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Title: The Oak Ridge ALGOL Compiler for the Control Data Corporation 1604 - Preliminary Programmer's Manual
Author: Bumgarner, L. L.
Language: English
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UC-32—Mathematics and Computers
TID-4500 (23rd ed.)
THE OAK RIDGE ALGOL COMPILER FOR THE CONTROL DATA CORPORATION 1604
PRELIMINARY PROGRAMMER'S MANUAL
L. L. Bumgarner
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
operated by
UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
for the
U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
Printed in USA. Price: $1.25 Available from the
Office of Technical Services
U. S. Department of Commerce
Washington 25, D. C.
LEGAL NOTICE
This report was prepared as an account of Government sponsored work.
Neither the United States, nor the Commission, nor any person acting on
behalf of the Commission:
A. Makes any warranty or representation, expressed or implied, with
respect to the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the
information contained in this report, or that the use of any
information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report
may not infringe privately owned rights; or
B. Assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damages
resulting from the use of any information, apparatus, method, or
process disclosed in this report.
As used in the above, “person acting on behalf of the Commission”
includes any employee or contractor of the Commission, or employee of
such contractor, to the extent that such employee or contractor of the
Commission, or employee of such contractor prepares, disseminates, or
provides access to, any information pursuant to his employment or
contract with the Commission, or his employment with such contractor.
Contract No. W-7405-eng-26
Mathematics Division
THE OAK RIDGE ALGOL COMPILER FOR THE CONTROL DATA CORPORATION
1604—PRELIMINARY PROGRAMMER’S MANUAL
L. L. Bumgarner
DATE ISSUED
JAN 30 1964
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
operated by
UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
for the
U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
CONTENTS
I. Introduction 1
II. Language Restrictions 2
III. Modes of Operation of the Compiler 4
IV. Input-Output and Intermediate Tape 5
Input-Output 5
READ 5
PAGE 7
Lists and the List Declaration 7
PRINT 9
WRITE 9
PUNCH 10
Formats and the Format Declaration 10
INPUT 11
OUTPUT 12
Intermediate Tape Procedures 13
BINREAD 13
BINWRITE 14
ENDFILE 14
REWIND 14
BACKUP 14
Tape-Checking Procedures 14
EOF 15
READERR 15
WRITERR 15
V. The External Declaration 16
VI. Standard Procedures 16
VII. Error Checking and Diagnostics 17
VIII. Running Programs 19
ALGOL Control System 20
EOP Card 20
Compile and Execute: ALGO 21
PROGRAM Card 22
Compile/Execute: ALDAP 22
ALDAP Control Statement 22
Job Deck: ALDAP Compilation/Execution 23
Examples 25
APPENDICES
A. Adjuncts to Algol 60 30
B. Hardware Representation 32
C. Structure of Procedure Calling Sequence 35
D. Internal Representation of Strings 37
E. Program Efficiency 38
F. Controversial Features of Algol 60 40
G. Fortran Subprograms in an Algol Program 41
THE OAK RIDGE ALGOL COMPILER FOR THE CONTROL DATA CORPORATION
1604—PRELIMINARY PROGRAMMER’S MANUAL
L. L. Bumgarner
ABSTRACT
This document is a preliminary programmer’s manual for use of the
Control Data 1604 Algol Compiler. The compiler was constructed by the
Programming Research Group of the Mathematics Division in cooperation
with Control Data Corporation. A knowledge of Algol 60 is assumed.
Included are descriptions of input-output facilities and details for
operation under the monitor system.
I. Introduction
This document is to serve as a programmer’s manual for the Algol
compiler constructed as a cooperative project by Control Data
Corporation and the Mathematics Division of Oak Ridge National
Laboratory. The compiler is designed for the Control Data 1604 and
1604-A computers. The document is preliminary in that the compiler is
not thoroughly tested and may undergo further development.
The reader is assumed to be familiar with Algol 60. The defining
descriptions are the two reports on Algol 60 available in the following
references:
1. P. Naur et al, “Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60,” Comm.
Assoc. Comp. Mach., 3 (1960), No. 5, 299-314.
2. P. Naur et al, “Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol
60,” Comm. Assoc. Comp. Mach., 6 (1963), No. 1, 1-17.
The second report clears up certain ambiguities that appeared in the
first report. The reports are not easy reading for the novice. The
following expositions are more readable:
1. Baumann, Bauer, Feliciano and Samelson, Introduction to Algol,
Prentice-Hall, Inc. (to be published in late 1963).
2. Bottenbruch, H., “Structure and Use of Algol 60,” Jour. Assoc.
Comp. Mach., 9 (1962), No. 2, 161-221, and ORNL-3148.
The Baumann publication also contains the revised Algol 60 report.
Throughout this document various examples of statements and declarations
appear without the semicolon which is always required for separating
them. This is to avoid the implication that the semicolon is part of the
statement or the declaration. In sentences, a comma or period may appear
where a semicolon or other delimiter would be indicated in the context
of a program.
Word delimiters rendered in bold-face type in the Algol report are
herein indicated by underlining.
II. Language Restrictions
The compiler correctly handles programs written in Algol 60 subject to
the following restrictions.
1. The use of an integer label as an actual parameter will cause an
incorrect program to be compiled.
2. A GO TO statement with an undefined switch designator as the
designational expression will cause incorrect operation of the final
program.
3. Type restrictions:
(a) The exponentiation expression x ↑ y will have type real unless x
is of type integer and y is a non-negative integer constant. This
differs slightly from the definition in the Algol report but will
generally cause no difficulty.
(b) In the construction
else
the arithmetic expressions must have the same type, or else an incorrect
program will be compiled. For example, in the statement
x := if a < b then z else w
z and w should both be declared real or both integer.
(c) In a procedure call (procedure statement or function call) each
actual parameter having an arithmetic value must have the same type as
the corresponding formal parameter in the procedure declaration. The
type of the formal parameter is that designated in the specification
part if it appears there. If a formal parameter representing an
arithmetic quantity does not appear in the specification part, it is
assumed to be specified real. Full use of specifications is desirable
for descriptive purposes and for optimization.
Caution. Restriction (c) is more likely to cause errors than the other
restrictions. It is very easy to write P(1,2) when the parameters of P
are specified real, but incorrect coding will result. The call
P(1.0,2.0) works correctly.
4. Standard procedure names (see section VI) used as parameters in
procedure calls will cause an incorrect program to be compiled. A call,
therefore, such as
P(sin)
is incorrect. Note, however, that a call of the type
Q(sin(x))
causes no trouble. The case P(sin) can be programmed in another way.
Make the declaration
real procedure sin 1 (t); real t;
sin 1 := sin(t).
The call
P(sin 1)
is then correct.
5. Arrays called by value are not handled. If an array identifier
appears in the value part, an incorrect program will be compiled.
6. “Dynamic” own arrays are not handled. This means that all own arrays
are treated as having constant subscript bounds; this constitutes one
possible interpretation of the Algol 60 report. An own array may be
declared with variable subscript bounds, but only one allocation of
storage will be made, and if the bounds change, this will be ignored.
7. Recursive procedures are not handled. This restriction encompasses
all cases of a function designator appearing in the actual parameter
part of a call of the same function, unless that function is a standard
function. Thus f(f(x)) is not permitted in general, but sin(sin(x)) is
allowed.
III. Modes of Operation of the Compiler
There are two distinct modes of operation: ALGO and ALDAP.
ALGO is a compile-and-execute mode in which the two phases cannot be
separated. The Algol program is translated into a machine language
program in core memory, and execution of the program immediately and
automatically follows. There is no assembly program phase.
ALDAP makes use of the CODAP assembly program facilities. It is possible
to compile procedures separately and reference them from an Algol
program. The procedures may be written in Algol, CODAP or Fortran. This
provision is made possible with the aid of the external declaration
discussed in section V.
The ALGO mode provides significantly faster compilation than the ALDAP
mode for most programs. The target programs produced in the two modes
are essentially the same. In the ALGO mode, program checkout may be done
at the Algol language level. In the ALDAP mode, checkout may also be
done at the machine and assembly language levels, and modifications may
be made at these levels.
IV. Input-Output and Intermediate Tape
There are seven standard procedures for input-output, five for
intermediate tape, and three for checking tape conditions. Two
declarations, format and list, are additions to the language.
Input-Output
The input-output procedures are: READ, PAGE, PRINT, WRITE, PUNCH, INPUT,
and OUTPUT.
READ
The READ procedure is used to input numbers and Boolean values. A READ
statement has the form
READ (V1, V2, ..., Vn)
where n is any positive integer and each Vk is a variable. For example,
the statement
READ (X, Y, A[1], B[1])
will input values into the four variables listed. For inputing values
into an array, a statement such as the following might be used:
for I := 1 step 1 until 100 do READ (A[I]) .
The READ procedure inputs numbers and truth values. A number must be a
legal Algol number (although an E may be substituted for the symbol ₁₀).
For input into a Boolean variable, the truth values true and false are
accepted; also, a non-negative number or a plus sign is interpreted as
false and a negative number or a minus sign is interpreted as true. A
blank is read as zero.
With the READ procedure, the type of a number on a data card does not
have to be the same as the type of the variable to which it is assigned.
Any necessary type conversions are done automatically. If N is the next
number in the data, the statement
READ (V)
is equivalent to the statement
V := N .
The data cards are free field. The number of values per card, the length
of numbers, and the number of spaces are arbitrary. A comma, however,
must follow each number, including the last one on the last data card.
In reading a value into a subscripted variable, the current value of the
subscript expression is not affected by that READ statement. For
example, in the statement
READ (I, A[I])
the old value of I is used in A[I].
The READ procedure will input data from the standard input medium only.
PAGE
The PAGE procedure is used to cause a page ejection on the standard
output medium. PAGE has no parameters. It is called by simply writing
PAGE .
Lists and the List Declaration
The input and output procedures described in the rest of this section,
as well as the binary read and write procedures, make use of the concept
of a list. A list[1] is a sequence of expressions. An example is
U + V, C[0], if B then X else Y .
It may be inconvenient in some cases to write down all of the
expressions explicitly. The loop expression[1] may be used as a
shorthand device in a list. It is an Algol-like construction of which
the following is an example:
for I := 1 step 1 until 1000 do A[I] .
This is equivalent to the list
A[1], A[2], ..., A[1000] .
The entity following do in a loop expression may itself be a list, but
this list must be enclosed in parentheses if it contains more than one
member.
The loop expression
for I := 1 step 1 until 1000 do (A[I], B[I])
is equivalent to the list
A[1], B[1], A[2], B[2], ..., A[1000], B[1000] .
The loop expression
for I := 1 step 1 until 10 do (A[I], for J := 1
step 1 until 20 do B[I,J])
is equivalent to the list
A[1], B[1,1], B[1,2], ..., B[1,20],
A[2], B[2,1], B[2,2], ..., B[2,20],
....................................
A[10], B[10,1], B[10,2], ..., B[10,20] .
A list may be given a name through a list declaration. A list
declaration has the form
list identifier := list .
Examples are:
list L := X, A + B
list M := for I := 1 step 1 until N do A[I] .
A list identifier may itself appear in a list. One of the above examples
might be written with the aid of the following declaration:
list L := for J := 1 step 1 until 20 do B[I,J] .
The loop expression is then
for I:= 1 step 1 until 10 do (A[I], L) .
A list declaration obeys the same rules of syntax and scope as do other
declarations.
A list identifier may be used as an actual parameter of a procedure
call, with the requirement that the corresponding formal parameter be
specified list. However, an actual list may appear as a parameter only
in calls of the standard procedures, as described.
PRINT
The PRINT procedure is used to output numbers in a simple, rigid manner.
A PRINT statement has the form
PRINT (list),
where list is described above. An example of a PRINT statement is
PRINT (A, if N = 0 then S else T).
A PRINT statement always puts out at least one line printer image. A
line may contain up to 6 numbers, each of which is in scientific
notation with 10 decimal places. Each number is right-justified in a
field of 20 columns. (The format is 6E20.10.) The above PRINT statement
will output two numbers in the first forty spaces, and the rest of the
line will be blank. A PRINT statement such as
PRINT (for I := 1 step 1 until 10 do A[I])
will output one line of 6 numbers followed by one line of 4 numbers.
Single spacing between lines is automatic.
The PRINT procedure always outputs on the standard output medium.
WRITE
The WRITE procedure is used to output strings. Examples of WRITE
statements are:
WRITE ('TABLE')
WRITE (if D < 0 then 'TRUE' else 'FALSE') .
Each parameter must be a string expression (see Appendix A for
definition of string expression). There may be any number of parameters,
but each string will appear on a separate line. If a string is too long
to go on one line, it will be continued on the next line. A string
should not contain another string. Lines are single spaced. Each WRITE
statement causes at least one line printer image to be put out.
The WRITE procedure always outputs on the standard output medium.
PUNCH
The PUNCH procedure is used to output numbers on punched cards in a form
which can be input by the READ procedure. Each number punched will be
followed by a comma. Each card punched may contain up to four numbers.
Each number will be of type real, but since the READ procedure makes any
necessary type conversions this is unimportant. A PUNCH statement has
the same form as a PRINT statement. Each PUNCH statement causes at least
one card image to be put out.
The PUNCH procedure always outputs on the standard punch medium.
Formats and the Format Declaration
The two input and output procedures remaining to be described make use
of formats. The formats are exactly those used in Fortran, and readers
unfamiliar with Fortran will find it necessary to refer to the Control
Data Fortran-62 Reference Manual for details on the use of formats.
A format is treated as a string. Formats will be written, for example,
as follows:
'(6E20.10)'
'(1H0, 9X, 5HTABLE, I3)' .
Note that the parentheses are part of the format, and both parentheses
and string quotes are required.
As will be indicated below, a format string may appear explicitly in an
INPUT or OUTPUT statement. If the same format string is used more than
once, however, it may be convenient to give it a name through a format
declaration. A format declaration has the form
format Identifier := '(Fortran format)' .
Examples are:
format F := '(6E20.10)'
format G := '(1H0, 9X, 5HTABLE, I3)' .
A format declaration obeys the same rules of syntax and scope as do
other declarations.
Format identifiers may be used as parameters, and format is a specifier.
INPUT
The INPUT procedure is used to input numbers and Hollerith information
in accordance with Fortran-type formats. An INPUT statement has one of
the forms
INPUT (M,F,list)
INPUT (M,F)
where:
(1) M is the logical unit designation. M may be any arithmetic
expression. If it is not integral-valued, the action
M := entier (M + 0.5)
will take place. The standard input unit is 50.
(2) F is a format expression. It may be an actual format string, a
format identifier, a conditional format expression, or any variable
which contains the starting address of a format string. Caution. In the
case of a conditional format expression, format strings and format
identifiers should not be mixed. For example, (a) and (b) below are
permitted, but (c) will cause an incorrect program to be compiled:
(a) if B then '(E20.7)' else '(E20.6)'
(b) if B then F1 else F2
(c) if B then F1 else '(E20.6)' .
(3) list is as defined previously. Of course, for INPUT all expressions
must be variables.
The following are examples of an INPUT statement:
INPUT (50, '(4E20.8)', N, for I := 1 step 1 until N do A[I]).
INPUT (if A < B then M else N, F, X, Y, Z) .
Each INPUT statement causes at least one card image to be read.
Note that the INPUT procedure does not make type checks between the data
and the program variables. A floating point number, for example, is
stored as such regardless of the type of the variable to which it is
assigned.
Caution. It is strongly recommended that not both READ and INPUT be used
in the same program. Each buffers ahead one card image. Furthermore,
each INPUT statement causes at least one card image to be read while a
READ statement may not cause a new card image to be read. Mixing the two
statements will require quite careful use of blank cards in the data to
allow for the buffering.
OUTPUT
The OUTPUT procedure is used to output numbers and Hollerith information
in accordance with Fortran-type formats. An OUTPUT statement has one of
the forms
OUTPUT (M,F)
OUTPUT (M,F,list)
where M, F, and list are as indicated above. The following are examples
of OUTPUT statements:
OUTPUT (51, '(5HTABLE)')
OUTPUT (51, '(1H0,9X,10E10.2)', for I := 1 step 1 until 100 do A[I]) .
Each OUTPUT statement causes at least one line printer image to be put
out. The standard output unit is 51, and the standard punch unit is 52.
Intermediate Tape Procedures
There are five standard procedures for making use of magnetic tape for
auxiliary storage:
BINREAD, BINWRITE, ENDFILE, REWIND and BACKUP.
BINREAD
A BINREAD statement has the form
BINREAD (M, list)
where M and list are the same as for INPUT. Each BINREAD statement
causes the designated unit to move forward one logical record, reading
in binary format into the variables of the list. If fewer variables
appear in the list than are on the record, only those values are read
and the tape moves on to the end of the record. If more variables appear
in the list than are on the record, this is treated as an error and the
program is terminated.
The following is an example of a BINREAD statement:
BINREAD (6, for I := 1 step 1 until 1000 do A[I]) .
BINWRITE
A BINWRITE statement has the form
BINWRITE (M, list)
where M and list are the same as for OUTPUT. Each BINWRITE statement
causes the values of the list expressions to be written in one logical
record in binary format on the designated unit.
ENDFILE
An ENDFILE statement has the form
ENDFILE (M)
where M is a unit designation as before. The statement causes an
end-of-file record to be written on the designated unit.
REWIND
A REWIND statement has the form
REWIND (M)
where M is a unit designation as before. The statement causes the
designated unit to be rewound to the load point.
BACKUP
A BACKUP statement has the form
BACKUP (M)
where M is a unit designation as before. The statement causes the
designated unit to be backspaced one logical record of binary
information or one physical record of BCD information.
Tape-Checking Procedures
The checking procedures are: EOF, READERR, and WRITERR. These are
Boolean procedures.
EOF
An EOF call has the form
EOF (M)
where M is a logical unit designation as before. It yields the value
true if the previous read operation encountered an end-of-file or the
previous write operation encountered an end-of-tape; otherwise it yields
the value false.
An example of the use of an EOF call is:
if EOF(6) then goto ALARM .
READERR
A READERR call has the form
READERR (M)
where M is a logical unit designation as before. It yields the value
true if the previous read operation produced a parity error; otherwise
it yields the value false.
READERR should not be used for testing the operation of a READ
statement. The READ procedure has its own facilities for checking,
making multiple attempts in case of errors, and terminating the program
if necessary.
WRITERR
A WRITERR call has the form
WRITERR (M)
where M is a logical unit designation as before. It yields the value
true if the previous write operation produced a parity error; otherwise
it yields the value false.
V. The External Declaration
An external declaration is required for each nonstandard library
procedure or procedure compiled separately from the calling program,
whether in Algol, Fortran or CODAP. Standard Algol procedures are
described in Section VI. Note that a CODAP subroutine must take account
of the special structure of the Algol calling sequence as described in
Appendix C or be treated as a Fortran subprogram. The use of Fortran
subprograms is described in Appendix G.
The external declaration has one of the following forms:
external I1, ..., In
real external I1, ..., In
integer external I1, ..., In
Boolean external I1, ..., In
where each Ik is an identifier and n is any positive integer. A type
declarator preceding the declarator external signifies a function
procedure having that type. Note that no information about parameters
appears in an external declaration. See Appendix A for syntactical
definition.
In the ALGO mode, LIB cards must be included in the job deck for
nonstandard library routines, in addition to the external declarations.
Details are found in Section VIII.
VI. Standard Procedures
Certain procedures are used without being declared. These include the
standard functions listed in the Algol 60 report and the input-output
and intermediate tape procedures. The complete list is as follows:
ABS
SIGN
SQRT
SIN
COS
ARCTAN
LN
EXP
ENTIER
EOF
READERR
WRITERR
FORTRANF
FTNF
READ
PAGE
PRINT
WRITE
PUNCH
INPUT
OUTPUT
BINREAD
BINWRITE
ENDFILE
REWIND
BACKUP
FORTRAN
FTN
These procedures are global to the program. They behave as though
declared in a fictitious block surrounding the entire program.
VII. Error Checking and Diagnostics
In a complete compilation the compiler makes two passes on the Algol
source program. If errors which the compiler cannot correct are detected
in the first pass, then the second, or translation, pass will not be
made. The following types of errors are detected:
1. syntactical error
2. undeclared identifier
3. identifier declared twice in the same block head
4. misspelled delimiter (corrected in many cases)
5. missing escape symbol (corrected unless both are missing for the
same delimiter, in which case the delimiter is treated as an
identifier).
The program listing and any diagnostics always appear on the standard
output medium. In the case of a syntactical error, a message will appear
in the program listing one or several lines below the error. The
location of the error in the program will be further pinpointed in the
line of symbols immediately below the error message. This line will be a
short portion of the program with the last symbol in the line being the
one which indicates the error. For example, a declaration might be out
of place as follows:
.
.
.
x := a + b; 'INTEGER' K;
**** LAST CHARACTER INDICATES SYNTACTICAL ERROR.
x := a + b; INTEGER
.
.
.
In some cases the line below the message may differ slightly from the
corresponding string of symbols above; for example, an identifier might
be rendered by Ident. It is possible for a single syntactical error to
cause more than one diagnostic.
A few syntactical errors are corrected by the compiler, and a message is
put out to this effect. An example is a semicolon immediately preceding
else.
According to the comment conventions of Algol, any string of symbols
following end and not containing end, else or a semicolon is treated as
comment. As a result, the omission of one of these symbols following end
does not always cause an error in compilation but will cause a portion
of the program to be skipped over by the compiler. Thus for example, in
... x := a + b end for i := 1 step 1 ...
the FOR statement will be skipped at least in part. The compiler will
put out a caution message in this and some other cases, but it will not
change the program.
If an identifier is not declared (or possibly declared in the wrong
place), a message is put out below the program listing together with the
undeclared identifier.
The compiler does not check the type of identifiers. Therefore, such
errors as a Boolean variable in an arithmetic expression, or the
brackets of a subscripted variable replaced by parentheses, are not
detected, and an incorrect program may be compiled.
VIII. Running Programs
The Algol program is punched on cards in the hardware representation
described in Appendix B. The format is essentially free field: spaces
have no significance except within escape symbols and string quotes.
Only the first 72 columns, however, are interpreted by the compiler. The
remaining columns may be used for identification purposes. Care must be
taken when a string is continued onto the next card, as the continuation
will begin in column 1. The program listing will have the same format as
the cards.
In the following discussion the symbol Ø signifies the letter O where
necessary for emphasis, and the symbol Δ signifies a 7-9 punch in card
column 1.
ALGOL Control System
The compiler operates under the ALGOL Control System. This system is a
subordinate control routine of the Master Control System of the CO-OP
Monitor Programming System. ALGOL is quite similar to the subordinate
control routine COOP.
ALGOL is called with an MCS (Master Control System) card having ALGOL
punched beginning in column 2. Other details of this card are available
in descriptions of the CO-OP Monitor. It should be noted in selecting a
standard recovery procedure that the concept of COMMON is not used in
Algol.
Following the MCS card will be a control card giving instructions to the
control routine ALGOL. It will name one of the following routines: ALGO,
ALDAP, EXECUTE, BINARY, FORTRAN, REWIND or DEFINE. These will be
discussed below.
EOP Card
The EOP (end-of-program) card has the characters 'EØP' punched in
columns 10-14.
In the ALGO mode, one EOP card must be used to terminate the program.
In the ALDAP mode, one EOP card must be used to terminate each Algol
program or Algol procedure being compiled separately.
Compile and Execute: ALGO
The ALGO mode of running an Algol program is the simplest and the
fastest. It will be the more suitable for a large number of programs.
Unless the programmer has special reasons for using the ALDAP mode, the
ALGO mode is recommended.
The Algol program must be self-contained except for standard procedures
and library procedures on the library-systems tape. The job deck must
have the following cards in the specified order:
1. MCS control card.
The subordinate control routine name must be ALGØL.
2. ALGOL control card.
This will appear as
ΔALGØ. or ΔALGØ,t. where t is an integer specifying a time limit
in minutes for compilation and execution.
(The period is required on every control card.)
3. LIB cards.
If necessary. One LIB card is required for each non-standard
library procedure called in the program, namely those declared
external. The format of a LIB card is as follows: the
characters LIB punched in columns 10-12 and the name of a
library entry point beginning in column 20. There may be no
more than 20 LIB cards.
4. PROGRAM card.
If desired. This may be used to identify the program. Its format
is described in the next paragraph.
5. Algol program deck.
6. EOP card.
7. Data.
If required.
PROGRAM Card
The PROGRAM card is optional. It is useful for identification purposes,
and in the ALDAP mode it serves to name the program entry point.
The format of the card is free field. The characters PRØGRAM must appear
followed by the program name, which must be alphanumeric.
Compile/Execute: ALDAP
The ALDAP mode is used to compile an Algol program or procedure to a
relocatable binary or a CODAP format. Execution is optional. For
compilation only, the program deck may consist of any mixture of Algol
programs and procedures, any number of which may be in CODAP. If
execution is desired, part or all of the program deck may have been
previously compiled, so that the deck may have Algol, CODAP and
relocatable binary cards.
ALDAP Control Statement
The format of the ALDAP statement is:
ΔALDAP,L,B,n.
where
L is a program listing key,
B is a punched card output key,
n is a logical unit number.
A period may terminate the statement at any point, with remaining fields
treated as zero.
If the program listing key (L) is a 1, an assembled listing of the CODAP
object code will be produced on the standard output medium. If the key
is zero or blank, no such listing will be produced. A listing of the
Algol program and any diagnostics will always be produced on the
standard output medium.
If the punched card output key (B) is a 1, a relocatable binary deck
will be produced on the standard punch medium. If the key is a 2, a
CODAP symbolic deck will be produced on the standard punch medium. If
the key is a 3, both a symbolic deck and a relocatable binary deck will
be produced on the standard punch medium, with the symbolic deck
appearing first. If the key is zero or blank, no deck will be produced.
The logical unit number (n) specifies the unit which is to be the
load-and-go tape if it is one of the integers 1-49 or 56. If n is some
other integer or blank, no load-and-go tape will be written. The
load-and-go tape is required when execution of the program is to follow.
Examples:
(a) ΔALDAP, 1, 1, 56.
This statement will cause the Algol/CODAP deck to be compiled, an
assembled listing to be produced on the standard output medium, a
relocatable binary deck to be produced on the standard punch medium, and
a load-and-go tape written on logical unit 56.
(b) ΔALDAP, 1.
This statement will cause the Algol/CODAP deck to be compiled, and an
assembled listing to be produced on the standard output medium.
Job Deck: ALDAP Compilation/Execution
For compilation only of an Algol/CODAP program deck, the job deck should
contain the following cards in the specified order:
1. MCS control card.
With ALGØL as the subordinate control routine name.
2. ALGOL control card.
With the appropriate ALDAP control statement.
3. PROGRAM card.
If desired.
4. Program deck.
Any mixture of Algol and CODAP programs and procedures, with all
their subroutines except the standard procedures and those on
the library-systems tape. Each Algol program or procedure must
be terminated by an EOP card.
5. FINIS card.
This card contains the characters FINIS punched in columns 10-14.
It signals the end of all compilations.
For compilation and execution of an Algol/CODAP program deck, a
load-and-go tape must be requested in the ALDAP control statement. If no
relocatable binary cards follow the last subprogram to be compiled, then
the program deck must be terminated by an EOP card which is in addition
to the EOP card or END card (the latter for a CODAP subprogram) which
terminates the last program or procedure. The FINIS card then follows
this additional EOP card. An EOP card always causes a TRA card image to
be written on the load-and-go tape.
The control statements EXECUTE, BINARY, FORTRAN, REWIND and DEFINE may
be used as described in the “CO-OP Monitor Programmer’s Guide”. BINARY
is useful for loading a relocatable binary deck onto the load-and-go
tape prior to compilation of an Algol calling program, where the
subprogram in relocatable form might have the same name as a library
routine. If the Algol program preceded the relocatable deck, the library
routine would be fetched by the loader and an error indication given.
The CO-OP control statements LOAD and EXECUTER are not used by ALGOL.
Examples
Each of the following examples describes a job deck which illustrates a
different way of compiling and executing the same Algol program. The
program calls a library procedure with entry point named BESSEL, and the
program contains at least one other procedure. On the MCS card only the
first field is indicated, as the others may vary from one installation
to another.
Example 1
This job uses the ALGØ mode.
ΔALGØL, ... .
ΔALGØ.
LIB BESSEL
PRØGRAM SAMPLE
Algol Program (with external declaration of BESSEL)
'EØP'
Data
Example 2
This job uses the ALDAP mode, compiling the entire program at once. The
ALDAP control statement calls for an assembled listing, a binary deck,
and a load-and-go tape on logical unit 56. The execute card gives a two
minute time limit on the execution.
ΔALGØL, ... .
ΔALDAP,1,1,56.
PRØGRAM SAMPLE
Algol Program (with external declaration of BESSEL)
'EØP'
'EØP'
FINIS
ΔEXECUTE,2.
Data
Example 3
This job consists simply of the execution of the relocatable program
deck obtained in example 2.
ΔALGØL, ... .
ΔEXECUTE,2.
Relocatable Deck
Data
Example 4
This example is similar to example 2. Here the main program and one of
its procedures are to be compiled separately.
ΔALGØL, ... .
ΔALDAP,1,1,56.
PRØGRAM SAMPLE
Algol Program (with external declaration of both BESSEL and the
procedure being compiled separately)
'EØP'
Algol Procedure
'EØP'
'EØP'
FINIS
ΔEXECUTE,2.
Data
Example 5
In this example the procedure which was compiled separately in example 4
is being compiled by itself, i.e., the calling program is not in the
deck at all. Of course there is no execution in this case. Note that no
load-and-go tape is requested and only one EOP card is used. There
cannot be a PROGRAM card.
ΔALGØL, ... .
ΔALDAP,1,1.
Algol Procedure
'EØP'
FINIS
Example 6
Here the procedure compiled by itself in example 5 appears in the
program deck in relocatable binary form, while the calling program is in
the Algol language.
ΔALGØL, ... .
ΔALDAP,1,1,56.
PRØGRAM SAMPLE
Algol Program (with external declaration of both BESSEL and the
procedure in relocatable form)
'EØP'
FINIS
ΔEXECUTE,2.
Relocatable Deck
Data
The relocatable deck here must be terminated by two TRA cards. One of
these is generated by the compiler when it processes the EOP card which
must terminate the procedure for compilation, as in example 5. The
second TRA card can be obtained by using a second EOP card, as in
example 2. Alternatively, the second TRA card can be added to the
relocatable deck before execution. Note that this second TRA card must
not be used when the relocatable deck is loaded by a BINARY control
statement. This is illustrated in the next example.
Example 7
In this case the previously compiled procedure has the same name as a
routine on the library-systems tape.
ΔALGØL, ... .
ΔBINARY,56.
Relocatable Deck (terminated by one TRA card)
ΔALDAP,1,1,56.
PRØGRAM SAMPLE
Algol Program (with external declaration of both BESSEL and the
procedure in relocatable form)
'EØP'
'EØP'
FINIS
ΔEXECUTE, 2.
Data
The logical unit number on the BINARY control statement must agree with
that which specifies the load-and-go tape in the ALDAP control
statement.
APPENDIX A
Adjuncts to Algol 60
List Entities
The delimiter list is a declarator and a specifier.
::=
::=
|
| ()
::=
|
|
::=
| ,
::= list :=
Format Entities
The delimiter format is a declarator and a specifier.
::=
::='([2])'
|
::=
|
else
::= format :=
String Expression
::=
|
else
External Declaration
The delimiter external is a declarator.
::=
::=
| ,
::= external
| external
APPENDIX B
Hardware Representation
One keypunch character is reserved as an “escape symbol”, which we shall
here suppose is the apostrophe. This symbol is used to delineate word
delimiters and truth values, which are written in boldface type in Algol
reference language and publication language and indicated by underlining
in this manual. The hardware representation of a word delimiter such as
begin is therefore 'BEGIN'. No distinction is made between upper and
lower case letters in the hardware language.
The transliteration rules for the non-word delimiters are comprised in
the following table. This assumes a 48 character hardware set and is
consistent with the usage in the ALCOR group. For some basic symbols
alternatives are tolerated, as indicated.
Reference Hardware Tolerated Hardware
< 'LS' 'LESS'
≤ 'LQ' 'LSEQ', 'NOTGREATER', 'NOT
GREATER'
= 'EQ' 'EQUAL'
≥ 'GQ' 'GREQ', 'NOTLESS', 'NOT LESS'
> 'GR' 'GREATER'
≠ 'NQ' 'NTEQ', 'NOTEQUAL', 'NOT
EQUAL'
¬ 'NOT'
∧ 'AND'
∨ 'OR'
⊃ 'IMP' 'IMPLIES', 'IMPL'
≡ 'EQV' 'EQUIV'
₁₀ ' 'E','T'
× *
↑ ** 'POWER'
÷ // 'DIV'
: ..
; $ .,
:= = .=, ..=
[ (/
] /)
‘ " '('
’ " ')'
In the case of the string quotes, the tolerated symbols are required for
the inner strings of a nest of strings.
Actually, the compiler can tolerate many other spellings of word
delimiters because of its facility for correcting misspellings.
The delimiter go to is accepted with or without the space between the
two words, but it is treated as a single delimiter: 'GOTO' or 'GO TO'.
The compiler can also accept a 64 character hardware representation: the
full set available on the line printer. In preparing programs,
overpunching is used on the 48 character keypunch in this case. The
table below indicates the keypunching rules in use at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory.
Reference Hardware
< 1-8 punch
≤ 1-5 punch
≥ 1-9 punch
> 2-7 punch
≠ 2-6 punch
∧ 3-7 punch
∨ 2-4 punch
₁₀ 1-6 punch
↑ 2-5 punch
÷ 3-5 punch
: 2-8 punch
; 2-9 punch
[ 3-6 punch
] 3-4 punch
The other basic symbols are either in the 48 character set or are
replaced by word delimiters as above. The symbol := is treated as two
symbols in the 64 character set, and = is punched as such.
APPENDIX C
Structure of Procedure Calling Sequence
The following information is necessary for the user writing a non-Algol
procedure to be called from an Algol program. The calling sequence
differs from that found in many other languages.
The first word of the non-Algol procedure must have a simple jump
instruction in its upper half, and the exit line is provided by a jump
to this first word. The entry automatically causes the proper return
address to be placed in the address portion of the first half-word.
Upon entry to the procedure, index register six contains an address
which is used to reference each parameter. To establish linkage with the
first parameter, the instruction
LDA 6 0
is performed. This brings into the accumulator a word of one of the
following types:
1. SLJ 0 ENA V
2. SLJ 0 RTJ L
In case (1), V is the address of the parameter. In case (2), L is the
starting address of a piece of coding for computing the address of the
parameter and leaving it in the accumulator (if the parameter is an
expression, the address in the accumulator will be that of a temporary
containing its value). Case (1) always holds if the parameter is a
simple variable, string, array identifier, switch identifier, or
procedure identifier. In case (2) the same temporary will be used for
all the expressions.
Both cases can be provided for by setting aside two locations for each
parameter in the procedure body and placing the instruction
SLJ *-1
in the upper half of each second location. Then after
LDA 6 0
mentioned above,
STA RES1,
where RES1 is the first reserved location for the first parameter, makes
the two locations into a closed subroutine. After this, the instruction
RTJ RES1
causes the address of the first parameter to be placed in the
accumulator anytime it is performed. This accommodates expressions
called by name.
In general, the K^th parameter is referenced as above, but beginning
with
LDA 6 (K - 1).
This description does not apply to the standard procedures, each of
which has its own special calling sequence.
APPENDIX D
Internal Representation of Strings
The address representing a string is that of the first word of string
characters. Each left string quote is represented internally by the word
00 ... 03454 ,
and each right string quote by
00 ... 05474 .
The characters of the string which are not string quotes are packed in
BCD eight characters per word. These words are in the natural order, the
first immediately following the left string quote and the last
immediately followed by the right string quote. If the last word before
a right quote is not full, the rest of that word is filled out with
zeros (not BCD blanks).
APPENDIX E
Program Efficiency
The following information may be of interest to programmers desiring an
efficient program:
1. The FOR statement is defined with more generality than is useful in
most programs. In particular, the arithmetic expressions in the FOR
clause are allowed to change in value during execution of the FOR
statement. The compiler does not attempt to determine which FOR
statements make use of this flexibility and treats all of them in the
most general way. Therefore, in a statement such as
for I := 1 step M + N until abs(A - B) do ... ,
the expression M + N is evaluated twice for each iteration, and the
expression abs(A - B) is evaluated once for each iteration. If M, N, A
, and B do not change in the loop, this is unnecessary. Such
inefficiency can be avoided by programming in a slightly different
way. The above example can be written as follows:
T1 := M + N; T2 := abs(A - B) ;
for I := 1 step T1 until T2 do ... .
2. The concept of call by value is a device applied to procedures to
eliminate unneeded flexibility in procedure calls. If a parameter
having a value is referenced more than once in the procedure body and
the flexibility of call by name is not needed, then the program is
more efficient if the parameter is included in the value part of the
procedure heading. If such a parameter is referenced only once, it is
more efficient if it is not included in the value part.
3. Array identifiers which are parameters should be specified.
APPENDIX F
Controversial Features of Algol 60
A few features of the language have been subject to more than one
interpretation. Fortunately, the vast majority of programs will not
involve these ambiguities, but for the few that do it will be necessary
to know what decisions the compiler makes. This appendix indicates these
decisions for the more controversial areas.
1. Side effects in function designators. The evaluation of primaries
in expressions is not strictly left to right allowing for precedence
rules. In particular, the value of a variable in an expression is
never stored in a temporary simply to preserve its value from change
by the evaluation of a function designator in the expression.
Otherwise, the evaluation does proceed from left to right and
according to precedence rules, including the referencing of formal
parameters and the calculation of the address of subscripted
variables. All function designators are evaluated in Boolean
expressions.
2. Own variables and arrays in procedures. The own quantities local to
the body of a procedure which is called from more than one point in a
program record the history of the procedure as opposed to a history of
each point of reference. In other words, only one copy of the own
quantities is preserved.
APPENDIX G
Fortran Subprograms in an Algol Program
The standard procedures FORTRAN, FORTRANF, FTN, and FTNF are used to
call compiled Fortran subroutines and functions from within an Algol
program. Each procedure has one parameter which is a call of the desired
Fortran subprogram. The Fortran subprogram must be declared external as
described in Section V.
The use of these procedures simply causes a Fortran calling sequence to
be generated by the compiler. Of course the subprogram could be written
in CODAP as well as Fortran, provided it is designed to link through a
Fortran-type calling sequence.
The procedures are used as follows:
FORTRAN—generates a Fortran 62 calling sequence for a subroutine
FORTRANF—generates a Fortran 62 calling sequence for a function
FTN—generates a Fortran 63 calling sequence for a subroutine
FTNF—generates a Fortran 63 calling sequence for a function
Each of these procedures is standard, i.e., available without
declaration. FORTRANF and FTNF are used in expressions.
Examples:
x := FTNF (ALPHA(T,A[0,0]))
FORTRAN (SUB(I + J)) .
The following restrictions must be observed: labels, procedures with no
parameters, standard procedure names, and array names cannot be used as
arguments of a call of a Fortran subprogram. However, in the case of an
array, the subscripted variable which is the first element of the array
will satisfy a Fortran subroutine which has an array name as a formal
parameter. The name of the Fortran subprogram cannot be a formal
parameter. Literals must be enclosed in string quotes.
Footnotes
[1]See Appendix A for syntactical definition.
[2]For definition of Fortran format, see Control Data Fortran-62
Reference Manual.
Acknowledgment
The author was greatly assisted in the preparation of this document by
several persons who have contributed labors or advice to the
construction of the compiler. These include N. B. Alexander and A. A.
Grau, also K. A. Wolf of Control Data Corporation, and especially R. G.
Stueland of Control Data Corporation.
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Transcriber’s Notes
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keywords in boldface as in the Revised Report.
Corrected a few palpable typos.
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