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Title: The Sounds of Spoken English - A Manual of Ear Training for English Students (4th edition)
Author: Rippmann, Walter
Language: English
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THE SOUNDS OF SPOKEN ENGLISH
_All rights reserved_
[Illustration: THE ORGANS OF SPEECH.
_Plate III. in A. v. Luschka's 'Der Schlundkopf des Menschen,'
reproduced by permission of the Publishers, Messrs H. Laupp & Co.,
Tübingen._]
THE SOUNDS OF SPOKEN ENGLISH
A MANUAL OF EAR TRAINING FOR ENGLISH STUDENTS
BY
WALTER RIPPMANN
[Illustration]
LONDON: J. M. DENT & SONS, LTD.
BEDFORD STREET, W.C. MCMX
_First Edition (3000 copies), January 1906_
_Second Edition (2500 copies), November 1907_
_Third Edition (3000 copies), May 1909_
_Fourth Edition (4000 copies), December 1910_
Messrs J. M. DENT & SONS also publish the following
Books on Phonetics:--
_Extra fcap. 8vo, 1s. net_
SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH
SPOKEN, READ AND RECITED
This is a companion volume to the _Sounds of Spoken English_. It
contains a carefully graduated selection of passages in prose and
verse, transcribed with the signs of the International Phonetic
Association, and supplied with exercises. These and parallel passages
for practice are also given in ordinary type.
The _Sounds of Spoken English_ and _Specimens_ can also be
obtained in one volume, price 2s. net
_Extra fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. net_
ELEMENTS OF PHONETICS
ENGLISH, FRENCH AND GERMAN
Translated and Adapted by WALTER RIPPMANN
from Professor Viëtor's "Kleine Phonetik"
_Extra fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. net_
ELEMENTS OF FRENCH
PRONUNCIATION AND DICTION
By B. DUMVILLE, B.A.
_Extra fcap. 8vo, 2s._
A PHONETIC FRENCH READER
By S. A. RICHARDS, B.A.
_Extra fcap. 8vo, 8d._
FRENCH SPEECH AND SPELLING
A First Guide to French Pronunciation
By S. A. RICHARDS, B.A.
RIPPMANN'S SOUND CHARTS
THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH--LES SONS DU FRANÇAIS--DEUTSCHE LAUTE
Size 30 × 30 inches. Price, Unmounted, 1s. net; Mounted on
Linen, 2s. 6d. net, with Rollers, 3s. 6d. net
Small reproductions of the charts, with a table of keywords: 30
copies for 1s.
_The alphabet of the_ International Phonetic Association
_adopted in these books is also used in Dent's First
English Book, First French Book, First German Book,
First Spanish Book, First Latin Book, and other volumes
of Dent's Modern Language Series._
NOTE
As the title of this book is ambitious, and the sub-title may not
suffice to indicate its limitations, it is well to warn the reader
that he will find no exhaustive treatment of English speech sounds.
That would have required knowledge greater than mine, and more space
than was at my disposal. The little book is an attempt to gain
fellow-workers in a field which is unduly neglected, yet full of
promise. Fascinating indeed are the problems afforded by the speech of
those around us; perplexing often, stimulating to further inquiry.
It was in teaching the pronunciation of foreign languages that I first
realised how important it is to acquire a knowledge of the sounds of
the mother tongue. Before the learner can acquire the fresh habits of
speech peculiar to the foreign language, his teacher must know clearly
what distinguishes the new sounds from those familiar in the mother
tongue, for only then can the foreign pronunciation be imparted in
a methodical way. It has been shown convincingly that it is vain to
trust altogether to imitation, however correct and clear may be the
pronunciation of the teacher.
The book may therefore be useful to the teacher of foreign languages;
but it is intended also for a larger circle. In our Training Colleges,
noted for earnest work, the importance of the spoken language has long
been felt, and much attention has been devoted to the cultivation of
the voice. My object has not been to write on voice production, though
occasional reference to the subject has been made. It has not been
my aim to say how the language ought to be spoken, to improve upon
the ordinary speech of our day, but to represent it to the best of my
ability, and to enable others to distinguish speech sounds when they
hear them. If it be desirable to improve upon our speech, its present
condition and tendencies must first be determined.
The difficulties of the undertaking have been considerable; I
confess that I have often given my impressions rather than the
well-substantiated results of observation. I am confident that
particularly those who have had no phonetic training will regard as
slipshod some of the pronunciations which I state to be usual. I
can only ask them to put aside all preconceived notions of what is
"correct," and to listen carefully to the unconstrained speech of their
friends. If they still find that the facts do not bear out what is here
stated, they will do me a service by sending me their corrections.
The learned critic who chances to take up this book may feel offended
that I should have treated phonetics in so conversational a tone,
and disappointed at finding little or nothing with which he is not
well acquainted. My endeavour has been to put things very simply,
and to make the beginner in phonetics hear for himself. It is only
a first step; but I am not without hope that some will be induced
to take a second step and a third, until the number of students is
far larger than at present. The teachers in our schools have had
scant opportunities for ear-training, and the mother tongue has sadly
suffered.
I have been much encouraged in my work by the generous help of friends;
to Prof. A. T. Baker, Mr W. Osborne Brigstocke, Principal A. Burrell,
Dr E. R. Edwards, Miss E. Fogerty, Mr W. W. Greg, Dr H. F. Heath, Dr
R. J. Lloyd, Mr R. B. McKerrow, and Prof. G. C. Moore Smith, I am much
indebted for useful and suggestive criticisms.
_WALTER RIPPMANN_
LONDON
_1st November_ 1905
I am glad to say that it has not been necessary to make any
far-reaching changes in the later editions. That the book has aroused
interest is evident; and if its readers have not agreed with it in
every detail, that is what I fully anticipated and even desired, for
its object was to render students more critical in their consideration
of the spoken language. To make a dogmatic pronouncement on all points
would have been misleading.
This book has now been supplemented by a volume of _Specimens of
English_, in which I have given, in the phonetic transcription, a
number of passages ranging in style from the careful and elevated to
the colloquial and familiar.
_W. R._
_December_ 1910.
CONTENTS
SECT. PAGE
INTRODUCTION 1
1. Purpose of the Book 1
2. Different Ways of Approaching the Subject of
Spoken English 2
3. Standard Speech 3
THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 6
4. Breathing 6
5. Good Air 7
6. The Vocal Chords 9
7. Voice 12
8. The Velum; Nasalising 14
9. The Mouth Passage; Vowel and Consonant 16
10. Continuants 17
11. Stops 17
12. Place of Closure or Narrowing 18
13. The Epiglottis 18
14. Good Hearing 19
15. Shouting 20
16. THE REPRESENTATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS 20
17. The Inadequacy of the Spelling; its Causes 21
18. Spelling Reform 23
19. The Need of a Phonetic Alphabet 24
20. The Sounds of Standard English 24
THE SOUNDS CONSIDERED SEPARATELY 28
21. Stops 28
22. Lip Stops 29
23. The Tongue and its Parts 30
24. Teeth Stops 31
25. Front and Back Stops 32
26. Continuants; Lip Continuants 35
27. Lip Teeth Continuants 36
28. Teeth Continuants 37
29. The Hushing Sounds 38
30. The Hissing Sounds 40
31. The Lisping Sounds 42
32. The Liquids; the _r_ Sounds 43
33. The _l_ Sounds 46
34. Front and Back Continuants 48
35. The _h_ Sounds 50
36. Vowels 53
37. The _a_ Sounds 53
38. _a_ and _ə_ 55
39. The Front Vowels, æ and ɛ 57
40. _ai_ and _au_ 59
41. Middle and Close _e_ 60
42. The _i_ Sounds 61
43. The Back Vowels; Open _o_ 63
44. Middle and Close _o_ 67
45. The _u_ Sounds 68
46. SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH 72
47. Strong and Weak Forms 72
48. Unstressed Lax _i_ 74
49. Assimilation 74
50. Simplification of Consonant Groups 77
51. Stress of the Word 80
52. Sonority; the Syllable 83
53. Stress of the Sentence; Scanning 85
54. Stress 87
55. Pitch 88
CONCLUSION 89
56. Importance of Ear-Training 89
57. Public Speaking 90
* * * * *
APPENDICES--
I. Exercises 93
II. Lists of Words with Phonetic Transcription 97
_A_. General 98
_B_. Proper Names 111
III. On the Teaching of Reading 120
IV. Diagrams 121
INTRODUCTION
=1.= That a book dealing with English pronunciation in quite a
simple way should yet be intended for English readers rather than
for foreigners may seem to require some explanation. "Have I not
been talking English all my life?" the reader may ask; "why should
I concern myself with the pronunciation of my mother tongue?" If he
is quite satisfied with the way in which he speaks, and needs no
help in teaching others to speak, then this little book is indeed
superfluous--for him; but experience has shown that there are many who
are groping about in darkness, anxious for light on the subject. It is
above all the teacher who is constantly brought face to face with some
difficulty on the part of a pupil. He realises that something is wrong
in the pronunciation of a word, but he cannot clearly tell where the
fault lies; he trusts that improvement will follow if he repeatedly
utters the word correctly pronounced and gets the pupil to say it after
him. To his distress the pupil still says the word in the old way, and
at last the teacher gives up in despair. When a foreign language is
attempted, the difficulties become even more apparent; but these we do
not propose to consider here, except in so far as they throw light on
our immediate subject, the pronunciation of English.
=2.= There are several ways of approaching the question. We may
turn our attention mainly to the requirements of the public
speaker--clergyman, actor, singer, lecturer, reciter, or politician;
this is the province of the teachers of elocution. It must be confessed
that these have rarely had a scientific training; in many cases they
base their teaching on their own experience as reciters and on what
their powers of observation have enabled them to learn from their
pupils; and they frequently hand on traditions obtained from their own
teachers, which may have nothing but old age to recommend them. It is
to be feared that the majority of those professing to teach elocution
are little better than quacks; and by no one is this more readily
acknowledged than by the few who have made an earnest study of the art
of public speaking and singing.
The physicist considers the production of sounds from another point of
view; he measures the waves of sound with delicate instruments. The
physiologist, again, studies the organs of speech in a state of health
and sickness.
From all these the phonetician derives assistance. His concern is
the spoken language generally. He seeks to ascertain how sounds are
produced, and how they are represented in writing; he traces the
changes which sounds undergo according to time and place; he attempts
to determine the standard of speech for his own time and his own
surroundings; he considers how the pronunciation is best imparted to
the young and to foreigners.
When the reader has come to the end of this little book, he will see
how complicated these problems are, and how much yet awaits solution;
he may also have acquired some interest in these problems and desire
to give his help. Such help is urgently needed; the number of serious
students is distressingly small, and real progress can only be made if
their number grows considerably.
=3.= Reference has been made to the question of =standard speech=;
it is convenient to discuss this at once, as the standard selected
naturally affects the way in which the subject of English pronunciation
is treated.
It is generally agreed that there are two principal types of English
speech: Southern English, of which Dr H. Sweet is the best known
exponent; and Northern English, which Dr R. J. Lloyd has described
in an excellent book. Southern English may be defined as the English
spoken in London. The definition will at once strike the reader as
requiring some modification--for what form of English is not spoken in
London? and the dialect (or rather set of dialects) peculiar to London
and known as "cockney" is certainly not to be set up as the standard.
The object of speech is to communicate what is in the mind of the
speaker to others; the more adequately it attains this end, the better
it is. If there is anything in the manner of speech which attracts
attention to itself (for example, "talkin'" in place of "talking," or
"'ot" for "hot"), then our attention is distracted from the subject
discussed; we say that such faulty speech "jars" upon us. The same is
true if the pronunciation is indistinct, or the voice pitched too
high, or if the speaker stammers; we then suffer from the strain of
listening, and again the object of speech, to communicate thought, is
not attained with the least amount of effort. It follows naturally from
what has been said that it is our duty towards our fellows to speak
in such a way that nothing jars on their ear, nothing strains their
attention. To retain certain peculiarities of speech which we know to
differ from general usage is nothing short of rudeness. In a great man
we may overlook it, in acknowledgment of the services he has rendered
to mankind; but we who are in a humbler position must endeavour to
render it as easy and pleasant as possible for others to follow what we
say.
We are now able to give a better definition of standard speech as
considered in this book: it is that form of spoken English which will
appear to the majority of educated Londoners as entirely free from
unusual features. This speech will be acceptable not only in London,
but throughout the south of England; there is reason to believe
that it is spreading and nowhere will it be unintelligible or even
objectionable.
It must be confessed that on some points there is uncertainty,[1] and
these will be discussed later. Language is always changing, and the
younger generation does not speak exactly as the older generation
does. The standard of to-day will no longer be the standard a hundred
years hence. Nevertheless, it is well to inquire what may be regarded
as the best speech of our own day, with a view to conforming to this
speech and teaching its use to our pupils.
The question may here be raised whether we are to rest content with
the standard speech as here defined, or should strive to improve it,
for instance by aiming at simple vowels instead of diphthongs, or by
carefully uttering consonants which are now commonly dropped. Even if
it be desirable, it may well be doubted whether it is possible, so
subtle are the changes in our pronunciation, and so unconsciously are
they performed. There is a deep-seated tendency to economy of effort,
which it would be idle to ignore.
It must always be remembered that the phonetician is primarily
concerned with the question how people actually speak; the
determination of this must needs precede any attempt to decide how
people ought to speak.
In the following pages we shall consider the organs of speech, the
various classes of sounds, and how these are produced. Then we inquire
into their combination to form words, and the combination of words
in sentences. Incidentally we notice colloquial tendencies, the
requirements of public speaking, and other topics arising naturally
from our subject.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] It might be thought that reference to a dictionary would be
sufficient to settle disputed points. However, it may be said that no
dictionary--not even the familiar Webster or the great Oxford English
dictionary, now in course of publication--can be implicitly trusted in
matters of pronunciation.
THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
=4.= For speaking we need breath.
In ordinary breathing we take about the same time to draw the breath
into the lungs as to let it out. In English speech we use only the
breath which is let out; and when we are speaking we accordingly draw
it in quickly and let it out slowly. This requires careful adjustment;
if we are not careful, our breath gives out in the middle of a
sentence. This is one of the things that jar, and must be avoided.
The more breath we can draw in (or inhale) at once, the longer we can
use it for speech as we let it out (or exhale it). It is therefore to
our advantage to grow accustomed to taking deep breaths, and thus to
increase the capacity of the lungs.
"Deep breaths" expresses exactly what is wanted. The lungs are like
two elastic bellows. We may expand them only a little; we _can_ expand
them a great deal. The student should make himself familiar with the
shape of the lungs. They occupy the chest, which is a kind of box with
elastic sides and bottom. The sides are held out by the ribs, and when
the two sets of ribs are drawn apart, the sides of the box are made
larger. The bottom of the box (called the diaphragm) is not flat, but
rounded, bulging upwards when the lungs are empty. When, however, the
diaphragm contracts so that breath is drawn into the lungs to their
full capacity, it becomes practically flat. If at the same time we
extend the ribs, then we have a considerably increased space for the
lungs. Often, however, there is the less satisfactory kind of breathing
in which the ribs are not sufficiently active. The descending diaphragm
then presses on the soft parts underneath, and this in turn leads to a
pushing forward of the abdomen.[2]
Good breathing is essential not only for the singer or the public
speaker; it is essential for every teacher and for every pupil. It
is necessary for good speech, and it is necessary for good health.
The teacher should ascertain as soon as possible whether his pupils
are breathing well; a simple test is to determine how long they can
hold their breath. They should certainly all be able to do so for
forty seconds, and should gradually learn to emit a vowel sound for
at least thirty seconds without a pause, and with uniform pitch and
volume. Breathing exercises should form a regular part of the pupils'
physical training, and the teacher should make a point of drawing
the instructor's special attention to pupils whose breathing appears
defective.
=5.= The teacher should also make sure that =the air breathed= is the
best procurable under the conditions; he must never relax in his
care that the ventilation is good. The results of recent research
have not yet been sufficiently taken to heart, and much weariness and
ill-health are still due to quite avoidable causes. It may be laid
down as an absolute necessity that there should be a pause of at least
five minutes in the winter, and at least ten in the summer between
consecutive periods of teaching, the periods themselves not exceeding
fifty minutes, even in the case of the oldest pupils of school age.
During the interval the doors and windows should be thrown wide open,
and the room flushed with fresh air. The floor should be either of hard
wood treated with "dustless oil" or of cork linoleum. The blackboard
should be wiped with a damp cloth, in order to prevent the chalk from
vitiating the air. In this way the microbes and particles of dust will
be sensibly reduced in number, and the proportion of oxygen in the air
will remain satisfactory.
The seats and desks must be of such a kind that the pupils will
naturally assume =positions favourable for good breathing.= They must
be graduated in size; the seats must have suitably curved backs; and
there must be some adjustment by which the edge of the desk will
overhang the edge of the seat when the pupils are writing, whereas
there is a clear space between them when the pupil stands. This may
be obtained either by making the desk as a whole, or the lid of
it, move forward and backward; or by making the seat movable. It
is not the place here to enter into further details with regard to
these important matters; it must suffice to remind the teacher that
unceasing perseverance is required. Gently, but firmly, he must insist
that his pupils hold themselves well; not stiffly, of course, nor
without variety of position. To sit rigidly means a great strain for
a child[3]; and it is very desirable that pupils should have frequent
opportunities of changing their posture, and especially of resting
against the back of the seat.
=6.= It will often be found that a few minutes given to =breathing
exercises= in the middle of a lesson will serve to freshen the pupils.
An excellent set of exercises is given in Dr Hulbert's _Breathing for
Voice Production_ (publ. by Novello), which teachers will do well to
read and to put into practice.[4] Many of the throat troubles of which
teachers complain are directly due to bad breathing and bad ventilation.
Singing and speaking in chorus, if heartily done by all, may be
regarded as admirable breathing exercises, apart from their use in
other respects.
A few words with regard to chorus work may be useful to the teacher.
If well carried out, it can be of great service. The individual
is encouraged to speak up well; it is often found that the class
speaking in chorus is better in pronunciation than the majority of
those composing it. When a child speaks alone, self-consciousness may
make it hesitate or prevent it from raising its voice. But the chorus
work must be guided with care and used with moderation. Nothing could
surely be more objectionable than the monotonous sing-song into which
the reading of a class is almost sure to degenerate if all or nearly
all their reading is in chorus. The teacher will guard against this
by making the pupils _feel_ what they read, and thus insisting on
expressive and therefore interesting speech.
[Illustration: This diagram represents a vertical section through the
larynx, the hinder part of which is removed, showing the narrowing
through which the breath has to pass.]
Epiglottis.
Left vocal chord.
Right vocal chord.
Cases of mouth-breathing, usually due to adenoid growths, cannot be
cured by the teacher; but it is his duty to take the earliest possible
notice of such a case, and to ensure that those in charge of the child
are warned of the danger incurred by delay in consulting a medical man.
The breath on leaving the lungs passes through the windpipe--and in
ordinary breathing there is nothing in its way. In speaking, however,
there is often something in its way: a beautiful contrivance, capable
of the most varied and delicate adjustment, and known as the =vocal
chords.= They are situated where, in a man, we see the "Adam's apple."
[Illustration: View of the vocal chords opened to their widest extent,
showing the windpipe to its bifurcation.]
The accompanying illustration will serve to explain their nature.
It will be seen that the vocal chords spring from both sides of the
windpipe. They are really rather of the nature of flexible ridges
or shallow flaps than cords. By means of muscles acting on certain
cartilages they can be brought closely or lightly together. They
consist of a soft fleshy part at one end, and a harder cartilaginous
part at the other.
The position of the vocal chords, in other words the nature of the
_glottis_ (_i.e._ the opening between the vocal chords), modifies the
breath in many ways.
When they are apart, in what we may call the rest position, the breath
passes through unhindered. When we want a particularly large supply
of breath, as in blowing, we keep them still more apart. When we wish
to "hold our breath," we close them firmly. When we wish to "clear our
throat," we press them together and then let the breath come out in
jerks; if this is done violently and (as a rule) unintentionally, a
cough is produced; sometimes we do it slightly before the opening vowel
of a word spoken emphatically (this is commonly the case in German, and
is known as the "glottal stop").
We may also close only the fleshy ends, and leave the cartilaginous
ends open; then we speak in a whisper.
=7.= If we neither leave the vocal chords apart nor bring them together
quite closely, but let them touch lightly, then the air as it passes
out will make them vibrate; and breath accompanied by this vibration
is =voice=[5] in the narrower application of the word. In ordinary
speech this vibration is an essential part of all vowels and of many
consonants. They are accordingly called =voiced=[6] sounds; those
produced without vibration of the vocal chords are =voiceless.=[7]
The vibration can be felt in several ways. Utter a long _s_ and
then a long _z_ (the sounds at the beginning of _seal_ and _zeal_
respectively), again long _s_, again long _z_, and so on; at the same
time put your fingers to your throat, or put your hands to both ears,
or lay your hand on the top of your head, and you cannot fail to
notice the vibration every time you utter _z_. Try it also with _f v
f v f v_, etc., and with the sounds written _s_ in _sure_ and _z_ in
_azure_, and the sounds written _th_ in _thistle_ and _th_ in _this_.
Then proceed to _p_ and _b_, _t_ and _d_, _k_ and _g_ (as in _go_).
Lastly, utter a long _ah_ with full voice, and then whisper the same
sound softly. Ascertain in each case which sound is accompanied by
vibration of the vocal chords.
Utter a long _f_ and suddenly separate the lower lip from the upper
teeth, and nothing more will be heard; but utter a long _v_ and again
suddenly separate the lip from the teeth, and you will hear the
"voice," with a sound like the [ə] described in § 38. (It is the sound
uttered when we hesitate in our speech, and is usually represented in
writing by "er ... er.")
It is important that the vibration should be good. If it is slow, the
pitch will be low; if it is quick, the pitch will be high. But whatever
the pitch, the vibration must be uniform. To practise this, dwell on
various voiced sounds for a long time, emitting the breath slowly and
regularly.
Only the voiced sounds can be produced with varying pitch; they are
musical, the rest are noises. Notice, in church for instance, how the
tune is carried by the voiced sounds; the voiceless ones seem to break
the course of the tune.
When the vocal chords are short they vibrate more quickly than when
they are long, and quicker vibrations give a higher pitch. This
explains why the average pitch of a woman's voice is higher than that
of a man. When a boy's voice "breaks," this is due to certain changes
affecting his vocal chords; it is important that the voice should not
be subjected to any excessive strain when it is in this stage.
Certain affections of the throat interfere with the action of the
vocal chords, and they become incapable of vibrating; then we "lose
our voice." When we "lower the voice," we make the vibrations slower,
and lower the pitch. When we "drop the voice to a whisper," we are
intentionally preventing them from vibrating. This much diminishes the
carrying power of the voice, and we thereby ensure that our words are
heard only by those who are quite close. A peculiar variety is the
"stage aside," when the actor tries to convey the impression that his
words are not heard by those near him, yet desires them to be heard by
the spectators, many of whom are much farther away. This is a very loud
whisper; it naturally requires a considerable effort and is very tiring.
=8.= The breath which has passed between the vocal chords and issues
from the windpipe passes through the mouth, or through the nose, or
through both. This is rendered possible by a soft movable flap which
can at will be made to close the way through the nose, or--hanging
loosely--to leave both passages open. Take a small mirror and look at
the inside of your mouth, standing so that as much light as possible
falls into it; you will see this flap, the =velum=, hanging down with
a kind of ᐯ in the centre, the lower extremity of which is known as
the _uvula_. Still watching your mouth, inhale through the nose and
exhale through the mouth; see how the velum moves as you do this. After
a little while try to move the velum, closing and opening the nose
passage, without uttering a sound and without breathing.
In French there are four =nasal vowels= (occurring in _un bon vin
blanc_) in which the velum hangs loose, and breath passes through nose
and mouth. In standard English such vowels do not exist, but another
form of nasal vowel, producing a "twang," is sometimes heard in many
forms of what may be called dialect speech. The Londoner is often
careless about closing the nose passage, and some breath is allowed to
pass out by that way so as to be perceptible to the ear in the form of
friction, and to impair the quality of the vowels. The "nasal twang" is
very noticeable in some forms of American English.
The nasalising tendency may also be observed in untrained singers and
public speakers; it is undoubtedly a means of increasing the carrying
power of the voice, and of reducing the effort of making oneself
understood by a large audience. The same effect can, however, be
produced by training the muscles of the chest by means of breathing
exercises, and with more agreeable results to the ear.
Pupils who show a tendency to nasalising can be cured by frequent
exercises in uttering the mouth (or oral) vowels.
It is, however, maintained by some teachers of voice production
that the best vowel sounds are produced when the velum does not
quite prevent the passage of air through the nose.
In producing a =nasal consonant= (such as _m_), we stop the breath
somewhere in the mouth (_e.g._ at the lips when we utter _m_), and let
it pass out through the nose.
A cold in the nose often prevents the breath from passing through
it; and this renders it impossible to produce the nasal consonants
_m_, _n_, and _ng_ (as in _sing_), the kindred sounds _b_, _d_, and
_g_ being substituted for them. A similar difficulty is experienced
by children with adenoid growths. This is commonly called "speaking
through the nose"; it is just the reverse.
=9.= In speaking, as a rule, the passage to the nose is closed and the
breath finds its passage through the mouth. The shape of this passage
can be modified in many ways, because several =organs of speech= are
movable.
The lower jaw can be moved up and down.
The lips can be closed, or kept lightly touching, or the lower lip
may touch the upper teeth; or the lips may be apart, assuming various
shapes, from a narrow slit to a large or small circle. They may also be
thrust forward, protruded.
The tongue is capable of an even greater variety of position. Again
watch the inside of your mouth by means of your little mirror. Say _e_
(as in _he_), _a_ (as in _father_), _o_ (as in _who_), and observe the
movements of your tongue; then make the same movements, but without
uttering the sounds. You will soon feel how your tongue moves, without
needing to look at it. This consciousness of the muscular action of
your tongue is valuable, and you must take pains to develop it. Watch
the movements of your tongue as you utter other vowel sounds; they will
be treated systematically in due course.
By means of these movable organs of speech the mouth passage assumes
various forms; it may still be wide enough to leave a free course for
the breath, or it may be quite narrow, or it may be closed at some
point.
If the passage is free, the result is a =vowel=; if not, it is a
=consonant=.[8]
=10.= If the passage is so narrow at some point that the breath cannot
pass through without rubbing or brushing, we have a =continuant=
(sometimes called a fricative). Thus when we say _f_ or _v_, the breath
passes out through the teeth; the only difference between the two
sounds being that in saying _v_, the breath is also engaged in setting
the vocal chords vibrating. Say _e_ (as in _he_) and gradually raise
the tongue still further, thus narrowing the passage; you will reach
a point when you no longer produce a vowel, but a continuant, namely
the sound heard at the beginning of _yes_. These sounds are called
continuants, because we can prolong them at will; indeed, we can dwell
on them until no more breath is left in the lungs.
=11.= If the passage is closed altogether at some point, we have a
=stop=; the breath is stopped. Say _hope_ or _wit_ or _luck_ and notice
how in each case there is a closure at the end. Stops consist of two
parts: the closing of the passage, and the subsequent opening of it;
this opening resembles a little explosion, and stops are accordingly
sometimes called plosives or explosives. Observe that the ear does not
require to perceive both the closure and the opening; one is enough
to give the impression of the sound. When you say _hope_ or _wit_ or
_luck_, you need only hear the closing of the passage; you can leave
your mouth shut, yet to the ear the word will seem complete. (The
sound will, however, carry further if you open the passage again; and
in public speaking it is therefore to be recommended.) Similarly, in
uttering the words _pain_, _tell_, _come_, only the opening of the
passage is audible; yet the ear is satisfied. In the middle of a word
like _night-time_, carefully pronounced, we hear both the closure
and the opening; and the interval between the two gives our ear the
impression that there are two _t_'s.[9] In quick speech, however, the
closure is usually inaudible in such words or, more correctly, the
sounds overlap.
=12.= The narrowing or closing of the passage may be effected at
various points. The lips may be partially or completely closed; the
lower lip may be pressed against the upper teeth; different parts
of the tongue may be pressed against the teeth, or the gums, or the
palate. Pass your finger along the roof of your mouth, and notice that
only the front of it is hard; we distinguish the hard palate and the
soft palate.
=13.= When we are eating or drinking, the food passes down the gullet,
behind the windpipe. To prevent food entering the windpipe, which
causes a choking sensation and coughing, there is the _epiglottis_ (see
the diagram on p. 10), a cartilaginous flap which covers the top of
it; this flap is raised when we are breathing. Hence the wisdom of the
rule, not to speak while you are eating.
=14.= In order that speech may have its full effect, it is necessary
that the hearer should hear well; this is by no means so common as
is generally supposed. The importance of testing the eyesight is now
recognised; but the =hearing= is usually neglected. Attention must be
drawn to this matter, as teachers often regard pupils as inattentive
and dull and reprimand them, when they are really hard of hearing. The
teacher's mistake is to some extent pardonable, because the defect is
easily overlooked, especially as a pupil may hear badly in one ear
and not in the other, and thus seem inattentive only when the teacher
happens to be standing on the side of his defective ear. Further, it
is a defect which often varies in intensity from day to day, according
to the pupil's general condition of health. These considerations point
to the urgent necessity of instituting an inspection of the hearing in
our schools. The teacher can himself apply the simple test of seeing at
what distance the pupil is able to hear whispered double numbers, such
as 35, 81; each ear should be tested separately, a cloth being pressed
against the other. The teacher will note down the two distances for
each pupil, and will probably be surprised at the variations observed.
It is clear that defective hearing should constitute a strong claim for
a front seat in the class-room, more so than defective eyesight, which
can usually be rectified by the use of suitable spectacles.
It is hardly necessary to point out that lack of cleanliness in the
ears may interfere with the hearing, and that carelessness with regard
to the teeth may lead to their loss and to defects of speech, apart
from other unpleasant consequences. It is clear that anything in the
nature of tight-lacing renders good breathing impossible; and the
fashion of letting the hair cover the ears is also to be discouraged,
as rendering the hearing more difficult. In men, tight collars and
belts often interfere with the breathing.
=15.= Lastly, teachers (particularly male teachers) require to be
warned against =shouting=; this only tires them and irritates the
nerves of their pupils, while the same object can be achieved by
careful articulation. Where it is used "to keep the class in order,"
the teacher should earnestly consider how it is that others can keep
order without shouting; usually his difficulties in maintaining
discipline are due to ill-health, overstrain, or general incapacity.
When the throat is relaxed, a gargle with some astringent will be found
a simple remedy; a solution of alum in water may be recommended for
this purpose, or a bit of borax may be held in the cheek.
=16.= From a very early time the attempt has been made =to represent
the spoken language by means of signs.= Picture writing is a primitive
and clumsy expedient. It was a great step forward when signs were used
to represent syllables, a still further improvement when a separate
sign was used for each separate sound.
At first writing was roughly phonetic, in other words, one sign was
intended to represent one sound (or set of sounds), and one only;
and this is still what is required of an ideal alphabet. It is a
commonplace remark that =the English alphabet= largely fails to
fulfil this requirement. The same sign represents different sounds
(_s_ign, _s_ure, ea_s_y); the same sound is represented by different
signs (_c_atch, _k_ill, _q_ueen, la_ck_). Some signs are superfluous
(_c_, _x_); sometimes a sound is written, but not pronounced (lam_b_,
_k_nee); sometimes two signs, which separately express two sounds, when
used together designate a third sound altogether different from these
two (_ch_ in _ch_at and ri_ch_).
=17.= How are we to explain this bewildering state of things?
It is due to two causes--the natural development of the language, and
the pedantic interference of the learned.
Language is constantly changing. The rate of change is not perhaps
always the same, but change there always is. As we have seen above, the
older generation and the younger do not speak exactly alike. Now the
changes in the spoken language are gradual, and quite unconscious; but
a change in the recognised spelling of words is something tangible. It
conflicts with a habit we have acquired.
In mediæval times, when there was no printing, no daily paper, no
universal compulsory education, there was a good deal of freedom in the
spelling, and people wrote very much as they pleased--phonetically,
if they were not spoilt by "a little knowledge." But the invention
of printing and the dissemination of learning changed all this. A
uniform spelling came to be recognised; the nation acquired the habit
of regarding it as correct, and would tolerate no deviation from it.
Though it represents the pronunciation of a former age, we still
use it; and we are quite upset when we read the spellings _labor_,
_center_, _therefor_, nay even when two words are, contrary to our
usage, run together, as in _forever_.
When our spelling received its present form not only was the language
very differently pronounced, but the pedantic had already been able
to wreak their wicked will on it. Thus the "learned" men of mediæval
France spelled _parfaict_, though the _c_ of Latin _perfectum_ had
developed into the _i_ of _parfait_, and they did not pronounce the
_c_ which they introduced into the spelling. The word passed into
English, and here also the _c_ was at first only written; later on it
came to be pronounced. The "learned" similarly introduced a _b_ into
the French words _douter_ and _dette_ (because of the Latin _dubitare_
and _debita_), but had the good sense to drop it; we have it still in
_doubt_ and _debt_, though we leave it unpronounced. In later times
we find something similar: the learned force us to spell _philosophy_
with _ph_ and not _f_. The word comes from Greek through Latin; the
Greeks pronounced the _ph_ actually as _p_ plus _h_ at the time when
the Romans took to spelling Greek words in their language, and these
continued to spell _ph_ even when the Greeks no longer pronounced _p_
plus _h_, but _f_, as we do now.
=18.= The subject of =spelling reform= is not within the scope of this
book; but it presents itself naturally to all who take an intelligent
interest in the language. It seems probable that much good will be
achieved by the Simplified Spelling Society (44 Great Russell Street,
London, W.C.; annual subscription from 1s.), which has been recently
established and will undoubtedly profit by the experience of the sister
society in the United States. Such spellings as _wel_, _ful_, _tho_,
_thoro_, _bred_, _plesure_, will surely commend themselves as soon as
the eye of the man in the street has been made familiar with them and
the etymological sentimentalist has realised the astounding weakness of
his arguments.
However distant may be a complete reform, it is certainly helpful to
be conscious of the evil; only thus can we neutralize some of its bad
effects. The most obvious of these is the lack of =ear training= in
our schools, where the mother tongue has been learnt on the basis of
the written and not the spoken language. The only method for teaching
English reading and writing which can commend itself to the student of
the language no less than to the student of childhood is the method
identified with the name of Miss Dale. Apart from the sympathy and love
of children pervading all her work, it is of unusual importance because
she has solved the problem of starting from the spoken language, while
avoiding all phonetic symbols.
=19.= It is, however, convenient for the student of phonetics to
have a set of generally accepted signs; otherwise he would be unable
to express in writing the pronunciation in such a way that other
students could understand what he meant. Without phonetic symbols the
designation of sounds becomes awkward. It was one of Miss Dale's many
happy thoughts to connect sounds and their written form with definite
words, for instance the "moon oo" and the "fern er"; but however
suitable that is for the little ones, it is inconvenient for the
grown-up student.
There are many phonetic alphabets; all else being equal, the one most
widely used is clearly the most valuable. We have therefore chosen for
this book =the alphabet of the Association phonétique internationale,=
which is already well known in England owing to its use in a number of
books for elementary instruction in French, German, and even Latin. It
will commend itself to the student by its great simplicity. What will
really present difficulty is rather the determination of the actual
nature of the spoken word, than the representation of the sounds when
once determined.
=20.= We now give the sounds occurring normally in standard English,
and their phonetic signs; the signs for consonants which are likely to
be unfamiliar are enclosed.
=Consonants.=
=b= as in _bat_ _rabble_ _tab_
=p= as in _pat_ _apple_ _tap_
=m= as in _man_ _hammer_ _lamb_
=d= as in _dab_ _bidden_ _bad_
=t= as in _tap_ _bitten_ _pat_
=n= as in _nut_ _winner_ _tun_
=g= as in _gut_ _waggle_ _tug_
=k= as in _cat_ _tackle_ _tack_
=ŋ= as in _singer_ _sing_
=w= as in _wit_
[10]=ʍ= as in _when_
=v= as in _van_ _never_ _leave_
=f= as in _fan_ _stiffer_ _leaf_
=ð= as in _this_ _leather_ _clothe_
=θ= as in _thistle_ _Ethel_ _cloth_
=z= as in _zeal_ _easel_ _lose_
=s= as in _seal_ _lesson_ _lease_
=ʒ= as in _leisure_ _rouge_
=ʃ= as in _shed_ _ashes_ _dash_
=j= as in _yes_
=r= as in _red_ _very_
=l= as in _lip_ _pallor_ _pill_
=h= as in _hot_
=Vowels.=
_Attention should be paid to the signs for these, as many are
unfamiliar. The examples given will convey only a general idea of the
sounds, which are discussed in detail in § 36 and foll. The sign ː
indicates length, and ˑ half length_.
=iː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _bead_.
=ɪ= is the vowel sound in _bit_.
=eː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _braid_.
=e= is the vowel sound in _bet_.
=ɛː= is the first vowel sound in _fairy_.
=æ= is the vowel sound in _bat_.
=a= is the first vowel sound[11] in _bout_, _bite_.
=ɑː= is the first vowel sound in _father_.
=ɔː= is the first vowel sound in _glory_.
=ɔ= is the vowel sound in _pot_.
=o= is the first vowel sound[11] in _boat_.
=uː= is the first vowel sound[11] in _rude_.
=ᴜ= is the vowel sound in _put_.
=əː= is the vowel sound in _burn_.
=ə= is the second vowel sound in _better_.
=ʌ= is the vowel sound in _but_.
The following sentences written in the conventional and the phonetic
spelling will give some idea of the use of this alphabet for
representing connected speech as spoken (_a_) very carefully, (_b_)
quite colloquially.
For purposes of convenience the ɪ and ᴜ are not used in
ordinary transcript, as there is no danger of confusion.
(_a_) The seriou student of phonetics soon grows
ðə siᵊrjəs stjuwdənt[12] əv fo´netiks[13] suwn grouz
interested in the subject, and every fresh speaker
intərestid in ðə sʌbdʒikt, ænd evri freʃ spijkə[12]
presents new materials for study.
pri´zents njuw mə´tiːᵊriəlz fə stʌdi.
(_b_) Did you hear what he told me last night?
dʒu hiə wɔt i toul mi lɑːs nait?
FOOTNOTES:
[2] Another defective method of breathing consists in raising the
shoulders for the purpose of increasing the capacity of the lungs. The
shoulders should, however, not be moved at all in breathing.
[3] The custom of insisting on tightly-folded arms is not to be
encouraged.
[4] The exercises suggested by Mr Burrell in _Clear Speaking and Good
Reading_ (p. 16 and foll.) are also recommended.
[5] Also called tone.
[6] Or, toned.
[7] Or, untoned, breathed.
[8] This definition has its drawbacks, as will be seen later.
[9] Consider what happens in the case of such words as _vintner_,
_lampman_.
[10] It is doubtful whether this can be called a sound of standard
English; see § 31.
[11] It is most important that you should not confuse _sound_ with
_letter_. Thus in bead we have the letters _e_ and _a_, which represent
vowels in _bed_ and _bad_; but the _e_ in _bead_ has quite a different
value from the _e_ in _bed_. The two letters _ea_ in _bead_ together
represent two sounds which are described in § 42.
[12] In the _Specimens of English_ the diphthongs here represented by
[uw] and [ij] are simply printed [uː] and [iː].
[13] Observe that the accent [´] _precedes_ the stressed syllable.
In the _Specimens of English_ the vowel of the stressed syllable is
printed in =this type=.
THE SOUNDS CONSIDERED SEPARATELY
=Consonants--stops.=
=21.= The sounds which present least difficulty to the student are the
stops, in producing which the flow of breath is completely checked. We
have already seen in § 11 that every stop, strictly speaking, consists
of three parts, the closing and the opening of the passage and the
pause between, and that only the closing or only the opening need be
heard for the ear to distinguish the sound. The interval between the
closure and the opening may be noticeable, in which case we call the
consonant double.
Stops may be voiced or voiceless, that is, they may be produced with or
without vibration of the vocal chords (see § 7).
Stops may be produced by stopping the breath at some point in the mouth
and then letting it burst through the obstacle; these are =oral= stops.
The breath, stopped at some point in the mouth, may be allowed to pass
out through the nose; the sounds thus produced are called =nasal=.[14]
Utter the following sounds, and determine whether they are voiced or
voiceless, oral or nasal:
[p, g, n, t, b, k, m, d, ŋ.][15]
According to the place of articulation we distinguish lip[16] stops,
point[17] stops, front (palate)[18] stops and back (palate)[19] stops.
=22. Lip stops.=--When the breath is stopped at the lips, three
different sounds may be produced.
1. [p], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h][20]; thus _Pay,
pay!_[21] [pͪei, pͪei]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and
sometimes finally[22]: _I hope_ [ai houpͪ].[23]
[p] is written _p_ or _pp_; rarely _ph_ (as in a common pronunciation
of _diphtheria_ [dipθiːᵊriə], for which see § 27).
Notice the spelling of _hiccough_ [hikʌp].
2. [b], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
[b] is written _b_ or _bb_.
3. [m], when the velum is lowered and part of the breath passes out
through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when
it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be partly
voiced, then voiceless (phonetic sign: mˑ). Then _lamp_ is strictly
[læmmˑp]. We may say: [m] is =unvoiced= or =devocalized= before a
voiceless stop.) Notice the difference in length of [m] in _lamb,
hammer, glum, moon_; in which of these words is it short?
In _comfort, triumph_ the [m] is often labiodental: the breath is
stopped by the upper teeth and lower lip, not by both lips.
In _prism, schism_ the _m_ may have =syllabic= value; it then does the
work usually performed by a vowel. We say [prizəm] or [prizm̩], where
[m̩] is the sign for syllabic _m_.
[m] is written _m_ or _mm_.
=23.= In the production of the lip stops the tongue plays no part,
except by leaving a free passage; but it is active in the production
of the stops we next have to consider. This is therefore the right
place to give the names by which we designate the various =parts of the
tongue=. We distinguish
the _point_,
the _blade_ (above and behind the point when the tongue lies flat),
the _front_ (yet further behind), and
the _back_; also
the _ridge_ or _dorsum_ (an imaginary line drawn along the middle of
the top of the tongue from end to end), and
the _rim_ (running all round the edge of the tongue when it lies flat).
When the narrowing or closure of the passage is made by the front rim
of the tongue, we say it is of _apical_ formation; when it is made
by the surface of the tongue behind the front rim, we say it is of
_dorsal_ formation.
24. =Point stops=.[24]--The breath is stopped by the action of the
point of the tongue touching the teeth (in which case we have true
dentals) or the upper gums (this is known as _alveolar_ articulation,
"alveoli" being the learned word for the gums). In English the point of
the tongue rarely touches the teeth; usually it touches the upper gums,
sometimes the hard palate (this should be avoided), in which case it
approaches [k]. See the diagram on p. 126.
Hence in careless speech _at last_ sometimes becomes [ə´klɑːst].[25]
Little children are heard to say [ikl] for _little_; compare also the
change from Latin _tremere_ to French _craindre_.
Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage:
1. [t], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus _take it!_
[tʰeik it]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and sometimes
finally; _he sent me such a charming note_ [hi sent mi sʌtʃ ə tʃɑːmiŋ
noutʰ].[26]
In certain kinds of uneducated southern English speech [t] is
occasionally dropped between vowels, in such words as _water_, _butter_.
[t] is written _t_ or _tt_; _d_ in the _ed_ of verbs after voiceless
sounds, as in _stopped_ [stɔpt]; rarely _th_, in words of foreign
origin.
2. [d], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
[d] is written _d_ or _dd_.
3. [n], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through
the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is
immediately preceded or followed by a voiceless sound, it may become
voiceless (n̥) in part. Then _sneer_ is strictly [sn̥niə], _hint_
[hinn̥t].) Notice the difference in length of [n] in _mine_, _own_,
_manner_, _an_, _name_; in which of these words is it long?
In _month_, _anthem_ the [n] is a true dental: the tongue touches the
teeth.
In _listen_, _open_ we may have syllabic _n_ [n̩]. Compare what was
said about syllabic _m_ in § 22.
[n] is written _n_ or _nn_.
=25. Front and back stops.=--The breath is stopped by some part of the
ridge of the tongue meeting
the front or hard palate, giving _front stops_; or
the back or soft palate, giving _back stops_.
Say [ku] and then [ki]; now whisper them. In which case is the closure
more forward in the mouth? Compare with these the place of closure when
you say [kɑ].
From these examples it will be seen that the effect for the ear is very
much the same, and we shall here make use of the same signs for front
and back stops.
In cockney speech there is a distinct tendency to make the closure
so far forward that the [k, g] are perceptibly modified. (This
pronunciation is suggested by the spelling _gyarden_, _kyind_, employed
by those who try to represent cockney speech.) The "palatalizing"
tendency is not to be encouraged; a more effective [k] is produced by
distinctly backward articulation. Slight variations in the place of
closure due to the place of articulation of neighbouring sounds in a
word are inevitable.
Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage.
1. [k], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus _come, come!_
[kʰʌm, kʰʌm]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, sometimes
finally, _give him a good shake!_ [giv im ə gud ʃeikʰ].[27]
[k] is written _c_, _k_, _ck_, _cc_ (as in _accuse_ [ə´kjuwz]), _ch_
(as in _chord_ [kɔːd]), _q_ (as in _queen_ [kwijn]); [ks] as _ks_,
_cc_, _x_, _xc_.
2. [g], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
Sometimes [g] is pronounced with the tip of the tongue so that it
sounds like [d]; thus _glory_ becomes _dlory_ [dlɔːri]. The way in
which [l] is produced (see § 33) explains this.
[g] is written _g_ and _gg_; rarely _gh_ (as in _ghost_ [goust]). For
[ks] and [gz] written x see § 30.
3. [ŋ], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through
the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is
immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be at first voiced,
then voiceless [̇ŋ̇]; the [ŋ] may be unvoiced (see § 23, 3) before
a voiceless stop. Then _length_ is strictly [leŋŋ̇θ] or [leŋŋ̇kθ].)
Notice the difference in length of [ŋ] in _sing, singer, drink, bang_;
in which of these words is it short?
[ŋ] is written _ng_, as in _long_ [lɔŋ], and _n_ before _g_, _k_, or
_x_, as in _longer_ [lɔŋgə], _lank_ [læŋk], _lynx_ [liŋks]. What does
ng represent in _singer_? in _finger_? in _English_?
The "dropping of g" is really an incorrect term. There is no [g] in
the ending-_ing_ [iŋ];[28] what does take place is the substitution of
[n] for [ŋ]. This occurs in baby speech, in vulgar speech, and in the
speech of some sections of society. It is on no account to be tolerated.
The opposite mistake is made only by the uneducated, who pronounce
_kitchen_ as [kitʃiŋ], _chicken_ as [tʃikiŋ], and _sudden_ as [sʌdiŋ].
Notice the substitution of this sound by the uneducated for the
unfamiliar palatal nasal [ɲ] in _Boulogne_ [bulɔɲ], the uneducated
[bulɔŋ],[29] and for the equally unfamiliar nasal vowel [ɑ̃] in the
French word _continent_ [kɔ̃tinɑ̃], the uneducated [kɔntinɔŋ].
For [n] becoming [m] or [ŋ] by assimilation, see § 49.
=26. Consonants--continuants.=
It will be seen that the articulations of these sounds are more
difficult to analyse than those of the stops. There is, roughly
speaking, only one way of closing a passage entirely; but there are
various ways of closing it partially.
The continuants usually go in pairs, one being voiceless, the other
voiced.
* * * * *
=Lip continuants.=--The breath passes between the two lips (hence the
term _bilabials_); the tongue is in a position somewhat closer than
the [u] position, _i.e._ bunched up at the back (see § 43), and we may
therefore call these sounds lip-velar continuants.
The voiced sound [w] is that commonly used in standard English, whether
the spelling be _w_ or _wh_. In northern English and in Scotch the
voiceless [ʍ] is used where the ordinary spelling has _wh_.
It is very doubtful whether [ʍ] has a right to be regarded as a normal
sound in standard English. It is taught by professors of elocution,
and is therefore commonly heard at recitals and also at amateur
theatricals. On the regular stage it is by no means the rule, and
in the pulpit it is probably the exception. If it comes naturally
to pupils, who bring it with them from the North, they need not be
interfered with; there is certainly no good reason why it should be
forced on speakers of southern English, who generally produce a grossly
exaggerated and quite ludicrous travesty of the northern sound. Which
do you use yourself? If [ʍ], is it natural to you, or acquired? Do the
rest of your family use it? Any of your friends? What proportion of
children in your class?
It may be noted that after voiceless sounds [ʍ] sometimes takes the
place of [w], even in standard English; _twenty_ is pronounced [twenti]
or [tʍenti] and _swim_ [swim] or [sʍim]. Sometimes also the sound [ʍ]
is heard in _where_ pronounced with great emphasis, in the case of
speakers who do not ordinarily use it.
It should be noted that these sounds are not continuants in the
strict sense of the term, for the lips are gradually brought nearer
and gradually drawn apart. The sounds do not _continue_ in the same
position at all; hence they have been described as "gliding," not
"held."
The word _conquer_ is sometimes pedantically pronounced [kɔŋkwə]
instead of [kɔŋkə]; but it is the rule to sound the [w] in _conquest_.
Compare _liquor_ [likə], _exchequer_ [eks´tʃekə].
A _w_ has often influenced a following _a_. Consider the following
cases:
_was_, _warm_, _squabble_, _quality_, _quack_, _quarrel_, _quaff_,
_wasp_, _water_, _waft_, _walk_, _swallow_.
=27. Lip teeth continuants.=--The breath passes between the lower lip
and the upper teeth (also between the interstices of the upper teeth);
the sounds produced in this way are also called _labiodentals_.
* * * * *
The voiceless sound [f] is usually written _f_ or _ff_, also _ph_ (in
words taken from Greek); note also the _gh_ in _laugh_, etc.
Notice our reluctance to pronounce _phth_ [fθ], as shown in the
dropping of _ph_ in _phthisis_, and the frequent substitution of _p_
for _ph_ in _diphtheria_, _diphthong_, _naphtha_, _ophthalmia_, which
is, however, avoided by careful speakers.
* * * * *
The voiced sound [v] is usually written _v_.
Sounds very like [f, v] can be produced with both lips. Though they do
not ordinarily occur in English, it will be good practice for you to
produce them.
When [v] is final, it is not voiced to the end, but passes into
whispered [v] (symbol v̥), which sounds very much like voiceless [f];
in other words, the vocal chords cease to vibrate before the breath
ceases to pass between the lower lip and the upper teeth. We may say:
final [v] is devocalised.
Observe _thief_, but _thieves_ and _to thieve_; _loaf_, but _loaves_;
_shelf_, but _shelves_ and _to shelve_.
The _ph_ in _nephew_ is pronounced [v], but [f] is heard in dialects.
=28. Point continuants.=--We have seen above (§ 24) that in English
the tongue, as a matter of fact, rarely touches the teeth in the case
of point stops. Similarly the narrowing of the passage which leads to
the production of point continuants (except [θ,ð]) is not necessarily
between the tongue and the teeth; in some cases it is indeed a good
deal farther back.
The point continuants include:
1. The hushing, hissing,[30] and lisping sounds, and the _r_ sounds, in
which the place of articulation is along the middle line of the mouth
(_medial_ formation); and
2. The _l_ sounds, the narrowing for which is between the side rim or
rims of the tongue and the side teeth (_lateral_ formation).
The _r_ sounds and the _l_ sounds are sometimes called =liquids=.
=29. The hushing sounds.=--For the production of the _sh_ sounds the
passage is narrowed between the blade (see § 23) of the tongue and the
hard palate. A broad current of air is broken against the edge of the
teeth. There is some friction between the tongue and the gums, but that
against the front teeth is more noticeable.
Watch a Frenchman uttering these sounds, and see what he does with his
lips. Do you use your lips in the same way?
* * * * *
The voiceless [ʃ] is usually written _sh_; also _s_ after consonants
(as in _tension_ [tenʃən], _censure_ [senʃə]). It is written _ss_, _c_
or _t_ before a front vowel (_e_ or _i_), (as in _passion_ [pæʃən],
_capricious_ [kə´priʃəs], _station_ [steiʃən]). In all these cases [ʃ]
arose from [sj].
Observe the colloquial pronunciation of _this year_ as [ðiʃ jəː]; _six
years_ [sikʃ jəːz].
The combination [tʃ] is very common, and is usually written _ch_ or
_tch_. In some cases it arises from [tj], when _t_ follows the chief
accent of the word and precedes either a front vowel (_e_ or _i_)
or _u_[31] which goes back to [juː] (as in _righteous_ [raitʃəs],
_nature_ [neitʃə]). The combination [kʃ] similarly goes back to [ksj]
in _anxious_ [æŋkʃəs] (notice _anxiety_ [æŋ(g)´zaiəti]). _Luxury_
is [lʌkʃəri], but _luxurious_ is [ləg´zuːriəs] or [ləg´zjuːriəs],
sometimes [ləg´ʒuːriəs].
The pronunciation of _associate_ as [ə´sousieit],[32] _officiate_
as [o´fisieit], instead of [ə´souʃieit, o´fiʃieit], is pedantic;
[pro´pisieit] is also faulty for [pro´piʃieit].
* * * * *
The voiced [ʒ] standing alone between vowels is not common in English,
being found only where _s_ is followed by a front vowel, or by _u_
which goes back to [juː]. Here the development is from [sj] to [zj]
and then to [ʒ]. Examples are _vision_ [viʒən], _measure_ [meʒə]. The
spelling _z_ is found only in _azure_ [æʒə] or [eiʒjə], sometimes
[æʒjuə].
Observe the careless pronunciation of _as usual_ as [æʒ juwʒuəl],
_praise ye the Lord_ as [preiʒ jij ðə lɔːd]. _India rubber_ is
generally pronounced [indʒə rʌbə].
On the other hand, the combination [dʒ] is quite common. This is
written _j_ (as in _jet_ [dʒet]), _g_ before _e_ or _i_. (as in _gem_
[dʒem], _gin_ [dʒin], _age_ [eidʒ]; observe also _gaol_ [dʒeil]), and
sometimes _dg_ (as in _edge_ [edʒ]). It is spelled _ch_ in _ostrich_,
_sandwich_, _Greenwich_, _Harwich_, _Woolwich_, and in _spinach_.
What is the value of _ng_ in the following words:--_hang_, _longing_,
_lounging_, _language_, _engage_, _hunger_, _hinge_, _ungraceful_?
=30. The hissing sounds.=--Distinguish clearly the voiceless [s] as
in _seal_ and the voiced [z] as in _zeal_. Compare the manner of
production of the hissing and the hushing sounds: utter [ʃ] and [s].
(Why will these show the distinction more clearly than [ʒ] and [z]?)
You will find that the breath is more widely diffused when you utter
[ʃ]; in producing [s] your tongue forms a narrow channel and the breath
is thus directed against a point. See the diagram on p. 126.
The usual spelling of both voiceless [s] and voiced [z] is _s_. Notice
that
1. The _s_ of inflections is [z] after a voiced sound: compare
_fills_ [filz], _glances_ [glɑːnsiz], _dogs_ [dɔgz], _faces_
[feisiz], but _hits_ [hits], _cats_ [kæts].
2. The final _s_ of some words of one syllable is [z]: _as_,
_has_, _is_, _his_, _was_; but _this_, _us_.
3. Sometimes the verb has [z], the substantive or adjective [s]:
_use_ [juwz] _use_ [juws]
_diffuse_ [di´fjuwz] _diffuse_ [di´fjuws]
_close_ [klouz] _close_ [klous]
_lose_ [luwz] _loose_ [luws]
(Notice the difference in the length of the vowel.)
4. Notice also that we have
[z] [s]
in _reserve_ in _research_
_disease_ _disobey_
_dissolve_ _dissolvent_, _dissolute_
_presumption_ _presuppose_
Find other examples (there are many). How do you pronounce
_disarm_?
5. _x_ represents [ks] in _exercise_, _excellent_, and in
_extra_, _exceed_, _express_, _extol_, but [gz] in _exert_,
_examine_, _anxiety_, _exult_, _exonerate_, _exorbitant_,
_exotic_.
Do you agree with this statement?
Try to find a rule for the pronunciation of _x_.
In _exile_ both pronunciations of _x_ may be heard, [ks] being
perhaps the more common.
For the dropping of _h_ in compounds with _ex-_ see § 47.
The voiceless [s] is usually written _s_, but also _ss_, and _c_ or
_sc_ before _e_ and _i_ (as in _city_, _scene_, but not in _sceptic_
[skeptik]).
Say which of the sounds [ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, s, z] occur in the following
words:
_church_, _machine_, _ledger_, _leisure_, _seizure_, _cease_, _ease_,
_scissors_, _chisel_, _lesion_, _legion_, _singe_, _excessive_,
_example_.
Notice that final [z] is unvoiced towards the end; thus _is_ is
strictly [izz̥]; compare what was said about final [v] in § 27.
* * * * *
The term lisping is given to various mispronunciations of the _s_
sounds. It may be due to a lasting or a passing malformation of the
teeth, palate, or tongue,[33] or it may be simply a bad habit. A
slight habitual lisp is often heard, and parents and friends have been
known foolishly to encourage a child in the belief that the lisp is
"pretty"; it is important to drive this idea out of the child's head.
The treatment of lispers is varied; generally they can produce the
right sound after some experimenting. When the right sound has been
found and distinguished by the child, the rest is entirely a matter of
perseverance. There must be frequent repetition in many combinations.
The exercises should be practised sparingly at first, and gradually
increased, otherwise the strain may be too great and interfere with the
child's regular work.
=31. The lisping sounds.=--Distinguish clearly the voiceless [θ] as
in _thistle_, and the voiced [ð] as in _this_. Compare the manner of
production of the lisping and the hissing sounds: utter [θ] and [s].
You will find that in the case of [θ] the breath is not passing through
a narrow channel, and issues between the tips of the upper teeth and
of the tongue. The tongue may be between the teeth, and the sounds
are accordingly sometimes called interdental; but this is by no means
essential. Our English lisping sounds are usually formed between the
point of the tongue and the back of the front upper teeth; part of the
tongue fills up the small gap between the teeth, without advancing
beyond their back surface.
Which of the following words have [θ] and which have [ð]?
_thorn_, _thou_, _bath_*, _baths_*, _bathe_*, _then_, _think_,
_clothe_*, _cloth_*, _with_, _father_, _thump_, _lethal_, _leather_,
_lath_, _lathe_, _lithe_, _loath_*, _loathe_*, _breath_*, _breathe_*,
_heathen_, _heath_, _heaths_, _wreathe_*, _wreath_*, _wreaths_*,
_seethe_, _truth_*, _truths_*.
What do you notice with regard to the words marked with an asterisk? Of
what does it remind you in connection with the hissing sounds?
Notice that final [ð] is unvoiced or whispered towards the end; compare
what has been said about final [v] and final [z].
* * * * *
A fault, common especially in bad southern English, and found almost
invariably in baby speech, is the substitution of [v, f] for [ð, θ].
The baby says [fʌm] for [θʌm], the cockney [nafiŋk] for [nʌθiŋ], [fevə]
for [feðə]. This fault should on no account be tolerated; the child (we
are of course not referring to the baby) can produce the lisping sounds
without difficulty. It need only be told to place the tongue between
the teeth. When once the difference in the manner of production of [f]
and [θ] is known, the child can also _hear_ the difference; all that is
now required is perseverance.
In careless speech [h] is sometimes substituted for [θ], thus _I think
so_ becomes [ai hiŋk sou]. This also has its parallel in baby speech,
e.g. [hugə] for _sugar_.
=32. The liquids.=--This designation comprises the _r_ sounds and the
_l_ sounds.
The sounds written _r_ are extremely varied, and are likely to give
some trouble to the student. He should in the first place ascertain
from his friends (we are assuming that these speak standard English)
whether they notice anything peculiar about his _r_. If they do not, it
is probable that he uses the untrilled _r_. (The phonetic sign for this
is [ɹ], but it is customary to use [r], unless exceptional accuracy be
desired.)
This sound is produced by allowing the breath to pass between the
raised point of the tongue and the ridge of the upper gums.[34] When
the breath makes the tip of the tongue vibrate, we have the trilled or
rolled [r]. Can you roll your _r_? Does anyone you know habitually do
so? Have you noticed whether Frenchmen or Germans ever do it?
Another kind of _r_ is that produced at the back of the mouth, by the
help of the uvula (see § 8), and called the throat _r_ or uvular _r_
(phonetic sign: [R]), as distinguished from the tongue or teeth _r_
(lingual or dental _r_). It is not a normal sound in standard English,
but is occasionally found. It used to be frequent in Durham and
Northumberland (the "Northumbrian burr"), but is dying out there now.
Notice that after [t] and [d] the narrowing for [r] is particularly
small, and therefore the friction of the breath particularly
noticeable. Say such words as _dry_, _drink_, _droll_, _try_, _trill_,
_trap_, and carefully observe the nature of the [r]. Notice also that
after voiceless sounds the [r] often becomes voiceless [r̥], as in
_praise_, _try_, _increase_. Sometimes _tried_ almost sounds like
_chide_, because the passage of the breath is not stopped and the vocal
chords have not begun to vibrate. Try to utter a voiceless [r̥] by
itself; practise the series [r r̥ r r̥ r].
There is also a peculiar variety of _r_ found after _g_, as in _great_,
_green_, _grass_. This _r_ is a kind of palatal blade continuant, and
its use should be avoided, as it is generally held to be affected.
* * * * *
In standard English the written _r_ is only pronounced initially (as in
_red_), between a consonant and a vowel (as in _bread_, _angry_), and
between vowels, the second of which is not only written, but actually
pronounced (as in _very_).[35]
It is not pronounced between a vowel and a consonant (as in _arm_,
_lord_), nor when it is final in the spelling or followed by a vowel
which is only written and not actually pronounced (as in _bar_,
_bare_). Its place is in many cases taken by the neutral vowel [ə] (see
§ 38).
Observe that a final _r_ is pronounced when the next word begins with
a vowel. (Is there anything like this in French?) Thus we say _better_
[betə], but [betər ən betə]; _ever_ [evə], but [fər evər ənd evə];
_here_ [hiə], but [hiᵊr ən ðɛːə]; _stir up_ [stəːr ʌp], but [stəː ðə
faiə]. There is, however, nowadays a tendency to leave even this _r_
unpronounced.
The fact that such words as _better_ have two forms, with and without
[r], has led to the addition of [r] when there is no justification for
it. Even educated people are often heard to pronounce _the idea of it_
as [ði aidiər əv it]; _The India Office_ sometimes becomes [ði indjər
ɔfis]; _china ornaments_ becomes [tʃainər ɔːnəmənts]; and clergymen
have been known to say [vik´tɔːjər auə kwijn]. Similarly, in vulgar
speech [ðə windər iz oupən], [pə´pɑːr əz gɔn aut], etc., are quite
common.
There is an affected pronunciation of this [ə] which makes it
approximate to a deep [ɑ]; the comic papers represent _my dear fellow_
as "my deah fellah" to indicate the speech of a swell.
The substitution of [w] for [r] is a mannerism which should not be
tolerated; it is the result of a bad habit, not of any defect of the
organs of speech.
When a word contains the letter _r_ twice, careless speakers incline
to drop one of them; _February_ becomes [febjuəri], _temporarily_
[tempərili], _library_ [laibri], _literary_ [litəri], _supernumerary_
[sjuwpənjuwməri], _contemporary_ [kəntempəri]. _Veterinary_ usually
becomes [vetənri] or [vetnəri].
=33.= In order to produce the sound of [l], we let the breath pass out
between the side rims of the tongue and the side gums and teeth; the
point of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth somewhere along the
middle line.
Utter [l] with the point of the tongue drawn back as far as possible;
then utter [l] several times, gradually bringing the point of the
tongue forward, until it eventually touches the teeth. You will notice
a difference in the quality of the sound: the sound is "dark"[36] when
the tongue is farther back, "clear" when it is forward in the mouth.
Notice that when the tongue is drawn back, it is bunched up behind.
In standard English the [l] is frequently pronounced with the tongue
fairly back in the mouth; the "darkness" of the [l] is particularly
noticeable when it comes at the end of a word.[37]
Excessive withdrawal of the tongue tip is not to be encouraged in
children; they should rather practise the "clear" [l], though they need
not go so far as actually to "let the tongue touch the teeth." This
is, however, a good rule, and if instilled in the children will do
something to counteract any tendency to "darkness" of the [l]. It is
not likely that they will acquire the habit of actually touching the
teeth when they say [l]; but a sufficiently "clear" [l] can be obtained
if the point of contact is at the upper gums, and even a little farther
back than that. It should be noted that the [l] may be "dark," even
when the point of the tongue touches the teeth, if the back of the
tongue is raised.
In cockney speech the [l] is sometimes lost, through no contact taking
place; _tail_ is pronounced [tæjɔ] or something similar, with a very
open [ɔ] (see § 43) in place of [l], and after consonants also the final
_l_, as in _giggle_, is very liable to disappear. This recalls the
treatment of final _r_ in standard English. In careless speech the [l]
also disappears in _only_ and in _all right_.
_Colonel_ is pronounced [kəːnəl]; the older spelling _coronel_
explains this.
Notice that when [l] comes next to a voiceless sound, it may become
partly or wholly voiceless [l̥]. Thus _clear_ becomes [kl̥iːə], _halt_
[hɔl̥t]. The friction becomes noticeable then; try to utter [l̥] and
observe this. The voiceless sound is the familiar Welsh _ll_.
In _bubble_, _riddle_, etc., we may have syllabic _l_ [l̩]. Compare
what was said about syllabic _m_ in § 22, and about syllabic _n_ in § 24.
The _l_ is not pronounced in _calf_, _half_, _salve_,[38] _balk_,
_caulk_, _chalk_, _falcon_,[39] _folk_, _stalk_, _talk_, _walk_,
_yolk_, _almond_, _alms_, _balm_, _calm_, _palm_, _psalm_, _qualm_,
_salmon_, _solder_, _should_, _would_, _could_ (where it is not
etymologically justified); _golf_ is usually [gɔlf], but also [gɔf][3],
and rarely [gɔːf].[40]
It was said above that for [l] we let the breath pass out at both sides
of the mouth; but, as a matter of fact, most people let it out only on
one side. On which side does it pass out in your own case? Is the same
true of your whole family? Ascertain which is the usual side in the
case of friends.
=34. Front continuants.=--Watch with your mirror what the tongue does
when you utter the word _he_. You see that it rises in front. Raise it
a little more, until the passage becomes quite narrow; the vowel will
pass into the sound which we have at the beginning of _yes_ [jes], and
which we also have in _sue_ [sjuːw], for which see § 45. As a rule the
friction is very slight, and indeed hardly perceptible to the ear;
but in the slowly uttered, deliberate _yes_ the friction can often be
heard very distinctly. The sound is also noteworthy as being, like [w]
and [ɹ], "gliding," not "held" (see §§ 26, 32). In careless speech it
sometimes passes into [ʒ] after [d]; _during_ is pronounced [dʒuwriŋ]
instead of [djuwriŋ], the _dew_ becomes [dʒuw], _it made you start_
[it mei dʒu stɑːt]. _Soldier_ is regularly pronounced [souldʒə], not
[souldjə]; and _verdure_, _grandeur_, have both pronunciations, [djə]
being preferred by careful speakers.
After voiceless sounds, as in _Tuesday_, _tube_, [j] occasionally
passes into the corresponding voiceless [ç], which is the consonant
sound in the German _ich_; and sometimes it even becomes [ʃ], compare
the careless pronunciation of _don't you know_ [dountʃənou], _last
year_ [lɑːs tʃiə], _he'll meet you_ [hijl mijtʃu]; _I shall hit you_
is in vulgar speech [ɑi ʃəl itʃə]. For this development in unstressed
syllables, see § 45.
* * * * *
=Back continuants.=--When we utter the vowel sound of _who_ the back
of the tongue is raised; if we raise it a little higher, there is
friction, and we obtain the back continuants. These do not normally
belong to standard English. The voiceless [x] is, however, not uncommon
in the pronunciation of words taken from Scotch, Welsh, or German;
even in such words [k] is generally substituted. The Scotch _loch_ is
pronounced [lɔx] or [lɔk]; the German _Hoch(heimer)_ is always spelt
and pronounced _hock_ [hɔk]. In Scotch [x] occurs normally.
* * * * *
=Throat r= (_uvular_ =r=).--This sound, which does not normally belong
to standard English, has been referred to in § 32.
=35. The h sounds.=--We considered the glottis (the interval between
the vocal chords) in § 6. We saw that when it is quite open, the breath
passes through without producing any audible sound. When, however,
the glottis is somewhat narrowed, the breath brushes past the vocal
chords, and an _h_ is produced; this we may call a voiceless glottal
continuant.[41]
Now there may be various kinds of glottal [h]. The passage between the
vocal chords may be more or less narrow, and it may remain uniform or
gradually grow narrower or wider. The current of breath may be strong
or weak; it may be of uniform force, or gradually grow stronger or
weaker. When there is a strong current of breath, and the opening is
very narrow, we call it "wheezing."
In standard English the _h_ is a glottal continuant only when there is
precise and emphatic utterance. Ordinarily it is produced in the mouth
passage. When we say _ha_, the vocal chords are not drawn together
until the vowel is sounded; the mouth, however, gets into position
for uttering the vowel a little before the time, and the breath as it
passes through produces an _h_ sound. In [hɑ] then, we practically
have a voiceless [ɑ] followed by the ordinary voiced [ɑ]; in _he_, a
voiceless [i] followed by the ordinary [i] vowel; in _who_, a voiceless
[u] followed by the ordinary [u]. Whisper these words, and also _hay_
and _hoe_; and after each, whisper the [h] only. Notice that the ear
detects an actual difference in these _h_ sounds.
* * * * *
A good deal depends on the current of breath with which the [h] is
uttered. In standard English the current does not keep on growing in
volume until the vowel is sounded; it distinctly diminishes before the
vowel appears. This may be graphically represented by the signs [].
* * * * *
If the current of breath does not diminish in this way, but starts
weakly and does not reach its maximum force until the vowel is reached,
the ear does not receive the impression of a distinct [h]. This sound
may be written [h<] or simply [<]. This (the "soft breath") precedes
initial vowels in standard English; it is the sound which in cockney
speech commonly represents the more distinct []; those who use it
are said to "drop their h's." Conscious of the defect, they often
prefix a full, even an exaggerated [h] to words which have no _h_. It
need hardly be said that carelessness in the use of _h_ is not to be
tolerated. It is interesting to note that no _h_ is ever dropped in the
speech of Americans, except in the weak forms of _he_, _him_, _her_.
[h] occurs in standard English only before stressed vowels. Initial _h_
before unstressed vowels is only pronounced when preceded by a pause.
Notice that:
1. Written _h_ is not pronounced in _heir_, _honest_, _honour_, _hour_,
and words derived from these.
It is now pronounced in standard English in _herb_, _hospital_,
_humble_, _humour_ (a fair number of educated speakers still pronounce
this word without [h]).
2. It is regarded as correct to say _a history_, but _an historical
novel_; _a habit_, but _an habitual action_; many, however, pronounce
the _h_ in both cases.
3. Certain words drop the _h_ when they occur in an unstressed position
in the sentence; this is a regular feature of standard colloquial
speech, and does not convey the slightest suggestion of vulgarity. It
must be recognised that such words have two forms, weak and strong,
according as they are used without or with emphasis. Compare the
following sentences:
Tom has been there. Has he though?
tɔm əz bijn (bin) ðeːə. hæz i ðou?
I gave her a book. What, to her?
ai geiv ər ə buk. wɔt, tu həː?
Find as many words having strong and weak forms as you can by observing
the ordinary speech of those around you. Then compare the list given in
§ 47.
For the dropping of _h_ in the second part of compound words, see § 47.
=36.=
VOWELS
We have considered the sounds produced when the passage through which
the breath passes is closed (stops) or narrowed (continuants); we now
have to consider the sounds produced when the passage is wide enough
for the breath to pass through without audibly brushing against the
sides. These sounds are the vowels.
"Voice," produced by the vibration of the vocal chords, may be said
to give body to the vowel; the shape of the passage through which the
breath passes determines the features that distinguish one vowel from
another, _i.e._ its quality. The shape of this passage is capable of
almost infinite variation, which leads to a corresponding variety of
resonances, and these determine the quality of the vowels.
Picture to yourself the inside of the mouth, and consider how the
cavity may become larger or smaller, according as you separate or draw
together the jaws; see what a difference it makes if you raise the
tongue at the back, or in the middle, or in the front; bear in mind
that the position of the lips may also modify the sound, as you will
notice if, for instance, you utter [u] as in _who_, first with the lips
forming a long narrow slit, and again with the lips forming a very
small circle (of the same size as the end of a lead pencil).
=37.= Of the well-defined vowels that which is articulated with least
effort is [ɑ].[42] It is the earliest vowel sound uttered by the
baby, before it has acquired control over the muscles of the tongue.
It is also common as an interjection. Utter it, and watch the tongue
with your mirror; you will see that the middle of the tongue ridge is
slightly raised. The opening of the mouth is generally larger than in
the case of the other vowels. See the diagram on p. 125.
Utter the standard English sound of _a_ in _hat_, for which the sign
is [æ]. Say several times [ɑ æ] and watch the tongue as you do so; you
will see that it moves forward and is a little higher in front and
lower at back for [æ]. The opening of the mouth is often quite as large
for [æ] as for [ɑ].
Now try to produce the sound which lies between the two, with the
tongue occupying an intermediate position; you will obtain the sound
[a], which is the northern English vowel in _hat_, and the vowel in the
French word _chat_; in standard English it occurs only as the first
part of the diphthongs in _bite_ [bait] and _bout_ [baut].[43] This [a]
is sometimes called the "clear" _a_ sound. See the diagram on p. 123.
Next, draw the tongue a little back, and you will obtain a variety of
[ɑ] which is "dark" and has a suggestion of the vowel in _all_ [ɔːl].
This sound is commonly substituted for the "pure" or "neutral" [ɑ] in
cockney speech, so that _fast_ is made to sound like [fɔːst], _park_
like [pɔːk].
This "darkening" of the _a_ sound should not be permitted; in order to
counteract it, it may be advisable to make the class utter [ɑ] singly
and in chorus, until they are quite clear as to the nature of the
required sound.
It is sometimes found that precise speakers, through an excessive
desire to avoid any suspicion of cockney leanings in their speech,
substitute [a] for [ɑ], saying, for instance, [faːðə] in place of
[fɑːðə]; it is particularly ladies of real or would-be refinement who
commit this mistake. A mistake it is, like every other deviation from
what is generally recognised by the educated.
In other cases the "clear" pronunciation of _a_ is often heard, _e.g._,
in _glass_, _bath_, _past_, _answer_, _demand_, _grant_, _everlasting_.
Both [a] and [æ] occur, particularly in the speech of ladies. What is
the American pronunciation of _half_?
In standard English there is practically no short [ɑ],[44] but only the
long [ɑː], which should be neither "dark" nor "clear." If we analyse it
carefully, we often find[45] that it is not a single vowel of uniform
value, only the first part being "pure" [ɑ], the rest being a faint
variant; but for practical purposes we may regard it as uniform in
quality, as in good speech it is a pure long vowel.
=38.= There is a short sound closely akin to it (in position, but not
in sound), which we have in _but_, _much_, etc., and for which the sign
is [ʌ]. The back of the tongue is raised a little in the production
of this sound, and sometimes the front also; and in consequence there
are several varieties of it. It occurs only in syllables having
some stress; we have [ʌ] in _teacup_, _unfit_, _until_; but not in
_welcome_, which is not felt to be a compound. When it is unstressed,
it becomes the dull vowel [ə]; unstressed _but_ is [bət]. Observe the
vulgar pronunciation of _just_ as [dʒest].
* * * * *
The dull vowel [ə] occurs very commonly in ordinary speech; most
unstressed syllables contain this vowel or the variety of [i] mentioned
below. It is found, for instance, in the italicised syllables of
vow_e_l, vari_e_ty, carp_e_nt_e_r, ordin_a_ry. The long [əː] is
variously written; we have it in _fern_, _fir_,[46] _fur_, _word_.
(In northern English there is some variety in the [ə], according to
the written vowel which it represents.) Notice the precise and the
ordinary pronunciation of such words as _paternal_, _polite_, _potato_.
The uneducated often insert [ə] in such words as _Henry_ [henəri],
_umbrella_ [ʌmbərelə]; and sometimes they substitute [i] for [ə], as
in _miracle_, wrongly pronounced [mirikl̩], _philosopher_, wrongly
pronounced [fi´lɔsifə], and in _oracle_, _pigeon_.
The letters _e_, _i_, and _y_ in unstressed syllables represent a very
laxly articulated sound, for which the sign [i] is used in this book.
It varies somewhat in different speakers; several sounds intermediate
between the open [ɪ] and the middle [_e_] may be heard. This serves
to explain the uncertainty of spelling in such cases as _ensure_ and
_insure_, _enquire_ and _inquire_.
Sometimes the vowel disappears altogether, as in _business_,
_medicine_, _venison_.
The letter _o_ in unstressed syllables preceding the chief stress is
usually [ə], but in precise speech an _o_-sound is heard in such words
as _conceive_, _official_, _possess_. After the chief stress [ɔ] is
rarely heard; but _epoch_ [ijpɔk] and other uncommon words keep the [ɔ].
=39. The front vowels.=--Utter the word _he_ and notice what the tongue
does. You can do so by looking into your mirror, or by putting a finger
just inside your front upper teeth, or by whispering the sound, and
feeling what happens.
_You will generally find that you can analyse vowels best if you
whisper them, because the "voice" does not interfere with your
appreciation of the mouth resonances. By this time your muscular
consciousness_ (see § 9) _should be considerably developed, and you
should be conscious of what your tongue, lips, etc., are doing, without
having recourse to a mirror_.
You will find that you are raising your tongue very high in front:
[ɑ] and [i] are extremes; in the one case the front of the tongue is
practically as low as it can be, in the other it is raised as high as
possible. You might raise the tongue farther, but the resulting sound
would not be a vowel. The passage would be too narrow, there would be
friction, and a continuant would be the result (see § 34).
Utter a pure [ɑ] and gradually raise the front of the tongue until
you reach [i]. You may either keep your vocal chords vibrating all the
time, or you may whisper the sounds; but see that the tongue moves
slowly and steadily. You will realise that very many sounds lie between
[ɑ] and [i]; as they are all produced with the raising of the front of
the tongue, they are called front vowels.
We have already noticed clear [a], and have met with [æ], which is the
vowel sound in _hat_ [hæt]. When unstressed the [æ] gives place to [ə];
_that_ [ðæt] becomes [ðət].
* * * * *
The uneducated sometimes substitute a closer sound (the middle _e_) for
[æ]; they say [k_e_b] for _cab_, [k_e_tʃ] for _catch_, [θ_e_ŋks] for
_thanks_, [b_e_ŋk] for _bank_. The same mistake may also be heard in
the pronunciation of _carriage_, _radish_, _January_. In _any_, _many_
the first vowel is always [_e_]. What is it in _manifold_?
The sound [æ] is only found short. There is a kindred long sound [ɛː],
as in _fair_, for which the tongue is rather higher. It is often called
the open [ɛ], [æ] being a still more open sound.
* * * * *
A difference in the formation of [æ] and [ɛː] must be noticed; it is
not confined to this pair of vowels. In uttering a vowel sound we may
adjust the articulations so favourably that the resulting sound is
clear and decided; this may be called _tense_ articulation, producing
tense vowels. If we do not trouble to adjust the articulations
carefully, if we have lax articulation, we obtain _lax_ vowels. In
standard English we do not articulate tensely, except in precise
and emphatic speech. (Notice how tensely the French and the Germans
articulate their accented long vowels.) In teaching children the terms
_tight_ and _loose_ may be used.
The articulation of [ɛː] is relatively tense, that of [æ] is lax. For
[ɛ] see the diagram on p. 123.
Notice that [ɛː] is always followed by a more or less distinct [ə];
_there_ is [ðɛːə], _Mary_ is [mɛː(ə)ri]. Consider the value of _-ear-_
in _bear_ and _bearing_.
There is a vulgar pronunciation of _I dare say_ as [ai desei], instead
of [ai dɛːə sei].
=40.= The diphthongs in _bite_ and _bout_ are pronounced by the
uneducated in many ways not permissible in standard English. The first
element should be "clear" [a]. A "pure" [ɑ] would not be offensive
here, though it is much less common;[47] but any pushing forward of the
tongue beyond the [a] limit, any substitution of [æ] for [a], is not to
be tolerated. The nasalising of these diphthongs adds to the unpleasant
effect. Probably the best means of counteracting these tendencies is
to insist on [ɑi] and [ɑu]; if the pure [ɑ] has been practised, as was
suggested above, it will form a stepping-stone to the acquisition of
good diphthongs.
Notice how a German pronounces these diphthongs; you will find that he
dwells much longer on the first element than we do, and that it is more
open.
The ending _-ile_ in _agile_, _docile_, _fertile_, _futile_, _hostile_,
_puerile_ is pronounced [ail], and not [il] as used to be the case.
=41.= The next sounds in the series, obtained by raising the tongue
a little higher than for [ɛ], are "middle" [_e_] and "close" [e].
The vowel in _pen_, _get_, _fell_ is usually the middle [_e_]; some
speakers (perhaps mostly ladies) use the close [e] here, but the very
close [e], heard in French _été_, is not found in standard English.
For ordinary purposes the sign [e] may serve to designate both [e] and
[_e_], as they are so closely connected. When unstressed, the [e] gives
place to [ə]; thus unstressed _them_ is [ðəm]. Notice that _'em_ really
goes back to the old form _hem_.
For [e] see the diagram on p. 122.
Observe the colloquial tendency to pronounce _get_ as [git].
* * * * *
A fairly close [e] is in standard English the first element of the
diphthong in _laid_, _tame_, _late_, etc. There is not one uniform
vowel sound in these words; pronounce _aid_ quite slowly, and you
will notice that the tongue rises before the consonant is reached.
The diphthong is long when a voiced sound follows it, short before a
voiceless sound. Thus _laid_ [leid] is longer than _late_ [leit]. Test
this statement by finding other words containing the diphthong, and
pronouncing them to yourself or getting others to pronounce them. What
is the quantity of the [ei] when the diphthong is final?
* * * * *
In vulgar speech the first element of the diphthong tends to [ɑ],
sometimes almost to [ɔ].
Listen to a foreigner's pronunciation of English words containing this
diphthong; what do you notice?
The vowel in _says_ and _said_ is short [sez, sed], as also in _ate_
[et]. The pronunciation of _-ain_ as [ein] in such words as _fountain_,
_captain_, _bargain_, is a pedantic affectation.
How do you pronounce _villain_, _curtain_?
=42.= Two front vowels remain to be considered, the _i_ sounds. Say
_bid_ and _bead_. You recognise that one is longer than the other; are
they otherwise the same? Say _bid_ and repeat it with the same vowel
drawn out; then say _bead_, and repeat it with the vowel shortened. If
you are careful in each case to change only the length, and not the
quality of the vowel, you will perceive that the vowels in _bid_ and in
_bead_ are different.
* * * * *
The vowel in _bid_ is laxly articulated and is known as the open [ɪ].
In unstressed syllables (see § 38) it is often very open indeed, and
when it is final, as in _very_, the tongue is raised very little
higher than for close or even middle _e_. The sign for this sound is
[e˔] or [ɪ˕]. (Here ˔ means more close, ˕ more open.) Can you hear any
difference between the two vowels of _lily_?
The great phonetician Ellis remarked that the pronunciation of the _i_
in _six_ is the touchstone of foreigners, especially of those belonging
to the Romance nations; they usually articulate it too tensely. Ask a
Frenchman to say _fini_, and compare his sounds with those in _finny_.
Notice the frequent cockney pronunciation of _-y_ as [_e_i], _e.g._, in
windy [wind_e_i].
Often [ə] is substituted for this sound, as in _unity_, _ability_,
pronounced [juwnəti, ə´biləti], also in _April_, _visible_; but this is
avoided by some speakers.
The [i] in the diphthongs [ai] and [ɔi], as in _buy_, _boy_, is very
low.
* * * * *
In _bead_ we have not a single vowel, but a kind of diphthong. If
you utter it slowly, you will find that the tongue does not remain
in a uniform position, but rises a little towards the end, the sound
becoming closer. It may begin close, in which case the further rising
reduces the passage so much that we have [j]; _bead_ in this case
is [bijd]. Or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close
position; then _bead_ is [bɪid].[48] When the diphthong is followed by
a voiceless sound, it is shortened; _beat_ [bijt] [bɪit] is shorter
than _bead_. Compare also _seed_, _seat_, _sit_; _feed_, _feet_, _fit_.
Careful speakers pronounce _been_ like _bean_, not like _bin_; most
speakers, however, use the shortened form in ordinary speech.
For [i] see the diagram on p. 122.
In _dear_, _fear_, etc., we have a rather open vowel, of varying
length, followed by [ɔ]; we may write [diə], but strictly it is [dɪə,
dIˑə] and sometimes [dIːə]. Before [r], as in _dearest_, the [ə]
becomes faint or disappears. Standard English contains no [i] as close
as the French [i] and the German [iː]. Convince yourself of this by
asking foreigners to pronounce words containing these sounds, in their
own language or in English.
Notice the frequent pronunciation of _ear_, _year_, as [jəː], and that
of _dear_ as [djəː].
* * * * *
We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [i] to [ɑ]
occurring in standard English.
close i (diagram, p. 122)
\
open ɪ
\
close e (diagram, p. 122)
\
middle _e_
\
open ɛ (diagram, p. 123)
\
more open æ
\
clear a (diagram, p. 123)
\
ɑ (diagram, p. 125)
It will be good practice for you to utter this series of sounds, from
[ɑ] to [i] and _vice versa_, and long as well as short.
The raising of the tongue for the [i] sounds is best seen if the upper
and lower teeth are kept well apart.
=43. The back vowels.=--When the front vowels have been carefully
differentiated, the back vowels will be found to present little
difficulty. Owing to the fact that the back of the tongue does not
admit of so much variety of movement as the front of the tongue, the
number of sounds in the series [ɑ] to [u] is smaller than in the series
[ɑ] to [i].
You will see that there is some resemblance between the sounds of the
two series. Thus we had a lax [æ] and a tense [ɛː] in the front vowels;
and there are corresponding open _o_ sounds when the tongue is raised a
little at the back.
The articulation of these sounds is often unsatisfactory owing to the
lower jaw not being moved down sufficiently, the teeth being hardly
separated. The back vowels gain in quality (cp. § 36) if they are
produced with lip rounding. The opening is large in the case of the
sounds in which the tongue is only slightly raised; as it rises higher,
the opening of the lips grows smaller, until for [u] it is only the
size of the end of an ordinary lead pencil. This lip rounding is rare
with southern English speakers who have not had special voice training;
they usually bring together or separate the lips without rounding.
* * * * *
The short vowel sound in _not_, _what_, etc., is a laxly articulated,
open [ɔ], much more open than any _o_ in French or German, with the
front of the tongue even lower than for [ɑ]. It is lengthened a little
before a voiced final consonant, as in _dog_ [dɔg]; but it should never
be made quite long. The pronunciation [gɔːd] for _God_ is detestable.
Before _ss_ [s], _st_ [st], _sp_ [sp], _th_ [θ], and _f_, _ff_, or
_ph_ [f], the long sound is occasionally heard. Determine whether in
the following words you use the long or the short sound: _loss, ost_,
_froth_, _cross_, _cough_, _soft_, _coffee_, _off_, _officer_, _cloth_,
_moss_, _gospel_. Extend the inquiry to your friends.
When the short [ɔ] is in an unstressed syllable it either disappears
entirely (as in _lesson_, where the [n] is syllabic, see § 24), or
it may become [ə], as in _minor_ [mainə], or it may become the sound
[ö], which will be explained in § 44. Thus _October_ is [ɔk´toubə] or
[ök´toubə]; _connect_ is [kɔ´nekt] only in precise speech, but usually
[kö´nekt] or [kə´nekt].
* * * * *
The long [ɔ] in _law_, _laud_, _lord_ is rather tensely articulated,
certainly not so laxly as the short [ɔ].[49] Before voiceless sounds
the vowel is somewhat shortened, as in _short_ (compare _shawl_ and
_shot_). It is in standard English the only sound of stressed _or_ (or
_oar_) before a consonant;[50] there is no difference in sound between
_laud_ and _lord_, _fought_ and _fort_, _stalk_ and _stork_, _cawed_
and _cord_. It is true that some speakers try to make a distinction.
The long [ɔː] is not a simple long vowel, but really a diphthong of
which the second element is [ə][51]; and in words containing a written
_r_, these precise speakers somewhat lengthen the [ə] element. Thus
they will say [lɔːᵊd] for _laud_, and [lɔːəd] for _lord_. It may be
added that they generally do so only if the distinction has been spoken
about, and they have expressed their firm belief in its existence;
then, for a while, the [ɔːə] may be heard. A simple test, which the
student should apply to his friends, is that of asking them to
write down the word he utters. If he says [fɔːt], meaning _fought_,
most people will write down _fort_, because the sound gives them
no guidance, and the substantive is likely to occur to them first.
Similarly, if he says [lɔːd], meaning _laud_, they will write down
_lord_.[52]
The word _lore_, which hardly occurs in ordinary speech, is often
pronounced [lɔːə] in order to distinguish it from _law_, the [ə] sound
being much more distinct than in _law_, _more_, _bore_, etc. Consider
the value of _-ore-_ in _more water_, and in _more ink_.
* * * * *
There is much variation in the pronunciation of the words _daunt_,
_flaunt_, _gaunt_, _gauntlet_, _haunch_, _haunt_, _jaundice_, _jaunt_,
_launch_, _laundry_, _paunch_, _saunter_, _staunch_, _taunt_, _vaunt_.
The general tendency seems to be in favour of [ɔː], not [ɑː].
* * * * *
When unstressed, the sound is often shortened to [ɔ] or [ö][53]; thus
_autumnal_ becomes [ɔ´tʌmnəl] or [ö´tʌmnəl]; _or_ when stressed is
[ɔː], unstressed [ɔ] or [ö] or [ə].
* * * * *
A variety of the open [ɔ], not equally open in all speakers of standard
English, is the first element in the diphthong found in _boy_ [bɔi].
The pronunciation [böi[53]] is also heard.
In vulgar speech [ɔi] sometimes becomes [ɑi]; thus _boil_ is
pronounced [bɑil]. Only in _choir_ (also written _quire_) is this
pronunciation current in good speech.
=44.= Utter the sound usually called "long _o_" and found in _bode_,
_boat_, etc,; you will observe that the sound is not uniform, as the
tongue rises a little before the consonant is reached.[54] Indeed the
action of the tongue is quite similar to what we noticed in the case of
[ei] in § 41; and also to [iːj] or [Iːi] in § 42, where, however, it is
less obvious to the ear. The diphthongal character of the "long _o_" is
so essential, that when a stranger merely says [oːnoː] for _oh no!_ we
at once recognise that he is not English.
The first element of this diphthong is a middle [_o_], sometimes a
fairly close [o]; in standard English the [o] is never so close as in
French [o] or in German [ɔː].[55] (Watch foreigners when they utter
these sounds; notice how tensely they articulate, and how much more
they round their lips than we do.) In cockney speech the first element
is pronounced with the tongue lower and raised in front.--The second is
a _u_ sound; place a finger against the interval between the upper and
lower teeth, and notice how they are brought a little closer towards
the end of the diphthong. Observe also the action of the lips. The
diphthong is longer before voiced than before voiceless continuants;
verify this statement by saying, or getting others to say, _bode_ and
_boat_, _goad_ and _goat_, _robe_ and _rope_, _brogue_ and _broke_.
In syllables that are weakly stressed, the first part of the diphthong
becomes [_o_], [ö][56] or even [ə], the second part disappearing
altogether. Thus _fellow_ is in precise speech [feloːu], but in
ordinary speech [fel_o_, felö], and in careless (but not necessarily
vulgar) speech [felə].[57] In "ladies' speech" the [öü] occurs even in
stressed syllables, and may then be confidently described as a sign of
affectation.
The prefix _pro-_, when stressed, is generally pronounced [prou]. In
_process_ and _progress_ [prɔ] is sometimes heard; in the substantives
_project_ and _produce_ it is the rule.
=45.= The _u_ sounds are clearly parallel to the _i_ sounds. In both
cases we have a laxly articulated short sound, and a diphthong in which
the tongue rises towards the end.
* * * * *
The short sound in _would_, _book_, etc., is open, and the sign for it
is [ᴜ]. Do you notice any difference in the length of the vowel sound
in the words _should_ and _put_, _pull_ and _cook_? Observe others, if
you are uncertain in your own case. (You will sometimes find it hard to
determine what is your natural, instinctive way of pronouncing a word,
when once you have grown accustomed to watching your own speech.)
When this [ᴜ] is unstressed it becomes [ü][58] or [ə], or is dropped
altogether. Thus _helpful_ becomes [helpfül, helpfəl], and _should_
becomes [ʃüd, ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt].
* * * * *
The vowel sound in _who_ is not uniform. (See what was said about the
corresponding _i_ sound in § 42). It may begin as close [u][59], in
which case the further rising towards the end reduces the passage so
much that we have [w]; _who_ in this case is [huːw]. Or the vowel may
begin fairly open and rise to the close position; then _who_ is [hUːu].
When the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound, it is somewhat
shortened; _hoot_ is [huwt] or [hᴜut]; compare _root_ with _rude_. A
half-long vowel is now generally heard in _room_; some speakers make it
quite short.
In unstressed syllables the first element is shortened and often
becomes [ü]; thus _July_ is [dʒüw´lai].
Before [ə] the diphthong loses its second element; _cruel_ is [kruəl].
When the [ə] represents a written _r_, the first element often changes
to a vowel with lower tongue position. Thus _poor_ is pronounced
[pᴜə, poə], and some educated speakers of southern English even say
[pɔː], riming with _door_, _floor_; but this can hardly be considered
standard English. Notice also the various pronunciations of _your_,
_sure_. Before spoken [r], as in _poorest_, _enduring_, the [ə] becomes
very faint or disappears.
* * * * *
The so-called "long u" in such words as _due_, _dew_, _dude_ consists
of three parts. The second and third are the vowel sounds in _do_,
which have just been discussed; the first is [j], which after voiceless
sounds tends to become the voiceless [ç] and even [ʃ], as was mentioned
in § 34. Thus _tune_ is in ordinary speech [tjuwn], and often [tçuwn];
in careless speech it may even become [tʃuwn].
The _-ture_ in _nature_, _creature_, _forfeiture_, etc., is generally
pronounced [tʃə][60]; the pronunciation [tjə] or [tjü] sounds affected
in ordinary speech. _Venture_ is usually [ventʃə], sometimes [venʃə],
[ventjə], or [ventjü]. _Censure_ is always [senʃə].
In _allude_, *_allusion_, _lute_, _lucent_, _luminous_, *_flute_,
_salute_,*_absolute_, *_absolution_, _dissolute_, *_dissolution_,
*_superstition_, *_Susan_ both [uw] and [juw] may be heard; [uw] is
probably more common in the words marked with an asterisk. Precise
speakers prefer [juw] in all the words given. In _assume_, _presume_
[juw] is regularly heard. As a rule [j] is not inserted after [r], [ʃ],
[ʒ], or consonant plus [l].
Notice the pronunciation of _casual_ [kæʒuəl] or [kæʒwəl], _sensual_
[senʃuəl], _usual_ [juwʒuəl] or [juwʒəl], _visual_ [vizjuəl]. _Educate_
is [edjukeit] or [edʒukeit]; careful speakers prefer the former.
As the "long _u_" begins with a consonantal sound it is correct to say
_a uniform_, _a university_, _a union_, _a European_, _a eulogy_. To
write _an_ before such words is a gross mistake.
We find the [u] element changed in unstressed syllables; thus _value_
becomes [væljü], _regular_ becomes [regjülə, regjələ], and, very
colloquially, [reglə].
* * * * *
We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [u] to [ɑ]
occurring in standard English:
ü close u (diagram, p. 124)
/
open ᴜ
/
close o (diagram, p. 124)
/
ö middle _o_
/
open ɔ (diagram, p. 125)
/
dark ɑ
Practise this series, as was suggested in § 42, in connection with the
[i] to [ɑ] series.
FOOTNOTES:
[14] For the sake of convenience the nasal sounds, in producing which
the breath does not also pass out through the mouth, _i.e._ which are
not nasal vowels (see § 8), are included under "stops."
[15] Sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets.
[16] Also called labial.
[17] Also called dental.
[18] Also called palatal.
[19] Also called velar (from velum, for which see § 8) and more
usually, but less accurately, guttural.
[20] An oral stop followed by [h] is called an aspirate. Aspirates are
common in German, but practically unknown in standard French.
[21] Examples in the conventional spelling are printed in _italics_.
[22] _i.e._ at the end of a word, before a pause.
[23] When the aspiration is strongly marked, it forms a characteristic
of the speech of the lower middle class in London and some home
counties.
[24] The point stops are also called teeth or dental stops.
[25] On the other hand, in Somerset _clean, clod_ are sometimes
pronounced with [tl-].
[26] See footnote 8 on page 29.
[27] See footnote 8 on page 29.
[28] In standard English; in certain dialects the ending-_ing_ is
always pronounced [iŋg].
[29] The educated commonly say [buloun]; [bulɔin] is also heard.
[30] The hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants.
[31] See also § 45.
[32] Some speakers say [ə´souʃieit] but [ə´sousieiʃən], [i´nʌnʃieit]
but [i´nʌnsieiʃən].
[33] In a great many cases lisping is due to an over-long tongue; or
the tongue may be "tied," in which case the ligature is easily cut.
[34] The back of the tongue may also be raised to some extent; how does
this explain the substitution of [w] for [r] which is sometimes heard?
[35] The rule may also be stated thus: _r_ is only heard when a vowel
follows in the same or the next word. "Vowel" must here be taken to
include [j].
[36] The term "dark" here implies a deep and obscure resonance, with
little friction.
[37] Contrast the [l] of _will_ and _willing_ (where its position
between front vowels leads to forward formation).
[38] Some pronounce this word [sælv].
[39] Some pronounce this word [fɔlkən].
[40] These are modifications of the Scotch form of the word.
[41] [h] is described as voiceless; but it may also be produced with
voice. We have seen that the vocal chords consist of a fleshy and a
cartilaginous part: it is possible to let the former vibrate, while the
latter is left open, and the breath passing through produces [h]. Try
to utter this sound.
[42] The "neutral" vowel [ə], for which see § 38, requires less effort.
[43] Notice the faulty tendency to raise the tongue too high in
uttering the first part of this diphthong; see § 40.
[44] However, there is a pronunciation of _are_, intermediate between
the emphatic [ɑː] and the unstressed [ə], which may be described as
short [ɑ]. The _a_ in the unstressed prefix _trans-_, and the second
_a_ of _advantageous_ also have the sound of [ɑ] sometimes.
[45] Especially when it is final.
[46] Many cultivated people pronounce _girl_ as [gɛəl]; but [gəːl] is
to be preferred. _Clerk_, _sergeant_ have [ɑː], not [əː]; also _Derby_,
_Berkshire_, _Hertfordshire_.
[47] It is heard on the stage and in public speaking generally; in
ordinary conversation it suggests the speech of a foreigner, especially
if the [ɑ] element of the diphthong is lengthened.
[48] The first part is still more open in a common vulgar pronunciation
of _tea_, _please_.
[49] For [ɔː] see the diagram on p. 125.
[50] Exceptions are _borrow_, etc., _work_, _attorney_, etc.
[51] To pronounce this [ə] distinctly in such words as _law_, _saw_ is
a mistake.
[52] It is absurd to speak of _fort_ and _caught_, _morn_ and _dawn_ as
"cockney" rimes; they are perfectly good rimes in standard English; and
a southern Englishman only shows ignorance by speaking of them as bad.
Considering, however, that standard English is by no means universal,
the would-be poet is advised to avoid these rimes.
[53] For [ö] see the note on p. 68.
[54] In the case of this diphthong as well as in that in _name_,
_pail_, etc. (see § 41), untrained singers usually betray themselves by
passing too soon to the second part of the diphthong.
[55] For [o] see the diagram on p. 124.
[56] [ö] is [o] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more
forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French
_eu_ or German _ö_; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.
[57] The pronunciations [wində, pilə] for _window_, _pillow_ are,
however, avoided by educated speakers.
[58] [ü] is [u] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more
forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French
_u_ or German _ü_; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.
[59] For [u] see the diagram on p. 124.
[60] See also § 29.
THE SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
=46.= Let us take a familiar nursery rime as an example of simple
conversational English; it will serve to give us some idea of the
problems which have to be considered when we deal with the sounds of
connected speech. This is the rime:
siŋ ə sɔŋ əv sikspəns | ə pɔkit ful əv rai | fɔːr ən tʍ_e_nti
blækbəːdzz̥ | beikt in ə pai | w_e_n ðə pai wəz oŭpnd | ðə bəːdzz̥
bi´gæn tə siŋ | wɔzn̩(t) ðæt ə deinti diʃ | tə s_e_t bi´fɔː ðə kiŋ.
=47.= Pedantically precise speech is as much out of place in the
nursery as vulgar speech; therefore we do not say, siŋ eĭ sɔŋ ɔv
siksp_e_ns.
Notice that the following words have =strong and weak forms=, a weak
form being regularly used when they are not stressed:--
_weak_ _strong_
a, an ə, ən ei, æn
the ðə (before consonants) ðij
ði (before vowels)
has həz,[61] əz, z hæz
have həv,[61] əv, v hæv
had həd,[61] əd, d hæd
is iz, z, s iˑz
are ɑ(r), ə(r) ɑːə, ɑːr
was wəz wɔz
were wə(r) wəː(r), wɛːə(r)
can kən, kn̩ kæn
shall ʃəl, əl, l ʃæl
will əl, l wil
could kəd kud
should ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt, d ʃud
would wəd, əd, d wud
he hi,[62] i hij
she ʃi ʃij
her hə(r),[62] ə(r) həː(r)
him ɪm him
his ɪz hiz
we wi wij
us əs ʌs
you ju, jə juw
them ðəm, (əm) ðem
your jü(r), jɔ(r), jə(r) juːə(r)
of əv ɔv
from frəm, frm̩ frɔm
to tə (before consonants) tu
and ənd, n̩d, ɔn, n̩ ænd
or ɔ(r), ə(r) ɔː(r)
The use of strong forms for weak ones in ordinary conversation is
undoubtedly a fault, and should be avoided; much of the unnatural
reading aloud in our schools is due to this cause. Foreigners who
have lived long in England often fail in this respect when they have
overcome almost all other difficulties. It is also not uncommon in the
speech of colonials.
* * * * *
Notice [p_e_ns], but [sikspəns].
A word which forms the second part of a compound often changes in
pronunciation, a weaker form being substituted. Compare _penny_ and
_halfpenny_, _board_ and _cupboard_, _come_ and _welcome_, _day_ and
_yesterday_, _ways_ and _always_, _fast_ and _breakfast_, _mouth_ and
_Portsmouth_, _land_ and _England_, _ford_ and _Oxford_.
The first letter of the second part is sometimes dropped; thus the
_w_ in _housewife_ (case for needles, etc.) [hʌzif], _Greenwich_,
_Harwich_, _Woolwich_, _Norwich_, _Keswick_, _Warwick_ is no longer
pronounced, nor the _h_ in _shepherd_, _forehead_, _Clapham_,
_Sydenham_, and in many words beginning with _ex-_, e.g., _exhale_,[63]
_exhaust_, _exhibit_, _exhilarate_, _exhort_. The dropping of _h_ in
_neighbourhood_ is vulgar.
Sometimes there is a change in the first part of a compound word.
Compare _half_ and _halfpenny_, _three_ and _threepence_, _fore_ and
_forehead_, _break_ and _breakfast_.
The stress of compounds like _sixpence_ is discussed below
("blackbirds").
=48.= In _pocket_ the second vowel is not middle [_e_], but a very
laxly articulated variety of [ɪ], with the tongue only a little higher
than for close [e]; see § 38. In the speech of elocutionists the middle
[_e_] often appears here. They tell of the [gaːəd_e_n ɔv ijd_e_n],
just as they succeed in pronouncing [d_e_vɪl] instead of [d_e_vəl],
thus avoiding all offence; for [d_e_vəl] is said by common people, but
[d_e_vɪl] only by the polite.
* * * * *
Notice that in _four-and-twenty_ the _r_ is pronounced, as it comes
between vowels; but it is mute in _before the King_, where it comes
before a consonant, as in the word _forth_. See § 32.
=49.= In _and_ the _d_ is dropped. Here it might be a case of
assimilation; that is to say the _t_ which immediately follows, and
which is closely akin to it, might have changed it to [t], and the two
would have fallen together.
In _sit down_, do you utter both [t] and [d]? If you speak naturally,
you probably say [sidaun] or [sitaun]. What is your pronunciation of
_hold tight_, _less zeal_?
In _cupboard_ none but the absurdly precise pronounce the [p].
* * * * *
Assimilation of consonants is common in English, and the more
colloquial the speech is, the more assimilation you are likely to find.
Assimilation reduces the number of movements which have to be made,
and thus represents a saving of trouble; and in colloquial speech we
incline to take as little trouble as possible.
The general rule is, that when two sounds come together, those
movements of articulation which are common to both are executed once
only. Thus in _don't_,[64] the stopping of the passage for [n] also
does duty for [t]; it is the opening of the passage which constitutes
the [t]. In _stamp_ the closure for [m] also does duty for [p]. In
_witness_ the closure for [t] remains for [n], which merely requires
the opening of the nose-passage and vibration of the vocal chords.
Utter the word _clean_, and observe whether you produce the [k] in
the same way as in _keen_; probably you will find that for the [k] of
_clean_ you open the closure only at the sides, leaving the centre of
the tongue in contact, ready for the production of [l]. See whether
anything similar happens when you say the word _atlas_.
Sometimes a voiced sound makes a neighbouring sound voiced, or a
voiceless sound makes a neighbouring sound voiceless. Examples in
the nursery rime are [bəːdzz̥] and [beikt]; find similar examples of
the _s_ of the plural[65] and the _ed_ of the past participle, and
determine in each case whether the final sound is voiced or voiceless.
Try to find pairs like _lagged_ and _lacked_, _bids_ and _bits_.
Utter the words _apt_, _act_, and notice carefully when you make the
closure for [t]; probably it is earlier than you would have thought. Do
you make the [n] closure in _open_ before or after the [p] opening?
In compound words, and in neighbouring words which belong closely
together, assimilation is common. When one word ends in a voiceless
sound and the other begins with a voiced sound, or _vice versa_, it
is usually the second which prevails. Observe _cupboard_ [kʌbəd],
_raspberry_ [rɑːzbəri], _blackguard_ [blægɑːd], _bedtime_ [betaim],
_hold tight_ [houltait].
Consider the pronunciation of _observe_, _obstacle_, _gooseberry_,
_absolve_, _absolute_.
In careless speech [hɔːʃu] is heard for [hɔːsʃu], [lædbru grouv] does
duty for _Ladbroke Grove_, and [həsijn] for _has seen_. _Is she_ is
regularly pronounced [iʒ ʃi], or [iʃi] in quick conversation.
The nasals frequently change to suit the place of articulation of
the _following_ sound, as in _congress_ [kɔŋres], _congregation_
[kɔŋri´geiʃən], _anchor_, _concave_, _conclusion_, _concourse_,
_concrete_, _syncope_, _tranquil_, _unctuous_, _pincushion_ [piŋkuʃən],
_infamous_ [imfəməs], _Holland Park_ [hɔləmpɑːk]; or of the _preceding_
sound, as in _second single_ [sekŋsiŋgəl], _captain_ [kæpm̩], _open the
door_ [oupm̩ ðə dɔː], _cup and saucer_ [kʌpm̩sɔːsə]. The examples from
_pincushion_ onwards occur only in distinctly careless speech.
The change of [s] to [z] in _house_, _houses_ [haus, hauziz], shows a
different kind of assimilation.
=50.= The dropping of _d_ in _four-and-twenty_ might also be due to
the desire to =simplify a group of consonants=; and this will seem the
more likely explanation if we notice that the _d_ of _and_ is generally
dropped before a consonant, but kept before a vowel. Compare _you and
Ida_, _bread and butter_; if you drop the _d_ in the first instance,
or utter it in the second, you are equally wrong. Such simplifying is
fairly common in educated speech; most people drop the _t_ in _often_,
and the _p_ in _empty_ (where it has no etymological justification),
and _jumped_; in colloquial speech _don't know_ is [dʌnou]. In quite
careless speech you may notice consonants dropped in such words as
_acts_, _insects_, but this is clearly a licence which cannot be
permitted in the class-room. Indeed these groups of consonants should
be articulated with great care. Nothing so quickly gives an effect
of slovenly speech as the slurring of consonants, where it is not
generally adopted.
* * * * *
In ordinary speech numerous instances occur of this tendency to
simplify groups of consonants, _d_ and _t_ being the sounds most
frequently dropped.
_d_ is not pronounced in _handkerchief_ [hæŋkətʃif], _handsome_
[hænsəm], _Windsor_ [winzə], _Guildford_ [gilfəˑd], _Ingoldsby_
[iŋgəlzbi], _Wednesday_ [wenzdi].[66]
The _d_ in _friends_, _grandfather_ is also often dropped;
and, in very careless speech, the _d_ of such words as _old_,
_cold_, _child_, _thousand_, _kindness_, _landlord_.
_t_ is not pronounced in _christen_ [krisən], _glisten_
[glisən], _hasten_ [heisən], _listen_ [lisən], _moisten_
[mɔisən], _apostle_ [ə´pɔsəl], _bustle_ [bʌsəl], _castle_
[kɑːsəl], _epistle_ [i´pisəl], _gristle_ [grisəl], _hustle_
[hʌsəl], _ostler_ [ɔslə], _pestle_ [pesəl], _rustle_ [rʌsəl],
_thistle_ [θisəl], _trestle_ [tresəl], _whistle_ [wisəl],
_wrestle_ [resəl], *_Westbourne_ [wesbən], *_Westminster_
[wesminstə], _Christmas_ [krisməs], _chestnut_ [tʃesnət],
_coastguard_ [kousgɑːd], _often_ [ɔːfən], _soften_ [sɔːfən],
_mortgage_ [mɔːgidʒ], *_directly_ [di´rekli], *_exactly_
[i´gzækli], _postpone_ [pous´poun], _waistcoat_ [weiskət,
weskət], _bankruptcy_ [bæŋkrəpsi].
In very careless speech the _t_ of such words as _slept_,
_swept_, _wept_ is dropped; also in _acts_, _facts_, _insects_,
_sects_.
Notice the French _rosbif_, _bifteck_.
_th_ is not pronounced in _asthma_ [æsmə], _isthmus_ [isməs]
and (carelessly) in _depths_.
_p_ is not pronounced in _empty_ [emti], _jumped_ [dʒʌmt],
_tempt_ [temt], _attempt_ [ə´temt], _contempt_ [kən´temt],
_peremptory_ [pər´emtəri], _symptom_ [simtəm],[67] _sapphire_
[sæfaiə], _Sappho_ [sæfou].
_c_ is not pronounced in _corpuscle_ [kɔː´pʌsəl], _muscle_
[mʌsəl], _victuals_ [vitl̩z], _indict_ [in´dait].[68]
So many educated speakers say [ɑːst] for _asked_, that this
pronunciation must be regarded as no longer incorrect.
What is the usual pronunciation of _next station_?
In careful speech the simplifications marked with an asterisk are
avoided, as also such pronunciations as [ail dʒʌssij] for _I'll just
see_, [difikl̩ kwestʃn̩z] for _difficult questions_. The omission of
[k] in the pronunciation of _arctic_ and _antarctic_ and of [g] in
_recognise_ is generally regarded as faulty.
* * * * *
Unfamiliar groups of consonants at the beginning of words are
simplified by dropping the first sound; notice the simplification of
_bd_ in _bdellium_;
_chth_ in _chthonian_;
_gn_ in _gnaw_, _gneiss_, _gnome_, _gnostic_;
_gz (x)_ in _Xerxes_ [zəːksijz], _Xenophon_;
_kn_ in _knee_, _knit_, _know_, etc.;
_mn_ in _mnemonic_;
_phth_ in _phthisis_ [θaisis], also [taisis];
_pn_ in _pneumatic_, _pneumonia_;
_ps_ in _psalm_, _pseudo-_, _Psyche_, _psychic_ [saikik],
_psychology_, etc.;
_pt_ in _ptarmigan_, _Ptolemy_;
_sw_ becomes _s_ in _sword_ (observe also _answer_);
_wr_ in _wreck_, _write_, etc.
Similarly, an unfamiliar group at the end of a word is simplified,
usually by dropping the last sound; notice--
_ln_ in _kiln_ (some do not drop this _n_);
_mb_ in _bomb_, _catacomb_, _climb_, _comb_, _dumb_, _hecatomb_,
_lamb_, _limb_, _plumber_, _succumb_, _tomb_;
_mn_ in _autumn_, _column_, _condemn_, _contemn_, _hymn_,
_limn_, _solemn_.
(The opposite tendency is found in vulgar speech, where [vɑːmint] is
said for _vermin_, [draund] for _drown_.)
* * * * *
Observe _drachm_ [dræm], _yacht_ [jɔt], _impugn_ [im´pjuwn],
_physiognomy_ [fizi´ɔnəmi], _diaphragm_ [daiəfræm], _paradigm_
[pærədaim], _phlegm_ [flem], _sign_ [sain], _feign_, _reign_,
_foreign_, _benign_.
=51.= In [rai] we have a diphthong. It is worth noting that the English
diphthongs [ai, au, ɔi, ei, ou], etc., all have the =stress= on the
former element.
* * * * *
_Blackbirds_ and _black birds_: in the spelling we distinguish these
by writing the first as one word, the second as two. What difference
is there in the sounds? If you listen carefully, you will find that
the second vowel in the compound word is just a little shorter than
in _birds_ standing alone, and that in _blackbirds_ the opening of the
closure for [k] is not heard, while in _black birds_ it may be audible.
The chief difference, however, lies in the =stress of the compound
word=. _Blackbirds_ is an example of descending stress [>], _black
birds_ is pronounced with level stress [=], perhaps with ascending
stress [<].
Take the following compound words or groups, and classify them
according to their stress:--
_Sixpence_, _rainbow_, _good morning_, _looking glass_, _moonshine_,
_bravo!_, _twenty-four_, _twenty-four men_, _High Street_, _London
Road_, _waterspout_, _right of way_, _undo_, _Mr Jones_, _Park Lane_,
_season ticket_, _sunflower_, _Hongkong_, _steel pen_, _Chinese_,
_hallo!_ _bill of fare_, _earthquake_, _sea wall_, _Bond Street_,
_Grosvenor Square_, _fourteen_, _Hyde Park_.
Try to deduce some rules from these examples. It has been said that
level stress contrasts, and uneven stress unites the ideas expressed by
the compound words; do you agree with this?
Notice what difficulty our level stress gives to the German; he will
utter _steel pen_, _Hyde Park_, etc., with descending stress. Do so
yourself, and observe how strange it sounds.
Notice the difference in stress of
Substantive or Adjective Verb
_absent_ _to absent_
_accent_ _to accent_
_consort_ _to consort_
_converse_ _to converse_
_desert_ _to desert_
_prefix_ _to prefix_
_present_ _to present_
Substantive Verb
_proceeds_ _to proceed_
_produce_ _to produce_
_project_ _to project_
_protest_ _to protest_
_rebel_ _to rebel_
_record_ _to record_
_refuse_ _to refuse_
Substantive Adjective
_compact_ _compact_
_instinct_ _instinct_
_minute_ _minute_
Some words of two syllables have the stress on the first or the second
syllable according to their place in the sentence. Consider the accent
of the italicised words in the following sentences: They sat _outside_.
An _outside_ passenger. Among the _Chinese_. A _Chinese_ lantern.
His age is _fifteen_. I have _fifteen_ shillings. Some fell by the
_wayside_. A _wayside_ inn. Try to find a rule governing these cases.
The stresses in a sentence are considered in § 54.
* * * * *
_When_ would be pronounced as voiceless [ʍ] by some, hardly by a
southern English nurse saying the rime (§ 46). Notice how the tongue
moves forward as the [n] passes over into the [ð] in _when the_.
_Was_ is in the weak form because it is quite unstressed; but notice:
[wɛːə ju riːəli ðɛːə? j_e_s, ai wɔz].
=52.= In _opened_, observe carefully how the consonants are
articulated, and put their action down in writing.
How many syllables are there in _opened_, _bubbles_, _chasms_,
_mittens_?
Probably you have no difficulty in understanding and answering this
question, but if asked to describe =a syllable= you might hesitate, for
it is not easy.
Utter [ɑ] and then [t]; which carries farther, which has greater
fulness of sound or sonority? If you wished to attract the attention
of some one, and were only allowed to utter one of these two sounds,
you would prefer [ɑ] without hesitation. Why is [ɑ] more sonorous than
[t]? Because, whereas [t] is only a brief noise, in [ɑ] the current
of breath is rendered musical by the vibration of the vocal chords,
and has a free passage through the wide open mouth. Indeed [ɑ] is the
most sonorous of all sounds. It is clear that voiced sounds are more
sonorous than voiceless, vowels than consonants, continuants than
stops. The liquids and nasals stand between vowels and consonants in
point of sonority; they are voiced and with either a fair passage
through the mouth or a free passage through the nose. A good deal
naturally depends on the force and the pitch of the sounds; a whispered
[ɑ] may not carry so far as a forcible [s].
Now if a sound with good carrying power has for its neighbours sounds
that do not carry far, it helps them to be heard; notice how such
weakly sonorous sounds as [t] or [p] occurring in the words of a song
are quite clearly heard at the other end of a large concert hall. They
are carried along by the full sounding vowels, as the greater volume of
air employed causes more pressure, and hence a more forcible and louder
release. It is the sounds of greater sonority that carry the syllable,
which term is also applied to a vowel standing alone, or beside other
vowels of practically equal sonority. In English, the syllable is
generally carried by vowels; sometimes also by liquids and nasals,
which are then called =syllabic=.[69]
Rules for dividing words into syllables are given in most grammars, and
are required for writing and printing; but they do not always represent
the actual state of things. When a consonant comes between two vowels,
it really belongs to both syllables. In _leaving_ we pronounce neither
_lea-ving_ nor _leav-ing_.
From the phonetic point of view we may think of words and groups of
words as consisting of a series of sounds of varying sonority. We
may indicate the sonority very roughly by lines; if we connect their
top ends, we shall obtain a curve. Thus the word _sonority_ might be
represented as follows (no attempt is here made at scientific accuracy).
[Illustration:
^
|
^ | ^
/ | \/|\ /|\ ^
| | | | | | | |
s o n o r i t y]
The curves will represent a series of waves; and each of these waves is
a syllable.
* * * * *
_Began_: notice the quality of the vowel in the first, unstressed
syllable of this word. It is higher than any real _e_ sound, and
is very laxly articulated. It occurs also in _before_, _enough_,
_inquire_; find other words in which it occurs. Is it the same sound as
the second vowel in _lily_?
_To sing_: read the sixth line quite naturally and see whether you say
[tə] or [tu]; get friends to read it, and find out what they say.
_When you wish to ascertain how a friend pronounces some particular
sound, do not tell him what this sound is, or he may pronounce it not
naturally, but in what he believes, or has been told, is "the correct
pronunciation."_
Try to ascertain the pronunciation of these sentences: _What are you
going to do to-morrow morning?_ _I'm going to answer letters._
_Wasn't that_: _was_ is here in the strong form (§ 47); are weak forms
found at the beginning of a sentence? Notice the syllabic [n]; also the
simplification of the group of consonants by the omission of [t]. What
is the weak form of _that_? When is it used?
The remaining words present nothing of special interest.
=53.= We may now consider the =stress of the sentence=. For this
purpose it is sufficient to consider the most sonorous part of each
syllable, generally speaking a vowel. We may distinguish stress and
absence of stress, which we can designate by the signs / and ×; extra
strong stress will be //, and secondary stress \. The first line of
Sing a Song of Sixpence, will then run:--
// × / × // \
Here "sing" and "six" have the strongest stress; "song" has ordinary
stress.
Secondary stress is given to that syllable of a word which is stressed,
but has not the chief stress; thus the stresses in _energetic_ may be
written \ × / ×.
The nursery rhyme then shows the following stresses:--
// × / × // \
× // × / × //
// × \ × // \
// \ × //
// × / × // \
× // × / × //
// × / × // × /
× // × / × //
Perhaps you do not read the poem in this way; mark the stresses for
yourself, without looking at the book.
_Accept no statements without verifying them._
=53A.= It will have struck you that you have really been scanning the
poem. Hitherto you may have done it by means of the signs – and ˘,
taken from Latin prosody, where they stand for "long" and "short."
Consider the question which of these two systems of scansion is the
more accurate and the more convenient.
=53B.= It may also strike you that in reading the poem we do not make
a pause at the end of each word; and of course we do not read it "all
in one breath." How many breaths do you require for reading it slowly?
for reading it quickly? What guides you in finding places for your
pauses? Take any dozen lines of prose and read them aloud; notice where
you pause for breath. The words which are read together in one breath
are called a _breath group_. After considering several passages from
this point of view, you will realise that good reading depends to some
extent on the choice of suitable places for taking breath. Let your
friends read to you, and observe how they manage their breath.
=54.= We have spoken several times of stress, and you have probably
followed without difficulty. What is stress? Utter the series of sounds
[´atata], then [a´tata], and [ata´ta].[70] You use more force for the
stressed than for the unstressed vowels, that is to say, you put more
breath into them. Place your hand close in front of your lips as you
say the above sounds, and you will notice a distinct increase of breath
as the stressed syllable is uttered.
We use this stress for purposes of emphasis; generally speaking,
we expend more breath on those syllables of a word, or words of a
sentence, which are more important for the meaning. We may say that
English sentence stress is guided by logical considerations. Is this
equally true of French? of German? Has anything struck you about the
stress in French, or in English as spoken by a Frenchman?
=55.= Stress, due to force of breath, is not the only means of
accentuation at our disposal. We can also produce various effects by
changing the _pitch_ of the voice. When the pitch of a voice hardly
varies at all, we consider it monotonous. Certain clergymen have
acquired the habit of reading the Church service in monotone; consider
whether this has any advantage or disadvantage. When there is very
great and regular or monotonous variation of pitch in a voice, we call
it a "sing-song."
In standard speech there is moderate variation of pitch; it becomes
considerable only in dramatic and oratorical declamation, when a
skilled use of pitch variations may produce a deeply moving or highly
stirring effect, somewhat resembling that produced by song.
Observe the pitch changes in ordinary speech. The most obvious case is
the rise of pitch in questions, in contrast with the tendency to lower
the pitch in a statement. Even though we have the same order of words
as in a statement, this change of pitch alone suffices to show that a
question is being asked. Say: _You are going out_ and _You are going
out?_ Try to say _Are you going out?_ with the same falling pitch as
in _You are going out_, and observe the strange effect. Determine the
changes of pitch in such questions as: _Is your brother tall or short?_
_Is your uncle's house in the town or in the country?_ Notice that joy
or any great excitement leads to the use of a higher pitch than usual.
Sometimes the pitch may rise or fall, or rise and fall, or fall and
rise during the utterance of a single vowel. Say _No_ in a doubtful, a
questioning, a decided, and a threatening tone, and observe the pitch.
If you wish to represent it roughly, you may use \ for fall in pitch, /
for a rise, /\ for a rise and fall, \/ for a fall and rise.
=56.= We have devoted our attention mainly to standard English as
it is spoken in ordinary life, because it is important to train the
ear so that it perceives the sounds and ceases to be misled by the
conventional spelling. Only when we can hear what sounds our pupils
actually utter, only when we have a fair idea of the way in which they
produce these sounds, are we in a position to correct what is faulty in
the mother tongue, or to impart the sounds of a foreign language with
any prospect of success. Hints have been given as to some of the faulty
tendencies likely to be found; the teacher whose ear has been trained
in the manner here suggested will be able to add to their number
without difficulty, and probably with growing interest. In this respect
every county presents its own problems, and many still require to be
recorded; every teacher can help by contributing his own observations.
No observer can fail to be struck by the different degrees of care with
which most individuals speak English under different circumstances.
In their talk among themselves, children, especially young boys, are
often extremely careless; at home we find various degrees of care,
much depending on the example set by the parents and the influence
of governesses and nurses. In talking to educated strangers, we are
usually careful in our pronunciation. If we occupy a position which
makes it necessary to speak to large numbers, we must be particularly
careful, and that in several respects: the voice must be pleasant,
carry far, and have good staying power.
=57.= A pleasant voice is to a certain degree a natural gift; it
depends on the quality of the vocal chords, the shape of the roof of
the mouth, and so on. Many voices are spoilt by bad habits, such as
excessive nasalising, or very high pitch. The teacher of elocution
often gives valuable criticism and help here. Listen attentively to any
criticisms which your friends make about your voice.
The voice of a public speaker (which includes the class teacher and
college lecturer no less than the clergyman, actor, or politician) must
carry far. His words must penetrate to every hearer, even in a large
hall. If there is any straining to catch his words, those words will
not produce their best effect. _The chief requirement is not loudness,
but distinctness._ He must articulate more carefully than in ordinary
conversation: unstressed vowels will have greater importance and be
less reduced, consonants will never be slurred over. The stressed
vowels are the most important of all because they are the most sonorous
sounds and help the others (see § 52); he will let the vocal chords
vibrate longer for them, to reinforce their value, and he will produce
them in such a way that they give their characteristic sound most
clearly. For this purpose he will find it best to articulate more
tensely (this applies also to the consonants) than in ordinary speech;
and a distinct rounding of the lips for the back vowels will enable him
to add to their value. He will prefer to keep the tongue point well
forward in the mouth for [l]. This and other hints he may obtain from
the teacher of elocution.
However pleasant a voice may be, and however far it may carry, it
will yet be of little use if it tires soon; it must have staying
power. This again is to some extent a natural gift; the throat may be
constitutionally weak. Training, however, can do very much to improve
the powers of endurance. Above all, good breathing is essential; hints
have been given in § 4 how this may be assured, and the teacher cannot
be recommended too warmly to give from 15 to 25 minutes every morning
to breathing exercises; he will be amply repaid for the time spent in
that way by the greater ease with which he gets through his teaching,
and by the inevitable improvement in his general health. It has also
been pointed out above that bad ventilation and dust are calculated to
interfere with his voice. Another suggestion may be helpful: to keep
the tongue as forward in the mouth as possible. The average tongue
position in many southern English teachers is too far back in the
mouth, and this is found to lead to serious fatigue; it may indeed be
regarded as one of the main causes of "teachers' sore throat."
It is in giving advice on the management of the voice for public
speaking that trustworthy teachers of elocution are most helpful. When
they make dogmatic statements as to how a sound or word is or should be
pronounced, their guidance is not equally satisfactory, and the student
is earnestly recommended always to test their statements himself. The
same request is addressed to him with regard to the present book; if it
arouses interest, there is no harm if it also arouses opposition.
FOOTNOTES:
[61] These forms are found, for instance, at the beginning of
questions; thus _have you been there?_ is [həv ju bijn ðɛə]. They are
also found after vowels, e.g., _I had done so_, [ai həd dʌn sou].
[62] See the note on p. 72.
[63] When contrasted with _inhale_, this word is also pronounced
[eksheil].
[64] The change in the quality of the vowel is interesting; possibly
_don't_ preserves the old pronunciation of the vowel in _do_.
[65] Strictly speaking the _s_ of the plural was always voiced in the
older language, and it is in _cats_, _tips_ that we have assimilation.
[66] The first _d_ is sometimes heard in the pronunciation of this word.
[67] It should, however, be noted that in passing from [m] to [t] there
is a transitional sound or "glide" which has the value of a faint [p].
[68] The _c_ in _victuals_ and _indict_ has no etymological
justification, as may be seen from the middle English spelling
(_vitaille_, _endite_).
[69] For syllabic _m_ see § 22; for syllabic _n_, § 24; for syllabic
_l_, § 33.
[70] The mark ´ _precedes_ the stressed syllable.
APPENDIX I
Exercises.
1. How is _-ious_ pronounced in _gracious_, _bilious_, _victorious_?
2. How is _-ion_ pronounced in _motion_, _onion_, _criterion_,
_vision_, and _Ionian_?
3. How is _-ial_ pronounced in _labial_, _judicial_, _martial_,
_partiality_?
4. What difference in pronunciation, if any, do you make between _hire_
and _higher_, _lyre_ and _liar_, _cure_ and _(s)kewer_, _alms_ and
_arms_?
5. Consider the value of _oar_ in _roar_ and in _roaring_, and the
value of _air_ in _pair_ and in _pairing_.
6. Determine the vowel sounds corresponding to the italicized letters
in ch_i_ld, ch_i_ldren; wom_a_n, wom_e_n; r_ea_d (infinitive),
r_ea_d (past participle); s_ay_, s_ay_s; dr_ea_m, dr_ea_med; l_ea_p,
l_ea_ped; h_ea_r, h_ea_rd; c_a_n, c_a_n't; d_o_, d_o_n't; gentlem_a_n,
gentlem_e_n.
7. Write in transcript the words italicized:
_a._ I have _learned_ much from this _learned_ man.
_b._ He has _aged_ a good deal. He is _aged_.
_c._ I _used_ to _use_ it; you _used_ it too.
Try to account for the pronunciation of _used_ in the sense of "was
accustomed" (see § 49).
8. Transcribe your pronunciation of _halfpenny, twopence_,
_threepence_. Show the difference between the English and the French
pronunciation of _franc_, and between the English and the German
pronunciation of _mark_.
9. A waiter was heard to remark pathetically that he never _could_ tell
whether a customer wanted "cold lamb" or "cold ham." What caused his
uncertainty?
10. The pronunciation of the children of Walworth attending the Church
schools has given much concern to Canon Horsley, who says that in
their speech "I've been to take her home" becomes "binter tiker rome,"
"Oh, shake hands" becomes "ow shy cans," and "I've been having a game"
becomes "binnavinagime." Consider the pronunciation suggested by this
rough transcription, transcribe it more carefully, and comment on such
features of the Walworth dialect as it illustrates.
11. You are familiar with the term "alliteration," and know that it is
a favourite device of cheap journalism. Criticise the alliteration in
the following scare-lines: CITY CLERK CHASED. THIEF TAKEN. SOLICITOR
SHOT.
12. Mention words in which the following letters are written but not
sounded: _b_, _g_, _gh_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _t_, _w_.
13. Comment on the following statement: "The letters _l_ and _r_ are
called trills, because there is a vibration in the sounds, or in some
part of the vocal apparatus by which we pronounce them."
14. Consider this statement: "The _ai_ in _fair_, _ea_ in _lead_, _ie_
in _field_, _ei_ in _receive_, are none of them true diphthongs; they
are more or less clumsy ways of showing the length of an elementary
vowel-sound."
15. "English has two _e_ sounds, as in _fed_, _feed_, and four _u_
sounds, as in _but_, _pull_, _fur_, _fool_." Do you agree with this?
16. Why does _crystal_ look nicer than _kristle_, which represents the
same sounds? Account for such spellings as Edythe, Smythe, Whyte.
17. Say quickly but distinctly:
She sells sea-shells in a salt-fish shop.
Is Stephen Smith's son a smith too?
How many houses had Harry Hall?
Long and loudly little Lily laughed.
The skilled dentist extracted the three teeth.
Do you want the thick thread or the thin?
In silence he sat on the sands by the silvery sea.
A boat is floating over the ocean.
With a loud shout he came out of the house.
The first question Charles asked was strange.
Three grey geese in the green grass grazing.
18. Discuss the old-fashioned form of address "mine host." Do you say
"an historical novel"? "a (or an) hotel at Folkestone"? How do you
pronounce "the Grand Hotel"? Transcribe your pronunciation of "I gave
her her hat."
19. What is the derivation of _ventriloquist_? Does the term correctly
indicate the way in which ventriloquists produce their sounds? Which
sounds do you think most likely to give them difficulty?
20. In the French of the 12th century _l_ under certain circumstances
became a vowel; thus _altre_ became _autre_ and _chevals_ became
_chevaus_. How do you explain this change? Point to a similar change in
English.
21. How would you teach a foreigner to pronounce the English _th_
sounds?
22. Little children say _pease_ for _please_, _gamma_ or _granma_ for
_grandma_, _dess_ for _dress_, _tocking_ for _stocking_. Illustrate the
tendency shown in these examples from the speech of grown-up people.
23. Comment on the little child's pronunciation of _tsain_ for _chain_,
_fee_ for _three_, _noder_ for _another_, and _bafyoom_ for _bathroom_.
24. Consider carefully the question, why the pronunciation of a foreign
language presents difficulties; draw on any foreign language you know
for illustrations.
25. The Latin _camera_ is our _chamber_, _numerus_ our _number_, Latin
_humilis_ our _humble_, Latin _similare_ our _(re)semble_. Account for
the _b_ in the English words.
26. Consider the value of _ure_ in _sure_, _pure_, _nature_, _figure_.
27. What light is thrown on the pronunciation of the past by the
following quotations:
(_a_) While he, withdrawn, at their mad labour smiles,
And safe enjoys the Sabbath of his toils. (Dryden.)
(_b_) Dreading even fools, by flatterers besieg'd,
And so obliging that he ne'er oblig'd. (Pope.)
(_c_) _Cóntemplate_ is bad enough, but _bálcony_ makes me sick.
(Rogers.)
(_d_) The dame, of manner various, temper fickle,
Now all for pleasure, now the conventicle. (Colman.)
(_e_) There is little doubt that in the pronunciation of
_successor_ the antepenultimate accent will prevail. (Walker.)
(_f_) To ketch [catch] him at a vantage in his snares.
(Spenser.)
(_g_) Yet he was kind, or, if severe in aught,
The love he bore to learning was in fault. (Goldsmith.)
28. Determine which sounds are represented by _ea_ in the following
words: _bear_, _beard_, _bread_, _bead_, _yea_, _create_, _realm_,
_leap_, _leapt_, _hearken_; and by _eo_ in the following words:
_yeoman_, _people_, _leopard_, _re-open_.
29. Determine which sounds are represented by _oi_ in the following
words: _boil_, _heroic_, _choir_, _tortoise_, _turquoise_, _coincide_;
and by _ou_ in the following words: _south_, _southern_, _mourn_,
_journal_, _though_, _thought_, _uncouth_.
30. Determine which sounds are represented by _g_ in the following
words: _gem_, _goal_, _gaol_, _gill_, _gibberish_, _fatigue_, _gnaw_;
and by _ough_ in the following words: _trough_, _through_, _thorough_,
_sough_, _cough_, _rough_, _plough_, _lough_.
31. A character in one of Miss Braddon's novels says:
"Supernumery--it's no use, I don't think anybody ever did know how
many syllables there are in that word." What is it that leads to the
shortening of this word in uneducated speech? Mention similar cases of
shortening.
APPENDIX II
Lists of Words with Phonetic Transcription.
NOTE.
The accent shows that the _following_ syllable has the chief stress.
As these lists are intended for the use of English students, it has
been thought sufficient to let [e] represent the first vowel sound and
[i] the second vowel sound in _very_.
The variation in length of [ij] and other diphthongs and of [m, n, l],
etc., has not been indicated.
Words which have occurred in the text of the book are not repeated here.
When two pronunciations are given, both may be considered as common;
the first is generally to be preferred. If, however, a pronunciation is
enclosed in brackets, it is to be regarded as faulty.
A. General.
abdomen, æb´doumən (´æbdomən)
ab initio, ´æb i´niʃiou, -jou
abscission, æb´siʒən
acacia, ə´keiʃə
accent (subst.), ´æksənt, ´æksent; (verb) æk´sent
acclimatize, ´æklimətaiz, ə´klaimetaiz
accolade, ´ækɔleid
accoutre, ə´kuwtə
acetic, ə´sijtik, -se-
acoustics, ə´kaustiks (ə´kuwstiks)
acrobat, ´ækrobæt
adage, ´ædidʒ
adept, ´ædept, ə´dept
adieu, ə´djuw
ad infinitum, ´æd infi´naitəm
admirable, ´ædmirəbl
admiration, ædmi´reiʃən
ad nauseam, ´æd ´nɔːsiæm, -jæm
ado, ə´duw
adult, ´ædʌlt, ə´dʌlt
ad valorem, æd və´lɔːrem
advantageous, ædvən´teidʒəs, ædvæn´teidʒəs
advertisement, əd´vəːtizmənt
aegis, ´ijdʒis
aegrotat, i´groutæt
aerated, ´ɛːəreitid
aerial, ɛ´eriəl, ɛ´iːəriəl
aerie, ´ɛːri, ´iːəri
aeronaut, ´ɛːronɔːt
aesthetics, ij´sθetiks (e´sθetiks)
a fortiori, ´ei fɔː´ʃjɔːrai
again, ə´gen, ə´gein
against, ə´genst, ə´geinst
aged (adj.), ´eidʒid
aggrandizement, ə´grændizmənt
aghast, ə´gɑːst
agile, ´ædʒail
ague, ´eigjuw
aisle, ´ail
albeit, ´ɔːlbijit
algebra, ´ældʒibrə
alibi, ´ælibai
alienate, ´eiljəneit
allegiance, ə´lijdʒəns
allegro, ə´legrou, -leig-
allot, ə´lɔt
alloy, ə´lɔi
ally, ə´lai
almanac, ´ɔːlmənæk
also, ´ɔːlsou, ´ɔlsou
always, ´ɔːlwiz, -wəz, -weiz
amateur, ´æmətəː, ´æmətʃuə
amenity, ə´meniti
among, ə´mʌŋ (ə´mɔŋ)
anæmic, ə´nijmik
anarchist, ´ænəkist
anarchy, ´ænəki, ´ænɑːki
anchovy, æn´tʃouvi
anemone, ə´neməni
angina, æn´dʒainə
anglice, ´æŋglisi
ant, ´ænt (´ɑːnt)
antipodes, æn´tipodijz
antique, æn´tijk
antithesis, æn´tiθisis
aorist, ´ɛːərist
aperture, ´æpəˑtʃə
aphasia, ə´feizjə
apophthegm, ´æpoθem
apotheosis, æpoθi´ousis, əpo-
apparatus, æpə´reitəs
apparent, ə´pɛːrənt, -pær-
a priori, ´ei pri´ɔːrai
apropos, ´æpropou
arch-, usually ɑːtʃ
archangel, ´ɑːkeindʒəl
archetype, ´ɑːkitaip
archi-, ´ɑːki-, ´ɑːkj-
archives, ´ɑːkaivz
arid, ´ærid
arras, ´ærəs
artificer, ɑː´tifisə
artiste, ´ɑːtijst, -ist
asafœtida, ´æsə´fetidə
askance, ə´skæns, -ɑːns
aspirant, ə´spairənt
assignee, æsi´nij
atoll, ´ætɔl, ə´tɔl
attorney, ə´təːni
avalanche, ´ævəlɑːnʃ
awkward, ´ɔːkwəd
awry, ə´rai
ayah, ´ajə
aye (always), ´ei
aye (yes), ´ai
baboo, ´bɑːbuw
bacillus, bə´siləs
bagatelle, ´bægətel
bakshish, ´bækʃijʃ
balcony, ´bælkəni
ballet, ´bælei
balsam, ´bɔːlsəm
basalt, ´bæsɔlt, bə´sɔːlt
bass (voice), ´beis
because, bi´kɔːz, bi´kɔz
bedizen, bi´daizən
begone, bi´gɔn
belligerent, be´lidʒərənt
betroth, bi´trouð
bicycle, ´baisikl (´bai´saikl)
bigot, ´bigət
bijou, ´bijʒuw
billet-doux, ´bilei´duw
bison, ´baisən
bitumen, ´bitjumən, bi´tjuwmən
bizarre, bi´zɑː
blancmange, blə´mɔn(d)ʒ
blithe, ´blaið
blouse, ´blauz (´bluwz)
boatswain, ´bousən
bodega, bo´dijgə
bombast, ´bɔmbæst, ´bɔmbəst
bona fide, ´bounə ´faidi
booth, ´buwð
borough, ´bʌrə (´bʌrou)
bouquet, bu´kei
bourn, ´bɔːn, ´buːən
bravado, brə´veidou, brə´vɑːdou
brazier, ´breiʒə, ´breizjə
breeches, ´britʃiz, ´brij-
brougham, ´bruːəm, ´brouəm (´broum)
brusque, ´brusk, ´brʌsk
buffet, ´bufei
bulwark, ´bulwək
bureau, ´bjuːrou, bju´rou
burgher, ´bəːgə
cabal, kə´bæl
cachet, ´kæʃei
cadi, ´keidi
caesura, si´zjuːrə
cambric, ´keimbrik
campanile, kæmpə´nijli
cañon, ´kænjən
cantata, kæn´tɑːtə
cantonment, kæn´tuwnmənt, -tɔn-
caoutchouc, ´kautʃuk
cap-à-pie, ´kæpəpij
capitalist, ´kæpitəlist
caprice, kə´prijs
capuchin, ´kæpjutʃin
carouse, kə´rauz
cashier, kə´ʃiːə
casino, kə´sijnou
cathedra, ´kæθidrə (kə´θijdrə)
cauliflower, ´kɔliflauə
celibate, ´selibət
'cello, ´tʃelou
centenary, ´sentenri, sen´tenəri
cere (-cloths, -ments), ´siːə-
chagrin, ʃə´grijn, ʃə´grin
chalybeate, kæ´libjet
chamois (leather), ´ʃæmi
chaperon, ´ʃæpəroun
charade, ʃə´rɑːd, ʃə´reid
charivari, ´ʃærij´vɑːrij
charlatan, ´ʃɑːlətən, -æn
chastisement, ´tʃæstizmənt
chauffeur, ´ʃoufə
chaunt, ´tʃɑːnt
chauvinist, ´ʃouvinist
chic, ´ʃik
chimera, kai´miərə, ki-
chiro-, ´kairo-
chivalric, ʃi´vælrik } also
chivalrous, ´ʃivəlrəs } with
chivalry, ´ʃivəlri } tʃi-
choir, ´kwaiə
choleric, ´kɔlərik
chough, ´tʃʌf
cicala, si´kɑːlə
cicerone, sisə´rouni
cinque, ´siŋk
circuit, ´səːkit
circumstance, ´səːkəmstəns
clandestine, klæn´destin
clematis, ´klemətis, (kli´meitis)
clique, ´klijk
coalesce, kouə´les
cobalt, ´koubɔlt
cochineal, ´kɔtʃinijl
cognisant, ´kɔgnisənt
coign(e), ´kɔin
coincide, kouin´said
colonel, ´kəːnəl
combat, combatant, combative have ´kʌm- or ´kɔm-
comely, ´kʌmli
commentary, ´kɔməntri
comparable, ´kɔmprəbəl
comrade, ´kʌmrid, ´kɔmrid
conch, ´kɔŋk
condign, kən´dain
condolence, kən´douləns
conger, ´kɔŋgə
congeries, kɔn´dʒeriijz, -´dʒij-
conjure (sleight of hand), ´kʌndʒə
conjure (implore), kən´dʒuːə
connoisseur, kɔni´səː, kɔni´sjuːə
consignee, kɔnsi´nij
Consols, kən´sɔlz
constable, ´kʌnstəbl, ´kɔnstəbl
construe, ´kɔnstruw, kən´struw
contagion, kən´teidʒən
contemplate, ´kɔntempleit (kən´templeit)
contemplative, kɔn´templətiv
contents, ´kɔntents, kən´tents
contumacy, ´kɔntjuməsi
contumely, kən´tjuwmili
conversazione, kɔnvəsætsi´ouni
corollary, kə´rɔləri, kɔrələri
corps, ´kɔː
coterie, ´koutərij
cotillon, ko´tiljən
counterfeit, ´kauntəfit
courteous, ´kɔːtjəs, ´kəːtjəs (´kəːtʃəs)
courtesy, ´kəːtəsi
courtier, ´kɔːtjə
covetous, ´kʌvitəs
covey, ´kʌvi
coxswain, ´kɔksən
cozen, ´kʌzən
crayon, ´krejən
croup, ´kruwp
cui bono, ´kai ´bounou
cuirass, kwi´ræs, kju-
cuisine, kwi´zijn
cuneiform, ´kjuwniifɔːm
cupola, ´kjuwpolə
cynosure, ´sainosjuə, ´sainoʃuə, ´sino-
dais, ´deis
dandelion, ´dændilaiən
debauch, di´bɔːtʃ
debonair, ´debənɛːə
debris, ´debri
decade, ´dekəd, ´dekeid
decadence, ´dekədəns
decease, di´sijs
decorous, ´dekərəs, di´kɔːrəs
dei gratia, dijai ´greiʃiei
demesne, di´mein
demise, di´maiz
demonstrate, ´demənstreit
demy (paper), di´mai
depot, ´depou (´dijpou)
derelict, ´derəlikt
desiderate, di´sidəreit
design, di´zain
designate, ´dezigneit, ´des-
desist, di´zist
desuetude, ´deswitjuwd
diæresis, dai´iːərəsis
diapason, daiə´peizən
didactic, di´dæktik
dilatory, ´dilət(ə)ri
dilettante, dili´tænti
diocese, ´daiosis
dis- (before voiced sounds), diz-; (before voiceless sounds), dis-
dishabille, ´disəbijl
disputant, ´dispjutənt
distich, ´distik
divan, di´væn (´daivən)
divers, ´daivəːs
diverse, di´vəːs
divisible, di´vizibl
docile, ´dousail, ´dɔsail
doctrinal, ´dɔktrinəl, dɔk´trainəl
doge, ´doudʒ
dolorous, ´dɔlərəs
domicile, ´dɔmisail
douche, ´duʃ, ´duwʃ
doughty, ´dauti
dramatis personæ, ´dræmətis pəː´sounij
draught, ´drɑːft
drollery, drouləri
dromedary, ´drʌmidəri
drought, ´draut (drɔːt)
dubiety, djuw´baiəti
ducat, ´dʌkət
ductile, ´dʌktail
duteous, ´djuwtjəs (´djuwtʃəs)
dynasty, ´dinəsti, ´dainəsti
dysentery, ´disəntri
eau de Cologne, ´ou di kə´loun
echelon, ´eʃəlɔn
eclat, ´eklɑː, e´klɑː
e´en, ´ijn
e´er, ´ɛːə
effete, e´fijt
eglantine, ´egləntain
either, ´aiðə, ´ijðə
elicit, i´lisit
elite, e´lijt
elixir, i´liksə
emaciated, i´meiʃieitid
embrasure, em´breiʒə
enervate, ´enəːveit
enunciate, i´nʌnʃieit
envelope, ´ɔnvəloup, ´enveloup
environs, en´vairənz
epaulet, ´epɔlet
epitome, i´pitomi
epoch, ´ijpɔk (´epɔk)
equerry, ´ekwəri, e´kweri
erase, i´reis
erasure, i´reiʒə
ere, ´ɛːə
escheat, es´tʃijt
eschew, es´tʃuw
esoteric, eso´terik
espionage, ´espiɔnidʒ
evasive, i´veisiv
exchequer, eks´tʃekə
excise, ´eksaiz, ek´saiz
excuse (verb), eks´kjuwz, (subst.) eks´kjuws
expert, ´ekspəːt
expletive, ek´splijtiv
exquisite, ´ekskwizit
extant, ek´stænt, ´ekstənt
extempore, ek´stempəri
extirpate, ´ekstəːpeit
extraordinary, ek´strɔːdnəri, ´ekstrə´ɔːdinəri
exude, eg´zjuwd, -ks-
eyot, ´aiət
façade, fə´sɑːd, fə´seid
facile, ´fæsil
facsimile, fæk´simili
fakir, fə´kiːə, ´feikiə
falchion, ´fɔːlʃən
fanatic, fə´nætik
farinaceous, færi´neiʃəs
fealty, ´fiːəlti
fecund, ´fijkʌnd, ´fe-
feod, ´fjuwd
feoff, ´fef
fetish, ´fijtiʃ, ´fe-
finance, fi´næns
financier, fi´nænʃə, -sjə
finesse, fi´nes
fissure, ´fiʃə
flaccid, ´flæksid
flamboyant, flæm´bɔjənt
fluor, ´fluːə
fœtid, ´fetid
forfeit, ´fɔːfit
fragile, ´frædʒail
franchise, ´fræn(t)ʃaiz, -ʃiz
frigate, ´frigət
frontier, ´frɔntiːə, frʌn-
fuchsia, ´fjuwʃə
fugue, ´fjuwg
furlough, ´fəːlou
furore, fju´rɔːri
futile, ´fjuwtail
gala, ´geilə
gallant (polite), gə´lænt
gambol, ´gæmbl
gaol, ´dʒeil
garish, ´gɛːriʃ
gaseous, gæsjəs, geiʒjəs
gauche, ´gouʃ
gauge, ´geidʒ
generic, dʒe´nerik
gesture, dʒestʃə
gewgaw, ´gjuwgɔː
geyser, ´gaisə, ´geisə
ghoul, ´guwl
gibberish, ´gibəriʃ
gibbet, ´dʒibit
gibbous, ´gibəs
gig, ´gig
gigantic, dʒai´gæntik
gill (of fish), ´gil; (of liquid), ´dʒil
gillyflower, ´dʒiliflauə
gimlet, ´gimlit
gimp, ´gimp
gist, ´dʒist
gizzard, ´gizəd
glacial, ´gleiʃəl
glacier, ´gleiʃə, ´glæsjə, -iə
gladiolus, glə´daiələs, glædi´ouləs
glamour, ´glæmə
goitre, ´gɔitə
gondola, ´gɔndələ (gɔn´doulə)
gosling, ´gɔzliŋ
gouge, ´guwdʒ, ´gaudʒ
gourd, ´guːəd, ´gɔːd
gravamen, græ´veimən, grə-
greasy, ´grijzi, ´grijsi
groat, ´grout (´grɔːt)
gross, ´grous
guerdon, ´gəːdən
guillotine, ´gilətijn
gunwale, ´gʌnəl
gutta-percha, ´gʌtə´pəːtʃə
gyves, ´dʒaivz
halberd, ´hælbəd
halcyon, ´hælsjən
hautboy, ´houbɔi
heifer, ´hefə
heigho, ´heihou
heinous, ´heinəs
hemorrhage, ´hemoridʒ
heroine, ´heroin
heroism, ´heroizm̩
heterogeneous, hetero´dʒijnjəs
hiatus, hai´eitəs
hierarch, ´haiərɑːk
hirsute, həː´sjuwt
hosier, ´houʒə, ´houzjə
housewife (case for needles, etc.), ´hʌzif
hussar, hu´zɑː, hʌ´zɑː
hussy, ´hʌzi
hygiene, ´haidʒijn
hygienic, haidʒi´enik, hidʒi´ijnik
hymeneal, haimi´niːəl
hyperbole, hai´pəːbəli
hypochondriacal, haipokɔn´draiəkl, hipo-
hypotenuse, hai´pɔtənjuws
hyssop, ´hisəp
identical, ai´dentikl
idiosyncrasy, idio´siŋkrəsi
idyll, ´aidil
illustrative, ´iləstreitiv, i´lʌstrətiv
imbecile, ´imbisijl, -il
imbroglio, im´brouljou
impious, ´impiəs
indecorous, in´dekərəs
indict, in´dait
indissoluble, indi´sɔljubl
inexorable, in´egzərəbl, -eks-
interesting, ´intrəstiŋ
interlocutor, in´təːlokjuwtə
interstice, in´təːstis, ´intəstis
intestine, in´testin
inundate, ´inʌndeit
inveigh, in´vei
inveigle, in´vijgl
inventory, ´invəntri
investiture, in´vestitʃə
irascible, i´ræsibl
irrefragable, i´refrəgəbl
irrefutable, i´refjutəbl
irreparable, i´repərəbl
irrevocable, i´revəkəbl
isolate, ´aisoleit
italics, i´tæliks (ai´tæliks)
itinerary, i´tinərəri
jejune, dʒe´dʒuwn
jeopardy, ´dʒepədi
jocose, dʒo´kous
jocund, ´dʒɔkʌnd, ´dʒou-
j(o)ust, dʒust, dʒuwst
kopje, ´kɔpi
laboratory, læbrətri, lə´bɔrətri
lamentable, ´læməntəbl
landau, ´lændɔː
lapel, lə´pel
lath, ´lɑːθ
laudanum, lɔdnəm
laurel, ´lɔrəl
legend, ´ledʒənd (´lijdʒənd)
legislature, ´ledʒislətʃə
leisure, ´leʒə (´lijʒə)
leopard, ´lepəd
levée, ´levi
libertine, ´libətain, -tijn, -tin
lichen, ´laikən, ´litʃən
lien, laiən, liːən, lijn
lieu, ´luw
lieutenant, lef´tenənt, lif-
lineament, ´linjəmənt
liqueur, li´kəː, li´kjuːə
liquor, ´likə
liquorice, ´likəris
litre, ´lijtə
livelong, ´laivlɔŋ, ´livlɔŋ
loath, ´louθ
loathe, ´louð
loathsome, ´louθsəm, -ð-
longevity, lɔn´dʒeviti
longitude, ´lɔndʒitjuwd
lough, ´lɔk
lowering (looking sullen), ´lauəriŋ
ludicrous, ´luwdikrəs
lugubrious, lu´guwbriəs
luxurious, lə´gzuːriəs
luxury, ´lʌkʃəri
machination, mæki´neiʃən
magi, ´meidʒai
mahlstick, ´mɔːlstik
malinger, mə´liŋgər
manœuvre, mə´nuwvə
manse, ´mæns
margarine, ´mɑːdʒərijn
marigold, ´mærigould
marquee, mɑː´kij
marquis, ´mɑːkwis
masquerade, mæskə´reid
massage, ´mæsɑːʒ
mausoleum, mɔːso´liːəm
medicament, ´medikəmənt, me´dikəmənt
mediocre, ´mijdioukə
mediocrity, mijdi´əkriti
meerschaum, ´miːəʃəm
melancholy, ´meləŋkəli
memoir, ´memwɑː
menagerie, mi´nædʒəri
menu, ´menju, mə´nuw
Messrs, ´mesəz
metallurgy, ´metələːdʒi, mi´tælədʒi
metamorphosis, metə´mɔːfəsis
metathesis, mi´tæθəsis
metre, ´mijtə
mezzotint, ´metsotint
miasma, mai´æzmə, mi-
millenary, mi´lenəri
minatory, ´mainətəri
miniature, ´miniətʃə,-tjə
minute (adj.), mai´njuwt, mi-
mirage, mi´rɑːʒ
misanthrope, ´misənθroup
miscellany, mi´seləni
mischief, ´mistʃif
morose, mə´rous
myth, ´miθ, ´maiθ
mythology, mi´θɔlədʒi
naive, ´neiv
naiveté, ´neivtei
nauseate, ´nɔːʃjeit
nauseous, ´nɔːʃjes, ´nɔːʃəs
ne'er, ´nɛːə
neither, ´naiðə, ´nijðə
nicety, ´nais(ə)ti
niche, ´nitʃ
nomenclature, no´menklətʃə
noose, ´nuwz, ´nuws
norse, ´nɔːs
nuncio, ´nʌnʃiou
nuptial, ´nʌpʃəl
oasis, ou´eisis
obeisance, o´beisəns
obese, o´bijs
obligatory, ´ɔbligətri, ɔ´bligətri, ɔbli´geitəri
obloquy, ´ɔbləkwi
obsequies, ´ɔbsikwiz
obtuse, ob´tjuws
occult, o´kʌlt
octopus, ´ɔktəpəs, ɔk´toupəs
oligarchy, ´ɔligɑːki
omniscient, ɔm´niʃənt, -si-
onerous, ´ɔnərəs
onomatopeia, ɔnəmətə´piːə
operative, ´ɔpərətiv, ´ɔpəreitiv
orchestral, ɔː´kestrəl, ´ɔːki-
ordeal, ɔː´diːəl
organization, ɔːgəni´zeiʃən, -nai-
orison, ´ɔrizən, -s-
ormolu, ´ɔːməluw
ornate, ɔ´neit
osier, ´ouʒə
oust, ´aust
pageant, ´peidʒənt, ´pædʒənt
palaver, pə´lɑːvə
palfrey, ´pɔːlfri (´pælfri)
panacea, pænə´siːə
panegyric, pæni´dʒirik
pan(n)ier, ´pænjə
papyrus, pə´pairəs
paradigm, ´pærədaim
paraffine, ´pærəfin
pariah, ´pɛːrjə
parochial, pə´roukjəl
parvenu, ´pɑːvənju
pastel, pæ´stel, ´pæstəl
pastille, pæ´stijl, ´pæstil
patent, ´peitənt (´pætənt)
pathos, ´peiθɔs
patois, ´pætwɑː
patrimony, ´pætriməni
patron, ´peitrən
patronage, ´pætrənidʒ, ´peitrənidʒ
patronize, ´pætrənaiz, ´peitrənaiz
peccavi, pe´keivai
pedagogue, ´pedəgɔg
pedagogy, ´pedəgɔdʒi, -gi
perquisite, ´pəːkwizit
petard, pi´tɑːd
phaeton, ´feitən
phalanx, ´feilæŋks, ´fælæŋks
phlegmatic, fleg´mætik
piazza, pi´ætsə
piquant, ´pijkənt
pique, ´pijk
piteous, ´pitjəs (´pitʃəs)
placard, ´plækɑːd
plaid, ´plæd, ´pleid
plait, ´plæt
plebiscite, ´plebisait
plenary, ´plijnəri
plenteous, ´plentjəs (´plentʃəs)
plethora, ´pleθərə
plethoric, ´pleθərik
plover, ´plʌvə
poignant, ´pɔinjənt
poignard, ´pɔnjəd
pomade, po´meid, po´mɑːd
pommel, ´pʌməl
pongee, ´pɔndʒi
porpoise, ´pɔːpəs
posthumous, ´pɔstjuməs
potsherd, ´pɔtʃəːd
precedence, pri´sijdəns
precedent, ´presidənt
predatory, ´predətri
prelate, ´prelət
prelude, ´preljuwd
premature, ´premətjuə, ´prijmətjuə
premier, ´prijmjə (´premjə)
premise (subst.), ´premis
premise (verb), pri´maiz
presage, ´presidʒ
prescience, ´preʃəns, -si-
prestige, pre´stijʒ
primer, ´primə, ´praimə
pristine, ´pristain, ´pristin
privacy, ´praivəsi, ´privəsi
profligacy, ´prɔfligəsi
prophecy, ´prɔfisi
prophesy, ´prɔfisai
puisne, ´pjuwni
puissant, ´pwijsənt
pumice, ´pʌmis
purloin, pəː´lɔin
purport, ´pəːpət
quagmire, ´kwægmaiə
quandary, ´kwɔndəri, -´dɛːri
quarantine, ´kwɔrəntijn
quay, ´kij
queue, ´kjuw
quiescent, kwai´esənt
quinine, kwi´nijn
quoif, ´kɔif
quoit, ´kɔit
quoth, ´kwouθ
ragged, ´rægid
ranch(e), ´rɑːn(t)ʃ
rancour, ´ræŋkə
rapier, ´reipiːə
rapine, ´ræpin, ´ræpain
rase, ´reiz
rations (army), ´ræʃnz
recluse, ri´kluws
recondite, ´rekəndait
reconnaissance, ri´kɔnəsəns
reconnoitre, rekə´nɔitə
redolent, ´redələnt
regicide, ´redʒisaid
regime, re´ʒijm
reindeer, ´reindiə
remonstrate, ri´mɔnstreit
renaissance, ri´neisəns
rendezvous, ´rɔndivuw
repertoire, ´repəːtwɑː
replica, ´replikə
requiem, ´rekwiəm
reredos, riːədɔs
reservoir, ´rezəvwɑː
resin, ´rezən, ´rɔzən
resonance, ´rezənəns
respite, ´respit
restaurant, ´restorɔŋ
reveille, ri´væli
reverie, ´revəri
rhetoric, ´retərik
rheum, ´ruwm
rhythm, ´riðm
rhythmical, ´riθmikəl
ribald, ´ribəld, ´ribɔːld
rouge, ´ruwʒ
routine, ru´tijn
rowlock, ´rʌlək
ruse, ´ruwz
sachet, ´sæʃei
saga, ´sɑːgə
salient, ´seiljənt
saline (subst.), sə´lain
saline (adj.), seilain
sample, ´sɑːmpl, ´sæmpl
sarcophagus, sɑː´kɔfəgəs
satiety, sə´taiəti
satire, ´sætaiə
satyr, ´sætə
scallop, ´skɔləp
scathe, ´skeið
scenic, ´sijnik
sceptic, ´skeptik
schedule, ´ʃedjul (´skedjul)
schism, ´sizm
scimitar, ´simitə
scintillate, ´sintileit
scion, ´saiən
scone, ´skoun (´skɔn)
scourge, ´skəːdʒ
sedative, ´sedətiv
sedentary, ´sedəntri
seigneury, ´sijnjəri
semi-, semi
senile, ´sijnail
seraglio, si´rɑːljou
serviette, ´səːvjet
sheikh, ´ʃijk
shortlived, ´ʃɔːtlivd
siesta, si´estə
signor, ´sijnjɔː
simile, ´simili
sinecure, ´sainikjuə
skein, ´skein
ski, ´skij (´ʃij)
sleight, ´slait
sloth, ´slouθ
slough, ´slau (´slʌf)
sloven, ´slʌvən
sluice, ´sluws
sobriquet, ´soubrikei
sojourn, ´sɔdʒəːn
solace, ´sɔləs
solecism, ´soulisizm̩, ´sɔl
soliloquy, sə´liləkwi, so
sonorous, ´sɔnərəs, sə´nɔːrəs
sough, ´sʌf
souse, ´saus
southerly, ´sʌðəli
specie, ´spijʃi
species, ´spijʃijz
stalwart, ´stɔlwət
stevedore, ´stijvədɔː
stoep, ´stuwp
strategic, strə´tijdʒik
strychnine, ´striknijn, ´striknin
suave, ´sweiv
suavity, ´swæviti
subaltern, ´sʌbəltəːn
subsidence, ´sʌbsidns
succinct, sʌk´siŋkt
suffragan, ´sʌfrəgən
suite, ´swijt
surfeit, ´səːfit
surveillance, sə´veiləns
swarthy, ´swɔːði, -θi
sybarite, ´sibərait
synagogue, ´sinəgɔg
syncope, ´siŋkəpi
technique, tek´nijk
telegraphy, ´teligrəfi, ti´legrəfi
tenable, ´tijnəbl, ´tenəbl
tenet, ´tijnit, ´tenit
tepid, ´tepid
termagant, ´təːməgənt
thorough, ´θʌrə, ´θʌrou
thraldom, ´θrɔːldəm
thresh, ´θræʃ
thyme, ´taim
tinsel, ´tinsəl
tirade, ti´reid
tissue, ´tiʃu
tonsure, ´tɔnʃə
tontine, ´tɔntijn
toothed, ´tuwθt
tornado, tɔː´nɑːdou
tortoise, ´tɔːtəs (´tɔːtɔiz)
tournament, ´tuːənəmənt
toward, tɔːd, tu´wɔːd
trait, ´trei
transient, ´trænzjənt
transition, træn´siʒən
treatise, ´trijtis
tribunal, trai´bjuwnəl, tri-
tribune, ´tribjun
trilogy, ´trilədʒi
trio, ´trijou
tripartite, ´tripɑːtait
triptych, ´triptik
trophy, ´troufi
troth, ´trouθ, ´trɔθ
trough, ´trɔf
trow, ´trou
tryst, ´trist, ´traist
turbine, ´təːbain
turquoise, ´təːkɔiz, ´təːkwɔiz
tyrannic, tai´rænik, ti-
tyranny, ´tirəni
tyrant, ´tairənt
tyro, ´tairou
ubiquity, ju´bikwiti
ukase, ju´keis
uncouth, ʌn´kuwθ
undulatory, ´ʌndjulətri
unison, ´juwnisən
untoward, ´ʌntuwɔːd, -tɔːd
upholster, ʌp´houlstə
usurp, ju´zəːp
vagary, və´gɛːri
valet, ´vælit
valiant, ´væljənt
valise, və´lijz, və´lijs
vase, ´vɑːz (´vɔːz)
vehement, ´vijimənt
vehicle, ´vijikl
vermicelli, vəːmi´seli
vertigo, ´vəːtigou
vice-gerent, ´vais-dʒerənt
vice versa, ´vaisi´vəːsə
vignette, vi´njet
vilify, ´vilifai
virago, vi´reigou
viscount, ´vaikaunt
visor, ´vizə
viva voce, ´vaivə´vousi
vouchsafe, ´vautʃ´seif
wainscot, ´weinskət
walrus, ´wɔlrəs
wassail, ´wæsil
weir, ´wiːə
wharfinger, ´wɔːfindʒə
wind, ´wind (poetry: ´wind, ´waind)
windlass, ´windləs
wiseacre, ´waizeikə
worsted (wool), ´wustid
worsted (defeated), ´wəːstid
wrath, ´rɔːθ
wroth, ´rouθ
yea, ´jei
yeoman, ´joumən
zealot, ´zelət
zealous, ´zeləs
zenith, ´zeniθ, ´zijniθ
zoology, zo´ɔlədʒi
B. Proper Names.
Abergavenny, ´æbəgə´veni
Abinger, ´æbindʒə
Aeneas, ij´nijæs
Aeneid, ´ijniid
Aeschylus, ´ijskiləs
Aetna, ´etnə
Afghan, ´æfgæn
Aflalo, ə´flɑːlou
Ailsa, ´eilzə
Aix-la-Chapelle, ´eiks lɑ ʃɑ´pɛl
Albany, ´ɔːlbəni
Alcester, ´ɔːlstə
Alma-Tadema, ´ælmə ´tædimə
Almondbury, ´ɑːmbəri
Alnwick, ´ænik
Alpha, ´ælfə
Ambrosia, æm´brouzjə
Ameer, ´æmiːə
Anabasis, ə´næbəsis
Anchises, æŋ´kaisijz
Anstruther, ´ænstə, ´ænstrʌðə
Antrobus, ´æntrəbəs
Aphrodite, æfro´daiti
Apocrypha, ə´pɔkrifə
Areopagus, æri´ɔpəgəs
Argyll, ɑː´gail
Arion, ə´raiən
Aristophanes, æri´stɔfənijz
Armada, ɑː´mɑːdə, ɑː´meidə
Armitage, ´ɑːmitidʒ
Ate, ´eiti
Athenæum, æθi´nijəm
Athene, ə´θijni
Athens, ´æθənz, -inz
Athlone, æθ´loun
Auchinleck, ´æflik
Ava, ´ɑːvə
Baal, ´beiəl
Bacchanal, ´bækənəl
Bacchus, ´bækəs
Baden-Powell, ´beidən´pouəl
Bagehot, ´bædʒət, ´bægət
Balcarres, bæl´kæris
Balfour, ´bælfɔː
Bastille, ´bæstijl
Beaconsfield, ´bijkənzfijld, ´bekənzfijld
Beauchamp, ´bijtʃəm
Beauclerc, ´bouklɛːə, ´boukliːə
Beaufort, ´boufɔːt, -fət
Beaulieu, ´bjuːli, ´bouli
Beaumont, ´boumənt, ´boumɔnt
Beethoven, ´beithouvən, ´beitouvən
Bellew, ´belju (bi´luw)
Bellingham, ´belindʒəm
Belvoir, ´bijvə
Berkeley, ´bɑːkli
Berkshire, ´bɑːkʃə
Bertie (surname), ´bɑːti
Bessborough, ´bezbərə
Bethphage, ´beθfəgij
Bethune, ´bijtən, ´beθjuwn
Bezant, ´bezənt, bi´zænt
Bigelow, ´bigəlou
Bispham, ´bisphəm, ´bizpəm
Blenheim, ´blenəm
Blom(e)field, ´bluwmfijld
Blount, ´blʌnt
Boanerges, bouə´nəːdʒijz
Boer, ´buːə, ´bouə
Boleyn, ´bulən, ´bulin
Bolingbroke, ´bɔlinbruk, ´bouliŋbruk
Bompas, ´bʌmpəs
Boötes, bo´outijz
Borghese, bɔː´geizi
Borrowes, ´bʌrouz
Bosanquet, ´bousəŋkit
Botticelli, bɔti´tʃeli
Boucicault, ´buwsikou
Boughey, ´bouwi
Boughton, ´bautən, ´bɔːtən
Boulger, ´bouldʒə
Bourchier, ´bautʃə
Bourke, ´bəːk
Brabazon, ´bræbəzən
Breadalbane, bri´ɔːlbən, bri´dælbən
Brechin, ´brijkin
Bridlington, ´bridliŋtən, ´bəːliŋtən
Broke, ´bruk
Brougham, ´bruːəm
Broughton, ´brɔːtən
Buccleugh, bə´kluw
Buchan, ´bʌkən
Buchanan, bju´kænən
Buenos Ayres, bju´ijnɔs, ´bjuinɔs, ´ɛːrijz (ɛːz, aiəz)
Burghclere, bəː´klɛːə
Burghersh, ´bəːgəːʃ
Burghley, ´bəːli
Bury, ´beri
-bury, beri, bəri, bri
Bysshe, ´biʃ
Byzantine, bai´zæntain, bi´zæntin
Cadiz, ´keidiz
Cadogan, kə´dʌgən
Caedmon, ´keidmɔn
Cairo, ´kairou
Caius (College), ´kijz
Calais, ´kælei, ´kælis
Calderon, ´kɔːldərən
Callaghan, ´kæləhæn
Calliope, kə´laiopi
Callirrhoe, kə´liroui
Cam, ´kæm
Cambridge, ´keimbridʒ
Campagna, kæm´pɑːnjə
Campden, ´kæmdən
Canaan, ´keinən
Candace, kæn´deisi
Capell, ´keipəl
Carew, ´keiri, kə´ruw
Carlyon, kɑː´laiən
Carmichael, kɑ´maikəl
Carnegie, kɑ´negi, kə´negi
Castlerea (-reagh), kɑːsəl´rei
Catholic, ´kæθəlik
Cavan, ´kævən
Chalfont, ´tʃɑːfənt
Champlain, ʃæm´plein
Chandos, ´ʃændɔs
Charlemagne, ´ʃɑːləmein
Charon, ´kɛːrɔn
Charteris, ´tʃɑːtəz
Cheetham, ´tʃijtəm
Chersonese, ´kəːsonijs
Cheshire, ´tʃeʃə
Chetwode, ´tʃetwud
Cheyne, ´tʃeini
Chicago, ʃi´kɑːgou
Chichele, ´tʃitʃəli
Chisholm, ´tʃizəm
Chiswick, ´tʃizik
Cholmeley, Cholmondeley, Chomley, ´tʃʌmli
Chrysostom, ´krisəstəm
Cincinnati, sinsi´næti
Cirencester, ´sairənsestə, ´sisestə, ´sizitə, ´sistə
Claverhouse, ´kleivəz
Clough, ´klʌf
Cochrane, ´kɔkrən
Cockburn, ´koubən
Cocles, ´kɔklijz
Cocytus, ko´saitəs
Coke, ´kuk
Colclough, ´koukli
Colquhoun, ko´huwn
Combe, ´kuwm
Compton, ´kʌmtən, kɔmtən
Connaught, ´kɔnət
Constable, ´kʌnstəbəl
Conyngham, ´kʌniŋəm
Corkran, ´kɔkrən
Cortes, ´kɔːtijz
Couch, ´kuwtʃ
Courthope, ´kɔːtəp
Cousens, ´kʌzənz
Cowen, ´kouən, ´kauən
Cowper, ´kuwpə, ´kaupə; (poet) ´kuwpə
Cozens-Hardy, ´kʌzənz´hɑːdi
Creighton, Crichton, ´kraitən
Croat, ´krouæt
Cromartie, ´krʌməti
Crombie, ´krʌmbi, ´krɔmbi
Cromwell, ´krɔmwəl
Cupar, ´kuwpə
Cymric, ´kimrik, ´kʌmrik
Czar, ´zɑː
Czarewitch, ´zɑːrivitʃ
Czarina, zɑ´rijnə
Czech, tʃek
Czerny, ´tʃəːni
Dalbiac, ´dɔːlbiæk
Dalgleish, ´dælglijʃ
Dalhousie, dəl´hauzi
Dalmeny, ´dælmijni
Dalziel, ´deiəl
Damocles, ´dæmoklijz
Darius, də´raiəs
Dauphin, ´dɔːfin
Deborah, ´debərə
Delhi, ´deli
Delilah, di´lailə
Demosthenes, di´mɔsθənijz
Demy (Magdalen College, Oxford), di´mai
Denbigh, ´denbi
Derby, ´dɑːbi
Deuteronomy, djuwtə´rɔnəmi
Dives, ´daivijz
Donegal, dɔni´gɔːl
Donoghue, ´dʌnəhuw
Doughty, ´dauti
Drogheda, ´drɔhədə
Dvořák, ´dvɔːʒək
Ecclesiastes, iklijzi´æstijz
Edinburgh, ´edinbʌrə, -brə
Eisteddfod, ais´teðvɔd
Elcho, ´elkou
Elgin, ´elgin
Elizabethan, elizə´bijθən
Elysian, e´lizjən
Elysium, e´lizjəm
Elzevir, ´elzivəː, -viə
Euripides, ju´ripidijz
Europe, ´juːrəp
European, juro´piːən
Exmouth, ´eksməθ
Faust, ´faust
Faustus, ´fɔːstəs
Fe(a)therstonhaugh, ´feðəstənhɔː
Fildes, ´faildz
Folkestone, ´foukstən
Foulis, ´faulz
Fowey, ´fɔi
Froude, ´fruwd
Gaelic, ´gælik (Scotland), ´geilik (Ireland)
Gairdner, ´gɑːdnə
Galway, ´gɔːlwei
Gawain, ´gæwein
Geddes, ´gedis
Geikie, ´gijki
Geoffrey, ´dʒefri
Geoghegan, ´geigən
Giaour, ´dʒauə
Gibraltar, dʒi´brɔːltə
Giffen, ´dʒifən
Glamis, ´glɑːmz
Glasgow, ´glæsgou
Gloucester, ´glɔstə
Gomme, ´gɔm
Goschen, ´gouʃən
Gough, ´gɔf
Greaves, ´greivz
Greenwich, ´grinidʒ
Grosvenor, ´grouvnə
Guildford, ´gilfəd
Gye, ´gai
Hades, ´heidijz
Haigh, ´heig
Hamish, ´heimiʃ
Harcourt, ´hɑːkət
Harlech, ´hɑːlik
Hastings, ´heistiŋz
Hawarden, ´hɑːdən, ´heiwɔːdən
Haweis, ´hɔːwis, ´hɔis
Headlam, ´hedləm
Hebe, ´hijbi
Heneage, ´henidʒ
Hercules, ´həːkjulijz
Hermione, hə´maioni
Herodotus, he´rɔdətəs
Herschell, ´həːʃəl
Hertford, ´hɑːfəd
Hervey, ´hɑːvi
Hobart, ´hʌbət
Holmes, ´houmz
Holyhead, ´hɔlihed
Hopetoun, ´houptən
Horace, ´hɔrəs
Hough, ´hʌf
Houghton, ´hɔːtən, ´hautən
Huguenot, ´hjuwgənɔt
Huish, ´hjuwiʃ
Ian, iːən
Iddesleigh, ´idsli
Ingelow, ´indʒəlou
Iona, ai´ounə
Iroquois, ´irokwɑː
Israel, ´izrəəl
Ithaca, ´iθəkə
Iveagh, ´aivi
Ixion, i´ksaiən
Jaïrus, dʒə´airəs
Jaques ("As you like it"), ´dʒeikwiz
Jean, ´dʒijn
Jerusalem, dʒi´ruwsələm
Jervaulx (Abbey), ´dʒəːvou
Jervis, ´dʒɑːvis
Jervois, ´dʒəːvis
Jeune, ´dʒuwn
Johannesburg, dʒo´hænisbəːg
Kaiser, ´kaizə
Kearsarge, ´kiːəsɑːg
Kedleston, ´kelsən; (Derbyshire), ´kedəlstən
Keighley, ´kijli, ´kaili, ´kijθli
Keightley, ´kijtli
Keith, ´kijθ
Keogh, Keough, K´Eogh, Kehoe, ´kjou
Ker, ´kəː, kɑː, kɛə
Keswick, ´kezik
Keynes, ´keinz
Khedive, ke´dijv
Kirkby Stephen, ´kəːbi ´stijvən
Kirkcudbright, kə´kuwbri
Knollys, Knowles, ´noulz
Koran, ´kɔːrən, kɔː´ræn, kɔː´rɑːn
Kough, ´kjou
Laffan, ´læfən, lə´fæn
Lama, ´lɑːmə
Laocoon, lei´oukoɔn
Lares, ´lɛːrijz
Lascelles, ´læsəlz
Lathom, leiθəm
Layard, ´lɛːəd
Leamington, ´lemiŋtən
Lefevre, lə´fijvə
Lehmann, ´leimən
Leicester, ´lestə
Leigh, ´lij
Leighton, ´leitən
Leitrim, ´lijtrim
Leominster, ´lemstə
Le Queux, lə´kjuw
Leveson-Gower, ´ljuwsən´gɔː
Ley, ´lij
Leys (school), ´lijz
Lisle, ´lail
Llandudno, læn´didnou
Llewellyn, lu´elin
Lochiel, lɔ´kijl
Loughboro, ´lʌfbərə
Lovibond, ´lʌvbənd
Lugard, lu´gɑːd
Luke, ´luwk, ´ljuwk
Lymington, ´limiŋtən
Lyons, ´laiənz
Lyveden, ´livdən
M'Gee, M'Ghee, mə´gij
Machiavelli, mækjə´veli
Mackay, M'Kay, mə´kai
Mackenzie, mə´kenzi, mə´keŋi
Maclean, mə´klein
MacLehose, ´mækəlhouz
Macleod, mə´klaud
Macmahon, mək´mɑːn
MacManus, mək´mænəs
Macnamara, mæknə´mɑːrə
Macneill, mək´nijl
Maconochie, mə´kɔŋki
Macquoid, mə´kɔid
Magdalen(e) (College), ´mɔːdlin
Magna Charta, ´mægnə ´kɑːtə
Magrath, mə´grɑː
Maguire, mə´gwaiə
Mahan, mə´hæn, mɑːn
Maharajah, mɑhə´rɑːdʒə
Mahomet, mə´hɔmit
Mahoney, ´mɑːni
Mainwaring, ´mænəriŋ
Majendie, ´mædʒəndi
Malet, ´mælit
Maori, ´mɑːori
Marazion, mærə´zaiən
Marjoribanks, ´mɑːtʃbæŋks
Marlborough, ´mɔːlbərə
Marseillaise, ´mɑːsə´leiz
Marylebone, ´mæribən
Masham, ´mæʃəm, ´mæsəm
Massachusetts, mæsə´tʃuwsits
Mather, ´mæðə
Maughan, ´mɔːn
Maurice, ´mɔris
Medici, ´meditʃi
Meiklejohn, ´mikəldʒɔn
Melhuish, ´meliʃ
Menpes, ´mempis
Mentone, men´touni
Menzies, ´miŋiz, ´meŋiz
Meux, ´mjuwz, ´mjuwks
Micheldever, ´mitʃəldevə
Milan, ´milən, mi´læn
Millard, mi´lɑːd, ´miləd
Mivart, ´maivət
Mohun, ´muwn
Moleyns (de), ´mʌlinz
Molyneux, ´mʌlinjuw
Momerie, ´mʌməri
Monck, ´mʌŋk
Monckton, ´mʌŋktən
Monro(e), mən´rou
Montaigne, mɔn´tein
Morant, mo´rænt
Moule, ´muwl, ´moul
Mowbray, ´moubri, muwbri
Naas, ´neis
Napier, ´neipjə, ´neipiːə
Neil, ´nijl
Nemesis, ´nemesis
Nepean, ni´pijn
Nereid, ´nijriid
Newnes, ´njuwnz
Newquay, ´njuwkij
Nice, ´nijs
Nigel, ´naidʒəl
Nineveh, ´ninivi, -və
Nirvana, nəː´vɑːnə
Northcote, ´nɔːθkət
Oban, ´oubən
O'Callaghan, o´kæləhən
Oceania, ouʃi´einjə
Oceanic, ouʃi´ænik
Odysseus, o´disjuws
Odyssey, ´ɔdisi
Ogilvy, ´ougəlvi
Ohio, o´haiou
O'Meara, o´mɑːrə
Omega, ´oumegə
Orion, o´raiən
Orpheus, ´ɔːfjuws
Osbourne, ´ɔzbən
Ottawa, ´ɔtewɑː
Oudh, ´uwd
Ouless, ´uwlis
Ouse, ´uwz
Outram, ´uwtrəm
Paget, ´pædʒit
Palgrave, ´pɔːlgreiv
Pall Mall, ´pel´mel, ´pæl´mæl
Paraguay, ´pærəgwai
Paton, ´peitən
Pegram, ´pijgrəm
Pembroke, ´pembruk
Penelope, pe´nelopi
Penicuik, ´penikuk
Pennefather, ´penifeθə
Penrhyn, pen´rin
Pentateuch, ´pentətjuwk
Pepys, ´pijps
Perowne, pə´roun
Persephone, pə´sefəni
Persia, ´pəːʃə
Petrie, ´pijtri
Pharaoh, ´fɛːrou
Philippi, fi´lipai
Pigott, ´pigət
Pinero, pi´nɛːrou
Pirbright, ´pəːbrait
Pirie, ´piri
Pleiades, ´plaiədijz
Poe, ´pou
Pole, ´puwl
Pole Carew, puwl´kɛːri
Ponsonby, ´pʌnsənbi
Pontefract, ´pɔntifrækt, pʌmfrit (cakes)
Powell, ´pouəl
Powis, Powys, ´pouwis
Powlett, ´pɔːlit
Praed, ´preid
Prometheus, pro´mijθjuws
Prowse, ´prauz
Psyche, ´saiki
Pugh, ´pjuw
Puleston, ´pilstən
Pulteney, ´poultni
Punjab, pən´dʒɑːb, -ɔːb
Pyramid, ´pirəmid
Pythagoras, pai´θægəræs
Quixote, ´kwiksət
Rajah, ´rɑːdʒə
Raleigh, ´rɔːli, ´ræli
Ralph, ´reif, ´rælf, ´rɑːlf
Rayleigh, ´reili
Reay, ´rei
Rehan, ´reiən
Renaissance, ri´neisəns
Reuter, ´rɔitə
Reynard, ´renɑːd
Rheims, ´rijmz
Rhodesia, rou´dijzjə
Rhys, ´rijs
Romney, ´rʌmni
Rothesay, ´rɔθsi
Rouse, ´ruwz, ´raus
Rowton, ´rɔːtən
Roxburgh, ´rɔksbərə
Ruthven, ´rivən
Sacheverell, sæ´ʃevərəl
St Clair, ´siŋklɛːə
St John, ´sindʒən
St Leger, sənt´ledʒə, ´siləndʒə
St Maur, ´simɔː
St Neots, sə´nijts
St Paul, sənt´pɔːl
St Roch, sənt´rouk
Salisbury, ´sɔːlzbəri
Saltoun, ´sɔːltaun
Sandys, ´sændz
Sanhedrin, ´sænhedrin
Sassenach, ´sæsenæk
Saunders, ´sɑːndəz
Scone, ´skuwn
Scrymgeour, ´skrimdʒə
Searle, ´səːl
Selous, sə´luws
Seneca, ´senekə
Seton, Setoun, ´sijtən
Severus, si´vijrəs
Shaughnessy, ´ʃɔːnəsi
Sherbourne, ´ʃəːbən
-shire, ʃə (ʃiə)
Shrewsbury, ´ʃruwzbəri, ´ʃrouzbəri
Sikh, ´sijk
Slough, ´slau
Somers, ´sʌməz
Somerset, ´sʌməset
Sophocles, ´sɔfəklijz
Southwark, ´sʌðək
Southwell, ´sʌðəl
Sphynx, ´sfiŋks
Stagirite, ´stædʒirait
Stanton, ´stɑːntən
Stour, ´stuːə
Strachan, ´ʃtrɔːn
Stranraer, stræn´raə
Symonds, Symons, ´simənz
Teignmouth, ´tinməθ
Telemachus, te´leməkəs
Terpsichore, teː´psikori
Thames, ´temz
Theobald, ´θibəld, ´θijobɔːld
Theseus, ´θijsjuws
Thorold, ´θʌrəld
Thucydides, θju´sididijz
Tighe, ´tai
Tintagel, tin´tædʒəl
Tollemache, ´tɔlmæʃ
Towcester, ´tɔistə
Toynbee, ´tɔinbi
Trafalgar, trə´fælgə, ´træfəlgɑː
Tredegar, tri´dijgə
Trefusis, tri´fjuwsis
Treloar, tri´lɔːə
Trevelyan, tri´viljən, tri´veljən
Troubridge, ´truwbridʒ
Tynemouth, ´tinməθ
Tyrwhitt, ´tirit
Urquhart, ´əːkət
Uruguay, ´juːrəgwai
Uttoxeter, ´ʌksitə
Valparaiso, vælpə´raizou
Vanbrugh, ´vænbrə
Van Dyck, væn´daik
Vaughan, ´vɔːn
Vavasour, ´vævəsə
Venezuela, veniz´weilə
Vezin, ´vijzin
Viëtor, ´fiːətɔːr
Villiers, ´viləz
Vinci, ´vintʃi
Waldegrave, ´wɔːlgreiv
Walhalla, væl´hælə
Waugh, ´wɔː
Weguelin, ´wegəlin
Wemyss, ´wijmz
Wesleyan, ´wezliən
Willard, wi´lɑːd
Wolseley, ´wulzli
Worcester, ´wustə
Wylie, Wyllie, ´waili
Xenophon, ´zenəfən
Xerxes, ´zəːksijz
Yeames, ´jeimz
Yeatman, ´jeitmən
Yonge, ´jʌŋ
Yosemite, jo´semiti
Zenana, zi´nɑːnə
Zeus, ´zjuws
Zouche, ´zuwʃ
Zuider Zee, ´zaidə ´zei
_The above lists must be regarded as an experiment. It is not to
be expected that the selection of words and in some cases the
pronunciation indicated will commend themselves to all readers.
Suggestions and criticisms are earnestly invited, so that it may be
possible to improve the lists in subsequent editions._
APPENDIX III
On the Teaching of Reading.
Though the teaching of reading does not strictly come within the scope
of this book, a few hints may be given on the subject.
For the first stages the student is referred to the wholly admirable
work of Miss Dale, based throughout on a careful study of the spoken
language.
Later on it is important that the pupils should be able to read aloud
with distinct articulation and an agreeable voice. Far the most helpful
book is Mr Burrell's "Clear Speaking and Good Reading" (published
by Longmans). He dwells on the importance of good breathing and a
good posture, and gives suitable exercises for ensuring both. He
condemns all that is affected or stagy; indeed his whole book is an
eloquent plea for quiet and restraint. He rightly advises the teacher
to listen carefully to good speakers, avoiding (as a rule) those of
his own profession. In dealing with phonetics he hardly appreciates
the advantages attaching to a thorough study of the language as it
is actually spoken; but we can recommend without reserve the later
chapters of his book (vi. The Reading Lesson; vii. Reading and
Reciting; viii. Specimen Lessons in Recitation; ix. On the Higher Study
of Reading and Speaking).
APPENDIX IV
The following diagrams serve to show the position of the tongue in the
formation of some of the vowels.
Observe the different shapes of the mouth passage through which the
breath passes.
(These diagrams were originally prepared by Dr. R. J. Lloyd.)
[Illustration: mar=i=ne (=i=)]
[Illustration: r=E=in (=e=)]
[Illustration: th=E=re (=ɛ=)]
[Illustration: p=A=t (=a=)
This diagram represents the vowel [a]. In northern English it is found
in words like _pat_; in southern English it is the first part of the
diphthong in _house_ [haus], _bite_ [bait].]
[Illustration: br=U=te (=u=)]
[Illustration: n=O=te (=o=)]
[Illustration: =A=ll (=ɔ=)]
[Illustration: f=A=ther (=ɑ=)]
The following diagrams are the result of experiments with an artificial
palate, covered with fine powder. When certain sounds are uttered, the
tongue touches the palate and some of the powder is removed. What is
black in the diagrams indicates those parts of the hard palate which
are touched by the tongue.
[Illustration: These diagrams show where the tongue touches the palate
in the production of [ʃ] and [s] respectively.]
[Illustration: English word _toe_
French word _tôt_ (to)
These diagrams are by Mr Dumville, and are taken from his _Elements
of French Pronunciation and Diction_. They illustrate the manner of
production of the English and the French [t]. It will be noticed that
in the case of the English sound the tongue is farther back than in the
case of the French sound.]
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Transcriber's Notes:
Simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors were
silently corrected.
Punctuation normalized.
Anachronistic and non-standard spellings retained as printed.
Italics markup is enclosed in _underscores_.
Bold markup is enclosed in =equals=.
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