallia Cispadana. _See_ Keltica.

   Gallicians, the, i. 228, 229, 233, 243, 246, 250; iii. 63, 65.

   Gallinarian Wood, in Campania (_Pineta di Castel Volturno_), i. 362.

   _Gallipoli._ _See_ Chersonesus, Thracian, Callipolis.

   Gallo-Græcia, i. 195.

   Gallus, r. of Phrygia, ii. 289. _See_ Ælius _and_ Cornelius.

   Gamabrivi, people of Germany, i. 445.

   Gambarus, prince of Syria, iii. 167.

   Gandaris, district of India, iii. 92.

   Gandarītis, district of India, iii. 89.

   Ganges, r. of India, iii. 74, 79, 80, 90, 96, 97, 108, 117, 118.

   Gangitis, iii. 157.

   Gangra, ii. 314.

   Ganymede, ii. 347.

   Garamantes, a people of Libya, i. 198; iii. 289, 294, 295.

   Garescus, t. of Macedonia, i. 509, 514.

   Gargara, t. of the Troad, ii. 342, 375, 376, 382, 384.

   Garganum, mtn of Italy (_Punta di Viesti_), i. 434-436.

   Gargareis, Gargarenses, inhabitants of the Gargari, ii.

   ——, people of the Caucasus, ii. 235, 236.

   Gargaris, ii. 381.

   Gargarum, peak of Mount Ida, i. 64; ii. 342.

   Gargasus, son of Cypselus. _See_ Gorgus.

   Gargettus, vill. of Attica, ii. 59.

   _Garigliano._ _See_ Liris.

   Garindæi, a people of Arabia, iii. 204.

   Garmānes, philosophers of India, iii. 109, 110.

   _Garonne_, r. _See_ Garuna.

   Garsaurītis, province of Cappadocia, ii. 278.

   Garsavira, vill. of Cappadocia (_Mekran_), ii. 281, 284; iii. 74, 121,
     124, 125, 128, 156.

   Garuna (_Garonne_), r., i. 265, 282-284, 288, 297.

   Gasterocheires, ii. 54.

   Gasys, ii. 302.

   _Gata._ _See_ Curias.

   Gaudus, island (_Gozo_), i. 71, 421, 459.

   Gaugamēla, village of Aturia (_Karmelis_), i. 123; iii. 144.

   Gaul, i. 192, 264-296, 439. _See_ Keltica.

   Gaul, Cisalpine, i. 287, 324, 357.

   ——, Transalpine, i. 264.

   Gauls, the, i. 292-294.

   Gaza, city of Judæa, iii. 171, 176, 191.

   Gazaka, city of Media, ii. 263.

   Gazacene, district of Pontus, ii. 302.

   Gazæans, iii. 160.

   Gazaluïtis, district of Pontus, ii. 302.

   Gazelonītis, ii. 311.

   Gaziūra, t. of Pontus (_Turchal_), ii. 295.

   _Gedis._ _See_ Cadi.

   _Gedis-Tschai._ _See_ Hermus.

   Gedrosia, i. 196, 197; iii. 74, 121, 128, 156, 190.

   Gedrosia, Upper, i. 201.

   Gedrosii, Gedroseni, people of Ariana, iii. 124, 125.

   _Geihun._ _See_ Pyramus.

   Geira, _see_ Aphrodisias, ii. 332.

   Gĕla, city of Sicily, i. 412.

   Gēlæ, ii. 235, 241, 245.

   Geloi, i. 411.

   Gelōn, tyrant of Syracuse, i. 149; ii. 158.

   Genabum (_Orleans_), i. 284.

   Genauni, people of Illyria, i. 306.

   Genētes, prom. and river of Pontus (_C. Vona_), ii. 296.

   Gennesarītis, lake and district of Judæa, iii. 169.

   Genoa, i. 300-302, 314, 322, 323.

   _Genoa, Gulf of._ _See_ Liguria.

   Georgi, i. 479; ii. 219.

   Gephyra, Gephyrismi, in Attica, ii. 91.

   Gephyræans, ii. 96. _See_ Tanagræi.

   Geræstus, t. and prom. of Eubœa (_C. Mantelo_), ii. 150, 151, 153,
     154.

   Geranius, r. of Elis, ii. 11.

   Gerēna, Gerēnia, city of Messenia, i. 459; ii. 12, 28, 36, 37.

   Gerenius, epithet of Nestor, ii. 11, 36.

   Gerēnus, a place in Elis, ii. 11.

   Geres, a Bœotian, iii. 2.

   Gergitha, t. of the Troad, ii. 350, 390.

   ——, vill. near the sources of the Caïcus, ii. 390.

   Gergitheis, t. of Cymæa, ii. 350.

   Gergithium, a place near Lampsacus, ii. 350.

   ——, in Cymæa, ii. 350.

   Gergithius, Cephalon, the, ii. 350.

   Gergovia, city of the Arverni, i. 285.

   German tribes, i. 445.

   German war, i. 289.

   Germanicus, son of Tiberius, i. 441, 446.

   Germans, i. 18, 177, 287, 288, 292, 307, 439, 443, 451, 468, 470, 481.

   Germany, i. 22, 110, 141, 193, 292, 442, 443, 451, 452, 467, 471, 481.

   Gerræi, iii. 191, 204, 207.

   Gerræidæ, port of the Teii, iii. 17.

   Gerrha, t. of Egypt, i. 79, 87; iii. 177.

   ——, t. of Arabia, iii. 186, 187.

   Gerōn, r. of Elis, ii. 11.

   Gēryon, i. 33, 225, 254, 255, 343, 364.

   Gezatorix, prince of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.

   _Ghela._ _See_ Acila.

   _Giaretta._ _See_ Symæthus.

   _Gibraleon._ _See_ Onoba.

   Getæ, i. 141, 177, 193, 445, 452-457, 461, 463, 464, 466-470, 481;
     iii. 180.

   ——, desert of the, i. 468, 469.

   _Giaur-Kalessi._ _See_ Balbura.

   Gibraltar, Strait of, i. 62.

   —— _and Ceuta_, rocks of. _See_ Pillars of Hercules.

   Gigartus, a fortress of Syria, iii. 170.

   Gindarus, t. of Syria, iii. 163.

   _Girapetra._ _See_ Therapytna.

   _Giulia Nova._ _See_ Castrum.

   Glaucias, tyrant, ii. 368.

   Glaucōpium, citadel of Athens, i. 460.

   Glaucus, the Anthedonian, ii. 98.

   —— Pontius, play of Æschylus, ii. 155.

   ——, of Potniæ, ii. 103.

   ——, r. of Colchis (_Tschorocsu_), ii. 227, 231.

   ——, bay of Caria, iii. 28.

   Glechon, ii. 124.

   Glissas, t. of Bœotia, ii. 107, 108.

   Glycera, courtesan, ii. 105.

   Glycys-Limen, bay and port of Epirus, i. 497.

   Gōgarene, distr. of Armenia, ii. 268, 269.

   _Gok-Irmak._ _See_ Amnias.

   Gomphi, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141.

   Gonnus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 145.

   Gonoessa, ii. 59.

   Gorbeüs, t. of Phrygia, ii. 321.

   Gordium, t. of Phrygia (_Juliopolis_), ii. 321, 330.

   Gordius, king of Phrygia, ii. 321.

   Gordus, place in the Troad, ii. 371.

   Gordyæa, Gordyene, a province of Armenia, i. 123; ii. 268; iii. 146,
     156, 157, 162.

   Gordyæan mountains, i. 124; ii. 261.

   Gordyæi, people of Mesopotamia (_the Kurds_), ii. 271, 274; iii. 142,
     157.

   Gordyæus, prince of the Gordyæi, ii. 274.

   Gordys, son of Triptolemus, iii. 153, 162.

   Gorgipia, city of the Sindi, ii. 223, 224.

   Gorgons, Gorgo, i. 29, 33, 459; ii. 211.

   ——, Gorgon’s Head, the, ii. 62, 211.

   Gorgus, son of Cypselus, i. 498; ii. 161. _See_ Gargasus.

   ——, the miner, iii. 93.

   Gortyna, city of Crete (_Hagius Dheka_), ii. 195, 196, 198, 200;
     iii. 22.

   Gortynii, ii. 197, 202.

   Gortynium, city of Macedonia, i. 504.

   Gorys, t. of India, iii. 89.

   _Goti, S. Maria di._ _See_ Caudium.

   _Gozo._ _See_ Gaudus.

   _Grabusa._ _See_ Corycus.

   Gracchus, Tiberius, i. 244.

   Graces, temple of the, ii. 112.

   Græcia, Magna, i. 377.

   Græa, Graia, t. of Bœotia, ii. 58, 96, 106.

   Granicus, r. of Mysia (_Kodscha-Tschai_), ii. 338, 340, 347, 349, 371.

   Gras, son of Penthilus, ii. 340.

   Gravisci, t. of Etruria, i. 335.

   Grecian cities, i. 350.

   —— nations, i. 372; ii. 3.

   —— shore, the, i. 9.

   —— territories, i. 43.

   Grecians, i. 256, 282.

   Greece, i. 17, 24, 28, 40, 77, 90, 94, 96, 103, 164, 188, 194, 311,
     316, 328, 329, 345, 366, 431, 432, 437, 442, 443, 457, 461, 481,
     492-494, 496, 501, 505; ii. 1, 3, 4, 12, 28, 29, 49, 50, 71, 78,
     158, 159, 177, 178, 185, 193; iii. 41, 42, _et passim_.

   _Greego._ _See_ Theoprosopon.

   Greek language, i. 149.

   —— tribes, ii. 2.

   —— cities, i. 393.

   —— states, i. 427.

   —— laws, i. 240.

   —— dialects, ii. 2.

   —— literature, i. 271.

   Greeks, i. 16, 49, 51, 54, 57, 67, 70, 73, 77, 102, 104, 191, 192,
     194, 224, 232, 233, 237, 240, 249, 274, 296, 302, 317, 326, 328,
     330, 345, 350, 360, 372, 377, 378, 392, 394-396, 403, 407, 408,
     411, 422, 427, 439, 450, 453, 462, 463, 468, 478, 492, 496, 498,
     505, 514; ii. 33, 43, 44, 50, 54, 55, 132, 134, 158, 169, 172,
     174, 182-184; iii. 40-43, 110, 114.

   ——, Italian, i. 376, 377, 433; ii. 68.

   _Grego._ _See_ Throni.

   Grium, mtn of Caria, iii. 6.

   _Grotta di Pausilipo._ _See_ Cumæ.

   Grūmentum, t. of Lucania, i. 379.

   Gryllus, ii. 95.

   Gryneus, name of Apollo, ii. 393.

   Grynium, city of Æolis, ii. 397.

   _Guadalquiver_, r. _See_ Bætis.

   _Guadiana._ _See_ Anas.

   _Gumusch-dagh._ _See_ Thorax.

   _Gura._ _See_ Othrys.

   _Gura_, r. _See_ Epidanus.

   Guranii, a people of Armenia, ii. 273.

   Gutōnes, i. 444.

   Gyarus, island (_Jura_), ii. 208.

   Gygæa, a lake of Lydia, afterwards Coloë, ii. 403.

   Gygas, prom. of the Troad, ii. 352.

   Gyges, king of the Lydians, ii. 119, 351; iii. 66.

   Gymnesian or Balearic islands (_Majorca and Minorca_), i. 185, 194,
     216, 217, 239, 251; iii. 32.

   Gymnetæ, iii. 117.

   Gymnosophists, Indian philosophers, iii. 180.

   Gynæcopolis, t. of Egypt, iii. 241.

   Gynæcopolite nome, iii. 241.

   Gyrtōn, Gyrtōne, city of Thessaly (_Tcheritchiano_), i. 507;
     ii. 143-148.

   Gyrtōnii, Gyrtonians, i. 507; ii. 147.

   Gythium, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 41.


   Hades, i. 31, 33, 223-225; ii. 17, 41, 51; iii. 110, 111.

   Hadylium, ii. 123, 124.

   Hæmon. _See_ Hæmus.

   Hæmōn, father of Thessalus, ii. 149.

   ——, father of Oxylus, ii. 176.

   Hæmŏnia, ancient name of Thessaly, i. 73; ii. 149.

   Hæmus, mtn of Thrace (_Velikidagh_), i. 311, 463, 481, 489, 490, 496,
     506, 514; ii. 145.

   _Hagius Dheka._ _See_ Gortyna.

   Halæ, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 125.

   ——, in Attica, ii. 98.

   ——, Araphenides, ii. 90, 153.

   ——, Æxoneis, ii. 89.

   Halesian plain, ii. 374.

   Halex, r. (_Alece_), i. 390.

   Haliacmon, r. in Macedonia (_Indesche Karasu_), i. 505-509.

   Haliartia, ii. 107.

   Haliartus, city of Bœotia, i. 25, 457; ii. 101, 106-109.

   Halicarnassus, ii. 56, 374; iii. 5, 30, 34, 35.

   Halieis, ii. 54.

   _Halikes._ _See_ Zoster.

   Halimusii, ii. 89.

   Halisarna, iii. 36.

   Halius, ii. 135.

   Halizoni, Halizones, ii. 297, 299, 300, 371; iii. 63-66.

   Halonnesus, ii. 140, 393; iii. 18.

   Halys (_Kizil-Ermak_), i. 190, 195, 439, 457; ii. 135, 139, 218, 276,
     277, 283, 285, 286, 290, 293, 294, 301, 302, 311-313, 327; iii. 61,
     141, 297.

   Halys, Phthiotic, ii. 135.

   Hamaxitus, ii. 145, 373-375, 385, 395.

   Hamaxœci, i. 191, 453, 461; ii. 219.

   _Hamedan._ _See_ Ecbatana.

   Hannibal, i. 238, 239, 311, 321, 323, 336, 364, 370, 373, 374, 381,
     382, 428, 436, 439.

   _Haran._ _See_ Niciphorium.

   Harma, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 97, 99, 106.

   ——, t. of Attica, ii. 96, 97.

   Harmatus, prom. of Æolia, ii. 397.

   Harmonia, i. 73, 500.

   Harmozi, prom. of Carmania, iii. 186.

   Harpagīa, t. of Mysia, ii. 347.

   Harpagus, general of Cyrus, i. 376.

   Harpalus, iii. 292.

   Harpies, the, i. 465.

   Harpina, t. of Pisatis, ii. 32.

   Hebe, Dia, ii. 66.

   Hĕbrus, r. of Thrace (_Maritza_), i. 495, 505, 516, 518; ii. 351.

   Hecatæus, the Milesian, i. 1, 12, 13, 28, 410, 459, 486, 492; ii. 13,
     299, 300, 302; iii. 5, 6.

   ——, of Teïos or Abdera, iii. 17.

   Hecate, ii. 183, 189; iii. 39.

   Hecaterus, ii. 188.

   Hecatomnus, king of Caria, iii. 35, 38.

   Hecatompolis, ii. 40.

   Hecatompylos, city of the Parthians, ii. 249, 250.

   Hecatonnesi, _see_ Apollononnesi, ii. 393.

   Hecatos, name of Apollo, ii. 393.

   Hector, i. 64; ii. 344, 356, 357, 360, 363, 365, 394, 395.

   Hecuba, ii. 168, 351.

   Hecuba’s monument, i. 517.

   Hēdylus, poet, iii. 69.

   Hēdyphōn, r. of Babylon, iii. 154.

   Hegesianax, historian, ii. 355.

   Hegesias, orator, ii. 86; iii. 23.

   Heilĕsium, t. of Bœotia, ii. 100.

   Heilotæ. _See_ Helots.

   Heleii, ii. 43; iii. 195.

   Helen, i. 65, 274; ii. 52, 86, 90, 360; iii. 238.

   —— Claimed, play of Sophocles, iii. 15.

   Helena (_Isola Longa_ or _Macronisi_), ii. 90, 208.

   Helēne, isl. _See_ Cranæ.

   Heleōn, vill. of Tanagria, ii. 98-100, 143.

   Heliadæ, sons of the Sun, iii. 32.

   Heliades, drs of the Sun, i. 320.

   Helice, city of Achæa, i. 92; ii. 59, 69-73.

   ——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 71.

   Helicon, mtn of Bœotia (_Zagaro Voreni_), i. 40; ii. 62, 99, 101, 104,
     105, 107, 109, 122, 187, 398.

   Helius, son of Perseus, ii. 41.

   Heliopolis, city of Syria, iii. 166.

   ——, city of Egypt, iii. 241, 245-247.

   Heliopolītæ, iii. 21.

   Heliopolite nome, iii. 245.

   Hella, strait, i. 519.

   _Hellada._ _See_ Spercheius.

   Hellanicus, historian of Lesbos, i. 69; ii. 44, 127, 167, 241, 298,
     368, 382, 393.

   Hellas. _See_ Greece.

   ——, city of Phthiotis, ii. 133, 134.

   ——, Southern Thessaly, ii. 149.

   Hellen, son of Deucalion, ii. 67, 134, 149.

   Hellenes. _See_ Greeks.

   ——, t. of Spain, i. 236.

   Hellespont (_Strait of the Dardanelles_), i. 72, 78, 99, 106, 107,
     164, 187, 188, 195, 453, 481, 496, 517-519; ii. 92, 289, 319, 326,
     341, 346, 350, 352.

   ——, mouth of, ii. 352.

   Hellespontia, ii. 277.

   Hellespontiac Phrygia. _See_ Phrygia.

   Helli, inhabitants of Dodona, i. 502.

   Hellŏpia, district adjacent to Dodona, i. 502.

   ——, same as Eubœa, ii. 152.

   ——, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152.

   Helos, t. of Laconia, ii. 15, 23, 24, 41, 43, 100.

   Hĕlos, in Triphylia or Messenia, ii. 23, 24, 100.

   Helots, ii. 43, 44, 287; iii. 96.

   Helvetii (_the Swiss_), i. 287, 288, 293, 306, 310, 447, 448, 450,
     482.

   Hēmeroscopium, city of Spain (? _Denia_ or _Artemus_), i. 238, 242.

   Hemicynes, i. 68, 458.

   Heneta, ii. 289, 302.

   Henĕti, people of Italy (_Venetians_), i. 76, 96, 225, 313-316,
     319-322, 433, 434; ii. 288, 301, 378.

   Henetian horses, i. 316.

   Henetica, the Venetian territory, i. 483; ii. 378.

   Hēniochi, people of Asia, i. 195; ii. 219, 224, 225, 238; iii. 296.

   Hēniochia, ii. 224.

   Heorta, t. of the Scordisci, i. 488.

   Hephæsteium, iii. 248.

   Hēphæstus. _See_ Vulcan.

   Heptacōmētæ, people of Pontus, ii. 296, 297.

   Heptaporus, r. of Mysia, ii. 304, 341, 347, 357, 371.

   Heptastadium, on the Hellespont, ii. 352.

   ——, between Alexandria and Pharus, iii. 227, 230.

   Hēra. _See_ Juno.

   Heraclæa, city of Magna Grecia, i. 397, 398, 427, 428.

   ——, city of Elis, ii. 32.

   ——, city of Media, ii. 250, 264.

   ——, city of Pontus (_Erekli_), ii. 285-290, 293, 302, 474.

   ——, city of the Mytilenæans, in the Troad, ii. 376.

   ——, city of Ionia, iii. 6.

   ——, city of Caria, iii. 37.

   ——, city of Syria, iii. 163, 164.

   ——, city of Thessaly, i. 94; ii. 32, 77, 103, 129, 130, 136, 147.

   ——, city of Spain, _see_ Calpè, i. 210.

   Heraclæa, poem of Pisander, iii. 34, 78.

   Heraclæum (_Ercolano_, _Herculaneum_), i. 366, 401.

   Heracleia, i. 495, 514.

   Heracleidæ, i. 407; ii. 3, 30, 33, 35, 39, 42, 43, 45, 53, 56, 59, 68,
     70, 77, 81, 82, 127, 128, 160, 340; iii. 31.

   Heracleides, of Pontus, philosopher, i. 149, 152; ii. 285, 374.

   ——, physician, iii. 18.

   Heracleōn, father of Dionysius, iii. 163.

   Heracleotæ, in the Tauric Chersonnesus, i. 474, 490.

   ——, in Egypt, iii. 257.

   Heracleōtic mouth, i. 130.

   —— nome, iii. 223, 253, 256.

   Heracleōtis, district of Ionia, iii. 15.

   Hēracles. _See_ Hercules.

   Heracleum, t. of Campania, i. 366.

   ——, t. of Sicily, i. 401.

   ——, t. on the Mæotis, ii. 222.

   ——, t. of Syria, iii. 163, 167.

   ——, t. of Cyrenæa, iii. 294.

   ——, t. of Crete (_Cartero_), ii. 196, 207.

   ——, t. of Egypt, iii. 238, 256.

   ——, prom. of Italy, i. 388.

   ——, prom. of Pontus, ii. 296.

   Heraclitus, Ephesian philosopher, i. 5; iii. 14, 215.

   ——, poet of Halicarnassus, iii. 35.

   Heræa, t. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 75.

   Heræum, temple of Juno at Mycenæ, ii. 48.

   ——, at Samos, iii. 7.

   ——, in the Lacinian promontory, i. 393.

   ——, at Prosymnæ, ii. 54.

   ——, Pharygis, ii. 12.

   _Herat._ _See_ Arii.

   Hercules, i. 3, 15, 76, 207, 210, 224, 236, 256, 257, 273, 274, 277,
     326, 333, 343, 364, 429, 511, 515, 519; ii. 9, 13, 26-28, 30, 34,
     40, 52, 55, 59, 64, 238, 315, 359, 380, 386, 389; iii. 31, 74,
     76-78, 259, 271, 277, 280, 294.

   —— Ipoctonus, ii. 386.

   —— Cornŏpiōn, ii. 386.

   ——, Macistian, ii. 22.

   ——, work of Lysippus, i. 424; ii. 171.

   ——, of Myron, iii. 8.

   ——, picture of Aristides, ii. 64.

   ——, labours of, i. 30, 40, 254; ii. 171; iii. 172.

   ——, expedition of, i. 255, 256.

   ——, children of, i. 333; ii. 59.

   ——, descendants of, i. 326.

   ——, companions of, ii. 315.

   ——, Pillars of. _See_ Pillars.

   ——, temple, i. 254, 256, 258, 261, 353; iii. 238.

   ——, island, i. 255, 239.

   ——, harbour and grove of, ii. 171.

   ——, Colossus of, i. 424.

   ——, altar, iii. 277.

   ——, warm-baths, ii. 125, 129.

   ——, city, iii. 256.

   ——, port of, Herculis Portus (_Porto Ercole_, _Formicole_), i. 334,
         383.

   Herculeum Promontorium, i. 388.

   Hercynia, forest of (_The Black Forest_), i. 308, 444, 447, 448, 450,
     452.

   Herdōnia, t. of Apulia (_Ordona_), i. 431.

   _Hergan Kaleh._ _See_ Amorium.

   Hermæa, t. on the Carthaginian coast, iii. 288.

   ——, prom. (_Cape Bon_) iii. 285, 287.

   Hermagoras, rhetorician, ii. 397.

   Hermeia, images of Mercury, ii. 16.

   Hermeias, tyrant of the Atarnitæ, ii. 382, 387.

   Hermes, i. 67; iii. 119.

   Hermion, ii. 71.

   Hermione, city of Argolis (_Castri_), ii. 49, 54-56, 58.

   Hermionenses, ii. 54.

   Hermionic Gulf (_Gulf of Castri_), i. 92; ii. 6, 47, 49, 63, 79.

   —— promontory, ii. 207.

   Hermocreōn, architect, ii. 348.

   Hermodorus, Ephesian, iii. 14.

   Hermon, city of, ii. 55.

   Hermonassa, t. of Pontus (_Platana_), ii. 296.

   ——, on the lake Corocondametis, ii. 223.

   Hermōnax, vill. of (_Akkerman_), i. 469.

   Hermonduri, people of Germany, i. 445.

   Hermōnthis, city of Egypt, iii. 263.

   Hermopolis, in Egypt, iii. 239, 241, 257.

   Hermopolite castle, iii. 258.

   Hermus, r. of Lydia, (_Godis-Tschia_), ii. 303, 339, 342, 346, 397,
     402, 403; iii. 2.

   ——, plain of, ii. 402, 403; iii. 82.

   Hernici, people of Latium, i. 339, 343, 344, 353.

   Hero, tower of, ii. 352.

   Herod, king of Judæa, iii. 177, 184.

   Herodotus of Halicarnassus, i. 47, 56, 69, 97, 148, 152, 430, 462,
     517; ii. 155, 190, 241, 273, 275, 277, 280, 290, 298, 328, 393,
     403, 405; iii. 35, 82.

   Heroopolis, city of Egypt, near Suez, i. 130, 131; iii. 176, 189,
     191, 193, 203, 291.

   Herophilian school of medicine, ii. 336.

   Herostratus, of Ephesus, iii. 12.

   Hērpa, Hērphæ, city of Cappadocia, ii. 281, 283; iii. 44.

   Hesiod, i. 35, 45, 67, 68, 93, 329, 458, 462, 465, 494, 501, 502;
     ii. 14, 42, 50, 70, 83, 104, 110, 188, 241, 348; iii. 22.

   Hesione, daughter of Laomedon, ii. 359.

   Hesperides, city of Cyrenæa (_Bernic_ or _Bengazi_), i. 186; ii. 169;
     iii. 291.

   ——, of Nympha, i. 226, 273, 459.

   Hesperii. _See_ Locri.

   Hesperitæ, Libyans, iii. 22.

   Hestia, goddess. _See_ Vesta.

   Hestiæa, ii. 364.

   Hestiæōtis, Histiæōtis, part of Thessaly, ii. 132, 137, 141, 142, 145,
     152, 153, 195.

   ——, in Eubœa, ii. 141, 153.

   Hicĕsius, physician, ii. 337.

   Hicetaōn, Trojan, ii. 344.

   Hidrieus, son of Hecatomnus, iii. 35.

   Hiera, _see_ Thermessa, isl. sacred to Vulcan, i. 418, 420.

   —— Sacra, Sacred Promontory, prom. of Lycia, iii. 48.

   Hieracōnnēsos, or island of Hawks, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 199.

   Hieracōnpolis, city of Egypt, iii. 263.

   Hierapolis, city of Syria, iii. 158.

   ——, city of Phrygia (_Pambuk-Kalessi_), ii. 140, 335, 408, 409.

   Hierapytna, t. of Crete, ii. 144, 188, 189, 194, 199.

   Hierapytnii, ii. 199.

   Hiericus, in Judæa. _See_ Jericho.

   Hiero, king of Syracuse, i. 368, 405.

   ——, of Laodiceia, ii. 334.

   Hierocepia, Hierocepis, city of Cyprus (_Jeroskipo_), iii. 70, 71.

   Hierocles, iii. 40.

   Hieron, temple of Jupiter Urius, ii. 293, 296.

   Hieron-Oros, in Thrace, i. 518.

   Hierōnymus, Rhodian, ii. 61, 193; iii. 33.

   Himera, city of Sicily, i. 412, 415.

   ——, r. of Sicily, i. 401.

   Hipparchus, astronomer, i. 2, 8, 13, 23, 26, 41, 86-88, 98-100,
     106-111, 114, 116-120, 122, 124-127, 131, 132, 135, 137-139, 141,
     142, 160, 171, 173, 199, 200, 203; ii. 271.

   Hippemolgi, i. 453, 454, 457, 458, 460-462; ii. 304.

   Hippo Regius, city of the Carthaginians (_Bonah_), iii. 285.

   Hippo Zaritus, c. of Numidia (_Bizerta_), iii. 285.

   Hippobatæ, or Knights, government of the, ii. 154.

   Hippoboton, ii. 49.

   Hippobotus, meadow in Armenia, ii. 265.

   Hippocles, founder of Cumæ, i. 361.

   Hippocŏōn, king of Sparta, ii. 173.

   Hippocorona, t. of the Troad, ii. 189.

   Hippocoronium, t. of Crete, ii. 189.

   Hippocrates, physician, iii. 36.

   Hippocrene, horse-fountain, ii. 62, 105.

   Hippoï, isl., iii. 17.

   Hipponax, poet, ii. 12; iii. 3, 7, 14.

   Hipponiates Sinus, i. 380, 392.

   Hippōnium, t. of the Bruttii, i. 379, 383.

   Hippothous, i. 329; ii. 395.

   Hippus, r. of Colchis (_Hori_), ii. 227, 231.

   Hira, ii. 35, 37.

   Hirpīni, people of Samnium, i. 373.

   Hispalis, t. of Spain (_Seville_), i. 212, 214.

   Hispania. _See_ Spain, Iberia.

   Hispellum (_Hispello_), i. 338.

   Hispiratis, ii. 271.

   Histi, anchorage on the coast of the island of Icaria, iii. 10.

   Histiæa, c. of Eubœa, _see_ Oreus, ii. 153.

   Histiæans, Histiæeis, ii. 141, 152, 153.

   Holmi, t. of Phrygia, iii. 43.

   ——, t. of Cilicia, iii. 53.

   Holmiæ, promontory, ii. 63, 105.

   Homer, i. 1, 2, 5-9, 11, 16, 19, 25-27, 32, _passim_.

   ——, native land of, ii. 399; iii. 16, 19, 20.

   Homēreium, iii. 20.

   Homēridæ, in the island of Chios, iii. 19.

   Hŏmŏlē, Hŏmŏlium, t. of Magnesia, ii. 147, 148.

   Hŏmŏnadeis, people of Pisidia, ii. 323, 324; iii. 50, 64.

   Hormiæ, i. 347.

   Hormina, Hyrmina, prom. of Elis, ii. 13.

   Hortēnsius, ii. 250.

   _Hu._ _See_ Diospolis.

   _Huesca._ _See_ Osca.

   Hya, same as Hyampolis.

   Hyacinthine games, i. 424.

   Hyameitis (Hyameia?), distr. or t. of Laconia, ii. 38.

   Hyampea, ii. 123.

   Hyampolis, c. of Bœotia (_Bogdana_), ii. 93, 116, 123.

   ——, c. of Phocis, ii. 93, 123.

   Hyantes, i. 493; ii. 93, 123, 177.

   Hyarōtis, r. of India (_Ravee_), iii. 85, 86, 90, 92.

   Hybla (the Lesser), c. of Sicily, afterwards named Megara, i. 404;
     ii. 73.

   —— (the Greater), c. of Sicily, i. 405.

   Hyblæan honey, i. 404.

   Hyblæei Megarenses, ii. 73.

   Hybreas, ii. 409; iii. 38, 39.

   Hybriānes, an Illyrian race, i. 489.

   Hyda, c. of Lydia, ii. 102, 403, 404.

   Hydara, fortress of Armenia, ii. 304.

   Hydarnes, ii. 273.

   Hydaspēs, r. of India (_Jelum_), iii. 74, 82, 84, 88, 90-94, 122.

   Hydatopotami, iii. 164.

   Hydra, prom. of Æolis, ii. 397.

   ——, lake of Ætolia, afterwards Lysimachia, ii. 172.

   Hydracæ, al. Oxydracæ, people of India, iii. 75. _See_ Sydracæ.

   Hydrēlus, iii. 26.

   Hydromanteis, iii. 180.

   Hydrūs, c. of Calabria (_Otranto_), i. 429.

   Hydrūssa, isl. near Attica, ii. 89.

   Hyĕla, c. of Lucania, i. 375.

   Hyla, ii. 102.

   Hylæ, c. of Bœotia, ii. 102, 106.

   Hylas, companion of Hercules, ii. 315, 316.

   Hylicus, lake in Bœotia (_Makaris_), ii. 102.

   Hyllus, son of Hercules, ii. 128.

   ——, r. of Lydia, ii. 303, 403.

   Hylobii, iii. 110, 111.

   Hymettus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90, 93.

   Hypæpa, c. of Lydia, ii. 405.

   Hypæsia, distr. of Triphylia, ii. 21.

   Hypæthrum, iii. 7.

   Hypana, c. of Triphylia, ii. 17.

   Hypanis, r. (_Bog_), i. 162, 457, 470.

   ——, r. of Sarmatia (_Kuban_), ii. 222-224.

   ——, r. of India (_Beas_), ii. 252; iii. 74, 82, 90, 94, 97.

   ——, same as Anticeites, ii. 222, 224.

   Hypasii, people of India, iii. 82, 90.

   Hypatus, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 108.

   Hypelæum, iii. 11.

   Hypelæus, ftn near Ephesus, iii. 3.

   Hyperboreans, i. 97, 452; ii. 240; iii. 108.

   Hypereia, ftn in Pharsalia, ii. 134.

   ——, ftn in the city of the Pheræi, ii. 142, 143.

   Hyperēsia, c. of Achæa, ii. 59, 67.

   Hypernotii, i. 97.

   Hyphanteium, mtn near Orchomenus, ii. 124.

   Hyphochalcis, c. of Ætolia, ii. 160.

   Hypocrēmnus, vill. of Ionia, iii. 18, 20.

   Hypsicrates, i. 479; ii. 235.

   Hypsoeis, t. of Elis, ii. 24.

   Hyrcania (_Corcan_), i. 22, 112, 113, 141, 178, 202, 467; ii. 237,
     241-246, 252-257, 407; iii. 152.

   Hyrcanian Sea, same as the Caspian, i. 106, 107, 113, 115, 142, 180,
     183, 194, 195; ii. 218, 239, 244, 245, 256, 257, 262.

   —— plain, ii. 407.

   —— Gulf, ii. 247.

   Hyrcanians, i. 195; ii. 240, 245, 248-250.

   Hyrcanium, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181.

   Hyrcanus, king of Judæa, iii. 180, 184.

   Hyria, c. of Iapygia, i. 430.

   ——, c. of Bœotia, i. 16; ii. 58, 97, 103.

   Hyriæ, ii. 97.

   Hyrienses, ii. 97.

   Hyrieus, father of Orion, ii. 97.

   Hyrmina, Hormina, prom. of Elis, ii. 13.

   Hyrmine, c. of Elis, ii. 12, 13.

   Hyrtacus, ii. 344, 350.

   Hysiæ, c. of Bœotia, ii. 97.

   ——, c. of Argolis, ii. 58.

   Hysiātæ, ii. 97.

   Hyspirātis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 271.

   Hystaspes, father of Darius, i. 468.


   Jaccetania, Jaccetani, in Spain, i. 242.

   _Jaffa._ _See_ Joppa.

   _Ialea._ _See_ Elæa.

   Ialmenus, leader of the Orchomenii, ii. 113.

   Ialysii, iii. 33.

   Ialysus, Iēlysus, city of Rhodes, iii. 33.

   ——, painting of Protogenes, iii. 29, 31.

   _Jama._ _See_ Zama.

   Iamblicus, prince of the Emiseni, iii. 166.

   Iamneia, t. of Judæa (_Jebna_), iii. 175.

   Iaones, ii. 134.

   Iapodes, i. 300, 308, 482-484.

   Iapyges, Iapygians, i. 394, 425, 428.

   Iapygia, i. 159, 164, 187, 314, 315, 388, 399, 400, 422, 428, 430,
     435; ii. 98.

   Iapygian promontory (_Cape Leuca_ or _Finisterre_), i. 186, 314,
     393, 423.

   Iapygum tria Promontoria (_Capo della Castella_, _Capo Rizzuto_,
     and _Capo della Nave_), i. 393.

   Iapyx, son of Dædalus, i. 425, 430.

   Iardanes, r. of Pisatis, ii. 15, 21.

   Iardanus, tomb of, ii. 22.

   Ias. _See_ Attica, ii. 81.

   Iasidæ, ii. 52.

   Iasiōn, brother of Dardanus, founder of Samothracia, i. 516.

   _Iaskili._ _See_ Dascylitis.

   Jasōn, i. 8, 18, 31, 32, 71, 72-74, 76, 89, 224, 332, 333, 375;
     ii. 139, 224, 235, 266, 272, 273, 293.

   Jasonia, Jasonian Shrines, i. 72.

   ——, monuments in Armenia, ii. 235, 266, 272.

   Jasonium, mtn of Media, ii. 266.

   ——, prom. of Pontus (_Jasun_), ii. 296.

   _Jasun._ _See_ Jasonium.

   Iasus, city and island of Caria, iii. 37.

   Iaxartes, r. of Sogdiana (_the Sihon_), ii. 240, 245, 248, 249,
     253-255.

   Jazyges, i. 451, 470.

   Iberia. _See_ Spain.

   —— Ulterior. _See_ Spain Ulterior.

   —— (_Georgia_), ii. 217, 226, 230-235, 238, 269, 274; iii. 75.

   Iberian coast, i. 245.

   —— nations, i. 246.

   —— Sea, i. 185.

   Iberians, i. 7, 52, 101, 178, 180, 195, 206, 209, 210, 227, 237,
     243-248, 256, 264, 269, 282, 292, 299, 407, 439, 440; ii. 260, 267,
     269, 273, 229-235.

   ——, Western, i. 95.

   Ibērus, r. of Spain (_Ebro_), i. 234, 238, 239, 241-244, 249, 250,
     262.

   Ibycus, poet, i. 92, 410.

   Icaria, Icarus, island (_Nicaria_), ii. 212; iii. 7, 8, 10.

   Icarian Sea, i. 44, 187; ii. 212; iii. 10.

   Icarius, father of Penelope, ii. 162, 173.

   Icarus, son of Dædalus, iii. 10.

   ——, island in the Persian Gulf (_Peludge_), iii. 185. _See_ Icaria.

   _Iceland._ _See_ Thule.

   Ichthyophagi, in Gedrosia, i. 145, 197, 201.

   ——, in Carmania, iii. 120, 127.

   Ichthyophagi, on the Arabian Gulf, iii. 191, 194, 198-121, 127, 128.

   Ichnæ, t. of Thessaliotis, ii. 138.

   Ichthys, prom. of Elis (_Catacolo_), ii. 15; iii. 291.

   Icŏnii, people of Gaul, i. 276, 303.

   Icŏnium (_Konia_), ii. 322.

   Ictimuli, vill. of Cisalpine Gaul (_prob. Victimolo_), i. 325.

   Ictinus, architect, ii. 84, 86.

   Icus, isl. near Thessaly (_Selidromi_), ii. 140.

   Ida, mtn in the Troad, i. 33, 64, 93, 494, 516; ii. 180, 184, 186,
     189, 191, 317, 329, 332, 337, 341, 344, 346, 354, 361, 368, 369,
     373-377, 384, 386, 390.

   ——, mtn of Crete (_Psiloriti_), ii. 190, 191, 194, 199, 373.

   Idæan Dactyli, i. 516; ii. 30, 180, 191.

   —— Gulf, ii. 342, 374.

   —— Mother, name of Rhæa, i. 71; ii. 185.

   Idanthyrsus, Scythian, iii. 75.

   Ideonnus, land of, i. 303.

   Idessa, t. of Spain, ii. 229.

   Idomene, i. 514; ii. 77.

   Idomeneus, ii. 83, 110, 201, 305.

   ——, Lampsacenian, ii. 305.

   Idrieis, people of Caria, iii. 63.

   Idubeda, mtns of Spain, i. 241, 243.

   Idumæans, people of Judæa, iii. 160, 177.

   _Jebna._ _See_ Iamneia.

   _Jekil-Irmak._ _See_ Iris.

   _Jelum._ _See_ Hydaspes.

   Iēlysus. _See_ Ialysus.

   _Ienischer._ _See_ Sigeium.

   _Jerba._ _See_ Meninx.

   Jericho, iii. 177, 181, 209.

   Ierna, (_Ireland_), i. 99, 100, 111, 115-117, 173, 174, 179, 180, 199,
     298.

   _Jeroskipo._ _See_ Hierocepia.

   Jerusalem, capital of Judæa, iii. 175, 177, 178, 180.

   _Jeschil Irmak._ _See_ Iris.

   Jews, iii. 142, 160, 175-185, 190, 210, 237, 274.

   Iglētes, i. 249.

   Iguvium, city of Umbria (_Engubbio_ or _Gubbio_), i. 338.

   _Ijan Kalessi._ _See_ Sagylium.

   _Ilan-Adassi_, isl. _See_ Leuca.

   Ilasarus, iii. 212.

   Ilerda, t. of Spain (_Lerida_), i. 242.

   Ilergetes, nation of Spain, i. 242.

   Ilethyia, i. 335.

   _Ilgun._ _See_ Holmi.

   Iliad of Homer, ii. 364.

   _Ilias._ _See_ Pelinæum.

   Ilibirris, t. and r. of Gaul, i. 272.

   Ilieis, Ilienses, ii. 354-356, 359-362, 366-368.

   Iliocolōne, ii. 350.

   Ilipa, t. of Turditania (_Alcolea_), i. 213, 214, 261.

   Ilissus, r. of Attica, ii. 91.

   Ilium. _See_ Troy.

   Illyria, i. 110, 159, 164, 186, 194, 308, 309, 317, 432, 435, 439,
     443, 466, 481, 483, 487, 489, 495, 501; iii. 297.

   Illyrian nations, i. 482, 483, 489, 500; ii. 2.

   —— mountains, i. 492, 495, 499, 501.

   —— Sea (_Gulf of Venice_), i. 73.

   —— coast, i. 483, 489.

   Illyrians, Illyrii, i. 306, 308, 319, 466, 468, 481, 482, 485, 488,
     493, 506; ii. 2, 157.

   _Ilori._ _See_ Hippus.

   Ilus, founder of Ilium, ii. 354, 361.

   Imandes, iii. 256.

   Imaus, Imæan mtn, i. 195; ii. 245, 255, 256; iii. 78. _See_ Isamus.

   Imbrasius, i. 519.

   Imbrasus, r. of Samos, ii. 167; iii. 7.

   Imbros, island (_Imbro_), i. 43, 187, 329, 516; ii. 10, 168, 190.

   ——, fortress of Caria, iii. 28.

   _Imola._ _See_ Forum-Cornelium.

   _Imrali._ _See_ Besbicus.

   Inachus, c. of Argolis, i. 329.

   ——, r. of Argolis (_Planitza_), i. 410, 486, 499; ii. 51.

   Inachus, r. of Acarnania, i. 410, 486, 499, 501; ii. 51.

   Inachian Argos, ii. 74.

   _Inamur._ _See_ Anemurium.

   India, i. 13, 63, 69, 100, 101, 105-108, 110-113, 115, 117-121, 124,
     128, 129, 133, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156, 165, 175, 178-180, 196, 200,
     201, 257, 332; ii. 216, 238-244, 248-256; iii. 44, 57, 73-120, 124,
     126, 127, 133, 135, 190, 211, 213, 216, 283.

   —— mtns, i. 105; ii. 238.

   —— boundaries, i. 105-107.

   —— next the Caucasus, i. 202.

   Indian campaign of Alexander, i. 257.

   —— Ocean, i. 60, 68; iii. 73.

   —— markets, i. 111.

   —— pillars, i. 258.

   Indians, i. 16, 149, 152, 156, 194, 463; ii. 218; iii. 98, 101, 105,
     106, 115, 117.

   ——, land occupied by the, i. 7.

   Indica, ii. 218.

   Indicetæ, nation of Spain, i. 235, 240.

   Indies, i. 16, 178, 257.

   Indus, r. of India, i. 100, 121, 132, 133; ii. 250, 252; iii. 77, 79,
     80, 84, 89, 90, 94-96, 102, 119, 120, 124, 125, 128.

   _Ineboli._ _See_ Aboniteichos.

   Ingauni, i. 300, 301.

   Innēsa, t. of Sicily, i. 405.

   Inōpus, r. of Delos, i. 410; ii. 208.

   Insūbri, i. 317, 322, 448.

   Intemĕlii, people of Liguria, i. 300, 301.

   Intemĕlium. _See_ Albion.

   Interamna, t. of Umbria (_Terni_), i. 338.

   Interamnium, t. of Latium, i. 352.

   Intercatia, t. of the Celtiberi, i. 244.

   Interocrea, t. of the Sabines (_Interdoco_), i. 338.

   Io, mother of Epaphus, ii. 152; iii. 57, 162.

   Iōl, t. of the Masæsylii, iii. 284.

   Iolaenses, people of Sardinia, i. 333.

   Iolaus, i. 333; ii. 59.

   Iolcius, same as Jason.

   Iolcus, c. of Magnesia (_Volo_), i. 71, 72, 111, 139-142.

   Ioleia, iii. 10.

   Iōn, son of Xuthus, ii. 67, 87, 152.

   ——, poet, i. 42, 94; iii. 19.

   ——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 32.

   ——, river of Thessaly, i. 501.

   Ionæum, ii. 19.

   Iones, ii. 2, 5, 13, 53. _See_ Ionians.

   Ionia, in Asia, i. 9, 17, 91, 96, 172, 187, 190, 195, 224; ii. 42,
     221, 339; iii. 1-9, 12-27, 43, 202.

   ——, same as Attica, i. 257; ii. 67, 68, 81, 87.

   Ioniades, nymphs, ii. 32.

   Ionian colony, ii. 68.

   —— colonists, ii. 68.

   —— Gulf, Ionian Sea, i. 186, 388, 429, 486, 487, 495, 499, 500, 501,
        507, 518.

   Ionians, i. 96, 102, 224, 256, 269, 397, 404, 458, 493; ii. 3, 43, 56,
     67-71, 80-82, 181, 298, 303; iii. 34, 40, 41, 43.

   Ionius, i. 487.

   Joppa (_Jaffa_), i. 68; iii. 175, 177.

   Ioras, mtn. _See_ Jura.

   Jordan, r. of Judæa, iii. 169, 170.

   _Iorghan-Ladik._ _See_ Laodiceia.

   Ios (_Nio_), ii. 207.

   Ioza. _See_ Julia.

   Iphicrates, ii. 76; iii. 278.

   Iphidamas, son of Antenor, i. 509, 510.

   Iphigeneia, ii. 279.

   ——, play of Euripides, ii. 60.

   Iphitus, ii. 34.

   —— Eurytides, ii. 46.

   Ipnus, t. of Magnesia, ii. 148.

   Ira, t. of Messenia, ii. 37.

   _Ireland._ _See_ Ierne.

   Iris, r. of Pontus (_Jekil-Irmak_), i. 82; ii. 295, 300, 311.

   Irra, daughter of Arrhabæus, i. 500.

   Isamus, r. of India, ii. 252.

   Isar, r. of Gaul, i. 276, 277, 288, 303.

   ——, r. of Vindelicia, i. 308.

   Isaura, t. of Isauria, ii. 322; iii. 46, 55.

   Isauria Palæa, t. of Isauria, ii. 322.

   Isaurica, part of Lycaonia, ii. 322.

   _Ischekli._ _See_ Eumeneia.

   _Ischia._ _See_ Pithecussa.

   Ischopolis, t. of Pontus, ii. 296.

   _Isère_, r. of Gaul. _See_ Isar.

   Isinda, t. of Pisidia, ii. 410.

   Isis, iii. 242, 260, 271.

   —, temple of, iii. 70.

   —, river, iii. 200.

   _Iskuriah._ _See_ Dioscurias.

   _Islote._ _See_ Scombraria.

   Ismandes. _See_ Imandes.

   Ismaris, lake of Thrace, i. 515.

   Ismarus, Ismara, t. of the Ciconi, i. 515.

   Ismēnus, r. by Thebes, ii. 103.

   _Ismid._ _See_ Astacus and Nicomedia.

   _Isnik._ _See_ Nicæa.

   _Isnik-gol._ _See_ Ascanius.

   Isocrates, ii. 398.

   Isodroma Mater, temple of, ii. 145.

   _Isola Longa._ _See_ Helena.

   —— _Plana._ _See_ Planesia.

   Issa, isl. of the Liburni (_Lissa_), i. 186, 484, 487.

   —, same as Lesbos, i. 93.

   Isseans, i. 484.

   Issus, iii. 60, 62, 160, 164.

   ——, Sea of, ii. 219; iii. 1.

   ——, Gulf of (_Bay of Ajazzo_, or _Aïas_), i. 75, 105, 106, 160, 179,
         183, 189, 190; ii. 256, 277, 279, 282; iii. 44, 45, 50, 55-57,
         60, 61, 63, 68, 142, 160.

   _Istanpolin._ _See_ Astypalæa.

   Ister, r. (_Danube_), i. 9, 22, 73, 79, 82, 89, 162, 177, 193, 264,
     303, 308, 309, 317, 319, 439, 440, 442, 443, 447, 450, 452-454, 457,
     463, 467-470, 478, 480-483, 487-489, 492; ii. 77, 220, 240, 302.

   ——, sacred mouth of, i. 481, 489.

   ——, town of Mœsia, i. 489, 490.

   Isthmian games, ii. 60, 63.

   Isthmus. _See_ _Suez_.

   Istri, i. 321, 483.

   Istria, distr. of Italy, i. 89, 313, 321, 483.

   Isus, distr. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 99.

   Italian cities, i. 276.

   —— revolt, 371.

   —— headlands, i. 139.

   —— coast, i. 184, 487.

   Italians, Italiotæ, i. 250, 302, 310, 313, 358, 379; ii. 118.

   Italica, c. of Spain, i. 213.

   ——, c. of the Peligni, i. 358

   Italy, i. 9, 31, 33-36, 54, 72, 84, 141, 163, 164, 184, 185, 193, 194,
     216, 224, 236, 240, 241, 264, 266-268, 270, 275, 279, 287, 291, 293,
     300, 303-307, 309, 310, 313-315, 321, 323-325, 329, 337, 339, 345,
     361, 371, 377, 379, 380, 383, 399, 400-403, 405, 411, 413, 422, 427,
     435-439, 441, 442, 448, 450, 481, 482, 483, 487; ii. 60, 62, 68,
     116, 154, 209, 290, 300, 333, 378; iii. 45, 278, _et passim_.

   Ithaca, isl. and t. (_Thiaki_ or _Ithaco_), i. 33, 42, 53, 93, 161,
     187, 460; ii. 5, 25, 26, 50, 161-167; iii. 8.

   Ithacans, i. 33; ii. 173.

   _Ithaco._ _See_ Ithaca.

   Ithōme, mtn and t. of Messenia, i. 426; ii. 35, 38, 141.

   ——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141.

   Itium, t. and port of Gaul, i. 297.

   Itōnus, c. of Thessaly (_Armyrus_), ii. 135, 138.

   Itumon, ii. 26.

   Iturii or Ituræans, a people of Syria, iii. 166, 170, 171.

   Ityca, c. of the Carthaginians, iii. 284, 285.

   Juba, king of Numidia, i. 440; iii. 280, 282-284, 297.

   Judæa, part of Syria, iii. 160, 171-185, 189, 209, 241, 266.

   _Judicello._ _See_ Amenanus.

   Jugurtha, king of Numidia, iii. 284.

   _Iviça._ _See_ Ebusus.

   Julia, i. 213.

   —— Ioza, t. of Bætica, i. 210.

   Juliopolis, t. of Phrygia, ii. 330.

   Iulis, c. of Ceos, ii. 210.

   Julius. _See_ Cæsar.

   Iulus, son of Æneas, ii. 356.

   Junc Plain, in Spain, i. 240.

   Juno (Hēra), i. 5, 41, 393; ii. 29, 39, 341; iii. 11.

   ——, Argive, temple of, i. 375; ii. 110, 127.

   ——, named Cupra, by the Tyrrheni, i. 357.

   —— Pharygæa, ii. 127.

   ——, island of, i. 253, 255.

   ——, Argian, grove of, i. 320.

   ——, oracle of Acræan, ii. 63.

   Jupiter, i. 4, 274, 340, 465, 494, 502, 503; ii. 22, 25, 29, 30, 33,
     39, 45, 61, 73, 118, 170, 180, 183, 184, 188, 189, 196, 204, 205,
     353; iii. 33, 55, 113, 116, 117, 179, 259, 263.

   ——, Olympian, ii. 3, 28.

   ——, Dodonæan, i. 328, 329, 501.

   ——, Pelasgic, i. 503.

   ——, Larisian, ii. 145; iii. 24.

   —— Cenæus, ii. 155.

   —— Trophonius, ii. 111.

   —— Abrettenus, ii. 330.

   —— Sōsipolis, iii. 23.

   —— Ombrius, iii. 117.

   ——, temple of, in Larisa, ii. 51.

   —— ——, in Morimene, ii. 281.

   ——, statue of, at Tuvium, ii. 320.

   ——, Dictæan, ii. 195, 199.

   ——, Olbe, temple at, iii. 55.

   ——, Lycæan, ii. 75.

   —— Soter, ii. 85.

   —— Eleutherius, ii. 108.

   ——, Ænēsian, ii. 167.

   ——, Venasii, temple amongst the, ii. 281.

   —— Atabyrius, iii. 33.

   ——, temple of, called Osogo, iii. 38.

   —— Labrandænus, iii. 38.

   ——, Carian, iii. 38.

   —— Stratius, iii. 38.

   —— Chrysaoreus, iii. 39.

   —— Casius, iii. 176.

   —— Olympus, oracle of, ii. 28.

   —— colossus of, i. 423; ii. 320.

   —— Astrapius, ii. 97.

   Jupiter, Dacian priesthood of, ii. 280.

   ——, work of Myron, iii. 8.

   Iura, Mount, i. 288, 310.

   _Jura._ _See_ Gyarus.

   Iurasius. _See_ Ioras.

   Ivrea. _See_ Eporedia.

   Ixia, t. of Rhodes (_Lanathi_), iii. 33.

   Ixiōn, king of the Lapithæ, i. 507.


   _Kaisaruh._ _See_ Mazaca.

   _Kaki-Scala._ _See_ Taphiassus.

   _Kandili._ _See_ Alyzia.

   _Kankri._ _See_ Cenchrea.

   _Kapurna._ _See_ Chæroneia.

   _Karabogher._ _See_ Priapus.

   _Karaburun._ _See_ Mimas.

   _Karadje-Burun._ _See_ Criu-metopon.

   _Kara-dagh._ _See_ Masias.

   _Kara-Gedik._ _See_ Andriclus.

   _Kara-Hissar._ _See_ Tyana.

   _Karasi._ _See_ Mysia.

   _Karasu._ _See_ Melas.

   _Karasui._ _See_ Cydnus.

   _Karlas._ _See_ Bœbeis.

   _Karmelis._ _See_ Gaugamela.

   _Kas, el._ _See_ Casium.

   _Kas-Owa._ _See_ Dazimonitis.

   _Kastri._ _See_ Delphi.

   _Kelikdni._ _See_ Calycadnus.

   _Kelisman._ _See_ Clazomenæ.

   Keltæ, Kelti. _See_ Kelts.

   Keltiberia, i. 222, 243-245.

   Keltiberians, i. 52, 214, 222, 228, 229, 238, 242-244, 246, 250.

   Keltic nations, i. 247, 291, 442, 443, 454, 481, 482.

   —— zone, i. 147.

   —— isthmus, i. 206.

   Keltica (_France_), i. 13, 99, 101, 111, 113-116, 141, 174, 184, 192,
     193, 206, 223, 226, 240, 243, 267, 279, 289, 296, 298, 309, 323-325,
     357, 442, 443, 447.

   ——, Transalpine, i. 264, 266, 296, 300, 309, 325.

   ——, Cisalpine, i. 303, 315, 336, 337.

   ——, Citerior, i. 324.

   ——, Gallia Cispadana, i. 325.

   Keltici, people of Spain, i. 227, 230.

   Kelto-ligyes (_Ligurians_), i. 302.

   Keltoscythians, i. 52; ii. 240.

   Kelts, i. 18, 52, 116, 208, 232, 238, 241, 246, 264, 265, 277, 282,
     296, 297, 299, 308, 316, 317, 438, 439, 443, 449, 463, 466.

   ——, Transalpine, i. 302, 316.

   Kemmenus, (_the Cevennes_), i. 219. _See_ Cemmenus.

   Kenæum (_Kabo Lithari_), i. 94. _See_ Cenæum.

   Kent, i. 99, 288, 296.

   Kentrones. _See_ Centrones.

   _Kerasun._ _See_ Paryadres.

   _Kerempi-Burun._ _See_ Carambis.

   Kerkina, isl. (_Kerkeni_), i. 185.

   _Kerman._ _See_ Carmania.

   Kerne, isle of, i. 75.

   Kerretani, people of the Iberians, i. 243.

   _Kertsch._ _See_ Bosporus; Panticapæeon.

   _Kharput._ _See_ Carcathiocerta.

   Khersobleptes, i. 516.

   _Khosistan._ _See_ Susiana.

   _Kidros._ _See_ Cytorum.

   _Kilandria._ _See_ Celenderis.

   Kimbrians. _See_ Cimbri.

   Kimmerians. _See_ Cimmerians.

   _Kinoli._ _See_ Cinolis.

   _Kisamos._ _See_ Cisamus.

   _Kiutahia._ _See_ Cotiaeium.

   _Kizil-Ermak._ _See_ Halys.

   _Kodscha._ _See_ Sirbis.

   _Koft._ _See_ Coptus.

   _Koluri._ _See_ Salamis.

   _Konia._ _See_ Iconium.

   _Kopru-su._ _See_ Eurymedon.

   _Kormakiti._ _See_ Crommyum.

   _Kosseir._ _See_ Philotera.

   _Krio, Cape._ _See_ Criu-metopon.

   _Krisso._ _See_ Crissa.

   _Kulat-el-Mudik._ _See_ Apameia.

   _Kulp._ _See_ Colapis.

   _Kur._ _See_ Cyrus.

   _Kurds._ _See_ Gordyæi.

   _Kyno._ _See_ Cynus.


   _La Punta._ _See_ Actium.

   _La Riccia._ _See_ Aricia.

   Labanæ, baths in Italy, i. 354.

   Labicum, i. 341.

   Labiēnus, prefect of Asia, ii. 330; iii. 39.

   Labŏtas, r. of Syria, iii. 164.

   Labranda, c. of Caria, iii. 38.

   Labyrinth, in Crete, ii. 197.

   ——, near Nauplia, ii. 48.

   ——, in Egypt, iii. 221, 255, 258.

   Lacaon, ii. 395.

   Lacænian land, ii. 45.

   Laccæa, i. 227.

   Lacedæmon, i. 398; ii. 18, 19, 21, 45-47, 67, 68, 77, 130, 153, 164,
     173; iii. 26, 259.

   Lacedæmonian epistle, i. 58.

   ——, code, i. 390.

   Lacedæmonians, i. 102, 155, 231, 347, 372, 385, 424-427, 430, 499;
     ii. 31, 34-36, 38, 39, 41, 43, 46, 55, 58, 59, 71, 72, 75, 85, 88,
     90, 94, 111, 123, 129, _et passim_.

   Lacēter, prom. in the island of Cos (_Cape Kephala_), iii. 36.

   Lacinium, Cape, i. 393, 429.

   Lacmus, mtn of Ætolia, i. 410, 486.

   Laconia, i. 399; ii. 15, 18, 24, 28, 35-48, 53, 58, 153, 193, 200;
     iii. 292.

   Laconian Bay (_Gulf of Colochina_), ii. 6, 40, 48.

   ——, island, _same as_ Thera.

   Laconians, Lacones, i. 236, 504; ii. 43, 44, 47; iii. 69.

   ——, Eleuthero, ii. 44.

   Ladē, isl. near Miletus, iii. 5.

   _Ladik-Gol._ _See_ Stiphane.

   _Ladikiyeh._ _See_ Laodicea.

   Ladon, r. of Arcadia (_Landona_), i. 94; ii. 76.

   Laërtes, i. 91; ii. 161, 166, 173; iii. 52.

   Læstrygonians, people of Sicily, i. 31, 33, 64.

   Lagaria, fortress near Thurii (_La Nucarra_), ii. 397.

   Lagaritan wine, i. 397.

   Lagĕtas, great-grandfather of Strabo, ii. 198.

   Lagina, t. of Caria, iii. 39, 43.

   Lagus, father of Ptolemy, i. 463.

   Lagusa, isl. near Crete (_Cardiodissa_ or _Cardiana_), ii. 207.

   Laïus, iii. 18.

   _Lamert-koi._ _See_ Cyme.

   Lamia, phantom, i. 29.

   ——, c. of Thessaly (_Isdin_ or _Zeitun_), i. 94; ii. 136, 138, 158.

   Lamian war, ii. 136.

   Lampeia, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 14.

   _Lampedusa._ _See_ Lopadussa.

   Lampeis, t. of Crete, ii. 194.

   _Lampeni._ _See_ Amphissa.

   Lampesis, Lamptreis, t. of Attica, ii. 89.

   Lampōnia, t. of the Troad, ii. 382.

   Lampsacēnē, ii. 350.

   Lampsacēni, ii. 347, 349.

   Lampsacus, city of Mysia (_Lampsaki_), i. 518; ii. 340, 347, 349, 350,
     352; iii. 6.

   Lamus, r. and t. of Cilicia, iii. 54, 55.

   Landi, people of Germany, i. 447.

   Langobardi, nation of Germany, i. 445.

   Lanuvium (_Civita Lavinia_ or _Città della Vigna_), i. 344, 355.

   Laodicēa, city of Lycaonia, iii. 43.

   ——, c. of Cœle-Syria (_Iouschiah_), iii. 170.

   ——, c. of Syria (_Ladikiyeh_), iii. 161, 162, 167.

   ——, c. of Media, ii. 264.

   ——, c. of Phrygia (_Urumluk_), ii. 332, 334, 336, 408, 409; iii. 43.

   Laodiceia, mother of Seleucus, iii. 161.

   Laodiceians, ii. 334, 336.

   Laomedon, ii. 359.

   Laōthoë, ii. 395.

   Lapathus, t. of Cyprus (_Lapito_), iii. 69.

   Lapē, t. of Lesbos, ii. 127.

   Lapersæ, ii. 42.

   Lapithæ, people of Thessaly, i. 15, 507; ii. 144-148.

   Lapithēs, _same as_ Mopsus.

   _Lapito._ _See_ Lapathus.

   Laranda, t. of Lycaonia (_Caraman_), ii. 322.

   Larisa, daughter of Piasus, ii. 397.

   ——, Cremaste, city of Pelasgiotis, i. 94; ii. 138, 144, 373, 374,
         395-397.

   ——, city of Phthiotis, ii. 145.

   ——, c. of Thessaly, ii. 77, 272.

   ——, c. of Attica, ii. 145.

   ——, c. of Crete, ii. 144.

   ——, c. on the confines of Elis and Achæa, ii. 145.

   ——, Phriconis in Asia, ii. 145.

   ——, c. of Syria, ii. 145, 165.

   ——, c. of Pontus, ii. 145.

   ——, c. of the Troad, i. 329; ii. 145, 374, 395.

   ——, Ephĕsia, ii. 145.

   ——, Phricōnis, c. of Æolis, ii. 145, 397.

   ——, citadel of the Argives, ii. 51, 144.

   Larisæan rocks, at Lesbos, ii. 145.

   Larisian plain, ii. 144.

   —— Jupiter, ii. 145.

   Larisus, r. of Achæa, ii. 74, 145.

   Larius (_Lake of Como_), i. 287, 304, 312, 317.

   Laroloni, i. 337.

   Lartolæētæ, people of Spain, i. 239.

   Larymna, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 100.

   ——, Upper, t. of Locris, ii. 100.

   Lās, t. of Laconia, ii. 42.

   Lasion sea-coast, ii. 9.

   Lathōn, Lēthæus, r. of Cyrenaica, iii. 21, 291.

   Latin towns, i. 278.

   —— coast, i. 344.

   —— cities, i. 356.

   Latina, Via, i. 351, 352, 353, 356,
   370.

   Latine. _See_ Latium.

   Latini, Latins, i. 227, 325, 326, 340, 343-346, 349, 438.

   Latinus, i. 339.

   Latium, i. 325, 338, 339, 344, 345, 348, 351, 352, 360, 371, 378.

   Latmic Gulf, Ionia, iii. 6.

   Latmus, mtn of Caria, iii. 6.

   Latmus, t. of Caria, iii. 6.

   Latomiæ, islands in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 194.

   Latona, ii. 208; iii. 11, 29.

   ——, temple of, ii. 24, 207, 239.

   Latopolis, city of Egypt, iii. 257, 263.

   Latopolītæ, iii. 257, 263.

   Latus, iii. 263.

   Laurentum, t. of Latium, i. 339, 346.

   Laüs, city of Lucania, i. 376, 377.

   ——, r. of Lucania (_Lao_), i. 376, 379-381.

   ——, gulf of Lucania, i. 376.

   Laviansene, ii. 278, 285, 310.

   Lavicana, Via, i. 352.

   Lavicum, t. of Latium, i. 352.

   Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, i. 339.

   Lavinium, city of Latium, i. 343, 345, 398; ii. 378.

   Leap, the, ii. 162.

   Lebadeia, city of Bœotia, ii. 111, 122.

   Lebedos, city of Ionia (_Lebedigli_), iii. 2, 16.

   Lĕbēn, t. and port of Crete, ii. 199.

   Lebenii, ii. 199.

   _Lebida._ _See_ Leptis.

   Lebinthus, island (_Levita_), ii. 212.

   _Lebrixa._ _See_ Nebrissa.

   Lecanomanteis, iii. 180.

   Lechæum, port of Corinth (_Pelagio_), i. 88; ii. 62, 63.

   Lectum, prom. of the Troad (_Baba Kalessi_), ii. 339-342, 372-376,
     388, 390.

   Lēda, wife of Tyndareus, and daughter of Thestius, ii. 173.

   Lĕētani, people of Spain, i. 239.

   _Lefka_; _see_ Leuctra.

   Legæ, or Leges (_Legi_), ii. 235.

   Leimōn, iii. 26.

   Leimōne, same as Elēnē, ii. 145.

   Lēlantum, plain of, i. 90; ii. 154, 178.

   Leleges, i. 493, 494; ii. 93, 327, 328, 343, 374-376, 381, 383, 394,
     395; iii. 2, 4, 11, 40, 63, 65.

   Lelegia, i. 493.

   Lēmenna, lake (_Lake Leman_, _the Lake of Geneva_), i. 277, 303, 310.

   Lēmnos, island (_Stalimene_), i. 43, 66, 71-73, 187, 329, 512, 513,
     515; ii. 21, 158, 168, 180, 190, 298, 394.

   Lemovices, people of Gaul (_the Limousins_), i. 284.

   Leōcorium, ii. 86, 87.

   Leon, rocks on the Ethiopian shore, iii. 201.

   Leōnidas, i. 17; ii. 130, 181.

   Leōnides, stoic, iii. 33.

   Leonnatus, friend of Alexander, ii. 136.

   Leonnorius, leader of the Galatæ, ii. 319.

   Leontes, ii. 350.

   Leontini, i. 31, 412, 414.

   Leontopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. 171, 240.

   Leontopolītæ, iii. 240, 257.

   Leontopolite nome, in Egypt, iii. 240.

   Leōsthenes, ii. 136.

   _Lepanto_; _see_ Naupactus.

   ——, _Gulf of_; _see_ Corinth, Gulf of.

   Lepidum. _See_ Rhegium.

   Lepidus, Marcus, i. 323.

   Lēpontii, Alpine race, i. 304, 306.

   Lepreātæ, ii. 18, 31, 45.

   Lepreātis, ii. 18.

   Lepreum, city of Triphylia, ii. 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 31.

   Leptis, city of Africa (_Lebida_), iii. 289.

   Leria. _See_ Lerus.

   Lerians, ii. 212.

   _Lerida_; _see_ Ilerda.

   Lerna, r. of Argolis, ii. 48.

   ——, lake of Argolis, ii. 48, 52.

   Lērō (_Ile Ste Marguérite_), i. 276; ii. 212, 214; iii. 5.
     _See_ _Leros_.

   Lesbia. _See_ Lesbos.

   Lesbians, ii. 365.

   Lesboclēs, ii. 392.

   Lesbos, island (_Mytilini_), i. 71, 93, 187, 329, 518; ii. 32, 213,
     303, 339-345, 351, 353, 375, 384, 388, 390-394, 398; iii. 8, 19, 36,
     250.

   _Lesina_, isl. _See_ Pharos.

   Lēthæus, r. of Crete (_Maloniti_ or _Messara_), ii. 199.

   ——, r. of Magnesia, ii. 303; iii. 21.

   ——, r. of Thessaly, iii. 21.

   ——, r. of the Cyrenaic. _See_ Lathōn.

   Lēthē, r. of Lusitania, i. 229, 230. _See_ Limæa.

   Lethus, ii. 395.

   Lēto, temple of. _See_ Latona.

   Letopolite nome, in Egypt, iii. 247.

   Letoum, iii. 47.

   Leuca, t. of Calabria, i. 429.

   ——, mtn of Crete (_Aspra-vuna_ or _Sfakia_), ii. 194.

   ——, Leuce, island of (_Ilan-Adassi_), i. 188, 470; ii. 41.

   ——, Leuce-Come, t. of the Nabatæi, iii. 211.

   ——, Leuce-Acte, prom. of Eubœa, ii. 90.

   ——, prom. of Libya, ii. 213; iii. 235.

   ——, in Thrace, i. 518.

   ——, Capo di. _See_ Iapygia.

   Leucadian Sea, i. 505.

   Leucadians, i. 494; ii. 162.

   Leucadius, brother of Penelope, ii. 162.

   Leucæ, t. of Ionia (_Leokaes_), iii. 20, 21.

   Leucani, i. 315, 339, 373-380, 392, 397, 427, 431.

   Leucania, i. 374-376, 380.

   Leucas, isl. and t. (_Sta Maura_), i. 91, 159; ii. 159, 161, 163, 171,
     174.

   Leucaspis, iii. 236.

   Leucatas, prom. of Leucas, ii. 161, 167, 173.

   Leuci, people of Gaul, i. 288.

   Leucimmē, prom. of Corcyra (_C. Bianco_), i. 497.

   Leucippus, i. 399.

   Leuco, i. 463.

   Leucocomas, ii. 199.

   Leucolla, port of Cyprus, iii. 69.

   Leucōn, king of Bosporus, i. 476-478.

   Leuconotus (name of a wind), i. 45; iii. 292.

   Leucopĕtra, prom. of Italy, i. 315, 388.

   Leucophryēne, Artemis, iii. 22.

   Leucophrys, same as Tenedos, ii. 373.

   Leucōsia, island, i. 185, 375, 387.

   Leucosyri, ii. 288.

   Leucothea, temple of, ii. 228.

   Leuctra (_Lefka_), c. of Bœotia, ii. 110, 111, 152.

   ——, battle of, ii. 68, 70.

   Leuctri, ii. 36.

   Leuctrum, t. of Laconia, ii. 36, 38, 39.

   ——, vill. of Achæa, ii. 73.

   _Levita._ _See_ Lebinthus.

   Leuternian coast of Calabria, i. 429.

   Leuternians, giants of Phlegra, i. 429.

   Lexovii, i. 281, 290.

   Libanus, mtn, iii. 149, 169-171.

   Libēs, priest of the Chatti, i. 447.

   Libēthra, Leibēthrum, city of Pieria, i. 508; ii. 105, 187.

   Libēthriades, ii. 105, 187.

   Libophœnices, people of Libya, iii. 289.

   Libs (S. W. wind), i. 45; ii. 303.

   Liburni, i. 407, 487.

   Liburnia, i. 484.

   Liburnian islands, i. 186, 484, 487.

   Libya, i. 2, 8, 15, 25, 41, 50, 51, 55, 56, 60, 63, 64, 76, 78, 88,
     103, 148, 150, 154, 155, 159, 160-164, 174, 180-187, 191, 197, 200,
     206, 216-218, 226, 236, 255, 334, 400, 416, 422, 439, 440, 458, 459,
     504; ii. 169, 303; iii. 219, 226, 247, 253, 266, 270.

   Libyan Sea, i. 185, 403, 496; ii. 5, 6, 35, 36; iii. 68.

   Libyans, i. 17, 256; iii. 271.

   Libyans, Hesperītæ, iii. 22.

   Libyrnē, _same as_ Scardon, i. 484.

   Libyrnides. _See_ Liburnian Islands.

   Licattii, people of the Vindelici, i. 307.

   Licha, iii. 199.

   Lichades Islands (_Litada_), i. 94; ii. 126.

   Lichas, companion of Hercules, ii. 126, 155; iii. 201.

   Licymna, citadel of Tirynthes, ii. 54.

   Licymnius, iii. 31.

   Licyrna, ii. 171.

   Liger, r. (_Loire_), i. 265, 281-284, 286, 288, 289, 291, 292, 295,
     297.

   Liguria, (_Genoa_), i. 193, 247, 265, 279, 302, 308, 311, 313-316,
     324-326, 330, 439.

   Ligurian headlands, i. 139.

   Ligurisci, i. 454.

   Ligyes, Ligurians, i. 193, 267, 269, 274, 275, 300-303, 322, 323, 331,
     462.

   ——, Oxybian, i. 276, 301, 314.

   Ligystica. _See_ Liguria.

   ——, coast, i. 184, 185.

   ——, nations, i. 193, 194.

   ——, Sea of, (_Gulf of Genoa_), i. 160, 185, 193.

   Lilæa, c. of Phocis, i. 25; ii. 101, 123, 124, 128.

   Lilybæum, prom. of Sicily (_Capo Boeo_), i. 400-403, 411, 421;
     ii. 378.

   ——, c. of Sicily (_Marsalla_), i. 411; iii. 287.

   Limæa, r. of Lusitania (_Lima_), i. 229, 230.

   Limena, Limenera, ii. 48.

   Limenia, t. of Cyprus, iii. 70.

   Limnæ, t. of Messenia, i. 385; ii. 39, 40.

   ——, t. of the Thracian Chersonese, i. 517; iii. 5.

   ——, suburb of Sparta, ii. 40.

   Limnæum, suburb of Sparta, ii. 41.

   _Limousins._ _See_ Lemovices.

   Limyra, t. of Lycia, iii. 47.

   Limyrus, r. of Lycia, iii. 47.

   Lincasii. _See_ Lingones.

   Lindii, Lindians, iii. 33.

   Lindus, c. of Rhodes (_Lindo_), ii. 374; iii. 29, 33, 55.

   Lingones, Lincasii, people of Gaul, i. 278, 288, 310.

   Līnum, t. of Mysia, ii. 349.

   Linx, c. of Mauritania. _See_ Lynx.

   Lipari Isles, i. 31, 84, 89, 185, 369, 383, 386, 415, 417-421.

   Liris, r. of Latium (_Garigliano_), i. 347, 352, 353.

   _Lisbon._ _See_ Ulyssea.

   _Lissa._ _See_ Issa.

   Lissus, t. of Dalmatia (_Alesso_), i. 485.

   _Litada._ _See_ Lichades Islands.

   Liternum, t. of Campania (_Torre di Patria_), i. 361.

   Liternus, r. of Campania, i. 361.

   _Lithada._ _See_ Cenæum.

   Lithrus, mtn of Pontus, ii. 306.

   _Livadhia._ _See_ Lebadeia.

   Livia, piazza of, i. 351.

   Lixus, t. of Mauritania, iii. 279, 281.

   ——, r. of Mauritania (_Lucos_), i. 150.

   Lochias, prom. of Egypt, iii. 226, 230.

   Locri, people of Greece, i. 389-392, 494; ii. 85, 113-115, 124-130,
     134, 135, 159, 365.

   ——, Epizephyrii, in Italy, i. 168, 381, 383, 388; iii. 289.

   ——, Epicnemidii, ii. 78, 113, 114, 124, 125, 128, 132.

   ——, Ozolæ or Hesperii, ii. 2, 114-116, 125-128, 158.

   ——, Opuntii, i. 389; ii. 114, 124-126.

   Locria, ftn in Locris, i. 389.

   Locris, in Greece, ii. 6, 42, 114, 124-132, 137, 151, 171, 340.

   ——, in Italy, i. 186, 388, 390.

   Locrus, i. 494.

   _Loire._ _See_ Liger.

   Lopadūssa, island (_Lampidusa_), iii. 288.

   Lōryma, mtn and shore of Caria, iii. 34.

   Lōtophagi, i. 37, 236, 237; iii. 281.

   Lōtophagitis, name of the Lesser Syrtis, iii. 288.

   _Loubadi._ _See_ Apolloniatis.

   Lucas, i. 494.

   Lucca, t. of the Ligyri, i. 323.

   Lucĕria, t. of the Daunii (_Lucera_), i. 398, 433.

   Lucius Tarquiuius Priscus. _See_ Tarquinius.

   —— Mummius, ii. 64, 65.

   _Lucos_, r. _See_ Lixus.

   Lūcotŏcia, city of the Parisii, i. 290.

   Lucrine Lake and Gulf (_Lago Lucrino_), i. 362, 364.

   Lucullus, ii. 278, 292, 294, 307, 320.

   ——, Marcus, i. 490; ii. 65.

   Lūcūmo, son of Demaratus, i. 326.

   Lūdias, r. and lake of Macedonia, i. 508, 509.

   Luerion, i. 302.

   Luerius, i. 285.

   Lugdūnum, t. of Aquitania (_Lyons_), i. 286.

   ——, c. of the Segosiani, i. 265, 277, 284, 288, 289, 309, 310.

   Lūgeum, i. 482.

   Lūji, people of Germany, i. 444.

   Lūna, i. 323, 329, 330.

   Lūpiæ, t. of Calabria, i. 430.

   Lūpias, r. of Germany (_Lippe_), i. 445.

   Lusitania, i. 181, 228-230, 250.

   Lusitanians, i. 209, 221, 228, 229, 231, 245, 250.

   Lūsōnes, people of Spain, i. 243.

   Lux Dubia, i. 211.

   Lycabēttus, mtn of Attica, ii. 90, 164.

   Lycæum, mtn of Arcadia (_Myntha_), i. 311; ii. 22, 75, 76.

   Lycaōn, i. 329.

   ——, son of Priam, i. 66; ii. 344, 346.

   Lycaonia, i. 202; ii. 276, 281, 284, 319, 321, 322, 332; iii. 44, 65.

   Lycaonians, i. 195; ii. 277, 304, 322; iii. 64.

   Lycastus, ii. 200.

   Lyceum, at Athens, ii. 87, 88, 90.

   Lychnidus, t. of Epirus (_Lago d’ Ochrida_), i. 495, 500.

   Lycia, i. 8, 32, 38, 189, 195, 201; ii. 54, 259, 313, 317, 328, 329,
     409; iii. 27, 28, 44-48, 54, 59, 68, 73, _et passim_.

   ——, in the Troad, ii. 317, 328, 329.

   Lycii, Lycians, ii. 277, 304, 327-329, 344, 346, 353, 360, 362, 405,
     410; iii. 1, 41, 49, 63.

   ——, in the Troad, ii. 162, 327, 344, 346, 360, 362.

   ——, Carian, ii. 327, 329.

   Lycomēdes, priest of the Comani, ii. 308.

   ——, king of Scyrus, ii. 140.

   ——, son of Pharnaces, ii. 311.

   Lycopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. 240, 257, 258.

   Lycopolītæ, iii. 257.

   Lycōreia, t. of Phocis, ii. 116.

   Lycormas, ii. 160.

   Lyctii, ii. 194.

   Lyctus, c. of Crete (_Lytto_), ii. 196, 200.

   Lycurgus, Lacedæmonian, ii. 43, 44, 203, 204; iii. 179.

   ——, king of the Edoni, ii. 187; iii. 76.

   ——, orator, ii. 368.

   Lycus, ii. 334.

   ——, son of Pandiones, ii. 81; iii. 49.

   ——, r. of Assyria (_Erbil_), i. 123; iii. 143, 144.

   ——, r. of Syria (_Nahr-el-Kelb_), iii. 170.

   ——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 334.

   ——, r. of Armenia and Pontus, ii. 270, 295, 306.

   Lydia, i. 91, 96, 326; ii. 68, 102, 185, 298, 327, 333, 351, 407, 410;
     iii. 22, 60.

   Lydian temples, ii. 185.

   —— gates, ii. 386.

   Lydians, i. 41, 328, 397, 453; ii. 277, 317, 326, 329, 332, 346, 384,
     386, 396, 402, 403, 406, 407; iii. 24, 38, 63-65, 140, 141.

   Lydus, son of Atys, i. 326, 467.

   Lygæus, ii. 173.

   Lygdamis, leader of the Cimmerii, i. 96.

   Lyncēstæ, people of Macedonia, i. 495, 500, 501.

   Lyncestis, i. 500.

   Lynx, iii. 277, 278, 281, 282.

   _Lyonnaise, the_, i. 285-290.

   _Lyons._ _See_ Lugdunum.

   _Lyons, Gulf of._ _See_ Galatic Gulf.

   Lyrceium, mtn of Argolis, ii. 51, 58, 124.

   ——, vill. of Argolis, i. 410.

   Lyrnēssis, in the Troad, ii. 345.

   Lyrnēssus, t. of the Troad, ii. 343, 345, 377, 384.

   ——, t. of Pamphylia (_Ernatia_), iii. 49, 61.

   Lysias, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181.

   ——, t. of Syria, iii. 166.

   ——, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332.

   Lysimachia, city of the Thracian Chersonese (_Eksemil_), i. 202, 517.

   ——, t. and lake of Ætolia, ii. 172.

   Lysimachus, son of Agathocles, i. 464, 469, 490, 517; ii. 315, 355,
     361, 371, 377, 399, 400; iii. 11, 20, 22.

   Lysiœdi, iii. 23.

   Lysippus, sculptor, i. 424; ii. 171, 350.

   Lysis, iii. 23.

   _Lytto._ _See_ Lyctus.


   Mā, temple of Enyus, ii. 279.

   Macæ, people of Arabia Felix, iii. 186, 187.

   Macar, ii. 32, 346.

   Macaria, part of Messenia, ii. 38.

   Macaria, ftn of Attica, ii. 59.

   Macaros-polis, same as Lesbos.

   Macedonia, i. 42, 187, 194, 425, 432, 466, 481, 493, 495, 496, 499,
     500, 501, 504-516, 519; ii. 1-3, 10, 64, 92, 94, 129, 132, 140, 141,
     147-154, 157; iii. 220, 297, _et passim_.

   ——, Upper, i. 500, 506.

   ——, Lower, i. 506.

   ——, Gulfs of (_Kassandra_, _Monte-Santo_, _Contessa_), i. 140, 188.

   Macedonian kings, ii. 44, 88.

   —— empire, i. 509.

   —— mtns, i. 488, 496, 507.

   —— nations, i. 485.

   —— city, ii. 56.

   Macedonians, i. 192, 257, 439, 485, 495, 496, 498, 500, 504; ii. 4,
     55, 57, 68, 88, 105, 114, 128, 131, 132, 137, 147, 172; iii. 39,
     115, _et passim_.

   Machærus, fortress of Judæa, ii. 120; iii. 181.

   Macistia, ii. 16, 23, 24.

   Macistii, ii. 16, 17, 45.

   Macistum, Macistus, t. of Triphylia, i. 385; ii. 18, 19, 24, 155.

   Macra, r. of Etruria, i. 330.

   Macras, Macra, Syrian plain, iii. 170.

   Macri Campi, in Cisalpine Gaul, i. 322.

   Macris, same as Eubœa, ii. 151.

   Macrocephali, i. 68; ii. 258.

   Macron-Tichos, i. 518.

   Macrōnes, people of Pontus, ii. 296.

   Macronici. _See_ Helena.

   Macropogōnes, ii. 219.

   Macynia, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160, 171.

   Madys, the Scythian, i. 96, 97.

   Madytus, c. of the Thracian Chersonese, i. 518.

   Mæander, r. of Phrygia and Caria (_Bojock Meinder_), ii. 303, 333-336,
     407-409; iii. 6, 7, 21, 24, 27, 82.

   Mæandrius, ii. 311.

   Mæcēnē, distr. of Arabia, iii. 189.

   Mædi, people of Thrace, i. 485, 489, 514.

   Mædobithyni, Thracian race, i. 453.

   Mænacca, t. of Bætica, i. 235.

   Mænalus, mtn of Arcadia, ii. 76.

   ——, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.

   Mænoba, t. of Bætica, i. 215.

   Mæŏnes, Mēŏnes, or Mysi, ancient inhabitants of Lydia, ii. 298, 317,
     326, 332, 346, 396, 402, 403; iii. 64, 65.

   Mæonia, same as Mysia, ii. 332, 346, 405, 406.

   Mæōtæ, i. 195; ii. 219, 221, 224.

   Mæōtis, Palus (_Azof, Sea of_), i. 22, 81, 114, 162, 164, 172, 189,
     191, 194, 202, 203, 442, 443, 450, 471, 474, 476-480, 491;
     ii. 216-224, 239, 243, 244, 251, 270, 302.

   Magarsa, t. of Cilicia, iii. 60.

   Magi, Persian priests, i. 35, 149, 152; iii. 116, 136, 137, 140, 141,
     180.

   Magnēsia, Magnētis, distr. of Thessaly, i. 506, 510; ii. 132-135,
     139-141, 146, 148.

   ——, t. of Caria, ii. 299, 303, 335; iii. 6, 7, 21-24, 43.

   ——, t. of Lydia (_Manisa_), ii. 326, 335, 397.

   Magnesian Sea, ii. 135.

   Magnētes, of Thessaly, i. 43; ii. 131, 140, 146-148; iii. 7.

   ——, of Caria, ii. 333; iii. 22, 23.

   Magnētis, i. 507.

   Magnopolis, c. of Pontus, ii. 306.

   Magōdi, same as Lysiōdi, iii. 23.

   _Majorca and Minorca._ _See_ Gymnasiæ.

   _Makro Teichos._ _See_ Cnossus.

   Malaca, c. of Bætica (_Malaga_), i. 235, 238, 241, 245.

   Malaus, ii. 340.

   Maleæ, prom. of Laconia (_Cape-Malio_ or _St. Angelo_), i. 38, 140,
     163, 164; ii. 40, 41, 47-49, 60, 77, 195.

   Maleōs, i. 335.

   Malia, prom. of Lesbos (_Sta. Maria_), ii. 390, 391.

   Maliac Gulf (_G. of Zeitun_), i. 17, 512; ii. 4, 96, 110, 126,
     130-138.

   —— war, ii. 153.

   Malians, Malienses, i. 43; ii. 2, 5, 135, 136, 147, 151.

   Malii, people of Mesopotamia, iii. 158.

   Malli, people of India, iii. 94.

   Mallus, city of Cilicia, ii. 283; iii. 59, 60.

   Malŏthas, c. of Arabia, iii. 212.

   _Malta._ _See_ Melite.

   Malūs, in the Troad, ii. 371.

   Mamaus, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16.

   Mamertīni, in the c. of Messana, i. 404, 405.

   Mamertium, t. of the Bruttii, i. 391.

   Mana. _See_ Larisus.

   _Mandani._ _See_ Milania.

   Mandanis, iii. 113, 114, 116.

   Mandūbii, people of Gaul, i. 285.

   Manes, Phrygian name, ii. 467.

   ——, Paphlagonian name, ii. 302.

   ——, r. of Locris, _see_ Boagrius, ii. 126.

   _Mangalia._ _See_ Callatis.

   _Manijas._ _See_ Miletopolitis.

   Manius Aquillius, iii. 21.

   Mantiane, lake of Armenia, ii. 270. _See_ Matiana.

   Mantineia, c. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 75; iii. 378.

   Manto, daughter of Tiresias, ii. 148; iii. 15, 59.

   Mantua, c. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 317.

   Maracanda, ii. 254.

   Maranītæ, people of Arabia, iii. 204.

   Marathēsium, t. of Ionia (_Scala Nova_), iii. 10.

   Marathon, vill. of Attica, ii. 57, 59, 67, 86, 90.

   ——, Tetrapolis of, ii. 153.

   ——, field of Spain, i. 240.

   Marathus, t. of Phocis, ii. 122.

   ——, t. of Phœnicia, iii. 167.

   Marcellus, founder of Corduba, i. 212.

   ——, Marcus, i. 244.

   Marcellus, son of Octavia, iii. 59.

   Marcia, wife of Cato, ii. 250.

   Marcian water, i. 356.

   Marcina, c. of Campania (_Vietri_), i. 374.

   Marcomanni, people of Germany, i. 444.

   Mardi, people of Persia and Armenia, ii. 240, 264.

   Mardonius, ii. 108.

   _Mare Morto._ _See_ Acherusia.

   Mareōtis, Mareia, lake of Egypt, iii. 223, 228, 230, 236, 241, 247.

   Margala, Margalæ, t. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24.

   Margiana, distr. of Asia, i. 112, 113.

   Margiani, ii. 245, 251, 252.

   Margus, r. of Margiana, ii. 252.

   ——, r. of Illyria, i. 488.

   Mariaba, city of the Sabæans, iii. 190, 207.

   Mariandyni, people of Paphlagonia, i. 453; ii. 18, 286-288, 290, 314;
     iii. 63.

   Mariandynus, ii. 287.

   Marinum, i. 337.

   Marisus, r. of Dacia (_Maros_), i. 468.

   _Maritza._ _See_ Hebrus.

   Marius, i. 274, 354.

   Marmaridæ, people of Africa, i. 198; iii. 275, 294.

   Marmarium, t. of Eubœa, ii. 153.

   Marmōlītis, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.

   _Marmora, Sea of._ _See_ Propontis.

   Marobodus, i. 444.

   Marōnia, t. of Thrace, i. 515, 516.

   _Maros._ _See_ Marisus.

   Marrucina, i. 358, 359.

   Marrucini, people of Italy, i. 358, 359.

   Mars, i. 232, 277, 340, 357, 372; ii. 328, 362, 395, 409.

   _Marsa-al-Halal._ _See_ Naustathmus.

   _Marsalla._ _See_ Lilybæum.

   _Marseilles._ _See_ Massalia.

   _Marseillese, the._ _See_ Massilians.

   Marsi, people of Italy, i. 326, 349, 351, 353, 356, 358.

   Marsi, people of Germany, i. 443.

   Marsiaba, city of Arabia, iii. 212.

   Marsian or Marsic war, i. 353, 358, 388.

   Marsyas, ii. 186, 334, 390.

   ——, r. of Phrygia, ii. 303, 333, 334.

   Martius Campus, i. 350, 371.

   _Martos._ _See_ Tukkis, i. 213.

   Marucini. _See_ Marrucini.

   Maruvium, city of Italy, i. 359.

   Masæsylii, Masæsyli, people of Numidia, i. 198; iii. 279-282, 287,
     289, 291.

   Masanasses, king of Numidia iii. 282, 285, 286.

   Masēs, t. of Argolis, ii. 54, 58.

   Masiani, people of India, iii. 90.

   Masius, mtn of Armenia (_Kara-Dagh_), ii. 238, 261, 268; iii. 157.

   Massabatica, distr. of Media, ii. 264; iii. 154.

   Massaga, t. of India, iii. 90.

   Massagĕtæ, Scythian race, ii. 240, 245, 247, 248; iii. 75.

   Massalia, city of Gaul (_Marseilles_), i. 100, 110, 111, 114, 116,
     117, 150, 160, 161, 173, 174, 184, 202, 217, 221, 238-240, 247,
     265-285, 301, 310, 376, 452; ii. 331, 368; iii. 21, 30, 32, 279.

   ——, Gulf of, i. 271.

   Massilians, Massilienses (_the Marseillese_), i. 194, 267, 269, 270,
     271, 276, 282, 283, 504.

   Massyas, distr. of Syria, iii. 166, 170, 171.

   Mastaura (_Mastauro_), t. of Lydia, iii. 26.

   Masthles, iii. 41.

   _Mastico._ _See_ Phanæ.

   Masylies, people of Numidia, i. 198; iii. 282, 284, 285.

   Matalum, port of Gortyna, ii. 200.

   _Matapan, Cape._ _See_ Tænarum.

   Mataurus, t. of Sicily, i. 416.

   Mater Isodroma, temple of, ii. 145.

   Matiana, distr. of Media, i. 78, 112; ii. 242, 262, 264, 270.

   Matiani, Matiēnī, inhabitants of Matiana, ii. 249, 273.

   Matrīnum, port of Adria, i. 358.

   Matrīnus, r. of Picenum (_Piomba_), i. 358.

   _Matzua._ _See_ Tabaïtic mouth of the Nile.

   Mauretania. _See_ Maurusia.

   Mauri, same as Maurusii, iii. 276.

   _Maurolimne._ _See_ Molycreia.

   Maurusia (_Algiers_ and _Fez_), i. 3, 150, 151, 197, 201, 210, 215,
     226, 236, 439; iii. 275-284.

   Maurusians, i. 7, 198, 206; ii. 36; iii. 276.

   Mausōleium, of Halicarnassus, iii. 34.

   ——, (_Tomb of Augustus_), at Rome, i. 351.

   Mausōlus, king of Caria, ii. 383; iii. 34, 35.

   Maximus Æmilianus. _See_ Æmilianus.

   Mazaca (_Kaisarieh_), ii. 282, 283; iii. 44.

   Mazacēni, ii. 283.

   Mazæi, people of Pannonia, i. 483.

   Mazēnēs, king of the island Doracta, iii. 188.

   Mazūsia, prom. of the Thracian Chersonese, i. 517.

   Mecestus, r. of Phrygia (_Simau-Su_), ii. 332.

   Mecōne, same as Sicyon.

   Mecyberna, port of Olynthus, i. 511.

   Medea, i. 31, 72, 73, 321, 332, 484; ii. 266, 273.

   Mĕdeōn, t. of Phocis, ii. 106, 122.

   ——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, 122.

   Medes, i. 41, 196; ii. 125, 216, 230, 239, 249, 264-270; iii. 239.

   Mēdia, i. 72, 76, 112, 115, 123; ii. 235, 238, 240, 242, 250, 259-271,
     273; iii. 109, 124, 125, 129-134, 153, 154, 158.

   ——, Atropatian, ii. 260, 264, 267.

   ——, the Greater, ii. 260, 264, 267.

   Mediolanium (_Saintes_), i. 283.

   Mediolanum (_Milan_), i. 317.

   Mediomatrici, people of Gaul, i. 288, 289.

   Mediterranean Sea, i. 8, 56, 60, 62, 75, 78, 81, 82, 85, 87, 88, 105,
     120, 128, 173, 174, 183, 184, 189, 190, 192, 206, 210, 216, 234,
     241, 244, 245, 253, 264, 266, _et passim_.

   Medius, historian, ii. 272.

   Medma, t. of Magna Grecia, ii. 383, 384.

   Medoaci, people of Italy, i. 321.

   Medoacus, r. of Italy, i. 318.

   ——, port of Patavia, i. 318.

   Mĕdon, ii. 134.

   Medus, son of Medea, ii. 266; iii. 132.

   Medusa, ii. 62.

   Mĕdylli, people of Gaul, i. 276, 303.

   Megabari, people of Ethiopia, iii. 203, 219, 266.

   Megabates, leader of the Persians, ii. 96.

   Megabyzi, priests of the Ephesians, iii. 13.

   Megalagyrus, ii. 391.

   Megalocephali, i. 458.

   Megalopolis, city of Arcadia, ii. 37, 71, 75.

   ——, city of Pontus, ii. 306, 310.

   Megalopolītæ, iii. 145.

   Megalopolītis, distr. of Arcadia, ii. 5, 15, 72.

   ——, distr. of Pontus, ii. 306, 309.

   Megara, city of Greece, ii. 3, 48, 57, 80-84, 108, 122; iii. 30.

   ——, city of Sicily, i. 403, 404, 406, 407.

   ——, city of Syria, iii. 165.

   Megaræans, Megareans, Megarians, i. 404, 412, 490, 494; ii. 2, 4, 63,
     70, 81, 82, 84, 315.

   Megarenses, Hyblæi, ii. 73.

   Megarici, sect of philosophers, ii. 82.

   Megaris, i. 256, 506; ii. 4, 6, 62, 63, 78-81, 84, 91, 99.

   ——, mountains of, ii. 99.

   Megasthenes, of Chalcis, founder of Cumæ, i. 361.

   ——, historian, i. 107-109, 117, 120; iii. 75, 79, 80, 84, 96, 97, 101,
         103, 110, 116.

   Megēs, son of Phyleus, ii. 9, 143, 167, 170.

   Megillus, iii. 83.

   Megiste, island, iii. 47.

   _Mekran._ _See_ Gedrosia.

   Melæna, prom. of Ionia, iii. 18, 19.

   ——, prom. of Chios, iii. 18, 19.

   Melænæ, vill. of the Troad, ii. 371.

   ——, Melania, city of Cilicia (_Mandane_), ii. 371; iii. 52, 177.

   Melamphyllus, same as Samos, ii. 168; iii. 8.

   Melampus, ii. 20.

   Melanchus, tyrant of Lesbos, ii. 391. _See_ Megalagyrus.

   Melanēis, same as Erĕtria, ii. 155.

   Melania, same as Melænæ.

   Melanippe, mother of Bœotus, i. 399.

   Melanippus, ii. 344.

   Melanthus, father of Codrus, ii. 35, 81, 82.

   Melantian rocks, in the Ægean (_Stapodia_), iii. 7.

   Melas, prom. of Mysia, ii. 332.

   ——, Gulf of (_Bay of Saros_), i. 42, 140, 187, 496, 516-518.

   ——, r. of Bœotia (_Mauroneri_) ii. 101.

   ——, r. of Thrace, i. 517.

   ——, r. of Thessaly, ii. 129.

   ——, r. of Pamphylia (_Menavyat-su_), iii. 50.

   ——, r. of Cappadocia (_Karasu_), ii. 282, 283.

   Meldi, people of Gaul, i. 290.

   Meleager, son of Althæa, i. 64; ii. 179.

   ——, of Gedara, iii. 114, 175.

   Meleagrides (probably _Guinea-hens_), i. 320.

   Mĕlēs, r. near Smyrna, ii. 303; iii. 20.

   _Melfa._ _See_ Melpis.

   Mĕlia, ii. 109, 318; iii. 67.

   Melibœa, t. of Thessaly, i. 378; ii. 140, 148.

   Meligūnis, same as Lipara, i. 417.

   Mēlinus, port of the Arabian Gulf, iii. 196.

   Melitæa, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 136.

   Melitæeis, ii. 134.

   Melitē, vill. of Attica, i. 102, 103.

   ——, lake belonging to the Oeniadæ, ii. 171.

   ——, island (_Malta_), i. 421; iii. 288.

   ——, same as Samothrace, ii. 189.

   Mĕlitēnē, distr. of Cappadocia (_Malatia_), ii. 259, 276, 278, 280.

   Meliteni, ii. 268, 278.

   Melius, ii. 386.

   Mellaria, i. 210.

   Mĕlōn, leader of the Sicambri, i. 446.

   Mēlos, island (_Milo_), ii. 207, 208.

   Melpis, r. of Latium (_Melfa_), i. 352.

   Melsus, r. of Asturia, i. 250.

   Memnon, village of, in Mysia, ii. 347.

   ——, sepulchre of, ii. 347.

   ——, son of Tithonus, iii. 130, 258.

   ——, dithyramb of Simonides, iii. 130.

   ——, Rhodian, ii. 382.

   Memnŏnium, in Egypt, iii. 258, 261, 262.

   ——, of Abydos, iii. 258.

   ——, citadel of the Susi, iii. 130.

   Memphis, city of Egypt, ii. 190; iii. 241, 243-248, 251, 253, 257-259,
     263.

   Memphite nome, iii. 241.

   Mēn Ascæus, temple of, at Pisidia, ii. 307, 333.

   —— Carus, temple at Antioch, ii. 307, 336.

   —— Pharnaci, temple in Pontus, ii. 306, 307.

   Menander, comic poet, i. 455; ii. 162, 210; iii. 8, 9.

   ——, king of the Bactrians, ii. 252, 253.

   Menapii, people of Germany, i. 289, 290, 297, 298.

   Mĕnas, founder of Mesembria, i. 490.

   _Menavyat-su._ _See_ Melas.

   Mende, t. of Macedonia, i. 511.

   _Mender-Tschai._ _See_ Mæander.

   Mendes, c. of Egypt, iii. 240.

   Mendesian mouth of the Nile, iii. 239.

   —— nome, vill. of Egypt, iii. 240.

   Mendesians, iii. 257.

   Menĕbria, same as Mesēmbria.

   Menĕcles, iii. 34, 40.

   Mĕnēcrates, disciple of Xenocrates, ii. 299, 300, 326, 396.

   ——, disciple of Aristarchus, iii. 26.

   Menedēmus, an Eretrian philosopher, ii. 82, 156.

   Menelaïte nome, iii. 239.

   Menelaus, son of Atreus, i. 3, 15, 18, 47, 59-64, 67, 68, 72, 76, 225,
     333; ii. 35, 43, 47, 53, 173, 186, _passim_.

   ——, brother of Ptolemy I., iii. 238, 239.

   ——, t. in the Delta of Egypt, iii. 242.

   ——, t. and port of Cyrenæa, i. 64; iii. 238, 239, 294.

   Menestheus, i. 392; ii. 83, 398.

   ——, port of (_Puerto Santa Maria_), i. 211.

   ——, son of Spercheus, ii. 136.

   ——, oracle of, i. 211.

   Meninx, island (_Zerbi_), i. 37, 185, 237; iii. 288.

   Menippus, of Gadara, iii. 175.

   ——, of Stratonice, iii. 40.

   Mennæus, iii. 166.

   Mēnŏdōrus, iii. 24.

   Mēnŏdŏtus, ii. 401.

   Menœtius, father of Patrocles, ii. 126.

   Mĕnōn, companion of Alexander, ii. 271.

   Mentes, king of the Taphii, ii. 166, 171.

   Mēŏnes, inhabitants of Lydia. _See_ Mæones.

   Mēŏnia. _See_ Mæonia.

   Mercury, i. 158; ii. 16; iii. 263.

   _Merida._ _See_ Augusta Emerita.

   _Merim, Al._ _See_ Moro.

   Mermadalis, r. in the land of the Amazons, ii. 235.

   Meroë, sister of Cambyses, iii. 225.

   ——, island, i. 50; iii. 195, 217-220, 270.

   ——, metropolis of Ethiopia, i. 50, 98, 99, 106, 107, 110, 112, 119,
         120, 144, 171, 172, 174, 199, 200, 203; iii. 84, 217-220,
         270-272, 275.

   Meropidæ, ii. 345.

   Meropis, name of the island of Cos, i. 459.

   Mĕrops, i. 52.

   ——, of Percotè, ii. 345, 346.

   _Mersivan._ _See_ Neapolis.

   Mērus, mtn of India, iii. 76.

   _Mesarlyk-Tschai._ _See_ Cydnus.

   Mesēmbria, t. of Thrace (_Missemvria_), i. 490.

   Mesēmbriani, i. 490.

   Mĕsēne, distr. of Babylon, i. 129.

   Mesēni, Arabians, iii. 146.

   Mĕsōgis, mtn of Lydia, ii. 145, 407, 408; iii. 7, 8, 24-26.

   —— wine of, iii. 26.

   Mesola, ii. 37.

   Mesopotamia, i. 66, 122, 124, 127, 134, 137, 196, 416; ii. 260, 261,
     267, 271, 284; iii. 109, 142, 150, 154, 156, 157, 161, 166, 185.

   Messa, t. of Laconia, ii. 41.

   Messala, i. 305.

   Messapia, same as Iapygia, i. 422, 423, 430; ii. 98.

   Messapian language, i. 431.

   Messapii, i. 427, 428.

   Messapius, mtn (_Ktypa-vuna_), ii. 98.

   Messapus, ii. 98.

   Messēis, ftn of Thessaly, ii. 134.

   Messēne, c. of Messenia, i. 186, 236, 425-427; ii. 5, 8, 14-18, 22,
     24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 35, 37-40, 42, 45-47, 54, 77, 81.

   Messēne, Messana, Messenia, in Sicily (_Messina_), i. 402-404.

   Messenian Gulf (_Gulf of Coron_), ii. 6, 35, 36, 40.

   —— war, i. 385, 424-427; ii. 39.

   Messenians, i. 385, 404, 405, 425, 426; ii. 5, 7, 11, 31, 35, 36, 38,
     39, 82; iii. 2.

   ——, in Sicily, i. 376.

   Messina, Strait of, i. 37, 39, 69, 85, 86, 105, 110, 140, 158-160,
     163, 173, 179, 180, 184, 193, 256, 313-315, 360, 379, 383, 384, 386,
     401-404; ii. 60.

   Messŏa, part of Sparta, ii. 41.

   Messŏla, t. of Messenia (_Messthles_), ii. 403.

   Metabum, same as Metapontium, i. 399.

   Metabus, i. 399.

   Metagonians, i. 255, 256.

   Metagōnium, prom. of Mauritania (_Ras-el-Harsbak_), iii. 279, 282.

   Metapontium, city of Magna Græcia (_Torre di Mare_), i. 330, 379, 380,
     398, 399, 422, 423.

   Metapontus, i. 399.

   Metaurus, r. of Umbria, i. 337.

   ——, r. of the Bruttii (_Metauro_), i. 383, 384.

   _Meteline._ _See_ Lesbos.

   Metellus (Q. Metellus Pius), i. 244.

   ——, surnamed Balearicus. _See_ Balearicus.

   Methana, Methōne, t. and penins. near Trœzene, ii. 56.

   Methōnē, city of Messenia, i. 92; ii. 36, 37.

   ——, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, 509.

   ——, c. of Magnesia, ii. 140.

   ——, of Thrace, ii. 140.

   Methydrium, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.

   Mēthymna, city of Lesbos (_Molyvo_), ii. 127, 145, 390, 391, 393.

   Mēthymnæeans, ii. 351, 382.

   _Metochi d’ Hagia._ _See_ Mychus.

   Mētrodōrus, of Scepsis, ii. 235, 380; iii. 202.

   Mētrodōrus, disciple of Epicurus, ii. 350.

   Mētropolis, t. of Thessaly, ii. 141.

   ——, t. of Magna Phrygia (_Ballyk_), ii. 332; iii. 43.

   ——, t. of Lydia, iii. 1.

   Mētropolītæ, ii. 141; iii. 8.

   Mētrōum, temple of the mother of the gods, iii. 20.

   Mĕtūlum, t. of the Iapodes, i. 309, 483.

   Mēvania, city of Umbria (_Bevagna_), i. 337.

   Micipsa, son of Masinissa, iii. 282, 285, 286.

   Micythus, i. 376.

   Midaeium, c. of Phrygia Epictetus, ii. 332.

   Midas, king of Magna Phrygia, i. 96; ii. 321, 326; iii. 66.

   ——, Phrygian name, i. 467.

   Midea, t. of Bœotia, ii. 54.

   ——, t. of Argolis, ii. 54.

   Mideia, t. of Bœotia, i. 92; ii. 110.

   _Midjeh._ _See_ Salmydessus.

   _Milan._ _See_ Mediolanum.

   _Milazzo._ _See_ Mylæ.

   Milesian territory, i. 493.

   Milesians, i. 470, 476, 490, 517; ii. 287, 291, 293, 294, 347,
     349-357, 377; iii. 1, 4, 5, 37, 239.

   Milētopolis, t. of Mysia, ii. 331, 382; iii. 67.

   Milētopolītis, lake in Mysia (_Manijas_), ii. 331, 332.

   Milētus, c. of Ionia, i. 492; ii. 303, 328, 333, 383; iii. 2, 4-6.

   ——, in Crete, ii. 200, 328; iii. 4.

   Milo, i. 395.

   Miltiades, ii. 90.

   Milya, Milyas, distr. near Pisidia, ii. 324, 409, 410; iii. 48.

   Milyæ, ii. 304, 328; iii. 49, 63.

   Mimallŏnes, ii. 183.

   Mimas (_Karaburun_), iii. 18.

   Mimnermus, i. 74; iii. 2, 316.

   Minæa, distr. of Arabia Felix, iii. 191.

   Minæi, people of Arabia, iii. 190, 204.

   Mincius, r. of Gaul (_Mincio_), i. 311.

   Minerva, i. 66, 224, 235, 346; ii. 9, 14-16, 19, 27, 84, 108; iii. 33.

   ——, temple of, i. 368, 428, 433; ii. 110, 138, 142, 186, 189, 355,
         367, 368, 383, 389; iii. 153, 239, 263.

   ——, Alæan, ii. 75.

   ——, Scilluntian, ii. 16.

   ——, Alalcomenian, ii. 110.

   ——, Trojan, i. 398.

   ——, Itonian, ii. 107, 138, 142.

   ——, Nedusian, ii. 37, 210.

   ——, Polias, ii. 84, 86.

   ——, Glaucopis, ii. 366.

   _Mingrelia._ _See_ Colchis.

   _Minho_, r. _See_ Minius.

   Minius, r. (_Minho_), i. 230.

   Minōa, t. of Argolis, ii. 48.

   ——, t. of Crete (_Porto Trano_), ii. 194.

   ——, prom. of Megaris, ii. 80.

   Minōs, king of Crete, i. 76, 225, 413, 425, 430; ii. 55, 196-200, 204,
     328; iii. 40, 179.

   Minōtaur, ii. 197.

   Minteius, same as Minyeïus.

   Minthe, mtn near Pylus, ii. 17.

   Minturnæ, city of Latium, i. 347, 352, 353.

   Minyæ, in Triphylia, ii. 8, 21, 93, 111.

   Minyeians, ii. 111.

   Minyeius, Minyeïus, r. of Triphylia, ii. 10, 20, 27, 55.

   Misēnum, prom. and port of Campania (_Punta di Miseno_), i. 93, 360,
     362, 364, 368.

   Misēnus, companion of Ulysses, i. 39, 364.

   Mithracina, ii. 271.

   Mithras, god of the Persians, the Sun, iii. 136.

   Mithridates, of Pergamus, ii. 401.

   —— Ctistes, king of Pontus, ii. 314.

   —— Euergetes, king of Pontus, ii. 197, 198.

   —— Eupator, king of Pontus, i. 22, 114, 440, 471, 472, 475-479;
        ii. 198, 209, 285, 286, 290, 292, 294, 304-307, 313, 314, 356,
        357, 380, 387, 401, 405; iii. 13, 232.

   Mithridatic war, ii. 89, 305-307, 312, 356, 386; iii. 25.

   Mithridatium, citadel of the Galatæ, ii. 320.

   Mithropastes, iii. 188.

   Mitylenæans, i. 5, 16; ii. 366, 374, 376, 392.

   Mitylene, c. of the island of Lesbos, ii. 145, 220, 365, 366, 391,
     392.

   Mnasalces, ii. 108.

   Mnasyrium, iii. 33.

   Mneyis, god of the Egyptians, iii. 241, 245.

   Mnōans, ii. 287.

   Moagetes, tyrant of Cibyra, ii. 410.

   Moaphernes, ii. 228, 307.

   Moasada, fortress of Judæa, iii. 183.

   Mōchus, philosopher, iii. 173.

   _Modena._ _See_ Mutina.

   Modra, t. of Phrygia, ii. 289.

   Mœris, lake in Egypt, i. 79; iii. 223, 253, 255, 257, 258.

   Mœsi, people of Thrace, i. 453, 454, 466; ii. 287.

   Mŏlō, iii. 34, 40.

   Molochath, r. of Mauritania (_Muluwi_), iii. 279, 281.

   Molossi, Molotti, nation of Epirus, i. 427, 493, 495, 496, 499, 500,
     502, 504; ii. 131, 137, 356.

   Molycreia, t. of Ætolia (_Xerolimne_ or _Maurolimne_), ii. 128, 160,
     171, 172.

   Molycrium, Rhium, same as Antirrhium, ii. 6.

   _Molyvo._ _See_ Methymna.

   Mōmemphis, city of Egypt, iii. 241, 242.

   Mōmemphitæ, iii. 241.

   Momemphite nome, iii. 241.

   Monarites wine, ii. 278.

   _Mondego._ _See_ Mundas.

   Monētium, t. of the Iapodes, i. 309, 483.

   Monœci Portus, in Liguria (_Port Monaco_), i. 300, 301.

   Monœcus, Hercules, temple of, i. 301.

   Monommati, i. 68, 458; iii. 108.

   _Monte Nero._ _See_ Ænus.

   Moon, temple to the, ii. 234.

   Mopsium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 146, 148.

   Mopsŏpia, ancient name of Attica, ii. 87, 148.

   Mopsopus, ii. 87, 148.

   Mopsuhestia, t. of Cilicia, iii. 61.

   Mopsus, one of the Lapithæ, ii. 148.

   ——, son of Mantus, ii. 148; iii. 15, 50, 59, 60.

   _Morea, the._ _See_ Apian land.

   Mōrēna, distr. of Mysia, ii. 330.

   Morgantium, t. of Sicily, i. 386, 408.

   Morgētes, the, emigrate to Sicily, i. 385, 386, 407, 408.

   Morimēnē, distr. of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 281, 284, 321.

   Morimēni, ii. 321.

   Morini, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290, 297, 298.

   Mormolyca, i. 29.

   Moro, t. of Lusitania (_Al-Merim_), i. 228.

   Morys, ii. 317.

   Morzeus, king of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.

   Moschi, ii. 225.

   Moschic mountains, i. 96; ii. 219, 226, 260, 267, 296.

   Moschice, distr. of Colchis, ii. 228, 229.

   Mōsēs, iii. 177, 178.

   Mosynœci, people of Pontus, ii. 269, 297.

   _Mualitsch-Tschai._ _See_ Rhyndacus.

   _Mudania._ _See_ Myrleani.

   Mūgilōnes, people of Germany, i. 445.

   Mulius, ii. 10.

   _Muluwi._ _See_ Molochath.

   Mūnda, metropolis of Turdetania (_Mondo_), i. 213, 241.

   Mundas, r. of Lusitania (_Mondego_), i. 229.

   Mūnychia, port of the Athenians, ii. 85.

   Murēna, ii. 410; iii. 53.

   _Murviedro._ _See_ Saguntum.

   Mūsæus, ii. 187; iii. 180.

   Muses, the, i. 66; ii. 11, 23, 24, 183, 187.

   Mūseum of Alexandria, iii. 229.

   Mūsicanus, distr. in India, iii. 85, 86, 95, 106.

   Mūtina, t. of Italy (_Modena_), i. 305, 322, 324.

   Mycale, prom. of Ionia (_Samsun Dagh_), i. 8; ii. 376; iii. 2, 7, 10.

   Mycalessus, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 96, 99, 106.

   Mycēnæ, c. of Argolis, i. 329; ii. 48, 53, 54, 59, 60.

   Mycēnæa, ii. 53.

   Mycenæans, ii. 53, 55.

   Mychus (_Bay of Metochi d’ Hagia_), ii. 104, 122.

   Mycŏnus, island (_Myconi_), ii. 208, 211.

   Mygdones, i. 453, 506, 514; ii. 316, 330.

   ——, people of Mesopotamia, ii. 268; iii. 142, 157.

   Mygdonia, Mygdonis, part of Mysia, i. 515; ii. 299, 332, 348.

   ——, part of Mesopotamia, iii. 157.

   Mylæ, t. of Sicily (_Milazzo_), i. 401, 412.

   Mylasa, c. of Caria, iii. 37-40.

   Mylasians, iii. 38.

   Myndia, iii. 37.

   Myndii, Myndians, ii. 383; iii. 36.

   Myndus, c. of Caria, ii. 383; iii. 37.

   Mynēs, king of Lyrnessus, ii. 343, 384, 394.

   Myonnesus, island, ii. 138, 393.

   ——, t. of Ionia, iii. 16, 17.

   Myra, t. of Lycia, iii. 45, 47.

   Myrcinus, t. of Macedonia, i. 512.

   Myriandrus, t. of Syria, iii. 61.

   Myrina, Amazon, ii. 298, 328, 399.

   ——, c. of Æolis, ii. 237, 298, 397, 399.

   Myrinæans, ii. 397.

   Myrleani (_Mudania_), ii. 330.

   Myrleātis, ii. 299.

   Myrleia, c. of Bithynia (_Mudania_), ii. 299, 315, 318.

   Myrmēcium, c. of the Tauri (_Yeni-kaleh_), i. 477; ii. 222.

   Myrmidons, ii. 50, 57, 132, 136.

   ——, tragedy of Æschylus, ii. 390.

   Myrōn, statuary, iii. 7.

   Myrrinūs, vill. of Attica, ii. 90.

   Myrsilus, historian, i. 93; ii. 382.

   ——, tyrant of Mitylene, ii. 391.

   Myrsinus, t. of Elis, ii. 12, 13.

   Myrtōan Sea, i. 187, 496, 518, 519; ii. 6, 49, 57.

   Myrtūntium, t. of Elis, ii. 13.

   ——, estuary near Leucada, ii. 171.

   Myscellus, Achæan, founder of Crotona, i. 394, 406, 407; ii. 73.

   Mysi, or Mysians, i. 9, 195, 453, 454, 457, 460, 461, 466, 468, 488;
     ii. 277, 287, 302, 316-319, 389, 402, 407; iii. 27, 38, 63, 67,
     _passim_.

   ——, around Olympus, ii. 319, 326, 330.

   ——, tragedy of Sophocles, ii. 32.

   Mysia (_Karasi_), i. 17, 202; ii. 32, 287, 298, 299, 314, 316, 317,
     326-332, 386, 401, 403, 404, 407; iii. 67.

   —— Abrettēnē, _see_ Abrettēnē, ii. 330, 332.

   —— Olympii, ii. 326.

   Mysian Bosporus, ii. 318.

   —— Olympus, iii. 30.

   Mysius, r. of Mysia, ii. 390.

   Mysos, the beech tree, ii. 326, 327.

   _Mytilene._ _See_ Lesbos.

   Myūs, c. of Caria (_Derekoi_), ii. 335; iii. 2, 6.

   —— Hormus, port of Egypt on the Arabian Gulf (_Suffange-el-Bahri_),
        i. 178; iii. 193, 211, 213, 260, 261.


   Nabatæa, distr. of Arabia, iii. 204.

   Nabatæans, iii. 177, 189, 204, 209-211, 214.

   Nabiani, people inhabiting the Caucasus, ii. 239.

   Nabocodrŏsor, iii. 75.

   Nabrissa, city of Bætica. _See_ Nebrissa.

   Nabūrianus, mathematician, iii. 146.

   Nacoleia, t. of Phrygia Epictetus, ii. 332.

   Nagidus, t. of Cilicia, iii. 52, 69.

   _Nahr-Damur._ _See_ Tamyras.

   _Nahr-el-Asy._ _See_ Orontes.

   _Nahr-el-Kelb._ _See_ Lycus.

   _Nahr-Ibrahim._ _See_ Adonis.

   Naïs, ii. 375.

   Namnetæ, people of Aquitania (capital Nantes), i. 283.

   _Nanfio._ _See_ Anaphe.

   Nanno, poem of Mimnermus, iii. 2, 3.

   Nantuātæ, an Alpine race, i. 303.

   Napata, city of Ethiopia, iii. 268.

   Napē, t. near Methymna, ii. 127.

   Napitinus, Gulf of, i. 379.

   _Naples._ _See_ Neapolis.

   ——, Bay of. _See_ Crater.

   Nar, r. of Umbria (_Nera_), i. 337, 349.

   Narbōn, the Narbonnaise (_Narbonne_), c. of Gaul, i. 159, 160, 184,
     265-286, 302, 310.

   Narcissus, ii. 96.

   Narnia, r. of Dalmatia (_Narni_), i. 337.

   Narōn, c. of Umbria (_Narenta_), i. 484, 487.

   Narthacium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 136.

   Narthēcis, island, iii. 7.

   Narycus, t. of the Opuntian Locrians, ii. 126.

   Nasamōnes, race of Africa, i. 198; iii. 291, 294.

   Nasica, Cornelius Scipio, i. 484.

   Natison, r. near Aquileia, i. 319.

   Nauclus, son of Codrus, iii. 2.

   Naucratis, c. of Egypt, iii. 239, 242, 250, 252.

   Naulochus, t. of Mœsia, i. 490; ii. 145.

   Naupactus, c. of the Ozolean Locrians (_Lepanto_), ii. 127, 159.

   Nauplia, c. of Argolis, ii. 48, 54, 55.

   Nauplius, son of Neptune, ii. 48.

   Nauportus, c. of the Taurisci. _See_ Pamportus, i. 482.

   Naustathmus, ii. 360, 363, 364, 385.

   ——, port of the Cyrenaic, iii. 294.

   Naxos, island (_Naxia_), ii. 208, 210.

   ——, c. of Sicily, i. 403-406, 412, 414.

   Nea, vill. (_see_ Enea and Ænea), in the district of Troy, ii. 371.

   Neæethus, r. of Magna Grecia (_Nieto_), i. 394.

   Neandria, t. of the Troad, ii. 373, 375.

   Neandris, ii. 189.

   Neanthēs, of Cyzicus, i. 71.

   Neapolis, c. of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 479.

   ——, c. of Macedonia (_Kavala_), i. 512, 513.

   ——, c. of the Samians on the coast of Ephesus, iii. 10.

   ——, c. of Pontus (_Mersivan_), ii. 311.

   ——, c. of the Carthaginians, iii. 288, 289.

   ——, c. of Campania (_Naples_), i. 34, 202, 365, 366, 369, 377.

   ——, same as Leptis, iii. 289.

   Neapolitans, i. 39, 368, 369.

   Neapolitis, same as the Halys, ii. 311.

   Nearchus, i. 109, 119; iii. 74, 80-85, 88, 100, 101, 114, 115, 120,
     122, 127-129, 132, 187, 188.

   Nebrissa (_Lebrixa_), i. 211, 215.

   Nebrodes, mtns, i. 415.

   Necropolis, suburb of Alexandria, iii. 230, 231, 236.

   Necyomanteis, iii. 180.

   Nĕda, r. of Peloponnesus, ii. 17, 22, 24, 26, 37.

   Nĕdōn, r. of Laconia, ii. 28, 37.

   ——, vill. of Messenia, razed by Teleclus, ii. 37.

   Nedūsian Minerva, temple of, ii. 37.

   Negra, iii. 218.

   Negrana, c. of Arabia, iii. 212.

   Negrani, iii. 212.

   _Negropont._ _See_ Eubœa.

   Neis, ii. 394.

   Nēïum, in the isl. of Ithaca, ii. 164.

   Neleïdæ, i. 398; ii. 35.

   Nēleus, father of Nestor, ii. 7, 17, 26, 27.

   ——, founder of Miletus, iii. 2, 4.

   ——, son of Coriscus, ii. 378, 379.

   ——, r. of Eubœa, ii. 157.

   Nēlia, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139.

   Nemausus, city of Gaul (_Nîmes_), i. 267, 268, 278, 279, 302.

   Nĕmĕa, r. near Corinth, ii. 66.

   ——, t. of Argolis, ii. 60.

   Nemean games, ii. 60.

   —— lion, ii. 60.

   Nemesis, statue of, at Rhamnusia, ii. 87, 90.

   —— Adrastea, temple of, ii. 348.

   Nemōssus, head of the Arverni, i. 284.

   Nĕmus, temple of Diana near Aricia, i. 355.

   Nemydia, cognomen of Diana, ii. 14.

   _Neochori._ _See_ Argos, Amphilochian.

   Neoclēs, father of Epicurus, iii. 9.

   Neocōmītæ, i. 317.

   Neōn, t. in the vicinity of Parnassus, ii. 143.

   Neon-teichos, ii. 396.

   Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, ii. 119, 120, 140, 343.

   ——, general of Mithridates, i. 472.

   ——, writer of glosses, ii. 350.

   ——, tower of, i. 469.

   Nepheris, fortress of the Carthaginians, iii. 287.

   Nĕpita, t. of Etruria (_Nepi_), i. 335.

   Neptune, i. 32, 53, 69, 342; ii. 6, 17, 48, 70, 72, 211, 335, 367.

   ——, temples of, ii. 16, 40, 55, 69, 71, 109, 154, 213; iii. 7, 230.

   ——, Asphalian, i. 90.

   Neptune, Heliconian, ii. 69; iii. 10.

   ——, Isthmian, ii. 49, 63.

   ——, Samian, ii. 16-19.

   ——, Ægæan, temple of, ii. 98.

   _Nera._ _See_ Nar.

   Nēritum, mtn of Ithaca, ii. 162-164.

   Nēritus, t. of Leucas, i. 92; ii. 161.

   Nĕrium, Cape, prom. of Spain (_Cape Finisterre_), i. 206, 230.

   _Nero, Monte._ _See_ Ænus.

   Nēroassus, fortress of Cappadocia, ii. 281.

   Nervii, people of Germany, i. 289.

   Nēsæa, distr. of Hyrcania, ii. 243, 246, 271.

   Nēsæan horses, ii. 265.

   Nessōn, Thessalian, ii. 149.

   ——, harbour of, in Thessaly, ii. 131, 144, 146, 149.

   Nessus, centaur, ii. 127, 160.

   Nestor, son of Neleus, i. 14, 61, 330, 398; ii. 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16,
     18-20, 22-28, 30, 31, 36, 47, 132, 155, 210; iii. 2.

   ——, Stoic, iii. 58.

   ——, Academician, the preceptor of Marcellus, iii. 59.

   Nestus, r. of Thrace (_Karasu_ or _Mesta_), i. 496, 512, 513, 515.

   Netium (_Noja_), i. 431.

   Nibarus, mtn of Armenia, ii. 268, 273.

   Nicæa, c. of Bithynia (_Isnik_), i. 202; ii. 316, 318, 347.

   ——, c. of the Massilians (_Nice_), i. 269, 275.

   ——, c. of Locris, ii. 127, 129.

   ——, c. of India, iii. 92.

   ——, daughter of Antipater, the wife of Lysimachus, ii. 318.

   Nicander, iii. 273.

   _Nicaria._ _See_ Icaria.

   Nicator. _See_ Seleucus, ii. 264.

   Nicatorium, mtn of Assyria, iii. 144.

   _Nice._ _See_ Nicæa.

   Nicēphorium, grove of Pergamus, ii. 400.

   Nicēphorium, t. of the Mygdoni of Mesopotamia (_Haran_), iii. 157.

   Nicias, tyrant of Cos, iii. 36.

   Nicium, c. of Egypt, iii. 236.

   Nicolaus, of Damascus, iii. 118.

   Nicomēdēs, king of Bithynia, ii. 313; iii. 21.

   ——, son of Prusias, ii. 401.

   Nicomēdia, c. of Bithynia (_Ismid_ or _Iskimid_), ii. 171, 289, 315,
     347.

   Niconia, t. of the Tyregetæ, i. 469.

   Nicopolis, c. of Epirus, i. 497-499; ii. 159.

   ——, c. of Lesser Armenia, ii. 305.

   ——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 61.

   ——, c. of Egypt, iii. 230, 231, 237, 238.

   Nicostrata, mother of Evander, i. 343.

   Nicyrus, iii. 36.

   _Nieto._ _See_ Neæthus.

   Nigrētes, Nigrītæ, people of Africa, i. 198; iii. 277, 280.

   Nile, r. of Egypt, i. 36, 45-47, 50, 56-58, 60, 82, 101, 102, 129,
     130, 137, 148, 149, 163, 171, 172, 178, 179, 191, 196, 410, 416,
     458; ii. 219, 220, 255; iii. 73, 74, 82, 84, 86-88, 96, 173, 174,
     177, 189, 194, 195, 210, 211, 217-226, 228, 241-248, 257, 263, 266,
     270-276, _et passim_.

   ——, cataracts of, i. 60.

   ——, mouths, i. 190.

   ——, Canopic mouth, i. 101, 129, 130, 137; iii. 237, 238.

   ——, Pelusiac mouth, iii. 53, 177, 220, 223, 226, 239, 240.

   _Nile, the Blue._ _See_ Astapus.

   Nilus, tract of Ethiopia, iii. 200.

   _Nîmes._ _See_ Nemausus.

   Nineveh, iii. 142, 143.

   Ninias, t. of Dalmatia, i. 484.

   Ninus, king of Assyria, i. 129; iii. 143.

   ——, c. of Assyria, i. 129; ii. 274; iii. 140, 143.

   Niobē, wife of Amphion, ii. 36, 326, 337.

   Niobē, tragedy of Æsehylus, ii. 337.

   Niphates, mtn of Armenia (_Nepat-Learn_), ii. 261, 263, 268, 270.

   Nīsa, t. of Bœotia, ii. 98, 99.

   ——, of Megaris, ii. 99.

   Nisæa, port of Megara, ii. 4, 55, 80-82, 84.

   Nisibis, c. of the Mygdonians of Mesopotamia, ii. 261, 268; iii. 142,
     157.

   _Nisibin_ or _Netzid_. _See_ Nisibis.

   Nisus, father of Scylla, ii. 55, 81.

   Nisyrus, island, ii. 212-214; iii. 34.

   ——, t. of the island of, ii. 213.

   ——, t. of Carpathus, ii. 214.

   Nitiobriges, people of Aquitania (_Agénois_), i. 284.

   Nitriote nome, iii. 242.

   Noarus, r. of Illyria, i. 483, 488.

   _Nocera._ _See_ Terina.

   —— _Camellaria_, and _Nocera de’ Pagani_. _See_ Nuceria.

   Noiga, t. of the Asturi, i. 250.

   _Noja._ _See_ Netium.

   Nola, i. 367, 370.

   Nomades, Numidæ (Wanderers), i. 51, 198, 441, 461; ii. 231, 233, 240,
     299, 302, 352; iii. 166, 194, 197, 198, 205, 212.

   Nomentana Via, i. 339, 354.

   Nomentum, i. 338.

   Nora, ii. 281.

   Noreia, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Friesach in Steiermark_), i. 319.

   Norici, Taurisci Norici, i. 306, 307, 310, 448.

   Northern Ocean, i. 451, 452.

   Nŏtium, coast and promontory of Chios, iii. 18.

   Notu-ceras, promontory of Ethiopia, iii. 200.

   Nŏtus, wind, i. 45, 97.

   Novum-comum, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 317.

   Nūbæ, people inhabiting the Nile, iii. 219, 266.

   Nūcĕria, c. of Umbria (_Nocera Camellaria_), i. 337.

   ——, c. of Campania (_Nocera de’ Pagani_), i. 367, 370, 374.

   Numa Pompilius, i. 338, 339.

   Numantia, c. of Spain, i. 229, 243, 244, 439.

   Numantians, the, i. 243.

   Numitor, king of Alba-longa, i. 340.

   Nycteus, father of Antiopa, ii. 97.

   ——, cave, iii. 164.

   Nymphæum, c. of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 476.

   ——, prom. of Mt Athos (_Cape St. George_), i. 512.

   ——, rock near Apollonia, i. 486.

   Ny̆sa, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 99.

   Nysa or Nysaïs, distr. of Lydia, ii. 345, 408.

   ——, c. of Caria, iii. 24-27, 43.

   ——, c. and mtn of India, iii. 76.

   ——, mtn of Thrace, iii. 76.

   Nysæi or Nysæans, people of India, iii. 76, 90.

   Nysaeis, in Caria, ii. 335.

   Nysaïs, distr. of Lydia. _See_ Nysa.


   Obelisks, iii. 245, 262.

   Obidiacēni, a Mæotic race, ii. 223.

   Obodas, king of the Nabatæi, iii. 211-213.

   Obulco (_Porcuna_), i. 213, 241.

   Ocalea, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, 107.

   Ocean, i. 4-6, 33, 38, 39, 53, 68, 73, 74, 111, 143, _et passim_.

   ——, Northern, i. 115.

   ——, Western (_the Atlantic_), i. 87.

   ——, Eastern (_Bay of Bengal_), i. 179.

   Ocelum, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Uxeau_ or _Ucello_), i. 268, 323.

   Ochē, name of Eubœa, ii. 152.

   Ochē, mtn of Eubœa (_Mt St. Elias_), ii. 152, 153.

   Ochus, r. of Bactriana and Hyrcania, ii. 243-245, 251, 254, 255.

   Ochyrōma, citadel of Ialysus, iii. 33.

   Ocra, mtn, i. 300, 308, 309, 314, 482.

   Ocricli, t. of Umbria (_Otricoli_), i. 336, 337.

   Octavia, sister of Augustus, iii. 59.

   Ocypodæ, iii. 108.

   Odeium, theatre of Pericles at Athens, ii. 87.

   _Oderzo._ _See_ Opitergium.

   Odēssus, t. of Mœsia (_Varna_), i. 490, 516; ii. 145.

   Odius, leader of the Halizoni, ii. 297-299.

   Odomantes, people of Macedonia, i. 514.

   Odomantis, district of Armenia, ii. 269.

   Odrysæ, people of Thrace, i. 5, 16.

   Odryssēs, r. of Mysia, ii. 299.

   Odysseia. _See_ Ulyssea.

   Odysseus. _See_ Ulysses.

   Œantheia, t. of the Ozolian Locrians, ii. 128.

   Œaso, i. 242.

   Œchalia, c. of Eubœa, ii. 156.

   ——, c. of Ætolia, ii. 156.

   ——, c. of Arcadia, afterwards Andania, ii. 10, 11, 23, 24, 37, 156.

   ——, two cities of Thessaly, ii. 142, 156.

   ——, the taking of, poem of Homer, iii. 9.

   Œdanēs, r. of India, iii. 118.

   Œdipus, ii. 64.

   Œneiadæ, city of Thessaly, ii. 137.

   Œneus, father of Deianira, i. 64; ii. 170, 174, 175.

   Œniadæ, c. of Ætolia, ii. 137, 159, 169, 171.

   ——, lake of the, in Ætolia, ii. 171.

   Œnoa, fortress of the Corinthians, ii. 63, 105.

   Œnoanda, c. of Lycia (_Urludscha_), ii. 410.

   Œnoë, t. of Attica, ii. 57, 67.

   ——, t. of Elis, ii. 9.

   ——, t. in the isl. of Icaria, iii. 10.

   Œnomaus, king of Elis, ii. 31.

   Œnōnē, wife of Paris, ii. 360.

   Œnōnē, ancient name of Ægina, ii. 57.

   ——, two demi of Attica, ii. 57.

   Œnoparas, r. of Syria (_Afreen_), iii. 164.

   Œnops, ii. 375.

   Œnōtri, Œnotrians, Œnotrides, ancient inhabitants of Lucania, i. 376,
     377, 379, 380, 386, 399.

   Œnōtria, i. 313, 379, 400.

   Œnōtrian kings, i. 383.

   Œnōtrides, islands, i. 376, 387.

   Œta, mtn, i. 505; ii. 4, 114-116, 128-132, 135, 147, 158, 160.

   Œtæa, distr. of Thessaly, ii. 123, 132, 136, 160.

   Œtæan hellebore, ii. 116.

   Œtæi, people of Greece, ii. 114, 158, 386.

   Œtylus, t. of Laconia, ii. 35, 36.

   Œum, castle of, i. 95.

   _Ofanto._ _See_ Aufidus.

   Ogyges, ii. 68.

   Ogygia, ancient name of Bœotia, i. 38; ii. 101.

   Ogyium, mtn, i. 459.

   Ogyris, isl. of the Red Sea, iii. 187, 188.

   Oïsci. _See_ Vivisci.

   Olane, citadel of Armenia, ii. 270.

   Olba, t. of Cilicia, iii. 55.

   Olbia, city of the Massilians (_Eoube_), i. 269, 275.

   ——, c. of Pamphylia (_Tschariklar_), iii. 48, 49.

   ——, c. situated on the Borysthenes, i. 470.

   Oleastrum, t. of Spain, i. 239.

   Olĕnian rock, mtn of Elis, ii. 12-14, 27, 74.

   Olenii, ii. 71.

   Olĕnus (_Olĕnē?_), c. of Achaia, ii. 69, 71-74, 160.

   ——, c. of Ætolia, ii. 72, 160, 172.

   Olgassys, mtn of Paphlagonia, ii. 313, 314.

   Oliarus, one of the Cyclades (_Antiparos_), ii. 208.

   Oligasys, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302.

   Olizōn, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139, 140.

   Olmeius, r. of Bœotia, ii. 101, 108.

   Olmiæ, prom. of the Bay of Corinth, ii. 63, 105.

   Oloossōn, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143, 145.

   Olophyxis, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513.

   Olūris, Olūra, t. of Messenia, ii. 24.

   Olympēne, distr. of Mysia, ii. 332.

   Olympēni, ii. 319.

   Olympia, i. 409; ii. 5, 8, 14-16, 28, 30-33, 45, 61, 76, 176.

   Olympic Games, i. 391, 395, 498; ii. 29-31, 34, 365; iii. 32.

   Olympium, temple of Jupiter at Athens, ii. 87, 97.

   Olympus, inventor of the flute, ii. 186, 334.

   ——, c. of Lycia (_Tschiraly_), iii. 45, 48.

   ——, mtn of Lycia, i. 40, 41.

   ——, mtn and fortress of Cilicia, iii. 54.

   ——, of Crete, ii. 186.

   ——, mtn of Cyprus, iii. 69.

   ——, mtn of Pisatis, ii. 32.

   ——, mtn of Thessaly, i. 94, 311, 506-508; ii. 29, 32, 131, 145-147,
         186, 272.

   ——, mtn of Macedonia, ii. 378.

   ——, mtn of Mysia (_Keschisch-Dagh_), ii. 186, 316, 317, 319, 327,
         329, 330.

   Olynthus, c. of Macedonia, i. 182, 506, 511; ii. 103, 154.

   Olysipo, c. of Lusitania, i. 228.

   Olyssa, t. of Crete, ii. 200.

   Omanus, god of the Persians, ii. 246; iii. 137.

   Ombrica (_Ombria_), i. 324, 325, 336-338, 349.

   Ombrici, Ombri, people of Italy (_Umbrians_), i. 319, 322, 323, 325,
     326, 337, 338, 357, 372; ii. 58, 246; iii. 137.

   Omphale, wife of Hercules, i. 326.

   ——, tragedy of Ion, i. 94.

   Omphaliōn, ii. 39.

   Onchēsmus, port of Epirus (_Santi Quaranta_), i. 497.

   Onchēstus, t. of Bœotia, ii. 106, 107, 109.

   Oneia, mtns in Megaris, ii. 62, 82.

   Onēsicritus, i. 109; ii. 253; iii. 80-87, 93, 95, 100, 102, 106,
     112-114, 133.

   Onesii, hot-springs of the, in Aquitania, i. 284.

   Onŏba, t. of Bætica (_Gibraleon_), i. 215, 255.

   Onomarchus, leader of the Phocæans, ii. 119.

   Onugnathus, peninsula of Laconia, ii. 41.

   Ophelas (_Apellas?_), voyage of, iii. 276.

   Ophienses, people of Ætolia, ii. 160, 179.

   Ophiōdēs, isl. in the Arabian Gulf (_Zemorget_), iii. 193.

   Ophiogeneis, ii. 348.

   Ophiūssa, same as the isl. of Rhodes, iii. 31.

   ——, t. of the Tyregetæ, i. 469.

   ——, isl. near Spain, i. 251.

   Ophlimus, mtn of Pontus, ii. 306.

   Ophrynium, t. of the Troad, ii. 357.

   Opici, people of Campania, i. 360, 372; iii. 32.

   Opis, c. of Assyria, i. 124; ii. 271; iii. 146, 147.

   Opistholepria, part of Ephesus, iii. 3.

   Opitergium, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Oderzo_), i. 319.

   Opoeis, same as Opus, ii. 125.

   Opsicella (Ocella?), t. of Cantabria, i. 236.

   Opuntii. _See_ Locri in Elis.

   Opuntian Gulf, ii. 114, 125, 126.

   Opūs, c. of the Locrians, i. 95; ii. 125, 126.

   _Orange._ _See_ Arausio.

   Orbēlus, mtn of Macedonia (_Egri-soudagh_), i. 505.

   Orbis, r. of Gaul (_the Orbe_), i. 272.

   Orcaorci, ii. 320, 321, 332.

   Orchēni, sect of the Chaldæan astronomers, iii. 146.

   Orchistēnē, distr. of Armenia, ii. 268.

   Orchomĕnia, ii. 93, 101.

   Orchomĕnii, ii. 93, 111-113.

   Orchomenus, c. of Bœotia (_Scripa_), ii. 10, 101, 107, 111-113, 124.

   ——, Minyeian, ii. 20, 55, 111.

   ——, c. of Arcadia, ii. 10, 39, 75.

   ——, c. of Eubœa, ii. 113.

   Oreitæ, ii. 152; iii. 120, 124.

   Orestæ, people of Epirus, i. 499; ii. 137.

   ——, in Macedonia, i. 505, 508.

   Orestes, i. 499; ii. 68, 93, 279, 281, 339.

   ——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 60.

   Orestia, part of Macedonia, i. 514.

   Orestias, distr. of Epirus, i. 499, 500.

   Orestis, distr. of Macedonia, i. 505.

   Oretani, people of Spain, i. 209, 212, 228, 234, 235, 243, 245.

   Orētania, i. 210, 228, 243.

   _Oreto._ _See_ Oria.

   Oreus, c. of Eubœa (_Orio_), i. 94; ii. 152, 153.

   Oreus-Histiæa, ii. 152.

   Orgās, r. of Phrygia, ii. 333.

   Oria, c. of Spain (_Oreto_), i. 229.

   ——, vill. of Eubœa, ii. 152.

   Orīcum, t. of Illyria, i. 486.

   Oriōn, ii. 97, 152.

   ——, constellation, i. 5.

   Orithyia, i. 452.

   _Orleans._ _See_ Genabum.

   Ormenium, Orminium, t. of Thessaly, ii. 134, 139, 142, 143, 146.

   Ormenus, Ormenides, ii. 142, 143.

   Orminium. _See_ Ormĕnium.

   Ornĕæ, t. near Corinth, ii. 58, 59, 66, 347.

   ——, vill. of Argolis, ii. 58, 59.

   Ornĕates, Priapus, ii. 66.

   Ornithōpŏlis, in Phœnicia, iii. 173.

   Oroatis, r. of Persia (the _Tab_), iii. 129, 132.

   Orobiæ, t. of Eubœa, ii. 98, 152.

   Orōdes, king of the Parthians, iii. 97.

   Orontēs, r. of Syria (_El-Asy_), i. 416; iii. 53, 61, 162-165, 170,
     177.

   ——, king of Armenia, ii. 273.

   Orōpia, ii. 79.

   Orōpii, ii. 90.

   Orōpus, c. of Bœotia, i. 102, 103; ii. 79, 90, 92, 96.

   Orospeda, mtns of Spain (_Sierra de Toledo_), i. 241, 243, 245.

   Orpheus, Thracian, i. 508, 513; ii. 187; iii. 180.

   Orphic ceremonies, ii. 187.

   —— arts, ii. 192.

   Orthagoras, iii. 187.

   Orthagŏria, c. of Thrace, i. 516.

   Orthanēs, god of the Athenians, ii. 348.

   Orthē, citadel of Thessaly, ii. 143, 144.

   Orthopolis, t. of Macedonia, i. 514.

   Orthōsia, c. of Syria (_Ortosa_), iii. 53, 167, 169, 171, 177.

   ——, c. of Caria, iii. 26.

   Ortilochus, father of Diocles, ii. 46.

   Ortōn, port of the Frentani (_Ortona-à-Mare_), i. 359, 360.

   _Ortona._ _See_ Orthosia.

   Ortōnium, i. 359.

   Ortospana, c. of the Paropamisadæ (_Candahar_), ii. 249; iii. 124.

   Ortygia, nurse of Latona, iii. 11.

   ——, grove near Ephesus, iii. 11.

   ——, same as Delos, ii. 210, 211.

   ——, isl. and part of the city of Syracuse (_Island of St. Marcian_),
         i. 35, 92, 408, 409.

   Osca, c. of Spain (_Huesca_), i. 242.

   Osci, people of Campania, i. 346, 352, 360, 367.

   _Osimo._ _See_ Auxumon.

   Osiris, iii. 242, 243, 247, 253, 259.

   Osismii, people of Gaul, i. 291.

   Ossa, mtn of Thessaly, i. 40, 94, 96, 311, 507; ii. 130, 131, 139,
     146-148, 272.

   Ossa, mtn of Pisatis, ii. 32.

   Ossŏnŏba, c. of Spain, i. 215.

   Ostia, c. of Latium, i. 218, 325, 329, 334, 335, 339, 344, 345, 348.

   Ostimii (_al._ Ostiæi, Ostidamnii, Timii), people of Gaul, i. 99, 101,
     291.

   _Osuna._ _See_ Usor.

   Othia, ii. 12.

   Othryadas, a Lacedæmonian, ii. 58.

   Othryoneus, ii. 367.

   Othrys, mtn of Thessaly (_Mt Gura_), ii. 32, 134, 135, 138.

   _Otranto._ _See_ Hydrus.

   Otreus, ii. 318.

   _Otricoli._ _See_ Ocricli.

   Otrœa, t. of Bithynia, ii. 318.

   Otus, Cyllenian, ii. 9, 167.

   Oxeiæ islands, ii. 169, 170.

   Oxus, r. of Bactriana (_Gihon_), i. 113; ii. 240, 243, 251-255.

   Oxyartes, ii. 254.

   Oxyathrēs, brother of Darius Codomannus, ii. 291.

   Oxybii, or Oxybian Ligurians, i. 276, 301.

   Oxybius, port in Liguria, i. 276.

   Oxylus, king of the Ætolians, ii. 3, 30, 33, 77, 176.

   Oxynia, t. of Thessaly, i. 501.

   Oxyrynchus, city of Egypt (_Bekneseh_), iii. 257.

   Ozolæ. _See_ Locri.


   Paches, Athenian commander, ii. 366.

   Pachynus, prom. of Sicily (_Cape Passaro_), i. 160, 186, 187, 400-403,
     411, 421; ii. 41.

   Pacorus, leader of the Parthians, iii. 159, 163.

   Pactōlus, r. of Lydia, ii. 303, 353, 403.

   Pactya, c. of the Thracian Chersonese, i. 517, 518.

   Pactyas, mtn, iii. 7, 21.

   _Padua._ _See_ Patavium.

   Padus. _See_ _Po_.

   Pæŏnia, i. 488, 489, 504, 505, 509, 512-514; ii. 131.

   ——, mtns, i. 43, 481, 496.

   ——, nations, i. 485.

   Pæŏnians, Pæones, people of Macedonia, i. 9, 489, 495, 496, 506, 508,
     514, 515; ii. 383, 394.

   Pæsēni, ii. 349.

   Pæstum, Gulf of, i. 373.

   Pæstus, c. of Lucania, i. 373.

   Pæsus, t. of the Troad, ii. 349; iii. 5.

   ——, r. of the Troad (_Beiram-dere_), ii. 349.

   Pagæ, Pēgæ, t. of Megaris (_Libadostani_), ii. 4, 63, 79, 82, 92,
     105.

   Pagasæ, t. of Magnesia, ii. 139.

   Pagasitic Gulf, in Thessaly, ii. 140, 142.

   Pagræ, fortress of Syria (_Baghrus_), iii. 163.

   _Paitschin._ _See_ Pedasus.

   Palacium, t. of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 479.

   Palacus, i. 471, 475.

   Palæa, t. of Mysia, ii. 387.

   ——, t. of Cyprus, iii. 69.

   Palæbyblus, c. of Phœnicia, iii. 170.

   Palæopolis, the old city where the Emporitæ dwelt, i. 240.

   Palæpaphus, c. of Cyprus, iii. 70.

   Palæpharsalus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 133; iii. 233.

   Palæphatus, ii. 299, 300.

   Palærus, t. of Acarnania (_Porto Fico_), ii. 159, 171.

   Palæscēpsis, t. of the Troad, ii. 371, 372, 375, 376.

   Palæ-tyrus, t. of Phœnicia, iii. 173.

   Palamēdēs, son of Nauplius, ii. 48.

   ——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 186.

   Palatium, hill of Rome, i. 348, 351.

   Paleis, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166, 167.

   _Palencia._ _See_ Pallantia.

   _Paleocastro._ _See_ Eretria and Thronium.

   _Palermo._ _See_ Panormus.

   Palestine, iii. 204.

   _Palestrina._ _See_ Præneste.

   Palibothra, Palimbothra, c. of India (_Patelputer_), i. 109; iii. 79,
     80, 90, 97, 118.

   Palibothrus, iii. 97.

   Palici, in Sicily, i. 416.

   Palinthus, sepulchre of Danaus, ii. 52.

   Palinurus, prom. of Lucania, i. 376.

   Paliurus, t. of the Cyrenaic, iii. 294.

   Pallantia, t. of Spain (_Palencia_), i. 243.

   Pallas, son of Pandion, ii. 81.

   Pallēne, peninsula of Macedonia, i. 510-512; ii. 154, 299.

   Palma, t. of the Baleares, i. 251.

   Palmys, son of Hippotion, ii. 317.

   Paltus, t. of Syria, iii. 130, 167.

   Palus. _See_ Mæotis.

   Pambœotia, festival, ii. 108.

   _Pambuk-Kalessi._ _See_ Hierapolis.

   Pamisus, r. of Messenia (_Pirnatza_), i. 403; ii. 28, 37, 38, 45.

   ——, r. of Laconia, ii. 38.

   ——, r. of Elis, ii. 7, 16, 38.

   _Pampeluna._ _See_ Pompelon.

   Pamphylia (_Tekiah_), i. 190, 194; ii. 244, 325, 385; iii. 27, 28,
     44-55, 59, 61, 68, 73.

   ——, cities, ii. 324.

   ——, Sea of, i. 183, 189; ii. 325; iii. 68.

   ——, Gulf of, i. 189.

   Pamphylians, i. 196; ii. 304; iii. 63.

   Pamportus, t. of the Taurisci. _See_ Nauportus, i. 309.

   Pan, worshipped by the Mendesii, iii. 240.

   ——, in Meroë, iii. 271.

   Panænus, ii. 29.

   Panætius, Stoic, iii. 33, 60.

   _Panaro._ _See_ Scultanna.

   Panchæa, i. 58, 459.

   Pandarus, king of the Lycians, ii. 317, 344, 346.

   ——, worshipped at Pinara, iii. 46, 47.

   Pandataria, island (_Vento Tiene_), i. 185, 347.

   Pandiōn, father of Lycus, ii. 328.

   ——, king of India, iii. 49, 74.

   Pandionidæ, ii. 81.

   Pandōra, mother of Deucalion, ii. 149.

   ——, name of Southern Thessaly, ii. 149.

   Pandosia, c. of the Bruttii, i. 382.

   ——, c. of Thesprotia, i. 382, 497.

   Paneium, temple of Pan, at Anaphlystus, ii. 89.

   ——, at Alexandria, iii. 231.

   Pangæum, mtn of Macedonia, i. 512, 515; iii. 66.

   Pangani, ii. 239.

   Panhellenes, ii. 50.

   Panionian festival, sacrifices, ii. 69.

   Paniōnium (_Ischanli_), iii. 10.

   Panna, t. of Samnium, i. 371.

   Pannōnia, i. 483; iii. 10.

   Pannonii, Pannonians, i. 309, 448, 482, 483, 487.

   Panŏpeis, ii. 121, 123.

   Panŏpeus, t. of Phocis, ii. 113, 122, 123, 124.

   Panōpolis, t. of Egypt, iii. 258.

   Panormus, t. of Sicily (_Palermo_), i. 401, 411.

   ——, t. of Epirus (_Panormo_), i. 486, 497.

   ——, port of Ephesus, iii. 11.

   Pans, with wedge-shaped heads, i. 109; ii. 186.

   _Pantalaria._ _See_ Corcyra, Cossura.

   Pantaleōn, son of Omphalion, ii. 39.

   _Pantano, l’ Osteria del._ _See_ Gabii.

   Panticapæans, ii. 222.

   Panticapæum (_Kertsch_), i. 472, 476-478.

   ——, temple of Æsculapius at, i. 114; ii. 221.

   Panxani. _See_ Pangani.

   _Papa, Cape._ _See_ Araxus.

   Paphlagonia, i. 96, 202, 475; ii. 18, 285, 287, 289, 290, 297, 301,
     314, 319, 329.

   Paphlagonian names, ii. 301.

   Paphlagonians, i. 195, 279, 291, 440, 458, 476; ii. 18, 302, 304,
     310, 313, 314.

   Paphos, c. of Cyprus, i. 65; ii. 13; iii. 68, 70, 71.

   ——, Palæpaphos, iii. 70, 71.

   Parachelōïtæ, in Thessaly, ii. 136.

   ——, in Ætolia, ii. 136.

   Parachelōïtis, distr. of Ætolia, ii. 169.

   Parachoathras, mtn of Media, ii. 245, 249, 260, 267.

   Paradeisus, t. of Cœle-Syria, iii. 170.

   Parætacæ, Parætacēni, a people of Media, ii. 261, 264; iii. 135, 142,
     146, 153.

   Parætacēne, i. 123; iii. 124, 132, 152.

   Parætŏnium, port of Marmara (_El-Baretun_), i. 64; iii. 235, 253, 259,
     294.

   Paralus, founder of Clazomenæ, iii. 3.

   Parapomisus, ii. 245, 248; iii. 78, 89, 124-126.

   Parapotamia, Parapotamii, t. of Phocis, ii. 101, 113, 123, 124.

   ——, distr. of Syria, iii. 166.

   Parasōpia, distr. of Bœotia, ii. 97, 103.

   Parasōpias, in Thessaly, ii. 136.

   Parasōpii, in Bœotia, ii. 103.

   ——, vill. of Thessaly, ii. 66.

   Parati, people of Sardinia, i. 334.

   Pareisactus, iii. 230.

   Parianē, ii. 350.

   Pariani, ii. 347, 348, 374.

   Parii, Parians, inhabitants of the island of Paros, i. 484; ii. 210,
     349.

   Paris (Alexander), i. 65, 274; ii. 360, 376.

   Parisa, ii. 235.

   Parisades, i. 476, 477.

   Parisii, people of Gaul, i. 290.

   Parisus, r. of Pannonia, i. 482.

   Parium, c. of Mysia (_Kamaraes_ or _Kemer_), i. 518; ii. 340,
     348-351.

   ——, in the Propontis, ii. 210.

   Parma, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 322.

   Parmĕnides, i. 143, 375.

   Parmenio, ii. 272; iii. 125.

   Parmesans, i. 323.

   Parmesus, ii. 108.

   Parnassii, ii. 121.

   Parnassus, i. 40, 311, 505; ii. 2, 62, 67, 93, 105, 114-116, 121,
     123, 125, 129, 143, 158, 195.

   Parnēs, mtn of Attica, ii. 90.

   Parni, Aparni, ii. 241, 244, 248.

   Paropamisadæ, iii. 77, 82, 124-128.

   Paropamisus. _See_ Parapomisus.

   Parōræa, distr. of Epirus, i. 498.

   Parōræi, people of Epirus, i. 499.

   Parorbelia, distr. of Macedonia, i. 514.

   Parōreatæ, people of Triphylia, ii. 19.

   Parōreius. _See_ Phrygia, iii. 43.

   Paros (_Bara_), i. 332, 484; ii. 66, 208, 210, 211.

   Parrhasii, people of Arcadia, ii. 7, 75, 241.

   Parrhasius, the painter, iii. 14.

   Parsii, same as Parrhasii.

   Parthenia, same as Samos, ii. 168; iii. 8.

   Partheniæ, i. 424-426.

   Parthenias, r. of Elis, ii. 32.

   Parthĕnium, mtn of Arcadia (_Partheni_), ii. 76.

   ——, prom. of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 474.

   ——, vill. of the Cimmerian Bosporus, i. 474, 477; ii. 222.

   ——, temple of Diana in the Tauric Chersonese, i. 474.

   Parthenius, r. of Samos, _see_ Imbrasus, ii. 168.

   ——, r. ii. 287-290, 351.

   ——, mtn, ii. 58, 76.

   Parthenōn, temple of Minerva, in the Acropolis, ii. 84, 86.

   Parthenopē, t. of Campania, iii. 32.

   ——, one of the Sirens, i. 34, 39.

   ——, tomb of, i. 365.

   Parthi, Parthyæi, Parthians, i. 18, 22, 195, 196, 441; ii. 216,
     241-245, 250-255, 263-277; iii. 97, 124-126, 131, 135, 136, 152,
     159, _et passim_.

   Parthi, Histories of, i. 178; iii. 73.

   Parthia, ii. 246, 250, 251, 262, 264-274; iii. 124, 128, 131, 141,
     152, 153.

   Parthian autocrat, Labienus, iii. 39.

   Parthiene, ii. 250.

   Parthini, people of Illyria, i. 500.

   Parus, one of the Liburnian islands. _See_ Pharus.

   Paryadrēs, mtn of Armenia (_Kerasun_), ii. 226, 260, 267, 269, 296,
     305, 306.

   Parysatis, iii. 216.

   Pasargadæ, c. of Persia (_Fesa_), iii. 116, 131-134.

   Pasiani, Scythian race, ii. 245.

   Pasitigris, iii. 131, 132.

   _Passaro, Cape._ _See_ Pachynus.

   Patala, c. of India, iii. 95.

   Patalēne, distr. of India (_Tatta_ or _Sindi_), ii. 253; iii. 80, 83,
     84, 94, 95, 120.

   Patara, c. of Lycia (_Patera_), iii. 45, 47.

   Patarus, iii. 47.

   Patavini, city of the (_Padua_), i. 253.

   Patavium (_Padua_), i. 317, 324.

   Pateischŏreis, Persian nation, iii. 130.

   _Patelputer._ _See_ Palibothra.

   Patmos, one of the Sporades (_Patmo_), ii. 212.

   Patræ, Patreis, c. of Achæa (_Patras_), ii. 6, 8, 69, 71, 73, 74.

   Patræus, t. of the Bosporus (_Ada_), ii. 222.

   Patrŏclēs, i. 106-108, 115; ii. 242, 243, 255; iii. 79.

   Patrŏclus, leader of the Myrmidons, ii. 26, 89, 126, 136, 343, 395.

   ——, rampart of, isl., ii. 89.

   Paulus Æmilius, i. 495, 516.

   Paunitis, ii. 269.

   _Pavia._ _See_ Ticinum.

   Pax Augusta, t. of Spain (_Beja_), i. 227.

   Pēdalium, prom. of Cyprus, iii. 69.

   Pēdasa, t. of Caria, ii. 383.

   Pēdaseis, ii. 383.

   Pēdasis, ii. 383.

   Pēdasum, t. of Caria, ii. 383.

   Pēdasus, t. of the Leleges, near Troy (_Paitschin_), i. 494; ii. 343,
     375, 383, 395.

   ——, t. of Messenia, ii. 35-37.

   Pegasitic Gulf (_G. of Volo_), i. 512.

   Pēgasus, ii. 62.

   Peiræeus, port of Athens. _See_ Piræus.

   Peirēne, ftn of the Acrocorinthi, ii. 62.

   Peirithous, son of Ixion, ii. 137, 144.

   Peirōssus, c. of Mysia, ii. 349.

   Peirus, r. of Achæa, ii. 14, 71.

   Peirustæ, nation of Pannonia, i. 483.

   Peisander, poet, iii. 34, 78.

   ——, son of Bellerophon, ii. 328, 409.

   Peisistratus, son of Nestor. _See_ Pisistratus.

   Pēïum, citadel of the Tolistobogii, ii. 320.

   _Pelagio._ _See_ Lechæum.

   Pelagonia, part of Macedonia, i. 500, 508, 514, 516.

   ——, Tripolitis, i. 500, 501.

   Pelagonians, Pelagones, people of Macedonia, i. 501, 514; ii. 137.

   ——, same as Titans, i. 514.

   Pĕlana, t. of Messenia, ii. 37.

   Pelargi, same as Pelasgi, ii. 87.

   Pelasgi, Pelasgians, i. 328, 329, 335, 367, 493, 501, 502, 513;
     ii. 18, 87, 93, 105, 148, 288, 395-397; iii. 40.

   Pelasgia, Peloponnesus, i. 329.

   Pelasgian Zeus, i. 328, 329.

   —— Argos, i. 329; ii. 49, 133.

   —— temple, ii. 93.

   —— plain, ii. 139, 148.

   Pelasgicum, part of Athens, ii. 49.

   Pelasgiōtæ, same as Hellenes, i. 329; ii. 52, 132, 146.

   Pelasgiōtis, part of Thessaly, i. 503, 504; ii. 132, 139.

   Pelasgus, i. 329.

   Pēlĕgōn, father of Asteropæus, i. 514.

   Pĕlethrŏnium, i. 460.

   Pēleus, ii. 115, 126, 135-137, 142.

   Pĕlias, i. 72, 74; ii. 139.

   ——, daughters of, i. 72.

   Pĕligni, people of Italy, i. 326, 344, 353, 358-360.

   Pelinæum, mtn, iii. 19.

   Pelinnæum, t. of Histiæotis, ii. 141, 142.

   Pēliŏn, mtn of Thessaly, i. 33, 40, 311, 460, 507; ii. 130, 131, 139,
     142, 144-148, 157.

   Pella, c. of Macedonia, i. 495, 508, 509, 516.

   ——, c. of Syria, iii. 165.

   Pellæan country (_Pelagonia_), i. 508.

   Pellana, t. of Laconia, ii. 72.

   Pellene, t. of Achæa, ii. 59, 71, 72.

   ——, vill. of Achæa, ii. 72.

   Pēlōdes, lake, in Epirus, i. 497.

   Pelopidæ, ii. 51, 53, 59; iii. 66.

   Peloponnesian war, ii. 366; iii. 32.

   Peloponnesians, ii. 50, 175.

   Peloponnesus, i. 40, 105, 140, 158, 159, 186, 201, 256, 257, 329, 330,
     385, 400, 404, 408, 478, 492, 496; ii. 2-11, 33, 34, 38, 43, 49-51,
     57, 59, 60, 68, 71, 77, 78, 80, 128, 140, 142, _et passim_.

   ——, figure of, i. 128; ii. 5.

   ——, islands, ii. 192.

   ——, promontories of, i. 139; iii. 291.

   Pelops, i. 492; ii. 31, 36, 39, 43, 56, 326.

   Pelorias, i. 400-404.

   Pelorus, monument of, i. 17.

   ——, tower, i. 256.

   ——, Cape (_Cape Faro in Sicily_), i. 34, 384.

   Peltæ, t. of Phrygia, ii. 332.

   Peltinian plain, in Phrygia, ii. 407.

   Pelūsiac mouth of the Nile. _See_ Nile.

   Pelūsium, c. of Egypt (_Tineh_), i. 55, 62, 79, 91, 129, 134, 135;
     ii. 217; iii. 171, 175-177, 222, 226, 233, 241, 243.

   Pēneius, r. of Peloponnesus, ii. 8, 9, 11.

   ——, r. of Thessaly (_Salampria_), i. 9, 328, 501, 505-507, 513;
         ii. 4, 67, 77, 131, 134, 142, 144-148, 272, 397.

   Penelope, Penelopeia, i. 328; ii. 50, 162, 173, 300.

   Penestæ, slaves of the Thessalians, ii. 287.

   _Peniscola._ _See_ Cherronesus.

   Penta Dactylon. _See_ Taÿgetum.

   Pentelic marble, ii. 90.

   Pentheus, ii. 103.

   Penthilus, son of Orestes, ii. 94, 154, 339, 340.

   _Pentima._ _See_ Corfinium.

   Peparēthus, isl. (_Scopelo_), i. 187; ii. 140.

   Perasia. _See_ Diana.

   Percope, ii. 351.

   Percōtē, t. of Mysia (_Bergas_), ii. 344-346, 350, 351.

   Perdiccas, ii. 394; iii. 229.

   Pergamēnē, ii. 326, 332.

   Pergamum, c. of Mysia, ii. 387, 389-402; iii. 66.

   Pergamus, ii. 379; iii. 46.

   Pergē, t. of Pamphylia (_Murtana_), iii. 49.

   Periander, tyrant of Corinth, ii. 366.

   Perias, t. of Eubœa, ii. 152.

   Pericles, ii. 84, 152; iii. 9.

   _Périgord_, inhabitants of. _See_ Petrocorii.

   Perinthus, c. of Thrace, i. 515, 518.

   Perisadyes, people of Epirus, i. 500.

   Periscii, i. 146.

   Permēssus, r. of Bœotia, ii. 101, 108.

   Perperēna, t. of Mysia, ii. 376.

   Perperna, iii. 21.

   Perrhæbi, people of Thessaly, i. 96, 410, 507; ii. 10, 137, 141,
     143-147, 153, 158.

   Perrhæbia, ii. 144-147.

   Perrhæbic cities, ii. 145.

   Perrhæbis, ii. 144.

   Persepolis, i. 122, 123; iii. 130-133.

   Perseus, i. 202, 439, 495, 509, 516; ii. 41, 59, 108, 211, 315, 400;
     iii. 208, 239, 259.

   Persia, i. 117, 122-126, 131, 132, 201; ii. 240, 254-274, 293;
     iii. 34, 109, 113, 120, 124, 125, 128-142, 188, 208, 213.

   Persian Sea, ii. 219, 257; iii. 146, 149, 186, 188.

   —— gates, iii. 132.

   —— palaces, i. 331.

   —— war, i. 518; ii. 7, 57.

   —— Gulf, i. 68, 121, 123, 124, 129, 183, 196, 261; ii. 266, 267, 270,
        271; iii. 88, 120, 125-129, 132, 146, 185, 186, 188, 215.

   Persians, i. 17, 41, 96, 196, 463; ii. 84, 87, 94, 96, 108, 130, 155,
     181; iii. 35.

   Perūsia, c. of Etruria (_Perugia_), i. 335, 336.

   _Pescara._ _See_ Aternum.

   Pessinuntis, cognomen of Rhea, ii. 184.

   —— (_Possene_), ii. 184.

   Pessinūs, c. of Phrygia (_Bala Hissar_), ii. 320, 332.

   _Pesti._ _See_ Posidonia.

   Petalia, isl., ii. 151.

   Peteon, vill. of Bœotia, ii. 106.

   Peteus, ii. 83.

   Petilia, t. of the Lucani, i. 378.

   Petnēlissus, t. of Pisidia (_Kislid-scha-koi_), iii. 49.

   Pĕtra Nabatæōn, c. of Arabia, iii. 189, 204, 209, 211.
     _See_ Tilphossium.

   Pĕtrēius, legate of Pompey, i. 242.

   Pĕtrocorii, people of Aquitania (_inhabitants of Périgord_), i. 284.

   Petronius, prefect of Egypt, iii. 222, 267-269.

   Peucē, isl. of the Danube (_Piczina_), i. 463, 464, 470.

   Peucĕtii, people of Italy, i. 315, 422, 423, 428, 431, 432, 436.

   Peucini, people of the Bastarni, i. 469, 470.

   Peucolaïtis, c. of India, iii. 90.

   Phabda, t. of Pontus, ii. 296.

   Phabra, isl. near Attica, ii. 89.

   Phabrateria, t. of Latium. _See_ Fabrateria.

   Phaccūssa, c. of Egypt, iii. 245.

   Phæaces, Phæeces, Phæacians, i. 39; ii. 122, 190.

   Phædimus, i. 65.

   Phædon, ii. 82.

   Phædrus, leader of the Athenians, ii. 153.

   ——, dialogue of Plato, i. 452; ii. 91.

   Phæstus, c. of Crete (_Hodyitra_), ii. 196, _n._, 200.

   Phaetōn, son of the Sun, i. 320.

   ——, tragedy of Euripides, i. 52.

   Phagres, t. of Macedonia, i. 512.

   Phagroriopolis, c. of Egypt, iii. 245.

   Phagroriopolite nome, iii. 245.

   Phalacrum, prom. of Corcyra, i. 497.

   Phalanna, t. of Thessaly, ii. 144.

   Phalannæi, ii. 144.

   Phalanthus, i. 424, 425, 430.

   Phalara, t. of Thessaly (_Stillida_), i. 94; ii. 137, 138.

   Phalasarna, t. of Crete, ii. 193, 200.

   Phalces, ii. 77.

   Phalēreis, demus of Attica, ii. 89.

   Phalericum, ii. 91.

   Phalerii, people of Etruria, i. 335.

   Phalērus, iii. 70.

   Phalisci, people and city of Etruria, i. 335.

   Phaliscum, c. of Etruria, i. 335.

   Phanæ, port of the island of Chios (_Porto Mustico_), iii. 18.

   Phanagŏria, Phanagoreia, Phanagoreium, c. of the Bosporani, i. 472,
     477; ii. 223.

   Phanarœa, distr. of Pontus, i. 113; ii. 295, 305, 309, 311.

   Phanias, ii. 210, 392.

   Phanŏteis, ii. 101.

   Phanŏteus, c. of Phocis, ii. 122, 123.

   Phaon, ii. 162.

   Phara, c. of Achæa, ii. 71, 74.

   ——, c. of Messenia, _see_ Phēræ, ii. 74.

   ——, t. of the Carthaginians, iii. 285.

   Pharæ, village near Tanagra, ii. 99.

   ——, c. of Thessaly. _See_ Pheræ.

   Pharātæ, in Messenia, ii. 74.

   Pharbetite nome, iii. 240.

   Pharcadōn, c. of Thessaly, ii. 142.

   Phareis, Pharieis (Pharæeis?), in Achæa, ii. 73.

   Pharenses, inhabitants of Phara, ii. 74.

   Pharis, c. of Laconia, ii. 40.

   Pharmacussæ, islands near Salamis, ii. 85.

   Pharnaces, king of the Bosporani, ii. 224, 239, 292, 294, 306, 311,
     401.

   Pharnacia, c. of Pontus, i. 190, 491; ii. 294, 296, 297, 304, 305;
     iii. 61.

   Pharos, isl. of Egypt, i. 46, 47, 58, 59, 88, 91, 211; iii. 226, 227,
     238, 240.

   ——, tower or lighthouse on the island, ii. 280; ii. 230.

   ——, one of the Liburnian islands (_Lesina_), i. 186, 484.

   Pharsalia, ii. 132; iii. 233.

   Pharsalii, ii. 134, 135.

   Pharsalus, mtn, ii. 32.

   ——, c. of Thessaly, anciently Palæpharsalus, now Satalda, ii. 133-136;
         iii. 233.

   ——, New, on the Enipeus, ii. 133-136, 155.

   Pharusii, people of Libya, i. 198; iii. 277, 280.

   Pharygæ, c. of Locris, ii. 127.

   ——, c. of Argolis, ii. 127.

   Pharygæa, Juno, ii. 127.

   Pharygium, prom. of Phocis, ii. 122.

   Pharziris, same as Parysatis, iii. 216.

   Phasēlis, t. of Lycia (_Tirikowa_), iii. 48, 49, 55.

   Phāsis, c. of Colchis, i. 440; ii. 225, 227, 230.

   ——, r. of Colchis (_Rion_), i. 71, 72, 82, 138, 457; ii. 225, 227,
         230, 270, 296.

   Phatnitic mouth of the Nile, iii. 239, 240.

   Phauēne ( ? Phasiane), distr. of Armenia, ii. 268.

   Phaunītis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 269.

   Phayllus, ii. 119.

   Phazēmon, c. of Pontus, ii. 311.

   Phazēmonitæ, ii. 311.

   Phazēmonitis, ii. 310, 311.

   Phea, Pheæ, Pheia, c. of Pisatis, ii. 16, 22, 25, 26.

   ——, prom. of Pisatis, ii. 15.

   Pheidippus, iii. 31.

   Pheidōn, ii. 34, 58.

   Phellōn, r. of Triphylia, ii. 16.

   Phellos, stronghold of Lycia, iii. 47.

   Phēmŏnoē, ii. 117.

   Phĕnĕus, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75, 76.

   Phēræ, Phēra, c. of Messenia. _See_ Phara, ii. 35-37, 46, 74.

   Phĕræ, c. of Thessaly (_Velestina_), ii. 139, 148, 235, 272.

   Phēræa (Heræa ?), c. of Arcadia, ii. 32, 42.

   Phĕræi, ii. 143.

   Phĕrĕcydes, Syrian, i. 28, 254; ii. 167, 190, 211; iii. 2, 15.

   ——, Athenian, ii. 211.

   Phēsti or Festi, t. of Latium, i. 341.

   Phidēnæ or Fidenæ, t. of Latium, i. 335, 341.

   Phidias, of Athens, ii. 29, 53, 86, 87.

   Phigalia, t. of Arcadia, ii. 22.

   Philadelpheia, t. of Lydia. (_Ala Schehr_), ii. 335, 406.

   Philadelphia, t. of Judæa, iii. 177, 181.

   Philadelphus. _See_ Ptolemy.

   Philæ, isl. and c. of Upper Egypt, i. 64; iii. 243, 265, 267.

   Philæni, altars of the, i. 256, 257; iii. 290, 291.

   Philalēthēs, ii. 336.

   Philēmōn, comic poet, iii. 55.

   Philĕtærus, ii. 198, 307.

   ——, founder of the Attali, ii. 289, 399, 400.

   ——, son of Attalus, ii. 400.

   Philētes, poet, ii. 42; iii. 36.

   Philip, son of Amyntas, i. 463, 492, 508, 509, 512, 513; ii. 38, 39,
     56, 64, 111; iii. 165, _et passim_.

   ——, city of, i. 512.

   Philip, father of Perseus, i. 439; ii. 38, 146, 315.

   ——, tyrant of the Areitæ, ii. 152.

   ——, Pseudo, ii. 401.

   ——, isl. of, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 199.

   Philipopolis, c. of Macedonia, i. 514.

   Philippi, c. of Macedonia, i. 515.

   ——, battle of, iii. 58.

   Philippus, historian, iii. 41.

   Philisteides, tyrant of Eubœa, ii. 152.

   Philo, historian, i. 119.

   ——, architect, ii. 85.

   Philochorus, i. 502; ii. 39, 81, 88, 97.

   Philoctētēs, i. 378, 411; ii. 134, 140, 148.

   Philodēmus, of Gadara, Epicurean, iii. 175.

   Philŏgĕnes, founder of Phocæa, iii. 3.

   Philomela, sister of Procne, ii. 122.

   Philomēlium, t. of Phrygia (_Ak-Schehr_), ii. 333; iii. 43.

   Philōn, in Egypt, iii. 245.

   Philonomus, ii. 43.

   Philopœmen, ii. 71.

   Philōtas, founder of Priene, iii. 2, 7.

   ——, son of Parmenio, iii. 60, 125.

   Philōtĕra, c. of Egypt (_Kosseir_), iii. 193.

   ——, sister of Ptolemy II., iii. 193.

   Phineus, i. 465.

   Phinŏpolis, t. of Thrace, i. 490.

   Phirmum, or Firmum Picenum, t. of Picenus, i. 357.

   Phlegra, i. 364, 511.

   ——, ancient name of Pallene, i. 510, 511.

   Phlegræan plain, i. 361.

   Phlegyæ, people of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 147.

   Phlegyas, brother of Ixion, ii. 147.

   Phliasia, ii. 66.

   Phligadia, mtn, i. 308.

   Phliūs, c. of Argolis, ii. 60, 66, 71.

   Phōcæ, island of, iii. 204.

   Phōcæa, c. of Ionia (_Karadscha-Fokia_), i. 376, 493; ii. 339, 368,
     403; iii. 2, 3, 21.

   Phōcæi, Phocæans, Phocæïs, Phocæenses, and Phocenses, i. 235, 268,
     280, 375, 397; ii. 2, 101.

   Phocian mtns, ii. 101.

   —— towns, ii. 101.

   Phocis, i. 95; ii. 4, 6, 62, 78, 93, 99, 104, 106, 113-124, 350.

   Phōcōn-nesoi or Seals’ Island, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 199, 204.

   Phocylides, ii. 212.

   Phœbia, same as Rhegium, i. 387.

   Phœbus. _See_ Apollo, i. 452.

   Phœnice, c. of Epirus, i. 497.

   Phœnicia, Phœnīce, i. 8, 15, 41, 59-61, 63-65, 68, 90, 91, 189, 235,
     256; iii. 50, 52, 56, 67, 140, 148, 160, 167, 171-173, 177.

   Phœnician expenditure, i. 258.

   Phœnicians, i. 3, 4, 65, 66, 68, 76, 224-226, 252, 259, 262, 334, 493;
     ii. 93, 304; iii. 289.

   ——, islands of the, i. 194.

   Phœnicis, c. of Bœotia, same as Mĕdĕōn, ii. 106, 107.

   Phœnicium, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 106.

   Phœnicodes, i. 421.

   Phœnicon, iii. 209.

   Phœnicus, mtn of Lycia (_Ianartasch_), iii. 48.

   ——, c. and port of Marmara, iii. 235.

   Phœnicussa, one of the Lipari Islands, i. 420.

   Phœnix, king of the Dolopes, ii. 132, 133, 142, 143.

   ——, mtn of Caria, iii. 28, 29.

   ——, fortress of Caria, iii. 29.

   ——, t. of Crete (_Castel Franco_), ii. 194.

   ——, r. of Phthiotis, ii. 129.

   Pholegandrus, one of the Cyclades (_Policandro_), ii. 207, 209.

   Phŏloe, mtn of Arcadia (_Mauro vuni_), ii. 7, 9, 33, 76, 347.

   Phorcys, iii. 66.

   Phōrōn, port of Attica, ii. 85.

   Phorōneus, ii. 188.

   Phorōnis, ii. 188.

   Phosphorus, temple of, i. 211.

   Phraates, i. 441; iii. 97, 159, 160.

   Phranicatēs, iii. 164.

   Phrentani, i. 432.

   Phricius, mtn of Locris, ii. 340, 396.

   Phricōnis, Cume, ii. 340.

   ——, Larisa, ii. 397.

   Phrixa, t. of Triphylia, ii. 15.

   Phrixeium, temple of Phrixus, i. 72.

   Phrixus, i. 72, 228, 229; ii. 291.

   Phryges, Briges, or Brygi, _see_ Phrygians, ii. 298.

   Phrygia, i. 96, 195, 279, 410, 492; ii. 180, 185, 188, 191, 276, 283,
     284, 289, 307, 314, 326-337, 345, 351, 407, 409; iii. 43, 60, 66,
     188.

   ——, the Greater, ii. 319-321, 326,332.

   ——, the Less, ii. 315, 326.

   ——, Lower, i. 78.

   —— Epictetus, i. 195; ii. 289, 314, 315, 320, 326, 332.

   ——, the goddess, ii. 184.

   Phrygian hare, i. 58.

   Phrygians, i. 41, 452, 510, 514; ii. 180, 184-188, 191, 277, 290, 298,
     301, 304, 316-334; iii. 63, 66, 67.

   Phrygius, r. of Lydia and Ionia, ii. 403.

   Phrynæ, people of India, ii. 253.

   Phrynichus, tragic poet, iii. 5.

   Phryno, ii. 365, 366.

   Phtheirophagi, ii. 219, 225.

   Phtheiron, mtn, iii. 6.

   Phthia, part of Thessaly, ii. 67, 132-137, 142, 143.

   Phthii, ii. 134.

   Phthiōtæ, ii. 43, 68, 131, 136, 137.

   Phthiotides Thēbæ, ii. 133-138.

   Phthiōtis, part of Thessaly, ii. 128, 132-139.

   ——, Achæan, i. 71.

   Phycūs, prom. of Cyrenæa (_Ras-al-Razat_), ii. 41; iii. 292.

   Phycūs, t. of Cyrenæa, iii. 292.

   Phylacē, c. of Phthiotis, ii. 135, 138.

   Phylarchi, i. 196.

   Phyleides, vill. of Attica, ii. 87.

   ——, ii. 167.

   Phyleus, ii. 170.

   Phyllus, c. of Thessaly, ii. 138.

   Phȳsæ, ii. 406.

   Physcon. _See_ Ptolemy.

   Physcus, c. of Caria (_Castro Marmora_), iii. 29, 38, 43, 62.

   _Piacenza._ _See_ Placentia.

   Piasus, ii. 397.

   Picentes, people bordering on Campania, i. 374.

   Picentia, i. 374.

   Picentine boundary, i. 359.

   Picentini, i. 339, 357, 373.

   Picenum, i. 338, 357, 358, 360.

   Pictæ, i. 351, 352.

   Pictones (capital Poictiers), i. 283, 284.

   Pieres, Pieriōtæ, people of Macedonia, i. 506; ii. 105, 147.

   Piĕria, Pieris, distr. of Macedonia, i. 41, 506-509, 514; ii. 105.

   ——, mtn in Thrace, ii. 187.

   ——, distr. of Syria, iii. 61, 161.

   ——, mtn of Syria, iii. 164.

   Pillars of Hercules (_Gibraltar and Ceuta_), i. 8, 32, 38, 50, 61, 75,
     76, 78, 81, 82, 87, 88, 91, 101, 105, 109, 110, 120, 123, 128, 130,
     131, 135, 136, 140, 153, 158-164, 173, 179, 180, 183-185, 190-192,
     194, 197, 198, 205, 206, 210, 215, 216, 218, 219, 224, 228, 234,
     237, 239, 241, 253, 255, 256, 258; iii. 240, 275, 276, 286.

   Pimōlisa, t. of Pontus, ii. 313.

   Pimolisēne, Pimolītis, distr. of Pontus, ii. 302, 312, 313.

   Pimpla, Pimpleia, t. of Macedonia, i. 508; ii. 105, 187.

   Pinaca, t. of Mesopotamia, iii. 157.

   Pinara, t. of Lycia (_Minara_), iii. 40, 45.

   Pinarus, r. of Cilicia, iii. 60.

   Pindar, poet, i. 232, 256, 369, 405, 409, 493, 502, 519; ii. 97, 107,
     109, 118, 132, 184, 290, 404; iii. 16, 19, 33, 108, 240.

   Pindus, mtn of Thessaly, i. 410, 501, 505, 507; ii. 128-135, 137,
     141-147, 158.

   ——, t. of Locris, ii. 128, 137.

   ——, r. of Locris, ii. 128.

   _Pineta di Castel Volturno._ _See_ Gallinarian wood.

   _Piomba._ _See_ Matrinus.

   Pionia, t. of the Leleges in Mysia, ii. 381.

   _Pira._ _See_ Pyrrha.

   Piræeus, same as Amisus, ii. 294.

   Piræus, i. 91; ii. 79, 85, 87, 89, 91; iii. 32.

   Pirithous, i. 76, 507.

   Pisa, tract of country, ii. 32.

   ——, c. of Elis, ii. 31, 32.

   ——, ftn, ii. 31, 32.

   ——, c. of Etruria, i. 315, 323, 329, 330, 334.

   Pisātæ, in Elis, i. 330; ii. 9, 15, 28, 30, 31, 33, 39.

   ——, in Etruria, i. 331, 334.

   Pisātis, distr. of Elis, i. 330; ii. 8, 11, 13-16, 28, 30-34, 45, 53,
     56, 59.

   ——, territory of Pisa, i. 315, 330.

   Pisidia, land of Asia, i. 32, 54; ii. 307, 322-326, 332, 383, 409;
     iii. 48, 54, 63.

   ——, mtns, iii. 47, 48.

   ——, cities, ii. 324-326.

   ——, Taurus, i. 195; ii. 319.

   Pisidians, i. 195; ii. 216, 304, 322-324, 407, 409.

   Pisilis, t. of Caria, iii. 28.

   Pisistratus, son of Nestor, ii. 25, 46.

   ——, tyrant of Athens, ii. 83, 88.

   Piso, Cnæus, præfect of Libya, i. 197.

   ——, Carbo, i. 319.

   ——, Ahenobarbus, i. 277.

   ——, son of Pompey, i. 213.

   Pissūri, ii. 245.

   Pitanæi, ii. 383.

   Pitanātæ, in Samnium, i. 372.

   Pitane, t. of Mysia (_Tschandarlik_), ii. 339, 376, 387, 389, 398.

   Pithecūssa, Pithecūssæ, isl. (_Ischia_), i. 84, 89, 93, 185, 368,
     369, 386, 387, 404.

   Pithecussæans, i. 365.

   Pitnisus, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 321.

   Pittacus, ii. 366, 391, 392.

   Pittheus, son of Pelops, ii. 56.

   Pitya, Pityeia, t. of Mysia, ii. 317, 346, 349, 371.

   Pityassus, t. of Pisidia, ii. 324.

   Pityocamptēs, ii. 80.

   Pityūs, vill. of the Troad, ii. 349.

   ——, the Great, part of the coast of Colchis, ii. 225, 226.

   Pityūssa, ancient name of Lampsacus, Salamis, and Chios, q. v. ii. 83.

   Pityūssæ, islands, i. 251.

   Pixōdarus, king of Caria, iii. 35.

   Placentia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 322-325.

   —— (_Piacenza_), i. 322, 323, 325.

   Placus, mtn, ii. 343, 386.

   Planasia (_Isle St. Honorat_), i. 185, 239, 276.

   Planctæ, or Wandering Rocks, i. 32, 224, 256.

   Platææ, c. of Bœotia, ii. 66, 94, 100, 104, 107, 108, 111.

   ——, vill. of Sicyon, ii. 108.

   Platæans, ii. 100.

   Platamōdes, prom. of Messenia, ii. 22.

   _Platana._ _See_ Hermonassa.

   Platanistus, shore of Cilicia, iii. 52.

   ——, same as Macistus, ii. 18.

   Plato, i. 154, 390, 452, 462, 464; ii. 91, 183, 188, 197, 353, 354,
     382; iii. 34, 110, 179, 222, 240.

   Plax, ii. 386.

   Pleias, Plēïas, Plēïades, constellation, iii. 59, 82, 83, 126, 274.

   Pleistus, r. of Phocis, ii. 116.

   Plēmyrium, c. of India, iii. 89.

   Pleræi, people of Dalmatia, i. 484, 485.

   Pleurōn, c. of Ætolia, Old and New, ii. 72, 159, 160, 171, 172, 175,
     178, 179.

   Pleurōnia, ii. 160, 178, 179.

   Pleurōnii, ii. 160, 173, 176.

   Pleutauri, people of Spain, i. 233.

   Plinthinē, c. of Egypt, iii. 236.

   Plumbaria, isl. (_S. Pola_), i. 239.

   Plūtiadēs, iii. 59.

   Plūto, i. 220; iii. 25.

   Plutonium, i. 363; ii. 408; iii. 25.

   Plutus, i. 220, 221.

   Plynos, port of Marmara, iii. 294.

   Pneuentia, t. of the Piceni (Pollentia ?), i. 357.

   Pnigeus, t. of Marmara, iii. 235.

   Po, r. of Italy, i. 287, 303, 312, 316, 317, 320, 322, 323, 360, 438,
     439; ii. 71.

   Podalirius, heroum or shrine of, i. 434.

   Podarcēs, brother of Protesilaus, ii. 134.

   Pœaessa, t. of Laconia, ii. 37.

   Pœcile, iii. 54.

   Pœdicli, same as Peucĕtii, i. 423, 431.

   Pœeïssa, t. of the isl. of Ceos, ii. 210.

   Pœmandris, same as Tanagra, ii. 96.

   Pœum. _See_ Bœum, i. 505.

   Pœus, mtn of Thessaly, i. 501.

   Pōgōn, port of Trœzen, ii. 55.

   Pŏla, t. of Istria, i. 73, 313, 321, 483.

   Pŏlĕmōn, son of Pharnaces, king of Pontus, ii. 220, 223, 224, 305,
     322.

   ——, of Laodicea, son of Zeno, ii. 334.

   ——, philosopher, ii. 387.

   ——, Periēgētēs, i. 23; ii. 86.

   Polentia, t. of the largest of the Balearic Islands (_Pollença_),
     i. 251.

   _Policandro._ _See_ Pholegandrus.

   Polichna, ii. 84, 371, 376.

   Pŏlieum, t. of Lucania, i. 397.

   _Polina._ _See_ Apollonia.

   _Polino._ _See_ Prepesinthus.

   Pŏlisma, Polium, t. of the Troad, ii. 368.

   Polites, companion of Ulysses, i. 380.

   ——, son of Priam, ii. 364.

   Polium, ii. 368.

   Pollentia. _See_ Pelentia.

   Poltyŏbria, t. of Thrace, i. 490.

   Polyanus, mtn of Epirus, i. 501.

   Polybius, historian, i. 1, 23, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 145, 147, 148,
     156-164, 209, 222, 226, 244, 256, 258, 259, 274, 283, 301, 309, 310,
     315, 319, 330, 360, 393, 418, 435, 438, 481, 487, 495, 518;
     ii. 1, 51, 64, 7, 120, 251; iii. 234, _et passim_.

   Polybōtēs, ii. 213.

   Polybus, ii. 64.

   Pŏlycasta, mother of Penelope, ii. 173.

   Polycles, ii. 288.

   Polycletus, historian, ii. 243, 244; iii. 130, 139, 150.

   ——, statuary, ii. 53.

   Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, iii. 8, 9.

   Polydamas, Trojan, ii. 364.

   Polydamna, iii. 238.

   Polydectēs, brother of Lycurgus, ii. 203, 204.

   ——, king of the Seriphii, ii. 211.

   Polydōrus, son of Priam, ii. 344.

   Polymēdium, t. of the Troad, ii. 376, 390.

   Polymnastus, iii. 16.

   Polynices, ii. 21.

   Polyphagi, i. 299; ii. 239.

   Polypœtēs, king of the Lapithæ;, ii. 143, 145.

   Polypŏrus, r. of the Troad. _See_ Heptapŏrus, ii. 371.

   Polyrrhēnii, in the island of Crete, ii. 200.

   Polystephanus, same as Præneste, i. 354.

   Polytimētus, r. of Sogdiana, ii. 254.

   Polyxĕna, tragedy of Sophocles, ii. 186.

   Pomentīne plain in Latium, i. 344, 346.

   Pometia, i. 344.

   Pompædius, leader of the Marsi (_Quintus Pompedius Silo_), i. 359.

   Pompēia, Pompæa, t. of Campania (_Pompeii_), i. 367, 368, 374.

   Pompeiopolis, c. of Paphlagonia (_Tasch-Kopri_), ii. 313.

   Pompēiopŏlis, same as Pompĕlōn; same as Sŏli, iii. 45, 46, 55.

   Pompĕlōn, Pompēiopŏlis, t. of Spain (_Pampeluna_), i. 242.

   Pompey the Great, i. 242, 317, 350; ii. 74, 217, 218, 231, 233, 235,
     246, 271, 286, 294, 305-310, 320, 392; iii. 24, 27, 55, 164, 170,
     176, 180, 181, 232, 233.

   ——, sons of (Cnæus and Sextus), i. 213, 242; iii. 27.

   ——, trophies of, i. 234, 239, 240, 267.

   Pompeius, Sextus. _See_ Sextus.

   ——, Cnæus. _See_ Cnæus.

   ——, Mark, ii. 392.

   —— Strabo, father of Pompey the Great, i. 317.

   Pontia, island (_Ponza_), i. 185, 347.

   Pontic Sea, i. 480.

   —— coasts, i. 489.

   —— castor, i. 245.

   Pontica, same as Pontus.

   Pontici, ii. 246.

   Pontius, Glaucus, tragedy of Æschylus, ii. 155.

   Pontus, i. 54, 149, 216, 489, 490; ii. 113, 145, 285-320, 386;
     iii. 75, 77, 142, 297, _et passim_.

   Pontus, part of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 302, 305.

   ——, Gulf of the, i. 189.

   —— Axenus, i. 458, 461.

   —— Euxinus, i. 458; ii. 145. _See_ Euxine.

   ——, mouth of, at Byzantium, i. 489, 496; ii. 315.

   ——, the right shore, i. 95; ii. 221, 226.

   ——, the left shore, ii. 145.

   _Ponza._ _See_ Pontia.

   Poplōnium, c. of Etruria, i. 329-332, 334.

   _Porcuna._ _See_ Obulco.

   Pordalis, ii. 393.

   Pordoselēnē, Poroselēnē, isl., ii. 393.

   Pornopiōn, name of Apollo, ii. 386.

   ——, month, ii. 386.

   _Poro, Poros, isl._ _See_ Calauria.

   Porsena, king of Clusium, i. 327.

   Porthaon, ii. 175.

   Porthaŏnidæ, kings of the Ætolians, ii. 179.

   Porticanus, king of India, iii. 95.

   _Porto Ercole._ _See_ Hercules, port of.

   _Porto-Fico._ _See_ Palærus.

   _Porto Trano._ _See_ Minoa.

   Pōrus, iii. 74, 82, 91, 92.

   ——, r. of Achaia, ii. 14.

   Poseidium, grove, ii. 21.

   ——, Samian, ii. 26.

   ——, in Alexandria, iii. 230.

   ——, prom. and c. of Epirus, i. 4, 7.

   ——, prom. of Thessaly (_Cape Stauros_), i. 512.

   ——, of Chios, iii. 18.

   ——, of the Milesians (_Cape Arbora_), iii. 1, 2, 27, 37.

   ——, of Lucania, i. 375, 376.

   ——, Bay of Lucania, i. 375.

   ——, of Samos, with temple, ii. 16, 17.

   ——, of Arabia, iii. 203.

   ——, t. of Syria, iii. 164, 167.

   ——, temple of Neptune, in Elis, ii. 16, 17, 21, 26.

   Poseidōn. _See_ Neptune.

   Poseidonia, in the isl. Tenos, ii. 211.

   Poseidonia, or Trœzen, ii. 55.

   Poseidōnia, c. of Lucania (_Pesti_), i. 373-376; ii. 55, 87.

   Posidonium, Posidonian Gulf, Posidoniate Gulf (_Gulf of Salerno_),
     i. 31, 34, 313, 315, 373, 375, 379.

   ——, near Rhegium, i. 384.

   Posidonius, the Stoic, i. 1, 6, 8, 23, 44, 66, 84, 86, 90, 143, 144,
     146, 148, 152, 154-156, 158, 203, 207, 208, 216, 220, 222, 229,
     230, 235, 244, 245, 247, 256, 258, 259, 261, 273, 280, 281, 294,
     319, 325, 400-402, 406, 413, 420, 450, 453, 454, 456, 461, 475,
     486; ii. 1, 217, 251, 387; iii. 33, 151, 166, 170, 173, 208, 216,
     225, 244, 278, 282, _et passim_.

   _Possene._ _See_ Pessinuntis.

   Potamia, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.

   Potamii, ii. 89.

   Potamō, of Mitylene, ii. 392.

   Potamus, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.

   Potentia, c. of Picenum, i. 357.

   Potidæa, c. of Macedonia, i. 511.

   Potniæ, c. of Bœotia, ii. 103, 109.

   _Pozzuoli._ _See_ Puteoli.

   _Pozzuolo._ _See_ Dicæarchia.

   Practius, r. of Mysia, ii. 340, 344, 346, 350, 351.

   Prænestina, Via, i. 352, 353.

   Præneste, c. of Latium, i. 353, 354, 370.

   Pramnæ, iii. 117, 118.

   Prasia, vill. of Attica (_Raphti_), ii. 89.

   Prasiæ, c. of Argolis, ii. 48, 55.

   Prasii, people of India, iii. 97.

   ——, inhabitants of the city of Prasus, ii. 189, 199.

   Prasus, c. of Crete, ii. 195, 199.

   Prausi, Gallic nation, of whom Brennus was king, i. 280.

   Praxander, iii. 69.

   Praxiphanes, iii. 33.

   Praxitĕlēs, ii. 105; iii. 13.

   Preferni, i. 344.

   Prēmnis, t. of Ethiopia, iii. 268.

   Prepesinthus, one of the Cyclades (_Polino_), ii. 208.

   Priam, ii. 169, 301, 342, 344, 345, 360, 367, 377.

   Priamidæ, ii. 378.

   Priamōn (? Prōmōn), c. of the Dalmatæ, i. 484.

   Priapeia, songs of Euphronius, ii. 66.

   Priapēnē, distr. of Mysia, ii. 347.

   Priapēni, ii. 347.

   Priāpus, son of Bacchus, temple of, ii. 66, 348.

   Priāpus, t. of Mysia, i. 518; ii. 317, 332, 340, 347-349.

   Priēnē, c. of Ionia (_Samsun_), ii. 69, 299, 333, 335; iii. 2, 7.

   Priēnians, ii. 69; iii. 10.

   Priōn, mtn near Ephesus, iii. 3.

   Privernum, t. of Latium, i. 352.

   Probalinthus, t. of Attica, ii. 67, 90.

   Prochyta, isl. (_Procida_), i. 93, 185, 368, 386.

   Procleīdæ, ii. 44.

   Prŏclēs, brother of Eurysthenes, ii. 42, 44, 77, 203, 212.

   ——, founder of Samos, iii. 3.

   Procnē, sister of Philomela, ii. 122.

   Proconnēsus, isl. of the Propontis (_Marmora_), i. 32, 518; ii. 347,
     349, 393.

   Proerna, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 136.

   Prœtides, ii. 50.

   Prœtus, king of Tiryns, ii. 54.

   Promētheus, i. 273, 458; ii. 238; iii. 77.

   —— Loosed, a play of Æschylus, i. 52.

   Prōnēsus, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 166.

   Prophthasia, c. of Drangiana (_Zarang_), ii. 249; iii. 124.

   Propontis (_Sea of Marmora_), i. 8, 72, 78, 81, 86, 106, 107, 188-190,
     195, 442, 481, 491, 517, 518; ii. 92, 286, 314, 315, 329, 331, 332,
     338, 340-342, 352, 369; iii. 34, 62.

   Proschium, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160.

   Proseleni, ii. 75.

   Proserpine, i. 295, 383; ii. 17; iii. 25, 180.

   Prosōpite nome, vill. of Egypt, iii. 240.

   Prosymna, t. of Argolis, ii. 54.

   Prōtarchus, iii. 37.

   Prote, island, ii. 23, 35.

   Prōtesilaeium, in the Thracian Chersonese, i. 517; ii. 358.

   Prōtesilaus, king of the Thessalians, i. 454; ii. 83, 134-138.

   Prōteus, father of Cabira, i. 59, 62, 225.

   Prōtogenes, iii. 29, 30.

   Prusa, c. of Mysia, ii. 315, 316, 318.

   Prusias, c. of Bithynia (_Bruse_), ii. 315.

   ——, king of Bithynia, ii. 315, 407.

   Prusienses, inhabitants of Prusias, ii. 316.

   Prytaneis, ii. 123.

   Psammetichus, king of Egypt, i. 96; iii. 195, 219, 239, 244.

   Psaphis, vill. of the Oropii, ii. 90.

   _Pschate._ _See_ Bata.

   Psĕbo, lake of Ethiopia (_Tsana_), iii. 271.

   Pselchis, c. of Ethiopia, iii. 268.

   Pseudopenias, prom. in the Greater Syrtis, iii. 291.

   Pseudophilip, i. 516.

   Psillis, r. of Bithynia, ii. 288.

   _Psiloriti._ _See_ Ida.

   Psygmus, on the coast of Ethiopia, iii. 200.

   Psylli or Psyllians, people of Libya, i. 198; ii. 348; iii. 260, 294.

   Psyra (_Psyra_), isl. near Chios, iii. 19.

   Psyttalia, isl. near Salamis, ii. 85.

   Pteleasimum, distr. of Triphylia, ii. 24.

   Ptĕlĕōs, ii. 357.

   Ptĕlĕum, mtn of Epirus, i. 505.

   ——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24.

   ——, c. of Thessaly, ii. 24, 135, 139.

   Pterelas, ii. 162.

   Ptolemaïs, t. of Phœnicia, i. 201.

   ——, t. of Pamphylia (_Alara_), iii. 50.

   ——, t. of the Cyrenaic, iii. 292.

   ——, t. of the Troglodytic, i. 200; iii. 191, 194, 204.

   ——, t. of the Thebais, iii. 258.

   Ptolemies, i. 178.

   Ptolemy Aulētes, ii. 308; iii. 231, 232, 234.

   —— Ceraunus, ii. 400.

   ——, Cocce’s son, iii. 230.

   —— Epiphanes, ii. 231.

   Ptolemy Euergētes, iii. 231.

   —— Euergētes II. or Physcon, i. 149, 152, 156; ii. 124, 172;
        iii. 231, 234.

   —— Lathūrus, iii. 231.

   —— Philadelphus, ii. 120, 172; iii. 47, 193, 194, 224, 231, 260.

   —— Philomētor, iii. 164, 231.

   —— Philopator, ii. 199; iii. 176, 231.

   —— Sōter, iii. 290.

   ——, king of Cyprus, iii. 71.

   ——, son of Aulētes, iii. 234.

   ——, son of Juba, iii. 281, 283, 297.

   ——, son of Lagus, i. 463; iii. 123, 229, 231, 239.

   ——, son of Mennæus, iii. 166.

   Ptōum, mtn of Bœotia, ii. 109.

   Publius Crassus. _See_ Crassus.

   —— Claudius Pulcher. _See_ Pulcher.

   —— Servilius, ii. 322.

   Pulcher, Publius Claudius, iii. 71.

   Punic War, Second, i. 239.

   _Purali._ _See_ Arbis.

   Puteoli (_Pozzuoli_), in Campania, i. 364, 366. _See_ Dicæarchia.

   Putrid Lake. _See_ Sapra limnē.

   Pydna, c. of Macedonia, i. 508, 509, 513.

   Pygalgeis, iii. 11.

   Pygĕla, c. of Ionia, ii. 299; iii. 10, 11.

   Pygmies, i. 54, 55, 59, 67, 68, 109, 458; iii. 107, 270.

   Pylæ, Thermopylæ, i. 17; ii. 118, 129, 130, 137.

   Pylæan convention of Amphyctyons, ii. 118, 130.

   Pylæmĕnēs, ii. 286, 289.

   Pylæum, mtn of Lesbos, ii. 396.

   Pylæus, king of the Pelasgi, ii. 395, 396.

   Pylagŏræ, Pylagŏri, ii. 118.

   Pylaïc Assembly, ii. 140.

   —— Gulf (_G. of Zeitun_), ii. 132.

   Pylēnē, t. of Ætolia, ii. 160, 172.

   Pylian Sea, ii. 22.

   Pylii, Pylians, inhabitants of Pylus, i. 330, 398; ii. 7, 17, 22-28,
     30; iii. 2.

   Pylōn, t. of Illyria, i. 495.

   Pylus, part of Elis, ii. 11, 17, 18.

   ——, c. of Nestor, ii. 7, 25, 46; iii. 4.

   ——, Eleian, ii. 25, 26.

   ——, Triphylian, Lepreatic, or Arcadian, ii. 8, 11, 16, 18, 19, 25, 26.

   ——, Messenian, ii. 11, 18-22, 26-28, 35-38.

   ——, Ematheeis, ii. 31.

   Pyræchmēs, ii. 33.

   Pyrætheia, iii. 137.

   Pyræthi, in Cappadocia, iii. 137.

   Pyramids, the, in Egypt, iii. 249-252, 255.

   Pyramus, r. of Cilicia (_Dschehan-tschai_), i. 82; ii. 279, 280;
     iii. 59, 60, 68.

   Pyrasus, t. of Phthiotis, ii. 138, 139.

   Pyrēnæan Venus, i. 267, 272.

   Pyrenees, i. 110, 161, 181, 192, 193, 206, 219, 233, 234, 239-242,
     249, 250, 264-267, 271, 272, 275, 278, 279, 282, 284, 285, 292,
     296.

   Pyrgi, t. of Triphylia, ii. 22.

   ——, t. of Etruria, i. 335.

   Pyrgītæ, in Triphylia, ii. 22.

   Pyriphlegethōn, r. near Dicæarchia, i. 39, 363.

   Pyrrha, wife of Deucalion, ii. 125, 134, 149.

   ——, t. of Thessaly, ii. 134.

   ——, t. of Ionia, iii. 6.

   ——, t. of Lesbos (_Pira_), ii. 391, 392.

   ——, isl., ii. 139.

   ——, prom. of Thessaly, ii. 139.

   ——, prom. of Mysia, ii. 376.

   Pyrrhæa, name of Thessaly, ii. 149.

   Pyrrhæan Euripus, in the island of Lesbos (_entrance to the Gulf of
     Caloni_), ii. 391.

   Pyrrhic dance, ii. 182.

   Pyrrhichus, ii. 182, 202.

   Pyrrhōn, ii. 82.

   Pyrrhus Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, i. 500.

   ——, king of Epirus, i. 387, 427, 438, 498; ii. 59, 68.

   Pythagoras, i. 395, 456; iii. 9, 114.

   Pythagoreans, i. 25, 375, 395; ii. 68, 183; iii. 180.

   ——, philosophy of the, i. 427, 457; iii. 114.

   Pythaïstæ, ii. 97.

   Pythangelus, harbour, altars, iii. 199-201.

   Pytheas, i. 99-101, 110, 116, 154, 157, 158, 173, 204, 223, 237, 283,
     291, 299, 452.

   Pythian games, i. 390; ii. 117, 120.

   —— priestess, ii. 117; iii. 179.

   Pythias, the, ii. 121.

   Pythium, temple of Apollo, ii. 97.

   ——, vill. of Attica, ii. 81.

   Pytho, t. of Phocis, ii. 55, 115, 119.

   Pythŏdōris, ii. 305, 306, 309, 310.

   Pythŏdōrus, ii. 305; iii. 24.

   Pythŏlaus, prom. of Ethiopia, iii. 199, 201.

   Pythōn, ii. 120, 121.

   Pytia, ii. 349.

   Pytius, ii. 349.

   Pytna, part of Mt Ida, ii. 189.

   ——, in Crete, ii. 189.

   Pyxūs, prom., r., and t. of Lucania, i. 376.


   Quadi, i. 444.

   Querci. _See_ Cadurci.

   Quintius Titus, ii. 146.

   Quintus Fabius Maximus Æmilianus, i. 277.

   Quirīnalis Collis, Mount Quirinus, at Rome, i. 348.

   Quirites, i. 342-344.


   _Racca._ _See_ Chordiraza, iii. 157.

   Ram’s Head. _See_ Criu-Metopon.

   Raphia (_Refah_), t. of Judæa, iii. 176.

   Rapti, modern name of Prasia.

   _Ras-el-Kasaroun._ _See_ Casium.

   _Ras-el-Razat._ _See_ Phycus.

   _Ratoüs._ _See_ Arathus.

   Rauraris, i. 272.

   _Ravee._ _See_ Hyarotis.

   Ravenna, i. 314, 318, 319, 322, 323, 326, 337.

   Reatĕ, c. of the Sabines (_Rieti_), i. 338, 339.

   Red Sea, _see_ Arabian Gulf and Erythræan Sea, iii. 244, 254, 260.

   _Refah._ _See_ Raphia.

   Reggio, i. 315, 317.

   ——, in Modena. _See_ Rhegium-Lepidum.

   Regis-Villa, c. of Etruria, i. 335.

   Rēmi, people of Gaul, i. 289, 290.

   Rĕmus, brother of Romulus, i. 340, 343.

   Reneia, isl. (_Rhena_), ii. 209.

   Rhacōtis, part of Alexandria, iii. 227.

   Rhadamanthus, Cretan lawgiver, ii. 196, 204.

   ——, brother of Minos, i. 3, 225; ii. 122, 196, 328.

   ——, tragedy of Euripides, ii. 32.

   Rhadinē, song of Stesichorus, ii. 21.

   Rhæci, i. 343.

   Rhæti, i. 287, 304, 306, 307, 311, 317, 447, 448, 482.

   Rhætian wine, i. 306.

   Rhætica, Rhætia, i. 482.

   Rhaga, ii. 264.

   Rhagæ, Rhages, c. of Media, i. 94; ii. 250, 264.

   Rhamanītæ, people of Arabia, iii. 212.

   Rhambæi, people of Syria, iii. 166.

   Rhamis, i. 446.

   Rhamnūs, t. of Attica, ii. 90.

   Rhathēnus, ii. 296.

   Rhatōtes, name of the Paphlagonians, ii. 302.

   Rhea, mother of the gods, ii. 22, 183-189.

   —— (Agdistis, Idæa, Dindymēnē, Sipylēnē, Pessinūntis, Cybĕlē, Cybēbē),
         ii. 184-186.

   ——, Silvia, daughter of Numitor, i. 340.

   Rhecas, ii. 224.

   Rhegians, i. 391.

   Rhegīni, i. 385, 386.

   Rhegium (_Reggio_), i. 94, 186, 256.

   ——, c. of the Bruttii i. 77, 384-386, 388-390, 404, 431.

   ——, t. of Gaul, beyond the Po (_Reggio_), i. 317.

   —— Lepidum, t. of Gaul, this side the Po (_Reggio in Modena_), i. 322.

   Rhēgma, at the mouths of the Cydnus, iii. 56.

   Rhenus, r. (_Rhine_), i. 99, 192, 193, 264, 265, 285-290, 292, 296,
     297, 304, 306, 308, 310, 317, 442-447, 451, 480; iii. 296.

   ——, sources of the, i. 265, 289, 304, 317.

   ——, mouths of the, i. 99, 265, 288, 289, 296, 447, 451.

   Rhesus, king of Thrace, i. 514; ii. 351.

   ——, r. of the Troad, ii. 304, 341, 351, 357, 371.

   Rhetia, mother of the Corybantes, ii. 190.

   Rhiginia, r. of Thrace, i. 516.

   _Rhine._ _See_ Rhenus.

   Rhinocolūra, Rhincocorura, t. of Phœnicia (_El-Arish_), iii. 149, 176,
     211.

   Rhipē, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.

   Rhium, prom. of Achaia (_Drepano_), ii. 6, 73, 79.

   ——, t. of Messenia, ii. 37, 38.

   Rhizæi, Bay of the, i. 485.

   Rhizōn, t. on the coast of Illyria (_Risano_), i. 485.

   Rhizonic Gulf (_Gulf of Cataro_), i. 483, 485.

   Rhizophagi, people of Ethiopia, iii. 95.

   Rhizūs, t. of Thessaly, ii. 139, 148.

   Rhoa, i. 269.

   Rhodanus, _Rhone_, r. of Gaul, i. 249, 266, 267, 269, 271, 272,
     274-288, 302, 303, 310.

   Rhodaspes, son of Phraates, iii. 160.

   Rhodes, i. 38, 105, 109, 123, 131, 133, 160, 172-175, 179, 180, 184,
     187, 189, 201, 202, 332, 423, 486; ii. 164, 188, 189, 212, 213,
     216, 217, 328, 331, 374, 409; iii. 33, 34, 39, 40, 230.

   Rhodians, Rhodii, i. 90, 240, 398; ii. 85, 194; iii. 33, 34.

   Rhodius, r. of the Troad, ii. 304, 357, 371.

   Rhodŏpē (Rhodos, Rhode ?), t. of Spain, i. 240; iii. 32.

   ——, mtn of Thrace (_Despoto-dagh_), i. 311, 481, 489, 506, 514.

   Rhodōpis, iii. 250.

   Rhodos. _See_ Rhodes.

   Rhoduntia, citadel near Thermopylæ, ii. 129.

   Rhoeitēs, r. of the Troad, ii. 371.

   Rhœtaces, r. of Albania, ii. 230.

   Rhœtium, t. of the Troad, ii. 357, 358, 361, 368.

   Rhombites, the Greater, Bay of Mæotis, ii. 221.

   ——, the Lesser, ii. 221.

   _Rhone._ _See_ Rhodanus.

   Rhōsus, r. of Syria, iii. 164.

   Rhundacus, r. of Mysia (_Mualitsch-Tschai_), ii. 299, 330, 332.

   Rhypes, c. of Achæa, ii. 71, 73, 75.

   Rhypis, ii. 73.

   Rhytium, t. of Crete, ii. 200.

   _Rieti._ _See_ Reate.

   _Rimini._ _See_ Ariminum.

   _Rion._ _See_ Phasis.

   Riphæan mtns, i. 452, 459.

   _Risso._ _See_ Larisus.

   Romans, i. 3, 16, 18, 22, 104, 153, 175, 191, 192, 209, 210, 212, 217,
     222, 226-228, 231, 234, 238, 239, 243, 247, 249, 250, 253, 262, 263,
     270, 271, 284, 286, 287, 290-295, 298, 302, 305, 306, 310, 313, 317,
     319, 321, 322, 324, 326, 327, 331, 333-335, 338-356, 358, 360, 361,
     364, 366, 371, 373, 374, 377, 378, 381, 383, 387, 397, 404, 405, 408,
     412, 413, 424, 427, 437-441, 443, 446, 447, 450, 451, 466-468, 475,
     477, 480, 484, 485, 488, 491, 494, 498, 500, 505, 509, 516; ii. 38,
     43, 44, 46, 59, 61, 63, 64, 71, 73, 85, 88, 89, 92, 100, 108, 111,
     128, 172, 174, _et passim_.

   Roman army, i. 178.

   —— camp, i. 246.

   —— cavalry, i. 292.

   —— citizens, i. 342, 366.

   —— colonists, i. 252, 373.

   —— colony, i. 212, 322, 323.

   —— customs, i. 278.

   —— Empire, view of the, iii. 295-297.

   —— garrison, i. 270.

   —— historians, i. 249.

   —— polity, i. 278.

   —— prefects, i. 286.

   —— territory, i. 151, 341.

   Rome, i. 140, 202, 216, 253, 278, 293, 297, 317, 322-327, 330, 331,
     333, 336-356, 358, 366, 370, 371, 398, 412, 413, 431, 441, 444;
     ii. 64, 65, 140, 171, 368; iii. 172, 295-297.

   Rōmulus, i. 340, 342, 343.

   _Roumelia._ _See_ Thrace.

   Rōxana, wife of Alexander, ii. 254; iii. 229.

   Rōxolani, Scythian nation, i. 172, 451, 470, 471.

   Rūbicōn, r. of Italy (_prob. Pisatello_), i. 322, 324, 337.

   Rūcantii, i. 307.

   Rudiæ, c. of Calabria, i. 429, 430.

   Rūscino, r. and t. of Gaul (_the Tet_), i. 272.

   Rūspinum, t. of Numidia, iii. 284.

   Rūtēni, people of Aquitania, i. 284.

   Rūtūli, people of Latium, i. 339, 343, 346.


   Saba, port in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 195.

   Sabæ (_Assab_), c. of the Troglodytæ, iii. 197.

   Sabæans, people of Arabia Felix, iii. 190, 206, 207, 209.

   Sabata, c. of Arabia, iii. 190.

   —— (_Lago di Bracciano_), i. 336.

   Sabatorum Vada, t. of Liguria (_Vadi_), i. 300, 322, 323.

   Sabazius, god of the Phrygians, ii. 186, 188.

   Sabelli, i. 372.

   Sabina, i. 338, 339, 351.

   Sabini, Sabines, people of Italy, i. 325-327, 338, 339, 342, 357, 371,
     438.

   Sabos, king of Arabia, iii. 212.

   ——, king of India, iii. 95.

   Sacæ, Scythian race, i. 465; ii. 245-250.

   Sacæa, ii. 246.

   Sacarauli, Scythian race, ii. 245.

   Sacasēne, distr. of Armenia, i. 112; ii. 242, 246, 268.

   _Sacco._ _See_ Trerus.

   Saccopodes, Adiabeni, iii. 154.

   Sacred Promontory, Promontory of Spain (_Cape St. Vincent_), i. 160,
     164, 180, 181, 206, 208, 211, 214, 215, 223, 227.

   Sadacora, t. of Cappadocia, iii. 44.

   Sadracæ, palace of Darius, near Arbela, iii. 144.

   Sætabis, t. of Spain (_Xativa_), i. 241.

   Sagalasseis, ii. 324.

   Sagalassus, ii. 323, 410.

   Sagapēni, iii. 154.

   Sagra, Sagras, r. i. 391, 392.

   ——, battle of the, i. 395.

   Sagrus, r., i. 360.

   Sagūntum, c. of Spain (_Murviedro_), i. 239, 241, 251.

   Sagylium, citadel of Pontus (_Ijan Kalessi_), ii. 311.

   Saii, a Thracian tribe, ii. 169, 298. _See_ Sinti.

   _St. Elias_, mtn. _See_ Oche.

   _St. Gothard._ _See_ Adulas.

   _St. Mahé, Cape._ _See_ Cabæum.

   _St. Marcian, Island of._ _See_ Ortygia.

   _Sta. Maura._ _See_ Leucas.

   _St. Pola._ _See_ Plumbaria.

   _Saintes._ _See_ Mediolanium.

   Sais, c. of Egypt, iii. 239, 242.

   Saïtæ, iii. 257.

   Saïtic mouth of the Nile (_Gulf of Matzeia_), iii. 240.

   —— nome, in Egypt, iii. 239, 240.

   _Sakaria._ _See_ Sangarius.

   Salaminiac Bay, ii. 6.

   Salaminii, ii. 83.

   Salamis, c. of Cyprus, iii. 69.

   Salamis, isl. (_anciently_ Cychreia, Sciras, Pityūssa) (_Koluri_),
     i. 187; ii. 57, 60, 84, 124, 153.

   ——, t. of the isl., ii. 83.

   ——, Gulf of, ii. 82, 83, 89.

   _Salamoni._ _See_ Salmonium.

   _Salampria_, r. _See_ Peneius.

   Salapia, c. of Apulia, i. 433, 434.

   Salaria Via, i. 339.

   Salas, r. of Germany, i. 445.

   Salassi, people of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 303-306, 309, 311, 314.

   Salda, port of Mauritania (_Bougie_), iii. 284.

   Salentine territory, i. 429.

   Salentini, people of Iapygia, i. 422, 428.

   Salentinum, i. 430.

   _Salerno, Gulf of._ _See_ Posidonium.

   Salernum, c. of Campania, i. 374.

   Salganeus, Bœotian, i. 17; ii. 96.

   ——, c. of Bœotia, ii. 92, 98.

   Salmacis, ftn near Halicarnassus, iii. 35.

   Salmōnē, c. of Pisatis, ii. 31, 32.

   ——, ftn of Enipeus, ii. 31, 32.

   Salmōneus, king of Elis, ii. 31-33.

   Salmōnium, prom. of Crete (_Salamoni_), i. 160; ii. 189, 193, 194,
     199, 213.

   Salmydēssus, c. and coast of Thrace (_Midjeh_), i. 79, 82, 490;
     ii. 287.

   Salōmē, sister of Herod, iii. 184.

   Salōn, t. of the Dalmatæ, i. 484.

   Salōn, t. of Bithynia, ii. 317, 318.

   ——, cheese of, ii. 318.

   _Salona._ _See_ Amphissa.

   _Salonica, Gulf of._ _See_ Thermaic Gulf.

   Saltiātæ (Saltigetæ?), in Lusitania, i. 217.

   Salyes, people of Transalpine Gaul, i. 267, 269-271, 275, 276, 278,
     301, 302.

   Samæi, in Cephallenia, ii. 166.

   Samaria, same as Sebaste, c. of Judæa, iii. 177.

   Samarianē, c. of Hyrcania, ii. 242.

   Samē, t. of Cephallenia, ii. 163, 166, 167.

   Sami, heights, ii. 169.

   Samia, Samos, ii. 212, 213; iii. 10.

   Samian strait, iii. 10.

   Samians, inhabitants of Samos, i. 518; ii. 168, 212; iii. 9, 10.

   Samicum, citadel of Triphylia, ii. 16, 17, 19, 21, 26.

   Samicus, plain, ii. 21.

   Samnītæ, Samnites, Saunītæ, i. 339, 344, 346, 357, 360, 367, 371-374,
     377, 378, 380, 387, 399, 431, 438.

   Samnites, c. of the, i. 353.

   ——, women of the, in an island of Gaul, i. 295.

   Samnitic mtns, i. 326.

   Samnium, i. 360.

   Samōnium, prom. of Crete. _See_ Salmonium.

   ——, in the Neandris, ii. 189.

   ——, Alexandrian, ii. 189.

   Samos, isl. in the Icarian Sea (_Samo_), i. 93, 187; ii. 163, 168,
     169, 303; iii. 2, 3, 7-11.

   ——, Thracian, ii. 10.

   ——, Ionian, ii. 10, 21.

   ——, c. of the island of, iii. 3.

   ——, c. of Triphylia, ii. 19, 21, 25.

   ——, and Samē, same as Cephallenia, and c. of this isl., ii. 163, 166,
         167.

   ——, Threïcian, same as Samothracē, i. 516; ii. 168.

   Samosata, c. of Syria, iii. 44, 161.

   Samothracē, Samothracia, isl. (_Samothraki_), i. 43, 187, 296, 516;
     ii. 168, 189, 190.

   Samothracians, i. 516; ii. 180.

   Sampsiceramus, prince of the Emiseni, iii. 166, 167.

   _Samsun._ _See_ Priene.

   _Samsun Dagh._ _See_ Mycale.

   _San Dimitri._ _See_ Antandros.

   _San Giarno._ _See_ Corydallus.

   Sanā, t. of Pallene, i. 511.

   Sanaus, c. of Phrygia, ii. 332.

   Sandalium, citadel of Pisidia, ii. 323.

   Sandaracurgium, mtn of Pontus, ii. 313.

   Sandobanes, r. of Albania, ii. 230.

   Sandōn, father of Athenodorus, iii. 58.

   Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, i. 109; iii. 97, 105, 107, 125.

   Sandyx, ii. 271.

   Sangarius, r. of the Troad (_Sakaria_), ii. 289, 314, 321, 351;
     iii. 66.

   Sangias, vill. of Phrygia, ii. 288.

   Sanisēnē, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 314.

   Sanni, people of Pontus, ii. 296.

   _Santa Maria._ _See_ Malia and Trogilium.

   _Santa Maura._ _See_ Leucas.

   _Santo, Mount._ _See_ Athos.

   Santoni (_inhabitants of Saintonge_), i. 283, 284, 310.

   _Santorino._ _See_ Thera.

   Saōcondarius, ii. 321.

   _Saone_, r. _See_ Arar.

   Saos, r. _See Save._

   Sapæ, Sapæi, people of Thrace, i. 515, 516; ii. 169, 298, 305.

   Saperdes, ii. 393.

   Saphnioeis. _See_ Satnioeis.

   Sapis, r. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Savio_), i. 322.

   Sappho, i. 65; ii. 162, 388, 391, 393; iii. 250.

   Sapra limnē (_or_ Putrid Lake), at the Tauric Chersonese, i. 473, 474.

   ——, in the Troad, ii. 387.

   Saraastus, king of India, ii. 253.

   _Sarabat._ _See_ Hermus.

   _Saragossa._ _See_ Cæsar Augusta.

   _Sarakoi._ _See_ Zeleia.

   Saramēnē, ii. 294.

   Sarapana, fortress of Colchis (_Choropani_), ii. 227, 230.

   Saraparæ, people dwelling beyond Armenia, ii. 273.

   Sarapis, god of the Egyptians, iii. 242, 248.

   Sarapium, temple of Sarapis, iii. 230, 248.

   Saravēnē, prefecture of Cappadocia, ii. 278.

   Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, iii. 55, 143.

   Sardinia, i. 78, 160, 177, 185, 216, 330-334; iii. 32, 240, 297.

   ——, Sea of, i. 78, 84, 159, 185, 216, 325.

   Sardinian Gulf, i. 216.

   Sardis, Sardeis, c. of Lydia (_Sart_), i. 96; ii. 336, 400, 402-406;
     iii. 23.

   Sardō, Sardōn, isl., i. 219, same as Sardinia.

   Sareisa, c. of the Gordyenes, iii. 157.

   Sargarausēnē, prefecture of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 281.

   Sarmatians, Sauromatæ, i. 453, 468, 470, 480; ii. 219, 226, 227, 230,
     240, 302.

   Sarnius, r. of Hyrcania, ii. 245.

   Sarnus, r. of Campania (_Sarno_), i. 367.

   Sarōnic Gulf, ii. 6, 49, 56, 63.

   —— Sea (_Gulf of Engia_), i. 187.

   _Saros, Bay of._ _See_ Melas.

   Sarpēdōn, prom. of Cilicia, ii. 405; iii. 53, 69.

   ——, prom. of Thrace, i. 516.

   ——, brother of Minos, founder of Miletus, ii. 328, 347; iii. 49.

   ——, leader of the Syrians, iii. 174.

   Sarsina, t. of Umbria, i. 337.

   _Sart._ _See_ Sardis.

   Sarus, r. of Cappadocia and Cilicia, ii. 279.

   _Sasamo._ _See_ Segesama.

   Sasō, isl. (_Saseno_), i. 429.

   Satalca, t. of Mesopotamia, iii. 157.

   _Satalda._ _See_ Pharsalus.

   _Satal-dere._ _See_ Æsepus.

   Satnioeis, or Saphnioeis, r. of the Troad, i. 494; ii. 375, 379, 394.

   Satnius, ii. 375, 394.

   Saturn, i. 494; ii. 39, 183, 184, 189, 378.

   ——, temple of, i. 254.

   Satyr, painted by Protogenes, iii. 29, 30.

   Satyri, ii. 180, 184, 186.

   Satyrium, near Tarentum, i. 425.

   Satyrus, king of Bosporus, i. 462, 476.

   ——, monument of, ii. 222.

   ——, founder of the city of Philotera, iii. 193.

   Saunitæ, _see_ Samnites, i. 372.

   Sauromatæ, i. 172, 194, 195, 452, 464; ii. 240, 302. _See_ Sarmatians.

   Saus, Sauus, r. of Hungary. _See_ Save.

   _Save, r._ i. 309, 482.

   _Savio._ _See_ Sapis.

   Scæan gates, in the city of Troy, ii. 351, 363.

   —— wall, ii. 351.

   Scæi, ii. 351.

   Scæus, r. in the Troad, ii. 351.

   Scamander, r. i. 90; ii. 358, 360, 361, 363, 369, 370, 378.

   ——, plain of, ii. 361, 362.

   Scamandrius, son of Hector, ii. 377, 378; iii. 66.

   Scandaria, Scandarium, prom. of the island of Cos, iii. 36.

   Scardon, a Liburnian city (_Scardona_), i. 484.

   ——, in Elis, ii. 347.

   Scardus, mtn of Macedonia (_Schar-dagh_), i. 505.

   Scarphē, c. of Bœotia, i. 95; ii. 103.

   Scarpheia, Scarphē, c. of the Epicnemidian Locrians (_Bondoniza_),
     i. 94; ii. 126.

   Scaurus, M. Æmilius, i. 323.

   Scēnæ, c. of Mesopotamia, iii. 159.

   Scēnītæ, Scenites, in Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, etc., i. 63, 196,
     441; ii. 219, 252; iii. 160, 166, 185, 190, 204.

   Scepsia, ii. 361, 375.

   Scēpsian territory, ii. 190.

   Scēpsians, ii. 361, 377.

   Scēpsis, ii. 300, 360, 369, 375-381; iii. 5.

   Scēpsius, Demetrius. _See_ Demetrius.

   Scēptūchiæ, Scēptūchi, ii. 225.

   Schĕdia, t. of Egypt, iii. 237-241.

   Schĕdieium, ii. 124.

   Schedius, ii. 124.

   _Schelidan Adassi._ _See_ Chelidonian Isles.

   Scheria, same as Corcyra, i. 459.

   Schœnŭs, c. of Bœotia (_Morikios_), ii. 58, 103.

   Schœnūs, r. of Bœotia, ii. 103.

   ——, port of Corinth, ii. 49, 63, 79.

   ——, clans of, i. 16.

   _Schuss._ _See_ Susa.

   Sciathus (_Sciathos_), isl. near Magnesia, ii. 140.

   Scillūs, t. of Triphylia, ii. 16.

   _Scilly Islands._ _See_ Cassiterides.

   Scilūrus, king of the Scythians, i. 471, 475, 479.

   Scingomagum, t. in the Alps, i. 268.

   Sciōnē, c. of Pallene, i. 511.

   Scipio, Metellus, iii. 281, 284, 285.

   —— Æmilianus, i. 283; iii. 51, 286.

   —— Africanus, i. 361.

   —— Caius, i. 317.

   —— Nasica, i. 484.

   Scira, vill. of Attica, ii. 82.

   Sciras, same as Salamis, ii. 82.

   —— Athene, ii. 82.

   Sciron, ii. 80, 81.

   Scirones (N.W. wind), i. 43.

   Scironides rocks, ii. 80, 82.

   Scirophoriōn, ii. 82.

   Sciros, rocks of, i. 43.

   Scollis, mtn of Elis, ii. 11, 13, 14, 74.

   Scōlus, c. of Bœotia (_Kalyvi_), i. 16; ii. 58, 103, 104.

   Scombraria, isl. near Spain (_Islote_), i. 239.

   Scombrus, iii. 25.

   Scŏpas, the sculptor, ii. 373; iii. 11.

   _Scopelo._ _See_ Peparethus.

   Scordistæ, Scordisci, i. 450, 454, 482, 483, 485, 488, 489.

   ——, Great, i. 488.

   ——, Little, i. 488.

   Scotūssa, c. of Pelasgiotis, i. 503, 504, 514; ii. 146.

   _Scripu._ _See_ Orchomenus.

   Scūltanna, r. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Panara_), i. 324.

   Scydisēs, mtn of Armenia (_Aggi Dagh_), ii. 226, 267, 296.

   Scylacium. _See_ Scylletium.

   Scylax, ii. 318, 340; iii. 37.

   ——, r. of Pontus (_Tschoterlek Irmak_), ii. 295.

   Scylla, i. 31-33, 36, 37, 39.

   ——, daughter of Nisus, ii. 55.

   Scyllæum, prom. and port of Italy, i. 35-37, 384.

   ——, prom. of Argolis (_Skylli_), ii. 47, 55, 207.

   Scyllēticus Sinus, Gulf of Scylletium (_Golfo di Squillace_), i. 380,
     392.

   Scyllētium, Scylacium, t. of the Bruttii (_Squillace_), i. 392.

   Scȳrus, isl. (_Skyro_), i. 187; ii. 124, 140.

   Scythia (_Tartary_), i. 13, 52, 99; ii. 216, 352.

   ——, desert of, i. 79, 82.

   ——, Little (or Tauric), i. 478, 489; ii. 279.

   Scythian nations, i. 247, 480, 481; ii. 235.

   —— bow, i. 188.

   —— history, i. 32.

   —— zone, i. 147; ii. 247.

   —— custom, i. 299.

   Scythians, i. 23, 51, 52, 106, 115, 172, 179, 180, 194, 195, 458, 461,
     462, 464, 467, 468, 475, 480; ii. 218, 219, 221, 230, 240, 244, 245,
     248, 273, 288, 302, _et passim_.

   Scythians of the East, i. 172.

   Scythopolis, c. of Galilee, iii. 181.

   _Sebaket-Bardoil._ _See_ Sirbonis.

   Sebastē, c. of Pontus, ii. 300.

   ——, same as Samaria, iii. 177.

   Sebennytic nome, iii. 240.

   —— mouth of the Nile, iii. 239, 240.

   Sebennytice, c. of Egypt, iii. 239.

   Secinus (_Selinda_), iii. 52.

   Segeda. _See_ Segida.

   Segesama, t. of the Vacciæ (_Sasamo_), i. 244.

   Segesta (_Sisseck_). _See_ Segestica.

   Segestes, father of Segimuntus, i. 446.

   Segestica (_Sissech_), c. of Hungary, i. 309, 482, 483, 488.

   Segida, t. of the Aruaci, i. 243.

   Segimūntus, prince of the Cherusci, i. 446.

   _Segni._ _See_ Signia.

   Segobriga, t. of the Celtiberi, i. 243.

   Segusii, or Segusiani, people of Gaul, i. 277, 286.

   _Seide._ _See_ Sidon.

   Seiris, r. of Lucania, i. 397. _See_ Siris.

   _Selefkeh._ _See_ Seleuceia.

   Sĕlēnē, or the Moon, goddess worshipped by the Albani, ii. 234.

   ——, by the people of Memphis, iii. 248.

   ——, cognomen of Cleopatra, iii. 161.

   ——, Greek name for Luna, c. and port of Etruria, i. 330.

   Seleuceia, c. of Susiana, iii. 154.

   ——, c. of Assyria, on the Tigris, ii. 262, 271; iii. 145, 146, 152,
         156, 162.

   ——, Pierian, c. of Syria (_Suveidijeh_), i. 486; iii. 61, 161-164,
         167.

   ——, fortress of Mesopotamia, iii. 161.

   ——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 53, 54.

   Seleucis, part of Syria, iii. 160, 161, 167, 171.

   Seleucus, the Babylonian, i. 8, 261.

   —— Nicator, king of Syria, ii. 334, 400; iii. 51, 74, 125, 145, 146,
        161, 162, 165.

   —— Callinicus, king of Syria, ii. 248; iii. 162, 168.

   Selgē, c. of Pisidia (_Surk_), ii. 324.

   Selgeis, ii. 323-325.

   Selgessus, same as Sagalassus, ii. 323.

   Selgic mountains, ii. 325.

   _Selidromi._ _See_ Icus.

   _Selindi._ _See_ Selinus.

   Sēlinūntia, hot springs in Sicily (_I Bagni di Sciacca_), i. 415.

   Sēlinūntius Apollo, worshipped by the Orobii, ii. 152.

   Sēlinūs, c. of Sicily, i. 412.

   ——, c. of Cilicia, iii. 52.

   ——, r. of Sicily, ii. 73; iii. 68.

   ——, r. near Ephesus, ii. 73.

   ——, r. of Elis, ii. 73.

   ——, r. of Achæa, ii. 73.

   Selinūsia, lake near Ephesus, iii. 14.

   Sellēis, r. near Sicyon, ii. 9.

   ——, r. of Elis, i. 502; ii. 9-11.

   ——, r. of the Troad, ii. 351.

   Selli, people of Epirus, i. 44, 502.

   Selūrus, i. 413.

   Sēlybria, c. of Thrace, i. 490, 518.

   Selys, i. 490.

   Sembritæ, Egyptians driven into exile by Psammitichus, iii. 195, 219.

   Semiramis, wife of Ninus, i. 129; ii. 271, 281, 309, 310; iii. 74, 75,
     122, 143.

   ——, rampart of, i. 124.

   Semnōnes, people of Germany, i. 445.

   Sēna, t. of Umbria (_Sinigaglia_), i. 337.

   Sĕnŏnes, people of Gaul, i. 289.

   ——, people of Italy, i. 291, 317, 322.

   Sentīnum, t. of Umbria (_Sentina_), i. 337.

   Sēpias, prom. and coast of Thessaly (_C. Demitri_), i. 512; ii. 148.

   ——, c. of Magnesia, ii. 139.

   Sepius, same as Sipus.

   Septempĕda, t. of Picenum (_S. Severino_), i. 357.

   Sēquana, r. (_Seine_), i. 281, 288, 290, 291, 297.

   Sēquani, people of Gaul, i. 278, 286-288, 291, 307, 310.

   Serapis. _See_ Sarapis.

   Seraspadanes, son of Phraates, iii. 160.

   _Sered._ _See_ Tigranocerta.

   Sērĕs, people of India, ii. 253; iii. 95, 97.

   Serguntia, t. of Celtiberia, i. 243.

   Seriphians, ii. 211.

   Seriphos, one of the Cyclades (_Serpho_), ii. 28, 211.

   Serrium, prom. of Thrace, i. 516.

   Sertōrius, i. 238, 242, 244, 439; iii. 281.

   Servilius, P. Isauricus, ii. 322; iii. 46, 55.

   Servius, king of the Romans, i. 348.

   Sesamum (_Sesamoides_), ii. 116.

   Sesamus, t. of Paphlagonia, ii. 291.

   Sesarēthii, people of Epirus, i. 500.

   Sesithacus, leader of the Cherusci, i. 446.

   Sesōstris, king of Egypt, i. 61, 96; iii. 74, 191, 194, 224, 244.

   _Sessola, Castel di._ _See_ Suessula.

   Sēstia, prom. of, in the Thracian Chersonese, i. 518.

   Sēstos, t. of the Thracian Chersonese, i. 164, 188, 518; ii. 350,
     352-354.

   ——, strait of, i. 517.

   Setabis (_Xativa_), i. 241.

   Sethroite nome, iii. 243.

   Sētia, t. of Latium (_Sezza_), i. 344, 347, 352.

   ——, wine of, i. 347.

   Sētium, prom. of Gallia Narbonensis (_Cape de Cette_), i. 271.

   Seusamora, c. of Iberia Caucasia, ii. 231.

   Seuthēs, king of the Odrysæ, i. 5, 6.

   Seven Brothers, monuments of the, iii. 278.

   _Severino, S._ _See_ Septempeda.

   Sextiæ, hot-baths near Marseilles, i. 267, 270.

   Sextius, i. 270.

   Sextus Pompeius, i. 213, 362, 386, 388, 404, 408, 411.

   _Sezza._ _See_ Setia.

   _Shirban._ _See_ Artemita.

   Sibæ, people of India, iii. 77, 94.

   Sibini, people of Germany, i. 445.

   Sibyl, Erythræan, ii. 321; iii. 18, 258, 259.

   Sicambri, i. 289, 444-446, 451.

   Sicani, people of Sicily, i. 407.

   Sicenus (_Sikino_), ii. 207.

   Sicilians, i. 9, 336, 385, 407; ii. 118.

   Sicily, i. 33-78, 84, 89, 93, 128, 164, 184-186, 194, 213, 224, 334,
     361, 362, 369, 376-378, 383-386, 388, 389, 392, 400-404, 407-409,
     411, 412, 414, 417-422, 425, 430, 437, 438, 459; ii. 4, 35, 41, 71,
     92, 116, 154, 158, 378, 404; iii. 32, 59.

   ——, Sea of, i. 85, 185-187, 315, 346, 379, 380, 400, 495; ii. 5, 16,
         287, 288, 297.

   ——, Strait of. _See_ Messina.

   Sicyōn, c. of Peloponnesus (_Basilico_), i. 410; ii. 5, 10, 53, 58,
     59, 65, 66, 71, 77, 107, 108, 116, 124.

   Sicyōnia, ii. 5, 62, 66, 103.

   Sicyōnii, Sicyonians, ii. 64, 66.

   Sidē, c. of Pontus, ii. 295.

   ——, c. of Pamphylia (_Eski Adalia_), ii. 323; iii. 45, 50, 68.

   Sidēnē, distr. of Pontus (_Sidin_ or _Valisa_), i. 82, 190; ii. 294,
     295, 296, 305.

   ——, c. and distr. of Mysia, ii. 347, 368.

   Sidētani, in Spain, i. 245.

   Sidicīni, people of Italy, i. 352, 436.

   Sidicīnum. _See_ Teanum.

   _Sidin._ _See_ Sidene.

   Sidōn, c. of Phœnicia (_Seide_), i. 15, 59, 64, 90, 201; iii. 167,
     169-174.

   Sidŏnes, people of the Bastarnæ, i. 470.

   Sidōnia (Pēdōnia?), isl. on the coast of Egypt, iii. 235.

   Sidonian women, i. 65.

   Sidŏnii, Sidonians, i. 2, 41, 60, 65, 66, 68, 458; iii. 173, 174, 215,
     216.

   Siga, c. of the Masæsylii (_Tafna_), iii. 282.

   Sigeia, prom. in the Troad, ii. 358, 372.

   Sigēlus, monument of Narcissus, ii. 96.

   Sigertis, king of India, ii. 253.

   Sigeum, t. of the Troad (_Ienischer_), i. 517, 518; ii. 358-363, 366,
     368.

   Sigia, ii. 373.

   Sigimērus, Segimerus, prince of the Cherusci, i. 446.

   Siginni, people inhabiting the Caspian, ii. 258.

   _Sigistan._ _See_ Dranga.

   Signia, t. of Latium (_Segni_), i. 352.

   Signium (wine), i. 352.

   Sigriana, distr. of Media, ii. 265.

   Sigrium, prom. of Lesbos (_Sigri_), i. 518; ii. 390-393.

   _Sihon._ _See_ Iaxartes.

   _Sikino._ _See_ Sicenus.

   Sila, forest of the Bruttii, i. 391.

   —, r. of India, iii. 98.

   —, t., i. 435.

   Silacēni, people of Assyria, iii. 154.

   Silanus, i. 258.

   Silaris, r. of Campania (_Silaro_), i. 374, 375, 380.

   Silēni, servants of Bacchus, i. 286, 288, 290, 291, 297.

   Silenus, ii. 186, 318.

   Silli, people of Ethiopia, iii. 16.

   Silphium (_Lucerne_), ii. 265.

   Silta, in Thrace, i. 518.

   Silvium, t. of the Peucetii, i. 432.

   _Simau-Gol._ _See_ Ancyra.

   _Simau-Su._ _See_ Macestus.

   Simi, iii. 197.

   Simmias, Rhodian, ii. 42; iii. 34.

   Simodia, iii. 23.

   Simoeis, r. of the Troad, ii. 358, 361, 362, 368.

   ——, r. of Sicily, ii. 378.

   ——, plain of, in the Troad, ii. 361.

   Simōnides, lyric poet, ii. 146, 210, 394; iii. 108.

   —— Amorginus, ii. 212; iii. 130.

   Simuntis, cognomen of Troy, ii. 74.

   Simus, physician, iii. 36.

   ——, lyric poet, iii. 23.

   Simyra, c. of Syria (_Sumrah_), iii. 167.

   Sinda, c. of Pisidia (_Dekoi_), ii. 324, 409.

   Sindi, Mæotic race, ii. 223.

   Sindic harbour, ii. 225.

   Sindica, distr. by the Cimmerian Bosporus, i. 478; ii. 219, 224, 305.

   —— Sea, ii. 219.

   Sindomana, c. of India, iii. 95.

   Singitic Gulf, Bay of Macedonia (_G. of Monte Santo_), i. 511, 512.

   Singus, c. of Macedonia, i. 511.

   _Sinigaglia._ _See_ Sena.

   Sinna, citadel of, iii. 170.

   _Sinno._ _See_ Siris.

   Sinōpe, c. of Pontus, colony of the Milesians, i. 72, 106, 113, 114,
     202, 216, 491; ii. 198, 225, 227, 284, 291-294, 302, 310; iii. 44,
     61-63.

   Sinopenses, ii. 291.

   Sinōpis, Sinopītis, Sinopic district, ii. 313.

   Sinŏria, fortress of Armenia, ii. 305.

   Sinōtium, t. of the Dalmatians, i. 484.

   Sinti, Sinties, or Saii, people of Thrace, i. 514, 515; ii. 169, 298.

   Sinuessa, Sinoessa, t. of Latium (_Monte Dragone_), i. 325, 347, 351,
     360, 361, 431.

   _Siphanto._ _See_ Siphnus.

   Siphnian bone, ii. 207.

   Siphnus, isl. (_Siphanto_), ii. 207, 208.

   _Sipuli._ _See_ Sipylene.

   Sipūs, c. of Apulia (_Siponto_), i. 433, 434.

   Sipylēnē, cognomen of Rhea, ii. 184.

   —— (_Sipuli Dagh_), ii. 184.

   Sipylus, mtn of Lydia, i. 91; ii. 326, 335, 337; iii. 66.

   ——, c. of Lydia, i. 91; ii. 326.

   Siraces, Siraci, inhabitants of the Caucasus, ii. 219, 238, 239.

   Siracēnē, ii. 236.

   Sirbis, r. of Lycia (_Kodscha_), iii. 47.

   Sirbōnis, Sirbōnitis, lake in Egypt (_Sebaket-Bardoil_), i. 79;
     iii. 176, 177, 182, 253.

   Sirens, i. 34, 35, 375, 387.

   Sirenusæ, Sirenussæ, prom. (_Punta della Campanella_), i. 34, 35, 39,
     368, 374, 375.

   Siris, c., i. 397-399.

   ——, r. Sinno, i. 397.

   Siritis, i. 380.

   Sirmium, c. of Pannonia, i. 483.

   Sisapō, c. of Spain, i. 214.

   Siscia, t. of Pannonia, i. 483.

   Sisimythres, stronghold of, in Bactriana, ii. 254.

   Sisinus, treasure-hold of, ii. 281.

   Sisis, ii. 304.

   Sisypheium, in the Acrocorinthus, ii. 62.

   Sisyrba, an Amazon, iii. 3.

   Sisyrbītæ, iii. 3.

   Sitacēnē, distr. of Babylon, of Apollōniātis (_Descura_), ii. 264;
     iii. 135, 146, 152.

   Sitacēni, ii. 223.

   Sithōnes, people of Macedonia, i. 506.

   _Sitia._ _See_ Dicte.

   _Sizeboli._ _See_ Apollonia.

   _Skilli._ _See_ Scyllæum.

   _Skio, isl._ _See_ Chios.

   Smintheas. _See_ Apollo.

   Sminthia, ii. 374.

   Sminthium, temple of Apollo, near Hamaxitus, ii. 190, 374.

   Smyrna, c. of Ionia, ii. 237, 298, 303, 336; iii. 1, 4, 8, 20, 43.

   ——, part of Ephesus, iii. 3.

   ——, Bay of, iii. 20, 21.

   ——, an Amazon, iii. 3.

   Smyrnæans, iii. 3, 20.

   Soandus, t. of Cappadocia, iii. 44.

   Soanes, people bordering on the Caucasus, ii. 225, 229.

   Soatra, t. of Lycaonia, ii. 321.

   Sōcrates, i. 452; ii. 95; iii. 114.

   Sodom, c. of Judæa, iii. 183.

   Sogdiana, i. 113; ii. 245, 248, 253-255; iii. 125, 126.

   Sogdiani, Sogdii, Sogdians, i. 112, 195; ii. 245, 248, 253.

   _Solfa-terra, la._ _See_ Forum Vulcani.

   Soli, c. of Cilicia (_Mesetlii_), ii. 74, 347, 382; iii. 45, 46, 50,
     53-55, 59-61.

   Soli, c. of Cyprus, iii. 70.

   Solii, iii. 70.

   Solmissus, mtn near Ephesus, iii. 11.

   Solŏcē, iii. 154.

   Sŏlōn, i. 154; ii. 83.

   Solyme, mtns of Lycia, i. 53; iii. 48.

   Solymi, people of Lycia, i. 8, 32, 54; ii. 328, 409, 410; iii. 48, 49,
     63, 65.

   Solymus, mtn of Pisidia, iii. 409.

   Somnus, ii. 341.

   Sōpeithēs, king of the Indians, iii. 92, 93.

   Sōphēnē, distr. of Armenia (_Dzophok_), ii. 260, 261, 268, 278, 304;
     iii. 44.

   ——, prince of, ii. 278.

   Sōphēni, ii. 272, 273, 278.

   Sophoclēs, i. 410; ii. 32, 42, 51, 81, 90, 135, 170, 186, 191, 377;
     iii. 9, 15, 59, 60, 76.

   Sōra, t. of Latium, i. 353.

   Soracte, mtn of Latium (_Monte di S. Silvestro_), i. 336.

   _Sorgue._ _See_ Sulgas.

   _Sorrento._ _See_ Surrentum.

   Sosicrates, ii. 193.

   Sōsipŏlis, Jupiter, worshipped at Magnesia, iii. 23.

   Sōssinati, people of Sardinia, i. 334.

   Sōstratus, tomb of, ii. 74.

   ——, grammarian, iii. 26.

   —— of Cnidus, iii. 227.

   Sōtades, ii. 19.

   ——, poet, iii. 23.

   Sōteira, harbour in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 194.

   Sōtēres, or Saviours, cognomen of the Dioscuri, i. 345.

   _Sour._ _See_ Tyre.

   Southern Sea, i. 183.

   Spadines, ii. 239.

   Spain, i. 3, 9, 13, 33, 43, 54, 72, 100, 101, 128, 141, 151, 152, 157,
     160, 161, 163, 165, 175, 180, 184, 192, 205, 206, 208, 210, 213,
     215-219, 222-226, 228, 229, 233, 234, 236, 240-242, 244, 245, 249,
     251, 252, 255, 263, 264, 267, 269, 279, 296, 302, 310, 325, 439,
     442; iii. 32, 108, 117, 283, 286, _et passim_.

   Spain, Citerior, i. 249, 250.

   ——, Ulterior, i. 240, 245; iii. 297.

   Sparta, i. 274; ii. 15, 25, 36, 40-44, 47, 49, 59, 153, 203.
     _See_ Lacedæmon.

   Spartans, i. 385; ii. 42, 202, 203.

   Spartarium, plain of, i. 241.

   Spauta (Capauta ?), marsh in Media (_Urmiah_), ii. 262.

   Spedon, ii. 113.

   Spercheius, r. of Thessaly (_Agriomela_ or _Ellada_), i. 95; ii. 55,
     129, 130, 136, 137, 148.

   Spermophagi, people of Ethiopia, iii. 195.

   Sphagia, Sphactēria, island, ii. 22, 36.

   Sphēttus, t. of Attica, ii. 88.

   Spina, c. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Spina-zino_), i. 318.

   Spinītæ, i. 318; ii. 119.

   Spitamenes, ii. 248, 255.

   Spŏlētium, c. of Umbria (_Spoleto_), i. 338.

   Sporades, islands, i. 187; ii. 192, 207, 211-213; iii. 33.

   Stadia, ancient name of Rhodes, iii. 31.

   Stagirus, Stagira, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513.

   _Stalimene, isl._ _See_ Lemnos.

   _Standia._ _See_ Dia.

   _Stanko, isl._ _See_ Cos.

   Staphylus, ii. 195.

   _Stapodia._ _See_ Melantian rocks.

   Stasanōr, iii. 70.

   Statanian wine, i. 347, 361.

   Statōnia, t. of Etruria, i. 335.

   Steganopodes, i. 68, 458.

   Steiria, vill. of Attica, ii. 89.

   Stēlæ. _See_ Pillars.

   Stenyclarus, c. of Messenia, ii. 38.

   Sternophthalmi, i. 68, 458.

   Stērŏpa, ii. 198.

   Stēsichorus, i. 67; ii. 21, 32.

   Stēsimbrŏtus, ii. 189.

   Sthĕnĕlus, king of the Mycenæ, ii. 59.

   Sthĕnis, ii. 293.

   _Stillida._ _See_ Phalara.

   Stiphane (_Ladik-Gol_), ii. 311.

   Stoa Pœcile, ii. 87.

   Stŏbi, t. of Macedonia, i. 504; ii. 77.

   Stœchades, islands, i. 276.

   Stoics, i. 24, 156.

   Stŏmalimnē, a salt lake, i. 275; ii. 358, 361.

   ——, village, iii. 36.

   Stŏni (_Sténéco_), i. 304.

   Stony Plain, the, i. 273.

   Stŏras, r. of Latium, i. 346.

   Strabo, geographer, i. 505, 507, 516, 517;
     his country, ii. 195, 197, 311;
     his ancestry, ii. 307;
     his masters, iii. 26, 27, 53, 173;
     his friends, i. 178, 209, 262;
     his age, 439;
     his travels, i. 91, 178, 332; ii. 61, 208, 255; iii. 102, 247, 262,
       265;
     his History, i. 21; ii. 251.

   ——, Pompey, i. 317.

   Straits. _See_ Gibraltar.

   Stratarchas, ii. 198.

   Stratia, t. of Arcadia, ii. 75.

   Stratius, priest, i. 114.

   ——. _See_ Jupiter.

   Strato, isl. of, in the Arabian Gulf, iii. 195.

   —— tower, in Judæa, iii. 174.

   ——, tyrant, ii. 294.

   ——, natural philosopher, i. 78, 80-82.

   Stratocles, Athenian, ii. 35.

   ——, Rhodian, iii. 33.

   Stratonice, ii. 401.

   Stratoniceia, e. of Caria (_Eski-Hissar_), iii. 37, 39, 40.

   ——, by the Taurus, iii. 40.

   Stratoniceians, ii. 383; iii. 39, 40.

   Stratonicus, ii. 381; iii. 28.

   Stratus, c. of Acarnania, ii. 159.

   ——, c. of Achaia, afterwards Dyme, ii. 74.

   Strongyla, one of the Lipari islands (_Stromboli_), i. 419, 421.

   Strophades, islands (_Strivali_), ii. 36.

   Strūthophagi, in Ethiopia, iii. 197.

   Strymōn, r. of Thrace (_Iemboli_), i. 496, 505, 506, 512-514.

   Strymonic Gulf (_G. of Orfano_), i. 512, 513, 515.

   _Stura._ _See_ Storas.

   _Sturæ._ _See_ Styra.

   Stygian stream. _See_ Styx.

   Stymbara, t. of the Deuriopes, i. 501.

   Stymphalian lake, ii. 52, 76.

   Stymphalides, ii. 52.

   Stymphalii, ii. 76.

   Stymphalus, t. of Arcadia, i. 416; ii. 52, 66, 75, 76.

   Styra (_Sturæ_), t. of Eubœa, ii. 153.

   Styrieis, ii. 153.

   Styx, at Lake Avernus, i. 363.

   ——, near Pheneus, ii. 76.

   ——, at Telchinas, iii. 31.

   Suangela, c. of Caria, ii. 383.

   Sūchus, the sacred crocodile, iii. 195.

   Sūcro, r. of Spain (_Xucar_), i. 238, 239, 245, 251.

   ——, t. of Spain, i. 238.

   Sudinus, iii. 146.

   Suessa, c. of the Volsci, i. 344, 352.

   Suessiones, people of Gaul, i. 289, 293.

   Suessūla, t. of Campania (_Castel di Sessola_), i. 370.

   Suevi, i. 289, 308, 444, 445, 448, 452.

   _Suez_, Isthmus of, i. 62, 458. _See_ Heroopolis.

   _Suffange-el-Bahri._ _See_ Myos-hormos.

   Sūgambri, people of Germany. _See_ Sicambri.

   Suidas, i. 503.

   Sulchi, t. of Sardinia, i. 333.

   _Suleimanli._ _See_ Blaudus.

   Sūlgas, r. of Gaul (_Sorgue_), i. 277, 285.

   Sulmō, c. of the Peligni (_Sulmona_), i. 359.

   _Sultan-Dagh._ _See_ Paroreia.

   _Sultan-Hissar._ _See_ Nisa.

   _Sumrah._ _See_ Simyra.

   Sun, Colossus of the, iii. 29.

   Sūnium, prom. of Attica (_Cape Colonna_), i. 140, 164, 188, 496, 506;
     ii. 78-80, 89-96, 150, 151, 154, 193, 208; iii. 7.

   Sūnium, demus of Attica, ii. 89.

   _Sur._ _See_ Tyre.

   Sūrena, iii. 31.

   _Surk._ _See_ Selge.

   Surrentum, c. of Campania (_Sorrento_), i. 34, 361, 368.

   Sūsa, c. of Susiana (_Schuss_), ii. 75, 122, 123, 132; iii. 130-134,
     152.

   Sūsiana, distr. (_Khosistan_), i. 201; iii. 83, 130-135, 142, 146,
     151-154.

   Sūsians, i. 196; ii. 264, 266.

   Sūsis, Sūsias, same as Susiana.

   Suspiritis, ii. 235.

   Sūtrium, c. of Etruria (_Sutri_), i. 335.

   _Suveidijeh._ _See_ Seleucia, Pierian.

   _Swiss._ _See_ Helvetii.

   Sybaris, c. of Lucania, i. 394-396; ii. 73.

   ——, c. of the Bruttii, a colony of the Rhodians, i. 398, 399; iii. 33.

   ——, r. of Lucania, i. 394-397; ii. 73.

   ——, ftn of Achaia, ii. 73.

   Sybaritæ, Sybarites, i. 373, 376, 399; ii. 119.

   Sybota, islands (_Syvota_), i. 187, 497.

   Sycaminopolis, c. of Judæa, iii. 175.

   Sydracæ (al. Oxydraceæ), people of India, iii. 76, 94, 95.

   Syedra, t. of Cilicia, iii. 52.

   Syēnē, c. of Egypt (_Assouan_), i. 50, 64, 130, 143, 171, 172, 178,
     200, 201; iii. 84, 217, 224-226, 264-266, 233, 243, 258, 263.

   Sylla, L. Cornelius, i. 331, 371; ii. 85, 89, 154, 308, 356, 357,
     380; iii. 32, 232.

   Syllæus, iii. 210-213, 267.

   Sylŏsōn, iii. 8, 9.

   Symæthus, r. of Sicily (_Giaretta_), i. 411.

   Symbace, c. of Armenia or Media, ii. 263.

   Symbŏlōn limen, or Signal harbour, in the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 474,
     475.

   Symbri, Symbrii (_prob. corrupt_), i. 321, 324.

   Symē, isl. of Caria, iii. 34.

   Symplēgadĕs, by the Thracian Bosporus, same as the Cyaneæ, i. 32, 224,
     256.

   Synnada, t. of Phrygia (_Afium-Karahissar_), ii. 332, 333.

   Synnadic marble, ii. 140, 333.

   Synoria. _See_ Sinoria, ii. 305.

   Syphax, iii. 282.

   Syracuse (_Syragusa_), i. 35, 186, 201, 368, 388, 389, 394, 402-409,
     413, 414; ii. 63.

   Syracūsans, i. 357, 389, 394, 407, 408; ii. 158.

   Syria, i. 63, 76, 90, 129, 189, 196, 416; ii. 145, 211, 240, 250, 262,
     264, 267, 273, 274, 281, 308, 404; iii. 50, 51, 60, 61, 130, 140,
     150, 158, 160-176, 179, 185, 207, 209, 216, 230, 232.

   ——, Upper, i. 201.

   ——, Lower, iii. 83, 150.

   ——, Cœle-Syria, i. 201; iii. 160, 161, 167, 169, 171, 185, 189.

   ——, Sea of, i. 129; ii. 279; iii. 160.

   Syrians, i. 66, 196, 440; ii. 290, 301, 304.

   ——, Leuco, ii. 301, 302, 304.

   Syriē, same as Syros.

   Syrmūs, king of the Triballi, i. 463.

   Syros (_Syra_), ii. 208, 211.

   Syrtis, on the coast of Africa, i. 185, 197, 198, 256, 403; iii. 275,
     282, 285, 288-291.

   ——, Greater (_Gulf of Sidra_ or _Zalscho_), i. 185, 190; iii. 289,
         290, 294.

   ——, Lesser (_Gulf of Cabes_), i. 185, 237; iii. 288-290.

   —— Lotophagitis, iii. 288.

   Syrus, i. 467.

   Syspirītis, distr. of Armenia, ii. 272.


   _Tab._ _See_ Croatis.

   Tabæ, c. of Phrygia (_Tabas_), ii. 324, 332.

   Tabēnian plain, ii. 407.

   _Tacazze._ _See_ Astaboras.

   Tænarum, prom. of Laconia (_Cape Matapan_), i. 187, 403; ii. 5, 40,
     41, 46, 55, 393; iii. 292.

   ——, t. of Laconia, ii. 36, 37.

   _Tafna._ _See_ Siga.

   Tagus, r. of Spain, i. 161, 208, 209, 214, 227-231, 243.

   _Takli._ _See_ Acra.

   Talabrŏcē, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 242.

   Talæmenes, ii. 403.

   _Talanta._ _See_ Atalanta.

   Talares, people of Epirus, ii. 137.

   _Taman._ _See_ Corocondame.

   Tamarus, prom. of India, ii. 257.

   Tamassus, t. of Cyprus (_Borgo di Tamasso_), i. 381; iii. 71.

   Tamna, t. of Arabia Felix, iii. 190.

   Tamynæ, t. of Eubœa, ii. 155.

   Tamyracas, or Corcinitic Gulf, in the Tauric Chersonese, i. 471, 473.

   ——, promontory, i. 473.

   Tamyras, r. of Phœnicia (_Nahr-Damur_), iii. 171.

   Tanagra, c. of Bœotia, ii. 66, 95-97, 99, 104, 105.

   Tanagræa, Tanagricē, ii. 92, 95, 96, 143.

   Tanaïs, c., situated on the river of that name, ii. 239, 224.

   ——, river (_Don_), i. 102, 157, 162, 163, 190, 191, 194, 442, 443,
         457, 470, 477, 480; ii. 1, 215, 216, 219-221, 224, 239, 240,
         243, 244, 303; iii. 296.

   Tanis, c. of Egypt on the Delta, iii. 240.

   ——, c. of the Thebaid, iii. 258.

   Tanitic nome, iii. 240.

   —— mouth of the Nile, iii. 239, 240.

   Tantalus, i. 91; ii. 326, 337; iii. 66.

   Taŏcē, c. of Persia (_Taug_), iii. 131.

   _Taormina._ _See_ Tauromenium.

   Tapē, c. of Hyrcania, ii. 242.

   Taphiassus, mtn of Ætolia (_Kaki-Scala_), ii. 127, 160, 171, 172.

   Taphii, Taphians, ii. 166, 170, 173.

   Taphītis, prom. on the Carthaginian coast (_Cape Aclibia_), iii. 288.

   Taphos, Taphiūs, island near Acarnania, ii. 166, 167, 170, 173.

   Taphrii, in the Tauric Chersonesus, i. 473.

   Tapŏseiris, c. of Egypt, iii. 236.

   —— the Less, c. of Egypt, iii. 236, 238.

   Taprŏbanē, isl. (_Ceylon_), i. 99, 111, 114, 180, 196, 200; iii. 81.

   Tapyri, people of Asia, ii. 248, 250, 258, 263.

   Taracōn, c. of Spain. _See_ Tarraco.

   Taranto, Gulf of. _See_ Tarentum.

   Taras. _See_ Tarentum.

   Tarbassus, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324.

   Tarbelli, people of Gaul, i. 283.

   Tarcon (Tarquin), governor of Tarquinia, i. 326.

   Tarcondimŏtus, king of Cilicia, iii. 60.

   Tarentini, Tarentines, i. 372, 389, 397-399, 427, 430, 438.

   Tarentum, i. 347, 377, 379, 393, 399, 400, 423, 425, 427-434, 497.

   ——, Gulf of, i. 313, 315, 377, 378, 393, 423, 429.

   Taricheæ, c. of Judæa, iii. 183.

   Taricheiæ, islands near Carthage, iii. 288.

   Tarnē, t. of Bœotia, ii. 110.

   ——, t. of Lydia, ii. 110.

   Taronitis, ii. 268, 269.

   Tarpētĕs, ii. 223.

   Tarphē, c. of the Locrians, ii. 110, 127.

   Tarquin. _See_ Tarquinius.

   Tarquinia, c. of Etruria, i. 326.

   Tarquinii, the, i. 327.

   Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius, i. 327, 344.

   —— Superbus, i. 327, 344, 438.

   Tarracina, t. of Latium, i. 344, 346, 347.

   Tarraco (_Tarragona_), i. 239, 241, 242, 251.

   Tarsius, r. of Mysia (_Karadere_), ii. 347.

   Tarsus, c. of Cilicia (_Tarsous_), i. 190; iii. 45, 50, 52, 55-59,
     162.

   Tartarus, i. 223, 224.

   _Tartary._ _See_ Scythia.

   Tartēssians, i. 51.

   Tartēssis, i. 223.

   Tartēssus, c. of Spain, i. 224, 226.

   ——, r. of Spain (_Guadalquiver_), i. 222, 223.

   Tarūsco, t. of Gaul, i. 267, 268, 279.

   _Tasch Kopri._ _See_ Pompeiopolis.

   _Tasch Owa._ _See_ Phanarœa.

   Tasius, leader of the Roxolani, i. 471.

   Tatta, marsh in Phrygia (_Tuz-Tscholli_), ii. 321.

   Taucheira (_Tochira_), c. of the Cyrenaic, iii. 291, 292.

   _Taug._ _See_ Taoce.

   Taulantii, people of Epirus, i. 500.

   Tauri, Scythian race, i. 476, 478.

   ——, Troglodytic mountains, iii. 194.

   Tauriana, distr. of the Bruttii, i. 379.

   Tauric Chersonesus. _See_ Chersonesus.

   —— coasts, i. 475.

   Taurīni, people of Liguria, i. 303, 311.

   Taurisci, Tauristæ, a people of Gaul, i. 307, 309, 310, 317, 450, 454,
     466, 482.

   Taurisci Norici, i. 310.

   Tauroentium, t. of Gaul (_Taurenti_), i. 269, 275.

   Tauromĕnia (_Taormina_), i. 404.

   Tauromĕnītæ, i. 412.

   Tauromĕnium, c. of Sicily (_Taormina_), i. 402, 403, 405; iii. 12.

   Tauropŏlium, temple of Diana, iii. 10, 186.

   Taurus, fortress of Judæa, iii. 181.

   ——, mtn of Asia, i. 32, 82, 105, 106, 113, 120, 125, 126, 128, 131,
         136, 139, 179, 184, 194, 195, 439; ii. 215, 216, 218, 226, 244,
         250, 255, 256, 259-262, 267, 277-279, 281, 284, 290, 314,
         321-325, 329, 333, 347, 355, 399, 400, 407, 409, 410;
         iii. 27, 40, 54-57, 60, 61, 73, 78, 120, 142, 143, 156, 297,
         _et passim_.

   Taurus, Pisidian, i. 195; ii. 319.

   ——, Cilician, ii. 276, 278, 319.

   ——, Anti-, ii. 259, 260, 278, 279.

   Tavium, ii. 320.

   Taxila, c. of India, iii. 82, 90, 111, 112.

   Taxiles, king of the Taxili, iii. 90, 92, 114.

   Taÿgĕtum, mtn of Laconia (_Penta Dactylon_), i. 311; ii. 37, 40, 46,
     164, 194.

   Teanum, Sidicinum, c. of Campania (_Teano_), i. 352, 370.

   ——, Apulian, i. 359, 436.

   Tearco, Ethiopian, i. 96; iii. 74.

   Teatea, c. of the Marrucini (_Chieti_), i. 359.

   _Tech._ _See_ Ilibirris.

   Tectosages, people of Gallia Narbonensis, i. 279, 280, 282.

   ——, people of Galatia, ii. 319, 320.

   Tĕgĕa, c. of Arcadia, ii. 8, 54, 58, 64, 75, 76.

   ——, territory of, ii. 76.

   Tegeatæ, ii. 60.

   Teichiūs, fortress near Thermopylæ, ii. 129.

   Teirĕsias, ii. 107, 111; iii. 15, 180.

   _Tekieh._ _See_ Pamphylia.

   Telamōn, ii. 83; iii. 69.

   Telchīnes, inhabitants of Rhodes, ii. 180, 188; iii. 31, 32.

   Telchīnis, name of the island of Rhodes, iii. 31, 32.

   Tēlĕboæ, i. 494; ii. 166, 170-173.

   Tēlĕbŏas, i. 494.

   Tēlĕclus, i. 425; ii. 37.

   Tēlemachus, i. 59, 62, 65, 503; ii. 9, 14, 17-19, 25, 46, 47, 155,
     173.

   Tēlephus, father of Eurypelus, ii. 327, 343, 346, 389.

   Tĕlĕsia, t. of the Samnites, i. 371.

   Telethrius, mtn of Eubœa (_Mt Galzades_), ii. 152.

   Tellēnæ, t. of Latium, i. 344.

   Telmēssis, prom. of, in Lycia, iii. 46.

   Telmēssus, t. of Lycia, iii. 46.

   Tēlos, one of the Sporades (_Tino_), ii. 212, 213.

   Tembriōn, founder of Samos, ii. 168; iii. 3.

   Tēmĕnium, t. of Argolis, ii. 48.

   Tēmĕnus, leader of the Heraclidæ, ii. 33, 34, 48, 77.

   Tĕmĕsa, c. of Magna Grecia, afterwards named Temsa, i. 9, 381.

   ——, in Italy, ii. 300.

   Temmices, occupy Bœotia, i. 493; ii. 93.

   Tēmnum, mtn in Mysia, ii. 390.

   Tēmnus, c. of Mysia, ii. 397.

   Tempē, vill. of Thessaly, i. 505, 507; ii. 77, 130, 131, 139-147, 272.

   _Tempsa._ _See_ Tĕmĕsa.

   Tempyra, c. of Thrace, i. 516.

   Tĕnĕa, t. of the Corinthians, ii. 63.

   Tĕnĕas, r. of Umbria, i. 337, 349.

   Tĕnĕdii, ii. 64.

   Tĕnĕdos, isl. and t. (_Tenedo_), i. 187, 410; ii. 213, 303, 339, 341,
     360, 372, 393, 394.

   Tēnĕric plain, in Bœotia, ii. 109.

   Tēnerus, son of Apollo, ii. 109.

   Tēnessis, distr. of Ethiopia, iii. 195.

   Tennes, son of Cycnus, ii. 64, 373.

   Tēnos, one of the Cyclades (_Tino_), ii. 156, 208, 211; iii. 9.

   Tentyra, c. of Egypt, iii. 260.

   Tentyrītæ, iii. 260.

   Tĕōs, c. of Ionia, iii. 2, 16, 17.

   Tĕrēdōn, c. of Babylon, i. 123; iii. 186, 187.

   Tereia, Tereiē, c. of Mysia, ii. 317, 346, 349.

   ——, mtn, ii. 349.

   Terentius Varro, i. 306.

   Tēreus, the Thracian, i. 493; ii. 122.

   Tergestĕ (_Trieste_), i. 482, 483; ii. 321.

   Terina, c. of the Bruttii (_Nocera_), i. 382.

   Termĕrium, prom. of Caria, iii. 36.

   Termerum, c. of Caria, iii. 36.

   Termēssians, ii. 409.

   Termēssus, c. of Pisidia, ii. 409, 410; iii. 48.

   Termilæ, inhabit Lycia, ii. 328; iii. 49, 63.

   _Terni._ _See_ Interamna.

   Terpander, ii. 393.

   _Teseni._ _See_ Themisonium.

   _Tet._ _See_ Ruscino.

   Tetrapolis, Athenian, ii. 56, 57, 67, 88.

   ——, the Dorian, ii. 114, 115, 125, 128, 195.

   ——, of Marathon, ii. 153.

   Tetra-pyrgia, in the Cyrenaic, iii. 294.

   Teucer, son of Telamon, i. 236; iii. 55, 56, 69.

   ——, of Attica, ii. 374.

   Teucrians, inhabitants of the Troad, i. 96; ii. 373, 374.

   Teumēssus, t. of Bœotia, ii. 104, 108.

   Teutamis, ii. 395.

   Teuthĕa, t. of Achæa, ii. 14.

   Teuthĕas, r. of Achæa, ii. 14.

   Teuthrania, distr. of Mysia, ii. 299, 326, 389.

   Teuthras (? Traeis), river of the Bruttii, i. 398.

   ——, king of Teuthrania, ii. 326-328, 346, 389.

   Teutons, i. 292.

   Teutria, isl. of, i. 434.

   _Teverone._ _See_ Anio.

   Thala, t. of Numidia, iii. 284.

   Thalamæ, t. of Laconia, ii. 36.

   Thales, Milesian, i. 12; iii. 5.

   —— of Crete, poet, ii. 202, 204.

   Thalēstria, queen of the Amazons, ii. 237.

   Thamyris, the Thracian, i. 513; ii. 10, 23, 24, 187.

   Thapsacus, c. of Babylonia (_Elder_), i. 120, 122-127, 130, 131,
     134-139; iii. 148, 150, 156, 157, 187.

   Thapsus, t. of Africa (_Demass_), iii. 284, 288.

   Thasian pottery, i. 487.

   Thasii, i. 515.

   Thasos, island (_Thaso_), i. 43, 187, 515, 516; ii. 50, 189, 210.

   Thaumaci, c. of Phthiotis, ii. 77, 136.

   Thaumacia, c. of Magnesia, ii. 140.

   _Theaki._ _See_ Ithaca.

   Thebaic keep, in Egypt, iii. 258.

   Thebaïs, part of Egypt, i. 67; iii. 84, 211, 221, 225, 243, 258, 260.

   ——, Thebais, Thebaïce, portion of Bœotia, ii. 97, 102-106.

   Thebans, i. 155; ii. 39, 43, 68, 92, 94, 104, 109-112, 175.

   Thēbe, city of Pamphylia, iii. 49, 63, 65.

   ——, Thebæ, city of the Troad, ii. 343, 344, 346, 348, 384-387, 394.

   —— Hypoplacia, ii. 343.

   Thebes, city of Bœotia, i. 499; ii. 66, 74, 93, 95, 97, 102, 103,
     107-109.

   ——, city of Egypt, i. 15, 46, 56, 64; ii. 112, 300; iii. 140, 245,
         257, 258, 261.

   —— Phthiotides, city of Thessaly, ii. 133, 135, 136, 138.

   ——, plain of, in the Troad, ii. 374, 385, 390, _et passim_.

   Thĕmella, prince of the Arabians, iii. 167.

   Thĕmis, ii. 121.

   ——, Ichnæan, ii. 138.

   Themiscyra, distr. of Pontas (_Djanik_), i. 82, 190; ii. 226, 236,
     237, 290, 294-296, 305.

   Themiscyran plain, i. 190.

   Themisōnium, t. of Phrygia (_Teseni_), ii. 332.

   Themistæ, i. 503.

   Themistocles, ii. 347; iii. 6, 22.

   Thĕna, t. of Africa, iii. 285, 288.

   Theocles, Athenian, i. 404.

   Theocritus, the Sophist, iii. 19.

   Theodectes, poet, iii. 87.

   Theodōrus, ii. 402; iii. 175.

   Theodŏsia, c. of Chersonesus (_Caffa_), i. 475, 476, 478.

   Theodŏsius, mathematician, ii. 318.

   Theomnēstus, of Cos, musician, iii. 36.

   Theōn-limen, city of Numidia, iii. 282.

   Theophanes, of Mitylene, ii. 220, 269, 271, 305, 392.

   Theophilus, maternal uncle of Strabo, ii. 307.

   Theophrastus, Peripatetic philosopher, ii. 88, 199, 378, 379, 392,
     393.

   Theopompus, of Cnidus, iii. 34.

   ——, of Chios, i. 69, 459, 487, 496; ii. 54, 57, 123, 152, 294, 352,
         407; iii. 19.

   Theoprosōpon, prom. of Syria (_Greego_), iii. 169, 170.

   Theoris, ii. 89.

   Thera, isl. (_Santorino_), i. 73, 89, 90; ii. 21, 206, 207; iii. 292.

   Therapnæ, t. of the Thebans, ii. 104.

   Thēras, founder of Thera, ii. 21.

   Therasia, isl., i. 89, 90; ii. 207.

   Theriaca, iii. 273.

   Therma, Therme, t. of Macedonia, i. 508-510.

   ——, Thermum, c. of Ætolia, ii. 176.

   Thermaic, Thermæan, Gulf (_G. of Salonica_), i. 140, 188, 496,
     505-510, 512; ii. 4.

   _Thermeh._ _See_ Thermodon.

   Thermessa, isl., i. 417-419.

   _Thermia._ _See_ Cynthus.

   Thermōdōn, r. of Pontus (_Thermeh_), i. 82, 457; ii. 237, 270, 295.

   Thermopylæ, i. 17, 57, 94, 95, 328; ii. 4, 118, 125, 127, 129, 131,
     136, 137, 151, 396.

   Thēseium, ii. 86, 87.

   Theseus, i. 30, 40, 76, 430; ii. 63, 80, 86, 88, 90, 197.

   Thespiæ, Thespeia, Thespia, c. of Bœotia, ii. 58, 95, 104-106, 111.

   Thespians, ii. 99, 107.

   Thesproti, i. 493, 496, 497, 502.

   Thesprōtia, i. 382, 502, 504; ii. 10.

   Thesprōtis, i. 9, 43, 502.

   Thessalian dress, ii. 272.

   Thessalians, i. 71, 319, 328, 500, 501, 503, 508; ii. 2, 4, 83, 114,
     130-149, 158, 195, 272, 287.

   Thessaliōtæ, Thessaliōtis, ii. 132, 138, 142.

   Thessalonica, Thessaloniceia, c. of Macedonia (_Saloniki_), i. 161,
     495, 496, 506-510, 516; ii. 77, 91, 115.

   Thessalonice, wife of Cassander, i. 509.

   Thessalus, son of Hæmon, ii. 149; iii. 31.

   Thessaly, i. 72, 328, 493, 501, 506, 507, 519; ii. 3, 11, 24, 32, 50,
     70, 75, 93, 107, 115, 123, 129, 131-149, 177, 195, 350, _et passim_.

   ——, mountains of, i. 43, 131.

   ——, plains, ii. 132, 133, 140-143.

   ——, dress, ii. 156.

   Thestiadæ, brothers of Althæa, ii. 179.

   Thestius, father of Leda, ii. 173.

   ——, father of Althæa, ii. 179.

   Thetidium, temple of Thetis, ii. 133.

   _Thiaki._ _See_ Ithaca.

   Thimbrōn, iii. 292.

   Thisbe, Thisbæ, c. of Bœotia, i. 25, 457; ii. 106, 107.

   Thoæ, islands, ii. 25, 169.

   Thoantium, part of the coast of Rhodes, iii. 33.

   Thoas, or Achelous, ii. 158.

   ——, king of the Ætolians, i. 381.

   Thome, or Ithome, ii. 141.

   Thōnis, king of Egypt, iii. 238.

   ——, c. of Egypt, iii. 238.

   Thōpitis, lake of Armenia, same as Arsene, ii. 270; iii. 156.

   Thōrax, mtn of Lydia (_Gamusch-dagh_), iii. 22.

   Thoreis, village of Attica, ii. 89.

   Thoricus, t. of Attica, ii. 88-90, 208.

   Thornax, ii. 41.

   Thrace, Thracia (_Roumelia_), i. 42, 43, 44, 93, 110, 164, 187, 194,
     311, 439, 443, 453, 466, 468, 481, 505-507, 510, 512, 515, 516;
     ii. 140, 147, 187, 188, 197, 327, 339, 340, 352, 358; iii. 66.

   Thracian Chersonesus (_Gallipoli_), i. 164, 188, 194.
     _See_ Chersonesus.

   Thracian Bosporus. _See_ Bosporus.

   —— army, ii. 67.

   —— tribes, i. 247, 482, 483, 496.

   —— mtns, i. 41, 488, 492, 504.

   —— race, i. 9.

   —— Sea, i. 42.

   —— coast, i. 9.

   Thracians, i. 164, 453-455, 460, 461, 463, 466, 468, 478, 481, 485,
     488, 493, 496, 506, 519; ii. 93, 105, 151, 187, 286, 287, 301, 316,
     318.

   ——, Cabrenii, ii. 351.

   ——, Xanthii, ii. 351.

   Thrasō, sculptor, iii. 13.

   Thrasyalces, of Thasos, i. 44; iii. 225.

   Thrasybulus, Athenian, ii. 87.

   Thrax, castle of Judæa, iii. 181.

   Thriasian plain, in Attica, ii. 81, 84.

   Thrinacia, name of Sicily, i. 400.

   Throni, prom. and t. of Cyprus (_Cape Grego_), iii. 69.

   Thronia, i. 67.

   Thronium (_Paleocastro_), i. 95; ii. 126, 127.

   Thryum, Thryoessa, t. of Triphylia, ii. 23, 24, 27, 28.

   Thucydides, i. 499; ii. 2, 36, 50, 56, 58, 122, 174, 366; iii. 41.

   Thule (_Iceland_), i. 99, 100, 157, 173, 299.

   Thumæum, same as Ithome or Thome, ii. 141.

   Thūmelicus, son of Arminius, i. 446.

   Thūnatæ, nation of Illyria, i. 485.

   Thuria, t. of Messenia, ii. 36-38.

   ——, ftn, i. 396.

   ——, c. of the Thurii, i. 427.

   Thurian wine, i. 397.

   Thuriatic Gulf, ii. 37.

   Thurii or Thurians, t. of Lucania, i. 379, 380, 390, 396-398, 427;
     iii. 35.

   Thurius, same as Herodotus, iii. 35.

   Thūsnelda, daughter of Segestes, i. 446.

   Thyamus, Thyamis, r. of Epirus, i. 497.

   Thyateira, ii. 402; iii. 21.

   Thymbra, plain near Ilium, ii. 362.

   Thymbræus. _See_ Apollo.

   Thymbria, village of Caria, iii. 6.

   Thymbrius, r. near Ilium, ii. 363.

   Thyni, people of Bithynia, i. 453; ii. 287, 304.

   Thynia, isl. ii. 289.

   Thynias, prom. and district of Thrace, i. 490; ii. 287, 289.

   Thyreæ, c. of Cynuria, i. 102, 103; ii. 58.

   Thyrides, isl. and prom. of Laconia, ii. 5, 36, 40.

   Thyssos, t. of Macedonia, i. 512, 513.

   Tianos, ii. 399.

   Tibarani, Tibarēni, ii. 267, 277, 285, 296, 304.

   Tibarania, distr. of Pontus, i. 476.

   Tibaranic nations, i. 195.

   Tiber, r., i. 322, 325-327, 330, 336-340, 345, 348, 349, 351.

   Tiberius, Emperor, i. 234, 307, 441, 447; ii. 392, 405; iii. 269.

   —— Gracchus. _See_ Gracchus.

   Tibius, relative of Strabo, ii. 307.

   ——, Paphlagonian name, i. 467; ii. 302.

   Tibūra, c. of Latium (_Tivoli_), i. 353, 354.

   Tiburtine stone-quarries, i. 354.

   Ticinum, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Pavia_), i. 323.

   Ticinus, r. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Ticino_), i. 312, 323.

   Tieium, c. of Bithynia (_Tilijos_), ii. 287-289, 291, 317.

   Tiga, c. of Mauritania, iii. 278.

   Tigranes, king of Armenia, ii. 270-274, 284, 381; iii. 154, 157, 164.

   Tigranocerta, c. of Armenia (_Meja-Farkin_), ii. 261, 274, 284;
     iii. 157.

   Tigris, i. 75, 122-124, 126, 134, 137, 416; ii. 260-262, 267, 270;
     iii. 131, 132, 146, 147, 150, 152, 156, 158, 162.

   Tigurēni, i. 450.

   _Tilijos._ _See_ Tieium.

   Tilphōssa, ftn of Bœotia, ii. 107, 110, 111.

   Tilphossium (_Petra_), mtn of Bœotia, ii. 107, 111.

   ——, t. of Bœotia, ii. 107, 110.

   Timæus, i. 274, 369, 390, 409; ii. 366; iii. 12, 32.

   Timagĕnēs, i. 280; iii. 108.

   Timavum, temple of Diomede (_S. Giovanni del Carso_), i. 319, 321.

   Timavus, r. of Istria (_Timavo_), i. 319, 321, 417.

   Timia, i. 349.

   Timon, iii. 230.

   Timōnītis, distr. of Paphlagonia, ii. 313.

   Timōnium, iii. 230.

   Timosthenes, i. 44, 139, 141, 142, 210; ii. 120; iii. 279.

   Timŏthĕus, Patriōn, ii. 293.

   _Tine._ _See_ Tenos.

   _Tineh._ _See_ Pelusium.

   Tingis, or Tiga, c. of Mauritania (Tiga), i. 210; iii. 278.

   _Tino._ _See_ Telos.

   Tirizis, prom. and citadel of Hæmus, i. 490.

   Tiryns, c. of Argolis, ii. 49, 54, 58; iii. 31.

   Tisamenus, son of Orestes, ii. 68, 77.

   Tisiæūs, c. of Numidia, iii. 284.

   Titanes, same as Pelagones, i. 514; ii. 188.

   Titanus, t. of Thessaly, ii. 143.

   Titarēsius, r. of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 145, 146.

   Titarius, mtn of Thessaly, i. 507; ii. 146.

   Tithōnus, father of Memnon, ii. 347; iii. 130.

   Titius, iii. 160.

   Titus Quintius, ii. 146.

   —— Flaminius, i. 421.

   —— Tatius, i. 338, 342, 343, 348.

   Tityri, servants of Bacchus, ii. 180, 183, 186.

   Tityrus, mtn of Crete, ii. 200.

   Tityus, ii. 121-123.

   _Tivoli._ _See_ Tibura.

   Tlepolemus, son of Hercules, ii. 9; iii. 31, 32.

   Tlōs, c. of Lycia (_Duvar_), iii. 45.

   Tmarus. _See_ Tomarus.

   Tmōlus, mtn of Lydia (_Bouz Dagh_), ii. 102, 185, 303, 353, 381, 396,
     402, 403, 407; iii. 8, 26.

   Tochari, Scythians beyond the Iaxartes, ii. 245.

   _Todi._ _See_ Tuder.

   Togati, i. 227, 250.

   Tolistobōgii, people of Galatia, i. 279; ii. 294, 319, 320.

   Tolōssa, Toulouse, i. 280, 281.

   Tomaruri, same as Tomuri, i. 503.

   Tomarus, Tmarus, mtn near Dodona, i. 501-503; ii. 137.

   Tŏmis, c. of Mœsia, i. 489, 490.

   Tomisa, Tomisæ, fortress of Cappadocia, ii. 278; iii. 44.

   Tomūri, i. 502, 503.

   Tŏpeira, c. of Thrace, i. 515.

   Toreatæ, ii. 223.

   _Tornese._ _See_ Chelonatas.

   Torōnæan, Torōnic, Gulf, in Macedonia (_G. of Cassandra_), i. 511,
     512.

   _Torre di Patria._ _See_ Liturnum.

   _—— Macarese._ _See_ Fregena.

   _Tortona._ _See_ Derthon.

   _Tortosa._ _See_ Dertossa.

   _Toulouse._ _See_ Tolōssa.

   Tōygeni, i. 274, 450.

   Tracheia, iii. 3.

   Trachin, t. of Phocis, ii. 123.

   ——, t. of Thessaly, i. 94; ii. 123, 129, 132, 135, 136.

   ——, Heracleian, ii. 103, 130.

   Trachina, same as Tarracina.

   Trachinia, distr. of Thessaly, ii. 66, 135, 156.

   Trachinii, ii. 123.

   Trachiōtæ, i. 196; iii. 50.

   Trachiōtis, Tracheia, _see_ Cilicia, iii. 50, 56.

   Trachōnes, mtns near Damascus, iii. 169, 171.

   Traclinia, ii. 4.

   Tragææ, islands not far from Miletus, iii. 6.

   Tragasæan salt-pan, ii. 374.

   Tragium, c. of Laconia, ii. 37.

   Tragurium, isl. (_Traw_), i. 186, 484.

   Tralles, c. of Lydia, ii. 145, 305; iii. 24, 25, 43.

   Tralliani, ii. 336; iii. 25.

   Transpadana, i. 316, 321.

   Trapĕzōn, hill of Syria, iii. 164.

   Trapĕzūs, c. of Pontus (_Trebizond_), i. 476, 491, 517; ii. 226, 294,
     296, 304, 305.

   ——, hill of the Tauric Chersonese, i. 476.

   Trapontium, t. of Latium, i. 352.

   Trarium, c. of Mysia, ii. 376.

   Trasumennus, lake, i. 336.

   Trebias, r. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 323.

   _Trebizond._ _See_ Trapezus.

   Trebōnius, iii. 20.

   Trēbūla, t. of the Sabines (_Monte Leone della Sabina_), i. 338.

   _Tremiti, islands of._ _See_ Diomede, isl.

   Trephea, lake in Bœotia, ii. 102.

   Trēres, i. 93, 96; ii. 246, 301, 329, 346, 405; iii. 22.

   Trērus, r. of Latium (_Sacco_), i. 352.

   Trēta, c. of Cyprus (_Capo Bianco_), iii. 70.

   Trētum, prom. of Numidia (_Ebba-Ras_), iii. 281, 282, 284, 285.

   Treviri, people of Gaul, i. 289.

   Triballi, Thracian race, i. 463, 468, 585, 588.

   Tribocchi, people of Gaul, i. 288, 289.

   Tricca (_Tricola_), c. of Thessaly, i. 501; ii. 36, 56, 141, 142, 156;
     iii. 22.

   Triccæus, Æsculapius, ii. 36.

   Trichæces, cognomen of the Dorians, ii. 195.

   Trichōnium, c. of Ætolia, ii. 159.

   Triclari, in Thessaly, i. 508.

   Tricorii, people of Gaul, i. 276, 303.

   Tricorythus, Tricorynthus, t. of Attica, ii. 59, 67, 90.

   Tridentini, i. 304.

   Triērēs, t. of Syria, iii. 169.

   Trieteric dance, ii. 186.

   Trieterides, ii. 185.

   _Trikeri._ _See_ Cicynethus.

   Trinacria, same as Sicily, i. 400.

   Trinĕmeis, vill. of Attica, ii. 91.

   Trinx (_al. Tinx_), t. of Mauritania, iii. 276.

   _Trionto_, i. 398.

   Triphylia, part of Elis, ii. 8, 11, 14-19, 21, 22, 33-35, 45, 53, 155.

   Triphyliac towns, ii. 17.

   Triphylian Sea, ii. 22, 28.

   Triphylii, ii. 8, 16, 22, 28, 31.

   Triphyllus, ii. 409.

   Tripodes, Tripodiscium, t. of Megaris, ii. 84.

   Tripolis, c. of Phœnicia, iii. 169.

   Tripolītis. _See_ Pelagonia.

   Triptolemus, father of Gordyes, i. 40; iii. 57, 157, 162.

   ——, tragedy of Sophocles, i. 40, 41.

   Tritæa, c. of Achaia, ii. 14.

   Tritæenses, Tritæeis, ii. 14, 71.

   Tritōn, t. of Bœotia, ii. 101.

   Tritōnis, iii. 291.

   Trōad, i. 8, 91, 172, 187, 189, 195, 202, 453, 517; ii. 56, 189, 277,
     317, 332, 338-390.

   ——, Pelasgic, i. 329.

   Trōades. _See_ Trojans.

   Trōas, Alexandreia (_Eski Stamboul_, or _Old Constantinople_),
     ii. 339.

   Trocmi, people of Galatia, i. 279; ii. 312, 319, 320.

   Trœzen, son of Pelops, ii. 56.

   —— (_Damala_), ii. 49, 55, 56, 58.

   Trœzenians, iii. 35.

   Trōgilius, prom. of Ionia (_Cape Santa Maria_), iii. 7.

   ——, isl. of Ionia, iii. 7.

   Trogītis, marsh, in Lycaonia, ii. 322.

   Troglodytæ, inhabiting the Arabian Gulf, i. 202, 203, 267, 489;
     iii. 203, 210, 215, 217, 219, 266, 280.

   ——, in the Caucasus, ii. 238, 239; iii. 203.

   Troglodytic, i. 197; iii. 88, 191, 193, 210, 235.

   Trŏphōnius, brother of Agamedes, ii. 119; iii. 180.

   Trophonius Zeus, oracle of, at Lebadea, ii. 111.

   Trojan war, i. 31, 61-63, 76, 224, 316, 377, 404; ii. 30, 72, 200,
     201.

   —— colony, i. 397.

   —— forces, i. 518.

   —— Minerva, i. 397.

   —— territory, i. 17.

   Trojans, i. 64, 274, 394, 397, 453, 508, 516; ii. 18, 162, 163;
     iii. 41, 184, 299, _et passim_.

   ——, Aphneian, ii. 344, 346.

   Troy, Troja, Ilium, ancient city of the Troad, i. 25, 26, 33, 55, 64,
     65, 76, 77, 91, 224, 330, 394, 398, 494, 499, 508, 509, 511, 514,
     519; ii. 16, 30, 74, 113, 132, 157, 174, 186, 191, 317, 339,
     350-363; iii. 34, _et passim_.

   ——, village of Egypt, iii. 252.

   Truentum, r. (_Tronto_), i. 357.

   ——, t. i. 358.

   Tryphōn, _see_ Diodotus, iii. 51, 165.

   _Tsana_, _see_ Psebo.

   _Tschandarlik_, _see_ Pitane, ii. 339.

   _Tschariklar._ _See_ Olbia.

   _Tschiraly._ _See_ Olympus.

   _Tschol-Abad._ _See_ Apollonias.

   _Tschorocsu._ _See_ Glaucus.

   _Tschoterlek Irmak._ _See_ Scylax.

   Tūbattii, people of Germany, i. 447.

   Tūder, t. of Umbria (_Todi_), i. 338.

   Tūisi, t. of Cantabria, i. 234.

   Tūkkis (_Martos_), i. 213.

   Tūllum, mtn, i. 308.

   Tunis, c. of the Carthaginians, iii. 287.

   _Turchal._ _See_ Gaziura.

   Turdētani, people of Spain, i. 209, 221, 226, 227.

   Turdētania, i. 209, 210, 212, 214, 216-219, 224, 226, 235.

   Turdūli, same as Turdētani, i. 209, 223, 227, 230.

   Tūriva, distr. of Bactriana, ii. 253.

   _Tuscany._ _See_ Tyrrhenia.

   Tusci, same as Tyrrheni.

   _Tuscolo._ _See_ Tusculum.

   Tusculan mountain, i. 351.

   Tusculum, c. of Latium (_Tuscolo_), i. 351-353, 355.

   Tyana, c. of Cappadocia (_Kara-Hissar_), ii. 281, 284, 347.

   Tyanītis, prefecture of Cappadocia, ii. 278, 281.

   _Tyche._ _See_ Fortune.

   Tychius, ii. 102, 403.

   Tychōn, ii. 348.

   Tymbrias, c. of Pisidia, ii. 324.

   Tymphæi, Tymphæans, i. 499, 501, 505.

   Tymphē, mtn of Epirus, i. 498.

   Tyndareian rocks, four islands on the coast of Marmora, iii. 235.

   Tyndaris, c. of Sicily (_S. Maria di Tindaro_), i. 401, 411.

   Tyndarus, ii. 173.

   Typanĕæ, c. of Triphylia, ii. 17.

   Typhoëus, ii. 403.

   Typhōn, i. 368, 369; ii. 336, 404, 406; iii. 163, 243.

   Typhōneia, iii. 260.

   Typhrēstus, mtn of Thessaly, ii. 136.

   Tyrambē, c. on the Cimmerian Bosporus, ii. 221.

   Tyranniōn, ii. 296, 380.

   Tyras, r. of Sarmatia (_Dniester_), i. 22, 162, 442, 468, 469, 478.

   Tyre, c. of Phœnicia (_Sur_), i. 91, 201; iii. 162, 169, 171-174.

   ——, isl. in the Persian Gulf (_Ormus_), iii. 187, 286.

   Tyregetæ, i. 177, 194, 443, 452, 470.

   Tyrians, i. 238, 255.

   Tyriæum, c. of Phrygia, iii. 43.

   Tyrō, daughter of Salmoneus, ii. 32.

   Tyrrheni, Tyrrhenians, i. 319, 322, 325-328, 331, 334, 335, 357, 360,
     367, 385, 404, 417, 438; ii. 197, 404.

   Tyrrhenia, Tyrrhenicē, i. 31, 35, 177, 301, 313, 323-330, 335-338,
     349, 415, 502; ii. 61, 387.

   Tyrrhenian cities, i. 331.

   —— Gulf, i. 139.

   —— Sea, i. 85, 159, 185, 193, 311, 314, 315, 325, 357, 360, 373,
        377-380, 403, 415.

   Tyrrhenian pirates, i. 345.

   —— diviners, iii. 180.

   Tyrrhenus, son of Atys, i. 326, 329.

   Tyrtæus, poet, i. 426; ii. 39, 45.

   Tyrtamus, same as Theophrastus, ii. 392; iii. 17.


   Ubii, people of Germany, i. 289.

   _Ucello._ _See_ Ocelum.

   Ucromirus, leader of the Chatti, i. 446.

   Ugernum, t. of Gaul (_Beaucaire_), i. 267, 268.

   _Ulan Robât._ _See_ Arachoti.

   Ulyssea (_Ulisipo_ or _Lisbon_), i. 224, 235.

   Ulysses, i. 18, 26, 27, 31, 33-37, 54, 60, 62, 64, 69-72, 76, 224,
     225, 236, 237, 328, 332, 346, 362, 364, 368, 376, 381, 459; ii. 9,
     46, 83, 115, 143, 162, 166, 167, 201, 364, 385; iii. 58.

   ——, altar of, iii. 288.

   Umbria. _See_ Ombria.

   Umbrians. _See_ Ombrici.

   Undalus, c. of Gaul. _See_ Vindalum.

   Uranopolis, t. of Macedonia, i. 513.

   Urgi (Georgi?), i. 470.

   Uria, t. of Calabria (_Oria_), i. 430, 431.

   ——, lake of Ætolia (_Xerolimne_), ii. 171.

   Uriathus. _See_ Viriathus.

   Urium, t. of Apulia (_Rodi_), i. 434.

   _Urludscha._ _See_ Œnoander.

   _Urmiah._ _See_ Spauta.

   Ursō, c. of Bætica (_Osuna_), i. 213.

   _Ushant._ _See_ Uxisama.

   Usipi, people of Germany, i. 447.

   _Uxeau._ _See_ Ocelum.

   Uxia, distr. of Persia, iii. 131.

   Uxii, people of Persia, ii. 264; iii. 131, 132, 135, 152.

   Uxisama, island (_Ushant_), i. 101.

   Uzita, t. of Numidia, iii. 284.


   Vaccæi, people of Spain, i. 228, 229, 243, 244.

   Vacūa, r. of Lusitania (_Vouga_), i. 229.

   _Vadi._ _See_ Sabatorum Vada.

   Vaga, t. of Numidia (_Bayjah_), iii. 284.

   Valeria, i. 353.

   ——, Via, i. 351, 353, 402.

   Valerius Flaccus, consul, ii. 356.

   _Van._ _See_ Arsene _and_ Thopitis.

   Vapanes, t. of Corsica, i. 333.

   Var, r., i. 267, 275, 302, 313.

   Varagri, Alpine race, i. 303.

   _Varassova._ _See_ Chalcis.

   Vardæi. _See_ Ardiæi, i. 484.

   _Vardari, the._ _See_ Axius.

   Varia, t. of Keltiberia, i. 243.

   ——, t. of Latium, i. 353.

   Varius Flaccus, ii. 356.

   Varus Quintilius, i. 446.

   Vascōns, people of Spain, i. 233, 242.

   Vates, i. 294.

   _Vathi._ _See_ Aulis.

   _Vathy._ _See_ Eretria.

   _Vedene._ _See_ Vindalum.

   Veii, i. 335.

   _Velestina._ _See_ Pheræ.

   Velitræ, t. of Latium (_Velletri_), i. 352.

   Vellæi, people of Gaul (_inhabitants of Vélai_), i. 284.

   Venafrum, t. of Campania (_Venafro_), i. 353, 361, 371.

   Venasii, ii. 281.

   Vendōn, t. of the Iapodes (_Windisch Grätz, or Brindjel_), i. 309,
     483.

   Venĕti, people of Gaul, _see_ Henĕti, i. 290, 291, 316.

   ——, in the Adriatic, i. 291.

   ——, of Paphlagonia, i. 316.

   _Venice, Gulf of._ _See_ Adriatic and Illyrian Seas.

   Vennōnes, people of the Vindelici, i. 304, 307.

   _Venosa._ _See_ Venusia.

   Ventidius, iii. 163, 164.

   _Vento Tiene._ _See_ Pandataria.

   Venus. _See_ Aphrodite.

   Venusia (_Venosa_), t. of the Samnites, i. 371, 379, 431.

   Vera, ii. 263.

   Verbanus (_Lago Maggiore_), i. 311.

   Vercelli, vill. of Cisalpine Gaul, i. 325.

   Vercingetorix, i. 285.

   Verestis, r., i. 355.

   Veretum, i. 429, 430.

   Verona, i. 306, 317.

   Vertinæ, t. of Lucania (_Verzine_), i. 379.

   Vescini. _See_ Vestini, i. 347.

   Vesta, i. 327, 340.

   Vestīni, i. 326, 338, 358, 359.

   Vesuvius, Mount, i. 39, 367.

   Vettōnes, people of Spain, i. 209, 228, 229, 243, 246.

   Vibo-Valentia, t. of the Bruttii, i. 383.

   Vicĕtia, t. of Cisalpine Gaul (_Vicenza_), i. 319.

   _Victimolo._ _See_ Ictimuli.

   Vienne, capital of the Allobroges, i. 277, 278.

   Villa Publica, in the Campus Martius, i. 371.

   Viminal Gate, in Rome, i. 348.

   —— Hill, i. 348.

   Vindalum, t. of Gaul (_Vedene_), i. 277.

   Vindelici, i. 287, 306, 307, 447, 448, 482.

   Viriathus, i. 238, 439.

   Visurgis (_Weser_), i. 445.

   Vitia, t. of Hyrcania, ii. 273.

   Vitii, people of Hyrcania, ii. 241, 248.

   Vivisci (Ἰοσκῶν), i. 283.

   _Vlacho._ _See_ Enipeus.

   Vocontii, people of Gaul, i. 268, 276, 279, 302, 303.

   Volaterræ, c. of Etruria (_Volterra_), i. 329.

   Volaterrani, i. 331.

   Volcæ Arecomisci, people of Gaul, i. 278, 279, 302.

   ——, Tectosages, i. 279.

   _Volo._ _See_ Iolcos.

   Volsci, people of Italy, i. 339, 343, 344, 353.

   Volsinii, c. of the Tyrrhenians (_Bolsena_), i. 335, 336.

   _Volterra._ _See_ Volaterræ.

   _Volturno._ _See_ Vulturnus.

   _Vona._ _See_ Genetes.

   _Vouga._ _See_ Vacua.

   Vulcan, i. 65, 418; ii. 190; iii. 248.

   Vulturnus, c. and r. of Campania (_Volturno_), i. 353, 361, 370.


   Wain, the (constellation), 4, 5.

   _Weser._ _See_ Visurgis.

   _Wesir Kopti._ _See_ Gadilon.


   Xanthia, t. of the Ciconi, i. 515.

   Xanthii, in Lycia, iii. 47.

   ——, Thracians, ii. 351.

   ——, a tribe of the Dahæ, ii. 245, 251.

   Xanthus, c. of Lycia (_Eksenide_), i. 201; iii. 45, 47.

   ——, r. of Lycia, iii. 47.

   ——, r. of the Troad, ii. 351.

   ——, king of the Bœotians, ii. 82.

   ——, of Lydia, historian, i. 78, 80; ii. 326, 336, 406; iii. 66, 67.

   _Xativa._ _See_ Sætabis.

   _Xelsa._ _See_ Celsa.

   Xenarchus, iii. 53.

   Xenŏclēs, guardian of Alexander’s treasure, i. 108.

   ——, orator, ii. 387; iii. 40.

   Xenocrates, Bithynian, ii. 299, 318, 382.

   Xenophanes, natural philosopher and poet, iii. 16.

   ——, tyrant, iii. 56.

   Xenophōn, ii. 73, 95.

   _Xerolimne._ _See_ Molycreia _and_ Uria.

   Xerxēne, district of Lesser Armenia, ii. 268.

   Xerxes, son of Darius, i. 17, 96, 516, 517; ii. 83, 84, 148, 254, 347,
     352; iii. 4, 6, 145.

   ——, canal of, i. 512, 513.

   ——, bridge of, i. 518.

   Ximēnē, distr. of Pontus, ii. 312.

   Xiphonia, prom. in Sicily, i. 403.

   Xoïs, isl. and c. of Egypt, iii. 240.

   _Xucar_, r. _See_ Sucro.

   Xūthus, father of Ion, ii. 67.

   Xypĕteon, ii. 374.


   _Yeni-kaleh._ _See_ Myrmecium.

   _Yniesta._ _See_ Egelastæ.

   Ypsilo Nisi, iii. 16.


   _Zab, the Little._ _See_ Caprus.

   _Zabache, Strait of._ _See_ Bosporus, Cimmerian.

   Zacynthians, i. 239.

   Zacynthus, isl. (_Zante_), i. 187; ii. 5, 163, 167, 169; iii. 291.

   _Zafra._ _See_ Zephyrium.

   _Zagaro Voreni._ _See_ Helicon.

   Zagrium, Zagrus, mtn of Asia (_Aiaghi-Dagh_), ii. 261; iii. 142.

   Zagrus, r., iii. 146, 153.

   Zaleucus, i. 390.

   Zama, t. of Numidia (_Jama_), iii. 282, 284.

   Zamolxis (_Geta_), i. 456, 457, 467; iii. 180.

   Zanclæans, in Sicily, i. 385, 405, 413.

   Zancle, i. 404.

   _Zante._ _See_ Zacynthus.

   _Zarang._ _See_ Prophthasia.

   Zardōces, Paphlagonian name, ii. 302.

   Zariadris, leader of the Armenians, ii. 269, 273.

   Zariaspa, same as Bactra, ii. 249, 253.

   Zarmanochegas, iii. 119.

   _Zeitun._ _See_ Pylaic Gulf, and Lamia.

   ——, _Gulf of._ _See_ Malea.

   Zēla, city of Pontus (_Zileh_), ii. 246, 309, 310.

   Zēlas, father of Prusias, ii. 315.

   Zeleia, city of the Troad (_Sarakoi_), ii. 299, 300, 317, 332,
     341-349, 360, 371.

   Zēlis (_Azzila_), t. of Mauritania, i. 210; iii. 278.

   Zēlītis, ii. 306, 309, 310, 312.

   Zella, iii. 285.

   _Zemorget._ _See_ Ophiodes.

   Zenicetes, iii. 55.

   Zeno, of Citium, Stoic, i. 24, 66, 458; ii. 334, 382, 387; iii. 69,
     215.

   Zeno, of Elea, the Pythagorean, i. 375.

   ——, orator, ii. 334; iii. 39.

   Zēnodōrus, robber, iii. 171.

   Zēnodŏtus, grammarian, ii. 110, 289, 302.

   Zēnophanes, tyrant of Cilicia, iii. 56.

   Zephyr, wind, i. 3, 42-44, 62.

   Zephyra. _See_ Halicarnassus.

   Zephyria, prom. of Cyprus (_Point Zephyro_), iii. 70.

   Zephyrium, prom. of Italy (_Cape Bruzzano_), i. 388, 389, 407.

   ——, prom. of Caria, iii. 37.

   ——, prom. of Cilicia (_Cape Zafra_), iii. 55.

   ——, prom. of Cilicia (_Cape Cavaliere_), iii. 53.

   ——, prom. of Egypt, iii. 238, 294.

   ——, place on the coast of Marmara, iii. 236.

   _Zerbi, isl._ _See_ Meninx.

   Zerethra, ii. 76.

   Zethus, ii. 107.

   Zeugma, at Thapsacus, ii. 263, 274; iii. 44, 157.

   ——, at Commagene, iii. 157.

   ——, at Samosata, ii. 274; iii. 44, 157.

   ——, Straits of, ii. 352.

   Zeus. _See_ Jupiter.

   Zeuxis, physician, ii. 336.

   _Zia._ _See_ Ceos.

   _Zigos._ _See_ Amacynthus.

   Zincha, t. of Numidia, iii. 284.

   Zoïlus, orator, i. 410.

   Zōnas. _See_ Diodorus.

   Zōstēr, prom. of Attica, ii. 89.

   Zūchis, lake and people of Libya, iii. 289.

   Zūmi, people of Germany, i. 444.

   Zygi, inhabitants of the Caucasus, i. 195; ii. 219, 224, 225;
     iii. 296.

   Zygopolis, city of Pontus, ii. 296.


LIST OF MODERN SPELLINGS OF THE TURKISH PLACE NAMES

As the Latin transliterations of Turkish place names were
made from Ottoman Arabic-Persian alphabet they are quite
different from the modern spelling of these names. The table
below is an attempt to interprete those in modern spellings.

  Afium-Karahissar.                 Afyon Karahisar
  Ak-Sera                           Aksaray?
  Aiaghi-Dag                        Ağrı dağı?
  Ak-Gol                            Ak göl
  Ak-Schehr                         Akşehir
  Al-gol                            Ala göl?
  Altun-Suyi                        Altun Su
  Balkesi                           Balıkesir?
  Beiram-dere                       Bayram dere
  Beiram-koi,                       Bayram köy
  Beiramkoi                         Bayram köy
  Bakir-Tschai,                     Bakır Çay (Kırmastı)
  Bakyr-Tschai                      Bakır Çay (Kırmastı)
  Boli                              Bolu?
  Bouz-dagh                         Bozdağ?
  Bounar-bachi                      Pınarbaşı
  Delidsche Irmak                   Delice Irmak
  Dikeli-Koy                        Dikili köy
  Doloman Ischai                    Doloman Çayı
  Erekli                            Ereğli
  Eski-Schehr,                      Eskişehir
  Eski-Scheur                       Eskişehir
  Eske-Adatia                       Eski-Antalya?
  Giaur-Kalessi                     Gavur kalesi
  Gedis-Tschai,                     Gediz Çayı
  Godis-Tschia                      Gediz Çayı
  Gok-su                            Gök su
  Gok-Irmak                         Gök Irmak
  Gumusch-dagh                      Gümüş dağ
  Gunescth-Dagh                     Güneş Dağ
  Jekil-Irmak,                      Yeşil Irmak
  Jeschil Irmak,                    Yeşil Irmak
  Ieschil Irmak                     Yeşil Irmak
  Jenikoi                           Yeni köy
  Ienischer                         Yenişehir?
  Ilan-Adassi                       Yılan adası
  Iéni-Kalé                         Yeni Kale
  Isnik-gol                         Iznik Gölü
  Jeralagoz-Dagh                    Yaralıgöz dağı?
  Kara-Koi                          Kara köy
  Kara-sui                          Karasu
  Karadgeh-dagh                     Karacadağ?
  Kara-Aghatsch                     Karaağaç
  Karadje-Burun                     Karaca Burun
  Kas-Owa                           Kaz ova?
  Kasdagh,                          Kaz dağı
  Kas-dagh                          Kaz dağı
  Karatepe-bournou                  Karatepe burnu
  Kerasun,                          Giresun
  Kera-sun                          Giresun
  Keschisch-Dagh                    Keşiş dağı
  Kizil-Ermak,                      Kızıl Irmak
  Kizil-Irmak                       Kızıl Irmak
  Kiutahia                          Kütahya
  Kodscha-Tschai                    Koca Çay
  Kopru-Su                          Köprü suyu
  Koum-kale                         Kum kale
  Kostambul Tschai                  Kastamonu Çayı?
  Kutschuk-Meinder                  Küçük Menderes
  Kiutahia                          Kütahya
  Ladik-Gol                         Ladik Gölü
  Menavyat-su,                      Manavgat suyu
  Menavgat-su                       Manavgat suyu
  Mender-Tschai                     Menderes Çayı
  Mesarlyk-Tschai                   Mezarlık Çayı
  Olou-Degniz                       Ulu Deniz?
  Pascha-Liman                      Paşa Limanı
  Pistatia-nut                      Pistachio-nut
  Roum-Kala                         Rum Kale
  Satal-dere                        Çatal dere?
  Sarikawak-Dagh                    Sarıkavak dağı
  Simau-Gol                         Simav Gölü
  Simau-Su                          Simav suyu
  Siwri-Hissar                      Sivrihisar
  Tuz-Tscholli                      Tuz Gölü
  Tschandarlik,                     Çandarlık
  Tschandarlyk                      Çandarlık
  Tschileh                          Şile?
  Tasch-Kopri                       Taş Köprü
  Tchadir-Dagh                      Çadır dag


JOHN CHILDS AND SON, PRINTERS.





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