The Horses of the Sahara - And the Manners of the Desert

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Title: The Horses of the Sahara - And the Manners of the Desert
Author: Daumas, Eugene
Language: English
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Third Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, bound in cloth, price 18s. 6d.

THE

ILLUSTRATED HORSE-DOCTOR;

BEING AN ACCURATE AND DETAILED ACCOUNT,

Accompanied by more than 400 Pictorial Representations,

CHARACTERISTIC OF

THE VARIOUS DISEASES TO WHICH THE EQUINE RACE ARE
SUBJECTED;

TOGETHER WITH THE LATEST MODE OF TREATMENT,

AND

ALL THE REQUISITE PRESCRIPTIONS

WRITTEN IN PLAIN ENGLISH

By EDWARD MAYHEW, M.R.C.V.S.

"_A Book which should be in the possession of all
who keep Horses._"

ALSO BY THE SAME AUTHOR:

Immediately will be published, in One 8vo Volume,
a companion to the above, entitled:

THE

ILLUSTRATED STABLE ECONOMY

with upwards of 400 engravings.

LONDON:

Wm. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.

THE

HORSES OF THE SAHARA

AND THE

MANNERS OF THE DESERT.

THE HORSES
OF THE SAHARA,
AND THE
MANNERS OF THE DESERT.

BY
E. DAUMAS,
GENERAL OF DIVISION COMMANDING AT BORDEAUX,
SENATOR, ETC., ETC.,

WITH COMMENTARIES
BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH
BY JAMES HUTTON.

(THE ONLY AUTHORISED TRANSLATION)

LONDON:
WM. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.

1863.

PUBLISHERS' NOTICE.

In this English version of General Daumas' justly eulogised work on the
Horses of the Sahara and the Manners of the Desert, two or three entire
chapters, besides many isolated passages, have been omitted, which
treated either of veterinary science or of matters little suited to the
taste of general readers in this country. Part the second, which was so
strangely overlooked by the critics of the last French edition, will be
found extremely interesting to all who love the chace and can appreciate
a life of adventure. The description of the sports and pastimes, the
manners and customs of the aristocracy of the African Desert, is
especially worthy of perusal; nor will the quaint remarks of the once
famous Emir Abd-el-Kader fail to command very general respect and
sympathy.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART THE FIRST.

THE HORSES OF THE SAHARA.

INTRODUCTION 3

Sources of information.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 5

Treatises on the horse.—Anecdote of Abou-Obeïda.

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARAB HORSE 7

Curious letter from the Emir Abd-el-Kader.—Four great
epochs.—Creation of the horse.—Change of coats.—Moral
qualities of the thoroughbred.

THE BARB 26

Oneness of the race.—Letter from Abd-el-Kader.—Letter
from M. Lesseps on the Alexandria races.—Weight carried
by African horses.

THE HORSES OF THE SAHARA 33

Traditional love of the horse.—Arab proverbs.—A
popular chaunt.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 44

Superiority of the horses of the Sahara.

BREEDS 47

Incontestable purity of the Saharene Barb.—Endurance
of the Arab horse.—The noble horse.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 59

Two varieties of the horse.

THE SIRE AND THE DAM 65

Treatment of the mare and foal.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 73

Influence of the sire.—Purity of race.

REARING AND BREAKING-IN 75

Early training.—Elementary exercises.—Names.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 107

Names of the Prophet's horses.

DIET 112

Camel's and ewe's milk.—Dates.—Green food.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 118

Repose and fat injurious to a horse.

GROOMING, HYGIENE, PROPORTIONS 121

Selection of food and water.—How to foretell
the size and character of a horse.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 127

Ingenious measurements.

COATS 130

Variety of colours.—Anecdote.—White
spots.—Anecdote.—Tufts.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 136

Favourite coats.—Objectionable coats.

ON CHOOSING AND PURCHASING HORSES 139

Serious objections.—Mode of sale.—The
Arab horse-dealer.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 148

Genealogical tables.—Poetic and anecdotic illustrations.

SHOEING 150

Farriers, their privileges and tools.—Cold shoeing.

THE HARNESS 159

The Arab saddle.—Advantages of the Arab system.

MAXIMS OF THE ARAB CAVALIER 166

Temperance.—Endurance.—Making the horse a study.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 171

Horse-racing among the Arabs.

ABD-EL-KADER ON THE ARAB HORSE 178

Examples of endurance.—Reasons for early training.—High
price of mares.—Genealogical registers.—Identity of the
Arab and the Barb.—General instructions.—Draught horses.

THE WAR HORSE 185

His form and qualities.

PART THE SECOND.

THE MANNERS OF THE DESERT.

THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER ON THE HORSE 189

The Arab horse derives his character from his Arab master.

THE SAHARA, BY ABD-EL-KADER 191

A poem of the Emir.

THE RAZZIA 196

Three kinds of razzia: the _Tehha_, the _Khrotefa_,
the _Terbigue_.—Episodes.—Popular chaunt.—The
combat.—Circumstantial details.

THE KHRIANA, OR THEFT 206

Horse, camel, and sheep stealing.—Superstitions.—Ludicrous details.

WAR BETWEEN DESERT TRIBES 214

Motives for hostilities.—Proclamation of war.—Summoning
allies.—Departure.—A war chaunt.—Amorous intrigues.—Thefts.
—Scouts.—Preliminaries of peace.—Saharene diplomacy.—Conclusion of
peace.—Hostilities.—The eve of battle.—Challenges.—War cries.—The
battle.—Defeat.—Victory.—Anecdotes.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el Kader_ 234

Lamentations of an Arab warrior.

USAGES OF WAR 236

Distribution of the plunder.—The chief.—Loan of a
horse.—Female spectators of the battle.—Apologue.—The
marabouts.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 241

The horse of noble race.—Victors and the vanquished.

OSTRICH HUNTING 243

On horseback.—Details of the excursion.—From an
ambush.—Habits of the ostrich.—Laying and hatching.

GAZELLE HUNTING 259

On horseback.—Habits of the gazelle.

THE GREYHOUND 264

Respect shown to it.—Characteristic details.

HAWKING 270

Training and rearing.—A hawking expedition.

_Remarks by the Emir Abd-el-Kader_ 272

Four kinds of falcon.—Training.—Hawking.

THE CHACE, BY ABD-EL-KADER 281

Varieties of sport.—The gazelle.—The hyæna.—The
panther.—The lion.—Different modes of hunting.

THE CAMEL 305

Management of the camel.—Diet.—Usefulness.

THE SHEEP 309

Immense flocks.—Their usefulness in the Sahara.

LIFE IN THE DESERT 313

The villager.—The master of the tent.—Sobriety.—Runners.
—Inventory of a wealthy Arab's fortune.—His occupations.
—Armourers.—Legislation.—Women's employments.—Hospitality.
—Mendicants.—Sorcerers.—Magic.—Religion.

THE ARAB ARISTOCRACY 329

The thorny shrub and the date-tree.—The sherifs.—The
marabouts and the _djouad_.—A great tent.—The
_vendetta_.—Examples.—Blood money.—_Lex talionis._
—Birth, education, and marriage.—Polygamy.—An Arab
interior.—Amusements.—Death and funeral rites.

PART FIRST

THE HORSES OF THE SAHARA

INTRODUCTION.

The horsemen of Numidia were famous even in the time of the Romans. The
Arab horsemen are in no way inferior to their predecessors. The horse
has continued down to these our days to be the chief instrument of war
among those martial tribes. A dissertation on the horses of Algeria,
which still retain the typical characteristics of both the Barb and the
Arab stock, is not only of interest for the lovers of horse-flesh, but
also for those who are responsible for the maintenance of our power in
Algeria. The greatest merit of a study of this kind is its perfect
accuracy as to facts. I will therefore mention the sources whence I have
derived my information.

In the course of the sixteen years which I have passed in Africa, I have
been intrusted with missions or have exercised functions which brought
me into constant intercourse with the Arabs, a people hitherto so little
known, but whom we are bound to study if we would learn how to govern
them.

From 1837 to 1839 I was the French Consul at Mascara accredited to the
Emir Abd-el-Kader; after that, head of the Arab Office in the province
of Oran, in which at that time General Lamoricière held the chief
military command; and finally Central Director of the Arab Office of
Algeria under the government of Marshal the Duke of Isly. These
different posts brought me into close contact with the native chiefs and
the first families of the country. I acquired their language and it was
through their assistance that I was enabled to publish, one after the
other, my books on the Algerian Sahara, the Great Desert, Great Kabylia,
and on the Manners and Customs of Algeria, works which may perchance
have rendered some service to French interests by throwing light upon
important questions of war, commerce and government.

The study of the Arab horse, which had long been the subject of my most
careful researches, seemed to me to form the natural complement of my
previous labours. Indeed, this question, full of uncertainty and
contradictions, was as it still is, of the most thrilling interest. In
the event of a European war must we always have recourse to foreign
countries, or cannot Algeria come to our aid in supplying remounts for
our light cavalry? Such was the national question I set before myself,
and the reply to which I founded on patient and minute inquiries
throughout my long residence in Algeria.

Besides, according to some authorities, the Arabs are the first horsemen
in the world, while according to others they butcher their horses. The
former give them credit for whatever is good in the systems pursued by
ourselves or our neighbours; while the latter insist that they know
nothing whatever about riding, or about the veterinary art, or about
breeding. How much of truth is there in all this? What is the real value
of Arab horses? What is the nature of the service they are capable of
rendering? This I was determined to find out, not by hearsay, but
through the evidence of my own eyes—not from books, but from men. What I
am now about to place before the reader is consequently the result both
of my own personal observations, and also of conversations with Arabs of
every grade of life, from the tented chief down to the simple horseman,
who, as he himself would say in his picturesque idiom, has no other
profession than to "live by his spurs." In other words, I made my
inquiries of those who had large possessions, and of those who had very
little; of those who bred horses, and of those who only knew how to ride
them: in short, of every body. Thus the opinions which I am about to
commit to paper do not emanate from the head of a single individual—they
are gathered separately from the members of a powerful tribe. My only
merit is that of having collected and arranged many documents widely
scattered and difficult to obtain.

In fact, a Christian has need to employ both tact and patience to
extract from Mussulmans information insignificant perhaps in itself, but
which a gloomy fanaticism makes them regard as of great importance, or
as perilous to their religion. Nevertheless, I have one reservation to
make. I am not at all prepared to say: "This is right," or "That is
wrong." I say simply: "Right or wrong, this is what the Arabs do."

REMARKS OF THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

Learned Mussulmans have written upon horses a great number of books in
which they discourse at considerable length upon their qualities, their
colours, upon all that is esteemed beneficial or injurious, their
maladies and the right mode of treatment. One of them, Abou-Obeïda, a
contemporary of the son of Haroun-al-Raschid, composed no fewer than
fifty volumes on the horse. This Abou-Obeïda met with a little
misadventure, which shows that it is not the author of the most
ponderous and numerous volumes who imparts the soundest information, and
that not the worst plan is to consult men themselves.

"How many books hast thou written upon the horse?" asked one day of a
celebrated Arab poet the vizir of Mamoun, son of Haroun-al-Raschid.
"Only one." Then turning to Abou-Obeïda he put to him the same question.
"Fifty," replied he. "Rise, then," said the vizir, "go up to that horse
and repeat the name of every part of his frame, taking care to point out
the position of each." "I am not a veterinary surgeon," answered
Abou-Obeïda. "And thou?" said the vizir to the poet.

"Upon that"—it is the poet himself who relates the anecdote—"I rose from
my seat, and taking the animal by the forelock, I began to name one part
after the other, placing my hand upon each to indicate its position, and
at the same time recited all the poetic allusions, all the sayings and
proverbs of the Arabs referring to it. When I had finished, the vizir
said to me: "Take the horse." I took it, and if ever I wished to annoy
Abou-Obeïda, I rode this animal on my way to visit him."

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ARAB HORSE.

In all times the horse has been regarded by peoples and Governments as
one of the most potent elements of their strength and prosperity. At the
present day there is no question relating either to rural economy or to
the art of war, more canvassed than that touching the amelioration of
the charger. The highest authorities of the State, learned societies,
agriculturists, the army, every body, in short, is taken up with it in
France, and yet we are very far from being agreed upon it. For my own
part, I have never wearied of studying that noble animal, from taste
quite as much as from patriotism or professional necessity. I have
consulted the most esteemed authors and men of great erudition, but I
confess that it is among the Arabs I have met with the most just and
practical appreciations of the subject. To obtain the best possible
information, I have frequently applied to the Emir Abd-el-Kader, that
illustrious chief who, by reason of his exalted position in Mussulman
society, his science, and his skill as a horseman, was of all men the
most competent to remove the misgivings which still troubled me. The
following is the last letter that he wrote to me in reply to certain
questions I had proposed to him as to the origin of the Arab horse. It
seems to me to contain some very remarkable suggestions, even from a
zoological point of view. In any case it is sufficiently curious to
justify my expectation that it will prove acceptable to all who, whether
at home or abroad, feel an interest in the equine race.

LETTER OF THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

Praise be to the one God!

To him who remains ever the same amidst the revolutions of this world:

To our friend, General Daumas.

Peace be with you, through the mercy and blessing of Allah, on the part
of the writer of this letter, on that of his mother, his children, their
mother, of all the members of his family and of all his associates.

To proceed: I have read your questions, I address to you my answers.

You ask me for information as to the origin of the Arab horse. You are
like unto a fissure in a land dried up by the sun, and which no amount
of rain, however abundant, will ever be able to satisfy.

Nevertheless, to quench, if possible, your thirst (for knowledge) I will
this time go back to the very head of the fountain. The stream is there
always the freshest and most pure.

Know then that among us it is admitted that Allah created the horse out
of the wind, as he created Adam out of mud.

This cannot be questioned. Several prophets—peace be with them!—have
proclaimed what follows:

When Allah willed to create the horse, He said to the south wind:

"I will that a creature should proceed from thee—condense thyself!"—and
the wind condensed itself. Then came the Angel Gabriel, and he took a
handful of this matter and presented it to Allah, who formed of it a
dark bay or a dark chestnut horse, (_koummite_—red mingled with black)
saying:

"I have called thee horse (_frass_); I have created thee Arab, and I
have bestowed upon thee the colour _koummite_. I have attached good
fortune to the hair that falls between thy eyes. Thou shalt be the lord
(_sid_) of all other animals. Men shall follow thee wheresoever thou
goest. Good for pursuit as for flight, thou shalt fly without wings.
Upon thy back shall riches repose, and through thy means shall wealth
come."

Then He signed him with the sign of glory and of good fortune (_ghora_,
a star in the middle of the forehead).

Do you now wish to know if Allah created the horse before man, or if He
created man before the horse? Listen:

Allah created the horse before man, and the proof is that man being the
superior creature, Allah would naturally give unto him all that he would
require before creating himself.

The wisdom of Allah points out that He made all that is upon the earth
for Adam and his posterity.

Here is another testimony to that:

When Allah had created Adam, He called him by his name and said unto
him:

"Choose between the horse and _Borak_."[1]

Adam answered: "The fairest of the two is the horse," and Allah replied:

"It is well; thou hast chosen thy glory and the eternal glory of thy
children; so long as they shall exist, my blessing shall be upon them,
for I have created nothing that is more dear to me than man and the
horse."

Likewise Allah created the horse before the mare. My proof is that the
male is more noble than the female, and he is, besides more vigourous
and potent. Though they are both of the very same species, the one is
more impassioned than the other, and the Divine Power is wont to create
the stronger of the two the first. What the horse most yearns after is
the combat and the race. He is also preferable to the mare for the
purposes of war because he is more fleet and patient of fatigue, and
because he shares his rider's emotions of hatred or tenderness. It is
not so with the mare. Let a horse and a mare receive exactly the same
sort of wound, and one that is sure to be fatal, the horse will bear up
against it until he has succeeded in carrying his master far from the
field of battle; while the mare, on the contrary, will sink at once upon
the spot, without any force of resistance. There is not a doubt on the
subject—it is a fact known by proof among the Arabs. I have seen
frequent instances of it in our combats, and have experienced it myself.

This being granted, let us pass on to another point. Did Allah create
the Arab horse before the foreign horse, or did he create the foreign
horse before the Arab?

As a consequence of my former argument every thing leads us to believe
that He created the Arab before all others, because he is without
dispute the most noble. Besides, the foreign horse is only a species of
a genus, and the Almighty has in no case created the species before the
genus.

Now whence come the Arab horses of the present day?

It is related by many historians that after the time of Adam, the
horse—like all other animals, such as the gazelle, the ostrich, the
buffalo, and the ass—lived in a wild state. According to these writers
the first man who, after Adam, mounted the horse was Ishmael, the father
of the Arabs. He was the son of our lord Abraham, beloved of Allah.
Allah taught him to call the horses, and when he did so, they all came
galloping up to him. He then took possession of the finest and most
spirited, and broke them in.

But after a while many of the animals trained and employed by Ishmael
lost something of their purity. One single stock was preserved in all
its nobleness by Solomon, the son of David, and it is that which is
called _Zad-el-Rakeb_ (the gift, the support of the horseman), whence
all real Arabs derive their origin in this manner.

There is a tradition that some Arabs of the Azed tribe went up to
Jerusalem the Noble to congratulate Solomon on his marriage with the
Queen of Saba. Having fulfilled their mission they addressed him as
follows:

"O Prophet of Allah! our country is far distant, and our provisions are
exhausted: thou art a great king; bestow upon us wherewithal to take us
home."

Solomon thereupon gave orders to bring from his stables a magnificent
stallion descended from the Ishmael stock, and then dismissed them with
these words:

"Behold the provisions which I bestow upon you for your journey. When
hunger assails you, gather fuel, light a fire, place your best rider on
this horse and arm him with a stout lance. Hardly will you have
collected your wood and kindled a flame, when you will see him return
with the produce of a successful chase. Go and may Allah cover you with
his blessing."

The Azed took their departure. At their first halt they did as Solomon
had prescribed, and neither zebra, nor gazelle, nor ostrich could escape
them. Thus enlightened as to the value of the animal presented to them
by the son of David, these Arabs on their return home devoted him to
foal-getting, and carefully selecting the dams, at length obtained the
breed to which out of gratitude they gave the name of _Zad-el-Rakeb_.

This is the stock whose high renown spread at a later period through the
whole world.[2]

In fact it was propagated both in the East and the West in the train of
the Arabs who subsequently penetrated to the limits of the habitable
globe. Long previous to Islam, Hamir-Aben-Melouk and his descendants
reigned for a hundred years over the West. It was he who founded Medina
and Saklia.

Shedad-Eben-Aâd made himself master of the whole country to the borders
of Moghreb, and built cities and constructed sea ports.

Afrikes, who gave his name to Africa, extended his conquests as far as
Tandja (Tangiers), while his son Shamar overran the East as far as
China, forced his way into the city of Sad, and destroyed it. On that
account that place has ever since been called Shamar-Kenda,—because
_kenda_ in Persian signifies "he has destroyed",—which the Arabs have
corrupted into Samar-Kand.

Since the introduction of Islamism, new Mussulman invasions extended the
fame of Arab horses to Italy, Spain, and even to France, where, without
doubt, they have left traces of their blood. But the event which more
than any other filled Africa with Arab horses, was the invasion of
Sidi-Okba, and still later the successive invasions of the fifth, and
sixth centuries after the Hijra. Under Sidi-Okba the Arabs merely
encamped in Africa, whereas in the fifth and sixth centuries they
arrived as colonists with the intention of settling there with their
wives and families, their horses and mares. It was these latter
invasions which established Arab tribes on the soil of Algeria,
particularly the Mehall, the Djendel, the Oulad-Mahdi, the Douaouda,
etc., who spread themselves in all directions and founded the true
nobility of the country. These same invasions transplanted the Arab
horse into the Soudan, and justify our asserting the oneness of the
Arab stock, whether in Algeria or in the East.

Thus, the history of the Arab horse may be divided into four great
epochs: 1st from Adam to Ishmael; 2nd from Ishmael to Solomon; 3rd from
Solomon to Mohammed; 4th from Mohammed to our own times.

It is to be clearly understood, however, that the race of the principal
epoch, that of Solomon, having been forcibly divided into several
branches, different varieties have been formed partly from the change of
climate, and partly from the greater or less degree of care bestowed
upon them, precisely as is the case with mankind. The colour of the coat
has also varied under the influence of the same circumstances.
Experience has satisfied the Arabs that in districts where the ground is
stony, the usual colour is gray, and in those where the ground is chalky
(_Ard Beda_), white is the prevalent hue. I have myself frequently
verified these observations.

There remains now only one question to settle with you. You ask by what
outward signs the Arabs recognize a horse to be noble, a drinker of air.
Here is my answer:

The horse of pure descent is distinguished among us by the thinness of
its lips and of the interior cartilage of the nose, by the dilation of
its nostrils, by the leanness of the flesh encircling the veins of the
head, by the graceful manner the neck is attached, by the softness of
its coat, its mane, and the hairs of its tail, by its breadth of chest,
the largeness of its joints, and the leanness of the extremities.
According, however, to the traditions of our ancestors the thoroughbred
is still better known by its moral characteristics than its physical
peculiarities. The outward signs will enable you to guess at the race,
but it is by the moral qualities alone you will receive full
confirmation of the extreme care displayed in coupling the sires and
dams, and of the pains taken to prohibit all misalliances.

Thoroughbred horses have no vice. A horse is the most beautiful of all
animals, but his moral qualities, as we think, must correspond with his
physical, or he will be regarded as degenerate. The Arabs are so
convinced of this that if a horse, or a mare, have given indisputable
proof of extraordinary speed, of remarkable endurance of hunger and
thirst, of rare intelligence, or of grateful affection for the hand that
feeds them, they will make every imaginable sacrifice to get their
progeny, under the persuasion that the points by which they were
themselves distinguished will reappear in their offspring.

We allow, then, that a horse is really noble when in addition to a fine
configuration, he unites courage with fire, and bears himself proudly in
midst of battle and danger.

Such a horse will love his master, and as a rule will suffer no other
person to mount him.

He will not yield to the wants of nature so long as his master is on his
back.

He will refuse to touch what another horse has left.

He will take pleasure in troubling with his feet whatever limpid water
he may meet with.

By the senses of hearing, of sight, and of smell, as well as by his
address and intelligence, he will know how to save his master from the
thousand accidents that may befall him in war or at the chase.

Finally, sharing the emotions of pain or pleasure experienced by his
rider, he will aid him in the combat by combating also, and every
where without hesitation will make common cause with him
(_ikatel-ma-Rakebhou_). Such are the tokens which evidence purity of
race.

We possess numerous works on the characteristics of the horse, whence it
appears that, after man, he is the most noble, the most patient, the
most useful of created beings. He is content with little, and if
considered simply with regard to strength, he is still superior to other
animals. An ox of great strength will carry a hundred-weight, but if you
place it on his back he will move only with an effort and be quite
incapable of running. On the other hand, the horse carries a full grown
man, a robust cavalier, with standard, arms, and ammunition, besides
food for both, and will go at speed for a whole day and more, without
eating or drinking. It is by his means that the Arab holds whatever he
possesses, rushes on his enemy, tracks him down or flees from him, and
defends his family and his freedom. Let him be enriched with the
possession of all that sweetens life, his horse alone is his protector.

Do you now understand the boundless affection the Arabs feel for their
horses! It is only equalled by the services rendered by the latter. To
their horses they owe their joys, their triumphs, and therefore are they
prefered to gold and precious stones. In the days of paganism they loved
the animal from motives of interest and merely because it procured them
glory and wealth; but when the Prophet spoke of it in terms of the
highest praise, this instinctive love was transfigured into a religious
duty; some of the first words he uttered on the subject of horses are
those ascribed to him by tradition, on the occasion of the arrival of
several tribes from Yemen with a view to accept his doctrines and to
present him, in token of submission, with five magnificent mares
belonging to the five different races of which Arabia then boasted. It
is said that Mohammed went forth from his tent to receive the noble
animals that had been sent to him, and caressing them with his hand,
expressed himself in these words:

"Blessed be ye, O Daughters of the wind!"

Afterward the Messenger of Allah (_Rassoul Allah_) said in addition:

"Whosoever keeps and trains a horse for the cause of Allah is counted
among those who give alms day and night, publicly or in secret. He shall
have his reward. All his sins shall be remitted to him and never shall
fear dishonour his heart."

Now I pray unto Allah to grant you a happiness that shall never pass
away. Cherish your friendship for me. The wise men among the Arabs have
said:

Riches may be lost:

Honours are but a shadow that fades away:

But true friends are a treasure that remains.

He who hath written these lines with a hand which shall one day be
withered in death, is your friend, the pauper in the presence of Allah.

SID-EL-HADJ, ABD-EL-KADER, BEN-MAHHYEDDIN.

Damascus, end of Deul-Kada 1274 (end of August 1857).

* * * * *

P. S. For the better understanding of our correspondence, permit me to
instruct you on one point. The word _ferass_ is not exclusively applied
to the female of the horse, as is customary in Algeria—it indicates the
male as well as the female. If a mare be particularly alluded to, it is
necessary to say a female _ferass_; and in like manner if the allusion
be to a horse, a male _ferass_ is the proper phrase. Such is the way
with the true Arabs (_Arabes-es-sahh_); strictly speaking, the mare is
called _hadjra_ and the horse _hossan_.

The reader of this curious document will doubtless have remarked the
singular admixture of legendary anecdotes with snatches of natural
history sometimes true, sometimes fabulous after the manner of Pliny and
Aristotle, and all of it under the dominion of a religious sentiment. It
is history as written by Orientals and likewise by the Western Arabs;
for both the one and the other, until now outlawed as it were from
progress by their forced or voluntary exclusion from the intellectual
movement going on in Europe, are still, so far as science and literature
are concerned, no farther advanced than their ancestors of Bagdad or
Granada.

Now, it is a remarkable fact that the more learned an Arab may be, the
more are his writings imbued with that fancifulness which, for a reader
accustomed to the preciseness of our European style, needs to be cleared
of its poetical mysteriousness and constructed afresh, before it can be
reduced to the character of a document possessed of any historical or
scientific worth in the sense we usually give to those words. Thus, at
first sight, the letter we have just perused is nothing more than a
fragment detached from an Oriental tale. There are, nevertheless,
lurking within it incontestable truths, and from beneath the
exaggerations and symbols of tradition may be gathered information of a
kind not wisely to be despised. Here especially is it the letter that
killeth while the spirit giveth life—let us then seek for the spirit
beneath the letter.

God created the horse out of the wind, symbol of fleetness, which, in
the eyes of an Arab, is the first quality of a courser. The poets of
Greece were inspired by the same idea. It was the wind that impregnated
the mares of Thessaly, the swiftest of ancient times; and it may be that
those mares were introduced into Greece from Syria, or Arabia, together
with the fabulous pedigree assigned to them by the poets of both
countries. If this were the case, and here history is in accord with
tradition, the Arabian horses must have been, what they still are on
their native soil, the fleetest and best in the world.

The Arabs, who neither understand nor practice our system of fighting in
compact and serried masses, at times immovable, but who charge without
any semblance of order and see nothing disgraceful in a headlong flight,
are naturally disposed to love and to vaunt above all others the drinker
of air. "The air-drinker," say they, "is the first in the combat to rush
at the enemy; and the first after victory to fly at the booty, and in
case of defeat the first to escape from danger."

A poet has said: "There are things which an intelligent King should
never neglect. The first is a horse, that by its swiftness shall be able
to rescue him from the enemy he has failed to overcome."

The favourite steed of the Prophet was named _Ouskoub_, "the torrent,"
from the word _sakab_, "quickly flowing water." The intervention of the
Angel Gabriel in the creation of the horse commends that animal to the
good offices of the true Believers, for the Angel Gabriel is the
constant medium of communication between the Deity and the Prophets,
especially Mohammed. Now it was by means and with the assistance of the
horse alone that the Mussulman tribes succeeded in accomplishing that
immense system of emigration, that propaganda war, as far as China to
the eastward, and westward to the Ocean, which was in the mind of
Mohammed to impose upon them. It was indispensable, therefore, that the
horse should be looked upon in the light of a sacred animal, a
providential instrument of war, created by the Deity for a special
purpose, and of a nobler essence than that with which He fashioned the
other animals. To produce the horse in a manner beyond the common law of
creation, to envelop his origin in a symbolism that wanders abroad from
natural history to lose itself in mysterious legends, to place him thus
beneath the safeguard of religious reverence, evinced, as the result has
proved, a thorough knowledge of the spirit of the people upon whom
Mohammed purposed and was about to operate.

The Koran in speaking of horses calls them _El-Kheir_, "the especial
treasure," and from this simple word the commentators of the Sura,
_sad_, have arrived at the conclusion that "an Arab ought to love horses
as a part of his own heart, and to sacrifice for their keep the very
food of his own children." A volume might be composed of phrases
detached from the sacred book, or from the _hadites_ of the Prophet (his
conversations as handed down by tradition), and of the commentaries upon
them, which under the form of maxims and precepts, prescribe to
Mussulmans, as a religious duty, the love of horses. I shall quote only
a few of them.

"Blessings, good fortune, and a rich booty shall be attached to the
forelock of horses until the day of the resurrection." "Whoso keeps a
horse for the holy war in the way of the Most High, increases the number
of his good works. The hunger and thirst of such a steed, the water he
drinks, the food he eats, every one of his hairs, each step he takes,
and every function of nature, shall all weigh in the balance at the day
of the last judgment."

"The horse prays thrice a day. In the morning he says: 'O Allah! make me
beloved of my master.' At noon: 'Do well by my master, that he may do
well by me.' In the evening: 'Grant that he may enter into paradise upon
my back!'"

It was doubtless under the impression of these last words that
El-Doumayry wrote in his history of animals, _Hayat-el-hayouan_: "The
horse is the animal that by his intelligence approaches nearest to man."
While on this subject I cannot help remarking that the Arabs, when they
advanced this proposition, were well acquainted with the animals which
pass with us as being the most intelligent such as the elephant, the
dog, etc. How is it then? May it not be that the Arabs, by living on
such intimate terms with the horse, have succeeded in developing
faculties the very existence of which is unknown to us, who accord to
that animal only the instinct of memory? With them, in fact, the horse
is a friend of the family. With us, on the contrary, it is no more than
an article of luxury or an instrument of labour, which we are ever ready
to change through interest or caprice; as witness the common saying:
"One does not marry one's horse!" But the Arab does marry his horse. Be
this as it may, the maxims quoted above all tend to the same end, to
identify man with the horse. Let it not be supposed, however, that that
is all. It was necessary that the horse should be the companion of the
Believer alone, to the exclusion of all infidels,—a dogma the political
hearing of which will be readily appreciated. Allah hath said: "The
horse shall be cherished by all my servants, but he shall be the despair
of all those who do not follow my laws, and none will I place on his
back save those who know me and who worship me."

It is needless to add that the Mussulman princes have availed themselves
of this dogma to prohibit in the name of Allah the sale of Arab horses
to Christians, under pain of sin and damnation. These commands, though
of divine origin have, I am well aware, been disobeyed in some
countries. The Arab loves money, it is true; but for all that we may
rest assured that for the most part the animals sold to us are of an
inferior order, and that the horses or mares whose noble and precious
qualities have been ascertained by proof, whether as regards speed or as
breeders, are never parted with to foreigners for any price. Even if the
owner were willing to let them go, the whole tribe in the name of their
common interest would oppose it. This is the real truth, and probably
explains the disrepute into which Arabians appear to have fallen in
Europe. One seldom there meets with any except such as the Arabs have no
desire to keep. But enough on that head: let us now turn to another
topic.

The Emir Abd-el-Kader asserts that the horse was created _koummite_, red
mixed with black, that is to say, dark bay or dark chesnut. Desengaged
from the cloudiness of fancy, this assertion will at least go far to
prove that these colours have in all ages been esteemed by the Arabs as
the index to superior qualities. It is a fixed idea with this observing
people. It is constantly turning up. The Prophet said:

"If after having collected all the horses of the Arabs I were to make
them race against one another, it is the _euchegueur meglouk_, the dark
chesnut, that would outstrip the rest." Moussa, the celebrated conqueror
of Africa and Spain, is reported to have said: "Of all the horses of all
my armies the one that has best borne the fatigues and privations of war
is the true bay, _hameur somm_."

And the Prophet further remarked: "If thou hast a dark chesnut, conduct
him to the combat, and if thou hast only a sorry chesnut, conduct him
all the same to the combat."

From all this it is abundantly apparent that legendary traditions and
experience are in perfect harmony in according a decided superiority to
coats of deep and decided hues. Coats of a light pale colour are held in
no esteem whatever. The horse's coat, therefore, must be an index to his
character. The long experience of Mohammed the Prophet and of Moussa the
Conqueror must have placed them in a position to speak with full
knowledge of the subject, and their opinion confirmed by that of all the
Arabs, the best horsemen in the world and the most interested in
studying the animal, upon whom indeed depend their honour and their
life, is certainly entitled to be regarded with some respect. It is
beyond all question that the _koummite_—red mingled with black, chesnut
or bay—is preferred by the Arabs to all others. If I might be allowed to
quote my own personal experience, I should have no hesitation in saying
that, if there be any prejudice in the matter, I share it with them.
Besides, must it necessarily be a prejudice because it may seem to be
one? No one will deny that all the individuals of the same species are,
in their wild state, identical in colour and endowed with common
instinctive qualities inherent in the race. These colours and these
qualities undergo no alteration or admixture except in a state of
servitude and under its influences, so that if any of these individuals,
by a return to their natural condition more easily proved than
explained, happen to recover the colour of their first ancestors, they
will be equally distinguished by more broadly defined natural qualities.
The canine race may be taken as an illustration. Whence it follows that
a certain number of domesticated individuals being given, their coats
alike and with dominant qualities, it may be fairly concluded that this
coat and these qualities were those of the race in its wild state. In
the case, then, of the Arab horse, if it be true that those whose coat
is red shaded with black are endowed with superior speed, are we not
justified in inferring that such was the uniform colour, such the
natural qualities, of the sires of the race? I submit with all humility
these observations to men of science.

Abd-el-Kader assures us, moreover, that it is ascertained by the Arabs
that horses change colour according to the soil on which they are bred.
Is it not possible, in fact, that under the influence of an atmosphere
more or less light, of water more or less fresh, of a nurture more or
less rich according as the soil on which it is raised is more or less
impregnated with certain elements, the skin of the horse may be sensibly
affected? Every one knows that with any coat, the colour changes in tone
and shade according to the locality where the animal lives, the state of
its health, the quality of the water it drinks, and of the food it eats,
and the care that is bestowed upon it. There is perchance in all this a
lesson in natural history not to be despised, for if the circumstances
in which a horse lives act upon his skin, they must inevitably act also
in the long run upon his form and qualities.

This point being dismissed, the last proposition in the letter of the
Emir Abd-el-Kader is that which classes the history of Arab horses in
four epochs: 1st, from Adam to Ishmael; 2nd, from Ishmael to Solomon;
3rd, from Solomon to Mohammed; 4th, from Mohammed to our own times.

This is the history of the Arabs themselves, so completely have they
identified themselves with the horse, their necessary and indispensable
companion. Between Adam and Abraham the Arabs did not exist—it was the
age of a pastoral population. No wars, at least of a serious character,
no pillaging. The horse appears in it only on the day of creation. He
has no part to play except as a head of cattle among the flocks and
herds, peacefully employed in domestic service. But on the second epoch
with Ishmael, his part changes altogether. Ishmael is a bastard,
disinherited, abandoned in the desert. His life is to be a struggle. He
must be at open war with all mankind because he must live somehow upon
the soil to which he has been banished, without taking into
consideration the fact that this necessity of fighting in order to live,
at the same time gratifies the resentment he entertains towards his
brothers, heirs, to his prejudice, of the paternal fields. We read in
the Bible, that when Hagar, in Arabic _Hadjira_, fled into the
wilderness an angel appeared to her and said:

"I will multiply thy seed exceedingly that it shall not be numbered for
multitude.

"Behold, thou art with child, and shalt bear a son, and shalt call his
name Ishmael; and he will be a wild man; his hand will be against every
man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the
presence of all his brethren."

Ishmael is the personification of the Arab people. He calls the horses
to him, selects the best, and trains them for racing, for the chase, and
for war. It is by their aid that he will live upon the plunder of the
rich caravans that may venture upon his territory, and will make forays
from the land of hunger and thirst into the land of abundance. The horse
has made him King of the desert, and in return he makes a friend, a
companion of his horse. Between them there is only one interest.

Nevertheless, the Arabs, hard pressed to the eastward by the powerful
armies of the Kings of Abyssinia, to the northward by the people of
Jehovah,—one-half of them absorbed and decimated in these great
struggles; and the other half shut in within their arid peninsula and
divided by intestine dissensions—the Arabs degenerated, and with them
their horses suffered deterioration. It was at Jerusalem the Noble, and
according to the legend in the stud of Solomon, that the true type of
the race was exclusively preserved. Travellers, perhaps conductors of
the caravans which in those days used to arrive in Jerusalem in great
numbers, receive as a gift certain horses, of whose value and fine
qualities they are ignorant. But under the influence of peace commerce
again discovers the long disused road from Central Asia to the seaports
of Syria, and the Arabs interested in making common cause with one
another reform themselves by mutual alliances between tribes. The horse,
on his part, follows this new phase of their fortunes.

At a later period, a fresh degeneracy arises in consequence of the
immigration into Arabia of foreigners, Jews and Christians, and from
quarrels among the Arabs themselves. Some few noble and powerful tribes,
such as the Koreishites, for example, the most powerful and the most
noble of all, had preserved a traditional love of the horse as
inseparable from their original dignity. But in order that Mohammed's
task should have any chance of accomplishment, it was necessary to
extend to all and to popularise this exceptional passion of a few, and
equally essential was it to condense into one national unity the
disunited elements of which the tribes of Arabia then consisted. We have
seen with what persistance the Prophet reverts to this necessity, in the
Koran, in his conversations, and in his teachings, and how he made the
careful tendance of horses an obligation of Mussulman life, and an
article of faith in the Believer. In this manner, from the Hidjra to our
own times, the condition of the Arab horses has unavoidably gone on
improving. Has he not said: "Whoso feeds and tends a horse for the
triumph of religion, makes a magnificent loan to Allah"?

I have only one more word to say on the portrait of the thoroughbred
horse sketched by Abd-el-Kader. The Emir takes it at one view, and as
inseparable one from the other, both the physical and moral qualities.
In his opinion physical qualities alone will never constitute a perfect
horse. He must also by his intelligence and by his affection for the
master who feeds, who tends, who rides him, unite with him as an
integral part. To demand such qualities from a horse is simply placing
him, in the intellectual order, immediately after man, just as,
according to the legend, he has been placed in the order of creation.

The Europeans are, I am aware, far from entertaining such a high opinion
of the animal, but may we not err in the opposite degree?

THE BARB.

We have often heard it said that the horse of our African possessions,
to whose rare qualities we have endeavoured to do justice, was very
inferior to the true Arabian. Notwithstanding a conviction based on a
lengthened experience and a grave study of the subject, we have made it
our duty to take up and discuss an opinion put forth with an air of
authority. We were willing to accept as umpire in this dispute, a man
whose intelligence, whose habits, whose whole life, render him a supreme
judge in all matters relating to horse-flesh—the Emir Abd-el-Kader. We
addressed to that genuine horseman a letter in which we frankly
expressed the objections which each of our assertions had encountered.
His reply to this letter is given below. It will be seen from this
curious document that the Emir does not confine himself to the
confirmation of the proposition we advanced, but develops by reflections
or by facts the whole of our opinions. According to his statement, the
Barbary horse, so far from degenerating from the Arab, is, on the
contrary, superior to him. The Berbers, he says, formerly inhabited
Palestine, where they reared the animal that has become the type of a
perfect war horse. Having emigrated to Africa through the vicissitudes
of their life of adventure, they paid the utmost attention to the guest
of their tents, the instrument of their hunting expeditions, their
comrade in the fight. Their horses thus preserved such eminent
qualities, that an Asiatic sovereign engaged in a perilous war, sent for
them from the Berbers. The reader will appreciate the value of this
historical dissertation which, from whatever point of view it be
examined, does not the less possess an interest that cannot be
contested. It is quite certain that the Barbary horse is indebted to the
climate in which he flourishes, to the education which he receives, to
the food that is given to him, to the privations that are familiar to
him, for a vigour that enables him to equal, if not to surpass the most
vaunted steeds of Persia and Upper Egypt. Supported by the following
letter, we hold ourselves justified in repeating that all the horses of
Asia and Africa may be blended together under one common denomination.
We oppose to the European horse, one identical horse—the horse of the
Orient—which, thanks to our conquest of Algeria, we believe will be
daily called upon to render to our country services more and more
valuable and more and more valued.

This is the letter from the Emir Abd-el-Kader, which he forwarded to me
from Broussa:

Praise to the one God! His reign alone is eternal!

May the profoundest peace and the most perfect divine beneficence be
extended to the person of General Daumas,—of him who ardently seeks for
the solution of the most obscure questions! May Allah conduct and
protect him!

To proceed: You have asked us our opinion on Barbary horses, their
character, and their origin. To give you satisfaction I am again turning
my attention to these subjects, and can do nothing better to-day than
send you some extracts taken from the poetical works of the famous
Aâmrou-el-Kaïs, who lived a short time before the coming of the Prophet.
They refer to the superiority of the horses of the Berbers, and I think
you will there find proofs against those who maintain that those
admirable animals are of an inferior stamp. The poet remarks, while
addressing himself to Cæsar, Emperor of Constantinople, in a long piece
of versification:

"And I answer thee, if ever I am reinstated as King, we will ride a race
where you shall see the horseman lean forward over his saddle to
increase the speed of his courser;

"A race across a space trampled down on all sides, where no higher marks
are distinguishable to direct the traveller, than the hump of an aged
Nabathæan camel loaded with years and uttering plaintive moanings.

"We shall be borne, I tell thee, on a horse accustomed to nocturnal
journeys, a steed of the Barbary race; with slender flanks like a wolf
of Gada; a steed that rushes along on his rapid course, and whose flanks
are running with sweat.

"When, slackening the bridle, the rider urges him on still faster by
striking him with the reins on either side, he quickens his rapid
course, bending his head to his flanks and champing the bit.

"And when I say: 'Let us rest;' the horseman stops as by enchantment and
begins to sing, remaining in the saddle on this vigorous horse, the
muscles of whose thighs are long drawn out and whose tendons are lean
and well apart."

Aâmrou-el-Kaïs was one of the ancient Kings of Arabia, who took infinite
pains to procure Barbary horses wherewith to combat his enemies. He was
doubtful of success if obliged to trust himself to the qualities of Arab
horses. It is not possible, in my opinion, to give a more invincible
proof of the superiority of the Barb. After testimony like this any one
who should dispute it would be quite unable to adduce an allegation of
the slightest value.

The Berbers, as stated by El-Massoudi, are descended from the
Beni-Ghassan, while other writers affirm that they come from the
Beni-Lekhm and the Djouzam. Their native country was Palestine, whence
they were expelled by one of the Kings of Persia. They then emigrated to
Egypt, but the souvereign of that country refusing them permission to
settle here, they crossed the Nile and spread over the regions to the
westward of the other side of the river.

Maleck-ben-el-Merahel says that the Berbers form a very numerous
population composed of Hymiar, Modher, Copts, Amalkas, and Kanéan, who
became amalgamated in the province of Sham (Syria) and took the name of
Berbers. Their immigration into the Maghreb, according to this historian
with whom El-Massoudi, El-Souheili, and El-Zabari also agree, was owing
to their marching under Ifrikesh to the conquest of the African
peninsula.

Ibn-el-Kelbi asserts that opinions are divided as to the real name of
the chief under whose guidance the Berbers emigrated from Syria towards
the Maghreb. Some will have it that it was under the Prophet David,
others name Youssha-ben-Enoun, others again Ifrikesh, and yet others
certain Kings of the Zobor.

El-Massoudi adds that they did not emigrate until after the death of
Goliath and that they established themselves in the province of Barka
and in the Maghreb, after having vanquished the Frendj (Franks). They
then invaded Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearic Isles, and Spain. Still
later it was stipulated between them and the Frendj that the latter
should occupy the towns, while the former should fix themselves in the
deserts which extend from Alexandria to the Ocean.

Ibn-Abd-el-Berr affirms that the establishment of the Berbers extended
from the extremity of Egypt, that is, from the regions situated behind
Barka to the Green Sea, and from the sea of Andalusia to the end of the
deserts which border on Soudan. On this frontier line a tribe bearing
the name of Berbers still exists between the Habeuch (Abyssinians) and
the Zendy (Zanzibar). The author of the _Kamous_ (an Arabic Dictionary)
makes mention of them, but they are a very insignificant tribe, whose
trivial and obscure history records not a single important event.

The essential point here is the extract from the poet Aâmrou-el-Kaïs on
the subject of Barbary horses. As for the Berbers themselves, every
thing proves that they have been known from time immemorial and that
they came from the East to settle in the Maghreb, where we find them at
the present day.

Peace be with you, at the end as at the beginning of this letter on the
part of your friend.

ABD-EL-KADER-BEN-MAHHIDDIN.

May Allah cover him with His blessings!

Broussa, the 1st of Safer, 1269-1854.

Since the above was written, I have received a proof confirmatory of my
opinion as to the excellence of the Barbary horse and its perfect
equality with other horses of oriental extraction. It is this:

Paris,—185—

MY DEAR GENERAL,

I forward you a copy of the official report of the races which came off
at Alexandria in Egypt on the 25th July, 1836. I give you full
permission to introduce it in your work as a useful argument in support
of your thesis on the excellence of the Barb. I have already related to
you how these races took place in consequence of a conversation I had
with Mehemet-Ali, in the course of which the Viceroy of Egypt bantered
me on the arrival of a horse which my brother Jules had sent me from
Tunis.

Accept, etc., etc.

FERD. DE LESSEPS.

DISTANCE RUN: 4-1/2 KILOMÈTRES (NEARLY 2-4/5 MILES) IN A STRAIGHT LINE.

=1st Heat.=

Nejdi horse, dappled-gray, 4-1/2 yrs, the property of Subi-Bey, ridden
by the owner.

Nejdi horse, bred in Cairo, bay, 9 yrs, the property of M. Jules Pastré,
ridden by the owner.

Anézé horse, from Syria, iron gray, 3-1/2 yrs, the property of M.
Méreinier, ridden by M. J. Dufey.

Nejdi horse, bred in Cairo, the property of H. E. Moharrem-Bey, son in
law of Mehemet-Ali, and ridden by Terata-Tutemy-i-Bashi of the Pasha.

* * * * *

The horse ridden by M. Jules Pastré was the first in.

=2nd Heat.=

Barbary horse, from Tunis, bay, 4 yrs, the property of M. Ferd. de
Lesseps, ridden by the owner.

Nejdi horse, white, 6-1/2 yrs, the property of M. Etienne Rolland,
ridden by M. J. Dufey.

Nejdi horse, bay, 5 yrs, the property of Subi-Bey, ridden by the owner.

Nejdi horse, bred in Cairo, 7 yrs, the property of H. E. Moharrem-Bey,
ridden by Cerkès-Osman-Sakallé.

* * * * *

The Barb ridden by M. de Lesseps was the winner.

=3rd Heat.=

Nejdi horse, bred in Cairo, gray, 6 yrs, the property of
Hussein-Effendi, ridden by the owner.

Nejdi horse, dappled-gray, 5-1/2 yrs, the property of Dr Gaetani-Bey,
ridden by M. Ferd. de Lesseps.

Nejdi horse, bred in Cairo, iron gray, 6 yrs, the property of M. W.
Peel, ridden by the owner.

Samian horse, bay, 9 yrs, the property of Ibrahim-Effendi-Bimbashi,
ridden by the owner.

* * * * *

The Egyptian horse ridden by Hussein-Effendi was the winner.

=4th Heat.=

Nejdi horse, bred in Cairo, bay, 8 yrs, the property of M. Henricy,
ridden by M. Escalon.

Egyptian horse, from Atfeh, bay, 8 yrs, the property of M. Samuel Muir
Junior, ridden by M. Sanders.

Nejdi horse, bred in Cairo, bay, 8 yrs, the property of Turki-Bashi,
ridden by the owner.

Nejdi horse, gray, 4 yrs, the property of M. Roquerbe, ridden by M.
Bartolomeo.

* * * * *

Won by the Nejdi horse ridden by M. Bartolomeo.

=Recapitulation of the Winners.=

1st Heat, Cairo horse, the property of M. Pastré, ridden by the owner.

2nd Heat, Barbary horse, the property of M. Ferd. de Lesseps, ridden by
the owner.

3rd Heat, Cairo horse, the property of Hussein-Effendi, ridden by the
owner.

4th Heat, Nejdi horse, the property of M. Roquerbe, ridden by M.
Bartolomeo.

* * * * *

According to previous agreement the four winning horses having gone over
the same ground, were to contend against one another in a fifth heat.
They came in in the following order:

1st. Barbary horse, the property of M. Ferd. de Lesseps, ridden by the
owner.

2nd. Cairo horse, the property of M. Jules Pastré, ridden by the owner.

3rd. Nejdi horse, the property of M. Roquerbe, ridden by M. Bartolomeo.

4th. Nejdi horse, the property of Hussein-Effendi, ridden by the owner.

Certified the accuracy of the above report.

_Signed_: FERD. DE LESSEPS.

To finish with the Barb and to give, over and above the other qualities
he possesses, an exact idea of his strength and spirit, I cannot do
better than state the weight carried in most of our expeditions by the
horse of a chasseur d'Afrique.

WEIGHT CARRIED BY THE HORSE OF A CHASSEUR D'AFRIQUE SETTING OUT ON AN
EXPEDITION.

Kilogr.[3] Hectogr. Décagr.

Horseman armed and in full uniform 82 — —
Equipments and pistol 24 — —
Bread for two days 1 5 —
Biscuit for three days 1 6 5
Coffee for five days — 6 —
Sugar for five days — 6 —
Bacon for five days 1 — —
Rice for five days — 3 —
Salt — — 8
Pressed hay for five days 25 — —
Barley for five days 20 — —
Three packets of cartridges 1 3 —
Four horse-shoes 1 6 —
---------- -------- -------
TOTAL (350 lbs) 159 6 3

159 kilogrammes, or 19 more than the horse of a carabineer, and 26 more
than the horse of a cuirassier in France. This weight, of course,
decreases as the column proceeds on its march.

Delivered the 31st February 1847, by Colonel Duringer, at the moment of
departure of a column.

Now, a horse that, in a country often rough and difficult, marches,
gallops, ascends, descends, endures unparalleled privations, and goes
through a campaign with spirit, with such a weight on his back, is he,
or is he not, a war horse?

THE HORSES OF THE SAHARA.

To a pastoral and a nomadic people, roaming our vast grazing grounds,
and whose numbers bear no proportion to the extent of their territories,
the horse is a necessity of life. With his horse, the Arab trades and
travels, looks after his numerous flocks, distinguishes himself in
battle, at weddings, and at the festivals of his marabouts. He makes
love, he makes war: space is nothing to him. Thus, the Arabs of the
Sahara still give themselves up with ardour to the rearing of horses.
They know full well the value of blood, they pay great attention to
crossing the breed, and try every means to improve the species. The
state of anarchy in which they have lived in these latter times has
naturally modified some of their habits, but it has effected no change
in this condition of their existence—the breeding, perfecting and
training of horses.

The love of the horse has passed into the Arab blood. That noble animal
is the friend and comrade of the chief of the tent. He is one of the
servants of the family. His habits, his requirements are made an object
of study. He is the burden of their songs, the favourite topic of
conversation. Day by day in the gatherings outside the _douar_, where
age alone enjoys the privilege of speech, and which are marked by the
decorous behaviour of the listeners, seated in a circle on the sand or
on the turf, the young men add to their practical knowledge the counsels
and traditions of their seniors. Religion, war, the chase, love, and
horses, inexhaustible subjects of observation, make regular schools of
these open air meetings, in which warriors are formed and develop their
intelligence in collecting a mass of facts, precepts, proverbs, and
sententious sayings, the application of which will only too frequently
occur in the course of the perilous life they have to lead. It is thus
they acquire that knowledge of horse-flesh which we are so astonished to
meet with in the humblest horseman of a desert tribe. He can neither
read nor write, and yet every phrase in his conversation rests upon the
authority of the learned commentators of the Koran, or of the Prophet
himself. "Our lord Mohammed declared"—"Sidi-Ahmed-ben-Youssef says in
addition"—"Si-ben-Dyab relates"—And you may take him on trust, this
learned ignoramus, for all these texts, all these anecdotes, which for
the most part are only to be found in books, he for his part derives
from the _tholbas_ or from his chiefs, who, unconsciously come, as it
were, to a mutual understanding, to develop or maintain among the people
the love of the horse, useful precepts, sound doctrines, and the best
rules of hygiene. The whole is sometimes tainted, no doubt, with gross
prejudices and ridiculous superstitions. It is a picture with much
shading. But let us not be too severe: it is not so very long since very
nearly the same absurdities were proclaimed in France as indisputable
truths.

I was talking one day with a marabout of the tribe of the
Oulad-Sidi-Schik about the horses of his country, and pretended to
question some of the opinions he had expressed. "You cannot understand
that, you Christians," he exclaimed, abruptly rising to his feet, "but
horses are our riches, our joys, our life, our religion. Has not the
Prophet said: 'The good things of this life, even to the day of the last
judgment, shall be suspended from the hairs which are between the eyes
of your horses?'"

"I have read the Koran," I replied, "but have never met with those
words."

"You will not find them in the Koran, which is the voice of Allah, but
in the conversations of our lord Mohammed (_Hadite sidna Mohammed_)."

"And you believe in them?" I retorted.

"Before taking my leave of you, I will show you what may happen to those
who have faith." And my companion gravely recited the following history:

"A poor man confiding in the words of the Prophet which I have just
repeated to you, came one day upon a dead mare. So he cut off her head
and buried it under the threshold of his door, saying to himself: 'I
shall become rich if it please Allah' (_An-sha-Allah_). Days, however,
followed each other, but no riches came, and yet the Believer never
doubted. The Sultan of the country being on his way to visit a holy
spot, happened by accident to pass before the lowly abode of the poor
Arab. It was situated at the end of a small plain bordered by large
trees and watered by a pretty rivulet. The scene pleasing him, he halted
his brilliant escort, and dismounted to rest himself in the shade. Just
as he was about to give the signal to continue the journey his steed,
which a slave was employed to look after, impatient to devour space,
began to neigh and to paw the ground, and presently broke loose. All the
efforts of the _saïs_ (grooms) to catch him again were for a long time
in vain and every one was in despair, when they beheld him stop suddenly
of himself at the threshold of an old hut which he smelt at while
throwing up the ground with his forefeet. An Arab, until that moment an
unmoved spectator, went up to him without frightening him, as if he had
been known to him, caressed him with hand and voice, laid hold of him by
the mane, the bridle being in a thousand pieces, and without any
difficulty led him quietly up to the astonished Sultan.

"How have you contrived," demanded his greatness, "thus to tame one of
the most fiery steeds of Arabia?"

"You will no longer be surprised, my lord," replied the man of faith,
"when you learn that, having been taught that all the good things of
this world unto the day of judgment shall be suspended from the hairs
which are between the eyes of our horses, I buried under the door-way of
my house the head of a mare I found lying dead. The rest has come to
pass through the blessing of Allah."

"The Sultan instantly caused the ground to be dug up at the spot
indicated, and when he had thus verified the statement of the Arab, he
hastened to recompense one who had not hesitated to give an entire faith
to the words of the Prophet. The poor man received the present of a fine
horse, superb garments, and riches enough to place him beyond the reach
of want for the rest of his days."

"You now know," continued the marabout, "what may happen to those who
believe," and without waiting for my reply he saluted me with the eyes
after the manner of the Arabs, and withdrew.

This legend is popular in the Sahara, and the words of the Prophet on
which it is founded are there an article of faith. Whether the Prophet
uttered them or not, they do not the less surely answer the end proposed
to himself by their imputed author. The Arab loves honours, power,
riches. To tell him that all that was attached to the long hairs of his
horse was to endear it to him, to bind it to him by the bond of a common
interest. The genius of the Prophet doubtless went much farther. He
fully understood that the mission of conquest which he had bequeathed to
his people could only be accomplished by hardy horsemen, and that the
love of the horse must be developed in them simultaneously with faith in
Islam. These injunctions, which all tend towards the same end, are
clothed in various forms. The marabout and the thaleb strung them
together as sayings and legends, the noble (_djieud_) as traditions, and
the common people as proverbs. Subsequently, proverbs, traditions, and
legends, assumed a religious character which has for ever accredited
them to the great family of Mussulmans: for it is the will of the
Prophet that his own people, to the exclusion of all infidels, should
reserve to themselves these powerful instruments of war, which in the
hands of the Christians might become so fatal to the Mussulman religion.
This inner motive, which the common people of the tent may not have
seen, through the symbolical veil behind which it was concealed, has not
escaped the perception of the Arab chiefs. The Emir Abd-el-Kader, when
at the height of his power, inflicted death without mercy on every
Believer convicted of having sold a horse to a Christian. In Morocco the
exportation of these animals is hampered with such heavy duties that the
permission to take them out of the kingdom is altogether illusory. At
Tunis the same reluctance yields only to the imperious necessities of
policy, and in like manner at Tripoli, in Egypt, at Constantinople, in
short in all Mussulman States.[4]

If you speak of horses to a _djieud_, the noble of the tent, who still
plumes himself on his ancestors having fought with ours in Palestine, he
will tell you:

The mounting of horses,
The letting slip greyhounds from the leash,
And the clinking of ear-rings,
Draw the maggots out of your head.

If your interlocutor is one of those horsemen (_mekhazeni_) whose
bronzed face, pepper-and-salt beard, and prominent exostosis[5] on the
tibia announce that he has gone through many adventures, he will say to
you:

Horses for a quarrel,
Camels for the desert,
And oxen for poverty.

Or he will remind you that when the Prophet was engaged in expeditions,
in order to induce the Arabs to tend their horses properly, he always
gave two-thirds of the prize to whomsoever had accompanied him on the
best horse.

The voluptuous Thaleb, man of God for the world who lives in
contemplative idleness, without any other occupation than that of
writing talismans and making amulets for all men and women who want
them, will repeat to you with his eyes on the ground:

The paradise of earth is to be found on horseback,
In the study of books,

Or on the bosom of a woman,

he will add if no prudish ears are at hand.

Again, if you question one of those aged patriarchs who are renowned for
their wisdom, their experience, and their hospitality, he will answer
you:

"Sidi-Aomar, the companion of the Prophet, hath said: 'Love horses, tend
them well, for they are worthy of your tenderness. Treat them like your
own children, nourish them like friends of the family, clothe them with
care! For the love of Allah, do not neglect to do this, or you will
repent of it _in this house and in the next_.'"

Finally, if you have the good fortune to encounter in your journey one
of those wandering story-tellers (_me-dahh_, _fessehh_) who pass their
lives in travelling about from tribe to tribe, to amuse the abundant
leisure of these warrior-shepherds, supported by a player on the flute
(_kuesob_), and accompanying himself on a tabour (_bendaïr_), he will
chaunt to you with a hollow but not unmusical voice:

My horse is the lord of horses!
He is blue as the pigeon beneath the shade,
And his black hairs are like waves;
He bears hunger and thirst; he outstrips the eyesight;
And, true drinker of air,

He blackens the heart of our enemies
In the days when muzzles touch each other.
Mebrouk[6] is the pride of the country.

My uncle has thoroughbred mares, whose distant sires
Are counted in our tribes since the ancient times,
Gentle and timid as daughters of the Guebla[7].
You would say they were gazelles
Feeding in the valleys under the eye of their dams.
To see them, is to forget the authors of our days.

Covered with _djellals_[8] which make our flowers look pale,
They march like Sultanas attired for a fête,
A negro of Kora[9] tends them,
Gives them pure barley, and milk to drink,
And leads them to the bath.
Allah preserve them from the evil eye![10]

For his much loved mares
My uncle demanded Mebrouk in marriage,
And I said to him: No;
Mebrouk is my support, I wish to keep him
Proud, full of health, dexterous and fleet.
Time turns on itself and returns;
There may be no dispute to-day, but to-morrow, perhaps, we shall see
The hour of strife approach with rapid strides.
For a skin full of blood, my uncle replied,
Thou hast made my face yellow[11] before all my children.
The earth is vast: adieu.

Mebrouk, why this neighing night and day?
Thou betrayest my ambush and warnest my enemies,
Thy thoughts wander too much to the daughters of our coursers,

I will marry thee, o my son!
But where shall I find my friends
Whose mares are so noble, and their she-camels such treasures?
Their tidings are buried in the earth;
Where are their spacious tents so pleasant to the eye?
In them were spread the carpet and the mat;
In them was offered the hospitality of Allah,
And the poor man filled his belly.
They are vanished!
The scout viewed the hillocks,
The brave marched in the front rank,
The shepherds drove the flocks after them,
And the hunters, on the track of their sharp greyhounds,
Chased the gazelle.

Have you heard speak of the tribe of my brethren?
No! Well, come with me and count their numerous horses:
There are colours which will please you.
Behold those horses white as snow that falls in its proper season;
Those black as the slave carried off from Soudan;
Those others green[12] as the reed that grows on the banks of rivers;
Those, again, red as blood that spirts first from a wound,
And those blue[13] as a pigeon when it flies beneath the sky.
Where are those rifles so straight,
quicker than the winking of an eye?
That powder from Tunis, and those balls turned out in moulds,[14]
Which pierced the bones, tore the liver,
And made the stricken perish with mouth wide open?

When I cease to sing, I am still transported thither by my heart;
For it burns for my brethren with a fire that consumes my interior.
Nowhere have I seen such warriors.
O Allah! strike with blindness those who bear them envy!
Have they not spacious tents well provided with carpets,
Mats, cushions, saddles, and rich arms?
The traveller and the orphan are they not always received there
By these words of our sires: "You are welcome!"
Their wives, bright as the corn-poppy,
Are they not borne on camels,
Those ships of the earth,
That march with the noble gait of the ostrich?

Are they not covered with veils
Which trailing far behind them fill even the marabouts with despair!
Are they not adorned with ornaments, gems enriched with coral,
And the blue tattoo on their arms, was it not pleasant to behold?
Every thing about them charmed the heart of the believers in Allah;
You would say they were bean-flowers created by the Eternal.

You have plunged into the southern desert,
And the days seem unto me very long!
Behold! it is well nigh a year that nailed to this wearisome[15] Tell,
I have seen no more of you than the traces of your encampments.
O my cherished dove
Who wearest trousers that reach to thy feet;
Who wearest a burnous that sits so well on your shoulders;
Whose wings are variegated, and who knowest the country;
O thou who cooest!
Away, fly beneath the clouds, they will serve thee for a covering;
Go, find my friends, give them this letter to read,
Tell them that it proceeds from a sincere heart,
Come back quickly and inform me if they are happy or unhappy,
They who make me sigh.

You will see _Sherifa_:[16] a haughty damsel;
She is haughty, she is noble, I have seen it in writing;
Her long hair falls with grace
On her white and ample shoulders;
You would say it was the sable plumes of the ostrich
That dwells in the desert and sings beside its brood.

Her eyelids are bows brought from the negro-land;
And her eye-lashes, you would swear that
it was the beard of an ear of corn
Ripened by the eye of light[17] towards the end of summer;
Her eyes are the eyes of the gazelle
Troubled about her little ones,
Or, rather, it is the flash that precedes the thunder
In the middle of the night.
Her mouth is admirable,
Her breath sugar and honey,
And her fine set of teeth resemble the hailstones

Which the winter in its fury sows over our land.
Her neck is as the standard which our warriors plant in the ground
To defy the enemy and rally the runaways,
And her faultless body outvies the marble
Which is used for building the pillars of our mosques.

Fair as the moon around which gathers the night,
She shines like a star undimmed by a cloud.
Tell her that she has wounded her lover
With two thrusts of a poniard, one in the eyes,
the other in the heart.
Love is no light burden.
I ask of the Almighty to give unto us water;
We are in the springtime
And the rain has tarried too long for the people of flocks.
I am hungry, I am fasting like a Ramadan moon.

They are at Askoura, praise be to Allah!
Bring me my horse!
And you there, strike the tents!
I go to seek my uncle;
He will forgive the son of his brother;
We shall be reconciled to one another,
And by the head of the Prophet,
I will give a feast in which the young men shall appear
With shining stirrups and saddles richly embroidered;
Powder shall be burnt[18] to the sound of the flute and the tabour;
I will marry Mebrouk
And his offspring shall be called the offspring of well tended mares.

O tribes of the Sahara!
You claim to possess camels;[19]
But camels, you are aware,
Care only for those who can defend them;
And those who can defend them are my brethren,
Because they know in the fight how to crush bones of the rebellious.

Thus it is seen that among the Arabs every thing concurs to develop the
love of horses. Religion makes a duty of it, while the agitated life,
the incessant conflicts, and the distances to be traversed in a country
absolutely devoid of means of rapid communication, make it a necessity.
An Arab can only live a double life, his own and his horse's.

* * * * *

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

The best horses are chiefly to be found in the Sahara, where the number
of bad horses is very small. In fact, the tribes that inhabit it and
those who border on it only employ their horses to make war, or to
contend in trials of swiftness. Accordingly, they never use them for
agricultural purposes, or exercise them in any other way than in battle.
On this account their horses are nearly all excellent.

No individual in the Sahara cares to possess ten camels until he has a
horse to defend them against those who might assail them.

In the Tell most of the Arabs apply their horses to the cultivation of
the land. They also make use of them to ride and for any other purpose.
They have no particular preference for males because in their eyes the
horse is merely an animal to be turned to any employment of which it is
capable, and not kept for war alone. For this reason the horse of pure
origin bred in the Sahara is preferable to the same horse in the Tell.
The former, unlike that of the Tell, is subjected to fatigue, to long
journeys, to hunger, and to thirst, which renders him able to achieve
whatever is required of him.

The Koran calls horses "the especial good."

The servant of the Prophet used to say: "With women, what the Prophet
loved best was horses."

"Aïssa-ben-Meryem (Jesus, the son of Mary),—peace be with him!—went one
day to Eblis, the black demon, and said: 'Eblis, I have a question to
address to thee: wilt thou tell me the truth?' 'Spirit of God,' answered
Eblis, 'question me as seemeth good to thee.'"

"I demand of thee," pursued Jesus, "by the Living One who cannot lie,
what is it that can reduce thy body to a liquid state and cut thy back
in two?" "It is," replied the devil, "the neighing of a horse. Never
have I succeeded in entering a house that contained a horse for the
cause of the Most High."

Being passionately fond of horses, one of the companions of the Prophet
asked him if there were any in Paradise. "If Allah causes thee to enter
Paradise," replied the Prophet, "thou wilt have a horse of rubies,
furnished with two wings, with which he will fly whithersoever thou
willest."

A poet has said: "Who are they who will weep for me after death? My
sword, my Boudaïna lance, and my long-bodied chesnut, trailing the reins
to the fountain, after death has deprived him of his rider."

In all times, among the Arabs, the horse has been the object of the
greatest solicitude, and this solicitude the Prophet lost no opportunity
of keeping up, developing and augmenting by introducing the religious
sentiment.

We find in the collection of his conversations the following precepts:

"Happiness in this world, a rich booty, and eternal rewards are attached
to the forelock of horses."

"Evil spirits enter not into a tent where there is a thoroughbred
horse."

"The Angels sympathise with only the three following pastimes of men:
the exercises of war—the joys of connubial love—and the running of
horses."

"Whensoever any one is prevented from fulfilling his religious duties,
let him keep a horse for the sake of Allah, and all his sins shall be
forgiven him."

"Whoso maintaineth a horse for the triumph of religion makes a
magnificent loan to Allah."

"The horse, sincerely reared in the way of Allah, for the holy war,
shall save his master from the fire at the day of the resurrection."

"Whoso maketh sacrifices in order to train a horse for the holy war
shall be treated in the next world as a martyr."

"Whoso traineth a horse in the way of Allah is counted in the number of
those who give alms day and night, in secret or in public. He shall have
his reward. Never shall fear dishonour his heart."

"Money spent upon horses passes in the eyes of Allah for alms given in a
direct manner."

"Whoso keepeth and tendeth a horse for the service of Allah shall be
recompensed as one who fasts during the day and passes the night in
prayer."

"Horses pray to Allah to make them beloved by their masters."

"Allah comes to the aid of such as occupy themselves with horses, and
lightens the expenses incurred on their account."

"Every grain of barley given to a horse is inscribed by Allah in the
Register of good Works."

"Martyrs of the holy war will find in Paradise horses of rubies,
furnished with wings, which shall fly whithersoever their riders
desire."

BREEDS.

The tribes that inhabit the Sahara have always been better able than
those of the Tell to withdraw from the caprice, oppression, and
spoliation of the various conquerors of Africa. It is therefore
evidently among them that the Barb has had the best chance of preserving
all the qualities of grace, speed, and sobriety, that are universally
regarded as its characteristics. We shall consequently confine ourselves
exclusively to the horses of that region, and with a view to avoid a
repetition of what every one has read in books, we shall allow the many
Arabs we have interrogated, to speak for themselves. Here, then, is the
outline they have drawn of the thoroughbred horse, _shareb-er-rehh_,
"the air-drinker:"

The thoroughbred horse is well proportioned, his ears are small and in
constant motion, his bones massive, his cheeks meagre, his nostrils wide
as the throat of a lion, his eyes bright, black, and level with the
head,[20] his neck long, his chest full, his withers prominent, his
loins well knit, his haunches strong, his fore-ribs long and the hinder
ones short, the belly hollow, the croup rounded, the upper part of his
legs long like an ostrich's and furnished with muscles like a camel's,
his hoofs black and of a uniform colour, his hair fine and abundant, his
flesh firm, his tail very thick at the dock but loose at the extremity.
Looked at in front he is like unto the peak of a lofty mountain. Looked
at from behind, he seems to lean forward as if he would prostrate
himself. Looked at from the side, he shows himself robust and well set
up.

To sum up: he should have four points broad, the front, the chest, the
croup, and the legs;—four points long, the neck, the upper part of the
legs, the belly, and the haunches;—four points short, the loins, the
pasterns, the ears, and the tail. All these qualities in a good horse,
say the Arabs, prove firstly that he has real blood in him, and secondly
that he is certainly fleet of foot, for his form combines something of
the greyhound, the pigeon, and the _mahari_, or riding camel.[21]

The mare ought to take from the wild boar its courage and breadth of
head; from the gazelle, its grace, its eyes and mouth; from the
antelope, liveliness and intelligence; from the ostrich, its neck and
swiftness; from the viper, the shortness of its tail.

A thoroughbred horse (_hôor_)[22] may be known by yet other signs. For
instance, he cannot be prevailed upon to eat barley out of any other
nosebag than his own. He so loves trees, verdure, shade, and running
water, that he will neigh for joy on seeing them. Seldom does he drink
until he has troubled the water, and if the conformation of the ground
prevents him from doing so with his feet, he will kneel down and do it
with his mouth. He is continually shrivelling his lips; his eyes are in
constant motion; alternately he pricks up and lowers his ears, and turns
his neck to the right or left as if he wished to speak, or to ask for
something. If to all these signs a horse adds sobriety of disposition,
his owner may deem himself the possessor of a pair of wings.

It has been remarked that a horse that is a fast galopper has the head
firmly set on, and the transverse apophysis of the atloïd very
protuberant. "He has horns," say the Arabs.

The races most esteemed in the western part of the Algerian Sahara are
three in number: that of Hâymour, that of Bou-Ghareb, and that of
Merizigue. Their offspring are dispersed among a great many tribes, such
as the Hamyân, the Oulad-Sidi-Shikh, the Leghrouât-Kuesal, the
Oulad-Yagoub, the Makena, the Aâmour, the Oulad-Sidi-Nasseur, and even
the Harar. Every one, according to his fancy, or according to his
occupation, offers his mare to the descendants of one of these three
types. The Hâymour usually produce bay horses, the Bou-Ghareb white
ones, and the Merizigue those of a gray colour. The Hâymour are most
sought after. They are of a beautiful shape, with a good carcass, and
yet very active. They pass for the swiftest coursers of the Sahara, and
preserve their strength to a very advanced age. They bring good luck,
and their owners belong to the richest and noblest families.

Next come the race of Bou-Ghareb, the produce of which are taller, and
are also very patient of fatigue, but less fleet than the Hâymour. Like
the latter, however, they remain sound until a great age.

Lastly the Merizigue who are shorter and have less bottom than the
preceding, but are solid, clean-limbed, and sober. They are chiefly
sought after by common horsemen who have long journeys to make and great
hardships to undergo.

The Hâymour breed is superior to all others; nor has the imagination of
the Arabs failed to trace it to a marvellous source. The legend runs as
follows:—A chief owned a magnificent mare, which happened to receive a
serious hurt in hunting the ostrich. It was feared that she would be
lame for life. Her master though he could see no improvement in her
condition and was annoyed at the trouble of dragging her after him in
all his removals from place to place, was still unable to bring himself
to put her to death, and therefore turned her out to graze at large. On
returning from a long journey he remembered his mare and inquired what
had become of her. She proved to be in excellent health, and on the
point of foaling. He at once brought her in, took the greatest care of
her, and soon afterwards found himself possessed of a foal that was
unrivalled throughout the desert. As no tribe had passed for a very long
time near the place where he left the animal, the Arabs were willing to
believe that she had been covered by a wild ass, _hamar el ouâhhch_, and
they gave to the foal the name of Hâymour, which is that of the foal of
the onager.

In the central part of the Algerian Sahara, the Arbâa[23] affect the
offspring of _Rakeby_. This breed has both height and bottom, and is
found among the Aghrazelias, the Oulad-Shayb, the Oulad-Mokhtar, and
even among the Oulad-Khrelif.[24] For the most part they are gray or
dark bay. They endure hunger and thirst with ease, and without being
knocked up will cover for several consecutive days distances of
twenty-five to thirty leagues.[25] At the present day the finest animals
are in the family of the Seuffrân. _Rakeby_, it seems, was formerly
brought from Morocco by the ancestors of Sidi-Hamed-Oulad-_Tedjini_, the
famous Marabout of Aain-Mady.

The Oulad-Nayl[26] make use of the offspring of a celebrated stallion
named El-Biod, "the White," formerly the property of the
Oulad-Si-Mahmed, one of their divisions. This stock is renowned for its
sobriety and speed.

In the Hodna and the Medjana, among the Oulad-Makrane and the Ghiras,
the most highly esteemed are the descendants of a well-known stallion
belonging to the Oulad-Mahdi. It was named Bey-el-Hissen, and was the
property of the family of El-Amri-ben-Abi-Meramer.

A good horse in the desert ought to accomplish for five or six days, one
after the other, distances of twenty-five to thirty leagues. After a
couple of day's rest, if well fed, he will be quite fresh enough to
repeat the feat. "With a horse that on arriving at a resting place
shakes himself, paws the ground with his foot, and neighs at the
approach of the barley, then pushing his head into the nosebag begins to
munch eagerly three or four mouthfuls of the grain, there is no occasion
to pull up in a journey." The distances to be traversed in the Sahara
are not always of such great length, but at the same time it is no very
rare occurrence to hear of horses doing fifty to sixty leagues in four
and twenty hours.

A tribe on receiving notice that its enemies project a razzia, at once
sends out scouts (_shouâfin_) to watch them, mounted on mares, "the
children of a Jew"—_benate el ihoude_—so cunning and dexterous are they.
These horsemen take with them no more than a feed of barley for their
horse's supper. They frequently vary their pace but are always careful
to husband their steeds, and will place themselves in ambush thirty
leagues from their point of departure in order to "kill the earth"—that
is, to reconnoitre. If the result of their observations causes them to
entertain any immediate apprehension for the safety of their brethren,
they return at once at full speed to warn them to take to hasty flight.
In the contrary event, they retrace their steps leisurely and will yet
gain their tents before the hour of the evening prayer, after having
traversed sometimes fifty to sixty leagues in the twenty-four hours.
Should there be a skirmish on the morrow, their horses will be in a
condition to take part in it. If the horse of a _shouaf_ happens to die
in the course of a reconnaissance made for the good of all, it is
replaced at the expense of the whole tribe.

With regard to the great distances accomplished by the horses of the
desert, instances may be quoted which will appear incredible, and the
heroes of which are still alive, if witnesses were wanted to confirm the
truth of the story. Here is one of a thousand, which was told to me by a
man of the tribe of Arbâa. I give his own words:

"I had come into the Tell with my father and the people of my tribe to
buy corn. It was in the time of the Pasha Ali. The Arbâa had had some
terrible quarrels with the Turks, and as it was their interest for the
moment to feign a complete submission in order to obtain an amnesty for
the past, they agreed to win over by presents of money the Pasha's
suite, and to send to himself not merely a common animal as was
customary, but a courser of the highest distinction. It was a
misfortune, but it was the will of Allah, and we were forced to resign
ourselves. The choice fell upon a mare "gray stone of the river," known
throughout the Sahara, and the property of my father. He was informed
that he must hold himself in readiness to set out with her on the morrow
for Algiers. After the evening prayer my father, who had taken care not
to make any remark, came to me and said: 'Ben-Zyan, art thou thyself
to-day? Wilt thou leave thy father in a strait, or wilt thou make red
his face?'"

"I am nothing but your will, my lord," I replied. "Speak, and if your
commands are not obeyed, it will be because I am vanquished by death."

"Listen. These children of sin seek to take my mare in the hope of
settling their affairs with the Sultan, my gray mare, I say, which has
always brought good fortune to my tent, to my children, and the camels:
my gray mare, that was foaled on the day that thy youngest brother was
born! Speak! Wilt thou let them do this dishonour to my hoary beard? The
joy and happiness of the family are in thy hands. _Mordjana_ (such was
the name of the mare) has eaten her barley. If thou art of a truth my
son, go and sup, take thy arms, and then at earliest nightfall flee far
away into the desert with the treasure dear to us all."

"Without answering a word I kissed my father's hand, took my evening
repast, and quitted Berouaguïa,[27] happy in being able to prove my
filial affection, and laughing in my sleeve at the disappointment which
awaited our sheikhs on their awaking. I pushed forward for a long time,
fearing to be pursued, but Mordjana continued to pull at her bridle and
I had more trouble to quiet her than to urge her on. When two-thirds of
the night had passed, and a desire to sleep was growing upon me, I
dismounted and seizing the reins twisted them round my wrist. I placed
my gun under my head and at last fell asleep, softly couched on one of
those dwarf palms so common in our country. An hour afterwards I roused
myself. All the leaves of the dwarf palm had been stripped off by
Mordjana. We started afresh. The peep of day found us at Souagui. My
mare had thrice broken out into a sweat, and thrice dried herself. I
touched her with the heel. She watered at Sidi-Bou-Zid in the
Ouad-Ettouyl, and that evening I offered up the evening prayer at
Leghrouât, after giving her a handful of straw to induce her to wait
patiently for the enormous bag of barley that was coming to her. These
are not journeys fit for your horses," said Si-ben-Zyan in conclusion,
"—for the horses of you Christians, who go from Algiers to Blidah,
thirteen leagues, as far as from my nose to my ear, and then fancy you
have done a good day's work."

This Arab, for his part, had done eighty leagues in twenty-four hours:
his mare had eaten nothing but the leaves of the dwarf palm on which he
had lain down and had only once been watered, about the middle of the
journey; and yet he swore to me by the head of the Prophet that he could
have slept on the following night at Gardaya, forty five leagues farther
on, had his life been in any danger. Si-ben-Zyan belongs to a family of
marabouts of the Oulad-Salahh, a section of the great tribe of the
Arbâa. He comes frequently to Algiers and will tell this story to
whoever will listen to him, confirming his narrative, if required, by
authentic testimony.

Another Arab, named Mohammed-ben-Mokhtar, had come to buy corn in the
Tell after the harvest. His tents were already pitched on
Ouad-Seghrouan, and he had opened a business communication with the
Arabs of the Tell,[28] when the bey Bou-Mezrag, "father of the spear,"
fell upon him at the head of a strong body of cavalry to chastise one of
those imaginary offences which the Turks were in the habit of inventing
as pretexts for their rapacity. Not the slightest warning had been
given; the razzia was complete; and the horsemen of Makhzen gave
themselves up to all the atrocities customary in such cases.
Mohammed-ben-Mokhtar thereupon threw himself on his dark bay mare, a
magnificent animal known and coveted throughout the Sahara, and
perceiving the critical nature of the situation, at once resolved to
sacrifice the whole of his property to save the lives of his three
children. One of them, only four years old, he placed on the saddle
before him, and another aged six or seven behind him holding on by the
troussequin, and was about to place the youngest in the hood of his
burnous when his wife stopped him, exclaiming: "No, no, I will not let
thee have this one. They will never dare to slay an infant at its
mother's breast. Away, I shall keep him with me. Allah will protect us."
Mohammed-ben-Mokhtar then dashed forward, fired off his piece, and got
clear of the mêlée; but, being hotly pursued, he travelled all that day
and the following night until he reached Leghrouât, where he could rely
upon being in safety. Shortly afterwards he received intelligence that
his wife had been rescued by some friends he had in the Tell.
Mohammed-ben-Mokhtar and his wife are still alive, and the two children
he carried on his saddle are spoken of as two of the best horsemen of
the tribe. Can there be imagined a scene more dramatic, or more worthy
of a skilful artist, than this family being saved by a horse from the
midst of plunder, confusion, and fighting!

And why should I look for evidence to establish these facts? All the old
officers of the Oran division can state how, in 1837, a General
attaching the greatest importance to the receipt of intelligence from
Tlemcen, gave his own charger to an Arab to go and procure the news. The
latter set out from Château Neuf[29] at four o'clock in the morning and
returned at the same hour on the following day, having travelled seventy
leagues over ground very different from the comparatively level desert.

One of the best and most formidable horsemen of this tribe of the Arbâa
is El-Arby-ben-Ouaregla; "his ball never falls to the ground." He
belongs to the section of the Hadjadj, among whom he is celebrated both
by reason of his personal prowess and because of an adventure that
befell him in his infancy. He was still at the breast, when his father,
Mohammed-ben-Dokha, being surprised by the enemy, rolled him in his
large _habaya_[30] and fastened him in it with his girdle. Then, whilst
his family and his flocks sought safety in flight, he mounted a mare
that "could wring a tear from the eye," and fighting all day in the
rearguard saved his property and killed seven of his assailants.

The Arabs of the Sahara sum up the perfection of a horse in the
following manner. He must carry a full grown man, his arms and a change
of clothing, food for both his rider and himself, a flag, even on a
windy day, and if necessary, dragging a dead body behind him, keep up at
a good pace the whole day through without giving a thought to food or
water. In their opinion a horse lives from twenty to twenty-five years,
and a mare from twenty-five to thirty. As to the service to be derived
from this animal, a proverb exactly expresses their idea:

_Sebâa el Khrouya_, seven years for my Brother;
_Sebâa lya_, seven years for myself;
_Sebâa li adouya_, seven years for my enemy.

It is therefore from seven to fourteen that they consider a horse as
most apt for the exercises of war. I have often had the curiosity to
inquire of the Arabs if they know whence they had received the horses of
which they were so proud. In reply to this question they would point
with their finger to the East, and answer: "They come from the native
country of the first man, where they were created a day or two before
him." And as confirmation of this their belief, they would add: "Allah
hath said: 'I have created for man whatsoever is upon the earth. I give
it all to Adam and his descendants. Man shall be the most noble of
created beings, and the horse the most noble of animals.' Now, when a
chief is expected to come and rule over us we prepare a tent to receive
him, carpets for him to sit upon, and various dishes to gratify his
palate, and, above all, horsemen to attend upon him and execute his
orders. Consequently the horse must have been created before the coming
of Adam upon the earth."

THE STEED OF NOBLE RACE.

Where are those noble steeds
Whose dam never knew any but a noble sire?
The stirrup is their life; inaction is death to them.
O Father of cavaliers! the ignorant find them every where,
But they are as rare as true friends,
And when they die the very saddle sheds tears.

In the race-course of valour
May Allah bless the noble courser!
His chest is of steel, and his flanks of iron:
He loves naught but rapine, glory, and the combat;
He cherishes his master and his family,
And when he gallops, he puts the thunder to shame.
He passes, look at him: he is already out of sight;
Women, grudge him not the milk of our she-camels.

What has become of the time when I used to bestride a swimmer,
With black eye, wide nostrils,
Clean limbs, and a faithful heart!
It was a sparrow-hawk for carnage,
And life was nothing worth to me
When the bridle was out of my hands.
I was then young; I went in search of danger,
I mocked at the ill-omened ravens;
The distant always seemed to me close at hand,
And my tent overflowed with plunder.

In summer, when sleep has restored strength to my body,
When the eye of light has dispersed the shades of night,
And when the heat bites everything, even into stone,
The song of the turtle-dove fills me with soft desire.
In the boughs of the palm-tree shaken by the slightest breeze,
On the leaf that sighs and bewails itself,
She is consumed with passion.
By my head! she rekindles in my breast the fire of bygone days.

They said to me:
Ah! thou art still longing for them who dye their eyelids with black?
And I answered: No, in my eyes
Nothing at present is equal to my horse of pure blood.
With him, I bear myself proudly; I hunt and increase my riches;
With him, I enter the strife and protect the poor and the orphan;
With him, I chastise insult and daunt my rivals;
His neigh is like the roar of a lion in the mountains;
It is an eagle hovering in the air.

Away with you, fond memories of this world!
The most potent has never carried off more than a winding-sheet.
I am known by my air-drinker, at night and in the fight;
I am known by my sabre, the shock of battle, the pen and the paper;
I am sharper than a spear, and endure hunger like a wolf.
No matter: to-day I court solitude:
In solitude is happiness: age has taught me that.
Never again shall men behold me seeking a horse, or the love of
women, or the court of an Emir.

* * * * *

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

Horses, though they are all of one and the same family, are of two
different species: the first is the Arab race, the other the race of the
_Beradin_. In like manner oxen, though of only one family, are of divers
species: the first that of domestic cattle, which is the best known, and
the second that of buffaloes: as different from one another in agility
and weight as are the Arab horses from the _Beradin_. In like manner,
too, the family of camels is one, and yet includes more than one
species,—the Arab race and the race _Bakhati_.[31]

If the foal has for its sire an Arab horse, and for its dam an Arab
mare, it is indisputably noble, _hôor_.

If it has for its sire an Arab horse, and for its dam a _Beradi_ mare,
it is called _Hadjin_.

If it has for its dam an Arab mare and for its sire a _Beradi_ horse, it
is called _Meghrif_, and it is inferior to the _Hadjin_.

Hence it will be seen that the most important rôle is assigned to the
sire.

It is impossible, we think, to get a pure race out of a stock the blood
of which is impure. On the other hand it is a well authenticated fact
that it is quite possible to restore to its primitive nobleness a breed
that has become impoverished,—but without any taint in its
blood,—whether through insufficient food, want of proper care, or
excessive and unsuitable work: in a word, a race may be restored, the
degeneracy of which has not been occasioned by any admixture of blood.

In default of public notoriety, it is by actual trial, by speed combined
with bottom, that the Arabs form their judgment on horses, and recognise
the nobleness and purity of their extraction. But the form likewise
reveals the higher qualities. A thoroughbred horse is one that has three
things long, three things short, three things broad, and three things
clean. The three things long are the ears, the neck, and the fore-legs.
The three things short are the dock, the hind-legs and the back. The
three things broad are the forehead, the chest, and the croup. The three
things clean are the skin, the eyes, and the hoof.

He ought to have the withers high, and the flanks hollow and without any
superfluous flesh.

"Dost thou accomplish a journey at great speed with steeds high in the
withers and fine in the flanks?"

The tail should be well furnished at the root, so that it may cover the
space between the thighs.

"The tail is like unto the veil of a bride."

The eye of a horse should be turned as if trying to look at its nose,
like the eye of a man who squints.

"Like to a beautiful coquette who leers through her veil, his glance
towards the corner of the eye pierces through the hair of the forelock
which covers his forehead as with a veil."

The ears resemble those of an antelope startled in the midst of her
herd.

The forelock, abundant.

"In the hour of pain mount a slender mare whose forehead is covered by
silky and flowing hair."

The nostrils, wide.

"Each of his nostrils resembles the den of a lion; the wind rushes out
of it when he is panting."

The cavities in the interior of the nostrils ought to be entirely black.
If they are partly black and partly white the horse is of only moderate
value.

The fetlock, thick.

"They have fetlocks that resemble the down which is concealed beneath an
eagle's wing and like him they grow black in the heat of battle."

The fetlock joints, small.

"The fetlock joints of their hind-legs are small, but the muscles on
both sides stand out prominent."

The hoof, round and hard.

"The hoof should resemble the cup of a slave. They walk on hoofs hard as
the moss-covered stones of a stagnant pool."

The frogs, hard and dry.

"The frogs concealed beneath the hoofs are seen when he lifts his feet,
and resemble date-stones in hardness."

"When my courser rushes towards a goal he makes a noise like to that of
wings in motion, and his neigh resembles the mournful note of the
nightingale."

"His neck is long and graceful as a male ostrich's. His ear is split in
two and his black eye full of fire."

"In the elegance of his form he resembles a picture painted in a palace.
He is as majestic as the palace itself."

If by protruding his head and neck in order to drink from a stream that
flows level with the ground, a horse can remain upright on all fours
without bending either of his fore-legs, be assured that his form is
perfect, that all parts of his body harmonise with one another, and that
he is thoroughbred.

Among the horses of the tribes of the Sahara, those of the Hamyân, the
Arbâa, the Oulad-Naïl, and their respective branches, are the most
patient of hunger and thirst, the most capable of enduring fatigue, the
fleetest gallopers, and the most able to keep up a good pace for several
days together without stopping,—very different in that respect from the
horses of the Tell.

There existed in ancient times several stallions whose fame has come
down to us. Among others, _el Koura_, of the tribe of the Beni-Timin,
and _Aouadj_, "the concave," of the tribe of the Beni-Helal. On the
subject of this latter, the following anecdote is told: His master being
asked, "what canst thou relate of a surprising nature in connection with
thy horse?" recounted this anecdote:

"I was wandering one day in the desert mounted on _Aouadj_, when I was
seized with a violent thirst. By good fortune, I fell in with a flock of
ketâa[32] flying towards a spring. I followed them, and though holding
in my horse as much as possible, I reached the water as soon as they
did, without once pulling up to breath him. It is a most extraordinary
example of speed, for the flight of the _ketâa_, always rapid, is
greatly quickened when, driven by thirst, it makes for water.... Had I
not," continued the owner of _Aouadj_, "checked his speed by pulling at
the bridle with all my force, I should have outstripped the _ketâa_."

The origin of this stallion's name is this: He had not been long foaled,
when his master was attacked by enemies and forced to flee. The foal
being too weak to follow by itself, was put into a sack and placed upon
the back of a beast of burden. Thence were derived the roundness of his
back and his name _Aouadj_, which bears that signification.

Another celebrated stallion—here the Emir relates the origin of the race
of the Hâymour (see page 50) and adds: "Whoever has seen the horses of
that breed will not question for a moment the truth of the tale, for
their resemblance to the zebra strikes every eye."

THE SIRE AND THE DAM.

The Arabs affirm that the best age for reproduction is from four to
twelve years as regards the mare, and from six to fourteen as regards
the horse. Exacting as concerns the mare, which must be of good descent,
swift of foot, of good height, of sound constitution, and of a graceful
form, they are still more difficult to please as concerns the horse.
"Choose him" say they, "and choose him again, for the offspring always
resembles the sire rather than the dam." They do not object, however, to
the horse being of shorter stature than the mare, provided he be of pure
race and sound in wind and limb. They attach far more importance to
bottom, speed, and sobriety than to that conventional type of beauty
which is so seductive in our eyes. Thus a stallion, fat, sleek, rounded
in all parts, and who owes the brilliancy of his form to high feeding,
indolence of disposition, or inaction, excites their distrust in the
highest degree. They will say of such an animal: "Let us not be in a
hurry. Let us see him at work. There may possibly be nothing there but a
lion's hide upon the back of a cow." But, on the other hand they esteem
as a genuine sire a horse for long journeys, whose flesh is firm, whose
ribs are bare, his limbs clean and his respiration powerful. He must
also be endowed with a good temper, and have given proof of being able
to bear great fatigue, privations, and hardships.

As to the mare, the case has been pending for centuries. Now as formerly
the custom is to picture an Arab by the side of his mare. The gold of
the purchaser glitters at his feet, but whilst this gold is being
counted out the descendant of Ishmael casts a melancholy look on the
noble animal from whom he cannot bring himself to separate. He springs
upon her back and rushes far away into the desert: "The eye knoweth not
where he has passed." Such is the orthodox representation; let us now
see the truth as depicted by the Emir Abd-el-Kader:

The Arabs prefer mares to horses, it is true, but only for the three
following reasons. The first is because they consider the profit to be
derived from a mare as something very handsome, for it is well-known
that as much as fifteen to twenty thousand _douros_ (from £3,000 to
£4,000) have been received for the offspring of a single mare. Hence
they may be often heard to exclaim: "The head of riches is a mare that
produces a mare." And this idea gathers strength in their eyes from it
having been said by our lord Mohammed, the messenger of Allah: "Give the
preference to mares; their belly is a treasure, and their back a seat of
honour. The greatest of blessings is an intelligent woman, or a prolific
mare." These words are thus explained by commentators: "Their belly is a
treasure," because a mare by means of her offspring increases the wealth
of her master; and "their back is a seat of honour," because the pace of
a mare is more easy and agreeable; some even going so far as to say that
the easiness of her gait will after a time render her rider effeminate.

The second motive is that the mare does not neigh in time of war like
the horse, and is less sensitive as to hunger, thirst, and heat, and is
therefore of greater use to a people whose riches consist principally in
flocks of camels and sheep. It is known to all, that camels and sheep do
not really thrive except in the Sahara, where the ground is so arid that
many Arabs, being unable to procure water more than once in eight or ten
days, accustom themselves to drink nothing but milk. This is one of the
consequences of the great distance that frequently, on account of the
pasturage, divides the encampment from a spot where there are wells. The
mare is like the serpent: her strength increases in the hot season and
in torrid regions. A snake that lives in a cold country or in water has
very little life or venom, so that its bite is rarely mortal; whereas a
snake that lives in a hot country is full of life, and the virulence of
its poison is intensified. Contrary to the horse who is less capable of
supporting the heat of the sun, the mare, owing doubtless to her
temperament, finds her vigour doubled in the hottest season.

The third and last motive is, the little attention required by the mare.
She feeds on anything. Her owner leads or sends her to graze on the same
herbage as the sheep and camels. There is no occasion to place a
watchman in regular attendance. The horse, however, cannot dispense with
being well kept, nor can his owner send him to the pasture without a
_saïs_, or groom, to look after him.

Such are the true reasons for the preference which Arabs show for mares.
This preference is not caused by an idea that the foal inherits from its
dam more than from its sire, or that it is better on all occasions to
ride a mare than a horse. But it rests partly on substantial benefits
received, and partly on the necessities of the life which the Arabs
habitually lead. It may be laid down, then, as a fact that the horse is
more noble than the mare, and that the sire bequeaths to the foal more
than the mare does, which the Arabs express by the saying: _El mohor
itebaâ el Faâl_, "the foal follows the stallion." I admit, however, that
the best produce is that which proceeds from a sire and a dam both of
pure race. In this case, it is gold allying itself with gold. I will add
that the horse is stronger, of a higher courage and greater speed than
the mare, and is free from the grave drawback attendant on the latter of
stopping short under her rider, even in battle and at a time perhaps
when everything depends on rapid movement.

There can be no doubt that the foal proceeds from the stallion and the
mare. But the experience of ages demonstrates that the essential parts
of the body, such as the bones, tendons, nerves, and veins follow after
the sire. The mare may impart to her young the colour of her coat, a
general resemblance, and something of her frame, but it is the stallion
that transmits the strength of the bones, the vigour of the nerves, the
solidity of the tendons, speed and all the other most important
characteristics. He also communicates to his offspring his moral
qualities, and if he is really noble, preserves him from all vice, for
the Arabs of old have said: "The noble horse has no malice."

* * * * *

No sooner has the foal seen the light than one of the bystanders takes
it in his arms, and walks up and down with it for some time in the midst
of almost inconceivable noise and uproar. It is supposed that a useful
lesson is thus taught for the future—the animal, accustomed from its
birth to horrible sounds, will never afterwards be frightened at
anything. This lesson finished, the master of the tent places the right
dug of the mare in the foal's mouth, and exclaims: "In the name of
Allah! Allah grant that the new-born (_mezyoud_) may bring us good
fortune, health, and abundance!" The friends who are present answer all
together: "Amen! May Allah bless thee! He has sent thee another
child."[33]

To teach the foal to suck, a fig or a date soaked in milk slightly
salted is put into his mouth. As soon as he has taken a liking to it and
begins to suck it, he is placed under his dam. After two or three
attempts he soon mistakes the dug for the fig or date he has just left,
and the thing is done. After that he is carefully preserved from the
night-cold. But it is also necessary to accustom him to drink camel's
and ewe's milk. It is done in this manner. They take a goat's skin used
several years for holding milk, and fill it with air. Then squeezing it
gently, they blow up his nostrils a few times. By way of complement to
this operation they crush dates in milk, which impart to it a sweetish
flavour and then place the mixture close to the foal's mouth, forcing
him every now and then to dip his lips into it. He begins by tasting and
licking it and after a while drinks it, whether the dam gives him suck
or not. Great importance is attached to teaching the foal to drink milk;
first, because he can thus be left in the tent while the mare is again
put to work; and secondly, because in after years, in default of water,
he will be satisfied with milk instead, and also as food if barley runs
short. Should the mare take an aversion to her young, she must be
separated from him, and the latter must be brought up on camel's milk,
as this is deemed preferable to the milk of the cow or the she-goat,
which produces laziness and heaviness.

A few days or a few months after the birth of a foal, some Arabs slit
one or both of the ears. This fancy is accounted for in various ways.
According to one party this operation is performed on animals born in
the night time, because they ought to have a better sight than those
that come into the world during the day. According to others, it is done
to foals born on Friday, the day of the gathering together of Mussulmans
at the mosque, because it is a lucky sign. The truth is simply this: The
master of a tent has a child of tender years, whom he loves very dearly.
In slitting the ear of his foal he declares that he reserves him for his
son so-and-so. Should the father afterwards die, no one would dispute
the possession of the animal with the child thus named. Others, however,
slit the ear of a foal that has the colic; the bleeding saves him.

Soon after the birth of a foal they hang round his neck amulets, and
talismans (richly ornamented in the case of wealthy people) and little
shells called _oudaâ_. They are suspended by neckbands of wool or of
camel's skin (_goulada_) which the women delight to make with their own
hands, especially applying themselves to harmonise the colours
tastefully. To bay or black horses they attach a white _goulada_, to
those of a light colour red _gouladas_. These neckbands are useful as
well as ornamental, for they serve to hold the animal by if need be,
thus replacing our halters in a manner more agreeable to the eye and
less irksome to the horse. As for the talismans (_heurouze-aâdjab_) they
are simply little bags made of Morocco leather, more or less ornamented,
and containing words extracted from the sacred writings, by means of
which they hope to preserve the animal from wounds, from sickness, and
from the evil eye.

Occasionally in war time the foal is killed immediately after its birth,
in order that the dam may be the sooner fit for service; but never do
they slay a filly. Such a one is weaned and left in the tent to shelter
it from the sun, and the women frequently succeed in saving its life by
giving it ewe's or camel's milk. If a filly be born on the road during a
journey or march undertaken for a commercial or a warlike object, in
order to save it every possible fatigue it is placed upon a camel, where
a soft nest is constructed for it; but it will only be allowed to
approach its dam during a halt or in the night time.

During the Taguedempt expedition in 1841 I saw a cavalier of Makhzen,
who had no means of transport, carry before him on his saddle for the
first four days after its birth a filly which his mare had given him at
the bivouac. At the end of that period it followed its dam, throughout
the campaign.

When the colts are not destroyed they are usually sold in the Tell, at
the season of buying grain, whereas the fillies are preserved as a
source of riches through their offspring.

The greater the value attached to the mare, the earlier is the time for
weaning, but it generally takes place in the sixth or seventh month. In
weaning the foal they remove it from its dam, first of all for one day,
then for two, and so on, gradually increasing the period of separation.
To render the transition less abrupt, they give it camel's milk
sweetened with date honey, and to keep it from wandering in search of
its mother they tether it by its fore or hind-legs with woollen cords
but in either case above the knees or the hocks; whence proceed the
whitish marks that are often observable. If at that age the animal were
fastened by the pasterns considerable injury might be done. The foal
never remaining still and puzzled by its novel situation, the processes
called by the Arabs _louzze_, or almonds, would speedily be formed.
Redoubled attention is paid to the foal while being weaned, for if it
succeeded in getting loose and approached its dam it would be liable to
fall ill through sucking a corrupt and sour milk.

In the day time while the mare is on the march or in the pasture, a sort
of halter (_kuemama_) is put on the foal, the noseband of which is
furnished with short porcupine's quills. The dam then refuses of herself
to let the foal touch her. As soon as it is fairly weaned, it is
necessary in order to prevent the accumulation of milk to draw it off
from the mare from time to time, and somewhat to lower her diet. After
being weaned, the foal is fed on ground barley in regularly increasing
quantities, taking care, however, not to cause satiety. They use a
wooden measure called _feutra_. This measure contains three double
handfuls, and is common to all the tribes of the desert, because its
origin dates from a religious tradition. At the _aïd-es-seghrir_, that
is, at the little festival which follows the Ramadan, the Prophet
recommends every Mussulman who is tolerably well off to give to the poor
a _feutra_ of food, wheat, barley, dates, rice, etc., according to the
productions of the country in which he may be residing.

As soon as the foal is weaned, the women take possession of it, saying:
"It belongs to us now; it is an orphan, but we will make its life as
pleasant as possible."

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

The foal follows the sire. The best stock is that which proceeds from a
sire and a dam of pure extraction. The produce of a foreign mare by an
Arab horse is less valued, and much less that of a blood mare by a
common horse. Lastly, a colt whose sire and dam are both of foreign race
has no good quality whatsoever.

The Arabs affirm that an entire horse has more vigour and speed than a
mare. As a rule stallions are scarce in the Sahara. They are seldom to
be met with except with the chiefs or with men of wealth, who can afford
to have them properly tended and looked after, as it would be dangerous
to turn them loose on to the grazing grounds. On the contrary, the mare
requires very little attention, and is therefore chiefly ridden by the
Saharenes.

Immediately after the foal is born it is made to swallow two or three
eggs. Then, while the foal is still on the ground they rub the sole and
crust of the hoof with salt dissolved in a preparation of
_bouna-faâ_,[34] which renders the horn hard and tough. After that, the
foal gets up, gropes about, and seeks its dam. Twelve hours later it
will follow her to the pasture. As soon as the foal is born the master
of the tent hastens to arrange his ears, the forelock, the mane, and the
neck, carefully collecting the hairs together from the root upwards. If
the weather is cold, both the dam and the foal are kept in the tent.
Seven days afterwards the mare is made to swallow a pound or a pound and
a half of rancid butter not salted.

The nobler the mare, the sooner is the foal weaned, and in any case it
is never permitted to suck longer than six months. In certain countries
the Arabs are under the impression that a protracted suckling almost
always produces a bad disposition and a hard mouth. Everywhere, where it
is possible, and according to the season of the year, they give the foal
camel's, or cow's, or ewe's milk, which is supposed to render the coat
more soft and sleek.

"The best treasure of a man is a fruitful mare."

"Allah bade them multiply, and they have multiplied."

REARING AND BREAKING-IN

Though weaned, the foal accompanies its dam to the pasture. This
exercise is found necessary to its health and to the development of its
faculties. In the evening it comes home to lie down beside the tent of
its owner. There, it is to every member of the family the object of the
greatest care. The women and the children sport with it, and give it
_Kouskoussou_,[35] bread, flour, milk, and dates. This daily contact
leads to that docility which is so much admired in Arab horses.

Sometimes tushes grow out even in one-year olds, and the animal falls
away in condition until they are extracted, when it recovers its health.
Should the colt at the age of fifteen to eighteen months fail to promise
a fine free action of the shoulder, they do not hesitate to apply the
cautery to the scapulo-humeral joint. It is generally applied in the
form of a cross, the four extreme points of which are joined by a
circle. Previous to the operation care is taken to trace the design with
pitch if the animal be of a light colour, or with plaster if it be dark.
If, again, a colt's knees are ill-shaped, or indicate a predisposition
to bony tumours or to thickening, fire is applied in three parallel
lines. Lastly, if any apprehension is felt of the colt becoming too
straight either in front or behind, they fire the fetlock joint but only
on the front part, which shows that the Arabs understand the tendons and
treat them carefully. The fire is usually applied with a sickle. In
performing this operation they avoid as much as possible the great heats
of summer. The most favourable season is the end of autumn or the
beginning of spring: there are fewer flies then, and the temperature is
cooler.

The education of a colt should commence when eighteen months old,
because it is the only way to make him thoroughly docile, and also
because the development of the spleen is thus checked—a very important
point in the opinion of the Arabs. If he is first of all mounted at a
later period, he may look stronger to the eye, but in reality he will be
inferior in patience and in speed.

"Every horse inured to fatigue brings good fortune."[36]

And Heaven knows how the Arab horse is inured to fatigue! So to speak,
he is always on the march. He travels with his master who is one of the
greatest travellers on horseback in the world. He travels to seek his
food. He traverses long distances to find water; and this sort of life
renders him abstinent, not easily tired, and ready for anything. It must
be admitted that that is a method of training horses not easily
surpassed.

I repeat, for I cannot too strongly insist on this capital point, the
opinion of the Arabs is unanimous in favour of the education of the colt
beginning at a very early age. In acting otherwise, there is a risk,
they imagine, of having an unmanageable horse, or one heavy and clumsy.
Exercise, on the contrary, accustoms the horse to submission, gives
strength to the joints while rendering them supple, imparts firmness to
the bones, develops the muscles, and brings out that power of enduring
fatigue without which the animal is nothing more than source of outlay
without any return for it.

At the age, then, of eighteen to twenty months the colt is mounted by a
child who takes him to water, goes in search of grass, or leads him to
the pasture. Not to hurt the bars he guides him with a longe, or a
tolerably soft mule's bit. This exercise is good for them both. The
child grows up a horseman, and the colt acquires the habit of carrying a
weight proportioned to his strength. He learns to walk, to fear nothing,
and it is in this manner, say the Arabs, that "we contrive never to have
restive horses." The first time the child mounts the colt, he should
say, while in the act of bestriding him: "Glory to Him who has subjected
the horse to us! Without Allah we should never have accomplished it."

It is at this age also they begin to shackle the colt. The clogs are at
first fastened very short, as without that precaution the young animal
might lose something of the steadiness of its balance and injure its
chest or shoulders either in lying down or getting up again. They ought
likewise to be attached loosely so as not to occasion the formation of
hard knots. This mode of shackling a horse is decidedly the best. With
it one never hears of a horse breaking loose, a misadventure that causes
such confusion in a bivouac, drives horsemen to despair, and is the
source of a thousand accidents. As the animal is forced to stoop and
lean forwards to graze, one would imagine that it could not fail after a
while to lose something of its uprightness. The fear is altogether
unfounded. The chest expands, the limbs acquire strength. All Barbs
stand well upon their legs and are admirably straight along the back and
loins. The Arabs are loud in their abuse of our mode of tying up horses
with a longe. They affirm that in addition to the vices and accidents it
may occasion, it has the great inconvenience of not allowing the animal
to lie down. Whereas with clogs a horse protrudes his head and neck and
when he wants to sleep places himself exactly in the position of a
greyhound basking in the sun. Besides, a great many stable vices
disappear when they are used. The animal can neither entangle itself in
the halter, nor slip it, nor get into the manger nor lie down beneath
it, nor scratch the earth with its foot, nor rub against the manger nor
contract any other bad habits of the kind: an indisputable advantage so
far.

The colt being thus shackled in front of the tent, a little negro with a
switch is placed near him to accustom him to remain still. It is the
duty of this young slave to correct him slightly if he attempts to lash
out at anything passing behind him, or if he bites at his neighbours. He
is watched in this manner until he is brought to the most perfect
gentleness. When he is sent to the pasture, the ligatures fasten
together a fore and hind foot at the same side, and the cord is
purposely made very short. It is observed that when the colt stoops to
graze, the shortness of the cord compels the vertebral column to remain
straight, and to become rather convex than concave. If, on the contrary,
the cord were too long, there would be nothing to support the vertebral
column, and it would easily become distorted.

When from twenty-four to twenty seven months old, the colt is for the
first time saddled and bridled, but with every precaution. For instance,
he is not saddled until quite used to the bridle. For the first few days
the bit is covered with undressed wool, partly with a view not to hurt
his bars, and partly to allure him to docility by the saltish flavour of
which he is so fond. When he begins to champ the bit, the task is nearly
accomplished. This preparatory exercise takes place morning and evening.
Thus sagaciously handled, the young animal will be ready to be mounted
in the early part of the autumn, when he will be less tormented by the
flies and heat. Wealthy owners, before they allow their colt to be
mounted by a grown-up man, sometimes have him led up and down gently for
a fortnight, with a pack-saddle on his back supporting two baskets
filled with sand. He thus gradually passes from the weight of the child
that first bestrode him to that of the man who is about to mount him.

Suppose the colt now to have completed two years and a half. His
vertebral column has acquired strength. The clogs, the saddle and the
bridle are familiar to him. A cavalier mounts on his back. The animal is
certainly very young, but he will be ridden only at a walking pace, and
his bit will be a very easy one. The main point is to accustom him to
obedience. The owner without spurs and holding only a light cane in his
hand which he uses as little as possible, rides him to the market, or to
visit his friends, his flocks and pastures, and attends to his affairs
without exacting anything more than submission and docility. This he
ordinarily obtains by never speaking to him except in a low voice,
without passion, and carefully avoiding anything likely to elicit
opposition that must result in a contest from which he might come forth
conqueror, but at the expense of his horse. Particular importance is
attached to keeping the young animal still and quiet for a few minutes
before letting him start. At a later period, his owner will not fail to
reap the benefit of this excellent practice.

The common people sometimes mount their colts before they are two years
and a half old, and if reproached for doing so, they answer: "You are
quite right; we know that, but how can it be helped? We are poor, and
have no choice but to act in this manner or go on foot. We prefer the
former alternative, notwithstanding its disadvantages. In the perilous
life we lead, the present moment is everything."

Seeing the Arabs employ their colts so early, mounting the two-year olds
and exacting from them considerable fatigue, and forced marches, and
using them even as pack-horses without regard to their age or strength,
many persons have concluded that this people knew nothing about the
proper mode of managing horses, and have even denied that they had any
love for the animal. Such persons, however, cannot have taken into
account that sometimes to save their families, sometimes their property,
and frequently to obey the summons of the holy war (_djehad_) these
Arabs are obliged to use whatever materials come to hand. They are
compelled to employ their horses through the necessities that beset
them, and through circumstances quite beyond their control, but they are
perfectly aware that it would be better not to do so.

It is also when he is about thirty months old that the colt is taught
not to break loose from his rider when the latter sets foot to earth,
and not even to stir from the spot where the bridle has been passed over
his head and allowed to drag on the ground. Especial care is taken in
teaching this lesson, because it is one of great importance in Arab
life. The same means is adopted in this case, as in accustoming the colt
to the clogs. A slave stands beside him, who puts his foot on the bridle
whenever the animal is about to go off, and thus gives a disagreeable
shock to the bars of his mouth. After a few days of this exercise he
will stand stock still at the spot where he has been left, and will wait
for his master for days together. This practise is so universal
throughout the Sahara that the first thing an Arab does after killing
his adversary, if he wants his horse, is to pass the bridle quickly over
his head. The animal then remains perfectly still and allows the
conqueror time to despoil his fallen foe: without this precaution it
would have rejoined its _goum_.

Here is a scene we have all witnessed. An Arab arrives at the market,
and dismounts in the midst of a score of horses or mares. You suppose
that he is going to give his animal to some one to hold. Not so: he
passes the bridle over his neck, lets it fall on the ground, and placing
a stone upon it goes without disquietude to transact his business. Two
hours afterwards he returns, finds that his horse has not moved from the
spot where he left him—and to which he probably fancied himself
fastened—gets on the saddle and returns to his own people.

From the age of two and a half to three years the system already
indicated continues to be applied with a view to confirm the young
animal in the docile habits so essential in war time. Pains too are
taken to make him very quiet to mount, by using every precaution. In his
life of perilous adventure the Arab has need, before all things, of a
horse easy to mount. Lessons to this effect will be renewed day after
day until they are no longer necessary: but not too long at a time for
fear of tiring out the colt. At first the owner will be assisted by two
men, one of whom will hold the bridle and the other the stirrup, and
after a while he will succeed in producing a statue-like immobility.
Sick and ill-shaped horses, say the Arabs, alone prove unteachable.

From three to four years old more is expected from a horse, but at the
same time he is better fed. He is now ridden with spurs and, being
thoroughly grounded in the foregoing lessons, he gives proof of mettle
and learns to fear nothing. The cries of the animals living in the same
_douar_, the roaring of the wild beasts that prowl around during the
night, and the constant discharge of fire-arms, soon prepare him for
war.

However, if notwithstanding all the careful management we have
described, a horse takes to rearing either through laziness or vice, or
to plunging, or biting, or refuses to leave the tent or the other
horses, recourse is had to the potency of spurs. These are made very
sharp, and their point is bent in the form of a slightly rounded hook.
With these instruments the rider draws long bloody wheals along the
animal's belly and flanks, which inspire him with such terror that he
becomes as tame as a lamb and will track his master out like a dog.
Horses that have undergone this punishment rarely relapse into their
former faults. To increase the potency of the spurs, salt or gun powder
is rubbed into the still bleeding wounds. The Arabs are so convinced of
the efficacy of this chastisement that they do not look upon a horse as
thoroughly trained for war until he has passed through this terrible
experience. At the same time that the rider uses the spurs to chastise a
decidedly restive horse, he strikes him a little behind the headstall of
the bridle with a short thick stick, with which he is always provided
when he means to break in an animal of this kind.

In certain localities to prevent a horse from rearing they attach an
iron ring to his ear. If he tries to rise up a smart blow with a stick
is struck upon this ring, the pain thus caused soon sickening the animal
of his bad "defence." To cure a horse of plunging, he is mounted with
his tail towards a thick thorny shrub (_gandoule_). He is then urged
forward, but jibs, lashes out, and pricks himself. However, after a few
lessons of this kind, he breaks himself of his abominable habit.

The Arabs declare that spurs add one-fourth to the rider's horsemanship,
and one-third to the spirit of the animal, and illustrate their
assertion by the following fable:

"When beasts were first created, they had the gift of speech. The horse
and the camel took an oath never to harm one another but to live, on the
contrary, with a perfect mutual understanding. An Arab placed in a
critical position by one of the chances of war, saw with despair the
flight of the camel on which he had hoped to save his property. There
was no time to lose. 'Bring my horse!' he exclaims, and leaps on his
back. He scolds him, beats him, gives him the heel. All in vain. The
horse stirs not a step, remembering the promise made to his friend. The
Arab then puts on his spurs, which he carried in his _djebira_,[37] and
the horse, smarting with his torn flanks, springs forward, and speedily
overtakes the runaway. 'Ah! traitor!' cried the camel, 'thou hast
violated our compact; thou tookest an oath never to do me any harm, and
yet thou hast replaced me in the power of my tyrant.' 'Accuse not my
heart,' replied the horse, 'I refused to move, but "the thorns of
misery" have brought me up to thee.'"

It is not an easy task to use the spurs properly. Horsemen who possess
that talent are cited even among the Arabs. Some are only able to urge
on their steed by constantly tickling his flanks without wounding him.
Others are acquainted only with the _tekerbeâa_, or the art of clashing
their iron spurs against their iron stirrups in order to frighten the
animal. The most skilful alone know how to raise those bloody wheals to
which we have already alluded. When it is said of a horseman that he
marks his horse with wheals from the navel to the vertebral column, the
highest compliment has been paid to him. During my residence at Mascara,
how often have I heard the Arabs assert, by way of vaunting the
horsemanship of their Emir: "Abd-el-Kader! why, he crosses his spurs on
his horse's loins!"

These spurs are dangerous for inexperienced horsemen, who sometimes
prick the animal on the kneepan and so lame him if the wound be deep.
And if a horse comes down, the spur is very apt to run into him. For
this reason the Arabs generally have the leathers of their spurs
tolerably loose, in order to obviate by their slackness, their own
awkwardness. It also enables them to disembarrass themselves more
quickly in battle if their horse happens to be killed and they are
compelled to flee on foot to save their lives. On the same grounds they
prefer in a serious combat loose-fitting shoes to boots. Our spurs they
look upon as utterly inefficient. "What benefit, in a case where your
life is at stake do you expect to get from them with a horse already
knocked up? They are good only for tickling a horse and to make him
restive. With our spurs we draw every thing out of him. As long as there
is life in him, we will get it out of him: they lose their effect only
in presence of death."

Every Arab trains his own horse. In the Sahara the only riding masters
are practice, tradition, and example. A reputation as a good rider is
only acquired after many proofs of skilfulness. It is not sufficient to
be competent to manage a horse on level ground. It is necessary, gun in
hand, to make the most of him at a rapid pace over a broken, wooded, and
difficult country, "Such a one," say they, "is a horseman of the gun,
while so-and-so is only a horseman of the heel." Perfection implies
equal skill with the gun and the heel. They even go so far as to
institute a difference between one who rides well over dry ground, and
one who rides boldly over slippery ground. They distinguish between the
horseman of summer and the horseman of winter.

What experience must not such an apprenticeship lay up! There is one
point, however, which they entirely overlook—they never trouble
themselves as to which leg the horse puts foremost. An Arab horse as
always power and well formed shoulders which, owing to his practice as a
colt of grazing on mountains, in woods, and on broken ground, have
become far better developed than they would have been by means of the
plate-longe and the riding school. He is also easy in his paces because
the rider yields to all the movements of his body and never sets himself
against them. I may add that the Arab has a perfect seat, and though he
rides very short he makes up for that disadvantage by wearing very long
spurs which, by the slightest movement of the leg, catch the horse on
the flank, compel him to bring his hind-legs under the centre of
gravity, keep him in hand, and place his head as correctly as if he had
acted upon our best system of horsemanship.[38]

Arab horses have always a good mouth. A proverb says:

The horseman makes the horse,
As the husband makes the wife.

But it is not enough to have softened and tamed the horse. Although by
means of kind treatment, daily intercourse, and punishment judiciously
applied, he has become docile, and a good action has been secured, his
education is still incomplete. It still remains to perfect him, and to
do so they train him to the following exercises:

_El Feuzzâa_, "setting off suddenly at full gallop." To accomplish this
they pursue nearly the same method as ourselves, with this difference
that they avail themselves of the aid of the _tekerbeâa_, which we have
already described, so that a horse must be altogether impracticable if
he does not act as he is required to do.

_El Kyama_, "going free." They rush the animal at a wall, or tree, or a
man, and pull him up short. By degrees he will learn to halt abruptly in
the middle of a rapid career, on the bank of a river or on the edge of a
ravine or precipice—a valuable accomplishment, oftentimes most
advantageous in war. If a young horse is not a free-goer, but capers
about and obstinately refuses to separate from the other horses, a fault
of the last consequence to an Arab, he is cured by the following
process. The owner's friends get on horseback and draw themselves up in
two lines, facing each other and two or three paces apart. The horse is
then ridden between these two hedges. If he stops, the horsemen beat him
with sticks, while his rider plies him vigourously with the spur. A
fortnight of this lesson is more than enough for the most obstinate.

_El Lotema_, "the wheeling round." This exercise consists in turning
suddenly to the right or left, but more frequently the latter, as soon
as the rider has fired off his piece. The principle is this, the trigger
being pulled, the horseman strikes his horse sharply with the left hand
behind the saddle, and at the same moment with his right hand on the
neck. The animal understands what is meant, and in a very short time
learns to obey merely the movement of his rider's body. This instruction
is inculcated with the greatest care, being of great importance to the
Arab, who is so often exposed to single combats.

_El Djery_, "the race." They first of all make the animal go at a swift
pace by itself over a level plain, stimulating it with whip and spur,
but only for a short distance. After a while they match the colt against
an old horse of some renown. The young one becomes excited, and does his
utmost to maintain the contest. These exercises being frequently
repeated serve likewise to give the owner an exact knowledge of his
horse's capabilities, and of what he may safely undertake with him in
the future. They are not unattended with danger, but "the angels have
two special missions in this world: to preside at the racing of horses
and at the union of man with woman." It is their duty to preserve
horsemen and horses from all accident, and to see that marriages are
fruitful.

_Teneguize_, "the leap." Moreover, the colt must be taught to leap. This
teaching is progressive and demands much patience. The lesson is not
repeated more than twice or thrice in the course of one day. At first
they begin with small obstacles, so as not to disgust the animal, nor is
he brought face to face with any of a serious nature until he is quite
docile and fully developed. Unquestionably, the Arabs regard the leap as
the necessary complement of a colt's education, but they are far from
attaching to it the same importance that Europeans do. Their country is
for the most part difficult, full of ravines, strewed with huge stones,
and covered with prickly bushes. They assert, therefore, that if they
were to jump over every obstacle they encounter either in war or in
hunting, they would be always jumping, which would fatigue their horses
terribly and in the long run ruin them. Consequently, they go round any
very rough ground, ride down almost perpendicular places, and go
straight up the steepest slopes, and practice renders their horses so
adroit that in a long journey they reach the end more quickly than if
they had jumped over everything that came in their way.

_El Nechacha_, "the exciting." The horse is taught to throw himself upon
that of the adversary, and bite either the rider or the animal. The
rider pulls up his horse, while he pushes him with his legs, and all the
time keeps on repeating the cry of _sheït_, and success is the more easy
because the animal is naturally excitable. The Arabs declare that horses
trained in this manner have often unseated an enemy in single combat.
Sometimes, too, in razzias, they quicken the pace of the camels that
have been captured. I myself have seen a Makhzen horseman thus hurry on
animals that had fallen behind. His horse rushed at them and bit at them
with apparent pleasure.

Horsemen of renown do not, however, confine the education of their
horses to these manœuvres so necessary in battle, but they also teach
them to shine at feasts and fantasias by the following accomplishments:

_El Entrabe_, "the caracol." The horse walks, so to speak, on his
hind-legs. Scarcely does he touch the ground with his forefeet, than he
again rises. One hand in concert with the legs, soon trains to this
exercise a horse of fair intelligence.

_El Gueteâa_, "the bucking." The horse springs up with all fours off the
ground, the horseman at the same time throwing up his gun into the air
and cleverly catching it. To obtain this action, the rider marks certain
intervals of rest and works with his legs. He gives with the animal as
he rises, in order to hold him up when he comes down again. Nothing can
be more picturesque than this exercise. The horses quit the earth, the
guns fly into the air, and the ample folds of the burnous float and
unroll themselves in the wind, thrown back by the vigourous arms of the
children of the desert. It is, in truth, the charm and crowning act of
the fantasia.

Lastly, _El-Berraka_, "the kneeling." The rider remaining on his saddle
causes his horse to kneel down. This is the _nec plus ultra_ of the man
and the animal. Not every horse is fit for this exercise. The colt is
trained to it by tickling him on the coronet, pinching him on the legs,
and forcing him to bend the knee. After a time the horseman will reap
the benefit of these preliminary steps. He need only clear his feet of
the stirrups, stretch his legs forward, turn out the points of his toes,
touch with his long spurs the animal's fore-arms, and then as his piece
is fired at marriage feasts and other rejoicings, his horse will kneel
down amid the applause of the young maidens, piercing the air with
joyful acclamations.

After the horse is completely "suppled" by all these exercises, the
following feats are attempted:

_Laâb el Hazame_, "the girdle feat." When the horse is thoroughly
trained, at a family festivals and religious solemnities, the horseman
going at full gallop will pick up a girdle lying on the ground: the most
skilful grasping it at three different places.

_Laâb Ennichan_, "firing at a mark." The target is usually a stone, or a
mutton shoulder-blade. The performers start from a distance in order to
get a good seat, and when fifty or sixty paces off they discharge their
pieces. The Saharene will recall these lessons to mind when out hunting,
and going at full speed, he brings down an ostrich or a gazelle. It is
not of an inhabitant of the Tell that you must expect these prodigies of
address, skilfulness, and equestrian science. Nor will you see on him
the light apparel, the fine and beautiful wool of a child of the desert,
whom, besides, you will always recognize by his slender, long-bodied
horse, the ease with which he handles his gun, and that graceful forward
movement by which he quickens his courser's pace. How many are there in
the Tell who would ride a whole stage without dropping a piece of money
placed between the sole of the foot and the spur?[39]

"And you Christians! you go at a trot. And so do we, but only when time
is of no consequence and to breathe our horses. In war time we know
nothing but the walk and the gallop. If we are not in a hurry, the trot
is enough for us, but if there be danger it is the gallop that saves our
heads."

An Arab chief would not keep a horse whose pace was not formed. The
above exercises are not adopted by all Arabs. Each selects what is best
suited to his position, his fortune, and his tastes. But all conform
themselves to the principles we have laid down for the education of the
colt. These consist in first of all reducing the young animal to the
last degree of wretchedness, in order to handle him gently when between
three and four years old. After these trials, his real value is known.
These principles are, moreover, summed up in a familiar proverb that
shows the amount of interest attached to beginning by times the task of
training.

Let the one-year old colt do nothing but eat,
And he will not strain himself:
Mount him from two to three years old,
Until he is quite tamed.
Feed him well from three to four.
Then mount him again,
And if he does not suit you,
Sell him without hesitation.

Let it not be supposed, however, that it is only the Arabs of our
African possessions who are so mad, if I may be allowed the use of the
expression, about commencing the process of breaking-in at an early age.
The Arabs universally, no matter to what country they belong, profess
the same principles. If proof be wanted, read what has been said on the
subject by no inexperienced person, in fact by an inspector-general of
the Haras, M. Pétiniaud, who was commissioned by the French Government
to travel through Upper Asia to procure horses of pure Oriental blood.
He shall speak for himself:—

"After three years of wanderings among the tribes encamped from
Diarbekir and Aleppo to the confines of the Nedjed, I returned to Bagdad
last January. Among the papers that awaited me, I found a number of the
_Journal des Haras_, containing an article on the horses of the Sahara.
The perusal of this only too brief memoir which denoted such a perfect
knowledge of the Arab and his horse, inspired me with a desire to
possess the entire work. On my arrival in France, you were obliging
enough to send me a copy, for which I thank you. No one could take a
greater interest than myself in a work which you might safely have
entitled: "On the Arab horse of Asia and Africa;" for such is the spirit
of tradition among this peculiar people that at every line I recognized
in the customs of the Moghreb Arabs the customs of their ancestors of
the Koreish and the Nedjed, and that after a separation of many
centuries."

"In 1851 I descended the Tigris from Mosul to Bagdad, with a volume of
Herodotus in my hand. All his descriptions of men and things were still
strictly applicable. Thus, at a distance of two thousand three hundred
years he depicted the manners of the Arabs with the same truthfulness
with which you, General, have described in Africa the Arabs of Asia.
Time and space are impotent in the presence of the unchangeableness of
such habits: intestine feuds, the chace, _fantasias_, love of the horse,
etc., etc., I have witnessed in Asia exactly what you have written of
Africa."

"Your work which possesses the great merit of telling the whole truth
and nothing but the truth, is calculated, as I think, to exercise a
great influence on the education of the horse in France. This delightful
style of reading will develop an interest in the animal in those who
have never before given it a thought, while our breeders will derive
some useful hints from the numerous details you relate. They will learn
not to reserve their admiration for a horse that has no other merit than
that of being fat, and they will at last come to understand the
advantages that result from putting a colt to salutary work from his
earliest age. "The horse is a labourer"—let him, then, be accustomed to
it in good time."

"I observed that the Arabs used universally to fatigue without mercy
their two and three-year olds, but spared them from three to four years
of age. They say that sustained work at an early age strengthens the
chest, muscles, and joints of the colt, at the same time imparting a
docility that will remain with him until death. They also declare that
as soon as these rude trials have been got over, his constitution should
be developed by rest, care, and an abundant diet, because after this new
stage of life he will only be able to show himself exactly what he
really he is—good or bad. If good, they will keep him: if bad, they will
get rid of him without hesitation, for in their eyes a bad horse is not
worth the barley they give him."

I trust to be pardoned for this digression for the sake of the
reflections which it suggests. Is it not wonderful to behold a people
scattered over vast territories, from the Persian Gulph to the Atlantic
Ocean, without means of communication, without printing machines,
without telegraphs, without any one of the thousand appliances of modern
civilization, but still speaking the same language, living in obedience
to the same law, and preserving by simple tradition as well as we could
do by books, the usages, the manners, and even the precepts of their
ancestors? While seeing and interrogating the Arabs of Algeria, I saw
and listened to the Arabs of the primitive stock. Is not this oneness,
under such circumstances, a matter to create astonishment?

It may happen that after a horse's education is finished, vices will
occasionally break out. The Arabs, however, pay little attention to
these, because they consider that such faults proceed simply from too
long a period of rest which renders them of lazy habits, or subject to
caprice through excess of vitality. They correct them by work, the
fatigues of war and the chace. The convenient disposition of their
saddles enables them to keep their seat in spite of the obstinate
"defences" of the animal, they are consequently never taken by surprise,
nor frightened, and always end by mastering the animal completely. No
one ever thinks of getting rid of his horse because he rears or plunges
or is otherwise troublesome. On the contrary they take delight in these
proofs of spirit, for the time will come when they will find their
advantage in it. The Arabs have a saying that "The horseman who has not
known how to train his horse, bestrides death every day."

The individual to whom they attribute the honour of having been the
first to tame the horse is Ishmael, the common ancestor of all the
Arabs. Their authority is these words of the Deity: "We placed horses
under his dominion in order that he might ride them"—and the celebrated
invocation of Ishmael himself: "Horses, night, and space are my
witnesses, as well as my sabre, my pen, and paper." Always, always,
religious tradition.

As to the really bad vices of biting, plunging, and kicking, they are
almost unknown. In fact, all their efforts are directed to avert these.
They make the horse live close to the tent, and receive him in some
degree as an integral part of the family. In the midst of the women, the
children, and the slaves, he can hardly fail to acquire habits of
gentleness and docility. For the rest, this care shown to the horse is
not merely the result of a sense of personal interest on the part of the
owner: it takes its origin in religion. The Prophet has said: "The
Believer who has trained his horse to shine in the holy war, the sweat,
the hair, the very excrement of this animal shall be placed in the
balance to his favour at the day of the last judgment."

However, notwithstanding all these bonds which attach man to the horse,
notwithstanding the solidarity formed by habit, religion, and interest,
no Mussulman will ever give to his horse the name of a man. Men's names
have been borne by saints; it would therefore be a deadly sin, a
sacrilege, in fact, to apply them to any animal, even though he should
be the noblest of all. Besides, names of any kind are given solely to
illustrious steeds, and only in the tents of the great. The following
are some of their designations:—

_Rakib_, the Scout; _Mansour_, the Victorious; _Sabeur_, the Patient;
_Salem_, the Saviour; _Kamil_, the Perfect; _Saâd_, Happiness;
_Maârouf_, the Known; _Aatik_, the Noble; _Sabok_, the Rapid; _Nadjy_,
the Persevering; _Moubarek_, the Blessed; _Guetrâne_, Pitch; _Messaoud_,
the Happy; _Safy_, the Pure; _Ghezala_, the Gazelle; _Naâma_, the
Ostrich; _Mordjana_, Coral; _El Aroussa_, the Bride; _Djerada_, the
Locust; _Ouarda_, the Rose; _Guemera_, the Moon; _Hamama_, the Dove;
_Yakouta_, the Ruby; _El Guetaya_, the Cutter; _Aâtifa_, the Docile; and
_Leïla_, Night. Very similar names are given to slaves.

A constant practice of the Arabs, and one that must have been remarked
by all who have served in Africa, is to cut the hairs of the forelock,
the neck, and the tail. The rules for this seem odd to Europeans. When
the colt is one year old they clip off all his hair except a tuft
between the ears, on the withers, and on the dock of the tail. At two
years old the operation is repeated, but this time the hair is entirely
clipped off. When three years old, in the third spring, a third clipping
takes place. From three to five years the hair is allowed to grow, but
only that the whole may be clipped off at the termination of the fifth
year. This final operation is called _el halafya_, and no instrument is
ever again raised against the hair. It would be thought sinful to do so,
as the only object could be to deceive one's brethren as to the age of
the horse. After each clipping they never fail to rub the parts thus
exposed with sheep's dung soaked in milk, or with Prussian blue diluted
with melted butter. These applications soften the skin and thicken the
hair. The practice of clipping is supported by several reasons. In the
first place, it indicates, at sight, the age of a horse up to eight
years, as it takes at least three years before the horse, having
recovered his full length of hair, can be styled _djarr_—one that trails
his tail along the ground. Secondly,—which is an important point in hot
countries,—it compels the animal to bear patiently the stings of flies.
And lastly it is supposed that the hair thus becomes thicker, longer,
and more silky.

If the Arabs explain and justify this method of clipping a horse's coat
until it is five years old, they do not attempt to do so for our fashion
of docking a horse's tail. In their eyes it is a barbarism that has no
name. It affords an inexhaustible theme for raillery. They rally us,
indeed, on this subject in the most serious conjunctures. I can
corroborate this assertion by an incident for the accuracy of which I
personally vouch:—

In 1841 the column commanded by Marshal Bugeaud marched to Taguedempt to
destroy the fort erected there at great expense by the Emir
Abd-el-Kader. We were encamped on the Ouad-Krelouk one of the
tributaries of the Mina. In the course of the night we were awakened by
the report of a musket shot fired in the middle of the camp. Every one
rushed out of his tent, hastened in the direction of the sound, and
inquired what was amiss. An Arab was lying on the ground, with his thigh
broken. He held in his hand a small knife with a very sharp edge and,
like all professional thieves in that country, he had nothing on save a
leathern girdle furnished with a pistol. The sentinel who had fired
explained that having observed a bush approach, halt, and then approach
still nearer, he had suspected some trickery and so fired at it at ten
paces distance, just as it was close to the horses of his captain. On
hearing the tale of the African veteran, his comrades in their fury were
about to massacre the Arab, but the officers who were present calmed
their not unnatural excitement and reported the case to the superior
authorities. The Arab was carried without delay to the ambulance and had
his wound dressed. On the morrow the expedition resumed its march. The
fellow had received a very severe wound, and it was useless to embarrass
ourselves with him. To have put him to death would only have hastened
his destiny, perhaps, by a few days, without doing us any particular
good, and, besides, the adventure could be turned to a better account.
The Governor General decided, therefore, that he should be left upon the
site of the encampment, and that a letter should be entrusted to him for
the powerful tribe of the Flittas, upon whose territory we then happened
to be. In this letter clear intimation was given to that hostile people
that their furious dislike to us would one day be fatal to themselves;
that it was useless to contend with us, that France abounded in warriors
and in wealth, that Abd-el-Kader by continuing the struggle would only
bring upon them unnumbered woes; and lastly that the best thing they
could do, was to draw off from that man, unless they preferred to see
their rich harvests destroyed and burnt before their very eyes.

At early dawn the column set out, and the rearguard was not a thousand
_metres_ from our bivouac when they observed some Arab horsemen arrive,
dismount, and carry off the wounded man. On the following day we
received the reply of the Flittas. It was addressed to "General Bugeaud,
Kaïd of the Port of Algiers," and was couched to the following effect:—

"You tell us that you are a strong and powerful nation, and that we
cannot contend against you. The powerful and the strong are just. And
yet you seek to take possession of a country that does not belong to
you. Besides, if you are so rich, what do you propose to do among a
people who have nothing but powder and shot to give you? Moreover, when
it pleases Him, the Master of the world humbles the strong and exalts
the feeble. You threaten to burn our crops, or to devour them with your
war horses and beasts of burden. How often already have we experienced
similar calamities! We have had bad seasons, we have had locusts and
drought, but Allah has never forsaken us; for we are Believers, we are
Arabs, and privations will not kill an Arab. We will never yield to you.
You are the enemies of our religion. It is quite impossible.
Nevertheless, if the Almighty, to punish us for our own sins and for
those of our forefathers, should be pleased to inflict upon us some day
that horrible malady, we confess we should be greatly embarrassed. With
us the mark of submission is the presentation of a horse to the victors.
We are aware that you care only for horses with short tails, and our
mares do not produce such."

Subsequently, however, the Flittas were compelled to give us such
horses as their mares did produce; but their resistance was
obstinate. Since then they have always been the first to raise the
cry of war and rebellion. It was they who slew the brave General
Mustapha-ben-Ismaïl.[40] It was they who supported Bou-Maza. It was
they, in short, who were the last reduced to submission.

After this episode so characteristic of our African campaigns, I cannot
better conclude this chapter on the education of the colt than by giving
some entirely novel details as to the manner of treating horses in
Arabia, which will not be at all out of place and may be interesting to
many as showing the part played by woman in the life of that noble
animal.

I have often heard it asked whence come the gentleness, the address,
the intelligence which, every one is agreed, are to be met with in Arab
horses. Are these qualities inherent in the Oriental stock? or are they
the result of education? A genial climate is undoubtedly favourable to
the development and improvement of the equine race. A rich and noble
stock is naturally more apt than any other to yield what is demanded of
it, but at the same time something must be done for it in return. The
most fruitful soil will produce nothing but briars and thorns if it is
not cultivated, and that in a proper manner. Starting from this standing
point the Arabs apply themselves with the greatest care and the utmost
tenacity to perfect, in their horses, the gifts of nature. A sustained
education, daily contact with man, with the other animals, with external
objects, that is their grand secret—it is that which makes the Arab
horse what he is, an object worthy of our unexceptional admiration. I am
aware that this feeling of admiration has not been altogether general.
Imperfect knowledge has led many to accuse the Arabs of being ignorant
and even of acting like butchers in the matter of horses. They rode them
badly, and did not bestow upon them the sort of care so prized in
Europe; they abused them from their most tender years, and were
constantly drawing blood from the flanks or from the mouth, etc., etc.
But truth at length began to dawn, and when it was ascertained that all
their horses were intelligent, obedient to the hand and leg, quiet to
mount, and inaccessible to fear, there was no choice but to acknowledge
that these were great qualities which could only have been produced by a
sound and logical education.

Our horses, on the other hand, are nothing more than animals more or
less tamed. They bear with man as a conqueror who disposes of them, but
they have neither confidence nor affection for those who employ them.
Slaves of mankind in general, they do not attach themselves to any one
man in particular, because no man especially attaches himself to his
horse, which is merely tended and valued like any other agricultural
product that is sold as soon as possible, or like an article of
commerce, or a piece of furniture that is bartered for profit or
exchanged from caprice. Our dogs, it may be, are only attached to us
because we do not part with them for a price.

The Arabs desire to find, in their horse, a devoted friend. With them he
leads, so to speak, a domesticated life, in which, as in all domestic
life, women play a conspicuous part—that, in fact, of preparing by their
gentleness, vigilance, and unceasing attention, the solidarity that
ought to exist between the man and the animal. On a journey or a
campaign, far from the dwelling place, it is the rider who occupies
himself with his horse. But at the encampment, under canvas, and in time
of repose, it is the wife who directs, superintends, and feeds the noble
companion in arms who so frequently augments the reputation of her
husband while supplying the wants of her children. In the morning it is
the wife who brings him his food, and tends him, and if possible washes
his mane and tail. If the ground on which he stands happens to be
uneven, broken, or covered with stones, she removes him to a spot more
convenient for his repose and the just disposition of his weight. She
caresses him, passes her hand gently over his neck and face, and gives
him bread, or dates, or kouskoussou, or even meat cooked and dried in
the sun. "Eat, O my son!" she says to him in a soft and tender tone.
"One day thou shalt save us out of the hand of our enemies and fill our
tent with booty."

It is in the morning also that the Arab wife goes forth to the pastures
to gather for the animal she cherishes an ample supply of herbs esteemed
in the desert for their tonic and nutritive properties. On her return
should she see any children, as yet too young to reason, amusing
themselves by teasing or ill using the horses tethered in front of the
tent, she will cry to them as soon as she can make herself heard:
"Children, beat not the horses. Wretches! it is they who nourish you. Do
you wish that Allah should curse our tent? If you begin again, I will
speak to your father."

On this subject the Arab wife is so intractable that she would not spare
her own husband if he took no care of his horse. The horse is his
honour, his fortune. She is proud and jealous on those points, and deems
herself affected by whatever affects him. If it ever came to pass that
her remarks and suggestions were passed over with neglect, she would not
hesitate to carry her complaints to the chief of the tribe: "O my lord!
you know that our horse is all we have, and yet my husband takes him on
idle journeys, ill uses him, overrides him, and taxes him beyond his
strength. It would be something if he looked after him when at home; but
no, his covering is full of holes, he is never certain of being fed, and
even goes in want of water. Scold my husband, I beseech you in the name
of Allah. Lead him back into the ways of our forefathers. Above all, do
not tell him that it was I who suggested this to you."

The Arab chief, whose interest it is in the course of his adventurous
career to be followed only by well mounted horsemen, never fails to make
use of the information thus given. He will summon the delinquent before
him, reprove him, and warn him that if he does not change his conduct he
will take his horse from him and make him walk like a common
foot-soldier. At last he will discharge him with these words: "Thou
understandest me; go thy way; but bear in mind that in this world honour
begins at the stirrup to be completed in the saddle." A lesson of this
kind always produces a great effect, not only on the offender but on all
who might be tempted to follow his example. And in this manner,
sometimes through self-love, sometimes through the fear of punishment,
the Arabs apply themselves to inculcate, voluntarily and compulsorily,
on all characters and dispositions a love for the horse.

In the afternoon, a little later or a little earlier according to the
season, the wife employs herself in leading the horses to water if the
fountain be not too distant, and in that case she goes herself to fetch
the water in goat-skin bags. When water fails entirely, she gives them
ewe's or camel's milk. At this hour the tent of an Arab chief presents a
truly singular spectacle. Oftentimes may be seen between the legs of the
women and the horses, in presence of a crowd of picturesquely attired
children, by the side of falcons beating their wings or greyhounds in a
state of excitement, a gazelle, an antelope, or an ostrich, running in
and out and jumping about, to beg a drop of that liquid so rare in the
desert but which is nevertheless given in abundance to the favourite of
the family. Now the evening is at hand. What means that dark speck on
the horizon? It is the young men of the _douar_[41] wearily regaining
the encampment, mounted on horses with hollow flanks, worn out, and
shoe-less. They have been out the whole day hunting, without eating or
drinking. Camels loaded with gazelles, hares, bustards, etc., follow
behind, but this prize, tempting though it be, will not save them from
the storm that awaits them: "Young men," their mothers will exclaim with
an angry voice, "it is disgraceful thus to ruin our horses for the sake
of a little useless game. You would do far better to spare them for the
day when the saliva will dry up in the mouth, for the day when riches
will not ransom the head."

During the great heats the women bring the horses into the tent, to
shelter them from the fierce rays of the sun. They wash and cleanse
them, and in the evening fill the nose-bags with barley to hang round
the neck of their petted animals. Each one, and it is a very important
point, receives a ration proportioned to his age and temperament and the
work he has gone through. These every day attentions and kindnesses as
we have already remarked and can not too often repeat, render the horses
gentle and affectionate. They neigh with pleasure at the approach of her
who tends them, and, as soon as they see her, turn their head gracefully
towards her. They go up to her, and she lays hold of them whenever it
pleases her, and if any one expresses surprise she will reply with
perfect simplicity: "How can you suppose that our mares will not
recognize the hand that caresses and feeds them? To how many gambols do
they not betake themselves in my presence? And when rising up on their
hind-feet behind my back they gently rest their legs on my shoulders—and
when they carry a young lamb in their teeth by its wool—and when they
slip into the tent to steal our kouskoussou—these are all associations
very dear to us. Besides, is it not I who, by giving them at proper
times milk or barley, have succeeded in tightening their bellies,
developing their chests, sharpening their heads, widening their
foreheads, and hardening their limbs? Behold them pass by the side of a
herd of gazelles and you would see no difference between the one and the
other: the same grace, the same vigour in their bounding, the same
swiftness in the course. Like the gazelles have they not eyes level with
the head, large eyeballs, bold, sharp ears, thin legs, a rounded croup,
and hoofs hard and well knit?"

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

The details touching the education of the colt are true. It is what we
really do. Too great fatigue and too long journeys do not suit the colt
because they prevent the development of his strength and stature. The
_djeda_, or less than three years old colt is like a shrub—any
impediment in his way stops his growth. But what does suit the colt is
exercise and a cautiously graduated fatigue. He must be accustomed to
the saddle and bridle, but should only be ridden by a child or by a man
of discretion whose weight is in proportion to the age and strength of
the animal.

A very customary kind of exercise is after this manner. The colt is
mounted by a child, who, with a light stick in his hand, sets off at
full gallop. When the colt is tired, he stops, and browses, and lies
down as soon as he returns home. On the following morning they give him
a feed of barley and take him back to the same starting point, whence he
again sets off. This time he is expected to go a greater distance, and
in this manner they continue until they have obtained from him a course
twice as long as that of the first day.

The Arabs look for a free-going pace in a young horse, and they demand
three varieties of gallop; 1st a short gallop, such as is usual in
taking a ride for pleasure; 2nd a strong and regular gallop, useful in
war, or in hunting wild beasts; 3rd a gallop at full speed, as in races
or in fleeing for one's life. This last should not be too freely
indulged in.

In fine, the education of the colt should be commenced very early. This
is an excellent practice, and not to conform to it is disgraceful—it is
making a horse unfit for war. An animal that is not thoroughly trained
from its earliest years is intractable, difficult, and awkward: with the
slightest exertion it bursts out into a sweat and is good for nothing.
It is therefore incumbent in sparing the colt, as I have already said,
whatever may check his growth and the full development of his
proportions, to endeavour to obtain by work a horse that is supple and
patient of fatigue.

The first horse possessed by the Prophet was called _Ouskoub_, by reason
of his speed, for the word _sakab_ denotes water that escapes.

Another horse belonging to the Prophet was named _Mortadjez_, because of
the beauty of his neigh which resembled poesy and the harmonious metres
of the _Aadjaz_. He was of a white colour, and was also styled
"Gracious" and "Noble."

A third was known as the "Trailer," as if he trailed his tail along the
ground. A fourth was _El Hezzez_, "the fixed" or "the adherent," as if
he were already fixed and adherent at the goal it was proposed to reach.
Others affirm that his name referred to the vigourous set of his limbs.
A fifth was named the "Hill," either because of his height, or because
of the power and hardness of his limbs. The Prophet's sixth horse was
called the "Rose," on account of the colour of its coat, which was a
cross between a chestnut and a dark bay. The seventh was named the
"Swimmer," because of the beautiful movements of his shoulders, and
because in galloping he raised his fore-legs as if he were swimming.

His first horse, _Ouskoub_, was his favourite. He had besides these the
"Sea," the "Wolf," etc., etc.

It has been my object in recalling to mind these notices to teach the
Arabs the rule they ought to follow in naming their horses, which should
always be called after those of the Prophet. _Djarada_, a
javelin,—_Delim_, male ostrich,—_Rakib_, vigilant (the wild ass), are
likewise designations suitable to horses.

There are three kinds of horses: the first loads with crimes and belongs
to Satan; the second preserves from eternal fire and belongs to man; the
third brings down rewards and belongs to Allah.

Loads with crimes and belongs to Satan the horse that is trained out of
pride and ostentation, and kept to support wagers to play at games of
hazard, or to do injury to Mussulmans.

Preserves from the fire and belongs to man the horse reared for the
purpose of reproduction, to save his owner from poverty, and to be
useful to him in his personal affairs, without his wandering from the
way of God.

Lastly, draws down rewards and belongs to Allah the horse destined
exclusively for good works, in the interest of religion. The grass eaten
by such a horse in the field or the garden, his evacuations, the water
he drinks with his master on his back while crossing a river, without
even any intention on the part of the latter to give him to drink, are
inscribed by Allah in the register of good works.

Remonstrate with your horses, and they will avoid the faults which have
brought down your anger upon them, for they understand the wrath of man.
Treat them, however, habitually with great gentleness; and when you
mount them, fear not to guide them into the midst of a crowd or of
uproar. Let them hear the report of fire-arms, the _guellal_ (the
tabour), the shouts of men, and the cries of camels; let them see
everything, too, which appears strange to them, and in a short time they
will manifest neither surprise nor terror.

A man of a noble family of the Oued-Shelif[42] setting out for Mecca,
started in company with a few friends who wished to do him honour. He
was riding a blood mare, still in the possession of the family. Suddenly
she stumbled, and to punish her he gave her a smart cut with his bridle
end, which put her into such a state of agitation that for some minutes
she did nothing but rear and jump about from right to left. On his
return from Mecca he rode the same animal, and the friends who had
accompanied him on his departure went forth to meet him and give him
welcome. Scarcely had they reached the spot where the mare was beaten
than she began to rear and caper about, going through absolutely the
same movements as on the day she was struck. Every one was astonished at
this proof of extraordinary memory in an animal that had preserved for
a whole year the recollection of a punishment, and of the place where
she received it.

"Our noble coursers pass their time in vying with each other in
swiftness."

"The women wipe off with their veils the sweat that runs down their
faces."

"They balance their heads as if they would free themselves from the
fastenings that hold them captive, and are attentive to the slightest
command."

"On their backs are mounted fierce lions."

DIET.

If in the Sahara ewe's or camel's milk is frequently given to horses, it
must not be supposed that that is their only drink. It is more generally
a substitute for barley, which is a scarce commodity, than for water,
which is not usually difficult to find. The Arabs are convinced that
milk maintains health and strengthens the fibre, without increasing the
fat. It is needless to add that the rich who possess many she-camels are
less sparing of milk than the poor, who have hardly enough to satisfy
the wants of their families. The latter dilute it with water when they
can. In the spring time they make use of ewe's milk, to which at other
seasons they add camel's milk.

At Souf, Tougourt, Ouargla, Metlili, Gueleâa, and in the Touat, where
there are more camels than horses and where grain is scarcer than in the
first zone of the desert, dates oftentimes take the place of barley.
When they are dry they are given in a nosebag. In eating them the horse,
of himself, rejects the stones with considerable address. In certain
districts the stones are taken out and crushed in a mortar, and are then
mixed with the dates, which are likewise slightly bruised. Dates are
also given to horses before they are perfectly ripe, and are eaten
stones and all—being quite soft they do no harm. When it is desired to
mix the dates with the drink, the Arabs proceed after this fashion.
After the fruit is gathered they take three or four pounds of fresh
dates, and manipulate them in a large vase full of water until the pulp
of the date has become a sort of liquid paste. The skins and stones are
removed and the mixture after being well shaken is presented to the
animal. The date regimen makes fat, but does not harden the fibre.

In the first zone of the Sahara the ordinary diet of the horse is as
follows for each season:—In the spring the shoes are generally removed,
and the animals are turned out on the pastures, which at that period of
the year abound with a succulent and fragrant herbage known under the
generic name of _el âacheub_. They are clogged. Care is taken to avoid
the districts where the _ledena_ is met with, a velvety plant the leaves
of which resemble a rat's ear. It grows close to the ground and is
usually covered up and hidden in the sand. It brings on colics that for
the most part terminate fatally. Persons of distinction who keep many
servants, and experienced horsemen, never give green food to their war
horses. Rich or poor, no one gives barley, which is replaced by ewe's
milk, which in this season is very abundant, and preserves the horse in
perfect condition. The animals are watered only once a day, at two in
the afternoon.

In summer the Saharenes proceed to the Tell to lay in their provision of
grain. They are surrounded by unfriendly strangers, and sometimes by
enemies. They do not, therefore, care to send their horses out to graze,
as they would run the risk of being stolen. Nor are they sorry to have
them close at hand in case of any of the numerous accidents happening
which so often occur. Barley and barley straw are purchased from their
hosts: it is the period of the year when the animals fare most
liberally. I mention barley straw, because no Arab would ever consent to
feed his horses on fresh wheaten straw. They fancy it produces jaundice
if used before the winter. If, perchance, any thing should prevent them
from going to buy grain in the Tell, as the plains afford no herbage but
what is dried up by the sun, they make for the mountains of the Sahara,
where there is a better chance of coming across rivers, or ponds, or at
least marshes. If this resource fails them, they encamp in the
neighbourhood of the _Kuesours_[43] where straw can be had for money or
in the way of barter. In either case the mares alone are sent out to
graze, the horses being fastened in front of the tents. Whatever be the
temperature, the Arabs never give their horses that mixture of bran,
barley meal, and water which we call a mash, and of which we make such a
mistaken use. They accuse it of relaxing the tissues and of weakening
the system, while favouring the growth of fat, an evil they dread above
all things. When their horses are over heated they lessen their work,
and if they can procure it they give them green barley straw, and if
that is not to be had they have recourse to cooling baths. As to the
barley, they like it heavy, without any bad smell, and free from the
dirt which gets mixed with it in the "silos," as well as from the black,
withered, and blighted grains which have been struck by the South wind.

In autumn the horses are again turned out into the pastures, where they
find the _shiehh_, that invaluable resource of the Sahara, so that it is
said in praise of a man who is as capable as he is modest:

So-and-so is like the shiehh:
He has parts, but is no prattler.

So much for the day. At night are given handfuls of _seurr_, a species
of thorny shrub. It is cut down close to the ground, and beaten with a
stick to get rid of the dry prickles, which might injure the œsophagus,
or the membranous lining of the stomach. It contains many nutritive
elements. Another plant somewhat resembling the common bramble and
called _el âdem_ is prepared in a similar manner.

The horse is watered only once in the twenty-four hours, about two in
the afternoon. That time is thought the most favourable because the
water will have lost something of its coldness,—the temperature then
falling every day. Those who are well off give barley, but the poor
cannot always do so.

In winter the horses continue to be sent to the pastures, which are now
verdant in proportion to the rain that has fallen. The _shiehh_, the
_âdem_, the _derine_,[44] etc., are met with, and afford a very
sufficient diet. At night _bouse_ is thrown to them in quantities. It is
called by the Arabs "brother of the barley," so highly do they
appreciate its nutritive properties. _Bouse_ is in fact, nothing else
than the _alfa_,[45] which, at the moment of forming its ear, having
been pulled by its upper part has come away and got separated from its
sheath. Being gathered into small sheaves it is cut up in pieces and
answers the purpose of chopped straw. The _alfa_ is turned to account in
yet another manner. Its roots are laid bare with a mattock and being
freed from their reddish coating, are eaten with avidity by the animal.
This article of food takes the name of _gueddeine_ or _zemouna_,
according to the locality. It is nutritious, but not a substitute for
barley. Hay is unknown in the desert. The Arabs might, if they chose,
lay up an abundant supply of it for the winter, but they reject it as
having a tendency to make a horse heavy, to soften the fibre, and in
the long run to occasion inflammatory disorders. The animals are watered
only once a day as in autumn. It is a proverbial saying with the Arabs
that "The food of the morning goes out into the draught, while that of
the evening passes into the croup." They affirm, therefore, that if the
horse has drunk sufficient over night, and eaten heartily through the
night, there is not the slightest inconvenience in not giving him
anything on the morrow, especially if he has to set out early in the
morning. Thus in our camps, with fifteen to eighteen hundred Arab
horsemen making part of the expedition, what did we witness? Every
officer of the old African army can vouch for the truth of what I am
about to say:

Contrary to our habits, to the very last moment the most perfect
tranquillity continued to reign in the Arab bivouac. Not a minute was
taken from the rest of the animal. They gave him nothing either to eat
or to drink. The instant before starting they rubbed him down with a
nose-bag. The saddle replaced the covering worn through the night. The
bridle was put on, the tents struck, the morning prayer offered up, and
at the hour named they were on the march. More than once I have happened
to testify my surprise at such a system, but always received the same
reply: "Why wouldst thou do for thy horse what thou wouldst not do for
thyself? If thou leavest the table at ten or eleven at night, canst thou
sit down again to it on the morrow at the dawn of day?" With this
regimen the animals remain thin and slender. They are always ready to
march or gallop, or do whatever hard work may be required of them. They
pick up in an astonishing manner when instead, of a few handfuls of
barley and what they can graze off plains parched by a burning sun, they
fall in with the produce of the Tell. How would it be, then, if they
were placed on the diet of European horses? Instead of their flesh being
firm they would get quite fat, and so gain in our estimation, but they
would lose in that of the Arabs, who little appreciate that style of
beauty generally acquired at the cost of the best qualities of a war
horse.

However, if the Arab is too genuine a horseman not to attach the
greatest importance to vigour, he is on the other hand too fond of pomp
and distinction and the _fantasia_—to use a word already popular in
Europe—not to bestow upon himself, when he can, the luxury of a horse
for show and parade. It is therefore no rare thing to see Arabs of high
position leave their favourite mares for three or four months fastened
in front of their tents, without putting them to any work. They thus get
into good condition, and are employed only at festivals and marriage
feasts and on occasions when the chiefs are particularly anxious to
distinguish themselves. For the chace, for razzias, and for long and
arduous journeys, they keep horses of less apparent value, but of which
they are sure, and do not fear to fatigue them. The mares to which we
have alluded are equipped with great ostentation. The _stara_, or
cloths, and the bridles are embroidered with pure gold, the stirrups are
plated or gilt, and the felt saddle-cloths are as fine as cloth; the
most esteemed coming from Ouareglâa.

REMARKS OF THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

One of the Prophet's companions as he went out one morning found him
wiping with his cloak the head of his horse. "Why, with thy cloak?"
"What know'st thou?" replied the Prophet. "It may be that the Angel
Gabriel has been angry with me on his account last night." "At least let
me give him his food." "Ah!" cried the Prophet, "Thou would'st take for
thyself all the rewards, for the Angel Gabriel has told me that every
grain of barley eaten by the horse is accounted to me for a good work."

The Saharene gives his horse camel's milk to drink which has the
particular property of imparting speed, so that a man—according to what
is said by reliable persons who guarantee the truth of the statement—if
he takes nothing else for a sufficient time, will attain to such a
degree of swiftness that he may vie with the camels themselves. In fact,
camel's milk strengthens the brain and the tendons, and does away with
fat, which produces a relaxation of the muscles.

In some parts of the Sahara the chiefs and horsemen of renown never give
green food to their war horses. Milk, barley, and the plants known by
the names of _shiehh_, _derine_, _bouse_, and _seuliane_ form their sole
keep. This diet does not enlarge the belly or fatten like green food,
which distends the intestinal canal, partly because of the enormous
quantity consumed by the animal before he is satisfied, and partly
because of the water it contains.

In summer the horses are not watered until three o'clock in the
afternoon. In winter they are watered rather earlier—from noon to one.
It is the time of day when in the open air the water has lost much of
its coldness. These principles are expressed in the following proverb,
known to the meanest horseman of the desert:—

In the hot season[46] put back the hour of the watering-place
And put forward that of the nose-bag;
In the cold season put forward the hour of the watering-place,
And put back that of the nose-bag.

Among the desert tribes, for forty days counting from the month of
August, the horses are watered only every other day. The same method is
pursued during the last twenty days of December and the first twenty
days of January. In cold weather the rich let their horses have as much
barley as they can eat, but decrease the ration considerably in hot
weather. Milk and _bouse_ may be substituted for barley. It is seldom
that any thing to eat is given in the morning. The horse marches upon
the food of the previous evening, and not on that of the same day.

Looking at two horses, one from the Tell and the other from the Sahara,
a man who has not studied the subject will always prefer the former,
which he will find handsome, heavy, sleek, and fat, while he will
despise the second, fool that he is, and abuse the very points which
constitute his worth—that is, the fine, dry extremities, the tightened
belly, and the bare ribs. And yet this horse of the desert that has
never been accustomed to barley, green food, or straw, but only
_shiehh_, _bouse_, and _seuliane_, that has never had any thing but milk
to drink and from his earliest years has served at the chace and in war,
will have the swiftness of the gazelle and the patience of the dog,
while the other will never be any thing but an ox by his side.

The greatest enemies of the horse are repose and fat.

GROOMING, HYGIENE, PROPORTIONS.

Grooming is unknown in the Sahara. The horses are merely wiped down with
woollen rags, and covered with very good _djellale_, or rugs that
envelop both the croup and the chest. In truth, labour of this sort is
little wanted, the horses being habitually placed in a healthy spot, on
raised ground, and sheltered from draughts. Arabs who have observed us
grooming our horses morning and evening with elaborate carefulness,
pretend that this continual rubbing of the epidermis, especially with
the curry-comb, injures their health, and renders them delicate and
impressionable, and consequently incapable of supporting the fatigues of
war, or at all events more liable to disease.

When the weather is hot and facilities exist for the purpose, the horses
are washed morning and evening. Frequently in winter time they are
fastened up inside the tents, which are very roomy, to shelter them from
the sun and rain. The great thing is to keep them clean. One day a horse
was led up to the Prophet who examined it, rose up, and without saying a
word, wiped his face, eyes, and nostrils with the sleeves of his
under-garment. "What! with your own garments!" exclaimed the bystanders.
"Certainly," replied he; "the Angel Gabriel has more than once rebuked
me, and has commanded me to act thus."

In winter the covering is kept on day and night; and in summer until
three o'clock when it is taken off, but put on again at eight for the
whole night, to preserve the animal from cold and dew, which are all the
more dangerous, say the Arabs, because the skin has been heated
throughout the day by a burning sun. The following proverb expresses
their dread of the cold of summer nights:—

The cold of summer
Is worse than a sabre cut.

If the Arabs do not, like ourselves, attach much importance to grooming,
they are, on the other hand, very careful and particular in their choice
of the food, and above all of the water, they give to their horses. Many
a time during the early days of the conquest, while on an expedition,
after long marches in an intolerable heat, with a south wind blowing
that choked us and drove the dust and sand into our faces, when horse
and foot alike panting, exhausted, without power of motion, we delivered
ourselves up, worn out as we were, to a fatiguing sleep often
interrupted by the alerts caused by the enemy prowling around us—at such
a time I have seen the natives go a league from the bivouac in order to
water their horses at some pure spring known to themselves. They
preferred to risk their own lives to experiencing the pain of watering
their horses at the scanty rivulets in the encampment, quickly converted
into filthy drains by the trampling of men and beasts of burden.

It can hardly be necessary for me to dilate any farther on the hygiene
of the horse among the Arabs. Indeed, I could only repeat what I have
already said. It seems to me preferable to refer the reader to the
various details scattered through the preceding pages, and particularly
to the principles enunciated in the chapter on the education of the
colt. If I have made myself at all understood, I have shown how every
owner of a horse among the Arabs is an active, vigilant, I had almost
said devoted, master who watches and directs the progress, corrects the
defects, and perfects the qualities of his pupil from the very first
day. This education embraces every thing, including what I may fairly
call the moral faculties; and it augments, modifies, and improves the
physical qualities. Every thing is weighed and foreseen. The drink, the
diet, the exercise, the position in rest, the whole is graduated and
proportioned to age, place, and season; it is all the object of
incessant and sustained solicitude. Moreover, the grand principle, and I
myself think it a good one, seems to be to avoid, on one hand, excessive
fatness which is opposed to all energetic work, and, on the other, any
check to perspiration which is the cause of the greater number of
diseases. Once more, the question is not: is all this care well founded?
are they wrong, or are we mistaken? But after having propounded the
formula, that in the life of an Arab his most absorbing and almost
exclusive occupation is the rearing and training of his horse, I have
shown that the Arab is not guided by mere chance, that his is not a
blind, inconsiderate passion, as is supposed by those who see him from
afar and bestow only a glance on him. Any one who will study him
perseveringly, who will examine him, as it were, under the microscope,
and analyse his daily acts and doings, will be forced to the conclusion
that he is guided by traditional and logical motives. In a word, this
education, this careful bringing up, of the horse is based upon fixed
and constant principles having for their aim to endow the animal with
spirit, bottom, and health. And what is this but hygiene?

The Arabs, says Ben-el-Ouardy, have always preferred good horses to
their own children, and they love so much to show them off on occasions
of rejoicing that they would deprive themselves of all nourishment
rather than see them suffer from hunger and thirst. In the arduous and
critical circumstances of life, especially in years of famine, they go
so far as to give them the preference over their own persons and
families. This is proved both by faithful narratives, and by the chaunts
composed by their poets. Witness the verses addressed by the learned
Ben-Sassa to the great tribe of the Beni-Aâmer.[47]

Beni-Aâmer, why do I behold your horses
Blemished and changed by misery?
Such a condition cannot be right for them.
Though death has an hour that no man can put back,
Horses are your safeguard:
Give them the good things you yourselves like best;
With pure barley fill their nose-bags,
And with iron furnish their hoofs.
Love horses, and take care of them;
In them alone lie honour and beauty.
In taking care of them, you take care of yourselves,
The Arab who has not a good horse can never aim at renown.
For my part, on this earth, I know no other happiness.

And had I hundreds of gold _soulthanis_.[48]
I should enjoy them only by sharing them with him.
I would also support my family with them,
And when they came to fail me,
I would humble my pride
Even to beg alms proudly for my friend.
All the treasures of Karoun,[49] without a horse,
Would not make me happy.

Does the north wind begin to blow,
Do the heavens open upon the earth,
Secure your horses from the cold rain.
Keep them warm, they deserve these attentions.
For sports, for war,
Adorn them with your richest saddles,
With bridles embroidered with gold, with superb garments,
And the Prophet will love you.

Sympathise, too, with, the mares of your poor dependents,
When in spite of all their efforts
They have not sufficed for their wants;
Bestow upon them a generous hospitality,
Share with them your ordinary food;
Associate them with your own families,
Many sins will be forgiven you.

The sabres are drawn,
The warriors are in their ranks,
The horse is about to become more precious than a wife.
The fire of battle is kindled,
I guide him into the midst of perils,
He protects me with his head, and his croup,
And makes my enemies to flee.
May Allah preserve this well-maned horse,
Whose eyes flash fire!
Love horses, take care of them,
In them alone lie honour and beauty.

In the Sahara, then, the horse is the noblest creature after man. The
most honourable occupation is to rear him, the most delightful pastime
is to mount him, the best of all actions is to tend him well.

The Arabs assert that they can tell beforehand, by certain methods, what
will be a colt's stature and character when he becomes a horse. These
methods vary in different localities, but those most generally adopted
are the following:—For the height, they take a cord, and passing it
behind the ears and the nape of the neck, they bring the two ends
together on the upper lip just below the nostrils. Having established
this measure, they apply it to the distance from the foot to the
withers. It is an article of belief that the colt will grow as high as
this last measurement out-tops the withers.

When it is desired to ascertain the value of a horse by his proportions,
they measure with the hand from the extremity of the dock to the middle
of the withers, and take note of the number of palms. They then begin
again from the middle of the withers to the extremity of the upper lip,
passing between the ears. If in the two cases the number of palms is
equal, the horse will be good, but of ordinary speed. If the number of
palms behind is greater than in front, the horse will have no "go" in
him. But if the number of palms between the withers and the extremity of
the upper lip is more considerable than in measuring from the tail to
the withers, rest assured the animal will have great qualities. The more
the number differs to the advantage of the forepart, the greater will be
the value of the horse. With such an animal, say the Arabs, they can
"strike afar"—go a long distance—thus expressing the pace and bottom
promised by such proportions. With a little practice they easily come to
judge by the eye so as to have no occasion to measure. While a horse is
passing they compare rapidly, starting from the withers, the hindpart
with the forepart, and without going into details the animal is judged.

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

Passing before a horse the Prophet began to rub his face with his
sleeve, saying: "Allah has been wrathful with me because of horses."
"Felicity is attached to the forelocks of horses." And it is on their
account that their owners can reckon on the aid of Allah. Therefore it
is your duty to wipe their forelocks with your hands. A wise man has
said:—"The noble labours with his hands without a blush, in three cases;
for his horse, for his father, and for his guest."

One mode of judging of a horse is to measure him from the root of the
mane close to the withers and descend to the end of the upper lip
between the nostrils. They then measure from the root of the mane to the
end of the tail-bone, and if the forepart is longer than the hindpart
there is no doubt the horse will have excellent qualities. To ascertain
if a young horse will grow any more or not, the Arabs measure first from
the knee to the highest point situated in the prolongation of the limb
above the withers, then from the knee downwards to the beginning of the
hair above the coronet (to the crust of the hoof): if these two measures
are to one another as two-thirds to one-third, the horse will grow no
more. If this proportion does not exist, the animal has not done
growing, for it is absolutely necessary that the height from the knee to
the withers should represent in a full grown horse exactly double the
length of the leg from the knee to the hoof.

In the desert the curry-comb is never used, the horses are cleaned with
the nose-bag, which is made of horse hair, and are frequently washed if
the weather is favourable. Milk is their ordinary drink. Should it
happen to run short, the Arabs do not hesitate to go a considerable
distance to find clear and pure water for them. The barley ought to be
heavy, very clean, without any bad smell, and completely clear of the
impurities which are unavoidably mixed with it in the "silos." The
horses are covered with good _djellale_, which fully protect the loins,
the belly, and the chest. They are manufactured in the tribe. Those that
are made with care are water proof.

There are some coats which must be preserved with equal attention from
cold and from heat. Experience has demonstrated that this is necessary
for all horses of a light colour, beginning with the white, the fineness
of whose skin makes him very susceptible.

In the sun he melts like butter:
In the rain he melts like salt.

Coats of a dark colour do not need so many precautions. When it is very
hot or very cold, the horses are brought inside the tent. In the Sahara
the nights are always cool; in summer, as in winter, the animals must be
covered. Nothing is overlooked that may avert checked perspiration.
After a long journey the saddle is not removed until the horse is dry.
Nor do they give him any thing to eat until he has recovered the
regularity of his breathing, and for the most part they give him water
to drink with the bridle on. Lastly, the encamping grounds are
studiously selected. What is preferred is a dry ground, cleared of the
stones that might encumber it, on which the horse is placed so that the
forequarters shall be a little higher than the hind quarters, and facing
as much as possible the master of the tent, who watches him night and
day like one of his own children. To place a horse with his forequarters
lower than the hind quarters is to ruin his shoulders. Particular care
should always be taken of the _djellale_. A horseman is little respected
by the Arabs when it can be said of him:

His horse drinks troubled water,
And his covering is full of holes.

COATS.

The favourite coats are:—

The White: "Take the horse white as a silken flag, without spot, with
the circle of his eyes black."

The Black: "He must be black as a night without moon and stars."

The Bay: He must be nearly black, or streaked with gold. "The dark red
one said to the dispute, 'Stop there.'"

The Chestnut: "Desire a dark shade. When he flees beneath the sun, it is
the wind. The Prophet was partial to chestnuts."

The Dark Dappled-Gray, called "the grey of the wild pigeon," if
resembling the stone of the river.

He will fill the douar
When it is empty,
And will preserve us from the combat,
On the day when the muzzles of the guns touch each other.

The Grays are generally esteemed when the head is of a lighter colour
than the body.

The Green, or rather the yellow dun, which must be dark, with black tail
and mane.

White is the colour for princes, but does not stand heat. The black
brings good fortune, but fears rocky ground. The chestnut is the most
active. "If one tells you that he has seen a horse fly in the air, ask
of what colour he was; and if he replies: 'Chestnut,'—believe him." "In
a combat against a chestnut, you must have a chestnut." The bay is the
hardiest and most sober. "If one tells you that a horse has leaped to
the bottom of a precipice without hurting himself, ask of what colour he
was; and if he replies: 'Bay,'—believe him."

Ben Dyab, a renowned chief of the desert, who flourished in the year of
the Hijra 955, happening one day to be pursued by Saad-el-Zenaty, sheikh
of the Oulad-Yagoub, turned to his son and asked: "What horses are in
the front of the enemy?" "White horses," replied his son. "It is well;
let us make for the sunny side, and they will melt away like butter."
Some time afterwards Ben Dyab again turned to his son and said: "What
horses are in the front of the enemy?" "Black horses," cried his son.
"It is well; let us make for stony ground, and we shall have nothing to
fear—they are the negroes of the Soudan, who cannot walk with bare feet
upon the flints." He changed his course, and the black horses were
speedily distanced. A third time Ben Dyab asked: "And now, what horses
are in the front of the enemy?" "Dark chestnuts and dark bays." "In that
case," exclaimed Ben Dyab, "strike out, my children, strike out, and
give your horses the heel, for these might perchance overtake us had we
not given barley to ours all the summer through."

The coats despised are:

The Piebald: "Flee him like the pestilence, for he is own brother to the
cow."

The kouskoussou arrives when he is gone,
And he finds the dispute as soon as he arrives.

The Isabel, with white mane and tail; no chief would condescend to mount
such a horse. There are some tribes even that would not consent to allow
him to remain a single night with them. They call such a one _sefeur el
ihoudy_, "the Jew's yellow." It is a colour that brings ill luck.

The iron gray
And the Jew's yellow,
If his rider returns from the fight
Cut off my hand.

The Roan; this is called _meghedeur-el-deum_, "a pool of blood." The
rider is sure to be overtaken, but will never overtake.

The horse is to be valued that has no white spots except a star on the
forehead, or a simple white stripe down the face. The latter must
descend to the lips, and then the owner will never be in want of milk.
It is a fortunate mark. It is the image of the dawn. If the star is
truncated or has jagged edges, it is universally disliked, and if the
animal adds to that a white spot in front of the saddle no man in his
senses would mount it, nor would any judge of horse-flesh deign to
possess it. Such a horse is as fatal as a subtile poison. If a horse has
several white spots, three is the preferable number—one of the right
feet should be exempt, but it matters not whether it be behind or
before. It is a good sign to have stockings on both the off forefoot and
the near hindfoot. It is called,

The hand of the writer
And the foot of the horseman.

The master of such a horse cannot fail to be fortunate, for he mounts
and dismounts over white. The Arabs, it must be remembered, generally
mount on the off side and alight on the near side. Two hind stockings
are a sign of good fortune;

The horse with the white hind-feet,
His master will never be ruined.

It is the same with white forefeet—his master's face will never turn
yellow. Never buy a horse with a white face and four stockings, for he
carries his winding-sheet with him. The prejudices of the Arabs on the
subject of white spots are summed up in the following little story:

"An Arab had a blood mare. There was a dispute beforehand as to what her
foal would be. So when she was on the point of foaling he invited all
his friends to be present. The head first of all came in sight—it bore a
star. The Arab rejoiced. His horse would one day, outstrip the dawn, for
he had the mark on his forehead. Next appeared the near forefoot, when
the owner in ecstasy demanded one hundred _douros_ for the foal. The off
forefoot then showed itself with a stocking, and the price was reduced
to fifty douros. After that came the near hindfoot. It also had a
stocking, and the Arab overjoyed, swore that he would not part with his
foal for the whole world. But lo! the fourth foot presents itself
likewise with a stocking, when the dweller in the Sahara cast the animal
out, in his fury, on the refuse-heap, unable to bring himself to keep
such a brute."

A horse has forty white _Tufts_, of which twenty eight are generally
considered as being of neither good nor bad omen, while to the remaining
twelve a certain influence is attributed. It is agreed on all hands to
regard six of these as augmenting riches and bringing good fortune, and
the other six as causing ruin and adversity.

The tufts of good omen are:

The tuft that is between the two ears, _nekhlet el aâdar_, "the tuft of
the head stall": such a horse is swift in the race.

The tuft that grows on the lateral surface of the neck, _sebâa enneby_,
"the finger of the Prophet": the owner will die like a good Mussulman in
his bed.

The tuft of the Sultan, _nekhlet essoultan_. It runs along the whole
length of the neck, following the tracheal artery: love, riches, and
prosperity. The horse that bear this offers up three prayers every day:

"Allah grant that my master may look upon me as the most precious
possession he has in the world!"

"May Allah give unto him a happy lot, so that mine may benefit by it!"

"May Allah grant unto him the happiness of dying a martyr upon my back!"

The tuft on the chest, _zeradya_, fills the tent with plunder.

The tuft where the saddle-girths pass, _nekhlet el hazame_ multiplies
the flocks.

The tuft on the flank, _nekhlet eshebour_, "the tuft of the spurs." If
it is turned towards the back, it preserves the rider from misadventure
in war: if it is turned towards the belly, it is a sign of riches for
its master.

The following white tufts bring misfortune:

_Netahyat_, a tuft over the eyebrows: the master will die, shot through
the head.

_Nekhlet el nâash_, the coffin tuft, grows close to the withers and goes
down towards the shoulder. The rider will not fail to perish on the back
of such a horse.

_Neddabyat_, the mourners; a tuft on the cheek; debts, tears, ruin.

_Nekhlet el khriana_, the thieves' tuft. It is close to the fetlock
joint, and night and morning it prays: "O Allah! grant that I may be
stolen, or that my master may die!"

The tuft by the side of the tail announces trouble, misery, and famine.

The tuft on the inner part of the thigh: women, children, flocks, all
will disappear.

Such is the classification generally adopted. It is not, however,
absolute, for it varies according to localities, each tribe increasing
or diminishing the number of its lucky and unlucky tufts. It will be
seen that I have alluded only to the principal coats without entering
upon the gradation of shades, which would have carried me too far
astray. Making every allowance for prejudice and superstition, it is
clear that the Arabs are fond of dark and decided colours, while they
look upon light and faded colours, as well as white spots upon the head,
carcase, and limbs, if broad or long, as signs of weakness and
degeneracy of race. Every Arab has his own favourite coat. Some like
black horses and others gray, while others again affect bays or
chestnuts. Their preferences and antipathies are usually based on family
associations. With such a coat their ancestors achieved a brilliant
success—with such another they encountered a grievous calamity. They
will thus often refuse a good horse, without giving any other reason
than "It is not my colour."

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

The horse the most esteemed is a black one with a star on his forehead
and white spots on his feet. Then comes the blood-bay, and after that
the dark chestnut. Horses of other coats are placed on the same line
with the exception of the piebald, with which the Arabs will have
nothing to do.

The Prophet has said: "If thou wouldst go to the war, purchase a horse
with a star on the forehead and stockings on all his legs with the
exception of the right forefoot."

A horse with white feet, his off foreleg being alone of the colour of
his coat, resembles a man who carries himself gracefully in walking,
with the sleeve of his cloak floating in the air.

The Prophet has said: "If I were to gather together in one spot all the
horses of the Arabs, and make them race against one another, it is the
chestnut that would outstrip the rest."

According to the traditions of our Lord Mohammed the black horse is
superior in the beauty of its mould and in its moral qualities, but the
chestnut in fleetness. The Arabs have a saying: "If thou hast a
chestnut, bring him along. If thou hast only a sorry chestnut, still
bring him."

In a spacious arena constructed for races, cast thy eyes over the
assemblage of noble coursers.

Thou wilt see the one who, arriving the first at the goal, has removed
his master's anxieties.

Then the second who followed close at hand;—they both reached the goal
without slackening their speed.

Every horse of noble race fascinates the eyes and rivets the gaze of the
enthusiastic spectator.

One of a rose colour, whose coat resembles the red tints which the
setting sun leaves on the horizon.

Another of a white colour, like to a shooting star hurled against the
evil genii.

A third, a blood-bay, of incomparable beauty and tall stature, in whom
may be recognized traces of his paternal and maternal uncles, famous in
the annals of racing.

There may also be seen a bright bay with a skin like gold.

And then a chestnut that pleases the eye with its shining mane.

Or another, black as night, adorned only with a white star on the
forehead, that shines like the first light of dawn. Oh! blessed is the
horse with white stars and stockings!

The Prophet abhorred a horse that has white marks on all its legs. The
horse with a white mark that does not come down to the tip of the upper
lip, accompanied by a stocking on the off forefoot, bears upon him the
signs of the most evil omen. Thus, whosoever sees him prays to Allah to
avert from himself the calamity announced by this animal. He is like the
"hour poison."[50]

The fleetest of horses is the chestnut; the most enduring, the bay; the
most spirited, the black; the most blessed, one with a white forehead.

The Arabs distinguish forty knots or tufts in a horse. Of these, twenty
eight are without any significance in their eyes, and are of neither
good nor bad omen. To twelve of them alone do they ascribe an influence
allowed by tradition and confirmed, as they think, by personal
observation.

"Horses are eagles mounted by riders tall as a lance; they arrive,
cleaving the air like a falcon swooping on its quarry."

ON CHOOSING AND PURCHASING HORSES.

In the Sahara horses that are celebrated for their blood and speed sell
easily and at a good price. There are blemishes that totally exclude a
horse from serving in war. Such as _el maateuk_, a narrow and hollow
chest accompanying lean and perpendicular shoulders. It is difficult to
form an idea of the importance attached by the Arabs to the development
of the muscles of the chest.

Another blemish is fatness and want of prominence in the withers. You
can never fix the saddle properly on such a horse, nor handle him boldly
in galloping down hill. Again, the jardens "father of bleaching" (of the
beard): curbs, when too far gone; ring-bone; spavin, especially when it
is near the saphena; the processes known as _louzze_, or "almonds," on
the ribs, and _fekroune_, or "tortoise," on the forequarters; splints,
if near the back sinew; the pastern prolonged and bent; the pastern
short and upright; windgalls along the tendons; and a long and concave
back, are all serious objections. An animal is also rejected if he
cannot see at night, or when there is snow. It is discovered by the
manner he raises his feet when it begins to grow dark. The defect may be
ascertained by placing a black surface before him in the day time—if he
steps upon it without hesitation, there is no doubt on the subject. As
the Arab passes much of his life-time in making nocturnal marches to
surprise his enemy, or to escape from him, what could he do with such an
animal?

Let us pass on now to the faults or blemishes which, though generally
dreaded, do not prevent a horse from changing masters. These are narrow
nostrils—they will leave you in trouble; long, soft, and pendant ears;
and a short, stiff neck. A horse is little worth that does not lie down,
nor one that switches his tail about while in quick motion; also horses
that scratch their neck with their feet, that rest on the toe of their
foot, that over-reach themselves in trotting or galloping, or that cut
themselves by knocking their feet together. To discover if a horse cuts
himself, pass the two wrists, joined together, between his two fore-arms
and place them below his breast. If they are touched by the inner part
of the fore-arms, be sure that the animal has too narrow a chest and
cannot help cutting himself.

Distrust a horse that wets his nose-bag in eating his barley, and that
seems to sip the water with the tips of his lips. An ambler is not fit
for a chief: it is the horse of such as "clash the spurs," (carry
messages). Beware of a horse that rears, refuses the spurs, bites, is
difficult to mount, and breaks away from his rider when the latter
dismounts: these are all grave faults in war time. Leave to the
pack-saddle a horse that is deaf. You will know him by his hanging ears,
void of expression, and thrown backwards, and also by his not answering
to any sound of the voice. By sight, by smell, by hearing, a horse will
warn his master of coming danger, if he does not save him from it. He
saith:

Preserve me from what is in front,
I will preserve thee from what is behind.

"The lion and the horse disputed one day as to whose eyesight was the
best. The lion saw, during a dark night, a white hair in milk, but the
horse saw a black hair in pitch. The bystanders pronounced in favour of
the latter."

The highest virtue in a horse is endurance, to which, in order to
constitute a perfect animal, must be joined strength. A horse is
considered strong if he clears fifteen to sixteen foot-lengths in his
first bound. If he covers a greater space he is deemed to be of superior
strength, but if he clears no more than eight to ten feet he is set down
as a heavy animal. A very fiery horse never exhibits patience of
fatigue; nor one whose legs are lanky, neck too long, and buttocks too
heavy to be in harmony with other parts of his body; nor one who lacks
vigour in his heels. Such a horse, after a long course, will be
exhausted in his legs, so that when he is pulled up by his rider he will
still take several steps contrary to the latter's wishes. A horse that
has neither patience nor mettle is easily recognised. The form of his
body is irregular, his chest narrow, and his breathing short. Strength
and wind are the two highest qualities of a horse. The absence of either
is likely to affect his endurance and lower his spirit.

"Look in a horse for speed and bottom. One that has speed alone, and no
bottom, must have a blemish in his descent; and one that has bottom
alone and no speed, must have some defect, open or concealed.

"Reject a horse high in the middle, with a narrow chest, flat ribs, and
lanky limbs and that is for ever fidgetting about and holding up his
head. If you give him his head, he says: 'Hold me in!' and if you hold
him in, he says: 'Let me go!'

"But if in the course of your life you alight upon a horse of noble
origin, with large, lively eyes, wide apart, and black, broad nostrils,
close together; whose neck, shoulders, haunches, and buttocks are long,
while his forehead, loins, flank, and limbs are broad; with the back,
the shin-bone, the pasterns, and the dock short; the whole accompanied
by a soft skin, fine, flexible hair, powerful respiratory organs, and
good feet with heels well off the ground—hasten to secure him if you can
induce the owner to sell him, and return thanks to Allah, morning and
night, for having sent thee a blessing."

Never burden yourself with an animal that is broken-kneed, diseased, or
wounded, though they assure you that it is only a temporary accident.
Recall to mind the saying of your ancestors;

Ruined, and son of a ruined one,
Is he who buys to cure.

It is no uncommon thing for an Arab to buy a horse in partnership with
another. The usual conditions of such a compact are after this fashion.
An Arab sells a mare to another for 100 _douros_, but receives only 50
_douros_ in payment, the balance representing his share in the animal.
The purchaser rides the mare about, and makes use of her for war, the
chace, and for his private journeys. If he make a razzia, three-fourths
of the plunder belong to himself, and one-fourth to his partner. Should
the mare be killed in war, in an expedition mutually agreed upon, the
loss falls upon them equally. But should death overtake her at a
fantasia, a wedding, or any other festival, the purchaser is alone
answerable—he has to make good 50 _douros_ to the vendor. If the animal,
however, is killed in front of the tent, suddenly, or under the
horseman, while the latter is defending his wife, his children, and his
flocks,—the circumstances were beyond his control, and he is not called
upon for any reimbursement.

Should the mare produce a colt, it is reared until it is a year old,
when it is sold, and the proceeds equally divided between the partners.
On the other hand, if the mare has produced a filly, the latter is
valued when a year old, and the vendor has the privilege of choosing the
filly or the dam, paying or receiving the difference of value. This sort
of compact is never made with respect to horses.

An Arab who wishes to sell a horse will never consent to be the first to
name a price. Some one comes up and says: "Sell; thou wilt gain." The
vendor replies: "Buy; thou wilt gain."

"Speak thou first."

"No, speak thou."

"Was he purchased, or reared?"

"Reared in my tent, like one of my own children."

"What hast thou been offered for him?"

"I have been offered 100 _douros_."

"Sell him to me at that price—thou wilt gain. Tell me, then, what thou
asketh."

"See what is written with Allah."

"Come, let us drive away the previous bidder, and do thou take 10
_douros_ over and above his offer."

"I accept. Take thy horse, and Allah grant thou mayst be successful upon
his back as many times as he has hairs upon it." And should he be
desirous to avoid all risk of future annoyance on the subject of
warranty, he adds in the presence of witnesses: "The separation between
us is from this very moment. Thou dost not know me, and I have never
seen thee."

It is not permitted to mount a horse for a trial until after the price
has been agreed upon. Nevertheless, before the bargain is completely
concluded the animal is tested against a horse that has a certain local
reputation. The mode of trial is somewhat singular. The riders are
barefooted, and are not allowed to touch their horse with the heel
during any part of the race.

Horses whose reputation is well established in the country are never
sold in the market-place. It is a positive insult to an Arab to ask him,
"wilt thou sell thy horse?" before he has made known his intentions.
"They must think me then in a miserable condition," he will say, "that
they should dare to make such a proposal to me."

Certain tribes are particularly addicted to traffic in horse-flesh. The
most noted of these Arab horse-dealers are the Beni-Addas. It is said of
them:

With others, horses are mere carrion,
With them, they are youthful brides:
With others, they are asleep,
With them, they dance.

For the rest, the Arab is no horse-dealer after the European fashion. He
never makes use of ginger, nor does he resort to any trickery to
disguise the bad points of his horse. He simply places him before the
purchaser. But for the fraud he disdains he substitutes a flow of
seductive eloquence. His inexhaustible oratory pours itself forth in
metaphors and hyperboles. Pointing to the animal, he will say: "Uncover
his back and satisfy thy gaze."

He will then go on:

"Say not it is my horse; say it is my son. He outstrips the flash in the
pan, or a glance of the eye. He is pure as gold. His eyesight is so good
that he can distinguish a hair in the night time. In the day of battle
he delights in the whistling of the balls. He overtakes the gazelle. He
says to the eagle: 'Come down, or I will ascend to thee!' When he hears
the voices of the maidens, he neighs for joy. When he gallops he plucks
out the tear from the eye. When he appears before the maidens he begs
with his hand. It is a steed for the dark days when the smoke of powder
obscures the sun. It is a thoroughbred, the very head of horses! No one
has ever possessed his equal. I depend on him as on my own heart. He has
no brother in the world: it is a swallow. He listens to his flanks, and
is ever watching the heels of his rider. He understands as well as any
son of Adam: speech alone is wanting to him. His pace is so easy that on
his back, you might carry a cup of coffee without upsetting it. A
nosebag satisfies him, a sack covers him. He is so light that he could
dance on the bosom of thy mistress without bruising it."

The owner of the truly beautiful offers him for sale;
The owner of the swift one makes protestations.

Ben-Youssouf, having one day given in exchange for a mare of the desert
twenty she-camels with their young replied to his father who had keenly
rebuked him: "And why are you angry, my lord? Has not this mare brought
me the agility and the softness of skin of the jerboa, the movement of
the neck of the hare, the fleetness and the vision of the ostrich, the
hollow belly and the limbs of the greyhound, and the courage and breadth
of head of the bull? She cannot fail to turn yellow the face of our
enemies. When I pursue them, she will plunder without ceasing the croups
of their horses; and if they pursue after me, the eye will not know
where I have passed!"

It will be seen, as I had previously indicated in tracing the outline of
a thoroughbred horse as sketched by the Arabs, that they esteem it of
consequence that in his form he should borrow certain details from other
animals. He should unite in himself the qualities that are separately
remarked in the gazelle, the greyhound, the bull, the ostrich, the
camel, the hare, and the fox. It is agreed that he should have the long,
clean limbs of the gazelle, the fineness and strength of its haunches,
the convexity of its ribs, the shortening of its fore-legs, the
blackness of its eyes, and the straitness of its armpits, He should also
recall to mind the length of the lips and tongue of the dog, the
abundance of its saliva, and the length of the lower part of its
fore-paws. They go so far as to regard this resemblance of the horse to
the greyhound as a means of guiding inexperienced purchasers: at least,
such appears to be the moral of an anecdote widely circulated among
them.

"Meslem-ben-Abou-Omar, having learned that one of his relatives was
travelling near the banks of the Euphrates, desired to avail himself of
this opportunity to obtain one of the famous horses of that country. His
relative knew nothing about horses, but was very fond of the chace, and
had some very fine dogs. Despatching a servant with proper instructions,
Meslem informed his relative that the form of the horse he wished for
corresponded to that of the best of his greyhounds. An animal was thus
procured, the like of which the Arabs have never since met with."

Merou-ben-el-Keyss replied one day to some friends who accused him of
knowing nothing about either horses or women:

Yes, I have ridden horses
Sober, strong, and swift in the course,
Whose thighs were solid,
Their sinews lean and their rump rounded.
Forming as it were a channel towards the tail:
Their hoofs were hard: they could go without shoes.
By Allah! I used to fancy myself on an ostrich.

To find the tall grass
Which grows in solitudes dangerous to traverse,
In solitudes defended by the points of lances,
And by the descent of torrents,
I have many a time galloped,
When the birds were yet asleep in their nests.

To hunt the white-skinned zebra,
Whose legs are striped like Indian stuffs,
Or to overtake the antelope that lives in wild regions,
I have ridden horses with flesh hardened by exercise,
It was Allah who created them for the happiness of Believers.

Many a time, too, have I rested my heart
On that of a maid with budding bosoms,
And legs adorned with anklets of gold!
In our incursions of horsemen,
When eye must meet eye,
Many a time have I said:
Forward! forward! O my beloved courser!
Follow up the enemy routed and fleeing!

The value of a horse is in his stock.

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

To a King who asked a poet for his horse named _Sakab_, the latter
replied: "_Sakab_ is not for sale, nor is he to be exchanged. I would
ransom him at the price of my life. My family should die of hunger
rather than that he should suffer."

An Arab once said: "My countrymen blame me for being in debt, and yet I
contracted it for a horse of noble race and well rounded forms, who
confers honour upon them and serves as a talisman to my _goum_, and to
whom I have given a slave as his attendant."

An Arab one day sent his son to buy a horse in the market-place, and he,
before setting out, asked his father what qualities the animal should
have. The father made answer: "His ears should be ever in motion turning
sometimes forward, sometimes behind, as if he were listening to
something. His eyes ought to be keen and restless, as if his mind were
occupied with something. His limbs must be well set on and well
proportioned." "Such a horse," the son rejoined, "will never be sold by
his master."

Many of the Arabs of Upper Asia have genealogical trees, in which they
state and confirm by evidence that would be accepted in a court of
justice, the birth and parentage of the colt, so that when a proprietor
wishes to sell a horse he has only to produce his genealogical tree to
satisfy the purchaser that he is not deceiving him.

I have seen among the Annaza, a tribe extending from Bagdad to the
confines of Syria, horses so absolutely priceless that it was impossible
to buy them, or at least to pay in cash for them. These horses are
usually disposed of to great personages or wealthy merchants, who pay a
fabulous price for them in thirty to fifty bills, falling due at
intervals of twelve months, or else they bind themselves to pay an
annual sum for ever to the vendor and his descendants.

"I take them by surprise in the morning, while the bird is yet in its
nest and the moisture from the dew is making its way to the river.

"I surprise them with my sleek-coated courser that by its swiftness
overtakes the wild beasts and never wearies of hunting the gazelle in
all seasons and far from our home.

"He has the flanks of the gazelle, the legs of the female ostrich, and
the straight back of the wild ass standing as a sentinel on a hillock.

"His croup, like to a heap of sand which moisture has rendered compact,
harmonizes with withers rising above the back, like the pack-saddle of
the camel kept in its place by the crupper.

"The swellings behind his ears are rounded like spheres: the headstall
and the headband seem as if they were fixed to the extremity of the
trunk of a palm-tree, stripped of its leaves.

"Fastened by the side of other horses, he bites and demeans himself in
his jealousy as if he were possessed by a demon."

SHOEING.

Contrary to the accepted opinion, the Arabs of the Sahara are in the
custom of shoeing their horses, whether on the two forefeet, or on all
four feet, according to the nature of the ground they occupy. Those who
shoe them on all four feet are the inhabitants of the stony districts,
and these constitute the majority. Among them are the Arbâa, Mekhadema,
Aghrazelia, Saâid-Mekhalif, Oulad-Yagoub, Oulad-Nayl, Oulad-Sidi-Shikh,
Hamyane, etc., etc. It is the universal practice to take the shoes off
in the spring, when the animals are turned out to grass; the Arabs
asserting that care must be taken not to check the renewal of the blood
which takes place at that season of the year.

In every desert tribe there is a _douar_ set apart by the name of
_douar-el-maâllemin_, "the master's douar." It is that of the farriers.
A profession entirely and especially devoted to that indispensable
complement of the Arab, his horse, might be expected to be made the
object of particular esteem. Accordingly, numerous and invaluable
privileges are accorded to them, but I am not certain if the concession
of these privileges is to be regarded as an homage rendered to an art
that refers exclusively to the horse, and not also, seeing that it is
the only art that survives in the desert, as a remembrance of the
encouragements formerly given to the able and learned men of Arabia,
Egypt, Africa, and Spain, by the Arabs of the olden times, the brilliant
conquerors of the Goths and contemporaries of Haroun-al-Raschid.

The Arabs of the Sahara say that their first farriers came to them from
the towns on the seaboard, such as Fez, Tunis, Mascara, Tlemcen, and
Constantine, since when their knowledge and their calling have been
perpetuated in their families from generation to generation. A farrier
must likewise be something of an armourer and iron-smith, to repair
their bits, spurs, knives, guns, sabres, and pistols, besides making
horse-shoes, sowing needles, sickles, small hatchets, and mattocks.

In return he enjoys the following immunities: He pays no
contributions—on the contrary, when his tribe proceeds to the Tell to
buy grain a collection is made for his benefit. This immunity, however,
he shares with the maker of sandals. "The worker in iron and the maker
of boots pay no imposts." Neither is he called upon to offer kouskoussou
or shelter to any one: in other words, he is exempted from the duty of
hospitality, which in certain cases is imposed upon all. The constant
toil demanded by his calling, the unavoidable accidents to which he is
liable through the urgent wants of his brethren night and day, the
sleepless nights he has to undergo, entitle him to certain dues, called
_aâdet-el-maâllem_, "the master's dues." On their return from the
purchase of grain in the Tell every tent makes over to him a _feutra_ of
wheat and barley, and a _feutra_ of butter. In the spring he receives in
addition the fleece of a ewe. If a camel is killed for eating, he claims
the part comprised between the withers and the tail, deducting the hump,
which, being covered with fat, is esteemed a delicacy. In razzias and
expeditions, whether or not he has taken part in the enterprise, he is
entitled to a share of the booty. Usually, it is a sheep, or a camel,
according to the value of the prize. This due is known as the horseman's
ewe. The most important privilege, however, accorded to farriers, the
indisputable token of the protection they formerly enjoyed and of the
esteem in which they are still held, is the gift of life on the field of
battle. If a farrier is on horseback, with arms in his hands, he is
liable to be killed like any other horseman of the _goum_; but if he
alights and kneels down and imitates with the two corners of his
burnous—raising and depressing them by turns—the movement of his
bellows, his life will be spared. Many a horseman has saved his life by
means of this stratagem. A farrier can only enjoy the benefit of this
privilege by leading an inoffensive life, absorbed in the duties of his
business; but if he distinguishes himself by his warlike prowess, he
forfeits the privileges of his calling, and is treated as an ordinary
horseman. These advantages, on the other hand, are compensated by a
serious drawback. Should he happen to grow rich, a quarrel is fastened
upon him and in one way or another a portion of his wealth is taken from
him to prevent him from quitting the district.

A farrier whose tribe has been plundered seeks out the victors, and on
the simple proof of his trade, recovers his tent, tools, utensils, and
horse-shoes. His implements consist of a pair of bellows, which are
nothing more than a goat-skin bag with three openings, of which two are
on the upper part in the same line, and the third at the opposite end.
Through this last protrudes the barrel of a gun, or pistol, that conveys
the blast to the fire. It is the wife's department to work the bellows.
She kneels down before the charcoal which is placed in a hole, and takes
in each hand one of the upper orifices, which she closes by clutching
the skin around them. Then by alternately opening and closing her hands,
she produces a movement that causes a current of air sufficient for the
purpose, though not very powerful. The Arabs of the Sahara give the
preference over a more perfect one to these bellows with their feeble
blast, but which are easily transported in their nomadic expeditions. To
the bellows the farrier joins an anvil, a hammer, files, pincers, and a
vice. These instruments they obtain chiefly from the seabord, though
some of them they make for themselves. Formerly they used to procure the
iron in the great markets of the central desert, at Tougourt, among the
Beni-Mezabe, or at Timimoun, according to the greater or less distance
of those points from their own neighbourhood; but now they begin to
purchase them from us. The charcoal they prepare themselves with the
_arar_, the _remt_, the _senoubeur_, and the _djedary_, the last being
the most esteemed.

The horse-shoes are kept ready made, and always command a sure sale, the
Arabs being in the habit of laying in their supply for the whole year,
consisting of four sets for the fore-feet and four for the hind-feet.
The nails are likewise made by the farriers. When a horseman goes to a
farrier, taking his shoes with him, the latter is paid by his
privileges, and when the horse is shod, its master gets on its back,
merely saying: "Allah have mercy on thy fathers!" He then goes his way
and the farrier returns to his work. But if the horseman does not bring
his shoes with him, he gives two _boudjous_ to the farrier for the
complete set, and his thanks are couched in the simplest formula of Arab
courtesy. "Allah give thee strength!" he says, as he takes his
departure.

In the Sahara, they put the shoes on cold. In the foot of the horse, say
the Arabs, there are hollow interstices, such as the frog, the heel,
etc., which it is always dangerous to heat, if only by the approach of
the hot iron. This aversion for the hot iron, founded on the destructive
action of heat on the delicate parts of the foot, is so strong among
them that in bivouacs, when they see us shoeing our horses, they
exclaim: "Look at those Christians pouring oil upon fire!" In a word,
they cannot understand why—especially in long marches, when the exercise
draws the blood down to the foot of the horse—any one should wish to
increase this natural heat by the action of heated iron.

The shoes are very light, of a soft, pliant metal. In the fore-shoes
only three nails are driven in on each side. The toes are free, and
never fastened. According to the Arabs, nails in the toe would interfere
with the elasticity of the foot, and would cause the horse at the moment
he sets his foot on the ground precisely the same sensation that a man
experiences from wearing a tight shoe. Many accidents thence ensue.

The feet are neither pared nor shortened. The hoof is allowed to grow
freely, the very stony ground and incessant work sufficing to wear it
off naturally as it tries to get beyond the iron. The necessity of
paring the feet is only felt when horses have been for a long time
fastened in front of the tent without doing any work, or have remained
long in the Tell. In such a case the Arabs simply make use of the
sharp-pointed knives which they are never without. This method has this
further advantage that if a horse casts a shoe, he can still proceed on
his journey, as the sole remains firm and hard. "With you," say they,
"and with your practise of paring the foot, if the horse casts a shoe
you must pull up, or see him bleeding, halting and suffering."

The shoes are joined at the heel. As the horse can only suffer in the
part that is quick, and not in the part that is hard, it is, of course,
the frog that should be shielded from accident. The shoes should
therefore follow the curvature of the frog. They give to the nail-heads
the form of a grasshopper's head, the only form, as they allege, that
allows the nails to be worn down to the last without breaking. They
approve of our method of driving the nails into punched holes and
clinching them outside, which prevents a horse from cutting himself; but
their scarcity of iron obliges them to content themselves, for their
part, with hammering the nails down upon the hoof, so as to render them
serviceable a second time by making a new head. If a horse overreaches
himself they cut away his heels and place light shoes on his forefeet,
but heavier ones on his hindfeet. They are careful not to leave one foot
shod and the other bare. If during an excursion a horse happens to cast
one of his fore-shoes, and his rider has not a fresh supply with him, he
takes off both the hind shoes and puts one of them on the forefoot; and
if the animal is shod only on his forefeet, the rider will take the shoe
off the other foot, rather than leave him in such a condition. Should a
horse, after a long journey such as the horsemen of the desert not
unfrequently make, require to be shod, it is no uncommon thing to place
a morsel of felt between the shoe and the foot.

The necessity, caused partly by the nature of the ground and partly by
the length of their excursions, of shoeing the horses of the Sahara, has
shown the expediency of accustoming the colt to let himself be shod
without resistance. They therefore give him kouskoussou, cakes, dates,
etc., while he allows them to lift his foot and knock upon it. They then
caress his neck and cheeks, and speak to him in a low tone; and thus
after a while he lifts his feet whenever they are touched. The little
difficulty experienced at a later period, thanks to this early training,
has probably given rise to the Arab hyperbole: "So wonderful is the
instinct of the thoroughbred horse that if he casts a shoe he draws
attention to it himself by showing his foot." This exaggeration at least
proves how easy these horses are to be shod, and further explains how
every horseman in the desert ought to have the knowledge and the means
of shoeing his own horse, while on a journey. It is a point of the
highest importance. It is not enough to be very skilful in horsemanship,
or to train a horse in the most perfect manner, to acquire the
reputation of a thorough horseman—in addition to all this, he must
likewise be able to put on a shoe if necessary. Thus on setting out for
a distant expedition every horseman carries with him in his _djebira_
shoes, nails, a hammer, pincers, some strips of leather to repair his
harness, and a needle. Should his horse cast a shoe, he alights,
unfastens his camel-rope, passes one end round the _kerbouss_ of the
saddle and the other round the pastern, and ties the two ends together
at such a length as will make the horse present his foot. The animal
stirs not an inch, and his rider shoes him without assistance. If it be
a hind shoe that has been thrown, he rests the foot upon his knee, and
dispenses with aid from his neighbours. To avoid making a mistake he
passes his awl into the nail holes in order to assure himself beforehand
of the exact direction the nails should take. If, by chance, the horse
is restive, he obtains for the hindfeet the help of a comrade who
pinches the nose or ears of the animal. For the forefeet, he merely
turns his hindquarters towards a thick prickly shrub, or extemporises a
torchenes with a nose-bag filled with earth. Such cases, however, are
rare.

The Saharenes declare that our shoes are much too heavy and in long and
rapid excursions must be dreadfully fatiguing to the articulations, and
cause much mischief to the fetlock joint. "Look at our horses," say
they, "how they throw up the earth and sand behind them! how nimble they
are! how lightly they lift their feet! how they extend or contract their
muscles! They would be as awkward and as clumsy as yours did we not give
them shoes light enough not to burden their feet, and the materials of
which as they grow thinner commingle with the hoof and with it form one
sole body." And when I have answered that we did not discover in our
mode of shoeing the inconveniences pointed out by them, they would
reply: "How should you do so? Cover as we do in a single day the
distance you take five or six days to accomplish, and then you will see.
Grand marches you make, you Christians, with your horses! As far as from
my nose to my ear!"

HARNESS.

I have stated that the Arab saddle furnishes the rider with such a firm
seat that he does not trouble himself at all about certain vices in a
horse that are apt to cause us uneasiness. I will therefore say a few
words on the subject, though it is one now familiar to every body.

The Arab saddle consists of a wooden saddle-tree, surmounted in front by
a long _kerbouss_ or pommel, and by a broad troussequin behind, high
enough to protect the loins. The whole is covered and held together,
without nails or pegs, by a plain camel's skin which gives it great
solidity. The bands rest on the animal's back, and are broad and flat,
with a proper regard for the freedom of the withers and loins, and
afford a roomy and commodious seat. This last is very hard, and it
requires long practice to get used to it. The chiefs cover it with a
woollen cushion; but the common horsemen make it a point of honour to
ride on the bare wood, pretending that the use of cushions is excessive
effeminacy, and by diminishing their points of contact cannot fail to
invite them to sleep during a long course, and consequently expose them
to injure their horses. This is all the more meritorious that for the
most part, and especially in summer they ride without trousers or
drawers.

The saddle-tree is concealed by a _stara_, or covering of red morocco,
without ornament, in the case of individuals who are poor or not very
well-to do; and by a _ghrebaria_, or covering of cloth or scarlet
velvet, embroidered with gold or silver thread, and ornamented with
fringes, in the case of rich people and chiefs. The _deïr_, or
breast-piece, is very broad and is placed like that of our French
saddle. Its extremities are provided with two strong buckles of iron or
chased silver, and are fastened to the saddle-tree by small
girth-leathers, so placed as to keep the saddle in its true position.
The Arabs will have nothing to do with a crupper. They say it interferes
with every forward movement by the restraint it imposes on the animal.
They use it only with bat mules and donkeys, and even then they do not
pass it under the tail.

The stirrups are broad and clumsy. Their lateral faces gradually
diminish so as to unite with the upper bar which supports the ring for
the stirrup-leathers. They are used very short, and the whole foot is
thrust into them, and thus shielded from balls or falls. These stirrups
are extremely painful for those who are not accustomed to them, because
in raising oneself on them the eye strikes against the bone of the leg.
After a time the skin hardens and an exostosis is formed that destroys
all sensibility. It is by these exostoses that a horseman is
distinguished from a foot-soldier, and so clearly, indeed, that in the
province of Oran a certain Bey, having resolved to inflict an exemplary
chastisement on a tribe that had revolted, put to death all who fell
into his hands, bearing these marks. He well knew that his anger was
vented only on the horsemen. The stirrups of wealthy individuals are
either plated or gilt, and in former times the great Turkish officers
had them made of solid silver or gold. The stirrups are suspended by
leathers placed behind the girth, which are simply twisted straps of
morocco or camel's skin—when doubled seven or eight times, they are of
great strength. The noble make their stirrup-leathers of silken cord;
but as these, let them be ever so solid, will not suffice when going at
a rapid pace with the whole weight thrown upon the stirrups, they add
what are called _maoune_, or stirrup-holders.

By way of horse-cloths the Arabs make use of pieces of felt fastened to
the saddle, to allow of the operation of saddling being quickly
performed. They are seven in number, and dyed blue, red, and yellow—the
blue being uppermost. An eighth one is added, but white and unattached,
so that it can be washed and dried in the sun if the horse has perspired
much. When these pieces of felt are well shaped, the different colours
lying one over the other and slightly projecting, form an ornament in
very fair taste, while they preserve the horse from wounds and sores.
Care is taken that they should partially cover the loins.

The saddle-girth is placed in front of the stirrups, and is narrower
than ours. The Arabs as a rule girth their horses loosely; and they can
do so without inconvenience, as their saddles never slip round.

The headstall of the bridle is very broad; blinkers are used, and
occasionally, but not often, a throat-band, loose and fastened to the
headband. The Arab of the Sahara, however, does not approve of it,
because if his horse, as may often happen, should be seized by the
bridle in a fight, it deprives him of his usual resource of slipping the
bridle over the head, and so escaping from the enemy, whose prize is
thus reduced to the bridle alone. The blinkers have the advantage of
preventing a horse from being disquieted by external objects, and are
perhaps partly the cause of his not fearing anything. The headstall and
the headband of the bridle are embroidered in silk for the commonality,
and in silver or gold for the rich. The bit is attached to the bridle,
and is never cleaned. The bars are broad, short, straight, and fashioned
_à la Condé_. The canons are flat, and the curb is a circular ring fixed
to the upper part of the mouth piece. The Arab bit allows no liberty to
the tongue, and its lever-arm is much shorter than in a French bit:
consequently, it is much less severe than has been hitherto imagined.
The advantage it offers in wartime of being free from those curbs and
hooks which are often so difficult to replace, cannot be too highly
appreciated.

The reins are long. Two knots are made in them, one at the length whence
a horse can be kept at a foot pace without impeding the freedom of his
movements, and the other at the point where experience has shown that
the horse, after shortening the muscles of the neck for a gallop, begins
to bear on the hand. They are held very full, and at times used as a
whip to quicken the animal. The Arabs reject the snaffle as calculated
to confuse a horse. Rarely combatting with the sabre, they have never
experienced the necessity of it.

As with them the horse is constantly fastened by hobbles, the Arabs do
not understand the value of the halter which we employ. They replace it
by a _goulada_, a thick cord of silk or camel's hair, of a more or less
lively colour according to the coat of the animal. It is passed round
the neck, and from it are suspended small morocco sachets, inclosing
talismans that have the virtue of preserving from the evil eye, of
averting sickness, and of bringing success in war. This _goulada_ is, in
the first place, an ornament, and, besides, it serves to hold the horse
by, when required. To take him by the forelock to hold or lead him, as
we do, is to dishonour him; for the Prophet has said: "The good things
of this world to the day of the last judgment shall be suspended from
the hairs that are between the eyes of your horses."

The Arabs of the Sahara make use of a whip to correct a horse when they
are breaking him in, or to excite him in war or at the chace. It is
composed of five or six twisted leather thongs, attached to a ring fixed
to a bar of iron six or seven inches long, terminating in another ring.
To the latter is fastened the small leather thong that is slipped over
the wrist. Round the iron rod, but shorter by an inch, is a hollow
cylinder, also of iron, of a diameter that allows the rod to play easily
within it. The whip is used with all their might. It punishes so
severely that after a time it suffices to shake it in order to make the
animal dash forward at full speed—the noise made by the cylinder coming
in contact either with the rings or with the bar that connects them,
recalling to his memory the nearly similar sound of the _tekerbeâa_.

In the desert the Arabs carry from the _kerbouss_ of the saddle a club a
cubit in length, and terminating in a large knob garnished with spikes.
It is hung from the wrist by a leather thong. Some replace this by a
longer club terminating in a hook, for the purpose of picking up booty
from off the ground, without alighting from the saddle. The latter is
called _el aâraya_, or the despoiler. Neither the Arbâ nor the Harrars
would ever mount on horseback without one of these clubs.

The spurs have only one spike, and are clumsy, solid, and long. They are
kept in their place by a simple leather strap crossed, and are attached
very loosely.

Every Arab carries as a complement of his equipment, suspended from the
_kerbouss_ of his saddle, a kind of sabretache called _djebira_ or
_guerab_. It contains several compartments, for the purpose of carrying
bread, biscuit, a mirror, soap, cartridges, shoes, a flint, writing
materials, etc., etc., according to the calling of the owner. Some
_djebiras_ are extraordinary rich. I am convinced that the sabretaches
of our Hussars must have come to us from the East. The common people on
an expedition carry also suspended from the troussequin of their saddle
a kind of wallet, which they call _semmâte_. They are shorter than ours,
so as not to irritate the animal's flanks.

With the exception of the great chiefs, the Arabs have no holsters to
their saddles. They carry their pistols in their girdles, or in a
heart-shaped case that rests on the left side, and is held in its place
by a leather strap over the shoulder and another round the body. They
prefer this latter mode, because they are sure of having them on their
person if they chance to be separated from their horse.

Those who do not put a throat-band to their bridle generally adorn their
horses with boar's tusks or lion's teeth, or with talismans which they
attach to their necks by means of silk or woollen cords.

To our taste, the less covered a thoroughbred horse may be, the better
are the beauty and elegance of his form displayed. The Arabs think
differently. They say:

Kohol[51] embellishes the bearer of babes,
A tribe embellishes a defile,
And the saddle embellishes horses.

During my residence in Africa, I have seen so many horses that it was
impossible to dispose of when girt with an English saddle, bought up
with avidity when caparisoned with an Arab one, that I am much inclined
to adopt the native prejudice. Many a time also I have observed that
when an Arab, who had purchased a horse from an European, had covered
its back with his own saddle, the vendor was seized with regret, being
struck with a beauty he had never before noticed. It is true, the only
extravagance indulged in by the Arabs is in their harness; for the
Prophet, while proscribing the use of gold in their garments, authorised
and even enjoined it, in respect of arms and horses. He said: "Whoso
fears not to spend money on the maintenance of horses for the holy war,
shall be considered, after his death, as the equal of him who has always
been open-handed." It is therefore no uncommon sight to see, even in
these times of trouble and misery, an Arab chief treat himself to a
saddle worth from £80 to £120, and on days of feasting or on solemn
occasions, cover the croup of his horse with _shelil_, a silken stuff of
brilliant hues.

MAXIMS OF THE ARAB CAVALIER.

When thou mountest a horse, first pronounce these words: _Bi es-sem
Allah_, "in the name of Allah." The grave of the horseman is always
open.

The cavalier of Truth should eat little, and, above all, drink little.
If he cannot endure thirst, he will never make a warrior—he is nothing
but a frog of the marshes.

Purchase a good horse. If thou pursuest, thou attainest: if thou art
pursued, the eye presently knoweth not where thou hast passed.

Prefer a horse from the mountain to a horse from the plain, and the
latter to one from the marshland, which is only fit to carry the
pack-saddle.

For the combat mount a horse with a trailing tail [that is, one at least
eight years old]. In the day when the horsemen shall be so crowded
together that the stirrups knock against one another, he will save thee
from the thick of the fight and bear thee back to thy tent, though he
were pierced by a ball.

When thou hast purchased a horse, study him carefully, and give him
barley more and more every day until thou hast ascertained the quantity
demanded by his appetite. A good horseman ought to know the measure of
barley suited to his horse, as exactly as the measure of powder suited
to his gun.

Suffer neither dogs nor donkeys to lie down upon the straw or barley you
intend to give to your horses.

The Prophet has said: "Every grain of barley given to your horses shall
secure you an indulgence in the other world."

Give barley to your horses; deprive yourself to give them still more;
for Sidi-Hamed-ben-Youssouf has remarked; "Had I not seen the mare
produce the foal, I should have said it was the barley." He has also
said: "Superior to spurs there is nothing but barley."

Do not water your horses more than once a day, at one or two in the
afternoon; and give barley only in the evening, at sunset. It is a good
practice in wartime, and, besides, it is the way to make their flesh
firm and hard.

To train a horse that is too fat for the fatigues of war, reduce him by
exercise, but never by lowering his keep.

So long as your horse, when at work, sweats over his whole body, you may
say that he is not in good wind. But you may count upon him as soon as
he sweats only on the ears and chest.

Leave not thy horse near others that are eating barley, without he has
some likewise, for otherwise he will fall ill.

Never water your horse after having given him barley. It would be the
death of the animal.

Never give water to a horse after a rapid gallop, for here is danger of
checked perspiration.

After a rapid gallop, water him with the bridle on, and feed him with
the saddle-girth on, and thou wilt not repent of it.

Be clean, and perform your ablutions before mounting your horse, and the
Prophet will love you.

Whoso is guilty of an impropriety on the back of his horse is not worthy
to own him. Moreover, he will suffer for it, for his horse will do
himself a hurt.

Never fall asleep upon thy horse. The sleep of the rider wounds or
wearies the animal.

When you put a horse to his speed, husband his strength for the time of
need. He must be treated like a goat-skin water-bag, which if you open
gradually, keeping the neck nearly closed, you will easily preserve the
water. But if you open it hastily, the water will rush out all at once,
and not a drop will remain to quench your thirst.

A horseman should never urge his horse to full speed, while going up or
down hill, unless he is forced to do so. He ought, on the contrary, to
hold him in.

"Which dost thou prefer?" the horse was asked one day, "The getting on,
or the getting off thy back?" And he made answer: "Allah curse the point
where they meet!"

When you have a long journey to accomplish, relieve your horse by
changing his pace, to enable him to recover his wind. Repeat this until
he has sweated and dried three times, then shift his girth, and
afterwards do what you will with him. He will never fail you in a
difficulty.

If, on a march, you have a strong wind right in your teeth, contrive if
possible to save your horse from facing it—you will spare him various
diseases.

If at the bivouac your horse is so placed that he cannot move out of the
wind that is blowing violently into his nostrils, do not hesitate to
leave the nose-bag suspended from his nose—you will preserve him from
serious mischief.

If you have put your horse to the gallop and other mounted men are
following behind, soothe him, do not urge him on, for he will be
sufficiently excited of himself.

If you are chasing an enemy and he commits the error of pushing his
horse on, hold in your own—you are sure to overtake the fugitive.

Never strike a thoroughbred. It humiliates him, and his pride will
revolt and urge him to resistance. It is quite sufficient to correct or
animate him by word or gesture.

If, after having wandered a long time in the mountains and by narrow
path-ways, the horseman descends into the plain, it is good to give the
animal a gallop over a short distance.

At starting the rider should not scruple to play with his horse for a
few minutes, as he will thereby relax his joints, and assure himself
peace for the rest of the day. In like manner, after a painful and
fatiguing excursion, at the moment he reaches his tent let him perform
the fantasia for a while. The women of the _douar_ will applaud, saying:
"Look at so-and-so, son of so-and-so!" and he will find out, besides,
what his horse is really worth.

The rider who does not teach his horse a good pace is no true horseman,
but an object of pity.

If, in war time or in hunting, your horse is in a lather, and you happen
to come across a stream, have no fear of allowing him to swallow half a
dozen mouthfuls with the bridle on. So far from doing him any harm it
will enable him to continue his course.

When you dismount think of your horse before thinking of yourself. It is
he who has carried you, and is to carry you again.

After a long journey, either unsaddle your horse immediately and throw
cold water over his back, at the same time leading him up and down; or
else leave the saddle on until he is perfectly dry and has eaten his
barley. There is no middle path between these two courses.

When after a long journey in winter, through rain and cold, you at
length regain your tent, cover your horse well, and give him parched
barley and warmed milk, but do not let him have any water that day.

Suffer not your horse to have anything to eat or drink directly after a
journey of unusual length, or you will produce inflammation.

Put not your horses to speed, unless positively compelled to do so,
during the great heats of summer. The animal himself says:

Put me not to speed in the summer,
If thou would'st that I should one day save thee from the sabre.

In a case of life or death if you feel your horse's wind failing, take
off the bridle if only for an instant, and strike him on the croup with
a spur sharply enough to draw blood.

If after a rapid gallop you are able to give a little respite to your
horse, you will know when to start again by the drying up of the mucus
that issues from his nostrils.

If you would know, at the end of a day of excessive fatigue and hard
riding, how far you can yet depend upon your horse, get off his back and
pull him strongly towards you by the tail. If he remains unmoved as if
rooted to the ground, you may still rely upon him.

On an expedition when, after great fatigue, you have only a moment for
repose, take for your pillow some of the bridles of your brethren, and
you will not be abandoned or forgotten, happen what may.

A horseman ought to study the habits of his horse and obtain a thorough
knowledge of his character. He will then know whether, when he alights,
he can have any confidence in him and can leave him in the midst of
other animals, or whether he must keep an eye upon him and hobble him.
Not one of these details is a matter of indifference in the presence of
an enemy.

The proper season for calling on a horse to do great things, is the
spring, before the great heats; or the autumn, before the intense cold.

The horse is what his work is.

Yes, give the heel to your steeds,
Learn and teach them what will be of service to you.
In this world it is certain that, one day or another,
Every man has to face him who demands his life.

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

The Arabs have preserved the practice of racing their horses against one
another, in which they indulged so far back as in the times of idolatry,
prior to Mohammed. The new law has in no way altered this usage. On the
contrary it has consecrated its lawfulness, and, by impressing it with
the seal of religion, has attached additional importance to it.

For racing, the Arabs subject their horses to a preparatory regimen,
which is called _tadmir_, or training. Thank to this treatment, a horse
acquires a wonderful speed. The _tadmir_ is in this wise.

They begin by increasing the animal's allowance of food, so that he
gains fat to a perceptible degree. When this result has been attained,
they begin to reduce his condition by gradually diminishing his rations
for forty days, until they have reached the minimum of nourishment.
During these forty days, they subject him to progressive exercise. At
the same time, and from the very first day from lowering his keep, they
cover the animal with seven _djellale_, or horse-cloths, one of which
they remove every six days. The sweating disperses all the fat, gets rid
of a useless weight, gives tone to the muscles, and leaves nothing but
hard flesh. By means of this treatment, a horse attains, according to
the stock he comes from, the highest degree of speed. Thus prepared, the
horse is brought on to the _djalba_ or race ground.

Horses arriving from all districts are led on to the _djalba_, and
crowds of people likewise flock thither. At no other time, except at the
period of the assemblage of pilgrims, is such a concourse of men to be
seen, and all the nobles and chiefs are present.

"We have taken part in the races, and, although it was yet early, the
crowd was as great as at the period of pilgrimages."

Horses properly trained are never suffered to run against those that are
not. They are placed in different classes, to each of which a different
goal is assigned. The trained horses have much the longest course to
run. The race-course in this case in called _el midmar_, and upon this
the learned Bokhari has remarked:

"The Prophet caused the trained horses to run by themselves, and fixed a
distance of seven miles to traverse, while for ordinary horses he fixed
a distance of only three miles."[52]

The horses are grouped together by tens, but before allowing them to
start and to prevent false starts, the following precaution is taken. A
rope is stretched across touching the animals' chests, the two ends of
which are held by two men. This rope is called _el mikbad_, and _el
mikouas_; and in reference to it the Prophet said: "The horse runs
according to his race, but placed before the _mikouas_ he runs according
to his chance of a rider." Or, in other words: "In ordinary
circumstances the speed of horses depends on the qualities of blood with
which they are more or less endowed; but in a race success depends
greatly on the skill of the rider, and not unfrequently a horse of the
purest blood may be outstripped by a less noble animal." To each of the
ten horses that have contended, a name is assigned indicative of his
degree of swiftness. Thus the one that arrives first at the goal is
called _Modjalla_, "taking away," because he takes away care from the
heart of his master. The second is named _el Mousalli_, from the word
_salouan_, "the extremity of the buttocks," because he follows the first
so closely that the point of his nose touches the other's hindquarters.
"I must positively be the _mousalli_, [that is, the second] if I consent
to thy carrying off the first prize." The third receives the surname of
_el Msali_, "Consoling," because he consoles his master, who is content
that there is only one horse between his own and the winner. The fourth
is _el Tali_, or "the Follower;" the fifth _el Mourtah_, "the fifth
finger of the hand;" the sixth _el Aâtif_; the seventh _el Hadi_, "the
Lucky one," because he has his share of success with the foremost; the
eighth, _el Mouhammil_, "one who gives hopes," because he caused his
master to hope that he might be among the winners; the ninth, _el
Lathim_, or "the Buffeted," because he has been humiliated and rejected
on all sides; and the tenth, _el Sokeït_, "the Taciturn," because his
master undergoes the lowest humiliation without uttering a word—shame
closing his mouth. Of these ten horses seven gain a prize, but the
others obtain nothing. At the further end of the course a vast tent is
pitched, into which the seven winners are admitted in order to shelter
them, while the three others are ignominiously driven away.

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE CLEMENT AND MERCIFUL.

"We took part in the horse races. Though it was early morning the crowd
was as dense as at the season of pilgrimage.

"Horses were brought from every quarter, but no one knows better than
ourselves how to rear and train them.

"We arrived at the peep of day with horses whose hoofs were as hollow as
cups. The stars had announced good fortune to them.

"They are drawn up according to the purity of their race. The noble is
placed by the side of the noble.

"Among them is a black horse with robust limbs and adorned with a white
mark on his forehead. When he feels the bit in his mouth, he dashes off,
clearing the lines traced to indicate the goal.

"The star that shines on his forehead equals the brilliancy of
Mirzam.[53]

"Then a dark bay with a black mane, endowed by nature with admirable
qualities, with a sleek skin, bearing also a star on his forehead, and a
white mark on the upper lip.

"Next a horse completely black without a white spot anywhere, but
participating in the excellent qualities of the preceding.

"They have been brought to excite the admiration of the spectators,
impatient to see them appear in the lists.

"Horsemen mount them, hardy as bars of iron and short of stature. Their
voice is like the roaring of the lion.

"Seated on their coursers they look like starlings hovering over the
table-land of a mountain.

"At last they draw up in line. In the midst of the assembly of
spectators, a man, a Mussulman like the others, sits in the capacity of
umpire. He has been chosen by common accord as arbiter, and surely his
awards will not be tainted with partiality.

"The steeds let loose in the arena disperse immediately like pearls that
fall from a necklace, or like a covey of _ketâa_ (gray partridges)
discovered by a falcon that swoops down upon them, attacking them with
fury.

"The black, with a white mark on the forehead, comes in first.

"The bay with the dark mane is second, and the entirely black is without
reproach, for he runs in third.

The _Tali_ is the fourth, and follows the others. But how far is the
inhabitant of the Tahama from the inhabitant of Nedjed!

The fifth, _el Mourtah_, is not to be blamed, for he has done as well as
he could do.

The _Aâtif_ is the sixth. He comes in all trembling, and his fear well
nigh stopped him in mid-career.

"The seventh is the _Hadi_. The awarder of prizes will give unto him his
due.

"The _Mouhammil_, who gave such hopes to his master, has come in the
eighth. He was mistaken. The unfortunate one encountered on his path the
bird of ill omen. He suffered seven horses to pass before him and ran in
the eighth—but the eighth horse is not one of the winners.

"The ninth arrives at last. He is the _Lathim_, the buffeted one, and
receives blows from every one.

"On his traces follows, capering about, the _Sokeït_, the Silent one,
with trouble in his face and humiliation on his forehead. The horseman
who rides him at the tail of the others is the object of reproaches from
all sides, and still more so his groom. It is of little use to ask who
is his master,—no answer is to be had from those whom shame has made
dumb.

"Whoso does not take to the race-course the horses that are most noble
by birth ought to repent of it.

"In being present we have experienced the greatest gratification,
without speaking of the glory and advantages we have carried off.

"In exchange for the seven reeds planted at the end of the course and
carried off by the first seven as they arrived, we have received
magnificent presents, such as it is seemly to offer.

"Striped calico from Yemen, dyed of various colours, and _haïks_ of silk
and of wool.

"We carried off all these stuffs spread out over our horses, with
borders red as blood.

"In addition to all this they gave us silver coins by thousands, but
this silver we never keep for ourselves. We distribute it among the
servants who tend our horses, though we ourselves tend these with our
own hands far more carefully than they do.

"These are horses that never drink any but the purest water, and never
feed on any but the choicest food.

* * * * *

The Mussulman law distinguishes three ways of offering prizes for horse
racing. The first is positively permitted, the second is so
conditionally, and the third is utterly prohibited. In the first case,
some one entirely without interest in the result of the race offers a
prize, saying: "Whoever shall be victor in the race shall gain the
prize." Kings, chiefs, and great personages whose rank or fortune places
them in an exalted position, sometimes propose prizes in this manner,
which is sanctioned without any condition. In the second case, an
individual interested in the race, says: "I offer a prize which shall be
given to the one first in." This mode is allowed, with the condition
that if the donor himself is the first to arrive at the goal, the prize
shall be given to the assembly. The third manner is that by which every
one interested in the race offers a prize for the benefit of him by whom
he is beaten. This style of racing is nothing more than a wager, and
consequently is absolutely forbidden. Much more is betting by persons
not concerned in the race formally prohibited.

ABD-EL-KADER ON THE ARAB HORSE.

Having known the Emir Abd-el-Kader during the time I held the office of
French Consul at Mascara, from 1837 to 1839, and having again met him at
Toulon in 1847, whither I had been ordered on special duty at the time
of his first landing in France, I had full opportunity in my numerous
interviews with him to appreciate his intimate acquaintance with all
that related to the history of his country, as well as to all questions
of horse-flesh. I did not hesitate, therefore, to ask his opinion on a
subject of a purely scientific nature, which may nevertheless be of
great moment, not only for the future interests of our colony, but for
those of the country at large. The following is his reply, written under
date of the 8th November, 1851.

Glory to the one God, whose reign alone endureth for ever!

Peace be with him who equals in good qualities all the men of his time,
who aims only at what is good, whose heart is pure and his word abiding,
the wise, the intelligent, the Lord General Daumas, on the part of your
friend Sid-el-Hadj Abd-el-Kader, son of Mahhi-Eddin.

Behold the reply to your inquiries:—

1st. You ask me how many days an Arab horse can march without rest and
without suffering too severely. Know, then, that a horse sound in every
limb, that eats as much barley as his stomach can contain, can do
whatever his rider can ask of him. For this reason the Arabs say: "Give
barley and over-work him." But without tasking him overmuch, a horse can
be made to do sixteen parasangs day after day.[54] It is the distance
from Mascara to Koudiat-Aghelizan on the Oued-Mina; it has been measured
in cubits. A horse performing this journey every day, and having as much
barley as it likes to eat, can go on, without fatigue, for three or four
months, without lying by a single day.

2nd. You ask me what distance a horse can accomplish in a day. I cannot
tell you very precisely, but it ought to be about fifty parasangs, or
the distance from Tlemcen to Mascara. However, an animal that has
performed such a journey ought to be carefully ridden on the following
day, and allowed to do only a very much shorter distance. Most of our
horses used to go from Oran to Mascara in a single day, and could repeat
the journey for two or three consecutive days. On one occasion we
started from Saïda about eight in the morning to fall upon the Arbâa,
who were encamped at Aaïn-Toukria, among the Oulad-Aïad near Taza, and
we came up with them at break of day.

3rd. You ask for examples of the temperance of the Arab horse, and for
proofs of his power of enduring hunger and thirst. Know that when we
were established at the mouth of the Melouïa, we used to make razzias
into the Djebel-Amour, following the route of the Sahara, and on the day
of attack pushing forward at the gallop for five or six hours at a
stretch—the entire expedition, going and returning, being completed in
twenty to twenty-five days at the outside. During this space of time our
horses had no barley except what they carried with them, about enough
for eight ordinary feeds. Nor did they find straw, or anything except
the _alfa_ and _shiehh_, and grass in the spring time. And yet, on
rejoining our people, we performed the fantasia on our horses, and some
among us burnt powder. Many, too, who were not fresh enough for the
latter exercise, were quite able to go upon an expedition. Our horses
would go a day or two without water, and once they found none for three
days. The horses of the Sahara do far more than that, for they go three
months without touching a grain of barley. Straw they meet with only
when they go to the Tell to buy grain, and for the most part feed on the
_alfa_, the _shiehh_, and sometimes the _guetof_. The _shiehh_ is better
than the _alfa_, but not so good as the _guetof_. The Arabs say:

The _alfa_ is good for marching,
The _shiehh_ is good for fighting,
And the _guetof_ is superior to barley.

In certain years the horses of the Sahara have gone the whole twelve
months without a grain of barley to eat, especially when the tribes have
not been suffered to enter the Tell. At such times the Arabs give dates
to their horses, which is a fattening food, and keeps them in condition
for marching or fighting.

4th. You ask why, seeing the French do not mount their horses before
they are four years old, the Arabs mount theirs at a very early age.
Know that the Arabs say that horses, like men, are more easily taught
when quite young. They have a proverb:

The lessons of infancy are engraved upon stone,
The lessons of ripe age pass away like birds' nests.

They likewise say:

The young branch is made straight without much trouble,
But the old wood can never be straightened.

In the very first year, the Arabs teach the colt to let itself be led by
the _reseum_, a species of cavesson. They call it then _djeda_, and
begin to fasten and bridle it. As soon as it has become _teni_, that is,
as soon as it has entered on its second year, they ride it a mile or
two, or even a parasang, and after it has completed eighteen months they
do not fear to fatigue it. When it has become _rebâa telata_, that is,
when it has entered on its third year, they tie it up, cease to ride it,
cover it with a good _djellal_, and get it into condition. They say:

In his first year, tie him up lest he should meet with an accident;
In his second year, ride him until his back bends;
In his third year, again tie him up, and after that, if he does not
suit you, sell him.

If a horse is not ridden before his third year, it is certain that he
will never be good for anything but to gallop, which he does not need to
learn, as it is his nature to do so: an idea thus expressed by the
Arabs: "The noble horse gallops according to his race"—that is, a
thoroughbred horse has no occasion to be taught to gallop.

5th. You ask me how it is, seeing that the foal derives more qualities
from its sire than from its dam, that mares are always higher priced
than horses. The reason is this. He who buys a mare does so with the
expectation that he will not only be able to make use of her for the
saddle, but will also obtain from her a numerous stock; while he who
buys a horse cannot hope to get any other advantage out of him than by
riding him.

6th. You ask me if the Arabs of the Sahara keep registers to establish
the descent of their horses. Know that the inhabitants of the Algerian
Sahara do not, any more than those of the Tell, concern themselves with
these registers. The notoriety of the fact suffices them; for pedigree
of their blood horses is as well known to every one as that of their
masters. I have heard it said that some families possessed these written
genealogies, but I cannot answer for the fact. Such books, however, are
kept in the East.

7th. You ask me which are the tribes of Algeria the most renowned for
the pure breed of their horses. Know that the best horses of the Sahara
are unquestionably those of Hamyân. They possess none but excellent
animals, because they never employ them to till the ground, or as beasts
of burden. They employ them solely on expeditions and in battle. These
are superior to all others in endurance of hunger, thirst, and fatigue.
Next in order come the horses of the Harar, the Arbâa, and the
Oulad-Naïl. In the Tell, the horses in the first rank for nobility of
race, for height and beauty of mould, are those of the Shelif,
especially those of the Oulad-Sidi-Ben-Abd-Allah, near the Mina, and
those of the Oulad-Sidi-Hassan, a section of the Oulad-Sidi-Dahhou, who
dwell in the highlands of Mascara. The fleetest in the race-course, and
at the same time of a beautiful shape, are those of the Flittas, the
Oulad-Sherif, and the Oulad-Lekreud. The best for traversing stony
ground, without being shod, are those of the Hassasna in the Yakoubia.
The following words are ascribed to Mulay-Ishmael, the celebrated Sultan
of Morocco.

May my horse have been reared in the Mâz,
And watered in the Biaz.

The Mâz is a district of the Hassasna, and the Biaz is the stream known
by the name of Foufet, that flows through their territory. The horses of
the Oulad-Khaled are also famous for the same qualities. In reference to
this tribe Sidi-Ahmed-Ben-Youssel has said: "The long locks and the long
_djellals_ will lie seen in the midst of you to the day of the
resurrection," thus eulogising their women and their horses.

8th. You say that people maintain against you that the horses of Algeria
are not Arabs but Barbs. It is a theory that turns against its own
authors, for the Barbs were originally Arabs. A well-known writer has
said: "The Berbers inhabit the Mogheb. They are all sons of
Kaïs-Ben-Ghilan. It is likewise stated that they spring from two great
Hemiarite tribes, the Senahdja and the Kettama, who came into the
country at the time of the invasion of Ifrikesh El Malik." According to
both these opinions, the Berbers are decidedly Arabs. Historians,
moreover, establish the descent of most of the Berber tribes from the
Senahdja and the Kettama. The arrival of these tribes was anterior to
Islam. Since the Mussulman invasion the number of Arabs who have
emigrated into the Mogheb is beyond computation. When the Obeïdin [the
Fatimites] were masters of Egypt, immense tribes passed into Africa,
among others the Riahh, and spread themselves from Kaïrouan to Merrakesh
[Morocco]. It is from these tribes that are descended the Algerian
tribes of the Douaouda, the Aïad, the Mâdid, the Oulad-Mahdi, the
Oulad-Iakoub-Zerara, the Djendel, the Attaf, the Hamïs, the Braze, the
Sbeha, the Flittas, the Medjahar, the Mehal, the Beni-Aâmer, the Hamian,
and many more. Without doubt the Arab horses were dispersed through the
Mogheb in like manner with the Arab families. At the time of
Ifrikesh-ben-Kaïf, the empire of the Arabs was all powerful. It extended
as far west as the confines of the Mogheb, just as in the time of Shamar
the Hemiarite it extended eastward to the frontiers of China, as it is
related by Ben-Kouteïba in his book entitled "El Marif."

It is quite true, however, that although the Algerian horses come of
Arab stock, many have degenerated from their nobleness from being
employed much too often in the plough, in carrying and drawing heavy
loads, and in other kinds of labour, and from other causes which did not
exist among the Arabs of the olden times. It is sufficient, they say,
for a horse to have walked over ploughed land to lose something of his
excellence, and by way of illustration they relate the following
anecdote:

"A man was riding one day, mounted on a thoroughbred, when he met his
enemy also mounted on a noble courser. The one turned and fled, while
the other gave chace. The latter was distanced, and despairing to
overtake the former, cried out to him:

"I demand of thee in the name of Allah, has thy horse ever been in the
plough?"

"He has ploughed for four days."

"Ah! mine has never been in the plough. By the head of the Prophet, I am
certain to overtake thee."

"He then followed up the pursuit and towards the end of the day the
pursued began to lose ground and the pursuer to gain upon him. At last
the latter succeeded in coming up with and combating him whom he had at
first despaired of overtaking."

"My father—Allah be merciful to him!—was in the habit of saying: 'There
was no blessing for our land since we converted our coursers into beasts
of burden and tillage. Did not Allah create the horse for riding, the ox
for the plough, and the camel for the transport of burdens? There is
nothing to be gained by changing the ways of Allah.'"

9th. You ask me further what is our practice with regard to the keep and
maintenance of our horses. Know that the master of a horse gives him
very little barley to begin with, and goes on increasing the quantity
little by little, until he fails to consume it all, when the quantity is
reduced and afterwards maintained at the exact measure of his appetite.
The best time of day for giving barley is the evening. Unless on a
journey, it is useless to give it in the morning. The best way is to
give it to the horse saddled and girthed, just as the best way of
watering him is with the bridle on. There is a saying.

Water with the bridle,
And barley with the saddle.

The Arabs greatly prefer a horse that eats little, provided he does not
lose strength. Such a one, say they, is a priceless treasure. To water a
horse at sunrise, makes him lose flesh. To water him in the evening,
puts him into good condition. To water him in the middle of the day,
keeps him as he is. During the great heats which last for forty days,
the Arabs water their horses only every second day: a custom, they
assert, attended with beneficial effects. In summer, autumn, and winter
they throw an armful of straw to their horses; but the substance of
their keep is barley, in preference to every other kind of food. They
say: "Had we not seen that horses come from horses, we should have said
that it is the barley that produces them." Again:

"Of forbidden flesh, choose the lightest," that is, choose a horse that
is light and nimble—horse-flesh being forbidden to Mussulmans.

"No one becomes a horseman until he has been often thrown."

"Thoroughbred horses have no vice."

"A horse in a leading-string is an honour to his master."

"Horses are birds without wings."

"No distance is far for a horse."

"Whoso forgets the beauty of horses for that of women will never
prosper."

"Horses know their riders."

The pious Ben-el-Abbas—Allah be good to him!—hath said:

Love horses and take care of them,
Spare no trouble;
By them comes honour, by them comes beauty.
If horses are forsaken of men,
I will receive them into my family,
I will share with them the bread of my children;
My wives clothe them with their veils,
And cover themselves with the horse-cloths;
I ride them every day
Over the field of adventures;
Carried away in their impetuous career
I combat the most valiant.

I have finished the letter which our brother and companion, the friend
of all men, the Commandant Sidi-Bou-Senna [Boissonnet], will cause to be
delivered into your hands. Peace!

THE WAR HORSE.

AN ARAB CHAUNT.

My steed is black as a night without moon or stars;
He was foaled in vast solitudes;
He is an air-drinker, son of an air-drinker.
His dam also was of noble race,
And our horsemen of the days of powder have surnamed him Sabok.[55]
The lightning flash itself cannot overtake him:
Allah save him from the evil eye!

His ears vie with those of the gazelle,
His eyes are the eyes of a woman with wiles,
His forehead resembles that of a bull,
His nostrils the cavern of a lion.
His neck, shoulders, and croup are long,
He is broad in the seat, in the limbs and flanks,
He has the tail of a viper, the thighs of an ostrich,
And his vigorous heels are lifted above the ground.
I reckon upon him as upon my own heart.
Never has mortal mounted his equal.

His flesh is firmer than that of the zebra;
He has the short gallop of the fox,
The easy and prolonged running of the wolf;
He accomplishes in one day a five days' march;
And when he stretches out at full speed,
he strikes the girts with his hocks.
You would say that it was a dart hurled by fate,

Or a thirsty pigeon that precipitates itself
Upon the water preserved in the hollow of a rock.

Yes, Sabok is a war horse!
He loves the chace of savage animals,
He sighs only for glory and booty,
And the cries of our virgins excite his ardour.
When I urge him into the midst of dangers,
His neighing summons the vultures
And makes my enemies tremble;
On his back, death cannot overtake me,
It fears the sound of his hoofs.

Aâtika[56] said to me: "Come and be without a companion!"
Docile as the sabre one draws from the sheath,
Sabok hears my spurs, and divines my thoughts;
He cleaves through space like a falcon regaining its nest,
And when I arrive near her whose eyes are languishing,
Alone, in the midst of peril, patient and immovable,
He champs his bit until my return.
By the head of the Prophet, this horse is the resource of caravans,
The ornament of a tent, and the honour of my tribe.

I am an Arab. I know how to command and to combat,
My name protects the feeble and the afflicted,
My flocks are the reserve of the poor,
And the stranger in my tent is named The Welcome One.
The Almighty hath loaded me with his gifts,
But time turns upon itself, and turns back,
And if I must drink one day of the two cups of life,
I will show that adversity cannot humiliate my soul.
My virtue shall be resignation,
My fortune, contempt of riches,
My happiness, the hope of another life;
And if poverty were to grasp me by the throat,
I would not the less glorify Allah.

PART SECOND

THE MANNERS OF THE DESERT

THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER ON THE HORSE.

It is certain that the Arabs are the most experienced horsemen in the
world. They know a horse thoroughly and minutely, and can rear and train
one better than any other people. It is also certain that the Arab
horses are better than those of all other nations. A sufficient proof of
this is that they always finish by overtaking the gazelle, the ostrich,
and the wild ass, which they sometimes pursue to a great distance.

"He has chased the onager, the buffalo, and the ostrich, without once
pulling up, and without a single drop of sweat moistening his coat."

The nature of the horses of the Sahara is a consequence of the life led
by their masters. The Saharenes are obliged to accustom their horses to
support hunger through the scarcity of food, and likewise thirst through
the scarcity of water, which is frequently not to be found within a
couple of day's march of the encampment. Endurance of fatigue and speed
are the result of the countless quarrels of these Arabs, their incessant
hostile excursions, and their fondness for the chace of the swiftest
animals, such as the ostrich, the gazelle, and the wild ass, which some
among them hunt the whole year round without interruption.

The Most High hath said: "Put on foot all the forces you can dispose of,
and hold in readiness a large number of horses, to intimidate the
enemies of Allah and your own, and yet others, whom you know not but who
are known to Allah. Whatever you shall have expended in the service of
Allah, shall be recompensed to you. You will not be forsaken."

And the Prophet never ceased to repeat:

"Whoso possesses an Arab horse and honours him, will be honoured of
Allah."

"Whoso possesses an Arab horse and contemns him, will be contemned of
Allah."

THE SAHARA

BY ABD-EL-KADER.

Glory to God alone!

O thou who takest up the defence of the _hader_[57]

And condemnest the love of the _bedoui_[58] for his boundless horizons!

Is it for their lightness that thou findest fault with our tents?

Hast thou no word of praise but for houses of wood and stone?

If thou knewest the secrets of the desert, thou wouldst think like me:

But thou art ignorant, and ignorance is the other of evil.

If thou hadst waked up in the middle of the Sahara,
If thy feet had trampled this carpet of sand,
Sprinkled with flowers like to pearls,
Thou wouldst have admired our plants,
The singular variety of their hues,
Their grace, their delicious perfume;

Thou wouldst have drawn in this balmy breath which
doubles life, for it has not passed over the impurity of
cities.

If, going out some splendid night,
Cooled by an abundant dew,
From the summit of a _merkeb_,[59]
Thou hadst cast thy eyes round thee,
Thou wouldst have seen far away and on all sides
troops of wild animals
Browsing the fragrant shrubs.
At that moment all care would have fled from before
thee.
Overflowing joy would have filled thy soul.

What a charm, too, in our hunting! At sunrise,
Through us every day brings terror to the savage
beast.
And the day of the _rahil_,[60] when our red _haouadjej_[61] are
fastened on our camels,
Thou wouldst have said that a field of anemones were
bedecking themselves, under the rain, with their richest
colours.

Upon our _haouadjej_ recline our virgins;
Their _taka_[62] are closed by houri eyes.
The conductors of their animals raise their shrill
chaunt;
The tone of their voice finds the door of the soul.

We, swift as the air, on our generous coursers,
The _shelils_[63] waving over their croups,
We give chace to the _houache_.[64]
We overtake the _ghezal_,[65] that fancies itself far from us.
It escapes not from our horses at full speed,
With thin flanks.
How many _delim_[66] with their females became our prey!
Although their running is not less rapid than the
flight of other birds.

We return to our families at the hour of halt,
On a new camping ground, free from pollution.
The earth exhales the odour of musk,[67]
But purer than it,
It has been cleansed by the rains
Of evening and morning.

We pitch our tents in circular groups;
The earth is covered with them, as is the firmament
with stars.
They of old time have said, who are no more, but our
fathers have repeated it,
And we say as they did, for truth is always truth:
Two things are beautiful in this world,
Beautiful verses and beautiful tents.

In the evening, our camels come up to us;
At night the voice of the male is heard like distant
thunder.

Light ships of the land,
Safer than ships,
For a ship is inconstant;
Our _maharis_[68] rival in speed the _maha_.[69]

And our horses—is there a glory like unto theirs?
Always saddled for the fight,
When any one invokes our aid,
They are the promise of victory.
Our enemies have no place of refuge against our blows,
For our coursers, celebrated by the Prophet,
swoop upon them like the vulture.

Our coursers have the purest milk to drink,
The milk of the camel, more precious than that of the cow.

Our first care is to divide the booty we have taken from the enemy.
Equity presides at the distribution.
Every one receives the due reward of his valour.

We have sold our rights of citizenship. We have no reason to regret
the bargain.
We have gained honour, of which the _hader_ knows nothing.
We are Kings. There is none to be compared with us.
Is it life to undergo humiliation?

We suffer not the insults of the unjust. We leave him and his land.
True happiness is in wandering life.

If contact with our neighbour annoys us,
We withdraw from him—neither he, nor we, have anything to complain of.

What fault, then, hast thou to find with the _bedoui_?
Nothing but his love of glory, and his liberality that knows no
stint.

Under the tent, the fire of hospitality is kindled for the
traveller.
He finds, whoever he may be, a sure remedy against cold and hunger.

Ages have told of the salubrity of the Sahara.
All disease and sickness dwell only beneath the roof of cities.
In the Sahara, whoever is not reaped by the sword sees days without
number;
Our old men are the most aged of all men.

THE RAZZIA.

The most frequent and almost daily incident of Arab life is the
_razzia_. Glory is a fine ting, no doubt, and in the Sahara hearts are
as open to its fascination as elsewhere. But there, the idea of glory is
to injure the enemy and destroy his resources, and at the same time
augment one's own. Glory is not smoke, but plunder. The thirst for
revenge is also a motive; but what vengeance is sweeter than to enrich
oneself with the spoils of one's enemy? This threefold craving for
glory, revenge, and plunder, could not possibly be gratified more
promptly or efficaciously than by the _razzia_—the invasion by force or
stratagem of the ground occupied by the foe, which contains all that is
dear to him, his family and his fortune.

In the desert, there are three kinds of _razzia_. First of all there is
the _tehha_ ["the falling," from the verb _tahh_, "it is fallen"], which
takes place at the _fedjeur_, or dawn of day. In a _tehha_, the object
is not pillage, but massacre: no thought is given to riches, but all to
vengeance. The next is the _khrotefa_, which comes off at _el aasseur_,
or two or three in the afternoon, and means nothing but rapine. And
lastly, the _terbigue_, which is neither war, nor an affair of
brigandage, but, at most, a thievish operation. The _terbigue_ is
attempted at _nous el leïl_, or midnight. When a razzia is determined
upon, those who propose to take part in it say to one another _Rana
akeud_, "we are a knot." The enterprise is arranged, the association
formed, and a compact concluded—compact of life and death.

THE TEHHA.

When a _tehha_ is contemplated, the sheikh issues orders to shoe the
horses, to prepare food, and to provide a supply of barley for five or
six days, more or less. These provisions are put into a _semmât_, or
wallet, each taking his own. Previous to setting out, two or three
mounted scouts are sent forward to reconnoitre the position of the enemy
they propose to attack. The scouts are men of intelligence, well
mounted, acquainted with the country, and circumspect. They take every
precaution and make a great circuit, so that in the event of a surprise,
they will appear from a quarter whence those whom they intend to assail
are accustomed to see only friends appear. On arriving near to their
destination, they place themselves in ambush, and one of them,
separating from the band, penetrates on foot to the very heart of the
_douar_, without exciting the slightest suspicion. As soon as they have
obtained the necessary information respecting the numbers and
disposition of the enemy, they retrace their steps and rejoin the
_goum_, who await them at a spot previously agreed upon. Like the scouts
they, too, have followed a path little calculated to inspire with
apprehension those whom they propose to surprise. All necessary
intelligence having been obtained, and the foe being now near at hand,
it is arranged to fall upon him at the dawn of day, because at that hour
they will find

The wife without her girdle,
And the mare without her bridle.

Before dashing into the _mêlée_, the leaders address to their followers
a few impassioned words: "Listen. Let no one think of despoiling the
women, driving off the horses, entering the tents, or alighting for
purposes of plunder, before taking many lives. Bear in mind that we have
to do with 'children of sin,' who will defend themselves vigourously.
These people have butchered our brethren. No mercy! Kill! Kill! if you
desire at the same time to take revenge and the goods of your enemies. I
tell you again they will not give these up to you without a struggle."
The _goum_ then breaks up into three or four bands, with a view to
strike terror into the assailed from several different quarters at the
same time. As soon as they are within range they open fire, but not a
cry is uttered until their fire-arms have made themselves heard.

These _razzias_ are for the most part frightful scenes of carnage. The
men, taken off their guard, are nearly all put to the sword, but the
women are merely stripped of their clothing and jewels. If time permit,
the victors carry off with them the tents, the negroes, the horses, and
the flocks, leaving the women and the children, for in the desert no one
ever burdens himself with prisoners. On their return the flocks are
committed to the custody of a few horsemen, while the others form
themselves into a strong rearguard to cover the retreat. On reaching the
_douar_, the combatants divide among themselves the flocks and the booty
captured without personal risk, and give to the sheikh, over and above
his share, thirty or forty ewes, or three or four camels, as the case
may be, besides bestowing a special gratuity on the horsemen who were
sent forward as scouts.

Previous to attempting an enterprise of this kind each tribe places
itself under the protection of a particular marabout to whom it is in
the habit of applying in difficult circumstances. In the eyes of the
Saharene, to plunder an enemy, though an incident of no uncommon
occurrence, is an affair by no means devoid of solemnity. It is thus
that the tribe of the Arbâa regard as their regular and accredited
marabout Sidi-Hamed-ben-Salem-Ould-Tedjiny. A successful _razzia_ is
celebrated by great rejoicings. In each tent an _ouadâa_, or feast, is
prepared in honour of the marabouts, to which are invited the poor, the
_tolbas_, or men of letters, the widows, the farriers, and the free
negroes.

The _tehha_ is usually achieved with five or six hundred horses, and not
unfrequently foot-soldiers accompany the expedition, mounted on camels.
Sometimes the tribe that is to be attacked has received timely warning,
and been able to adopt measures for defence. The horses are saddled, the
arms ready to the hand. A combat takes place, instead of a massacre, and
many fall on both sides. The assailants, however, have usually the
advantage, as they are not embarrassed with women and children like
their adversaries; and it rarely happens that they return home without
booty.

Perhaps I cannot do better than reproduce in this place one of those
popular chaunts which so well depict the rage and the varying fortune of
these bloody struggles, that generally originate in love or jealousy.

My horse is whiter than snow,
Whiter than the winding-sheet of men;
He will bound like a gazelle,
And will bear me to the tent of thy father.

O Yamina, fools are they who foster thy pride,
Greater fools they who tell me to forget thee!
Would that I were the pin[70] of thy _haïk_;
A lock of thy black hair,
The _meroueud_[71] that blackens thy eyes,
Or, still better, the carpet thou tramplest under foot.

I watered my horse at the fountain-head,
Then lightly leaped on his back.
My _chabir_ are glued to his flanks,
And I have faith in my arms as I have faith in my own heart
They betrayed me for the moon of my soul,
But time shall betray them also.

By Allah, O ye vultures!
Why hover ye in the air?
I ask of Allah to grant us one of those bloody combats,
In which every one can die in health and not of disease.
You will pass days and nights in gorging yourselves!
Our lives and those of our horses,
Do they not belong to our maidens?

Away, strangers, away!
Leave the flowers of our plains
To the bees of the country.
Away, strangers, away!

O the generous One! Behold, then, the night
In which our _goums_ shall burn powder
Close to the very _douar_ of Yamina,
While the women are yet without their girdles,

And the horses have iron fastenings on their feet,
Before the _aâtatouche_[72] has been placed on the backs of
camels,
And the horsemen have drawn on their _temag_.
Grant that I may receive seven balls in my burnous,
Seven balls in my steed,
And that I may place seven[73] in the body of my rival.
The best of all loves is that which causes gnashing of teeth.

Strike out, young men, strike out![74]
The bullets do not slay;
It is fate alone that takes life.
Strike out, young men, strike out!

The horse of Kaddour is dead, the horse of Kaddour is dead!
Publish it through your tribes, for they will rejoice at it;
But, if you are not Jews,
Add that, bleeding and wounded,
He was able to save his master and bear him out of the _mêlée_.
He was not one to be false to his ancestors,
Never had he been trained to flee,
He knew only how to throw himself on the foe.
Merouan is dead for Yamina—his days were counted!

O my heart! why art thou so bent
To make the waters flow back to the mountains?
Thou art the madman who giveth chace to the sun!
Believe me; cease to love a woman
Who will never say to thee, Yes.
The seed sown in a _sebkha_[75]
Will never produce ears of corn.

THE KHROTEFA.

The object of the _razzia_ called _khrotefa_ is to carry off a flock of
camels grazing at a distance of seven or eight leagues from the tribe.
From a hundred and fifty to two hundred horsemen join together as "a
knot" and set out on the expedition. The reconnaissance is conducted in
the same manner as for the _tehha_, only the arrangements are made with
a view to arrive at the appointed spot towards _el aasseur_—three or
four in the afternoon—and not at the _fedjeur_, or dawn of day.

When the _razzia_ has been accomplished, and four, five, or six
_ybal_—or flocks of one hundred camels each—have been driven off, they
divide into two parties. The one, consisting of the weakest horses, goes
forward with the booty, while the other forms a sort of rearguard whose
duty it is, if necessary, to make head against the enemy. After
appointing a rendez-vous for the morrow, the parties separate; but, in
order to throw out the pursuers, those who are to check the enemy follow
a different path to that taken by the drivers of the flocks.

In these forays the shepherds are usually spared; nor do they, indeed,
take much trouble to defend property that does not belong to them. But
the noise and shouting soon give the alarm. Every one saddles his horse
and gallops forward; then they halt and rally, and finally appear in
force upon the ground. Here again the assailants have every chance in
their favour. They are on the look-out, and ready to receive the enemy.
Their horses have had time to rest, while those of the tribe that has
been plundered are exhausted and blown. Musket shots are nevertheless
exchanged, but night supervenes; and, as soon as the darkness has
thickened so that "the eye begins to grow black," the plunderers decamp
and go off at full gallop to rejoin their comrades, whom they overtake
at sunrise. The pursuit lasts but a short time. The conviction that the
camels cannot be recovered, and the fear of falling into an ambuscade,
soon induce the plundered tribe to return to their tents.

Although the actual fighting incidental to this kind of expedition is
devoid of animation and soon interrupted by nightfall, they who take
part in it do not the less run considerable risk. A horseman may receive
a wound sufficiently severe to disable him from continuing his march. In
that case he is lost, unless he happen to be a personage of distinction,
for then he is certain not to be deserted. Some strong, vigourous fellow
takes charge of him, lifts him up, places him across his saddle, and
carries him home dead or alive. As for slight wounds, with the Arab
saddle they do not give much trouble, nor do they prevent the return to
the _goum_. On rejoining the tribe, the spoils are divided among those
who shared in the _khrotefa_.

THE TERBIGUE.

In a _terbigue_ not more than fifteen to twenty horsemen make "a knot,"
and propose to drive off the flocks from the very middle of a _douar_.
They send some of their party to reconnoitre the tribe, and arrive close
to the tents on one of the darkest nights. An isolated _douar_ is
selected, to which they approach as near as two or three hundred paces.
Three of them dismount and stop, while one goes round to the opposite
side, and makes a noise to attract the attention of the dogs. The people
of the tribe fancy it is a passing hyæna, or a jackal, and take no
notice of it. In the meanwhile the two other robbers penetrate into the
interior of the _douar_, loosen the fastenings of ten, fifteen, or
twenty camels, according as fortune favours them, and knock their shoes
together, to frighten the liberated animals and cause them to run away.
They then make off as quickly as they can, rejoin their horses, and all
assist in collecting the scattered camels. After that they separate into
two bands, one of which conducts the captured animals, while the others,
lagging a little behind, allow themselves to be pursued in a different
direction. If by chance they have succeeded in letting loose the
_faâle_, or stallion, their success is certain, for all the females
strive to follow him.

Since, in these operations, the secret is generally well kept, they
seldom fail, nor are accidents at all common. Should the _douar_ be on
its guard, the attacking party at once retires. They who venture upon
such enterprises are usually well mounted, and speedily escape from a
pursuit that is rendered almost impossible by the obscurity which
effaces all traces and inspires dread of ambush. For a _razzia_ of this
sort, they do not hesitate to go thirty or forty leagues.

Sometimes incidents of a grotesque nature characterise the _terbigue_.
When a party of horsemen does not care to leave a reserve to fight the
enemy, they conceal themselves in an ambuscade seven or eight hundred
steps from the _douar_; while the most experienced robber of the band
strips himself naked, and, taking only his sword with him and tying his
shoes to his head to look like enormous ears, penetrates into the
_douar_. He carries in his hand an old saddle-bow, which he shakes in
all directions, every now and striking the earth. To this dull sound he
joins cries of alarm and terror: "The _goum_! the _goum_! up! up! We are
betrayed!" The clamour, the jumping about, the strange aspect of the
individual, and the noise of the saddle which he keeps on shaking,
strike terror into the animals. Horses, sheep, and camels rush pell-mell
out of the _douar_, and are caught by the concealed horsemen. The others
rush out of their tents, snatch up their guns, and spring into the
saddle; but flocks and plunderers are already far away, fleeing at full
speed, and protected by the night.

THE KHRIANA, OR THEFT.

The _terbigue_ is, in fact, a robbery, but it is at the same time almost
a warlike operation—it is, at least, a _razzia_. The strength of the
party that executes the enterprise, the importance of the wrong
inflicted upon an entire division of a tribe, the high qualities of the
perpetrators of the robbery, who, after all, are real warriors,—all
these circumstances taken together, if they do not suffice as a
justification in the eyes of scrupulous Europeans, are esteemed in the
desert as extremely plausible motives. Since a few brave and reckless
fellows have imperilled their lives to injure a hostile tribe, there
cannot be otherwise than joy and triumph in that to which they belong.

In the _khriana_, however, we descend a step lower, and arrive at a mere
marauding expedition, executed by professional thieves. It is no longer
war, even in miniature—it is nothing more than theft. It is no longer a
subject of rejoicing for a whole tribe, though still a matter for praise
and congratulation among friends; always provided the robbery has not
been committed on their own or on a friendly tribe—which would be a
disgrace—but absolutely on an enemy. They say, "Such a one is a brave
man—he robs the enemy." As may readily be imagined, all thefts are not
managed in the same manner, but are adapted to the nature of the capture
that is proposed to be made.

HORSE-STEALING.

This species of theft is practised towards the end of the Mussulman
month. When the moon is scarcely visible, five or six men, having a
proper understanding between themselves, take a supply of provisions
with them in their wallets, and go forth in search of adventures. Before
starting, they give alms to the poor, and intreat them to intercede with
Allah for the success of their enterprise. They then swear by some
well-known marabout, generally Sidi Abd-el-Kader, that, if they succeed,
they will do him homage by putting aside a portion for the unfortunate.
"O Sidi Abd-el-Kader," they exclaim, "if we return with joy, loaded with
spoils and free from accident, we will give thee thy lance's share, if
it please Allah!"

On leaving the _douar_ the robbers travel in broad daylight, but, as
they approach the tribe they propose to rob, they proceed only at night,
and conceal themselves, when two or three leagues from the tents, in the
bed of a river, or among the herbage, or in the mountains. As soon as
the darkness has become dense, they issue from their hiding-place and
try the different _douars_ one after the other, stopping at last at that
which seems the least securely guarded, and where the dogs are the least
wakeful. If the robbers are six in number, four of them remain about
fifty paces from the _douar_, silent and motionless, while the two
others, the most daring and adroit, make their way into the interior.
Before separating, they agree upon a pass-word; and then the two thieves
go to work. If they find the dogs on the watch, they return for a third
companion, whom they station a little way off, in front of the tent
guarded by the vigilant dogs, and they themselves enter the _douar_ from
another quarter. They agree upon the tent they propose to rob; and while
one of them, called the _gaad_, remains as a sentinel beside it, the
other, the _hammaze_, pushes on to the horses. If the latter comes upon
a horse or a mare, fastened only by leather thongs ropes, he unties or
cuts the knot, seizes the animal by the _goulada_, or necklace of
talismans, and leads it to the side opposite to where the dogs are held
engaged by the _layahh_,[76] the third accomplice who was stationed for
that purpose in front of the tent. The _gaad_ stays behind ready to
shoot with a pistol, or to knock down with a stone or stick, the first
man who comes out of the tent, and then to mislead the rest by flying in
a direction different to that taken by his comrade with the horse. He
then rejoins the _layahh_, and the two quickly come up with the
_hammaze_, when all three return to their expectant companions. A second
robbery is committed, if the _douar_, buried in sleep, has had no
suspicion of what was going on; otherwise they prepare for flight. One
of them, placing his folded _haïk_ on the back of the horse so as to use
it for stirrups, starts forward at a gallop, after naming a rendez-vous
for the morrow or the day after. The others, to escape from the pursuit
which is sure to be instituted in the morning, hide themselves during
the whole of the first night. The one who mounted the horse only
continues his flight if the theft has been committed in the first hours
of the night; otherwise, he passes the whole of the morrow concealed in
a dry and stony spot, where the animal would leave no trace.

Should the fastenings of the horse, instead of being woollen, be of
iron, the operation is more difficult. The preliminary arrangements are
the same, but, once fairly at work, the _hammaze_ cautiously raises the
clog up to the knee, and binds it there with his camel's rope, which he
throws round the animal's neck, and leads it out very slowly. As soon as
he has rejoined his comrades and is sufficiently far from the scene of
his exploits, he bethinks him of giving his prize the liberty that is
still wanting. He therefore removes the clog by means of a small saw, or
picklock; at the worst he turns the padlock to the outside of the
animal's legs and shatters it with a pistol ball, or else fills it with
powder and blows it open. The explosion, however, rouses the owners of
the animal, who set out in search of it, but nearly always in vain. The
night is dark, and the robbers separate; though, if things come to the
worst, they abandon their prize to save their lives.

Sometime the master of a tent is troubled by the barking of the dogs,
and awakens his people by calling out to them, _El hayi rah hena_,
"there is somebody here." They go out, and, finding nothing, they
conclude that a hyæna, or a jackal, has occasioned the uproar, and so
turn in again. The thieves then come out of their hiding-places, and
perhaps proceed to some other _douar_ that is less upon the watch.

In preparing for a _khriana_, each one provides himself with a pistol
which he secretes under his burnous, a knife, a thick cudgel with a cord
at one end, and a poniard. If a robber fancies that the dogs will
distinguish him because of the whiteness of his garments, he leaves them
with his comrades, and enters the _douar_ entirely naked, his knife in
one hand and the cudgel in the other. It is a popular belief in the
Sahara that a man in a complete state of nudity is invisible in a dark
night. A vicious horse, or one that is thoroughbred, or entire, is safe
from robbers. Their habit of neighing on seeing a man would betray the
plunderers. To avoid being scented by the dogs the precaution is taken
to stalk up the wind. There are likewise other details which should not
be neglected—the absence of moonlight, for instance. The twenty-first of
the Mussulman month is the right time for setting out, and the night of
the twenty-second is usually the most favourable for the execution of
the enterprise. Dust and a high wind are useful allies, but rain is
treacherous, for, by moistening the soil so as to retain foot-marks, it
favours the pursuit. The cold season is the best for robberies of this
character. There is a common saying: "In winter, cattle-stealing,
because the dog sleeps in the tent. In summer, theft in the tent,
because the dog goes away to sleep."

Like all other Arabs, the robber believes that Allah does not disdain to
give him warnings—whence superstitious hopes and fears. If, on leaving
the _douar_, he meets a black mare, dirty, lean, and altogether in bad
condition, it is an evil omen and he goes back again. Another bad sign
is to hear yourself called by people who know not whither you are going.
To see two partridges is an auspicious augury, but one by itself
portends calamity. To find yourself, on starting, confronted by a
cheerful, courageous person, well dressed, and well mounted, infallibly
betokens success. An old woman, blind or maimed, and covered with rags,
will certainly prevent you from succeeding. Start, however, with perfect
confidence, if you have met a beautiful woman, richly dressed, to whom
you have said: "Open thy girdle, Fatma, for that will bring us good
fortune." She will not refuse to open to you the door to riches. It is
equally desirable to see on one's road a woman carrying milk, and to
drink a mouthful of it.

On their return, the robbers divide their spoils. The vow made to the
marabouts who were invoked is scrupulously fulfilled. The chief of the
_douar_, and the woman who opened her girdle, each receives a present.
The share that falls to the lot of the _hammaze_ is the largest; for it
is he who has played the most important part, and incurred the greatest
risks.

CAMEL-STEALING.

Camel-stealing is practised in the same manner as horse-stealing. They
choose full grown camels,—or, at least, such as no longer cry—or
she-camels with foal. Having removed the clogs, the robbers prick the
animal with a poniard or knife to make it go off, and get on its back as
soon as they are far enough away from the tents. All that night they
travel on, and if at daybreak they do not feel that they have gone
sufficiently far to escape the pursuit of horsemen, they halt and
conceal themselves in a spot the soil of which does not retain
foot-marks. The pursuers give up the chace if they find no traces of the
fugitives. In the other event they often recover what they have lost;
and, unless the robbers let go their prize and hide themselves, they may
pay for their daring with their life.[77] This is the supreme moment for
invocations and vows. "O Sidi Abd-el-Kader," cries the robber, on seeing
the enemy close at hand, and in dread of discovery, "if thou wilt save
us yet this one time, we will make in thy honour an _ouadâa_ for the
poor." In the Sahara, Sidi Abd-el-Kader-el-Djilaly is the patron of
robbers. This very undesirable patronage is due to the charity of the
holy marabout, who shrinks from leaving in trouble those who invoke his
name.

SHEEP-STEALING.

Sheep are but a poor prey, and more troublesome than profitable. They
walk slowly, and it is impossible to drive them far enough away by the
day after the theft. The Arabs, therefore, content themselves with
stealing from an enemy, in his absence, to feed themselves while lying
in ambush. Nevertheless, the opportunity is sometimes tempting. A flock
is seen grazing at a distance from the _douars_. The shepherd is lying
down, asleep, or in some other way occupied. It is yet early morning,
and there is time to cover a considerable distance before sunset, when
the flocks are driven home, and the theft is likely to be discovered.
Sometimes, therefore, they risk the hazard. Striking the negligent
shepherd a heavy blow on the head with a stick, they throw dust into
his eyes, and, tying his hands behind him, draw over his face the hood
of his burnous. The robbers then share with one another the task of
driving off the flock, broken up into small sections, each taking a
separate course, and going slowly at first, but after a while quickening
their pace. On the morrow, after traversing none but lonely paths, they
meet again at an appointed spot. In an affair of this kind they take the
shepherd with them, and set him free only in the middle of the night,
when they have nothing more to fear from him.

WAR BETWEEN DESERT TRIBES.

A caravan has been plundered—the women of the tribe have been
insulted—the right of water and pasturage has been disputed. These are
wrongs which no _razzia_, not even the terrible _tehha_, can
sufficiently avenge. The chiefs, therefore, assemble and decide upon
war. Then they write to the chiefs of all their allied tribes, and claim
their aid. The allies are loyal and faithful—are they not also enemies
of the tribe to be chastised? Have they not the same sympathies, the
same interests, as those who summon them? Are they not an integral part
of the confederation? Not a single tribe will refuse to send a
contingent in proportion to its importance. But the allies are distant.
They cannot arrive within a week or ten days, and in the meantime
counsels are taken, and the passion of the warriors excited by the
proclamations of the chiefs:—

"You are warned, O servants of Allah! that we have to exact vengeance
from such a tribe that has offered us such or such an insult. Shoe your
horses. Supply yourselves with provisions for a fortnight. Forget not
the wheat, the barley, the dried meat, and the butter. You must provide
not only for your own wants, but also that you may be able to afford a
generous hospitality to the horsemen of such and such tribes that are
coming to our assistance. Command your prettiest women to hold
themselves in readiness to accompany us, and to array themselves in
their finest garments, and adorn their camels and litters to the utmost
of their power. Do you yourselves also put on your handsomest dresses,
for with us it is a matter of _nif_ [self-love]. Keep your arms in good
condition. Supply yourselves with powder, and be assembled on such a day
at such a spot. The horseman who owns a mare and does not come, the
foot-soldier who possesses a gun and stays at home, shall be fined, the
former twenty ewes and the latter ten."

Every able-bodied man, though he should have to go on foot, is bound to
join in the expedition. Before setting out, the chiefs confide the
flocks, tents, and baggage of the tribe to the care of experienced
veterans, who are likewise charged to exercise a sort of police
supervision over this assembly of women, children, invalids, and
shepherds.

The enemy, on their part, likewise make their preparations. Warned by
travellers, by friends, and even by relatives whom they claim in the
opposite party, they hasten to write in all directions to assemble their
allies. Their flocks, tents, and baggage they place in a secure spot,
and then assign a rendez-vous to the horsemen with the least possible
delay. To guard against a surprise, they select a position suitable for
defence, and await whatever may happen. They have not long to wait. The
tribe that has taken up arms to avenge itself is very soon on the march,
for it has not lost a single moment. On the evening before their
departure, all the auxiliary chiefs join those who have summoned them,
and, in the presence of the marabouts, take the following oath on the
sacred book of Sidi Abd-Allah:—

"O friends! let us swear by the truth of the sacred book of Sidi
Abd-Allah that we are brothers, that all our guns shall be as one, and
that, in dying, we will all die by the same sabre. If you call us by
day, we will come by day, and if you summon us by night, we will hasten
to you by night."

Having taken this oath, they arrange to start on the following morning.
At the appointed hour a man of high birth, noble among the noblest,
mounts on horseback, orders his women, borne on camels, to follow him,
and gives the signal. There is a general movement, and all set out. The
eye is dazzled by the strange and picturesque confusion, the many-hued
crowd of horses, warriors, and camels bearing rich palanquins in which
the women are inclosed. Here are the foot-soldiers, who march by
themselves—there the horsemen, who superintend the female procession.
Others, again, more impetuous and thoughtless, dash on in front or
spread out on the flanks, but rather as hunters than as scouts, and with
their greyhounds run down the gazelle, the hare, the antelope, and the
ostrich. The chiefs, however, are more serious. Upon their shoulders
rests the whole responsibility. To them will accrue the largest share of
the plunder, if the expedition succeed; and upon them, also, in the
event of failure, will fall imprecations, ruin, and shame. They,
therefore, consult together and form their plans. Lastly, come the
camels that carry the supplies. Thus the host advances, adapting itself
to the irregularities of the ground, all in wild confusion, every one
noisy and joyous, thinking much of the adventure, nothing of the
fatigue, dreaming of glory, not of danger. The warriors relate their
former exploits, while the players on the flute accompany them,
inspiriting or interrupting them, and the women utter joyful cries. And
above all this uproar are heard the loud reports of fire-arms. The
firing ceases, and a young and handsome horseman strikes up one of those
love-songs, through which the ardour of their passion scatters strange
images and striking colours, and which, in the desert, have always a
fresh charm for these chivalrous nations.

My heart burns with fire
For a woman come forth from paradise;
O ye who know not Meryem [Mary],
That miracle of the one Allah,
I will show you her portrait.

Meryem, she is Osman Bey himself
When he appears with his standards,
And the roll of his drums,
And his _goums_ following behind.

Meryem, she is a blood mare
That lives in luxury
In a gilded palace;
And loves the leafy shade,
And drinks limpid water,
And will have negro slaves to wait upon her.

Meryem, she is the moon of stars
That betrays robbers;
Or, rather she is the palm-tree
Of the country of the Beni-Mezab,[78]

The fruit of which grows so high
That no one can gather it.

Meryem, rather is she the gazelle,
Bounding in the desert.
The hunter covers her young;
She sees the powder flash,
Leaps forward to receive the ball,
And dies to save its life.

She appointed to meet me
On Monday night.
My heart beat, she came,
All enveloped in silk,
And threw herself into my arms.
Meryem has no sister [no equal]
In the four corners of the world!

She is worth all Tunis and Algiers,
Tlemcen and Mascara,
Their shops, their shop-keepers,
And their perfumed stuffs.

She is worth the vessels
That traverse the azure deep with their sails,
Going in search of the riches
Which Allah has created for us.[79]

She is worth five hundred mares
The fortune of a tribe,
When they hasten to the fight
Beneath their proud riders.

She is worth five hundred she-camels
Followed by their little ones,
Besides a hundred negroes of the Soudan,
Stolen by the Touarueg[80]
To serve Mahommedans.

She is worth all the wandering Arabs,
Happy and independent,
And those with fixed abodes,
Unhappy victims
Of the caprice of Sultans.

Her head is adorned with pure silk,
Whence escapes in flowing curls
Her black hair perfumed with musk,
Or with amber from Tunis;
Her teeth, you would say they were pearls
Set in the reddest coral,
And her eyes, charged with blood,
Wound like the arrows
Of the savage inhabitants of Bernou.[81]

Her saliva, I have tasted it,
Is the sugar of dried grapes,
Or the honey of bees
In the flower of spring time.
Her neck is the mast of a ship
That ploughs the deep seas,
With its white sails
To float along with the wind.

Her throat resembles the peach
Which is seen ripening on the tree;
Her shoulders are like polished ivory,
And her rounded ribs
Are the haughty sabres
Drawn by the Djouad[82]
When weary of using their fire-arms.
How many valiant horsemen
Have died for her in battle!

Oh! would that I possessed
The best horse of the desert,

To ride pensive and alone
By the side of her white she-camel!
That horse would fill with rage
The young men of the Sahara.

I hunt, I pray, I fast,
And follow the laws of the Prophet:
But, were I forced to go to Mecca,
Never would I forget Meryem.
Yes, Meryem, with thy black lashes
Thou wilt always be beautiful,
And as delightful as a gift.

At the end of a few hours the heat becomes unpleasant, and a halt is
called. The tents are pitched, breakfast is prepared, and the horses are
unbridled and allowed to graze—and all rest themselves. As the sun goes
down, the heat diminishes—it is now between two and three in the
afternoon. To your saddles and forward, ye daring cavaliers! Display in
a brilliant fantasia the worth of your horses and of yourselves. The
women behold you; show them what you can do with a horse and a gun. Ah!
more than one of you shall be rewarded for his prowess. Do you see that
negro? He is bearing to one of you the recompense of his skill in
managing his arms and his steed. He is the messenger to whose care one
of the lovely spectators has confided the secret of her love, in
charging him to deliver to the hero of the fantasia her _khrolkhral_, or
anklets, or her _mekhranga_, or necklace of cloves.

It is not enough, however, to be a brave and skilful horseman—it is
incumbent on thee, also, to be discreet. Thou hast a friend; to-morrow
thou wilt give him thy horse and thy garments. Urge him strongly, for
thy sister[83] wishes it, to show himself in the midst of the _goum_
upon thy steed and in thy dress, so as to deceive the other horsemen.
In the mean time thou wilt pass unperceived as a humble foot-soldier,
and wilt walk beside the camel that bears thy mistress. Attention! watch
the favourable moment, and slip into her palanquin. She is just as
impatient as thyself, and stretches her hand to thee. Profit by this
assistance, and let thy movements outstrip suspicion.

In love, as in war, fortune favours the bold, but they have likewise the
largest share of perils. If such meetings are frequent and nearly always
successful, there is nevertheless risk to life; for, if the lovers are
ever surprised, both of them perish without mercy. But who is there to
betray them? All who surround them are in their favour. The lover tells
his good fortune to his friends, all of whom are anxious to forward his
happiness, and ten or a dozen _douros_ have been sent to his mistress.
Nor is this all. Her confidential servant has received two or three
_douros_, and money has been freely distributed among her slaves and
attendants. All, therefore, keep a good watch, and give timely notice to
the lover when he must glide out of the litter, in the midst of the
disorder and confusion caused by the pitching of the camp at the
approach of night.

Previous to sunset, the chiefs reconnoitre a spot suitable for an
encampment. It must be supplied with water, grass, and shrubs for
fire-wood. On arriving at the place selected, each tent is pitched, the
horses are unbridled and hobbled, as are also the camels, the negroes go
in search of wood and grass, the women prepare the food, and they all
sup. A thousand little scenes impart to a camp of this kind an aspect
full of charm and novelty. Then total darkness envelopes the scene,
unless there happens to be moonlight. The fires are extinguished—there
is nothing alight to diminish the darkness. In the Sahara, oil and wax
are alike unknown. Immediately after supper, each tent selects a man to
watch the animals and the baggage. It is his business to prevent thefts,
which his most active vigilance is, nevertheless, powerless to avert.

Not robbers alone wait for the night. Protected by the same obscurity,
the lover, with the privity of his mistress, cautiously approaches the
tent in which she reposes, raises the canvass, and guided by a devoted
slave, takes the place of the husband who, fatigued by the day's
journey, is sleeping in the men's chamber,—for in the tents of the
desert there are always two distinct compartments, one for men, the
other for women. Besides, it is deemed disgraceful for a man to pass the
whole night by the side of his wife. There is nothing therefore, to
interfere with these clandestine meetings. The presence of the two or
three other wives permitted by the Mussulman law would certainly not be
considered an obstacle. According, to an Arab proverb, only a Jewess
surpasses Shitan in trickery, but next to Shitan comes the Mussulmanee.
It is a thing unheard of in the desert that women should denounce one
another. But if, perchance, the adventure should seem too hazardous, the
woman issues from the tent when every one is asleep, and proceeds to a
spot she has indicated to her lover by means of one of the usual
intermediary agents, the negroes and shepherds.

At the very hour that happy lovers meet, are accomplished schemes of
vengeance. A rejected lover penetrates into the tent of the woman who
has treated him with scorn, goes up to her, and shoots her with a
pistol. At the sound of the explosion, the other women jump up, run
against one another, and utter shrieks. The murderer, however, has had
time to disappear, and the crime, perpetrated unseen, nearly always
remains unpunished. Love adventures are common in the Sahara. Willingly
or unwillingly, an Arab woman is sure to have lovers. The jealous
precautions of the husbands excite and foment to an unnatural degree the
libertine propensities of the women, by the very restraints that are
placed upon them. To whatever class they belong, they pass their time in
inventing stratagems to deceive their husbands while they are young,
and, when they are old, to facilitate the amours of others.

The night is over; the sky is covered with a golden light; it is time to
depart. The chiefs now send forward scouts to reconnoitre the enemy's
position, and to form an opinion, from external signs, of his moral
condition, and of the reinforcements he has received. The scouts advance
very cautiously, and, when they are nearing the hostile camp, travel
only at night. One of them is then detached on foot, who takes advantage
of every irregularity of the ground to avoid being noticed, and
oftentimes, disguised in rags, penetrates boldly into the midst of the
_douars_. There he makes himself acquainted with the number of
foot-soldiers, horses, and tents; observes whether they are laughing and
amusing themselves, or if sadness reigns in the camp; and then returns
to communicate the result of his investigations. The scouts remain all
night in a concealed spot, impatient to discover what will be the
attitude of the enemy at sunrise. If he executes the fantasia and
discharges his fire-arms,—if shouts of joy are heard, and singing, and
the sound of the flute,—it is certain that he has received
reinforcements, and troubles himself very little about the approaching
attack.

The tribe continues its march until it is not above nine or ten leagues
from the enemy. The advance has been made by short stages. The baggage,
the women, the foot-soldiers, are so many causes of delay; but what has
chiefly retarded the advance are the orders of the chiefs, who are
desirous to afford time for reflection to those they proposed to
chastise. It was acting prudently, and they were influenced by powerful
motives. Who knew but that terms of peace might be asked for,
accompanied by many presents for themselves, the leading councillors?
Examples were not wanting to that effect—indeed, it was the usual
custom. For them would be the cotton stuffs, the garments of cloth, the
guns mounted in silver, the anklets, and the _douros_! When an affair
takes such turn as this, an amicable arrangement is not far distant.

The two hostile bands are at length divided from one another by no more
than ten leagues, and no propositions, direct or indirect, have been
exchanged. Does the tribe recognise the impossibility of resistance, or
will it accept battle? If it declines the contest, it assembles the most
influential marabouts, and furnishes them with money and presents,
towards which each individual has contributed his share. These holy men
then proceed to the opposite camp in the middle of the night, under the
protection of a chief who has received timely notice of their coming,
after being seduced by their gifts. By him they are conducted to
another, who is in like manner induced to accept the presents offered to
him. The two now accompany the messengers of peace to a third chief, and
so on to others, until they have gained the votes of all the most
powerful. Then, and not till then, do the marabouts, secure of a
friendly audience, unfold the propositions they are instructed to
make—expressing themselves after this fashion:—"We have come only for
the love of Allah. You know we are marabouts, and that we desire only
what is right. For our sake, you must come to terms with the Mussulmans
who have sent us. That is far better than bringing down upon us all the
calamities of war, ruin and death. If you will do what is right, Allah
will bless you, yourselves, your wives, your children, your mares, and
your she-camels. If you choose what is wrong, may it recoil upon your
own heads. We repeat, make peace, and may Allah curse the demon!"

Having first raised a few difficulties for form's sake, the chiefs
finish by saying in reply to the marabouts:—"Well! we will make peace
for the sake of Allah, and for your sake, but on the following
conditions: 1st, You will restore to us the objects, goods or animals,
which were taken from us when your people robbed our caravan at such a
place. 2nd, You will pay the _dya_[84] of our people slain by yours on
such a day. 3rd, You will restore to us all the flocks that were carried
off from us by your people on such a day, in such a _khrotefa_. 4th, You
will restore to us all the camels and horses which your thieves have
stolen from us, and which are still within your bounds."

The marabouts accept these conditions, and guarantee their fulfilment.
The sacred book of Sidi Abd-Allah is then produced, and the chiefs swear
to make peace. After the oath has been taken, they who have come to
prevent the shedding of blood return to their tribe, to give an account
of what has been decided, and compel them to execute the terms which
they have just guaranteed. On the morrow the tribe that has accorded
peace continues its march, and encamps within a league of the enemy. It
is barely installed, when the marabouts and chiefs of the opposite party
arrive with the ratification that was stipulated. The leading men of the
two rival camps meet together, and again swear on the book of Sidi
Abd-Allah:—"By the truth of Sidi Abd-Allah, we swear that there shall
not again be between us _razzia_, or theft, or murder, or reprisals
[_ousiga_], that we are brothers, and that our guns shall henceforth
fire in accord."

The marabouts of both parties next read the _fatahh_, or religious
invocation, and conclude with these words: "Allah bless you, our
children, for having thus buried the knife of contention, and prosper
you in your families and in your goods!" The marabouts are afterwards
visited by the chiefs of both sides who present to them offerings called
_zyara_, literally a visit.

Peace concluded, the tribe that had put itself into motion retraces its
steps, and at its departure executes a fantasia of the most noisy
character. The horses caracole, reports of fire-arms resound, and the
women utter loud cries. All is joy, happiness, and delirium. A dozen of
the chiefs of this tribe remain in the midst of their late enemies, and
receive from them a splendid hospitality, and even costly presents. And
at their departure they take with them some of their hosts, and requite
their new-found friends with a generous welcome. These truces last a
considerable time; that is, from one to two years.

Peace, however, would certainly not have been concluded if the marabouts
who came to intercede for it had not presented themselves under cover of
the night. Had they come in the day time, the Arabs, discerning their
intrigues, would have exclaimed out of jealousy: "By the sin of our
women! we will fight. This one has received cloth-goods, that one money,
another jewels, a fourth cotton-stuffs, and that other one arms. But we,
whose brothers are dead, whose flocks have been carried, we have got
nothing. Yes, we swear it by Sidi Abd-Allah, the powder shall speak."
And, in truth, the powder very often does speak, and without the envious
having had any cause to complain of the presents made to their chiefs,
and without their having prevented the latter from entering into
negotiations, and accepting conditions from which no advantage would
accrue to the commonality. This happens when the tribe threatened has
resolved to oppose force to force, and has prepared for a struggle.

In the latter event the enemy is allowed to approach within a day's
march. No advances are made, no propositions offered. The march is
therefore continued on the morrow, and the camp is pitched about two
leagues from that of the tribe which awaits the assault. The scouts of
the two parties come into collision, and, mutually exasperating each
another, prelude actual hostilities by insults. A few musket shots are
exchanged, and they cry out to one another:— "O Fatma, daughters of
Fatma! The night has arrived; why go on to-day? To-morrow shall be
called your day." Or, "Dogs, sons of dogs, wait till to-morrow! If you
are men, you will meet us."

The skirmishers fall back, and the leaders on both sides organise as
quickly as possible a guard of one hundred horsemen and one hundred
foot-soldiers, to insure the safety of the camp. On the morrow they
watch each other attentively. If one party strike their tents, the
others do the same; or if they leave their tents pitched, and advance to
the combat with horses and foot, and with the women mounted on camels,
the example is followed on the other side. The cavaliers of the two
tribes confront one another. The women are placed in the rear, ready to
excite the combatants by their cries and applause, and are themselves
protected by the foot-soldiers who form the reserve. The battle begins
by small parties of ten or a dozen horsemen bearing down upon the
flanks, and trying to turn the enemy. The chiefs, at the head of a
tolerably compact mass, keep in the centre. Presently the affair grows
warm and animated. The bravest and best mounted of the young men dash
forward, carried away by passion and the thirst for blood. Uncovering
their heads, they strike up their war-songs, and excite themselves by
loud outcries:—

"Where are they who have mistresses? It is beneath their eyes that the
warriors will combat this day!

"Where are they who, in the presence of the chiefs, were always boasting
of their valour? It is to-day that tongues should be long, and not in
peaceful gossipings.

"Where are they who run after fame?

"Forward, sons of powder! You see before you those sons of Jews! Our
sabre shall drink of their blood, and their goods we will give to our
women.

"Strike out, young men! Strike out! It is not the balls that kill, but
fate."

These shouts madden the horsemen. They make their steeds rear up on end,
and fire off their pieces. Every face asks for blood. They rush
together, and at last attack each other with the sabre. One party or the
other, however, soon gives way, and begins to fall back upon the camels
carrying the women. Then shrieks arise from both sides. These scream
with joy, to animate yet more the victors—those utter wrathful and
terrible imprecations, to rally the failing courage of their husbands
and brothers.

"Look at those famous warriors who show off with their bright stirrups
and splendid garments at marriage feasts and festivals! Look at them
running away and abandoning even their women! O Jews, and sons of Jews!
alight and let us mount your horses, and from henceforth you shall no
longer be counted among men. Oh! Allah curse all cowards!"

These railings recall the spirit of the vanquished. They make a vigorous
effort, and, supported by the fire of the foot-soldiers who are in
reserve, they recover the lost ground, and even hurl the enemy back into
the midst of his own women, who now rail as loudly as they lately
applauded. The struggle is renewed on the ground that separates the
women of the two tribes. During these varying phases the contest has
been very desperate, and before long the side that has most men and
horses wounded, that has lost the greatest number, and, above all, that
has witnessed the fall of its most valiant chiefs, takes to flight,
notwithstanding the exhortations and prayers of a few energetic men, who
fly from right to left, trying to rally the fugitives and restore the
fight. These brave fellows cry aloud:— "Are there any men here, or are
there not? Hold your own souls! If you flee, they will carry off your
women and leave you nothing but shame. Die! Let it not be said: 'They
fled!' Die! and you will yet live!"

A beautiful and touching scene will, perhaps, then be enacted. A chief
of the highest rank, in despair at being defeated, throws himself into
the _mêlée_ to seek death, but is held back by the young men who gather
round him, and beseech him to retire. "Thou art our father!" they will
exclaim; "What will become of us if thou shouldst perish? It is our duty
to die for thee. We will not remain as sheep without a shepherd." A
handful of warriors still endeavour to make head against the foe, but
they are swept away in the general rout, and soon find themselves by the
side of their women. Every one, then, seeing that all is lost, devotes
himself to saving what is dearest to him. As rapidly as possible they
make to the rear, only from time to time facing about to check the
pursuit of the enemy.

The audacity of desperation has more than once changed the face of
things. Aïssa-ben-el-Sheriff, a child of fourteen, mounted on horseback
with his tribe to repel an attack directed by Sid-el-Djedid. The Arbâa
were beginning to give way and take to flight, when the boy, throwing
himself before them, tried to stop them: "What!" he exclaimed, "You are
men, and are afraid! You have been brought up in the midst of powder,
and do not know how to burn it! Did you pay all that attention to your
mares only to make use of them in flight?" And when the others replied,
"Djedid! Djedid! Look at Djedid!" "Djedid," continued the child. "It is
a single man that makes you flee! Behold, then, this terrible warrior,
who puts hundreds to the rout, checked in his victorious career by a
child!" With these words he dashed his spurs into his horse's flanks,
and came up with the redoubtable warrior. Djedid, fearing nothing from a
mere boy, was off his guard, but the latter threw himself round his
neck, entwined his arms round him, and, leaving his own horse, hung by
one arm, while with the other he endeavoured to stab him with his knife.
Astonished at such audacity, and hampered in his movements, Djedid
strove in vain to shake him off, but with all his presence of mind he
was unable to parry the boy's frequent thrusts. Puzzled what to do, he
slipped off his horse, hoping to crush Aïssa in his fall. The latter,
however, succeeded in avoiding him, and throwing himself on the courser
of the dreaded chief, rejoined his tribe, to whom he exhibited a trophy
that made the oldest warrior blush for the momentary panic to which they
had yielded.

Were it not that the conquerors usually build a golden bridge for the
conquered, the latter might be easily destroyed; but the thirst for
pillage gains the day, and the victors disperse in search of plunder.
One despoils a foot-soldier, another a horseman whom he has overthrown;
another, again, leads away a steed, and yet another a negro. Thanks to
this disorder, the bravest of the discomfited tribe succeed in saving
their women, and even their tents. When the pillage is at an end, the
horsemen of the victorious tribe are anxious to return home, and their
chiefs encourage the desire. "We have slain numbers," say they. "We have
seized their horses, captured their women, taken their guns, and
refreshed our souls by making orphans of these sons of dogs. Our best
plan now is to go and sleep at such a place, for the enemy, strengthened
by his reinforcements, may possibly resume the offensive and attack us
during the night." The baggage is sent forward in front, and, protected
by a strong rearguard, during the first few days they continue their
march until nightfall.

In this species of warfare, the greatest respect is shown to the captive
women. Men of low birth, indeed, despoil them of their jewels, but the
chiefs make it a point of honour to restore them to their husbands, with
their camels, their jewels, and their ornaments. They even take pains to
properly array those who have been robbed, before sending them back.

In the desert, they make no prisoners, and cut off no heads, and they
have a horror of mutilating the wounded, who are left, however, to
themselves to escape or perish, for no one takes any trouble about them.
Rare examples of cruelty do sometimes occur, but these are acts of
private revenge, when men have recognised the murderers of those who
were dear to them, a friend or brother.

On reaching their own territory, the tribe is welcomed by extraordinary
rejoicings. The universal exultation betrays itself by the liveliest
demonstrations. The women draw up their camels in a single row, and
utter cries of joy at regular intervals. The young men execute in their
presence a fantasia of the wildest description. Salutations, embraces,
and interrogations are exchanged on all sides. Food is prepared for the
warriors and their allies, and the chiefs collect the sum that is to be
divided among them. A common horseman never receives less than ten
_douros_, or an article of equal value. This recompense, called
_zebeun_, is obligatory, and is given over and above the plunder each
may have seized for himself; and, in addition to this, three camels are
bestowed upon every cavalier who has lost a horse. It is needless to add
that a larger sum than ten _douros_ is offered to the chiefs of the
allied tribes, whose influence has been so successful. They receive
their share like the others, but in secret they are presented with
money, or articles of considerable value, such as carpets, tents, arms,
horses, etc., etc.

A generous hospitality is offered to the allies; and on the morrow, when
they set out to return to their own territories, the chiefs mount on
horseback and accompany them. After riding on together for two or three
hours, they renew the mutual oath never to raise but one war-shout,
never to make but one and the same gun, to come in the morning if
summoned in the morning, and to come at night if summoned at night. In
the desert, if feuds are keen and hereditary, sympathies, on the other
hand, are also numerous and profound. The following verses illustrate
the extreme degree of delicacy and devotedness to which the sentiment of
friendship is carried by the Arabs:

If a friend does not walk as blindly as a child,
If he does not voluntarily expose himself to death,
Forgetting that suicide is a crime,

He shall have no place in the tents of our tribes.
I will obey the summons of my friend.
Though the morning light should be the reflection of swords,
Though the darkness of night should be the cloud of dust raised
by the tramp of horses,
I will go to die or to be happy.
The smallest of the sacrifices to which I have agreed is death.
Can I live far away from the place of refuge so dear to me?
Can I support the absence of neighbours to whom I have become
accustomed.

It may be naturally asked why a tribe that is menaced with an attack,
but will not make the necessary sacrifices to obtain peace, does not
flee, instead of awaiting the assault. To flee, is to invite pursuit
while in the disorder of a retreat. It means leaving one's country,
exposing oneself to scarcity of water for the flocks, or even falling
into the hands of some other enemy, who would certainly take advantage
of this opportunity for pillage and revenge. The wisest plan is to
choose a good position, assemble the allies, and await the enemy if
confident in one's own strength, or else to make concessions if
conscious of weakness.

"O Allah! save us and save our horses. Every day we lie down in a new
country. It may be that She remembers our vigils with the flutes and
tabours."

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

How can any strange people contend with us, who are brought up in the
highest sense of honour, even above all the tribes collected in the
great assemblies? Do we not advance against the enemy on horses of pure
race, terrible as raging lions, that gallop wildly along the perilous
mountain path?

I have prepared, against the time when fortune shall be unfavourable to
me, a noble courser of perfect shape, and which none can rival in
swiftness.

I have also a flashing sabre which severs at a stroke the body of an
enemy. And yet fortune has treated me as if I had never tasted the
pleasure of bestriding an air-drinker;

As if I had never rested my heart on the virgin bosom of a well-beloved
maiden, with legs adorned with bracelets of gold;

As if I had never felt the anguish of separation;

As if I had never taken part in the exciting spectacle of our blood
horses surprising the enemy at the break of day;

As if, in short, after a defeat, I had never brought back the runaways
to the fight, by crying aloud:—

"Fatma! daughters of Fatma!

"Death is a tax levied on our heads; turn the neck of your horses, and
repeat the charge.

"Time turns upon itself and returns.

"Would that I could throw the world on its face!"

USAGES OF WAR.

On returning to their _douars_ after a _razzia_, or an expedition, the
Arabs of the desert proceed to divide the spoils in equal shares, a
certain portion being set aside for special cases. Thus a cavalier who
has slain another in battle is entitled to the horse of the deceased, to
his arms, garments, harness, pouch, and _djebira_. "In fact, he has
risked a life to take a life, and will have to answer before Allah for
the death he has inflicted, rightly or wrongly." A horse that is
captured without its owner being killed, is comprised among the general
stock to be divided. If a horseman has been slain by several persons
firing simultaneously, without it being clearly shown by whose hand he
fell, his spoils are equally shared by all. In some tribes, the plunder
reverts to the chief when it cannot be proved from whose gun the fatal
ball was fired. Should a cavalier learn after the fight is over, that he
has killed an enemy with his own hand, and be able to produce witnesses
to the deed, he obtains restitution of the entire plunder of the slain.

When a tribe makes an expedition against another tribe, each individual
retains whatever he has taken in _haïks_, burnouses, arms, and garments;
but tents, flocks, horses, mules, camels, provisions, and grain, are
public property. The chief alone is entitled, over and above an ordinary
share, to thirty or forty ewes, or three or four camels, as the case may
be. Even should he not have accompanied the tribe in person, he would
still be assigned what is called the _akeud ek-sheikh_, or the sheikh's
knot. If any one, not caring to join the expedition, has lent his mare
to a friend, he shares the booty acquired by the latter. If the animal
be killed and any prize is made, the value of the mare is deducted and
paid over to her owner, for she had gone for the service of the tribe.
Should the result be unfavourable, the owner puts up with his loss—"he
sought his good fortune."

Whoever offers a supply of food to a party of horsemen is entitled to a
share if the party prove successful, as he was interested in the
expedition.

A "lance" [one share] is given to the farrier of the tribe, for he
contributes his skill and labour to the success of the enterprise. To
kill a farrier is deemed infamous. It is a deed that will recoil upon
the guilty tribe, who will be pursued by a curse ever after.

He who takes off his burnous and goes up to the enemy with the butt end
of his rifle in the air, must also be spared.

Shepherds, likewise, have their life accorded to them.

A special share of the plunder is reserved for those who have been sent
forward as scouts previous to the attack upon the enemy. It is their
just recompense for offering their lives to secure the triumph of their
brethren. If a scout loses his mare, he is compensated by one hundred
ewes, or another mare, or by one hundred Spanish _douros_. There is no
exaggeration in this estimate, for it is always the best mounted who are
selected. If a band returns with booty, a "lance" is bestowed upon the
woman of distinction who goes forth from her tent, and lifts up her
voice in honour of the victors. In an affair of _nif_ (self-love), the
pretty women who accompany the expedition to animate the combatants are
entitled to a share of the spoils. Whoever lends his rifle, receives
one-fourth of the share that falls to the lot of the borrower.

Suppose an Arab finds a horse at pasture away from its owner, at a time
when his tribe happens to be attacked, or is on the point of setting out
on an expedition. Suppose he takes the animal, and places on its back a
borrowed saddle. Suppose, further, that this saddle is not complete; but
that he gets stirrups from one, a girth from another, a bridle and a
breast-band from a third, until at last he is completely equipped. He
sets out and returns with plunder; but the proprietor of the horse has
no right to any portion of it. Had the animal been killed, the owner
would have been reimbursed, in the event of success; but if it is
brought back safe and sound, he cannot claim anything: "The animal has
been nothing more than an instrument of Allah to render service to the
brave horseman who exposed himself for the public good." The
proprietors, however, of the different parts of the equipment are
entitled to a share. The wanderers of the desert have an apologue quite
in the Arab style which exactly defines the respective dues of each:

"Quoth the saddle-tree to the horseman: 'Do you purpose to keep all the
prize to yourself? Who furnished you with a seat? What would you have
done had you not found me there?'

"A pretty story!" exclaims the girth. "The service you brag of, was it
after all so very great? Why, you would have done more harm than good,
had I not held you on the horse's back."

"Gently, gently!" cry the stirrups. "I acknowledge you may both of you
have been useful in your way; but pray tell me who supported the
horseman when he dashed forward? On whom did he lean when he made use of
his rifle to bring down the enemy from whom he took the spoils about
which you are wrangling so sharply? Who was it that enabled him to look
far ahead, to stoop down, or turn round, according as he wished to
strike a blow, or to avoid one with which he was threatened?"

"It was you," replied the bridle. "There is no denying the truth. And
yet, O my sons, by Allah, master of the world! our horseman would not
have much riches to boast of to-day had he employed only your services.
You did not take the road to the plunder, and assuredly you would be far
enough from it now had I not guided you. Cease, then, these disputes.
The palm is mine, for it was I alone who enabled you to reach the goal."

"Ah! that is rather too much of a good thing!" the horse ironically
observes, after listening thus far without uttering a word. "Somehow I
fancied that the greatest praise was due to myself. I thought I had seen
you lying forgotten in a corner, and that you were picked up only
because I had been found. I was dreaming, no doubt, and it is you who
have carried me. I own that I was mistaken. Take me back, then, as
quickly as possible to my pasture, or at least let me hear no more of
your squabbles."

"To put an end to all this jangling, the horseman divided his booty into
six equal parts, one of which he gave to the saddle-tree, one to the
girth, and one to the bridle, and kept the three others for himself.
Leading the horse back to the pasture he said to him: 'I do not give
thee anything, for thou hast the honour of having been useful to thy
tribe.'"

If any one lends a saddle complete, he is entitled to one-half share.
This distribution is called _âadet esserdj_, or the custom of the
saddle.

When on the point of starting on an expedition, the _goum_ offers up the
following invocations: "O Sidi Abd-el-Kader-el-Djilaly! O
Sidi-Sheik-ben-el-Dine! O Sidi-el-Hadj-bou-Hafeus! If we succeed and
return safe and sound, we promise a camel to each of you. Protect us!"
Before any division takes place these three camels are always put aside
for the marabouts.

The division of the plunder, as may be imagined, is never carried out
without many remonstrances, for the prevention or repression of which
the _mekadim_ were instituted. Sometimes the chiefs make choice of five
or six individuals of approved discretion. At other times, after a
_razzia_ or capture of property, the booty is divided into four equal
parts. They who execute the enterprise form themselves into four
sections, and each section names a _mekadem_ whose business it is to
manage the subdivision. The _mekadim_ search out and demand the
restitution of all articles concealed by dishonourable persons, such as
jewelry, money, coral, etc. When an Arab is suspected of having
purloined things in this manner, and nothing is found upon him, the
_mekadim_ make him swear by Sidi-Ben-Abd-Allah, and that oath clears
him. In the Sahara, Sidi-Ben-Abd-Allah is held in great veneration. No
one would dare to invoke his name falsely, through fear of dying, or of
seeing his flocks waste away. The _mekadim_ are acknowledged to be
honest among pilferers. They are well treated and receive a handsome
remuneration, consisting for the most parts of articles not included in
the division of the spoils.

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

I have surprised them with horses of pure race, with sleek coats,
foreheads adorned with stars announcing good fortune, flanks lean
through exercise, and flesh firm and hard. I have fallen upon them like
a cloud charged with lightning that hangs over a defile.

It is a horse that, without ever being fatigued, always finishes by
asking pardon of his rider. His head is lean, his ears and lips fine,
his nostrils well open, his neck slender, his skin black and soft, his
coat sleek, and his joints large. By the head of the Prophet! he is of
noble race, and you would never ask how much he cost if you had seen him
marching against the enemy.

When you see the horses of the _goum_ marching proudly, their heads up,
and making the air re-echo with their neighings, rest assured that
victory accompanies them. But, on the other hand, when you see the
horses of the _goum_ marching sadly, with their heads down, without
neighing, but lashing themselves with their tails, be sure that fortune
has abandoned them.

Nevertheless, Allah is wiser than man.

Oh! would that I could see my blood flowing over my _haïk_, white as
ivory from Soudan! It would be the more beautiful for it.

OSTRICH HUNTING.

In the desert there are two principal modes of hunting the ostrich—on
horseback, and in ambush. There is, indeed, a third method which is only
a modification of the second, and consists in killing the bird while
drinking at a stream of water.

The true sport is on horseback. Watching for the bird is no better than
taking a sitting shot with us. The former is a noble and royal pastime,
the latter is only fit for a common fellow, or a poacher. It is not
enough to kill, the thing is to run the bird down. For this purpose the
general sort of education given to a horse will not suffice. A special
preparation is required, just as a race-horse needs a particular
training for some days previous to the contest.

Seven or eight days before a hunting expedition, both grass and straw
are entirely stopped, and nothing but barley given. The horse is watered
only once a day, at sunset, when the water begins to get cool, and he is
then washed all over. He is taken out for a long ride every day, now
walking, now galloping, during which the rider carefully ascertains that
nothing is wanting to the equipment proper for the purpose. At the end
of these seven or eight days, say the Arabs, the belly disappears, while
the neck, chest, and croup show firm flesh. The animal is then ready to
endure the fatigue. This special training is called _teshaha_.

The equipment also is modified with a view to lighten the weight. The
stirrups should be much less heavy than usual, the saddle-bow very
light, the two _kerbouss_, or pommels, of less than the ordinary height
and without the _stara_. The breast-band is likewise omitted, and
instead of the seven pieces of felt only two are used. The bridle, in
like manner undergoes several metamorphoses. The blinkers and headstall
are omitted as too heavy, the bit being simply fastened to a tolerably
stout camel-rope, without any throat-band, and kept in its place by a
make-shift headstall of cord. The reins are also very light, but strong.
All four feet are shod.

The most favourable season for this sport is during the great heats of
summer. The higher the temperature, the less energy does the ostrich
possess to defend itself. The Arabs describe the exact period by saying
that it is when a man, standing upright, casts a shadow no longer than
the sole of his foot. Ostrich hunting implies a regular expedition
lasting over seven or eight days. It requires preparatory arrangements
which are concerted by ten or a dozen horsemen bound in "a knot," as for
a _razzia_. Each hunter is accompanied by a servant, called a _zemmal_,
who is mounted on a camel that carries, besides, four goat-skin bags
filled with water, barley for the horse, wheaten flour, another kind of
flour parched, dates, a pot to boil the food in, leather thongs, a
needle, and a set of horse-shoes and nails.

Each hunter should take only one woollen or cotton shirt, and one pair
of woollen trousers. He winds round his neck and ears a kind of thin
stuff called in the desert _haouli_, and fastens it with his camel-rope.
His feet are protected by sandals attached by cords, but he also puts on
light gaiters [_trabag_]. He takes neither rifle, nor pistol, nor
powder. His only weapon is a club of wild olive or tamarisk, four or
five feet long and terminating in a very heavy knob. The party do not
start until they have ascertained from travellers, or caravans, or from
messengers sent forward for that purpose, where a large number of
ostriches are collected at one point. These birds are generally met with
in places where there is a good deal of grass, and where rain has
recently fallen. According to the Arabs, whenever the ostrich sees the
lightnings flash and a thunder storm coming on, it immediately hastens
in that direction, however distant it may be, for it thinks nothing of
going ten days on the stretch. In the desert it is proverbially said of
a man who is particularly careful in tending his flocks and supplying
them with what is necessary, that "he is like the ostrich—where he sees
the lightning flash, he is there."

The start is made in the morning. At the end of one or two days' march,
when the hunters have arrived near to the spot where they were told to
look for ostriches, and where tracks are observable, they halt and
bivouac. On the morrow two intelligent servants, stripped to the skin,
and wearing nothing but a handkerchief round their loins, are sent
forward to reconnoitre. They take with them a goat's-skin bag suspended
from the side, and a small quantity of bread, and walk on until they
come upon the ostriches, which usually keep to the high ground. As soon
as they have sighted them, they lie down and observe their movements;
and then, while one remains, the other returns to the camp, and says
that he has seen thirty, forty, sixty ostriches—it is alleged that
_djeliba_ or troops to that number are really to be met with. At certain
times, and especially when mating, the ostriches are seldom found more
than three or four couples together.

Guided by the man who has brought the information, the hunters advance
cautiously in the direction of the ostriches, and on nearing the hillock
on which the birds were sighted, they use every precaution to avoid
being seen. Having at length reached the last inequality of ground that
affords them any sort of cover, they dismount, and two scouts crawl
forward to make sure that the birds are still in the same place. If
these bring confirmation of the former tidings, each rider gives his
horse a small draught of the water brought on a camel's back, for it is
rare to find a place where water is to be had. The baggage is piled up
where the halt takes place, without any one being left to watch it, so
certain are they of being able to retrace their steps to the identical
spot. Every hunter is provided with a _chibouta_, or goat's-skin bag of
water. The attendants follow the tracks of the horses—the camel carrying
only the horses' evening feed of barley and his own, and water for both
men and animals.

Carefully reconnoitring the ground occupied by the ostriches, the
hunters concert their mode of attack. Spreading out, they gradually form
a circle, in which they inclose the quarry at a sufficient distance not
to be seen, for the ostrich is very far-sighted. The attendants fill up
the gaps between the horsemen. Then, when all are at their respective
posts, the latter advance straight upon the ostriches, who flee
panic-stricken, but are met by the horsemen, who at first content
themselves by driving them back within the circle. The ostrich thus
exhausts its strength by the rapidity of its movements; for, when
surprised, it does not "husband its wind." Again and again it repeats
the same manœuvre, always trying to break through the circle and always
driven back in affright. At the first symptoms of fatigue, the hunters
dash at them, and presently the troop scatters in all directions. Those
that are losing strength open out their wings, which is a sure sign of
weariness. The hunters, now secure of their prey, hold in their horses.
Each one picks out a bird, rides after it, overtakes it, and, either
from behind or from the side, fetches it a terrible blow on the head
with the cudgel already mentioned. The head is bald and very sensitive,
whereas other parts of the body would offer greater resistance. Stunned
with the blow, the ostrich falls to the ground, and the hunter,
springing out of his saddle, cuts its throat, taking care, however, to
hold it away from the body, so that the wings may not be stained with
the blood.

The _delim_, or male bird, when its throat is cut, especially if near
its young ones, moans in a lamentable manner, but the _reumda_, or
female, utters not a sound. When the ostrich is on the point of being
overtaken, it is so exhausted that, if the hunter is willing to spare
its life, it is easy for him to lead it away captive, guiding it with
his cudgel; for by that time it can scarcely walk. Immediately after
being bled, the bird is carefully skinned, so as not to spoil the
feathers, and the skin is stretched on a tree or on a horse. When the
camels arrive, salt is plentifully rubbed in.

The servants now light fires and prepare the pots, in which they boil
for a long time over a fierce fire all the fat of the bird. As soon as
it is reduced to a very liquid state, it is poured into a sort of
leather bottle formed of the skin stripped off from the thigh to the
foot, and strongly tied at the lower end; it would spoil if put into
skin taken from any other part of the body. The fat of an ostrich in
good condition ought to fill both its legs. When the bird is brooding,
it is very lean, and at that time its fat would certainly not fill both
legs; and it is, at that time, hunted only for the sake of its feathers.
The rest of the flesh is served up for the hunters' supper, seasoned
with flour and pepper.

The attendants having watered the horses and given them a feed of
barley, and the hunters having refreshed themselves, they hasten, no
matter how fatiguing the chace may have been, to return to the spot
where they left their baggage. There they remain forty eight hours to
rest their horses, on whom they bestow the greatest care. After that,
they regain their tents. Sometimes they send the produce of the chace to
the _douar_, whence the servants bring back a fresh supply of
provisions, and, on receiving favourable intelligence, they start on a
new expedition.

In the desert, the male bird is called _delim_; the female, _reumda_; a
one-year old, _ral_; over one year, _oulid gleub_; a two-year old,
_oulid bou gleubtin_; a three-year old, _garah_, at which age the bird
attains its full growth.

The fat of the ostrich is used in the preparation of food—of
kouskoussou, for instance—and it is likewise eaten with bread. The Arabs
also apply it as a remedy in many diseases. It is sold in the
market-place, and in the tents of the rich a store of it is often kept
to give away to the poor, as a medicine. It is not, however, by any
means expensive—one pot of ostrich grease being exchanged for only three
pots of butter.

The plumes are sold in the _kuesours_, at Tougourt and at Leghrouât, and
among the Beni-Mzab, who, at the time of the purchase of grain, bring
ostrich skins down to the seaboard. Among the Oulad-Sidi-Shikh the skin
of the male was formerly sold at from four to five _douros_, and that of
the female at from ten to fifteen francs; but of late the price has
risen considerably. In the Sahara, before our time, the beautiful
ostrich plumes were only used to ornament the top of a tent or a straw
hat. The Shamba strengthen their shoes with the skin of the under part
of an ostrich's foot. They place a strip under the toes, and another
under the heel, and the sole will thus wear a long time. With the sinews
they make laces to sow the saddles, and to mend various articles made of
leather.

In the eyes of the Arab ostrich hunting possesses the double charm of
profit and pleasure. It is a favourite exercise of the horsemen of the
Sahara, and it is also a remunerative enterprise, the value of the skin
and fat much more than covering the expense. Notwithstanding the
numerous train indispensable for this species of sport, it is not by any
means the exclusive privilege of the rich. Any poor man who feels that
he can acquit himself well can generally contrive to join a party of
horsemen who propose to hunt the ostrich. He goes to a wealthy Arab, who
lends him a camel, a horse and harness, and two-thirds of the barley
required, two-thirds of the goat-skins, and two-thirds of the supply of
food. The other third of all things is provided by the borrower, and the
produce of the chace is divided between the two in the same proportions.
The servant who, during the expedition, rides the camel lent to the poor
man, receives from the latter two _boudjous_ for every male killed, and
one _boudjou_ for every female. He is, besides, fed from the provisions
taken with him by the horseman.

The ostrich is also hunted by lying in ambush, after it has laid its
eggs, or towards the middle of November. Five or six horsemen, taking
with them a couple of camels loaded with supplies for at least a month,
go in search of places where rain has recently fallen, or where ponds
are to be found. In such localities there is certain to be abundance of
herbage, which never fails to attract the ostriches in considerable
numbers. To avoid idle wanderings to and fro, they question every
individual, every caravan, they happen to meet: besides, they know
beforehand the most likely stations. On these occasions they provide
themselves, not with a cudgel, but with a rifle and an ample supply of
powder and ball.

As soon as they come upon ostrich tracks, the hunters examine them
closely. If they appear only in the form of patches here and there eaten
down to the ground, it shows that the ostrich has come here merely to
graze. But if the tracks cross each other in all directions, if the
grass has been trampled under foot, but not eaten, it is a sure sign
that the ostrich has made her nest in the neighbourhood. The hunters
thereupon search attentively for the spot where she has deposited her
eggs, and approach it with the greatest precautions. While the ostrich
is digging out her nest, all day long her plaintive moanings may be
heard, but after her eggs are laid she never utters her usual cry until
about three in the afternoon.

The female sits on her eggs from morning till mid-day, while the male
goes to the pasture. At noon he returns, and the female goes to feed in
her turn. When she comes back, she places herself four or five paces
from the nest, in front of the male, who incubates all night. The male
himself keeps watch over the eggs to defend them from all enemies.
Jackals, among others, often times place themselves in ambush near at
hand ready to play them an evil turn, and their bodies have frequently
been found by the hunters lying not far from the nests, stricken to
death by the male—the female being too timid to inspire any fear.

It is in the morning, during the time the female is sitting, that the
hunters dig on each side of the nest, and not above twenty paces
distant, a hole deep enough to contain a man. They then cover it over
with the long grass so common in the desert, so that only his rifle is
seen. The best marksmen are, of course, placed in these holes.

Seeing all these preparations, the female takes fright, and runs off to
join the male, who beats her and compels her to return to the nest. If
these preparations were to be made while the male is brooding, he would
go off to join the female, and neither of them would ever come back
again.

When the female returns to the nest, they take care not to molest her,
it being the rule to kill the male in the first instance. It is,
therefore, customary to await his return from the pasture, which happens
about noon, when the hunter holds himself ready. The ostrich, while
engaged in incubation, spreads out its wings so as to cover all the
eggs. In this position, with its legs bent under the body, the thighs
are very conspicuous. This circumstance is favourable to the marksman
who aims to break the leg of the bird. All chance of escape is thus cut
away, which would not be the case were it is wounded in any other part.
As soon as the ostrich is down the hunters run up and cut its throat.
The two marksmen come out of their holes, and their companions,
attracted by the report, lend their assistance. All traces of blood are
quickly covered with sand, and the body of the bird carefully concealed.
At sunset the female returns as usual to pass the night close to the
nest. The absence of the male causes her no anxiety, for she fancies he
has merely gone away to feed, and she quietly sits upon the eggs. She is
then killed in the same manner as her mate, by the hunter who has not
previously fired. The one who shot the male receives a _douro_ in
addition to his proper share; but if, what rarely happens, he should
miss his aim, he pays to his companions the value of the bird: "We chose
thee," they say, "as the best shot: we placed thee in the good position
to do us a benefit, and lo! thou workest us such a wrong as this. Thou
shalt pay for it." The hunter who killed the female receives only an egg
over and above his share. If he miss, he forfeits what would have come
to him from the price of the male and the eggs. The one who is to fire
at the male is appointed beforehand.

The nest of an ordinary couple contains from twenty five to thirty eggs,
but it frequently happens that several couples combine to lay in common.
In that case, they form a large enclosure, and the oldest couple are
placed in the centre, with the others around them in regular order—so
that, if they are four in number, they will occupy the four angles of a
square. When the eggs are all laid they are pushed towards the centre,
but not mingled together; and when the oldest male comes to sit the
others take their places around, where their eggs were laid—and the same
with the females. These companies are composed of the young of the same
family—in fact, of the young of the oldest couple. They do not all lay
the same number of eggs. The one-year olds, for instance, do not lay
more than four or five, and those of a small size. At times as many as a
hundred eggs are found in the same nest. These family gatherings are
most common where the herbage is most abundant. The Arabs have observed
a very singular circumstance. The eggs of each couple in these monster
nests are carefully piled up together, with one egg conspicuously at the
top. It is the one first laid, and it serves for a special purpose. As
soon as the male perceives that the moment has arrived for hatching, he
breaks with his beak the egg he judges to be the most forward, and at
the same time very carefully makes a small hole in the one which
surmounts the others. The latter furnishes their first meal to all the
young ones as they are hatched, and, though open, will remain sweet for
a considerable time. This quality is peculiarly useful; for the male
does not break all the eggs on the same day, but only three or four at a
time, when he hears the young ones moving inside. The egg which supplies
them with nourishment is always liquid, whether through the prevision of
nature, or that the old birds have instinctively avoided sitting on it.

The fledglings, after having partaken of their first meal, and being
speedily dried in the sun, begin at once to run about, and at the end of
a few days follow the parent birds to the pasture: in the nest, they
always nestle under their wings. The nest is generally of a circular
form, and is formed in a sandy soil. The ostrich constructs it with its
feet, by simply throwing out the sand from the centre to the
circumference. The dust raised by this operation may be seen at some
distance. The period of incubation lasts ninety nights.

The hunters eat the eggs if they are fresh, and not near ready to be
hatched. The shells they either throw away, or take with them, to give
as presents to friends, or to deposit them in the _koubba_.[85] However,
for some time past, the Arabs have become aware that eggs are an article
of traffic on the seaboard, and they now reserve them for that object.

The ambush hunt is very lucrative. It is quite possible to kill several
birds and carry off their eggs. At that season, the ostrich itself is
very lean; but, on the other hand, the feathers are better and hold more
firmly together. Where several couples are assembled together in one
nest, it is only the oldest male and female that are killed. Were the
hunters to make as many holes as there are birds, they would very soon
be discovered, and the whole company would take to flight.

According to the Arabs, ostriches kill vipers with a stroke of their
beak, and swallow them. They eat, also, serpents, locusts, scorpions,
lizards, and a very large fruit called _hadj_, abundant in the desert,
and produced by a creeping plant, bitter as turpentine, having leaves
like those of a water-melon: in short, they digest anything, even
stones. Such is the voracity of this bird that where it is kept in a
domesticated state, it bolts everything it comes across, knives,
jewelry, bits of iron. The Arab who gave me these details declared that
a woman one day had a coral necklace snatched from her neck and
swallowed by an ostrich, and I have heard an officer of the African army
relate how one tore off and bolted a button from his tunic. It is at the
same time very adroit, and will snatch a date from a man's lips without
hurting him. When lightnings flash and announce a coming storm, they
cannot contain themselves for joy. They jump about, and hasten towards
the water of which they are so fond, though capable of long endurance of
thirst.

Paternal love is a strong passion in the male ostrich. He never deserts
his young, and fears no danger, be it what it may, whether from dogs,
hyænas, or man himself. The female, on the contrary, is easily
frightened, and forsakes all in her terror. Thus, in speaking of a man
who defends his tent with courage, they compare him to the _delim_;
while a feeble, timid man is likened to the _reumda_. Ostriches are
generally met travelling together in couples, or in family parties of
four or five couples. But, where rain has fallen, one is certain to find
two or three hundreds of these birds together. From a distance, they
resemble a flock of camels. They never approach a spot that is inhabited
except to drink, after which they flee away in haste.

The Arabs hunt the young of the ostrich by a very simple method. Once
upon the track, and at a short distance from the birds, they begin to
shout aloud. The young ones, being frightened, run for protection to the
parent birds; and the hunters, coming up with them, seize upon their
prey in spite of the male, and under his very eyes. The _delim_ becomes
terribly excited, and exhibits the most poignant grief. Sometimes
greyhounds are employed in this sport. While the old birds are defending
themselves against the dogs, the hunters carry off the little ones
without any difficulty, and bring them up in their tents, where they are
easily tamed. They play with the children and sleep under the canvass.
In the wanderings of the tribe they follow the camels. There is no
instance of any bird brought up in this way taking to flight. They are
full of spirits, and frolic with the horsemen, dogs, etc., etc. Does a
hare happen to start up, away go the men in full chace, and the ostrich,
becoming excited, rushes after them and takes part in the hunt. If it
meets in the _douar_ a child with something in its hand of an eatable
nature, it lays him gently on the ground, and endeavours to take it from
him. The ostrich is a great thief; or rather, as I have already said, it
desires to swallow everything it sees. The Arabs, therefore, distrust it
when they are counting out money, for two or three _douros_ would soon
disappear.

It is no uncommon thing to see a wearied child placed on the back of an
ostrich. The bird proceeds with its burden straight to the tent, the
little fellow holding on by its pinions. But it would not submit to
carry a heavier load—a man, for example, but would hurl him to the
ground by a blow from its wing. On the march, in order to keep it from
running about to the right or left, they pass a cord round one of its
hocks, to which they fasten another cord by which to hold it. In the
desert, the ostrich has no other enemy to fear than man. It can repel
the dog, the jackal, the hyæna, and the eagle, but yields, perforce, to
man.

I mentioned that there was a third mode of hunting the ostrich, when on
its way to water. The Arabs simply make a hole near the water, conceal
themselves in it, and fire upon the creature as it approaches to drink.

Ostrich hunting, in the Sahara, makes numerous and excellent marksmen,
who practice at hitting nothing but the head, in order that the blood
may not stain the feathers. A marksman of note always carries a chaplet
of talismans behind the lock of his rifle, and his name is quoted in the
tribes. Among the defenders of Zaatcha there was more than one crack
hunter of ostriches.

The ostrich drinks every fifth day if water is to be had: if not, it can
endure thirst for a long time. Ostrich hunting is a very profitable
sport. The Arabs say of a successful speculation: "It is an excellent
transaction—as good as an ostrich hunt."

The Arab to whom I am indebted for these particulars is an
Oulad-Sidi-Shikh, named Abd-el-Kader-Mohammed-ben-Kaddour, a
professional hunter. According to him, the country for ostriches is
comprised in a triangle contained by lines drawn from Insalah to Figuig,
from South to North—from Figuig to Sidi-Okba, from West to East—and from
Sidi-Okba to Ouargla, from North to South.

GAZELLE HUNTING.

The chace of the gazelle is not, like that of the ostrich, at the same
time a lucrative and a toilsome enterprise—it is merely an exercise, a
pastime, a party of pleasure. The gazelle is barely worth a franc or a
franc and a half, and it is not for such a valueless prey that an Arab
will prepare, train, fatigue, and even risk the loss of a horse,—as
frequently happens in ostrich hunting. Besides, in this species of
sport, the chief credit belongs neither to the man nor to the horse,—for
whom it is, properly speaking, nothing more than a promenade—but to the
greyhound, that other companion of the noble of the desert, of whom I
shall have occasion to speak hereafter.

If the gazelle be of little value, it is because it is by no means rare.
Everywhere, but above all in Sersou, is found the _sine_, or diminutive
gazelle; in the Tell and in mountainous districts, the _ademi_, the
largest kind; and in the Sahara, the _rime_, or intermediate species,
distinguished by the whiteness of its belly and thighs, and the length
of its horns. All these varieties alike travel in herds of four, five,
ten, twenty, thirty, a hundred; and not unfrequently as many as two or
three hundred are found herding together. At a distance they may be
taken for the flocks of an emigrating tribe. A herd of gazelles is
called a _djeliba_.

Gazelle hunting is not a sport exclusively reserved for horsemen. In the
incessant and daily wanderings of the Sahara tribes, as soon as the camp
is fixed near a fountain or river, the hunters set off in great numbers,
taking care to go up the wind. The gazelles possessing a very fine sense
of smell, the scent of the men wafted on the wind would soon put them to
flight. The hunter advances under shelter of bush after bush, and from
time to time imitates the cry of the gazelle. The latter stops, looks
about on all sides, and seeks the companion it supposes to have gone
astray. The hunter approaches close to it, and may even be seen without
scaring it away. At a proper distance he pulls the trigger, and rarely
misses his aim, "unless a spell cast upon his rifle causes it to hang
fire, and prevents it from going off during the whole day." At the sound
of the report the entire herd dashes off at top speed, but at the end of
a league or a league and a half, their fright has passed off with the
recollection of the cause of their alarm, and they again halt and go on
browsing as before.

The genuine hunter is a hardy, indefatigable walker. Experience teaches
him in what direction the herd is likely to stop, and to that he bends
his steps. Again he conceals himself and repeats the former manœuvre. In
this manner, in the course of the day, he can bring down three or four
gazelles, which his friends or servants will lift up and carry to the
camp in triumph. In the spring time, when the _djedi_, or fawns, sleep
amidst the _alfa_, having taken their fill of the milk of their mother,
it is easy to catch a dozen or fifteen of them in a single morning. It
is the old hind that generally betrays them.

But not such is the sport of persons of distinction, of the real
horsemen. What the great chiefs affect is to hunt them on horseback. A
dozen or fifteen cavaliers take the field, accompanied by their
servants, and seven or eight greyhounds, and carrying with them tents
and provisions. Directing their course towards a place where gazelles
are usually found, they ride forward at a venture. When a herd of
gazelles appears in the distance, they proceed towards it, covering
their advance as much as possible by means of shrubs and the
inequalities of the ground. When they get within a quarter of a league,
the attendants who hold the hounds in leash, squeezing their throats to
prevent them from giving tongue, dismount and let them slip. No sooner
do they find themselves free than they go off like an arrow, the Arabs
stimulating them to still greater speed by shouts and passionate
invocations: "My brother! my lord! my friend! there they are!" The
horsemen follow leisurely at a gentle gallop, so as not to be quite
thrown out; and behind them comes the baggage. The best greyhounds will
not fairly overtake the herd until after a course of two or three
leagues. Then, at last, the spectacle becomes full of incident and
interest. A thoroughbred greyhound picks out the finest animal of the
herd, and springs forward. A contest of agility and swiftness ensues.
The gazelle doubles, now to the right, now to the left, bounds forwards
and backwards, leaps even over the greyhound, and strives sometimes to
throw him out, sometimes to strike him with its horns. Its windings and
doublings are all to no purpose. Ardent and indefatigable, its enemy
hangs close upon its track. When on the point of being pulled down it
utters plaintive cries, and chants, as it were, its death song—song of
death to it, but of victory to the greyhound who seizes it by the back
of the neck, and snaps the vertebral column with its teeth. The gazelle
falls to the ground, and lies motionless at the feet of the victor,
until the hunters come up and cut the throat of the still living animal.

Now, as every true Believer should conform to the Law, and as it is
possible that he may not reach the spot for a quarter of an hour after
the gazelle has been pulled down, the hunters, before letting the hounds
loose, do not omit to exclaim: _Bi es-sem Allah! Allah akbar!_ "In the
name of Allah! Allah is great!" For the Prophet hath said: "When thou
hast let loose thy dog and hast invoked the name of Allah, if thy dog
has not killed the game that he has overtaken, and thou hast found it
yet alive, cut its throat to purify[86] it; and if it was already dead
when thou hast found it, and thy dog has not eaten of it, thou mayest
eat of it." If the previous invocation was omitted through accident, the
game may still be eaten; but not if the omission has been voluntary.

The horsemen who are well mounted, and own the best greyhounds, renew
the chace, and not until the evening do men and animals take rest.
Sometimes the hunters cook the gazelle on the spot where they have
pitched their camp. At other times, on their return home on the morrow,
they send the product of the chace to their friends and relatives, and
these presents give rise to family feastings at which the chief dish
consists of the flesh of this animal, so highly esteemed by the Arabs.
Gazelles are brought up in the tents, and are driven with the sheep at
every change of encampment; but in the end they always contrive to
escape. The winter is the proper season for hunting the gazelle and the
antelope. The earth, softened by the heavy rains, retards and
embarrasses their flight, while the dogs and horses find water
everywhere. When the snow is on the ground, if a party of Arabs come
upon a herd of gazelles, a regular massacre ensues. They are then unable
to run, and being famished are easily overtaken. Ten or a dozen may be
killed by each Arab. In hunting this animal the Arabs take with them
three burnouses, boots, and shoes, and carry the horse-cloth upon the
top of the saddle.

The proverbial beauty of the gazelle's eyes, and the whiteness of its
teeth, have given rise to a curious practice. Women with child have one
brought to them that they may lick its eyes with their tongue, in the
belief that the eyes of their infant will have the same lustrous
melancholy. Under a similar idea they touch its teeth with a finger,
which they afterwards put into their own mouth. The horns, shaved thin
and mounted in silver, are used by women as instruments to put _kohol_
on their eyes; and the skin, after being carefully tanned, is made into
_mezoueud_, or cushions, in which they enclose their most valuable
articles.

THE GREYHOUND.

If it were necessary to prove how aristocratic are the habits of the
people of the Sahara, how lordly their tastes, I could give yet another
very simple proof, which some persons may regard as puerile—I mean the
love they have for the _slougui_, or greyhound.

In the Sahara, as in all Arab countries, the dog is looked upon as a
servant in disgrace, troublesome, and cast off, no matter how useful he
may be in guarding the _douar_, or in looking after the flocks. The
greyhound alone enjoys the esteem, the consideration, the tender
attention of his master. The rich as well as the poor regard him as a
companion of their chivalrous pastimes; while for the latter he is also
the purveyor that supplies them with food. They do not grudge him,
therefore, the most assiduous care. The couplings are as scrupulously
superintended as those of their horses. A Saharene will go twenty or
thirty leagues to couple a handsome greyhound bitch with a dog of
established reputation; for one that is really famous will run down a
gazelle. "When he perceives a gazelle cropping a blade of grass, he
overtakes her before she has time to swallow what she already holds in
her mouth." This is an hyperbolical expression, no doubt, but still it
is based on a certain degree of truth.

When the _slouguïa_, or bitch, has pupped, the litter is never lost
sight of for an instant. The women will sometimes give their own milk to
them. Visitors arrive in troops, the more numerous and eager according
to the reputation of the mother. They surround the owner, offering him
dates, kouskoussou, etc. There is no sort of flattery they will not
lavish upon him in the hope of obtaining a pup: "I am thy friend.
Prithee, give me what I ask of thee. I will attend thee in thy hunts,"
etc. To all these solicitations, the owner usually replies that he will
not decide upon what pups he means to keep for himself until after seven
days. This reservation has its motive in a very singular observation, or
fancy, of the Arabs: in every litter, one of the pups gets upon the back
of the others. Is it a sign of greater vigour? or is it mere chance? To
ascertain this point they remove it from its habitual position, and if
it returns to it for seven consecutive days, the owner builds upon it
such extravagant expectations, that he would not accept a negress in
exchange. A prejudice causes them to attach the greatest value to the
first, third, and fifth pups, in fact, to all the odd numbers.

The pups are weaned at the end of forty days, but are still fed with
goat's, or camel's milk, thickened with dates, or kouskoussou. In the
Sahara, the flocks are so numerous and milk so abundant, that it is not
at all surprising that wealthy Arabs, after having weaned their
greyhound pups, should set aside so many she-goats for their
nourishment. When the pups are three or four months old, their education
commences. The boys drive out of their holes the jerboa, or the rat
called _boualal_, and set the pups at them. The latter by degrees get
excited, dash after them at full speed, bark furiously at their holes,
and only give up the pursuit to begin another. At the age of five or six
months, they are assigned a prey more difficult to catch—the hare. Men
on foot lead the greyhound close to the form where the animal is
couched. Then, by a slight exclamation, they set the young dog, who
rushes at the hare, and soon acquires the habit of coursing with speed
and intelligence. From the hare, they pass to the young of the gazelle.
The Arabs approach the spot where these are lying near their mother, and
direct the attention of the greyhound to them. As soon as he is
thoroughly excited and rears up with impatience, they let him go. After
a few lessons of this kind, the greyhound understands perfectly what to
do, and begins to press forward resolutely in chace of the old hinds
themselves.

When a year old the greyhound has very nearly reached its full strength.
His scent is developed, and he follows the gazelle by its slot.
Nevertheless, he is kept under some restraint, and not until the age of
fifteen to eighteen months is he regularly allowed to hunt. From that
period, however, he is held in leash, and often with great difficulty;
for the Arabs say that when the greyhound scents the game, his muscular
power becomes so great that, if he stiffens himself upon his paws, a man
can hardly make him lift a leg. As soon as he sights a herd of thirty or
forty gazelles, he trembles with joy, and looks up at his master, who
cries to him: "Ah son of a Jew! thou canst not say this time that thou
didst not see them." The hunter then takes off his goat's-skin bag, and
pours a little water on the back and belly of the hound, who, in his
impatience, casts a suppliant eye on his master. At last, he is free and
bounds forward. Presently, he tries to hide himself, stoops down, and
follows a circuitous course until he is within an easy distance, when he
springs forward with all his might, and picks out for his victim the
finest male in the herd. When the hunter cuts up the gazelle, he throws
to the _slougui_ the flesh around the kidneys. If he were to offer him
the intestines, he would reject them with disdain.

The greyhound that cannot hunt at two years old, will never be able do
so. There is a saying to this effect,

A greyhound after two years
And a man after two fasts [fifteen years];

meaning thereby that that is the proper age to judge what either will
ever be worth.

The greyhound is an intelligent animal and full of self-love. If, in
slipping him, a fine gazelle is pointed out to him, and he kills only a
common looking one, he is very sensible of the reproaches addressed to
him, and slinks off, ashamed of himself, without claiming his portion.
He has no lack of vanity, and indulges much in fantasia. A thoroughbred
_slougui_ will neither eat nor drink from a dirty vessel, and refuses
milk in which the hand has been dipped. Has he not been taught this
disdainful daintiness? And yet the utmost that is done for the common
dog, their faithful and vigilant guardian, is to let him find his food
among the offal and bones that are lying about. And while the latter is
driven with hootings from tent and table, the greyhound sleeps in the
compartment reserved for men, on carpets by his master's side, or on his
very bed. He is clothed and sheltered from the cold, like the horse, and
is even preferred for being chilly, as that is an additional proof of
the purity of his race. The women take pleasure in bedecking him with
ornaments, in tying collars of shells round his neck, and in securing
him from the evil eye by fastening talismans on him. He is fed with
care, nicety, and caution, kouskoussou being lavished upon him. In
summer-time, to give him strength, they make a paste of milk and dates,
of which the stones have been extracted. There are some who never feed
their greyhounds during the day. Nor is this all. The _slougui_
accompanies his master when on a visit, and receives the same
hospitality with him, having a portion of every dish.

A thoroughbred greyhound will hunt with no one but his master. By his
cleanliness, his respect for decency and the graciousness of his manner,
he shows that he recognizes the attention paid to him. On his master's
return after a somewhat prolonged absence, the _slougui_ leaps with a
bound on to his saddle, and caresses him. The Arabs talk to him: "O
friend, listen to me! You must bring me some meat. I am tired of eating
dates," and flatter him in many ways. The petted animal leaps about in a
frolicsome manner, and seems not only to understand but to wish to
reply. The death of a _slougui_ fills the whole tent with mourning, the
women and children bewailing him as if he were one of the family.
Sometimes it falls to the greyhound to find food for all, and one that
nourishes a family can never be for sale. Now and then, however, he may
be given away in compliance with the supplications of women and
relatives, or of the most respected marabouts.

A greyhound that catches with ease the _sine_ and the _ademi_, is worth
a she-camel; but one that can overtake the _rime_ is priced as a
valuable horse. They are very generally named _ghezal_ or _ghezala_, "a
gazelle." Frequently wagers are laid on such or such a _slougui_, the
stakes being sheep, or a feast of _taam_, dates, etc.

The greyhound of the Sahara is far superior to that of the Tell. He is
of a tawny colour, and tall, with a sharp snout, broad forehead, short
ears, and muscular neck; the muscles of the hindquarters being, also,
very prominent. He has no belly, clean limbs, well detached sinews, the
hock near the ground, the under part of the paw small and dry, the
palate and the tongue black, and the hair very soft. Between the two
ilia, there should be the breadth of four fingers, and the tip of the
tail should be able to pass under the thigh and reach the hip-bone. Both
the fore-arms are generally fired in five lines to harden the muscles.

The most renowned greyhounds of the Sahara are those of the Hamiân, the
Oulad-Sidi-Shikh, the Harar, the Arbâa, and the Oulad-Naïl.

HAWKING.

The sporting equipments of a noble of the Sahara are complete when he
has a _thair el horr_, or a bird of race; for there men of distinction
are still addicted to falconry. The _thair el horr_ is of a dark yellow
plumage, with a short, powerful bill, thick, muscular thighs, and very
sharp talons. It is very rare, and is caught in the following manner.
When a _thair el horr_ has been sighted, they put a tame pigeon into a
small net, and throw it up into the air in front of the bird of prey,
who swoops down upon it. Her talons, however, get entangled in the net,
so that she can neither draw them out, nor fly away, and is thus easily
secured. When the falcon finds herself a prisoner, she shows no signs of
fear or anger. There is a saying in the desert which is often quoted in
seasons of calamity:

A bird of race, when she is caught, never frets.

Rings are passed round her legs and she is fastened to a small perch
prepared for her in the tent. To accustom her to the presence of men,
they cover her head with a hood, which allows only the beak to appear.
Her master unhoods her, gives her fresh meat, holds her on his fist, and
caresses and speaks to her as much as possible before a numerous
company, to accustom her to noise. At the end of a month the bird knows
her master, and is thoroughly tamed. They then take a leveret and tie it
by one leg, the hawk also being held fast by a very long "creance." They
unhood her, and let the leveret go before her eyes. As soon as the bird
sees it, she rises into the air, uttering cries. The leveret stops and
squats down, when the falcon swoops and kills it with a blow of her
talons. The owner runs up, draws the leveret, and gives a portion to the
bird. This manœuvre is repeated until the falcon shows no desire to fly
away, which is known by her remaining beside the animal she has killed.
The falcon, naturally disposed to seize her prey, is further looked upon
as trained, when she answers to the call before she has pounced upon her
quarry.

Having arrived at this point, the bird may be taken out to hunt. The
owner mounts his horse and takes her with him, hooded, and perched upon
his head or his shoulders. As soon as he sees a hare, he unhoods her and
excites her with his voice. The falcon soars into the air, and swoops
down suddenly with a sharp cry, and kills the animal with a single blow;
after which the hood is immediately put on again. Sometimes the hare is
killed so far off that the hunter cannot bleed it in time, according to
the religious injunction; but this inconvenience is obviated by his
exclaiming, when he throws off the bird, _Bi es-sem Allah! Allah
akbar_—"in the name of Allah! Allah is great!" If the falcon has
devoured a part of the game, the rest may be eaten by the hunter,
because the bird of prey has been trained to return to her master when
he calls her, and not to eat the game. A bird of race will no more eat
carrion than will an eagle. She will kill hares, rabbits, the young of
the gazelle, the _habara_—a bird, they say, as big as a bustard—pigeons,
and turtle-doves.

The principal tribes of the Sahara that practice hawking are: in the
province of Constantine, the Douaouda, the Selmya, the Oulad-Moulat, the
Oulad-ben-Aly, the Sahari, the Oulad-Mahdi, the Oulad-Bou-Azid, the
Rahman, and the Oulad-Zid; in the province of Algiers, the Bou-Aysh, the
Oulad-Mokhtar, the Oulad-Yagoub, the Oulad-Shayb, the Oulad-Ayad, the
Mouidat, the Zenakha, the Abadlya, the Oulad-Naïl; and in the province
of Oran, the Hassasna, the Rezayna, the Oulad-Mehalla, the Beni-Mathar,
the Derraga, the Harar, the Angades, the Hamyân, the Oulad-Sidi-Shikh,
and the Oulad-Khelif; and the inhabitants of all the regions where
_alfa_ grows in abundance. Hawking is also pursued in the higher
table-lands, on the borders of the Sahara.

REMARKS BY THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER.

The Arabs recognize four species of birds of noble race, which they
employ in the chace. These are the _berana_, the _terakel_, the
_nebala_, and the _bahara_. The _berana_ and the _terakel_ are the most
esteemed; especially the _terakel_, which is the largest—the female
sometimes attaining the size of an ordinary eagle. This species has
black wings, gray on the under side. The belly is black and white, the
tail black, as is also the head when young, but gradually turning gray
and then white as the bird grows older. Its beak is very hard and sharp,
and its talons solid and vigorous. The _berana_ is less strong and
somewhat smaller than the _terakel_. Its wings are of a whitish gray,
its breast white, its tail gray and white, the latter predominating. The
head is of many hues, but there also white is the dominant colour. The
_bahara_ is almost entirely black, with the exception of a few whitish
spots on the breast. "It is a negro, and not worth much." In the
_nebala_, gray predominates; there are some white spots, however, on the
wings, and the feet are yellow. All these birds mew at the end of
summer.

In certain districts, the following species are likewise valued; the
_shashin_, the _aogab_, the _meguernes_, and the _baz_. The _baz_ is the
most courageous. Its plumage is of a dark red, its eyes deep set, with
arched eyelids, its shoulders wide apart, its feathers soft, its breast
broad, its rump thick, its tail short, its thighs wide apart, its legs
white, and its feet broad. The heavier it feels on the hand, the swifter
it is on the wing. It is said that its wind is bad.

The bird of noble race is given away rather than sold; whoever catches
one takes it to the master of a large tent, who makes him a present in
return. It is in the summer-time that they endeavour to procure these
noble birds, in order to have time to train them for the hawking season,
which is towards the end of autumn. They go to work in the following
manner.

They envelope a pigeon in a sort of shirt made of horse-hair and a
quantity of wool. A horseman rides about a desert place carrying this
lure with him, and when he sees a bird of race, throws it up into the
air and then hides himself. The falcon stoops and strikes it, but her
legs and talons become entangled in the wool and hair, and her struggles
only make her position worse. At last, stupefied and exhausted, she
finishes by alighting, or rather by falling on the ground, when the
horseman issues from his hiding place and secures her. A perch is
prepared for her in the chief's own tent, to which the bird is fastened
by an elegant thong of _filali_.[87] It is needless to add that the
greatest care is taken to attach the jesses, so as not to hurt the bird,
or cause her unnecessary inconvenience. The master of the tent feeds her
with his own hands once a day, about two in the afternoon. Her ordinary
food is raw mutton, very clean, and carefully cut up. She is not stinted
as to quantity, may eat to satiety, and is even expected to improve in
condition.

By way of commencing her education, they proceed in this manner. They
show her a large piece of flesh, and at the same time call to her three
times, with a cry that may be represented by the sound long drawn out of
"Ouye! ouye! ouye!" The bird throws herself upon the meat, which is not
given up to her, but which she fights hard to get hold of. They draw it
away slowly, still showing it to her and teasing her, until she is quite
exhausted, when they give her several small morsels on her perch. Up to
that time, the falcon is kept scrupulously within the tent, remaining
hood-winked all day, and also during the first few nights, until she is
accustomed to live with the women and children, the dogs and other
animals. This last point is difficult to manage, and is never completely
achieved.

When the "gentle" bird has got thus far, when she is used to accept her
food upon the perch, in the manner above described, the circle of her
prison is extended. She is fastened by the foot to a cord, or creance,
of camel's hair, soft and pliable, from fifty to sixty cubits in length,
which allows her to go abroad. Outside of the tent, they repeat the
lesson of calls to come and be fed, cautiously feeling their way. The
falcon is in this manner tended a long time within the tent, going out
only to receive her food. When her master is quite sure of having
accustomed her to himself, he takes her with him on his fist to a
considerable distance, putting on and off her hood several times, at
different intervals. It is not without difficulty, without many
struggles, that the bird accommodates herself to the scene abroad, but
by degrees she becomes used to that also.

At this period, the last touch is given to her education, by means of
the same calls, the same alternations of teasing and gratifying; but far
from the tent and the _douar_, without hood and without leash, her food
is given to her. As soon as she is gorged, the hood and leash are
replaced. After that, her master never moves a step without her perched
upon his fist. But this is not enough. The bird is only tamed—she has
yet to be trained for the sport. Accordingly, they take a hare and cut
its throat, disclosing the gash by drawing back the skin, so as to let
the flesh appear. Then, inside the tent, they take off the hood of the
falcon, who springs at the throat of the animal, and is allowed to worry
it for a time in order to get a taste for it; and a little later they
give her some of the flesh. This manœuvre is repeated seven or eight
days following, with a live hare, whose ears the master keeps pulling to
make it squeal, while he himself utters the call "Ouye! Ouye!" The
falcon precipitates herself on the head of the animal and fights for it,
pecking out the eyes, and sometimes the tongue. The hare is then opened,
and some of the flesh given to the bird. This exercise is repeated more
or less frequently, according to the bird's aptitude for learning.

The hawking season is now at hand. The bird must be put to the proof, to
ascertain if she has profited by these lessons so skilfully graduated,
by this education so laboriously inculcated, and so appropriate to her
nature and to the style of sport for which she is intended. They go out,
therefore, on horseback, taking the "gentle" bird hood-winked, and
proceed to an open plain, or a vast plateau, having first provided
themselves with five or six live hares. Having reached the appointed
spot they take a hare and, having broken its four feet, let it go within
the scope of the bird's ken. Squeaking and moaning it hobbles on as well
as it can, when they unhood the falcon, and throw her off—exclaiming _Bi
es-sem Allah! Allah akbar!_ The _terakel_, impatient, soars straight up
toward the sky, and from a great height swoops down upon the hare, which
she kills, or stuns, with a single blow with her tightly closed talons,
as with a fist. The hunters come up, bleed and open the animal, and give
the entrails, the liver, and the heart to the bird, who devours them on
the spot. After repeating this lesson several days in succession, the
training of the bird is considered complete.

This course of instruction has extended from summer to near the end of
autumn, which is the favourable season, for the falcon only hunts well
in cloudy and cold weather. She cannot endure the glare of the sun, nor
yet thirst or heat. She would leave her master to go in search of water,
which she sees from afar, and would never return. At that period, then,
a party sets out after a light breakfast, at about eleven in the
morning, with the falcon on the shoulder or on the fist. The only
provisions they take with them are camel's milk, dates, bread, and dried
grapes.

But the sport does not begin until after a tolerably long ride, towards
three in the afternoon. The cavalcade is usually a numerous one. Having
reached a suitable spot, they scatter about, beating the brushwood and
tufts of _alfa_ in the hope of starting a hare, which they drive towards
the man who holds the falcon. As soon as the quarry is sighted, the
latter unhoods the bird, and throws her off; pointing with his finger to
the hare, and exclaiming _Ha hou!_ "there it is!" While her master is
pronouncing the sacramental _Bi es-sem Allah! Allah akbar!_ the bird is
off, soars out of sight, keeping the hare in view all the time with her
piercing eye, and then precipitates herself upon it, and strikes it,
either on the head or on the shoulder, one blow with her closed talons,
violent enough to stun, if not to kill it. The horsemen, seeing the
falcon stoop, gallop up from all quarters, surround her, and generally
find her engaged in picking out the eyes of the hare. To make her let
go, some one draws out from below his burnous the skin of another hare,
and throws it down a little way off, when she immediately pounces upon
it. Her _curée_, or reward, is not given to her until after their return
to the _douar_.

It will be readily understood that, though the bird was fed abundantly,
and even to excess, during the time she was being tamed, and taught to
obey the call, she is kept somewhat sparingly during the hawking season,
to avoid making her dull and depriving her of her full power, and in
order to make her a good hunter, that is, ardent and alert.

It is no uncommon thing with two or three falcons to kill from ten to
fifteen hares in a day. A large bird called the _habara_[88] is also
hunted with the _thair el horr_, and in this wise. The hunters ride on
until they meet with _habaras_, who generally go in couples, or in
companies of half a dozen and more. The falcon is on the fist. Her hood
is removed, and the birds are pointed out to her. When thoroughly
roused, she is thrown off with the invocation, _Bi es-sem Allah_! She
soars aloft, stoops upon her quarry, strikes it on the head, and holds
it in the pitiless grasp of her talons in spite of the desperate
struggles of the victim, until the horsemen come up and snatch it from
her. One of them then bleeds it to death, and gives the falcon her
reward. The flesh of this bird intoxicates the falcon, according to the
Arabs, either because of the perfumed vapour emanating from it, or
because she is proud of the capture of a _habara_, a dainty fit to set
before a Sultan. Thus, when she is replaced on the shoulder, she struts
and balances herself, and executes her fantasia. If the _habara_
attempts to fly, the falcon soars, and both mount together, the latter
rising higher and higher till she is well above the other, when she
precipitates herself upon it like a thunder-bolt, and breaks, first a
wing, and then the sternum. They fall together, tumbling over and over,
but the falcon always managing to keep uppermost and to hold her victim
beneath her, so that it alone may feel the shock of this frightful fall.

The "gentle" bird hunts, also, the _seroun_, the _hamma_, and the
_agad_. Some falcons will not hunt the _habara_. They are never trained
to hunt partridges, as it is feared that, if they became accustomed to
it, they would prefer a feathered quarry to one with a skin. If a bird
delays to return to her master, a horseman, holding in his hand the skin
of a hare furnished with ears and feet, gallops up towards her and
throws this lure to her, at the same time hooping "Ouye!": she generally
answers to the call. This interjection, if I may so express myself, is
the vocative of the bird of race. The falcon, when properly trained,
seldom betrays, that is, escapes from her master. They are sometimes
lost, however, by their passion for a desert bird called _hamma_, which
they pursue with fury.

The _biaz_—such is the name of the falconer, the individual whose
special duty it is to tend and feed the falcon—sometimes entertains a
blind and fatal attachment for his pupil. He will pet and pamper her to
excess; and although it is proverbially said that "vanity is her only
counsellor and sole motive of her actions," yet, if she be not hungry,
instead of hunting, she resumes her liberty. A bird, however, must be
exceedingly well trained and even renowned, to be kept for more than one
year. As a rule, unless she has displayed an exceptional prowess, she is
turned loose at the end of the season, as another is sure to be obtained
before the time comes round again. Birds that have been kept for three
years are quoted as something quite out of the common run.

When the _djouad_, or nobles, go out hawking, it is in parties of
five-and-twenty to thirty, without reckoning their attendants, and
wagers are often laid. For a trained falcon, a camel is given, or a
hundred _boudjous_, and at times even a horse. The falcon is regarded as
a member of the family. She lives in the tent, and is the object of the
most constant attention. Some chiefs are never to be seen without their
falcon, which they carry about with them everywhere. It is a sign of
distinction and of gentle birth to have marks of a falcon's muting on
one's burnous. In the Sahara, little or great, rich or poor, all alike
love and caress the "gentle" bird.

"And how should it be otherwise?" said to me one day a noble Arab; "we
love pomp, splendour, and magnificence, and one must be more or less
than an Arab not to feel joy and excitement at the sight of our warriors
returning from hawking. The chief rides on in front, followed by many
horsemen, and carrying two falcons, one on his shoulder, the other on
his fist, guarded by a leather gauntlet. The hoods of these birds are
enriched with silk, morocco leather, gold, and small ostrich plumes,
while their jesses are embroidered and ornamented with silver bells. The
steeds neigh, the camels are loaded with game, and their drivers murmur,
in a melancholy tone, one of those chaunts of love, or war, which never
fail to find the way to our hearts. Yes; I swear by the head of the
Prophet, next to a goum taking the field, there is nothing so striking
as the departure or return of a hawking party. Thus, however weary,
exhausted, and out of breath one may be, sleep is less refreshing than
the hope and expectation of recommencing on the morrow."

THE CHACE

BY ABD-EL-KADER.

It is related that an Arab Sheikh was seated in the centre of a numerous
group, when a man who had lost his ass presented himself before him, and
asked if any one had seen the animal that had gone astray. The Sheikh
immediately turned to those around him, and addressed them in these
words:—"Is there any one here to whom the pleasures of the chace are
unknown? Who has never pursued the game at the risk of life and limb, if
he fell from his horse? Who, without fear of tearing his clothes or his
skin, has not thrown himself into the midst of brushwood bristling with
thorns, in order to overtake the wolf? Is there any one here who has
never experienced the happiness of again meeting, the despair of leaving
a woman who was dearly loved?"

One of his hearers answered: "For my part, I have never done, or
experienced any of those things you mention."

Looking to the owner of the ass, the sheikh thus spoke: "Behold the
beast you were looking for! Lead him away."

The Arabs, indeed, have a saying that "he who has never hunted, nor
loved, nor felt emotion at the sound of music, nor prized the perfume of
flowers, is not a man, but an ass." With us, war is especially a contest
of agility and craft. Consequently the chace is the highest of all
pastimes, as the pursuit of savage animals teaches how to pursue men. A
poet has written the following eulogy of that art:

"The chace disengages the mind from the cares by which it is harassed.
It adds to the vigour of the intelligence, brings joyfulness, dissipates
chagrin, and renders useless the science of the physicians by
maintaining perpetual health in the human body.

"It forms good horsemen, for it teaches them to spring quickly into
their saddles, to alight promptly on the ground, to rush a horse across
rocks and precipices, to clear stones and bushes at full gallop, to push
on without stopping, even though some part of the harness has been lost
or broken.

"Every one who gives himself up to the chace, makes progress day by day
in courage, and learns to despise accidents.

"To fully enjoy his favourite diversion, he withdraws from perverse
people. He puts falsehood and calumny to the rout, escapes from the
corruption of vice, and emancipates himself from those fatal influences
which tinge our beards with gray, and burden us, before our time, with
the weight of years.

"Days spent in the chace are not counted among the days of one's life."

In the Sahara, the chace is the sole occupation of the chiefs and rich
people. When the rainy season sets in, the inhabitants of that region
transport themselves to the shores of the small lakes formed by the
rain; and, if game get scarce at one spot, they open up a new scene in
their wandering life. A legend familiar to every Arab shows with what
force the passion for the chace may seize upon the heart of an African.

A man of distinction fired at a gazelle and missed it. In a hasty
moment, he took an oath that no food should come near his mouth until he
had eaten the animal's liver. Twice again, he fired at the gazelle, and
with no better success, but not the less did he continue the pursuit for
the whole of that day. At nightfall his strength gave way; but true to
his oath, he refused to take any nourishment. His servants, therefore,
resumed the chace, which lasted for three days more. At last the gazelle
was killed, and its liver brought to the dying Arab, who touched it with
its lips and yielded up his last breath.

The Arabs hunt both on foot, and on horseback. A horseman who would
chace the hare must take with him a greyhound, which is called
_slougui_, from Slouguïa, a spot where they were originally produced
from the coupling of she-wolves with dogs. The male _slougui_ lives
twenty years, the female twelve. Greyhounds that are able to run a
gazelle down are rare. Few of them will give chace either to the hare or
to the gazelle, even if those animals pass close to them. Their
customary object of pursuit is the _bekeur-el-ouhash_, which they
generally catch by the ham and pull to the ground. It is said that this
animal, in trying to recover itself, falls forward on its head and is
killed. Sometimes, the _slougui_ seizes the _bekeur-el-ouhash_ by the
throat, and holds it until the hunter comes up. Many Arabs hunt this
beast on horseback, and strike it from behind with a spear. It is also
on horseback that they generally hunt the gazelle, which goes in herds.
They select from among its companions the animal they intend to bring
down, and shoot it without for a moment pulling up their horse, on which
they started at full speed. There is an Arab proverb: "More forgetful
than a gazelle." This pretty creature, in fact, appears to have the
giddy brains as well as the soft, mysterious glance of woman. The
gazelle, if missed, runs a little way further on, and again stops,
without heeding the ball which, in another minute, will again seek its
life. Some Arabs hunt this animal with the falcon, which is trained to
strike at the eyes.

It is especially among the Arabs of the Eshoul country that this variety
of sport chiefly prevails. I have there met with a small tribe, called
the Es-Lib, who lived entirely on the products of the chace. Their tents
were made of the skins of gazelles and of _bekeur-el-ouhash_; and their
clothing, for the most part, was nothing but the skins of wolves. A
member of this little tribe of hunters told me that when he went out to
hunt he generally took with him an ass laden with salt. Each time he
knocked over a gazelle, he cut its throat, opened the belly, and rubbed
the entrails with salt, and then left it to dry on a bush. After a while
he retraced his steps, and carried to his family all the animals that he
had thus prepared, for in that district there are no beasts of prey to
dispute with a hunter for his game. The Es-Lib are so accustomed to feed
upon flesh, that the children threw away the biscuits I gave to them,
never supposing that they were good to eat.

The hunt in ambush is often practised against both the male and female
of the _bekeur-el-ouhash_. When the great heats have dried up the ponds
in the desert, a hole is dug close to the springs whither they resort to
drink, and they meet with their death while in the act of quenching
their thirst. The chace that demands the greatest intrepidity is that of
the _lerouy_, an animal resembling the gazelle, but larger, though
without attaining the size of the _bekeur-el-ouhash_. The _lerouy_,
which is likewise called the _tis-el-djebel_, or mountain goat,
frequents rocks and precipices, among which it must be pursued on foot,
amid a thousand perils. As these animals have very little speed, any
ordinary dog can catch them easily if they descend into the plains. But
they have a singular peculiarity, as I am assured. A _lerouy_ closely
pressed by hunters throws itself down a precipice a hundred cubits deep,
and falls on its head without receiving any hurt. The age of the animal
is known by the knobs on its horns—each knob indicating a year. Both the
_lerouy_ and the gazelle have two incisor teeth, but they have not those
situated between the incisors and the canine teeth.

If _lerouy_ hunting be the glory of the pedestrian, ostrich hunting is
the glory of the horseman. In the season of the sirocco, when a sort of
burning sleep seems to weigh down all nature, when it might be thought
that all animated beings must be condemned to repose, the dauntless
hunters mount on horseback. Of all animals, the ostrich is known to be
the least provided with craft. It never takes a circuitous course, but,
confiding in its swiftness alone, endeavours to escape in a line
straight as that of an arrow. Five horsemen station themselves at
intervals of a league in the direction it is certain to take. Each one
acts as a relay. When one pulls up, the next clashes off at a gallop in
pursuit of the bird, which is thus deprived of a moment's rest, and has
to contend against horses that are fresh. The horseman who is the last
to start is necessarily the victor, but his victory is not achieved
without danger. In falling, the ostrich, by the movement of its wings,
inspires the horse with a panic that is often fatal to the rider.

On horses that have to accomplish this terrific running they place only
a saddle-cloth, and a saddle of extreme lightness. Some hunters use only
wooden stirrups, and an extremely light bit attached to a simple
pack-thread. Each one takes with him a small leathern bottle filled with
water, and from time to time moistens the bit, in order to keep the
animal's mouth tolerably cool. This racing of five horsemen is not,
however, the only mode of hunting the ostrich. Sometimes, an Arab who is
thoroughly acquainted with the habits of the bird, takes his post by
himself close to a spot where it is in the habit of passing—near a
mountain defile, for instance—and as soon as the ostrich comes in sight
he gives chace at full gallop. But it is rare for a hunter to succeed by
himself, as very few horses can overtake the ostrich. However, I once
possessed a mare that excelled in this sport.

Although the horse is usually employed in this as in other kinds of
hunting, he is not indispensable to man. Craft may sometimes of itself
overcome the ostrich. In the laying season the hunters dig holes near
the nests, in which they squat down, and kill the parent bird as it
comes to visit its eggs. The Arabs have recourse, likewise, to
disguises. Some of them will clothe themselves in the skin of the bird,
and thus approach close to those they wish to kill; but hunters,
disguised in this fashion, have sometimes, they say, been shot by their
own companions. If an ostrich has had a leg broken by a ball, she
cannot, like other bipeds, run along, hopping on the other leg. This is
because there is no marrow in its bones, and, without marrow, bones will
not mend when they have been fractured. The Arabs affirm that the
ostrich is deaf, and that the sense of smell replaces that of hearing.

The hyæna is a powerful animal, with formidable jaws, but a coward and
afraid of daylight. For the most part it dwells in caves which it finds
in ravines and among rocks. It seldom goes abroad but at night, and
searches for carrion and dead bodies, and commits such ravages in
graveyards, that the Arabs, by way of prevention, bury their dead at a
great depth. In some districts they even construct two chambers for a
single corpse, which is then interred in the lower one. As a rule, it
does not attack the flocks; but sometimes at night, prowling round an
encampment, it carries off a dog. The Arabs take little notice of it,
though they amuse themselves by hunting it on horseback, and let it be
pulled down by their greyhounds, but never pay it the compliment of
firing at it. After they have carefully reconnoitred the cave in which
it makes its lair, it is no uncommon thing to find Arabs who despise the
beast sufficiently to penetrate boldly into its den, after having
carefully closed the entrance with their burnouses, so as not to allow
any light to enter. Having got thus far, they go up to it, talking with
great energy, seize hold of it, gag it, without the slightest resistance
on its part—so terrified is it—and then drive it out with heavy blows
with a stick. The skin of such a cowardly brute is little esteemed. In
many tents they would not permit it to enter, for it can bring nothing
but misfortune. The common people eat the flesh, which is not at all
good, but they carefully abstain from touching the head or
brains—contact with which, they believe, would make them go mad.

Let us leave this ignoble animal, and pass on to one much more to be
feared, and the chace of which presents some striking scenes, though its
reputation is far from being in the eyes of the Arabs what it is in the
imagination of Europeans—I allude to the panther.

The panther is found over the whole surface of Algeria, though it
inhabits only wooded coverts, and broken, difficult ground. There are
several species. Some never quit the neighbourhood of their lair, and
are called _dolly_, that is, keeping to the house. Others, again, which
are called _berani_, or strangers, frequently wander away from the place
where they usually dwell, and prowl about the surrounding districts to a
considerable distance.

The _dolly_ panther is larger, stronger, and more dangerous than the
other species. Its coat is speckled with spots more elegantly disposed,
of a very dark shade, and close to one another. The colours are black,
white, and yellow. On the jowl, limbs, and back-bone, there are no
spots, but stripes. Those on the jowl are arranged diagonally. The upper
points start from the lower eyelids, the nostrils, and the corners of
the mouth, and descend towards the neck, gradually melting away into
yellow, and finally lost in the white.

Panthers lap like dogs. They generally roam in couples. In districts
that are well peopled, they are never seen in the daytime. In
uninhabited regions, although they do go abroad in the day, they hunt
only at night. They have not more than two or three cubs. The Arabs are
far from regarding the panther with the esteem they accord to the lion.
The lion, say they, if attacked, harassed, wounded, and surrounded by
enemies, feels his courage heighten in the midst of the uproar and in
the thick of the danger. He fearlessly encounters his assailants and
fights to the death, while the panther only accepts the combat when it
finds no way to retreat. In a word, the lion, as soon as the combat has
fairly commenced, never retires, while the panther escapes whenever an
opportunity presents itself. Another difference is this—the lion will
devour a man, the panther never. The latter generally strikes at his
head, lacerates him with its claws, and inflicts terrible bites, and
then, preferring the flesh of other animals to that of a son of Adam, it
leaves him there and goes in search of other prey. In a country where it
is able to supply itself with the flesh of wild boar, sheep, cattle, and
game of all kinds, and where it can satiate itself with the carcases of
animals, it kills man, not because it is hungry, but in self-defence, as
the only way of shaking off an enemy. In the case of the lion, man is
often the game in quest of which he stalks abroad; while in that of the
panther he is an adversary to be avoided, and never to be provoked. You
may pass boldly and confidently close to the thick brushwood that
conceals it, and, if you do not begin the attack, it will remain
crouched as close as a partridge, even holding in its breath. But if you
fire and miss, it will spring upon, bite, and lacerate you, and then,
still distrustful of itself, will take itself off.

The Arabs have remarked, from the numbers of persons who have come in
collision with panthers, and been wounded without being killed, that it
uses only its teeth; its bite being like that of the dog, and injuring
only the flesh. The lion, on the other hand, by his violent shaking,
breaks the bones of the victim he holds in his powerful jaws. When the
panther has inflicted its bite, it does not trouble itself as to its
being fatal or otherwise, but makes off with fear and caution. The lion
grows more and more furious, and returns to the attack again and again.
It is not enough that the enemy be disabled—he must feel the whole
weight of a lion's wrath. The lion bounds into a _douar_, and plunders
boldly, at his leisure. He seizes his share without any concealment; he
has no fear; he is exercising his right, the right of the strongest. The
panther covers its advance, glides, creeps, crawls along like a thief,
accompanied by shame and fear. The panther's spring, when enraged, is
like a flash of lightning; but after that tremendous effort, its pace is
less swift than that of an ordinary horse. If a panther be surrounded,
tracked down, and hard pressed—maddened by terror rather than by rage—it
will spring on the tree in which the hunters are stationed, and close
with them. But at another time, if only one or two men are lying in
ambush, and it be not shut in on all sides and a path is left for
escape, it forgets its power and runs away. Everywhere and at all times,
the lion is a dangerous enemy, to encounter whom is a terrible
undertaking; whereas no one need dread the panther unless he has first
attacked it. The cry of the latter animal resembles the clear, shrill,
impotent neigh of the mule, and is in no way calculated to inspire
terror like the roar of the lion, which is as the growling of thunder.
But it is quick and agile, and its movements baffle the eye. If the
natural disposition of the panther leads it to spare, or at least to
avoid, man, and to choose for its prey animals wild or tame, such as
sheep, cows, gazelles, and antelopes, that cannot defend themselves, it
is equally instructed by instinct to modify its mode of attack upon
animals whose habits or courage render them difficult or dangerous to
assail—against such, it has usually recourse to surprise. It will not
attack a horse in the centre of a _douar_. Its habitual circumspection
and cowardice will restrain it from seeking to seize upon a prey that
might be rescued in time, or promptly avenged. Even when out grazing, a
horse by itself might escape by galloping off; but if it has not been
seen, or suspected, if with a single bound it can fall upon the horse,
he is lost.

Nor is the wild boar an easy victim. If it be full grown, and have had
warning, and there be room enough, it will defend itself successfully.
At times, indeed, it comes off absolutely victorious—the Arabs having
found panthers in desert places, ripped up by a boar's tusks. A frequent
struggle, perhaps the only one which the panther openly engages in, is
with the porcupine; but the latter, though it grows to a considerable
size in Africa, is more formidable in appearance than in reality. It has
indeed, the property of bristling up its long, hard, sharp-pointed
quills, which it can even throw to some distance; but these arms cannot
save it. The slightest wound completely paralyses the muscular
contractions by means of which it places itself in a state of defence:
besides, it cannot do anything without something to fall back upon, such
as a tree or a stone.

However timorous and apt to run away the panther may be under ordinary
circumstances, it becomes really dangerous if its cubs have been carried
off in its absence—or under its very eyes by force, which only happens
when the hunters are in considerable numbers. At such times it will
sometimes perish in the attempt to save them—at least, the _dolly_, or
larger species will do so; but the _berrani_, or small panther, makes
off, uttering the while lamentable cries. The cubs, thus torn from their
mother, are given to chiefs residing in towns, to Sultans, Pashas, and
Beys; but they are never kept in a tribe, for when still quite young
they are dangerous even in their play, and no sort of attention will
ever tame them or guarantee the master of the tent, or his wives and
children, from a momentary outburst of fury on the part of the
perfidious and capricious brute. We may mention, however, that in
certain _zaouïas_ lions are tamed by marabouts and led up and down the
tribes. Thus summoning curiosity to the aid of charity, they augment the
amount of the alms which they beg for their congregation. The most
celebrated _zaouïa_ in which tame lions are kept is that of
Sidi-Mohammed-ben-Aouda, a tribe of the Flittas in the province of Oran.

With this special exception the Arabs—and it is a characteristic trait
worthy of note—never rear any but inoffensive animals. There is not a
tent without a gazelle, an antelope, a jackal, an ostrich, or a falcon;
but in no _douar_ is a savage beast ever to be seen, such as a hyæna, a
panther, or a lion. Some tribes take pleasure in rearing a young wild
boar, under the idea that it amuses the horses, which like its smell.
The little pig is faithful and always in motion. When the tribe is
changing ground, it trots about, grunting joyously in the midst of the
other animals, and accompanies the sheep and the calves to the pasture.
It is called "the father of good fortune," and strangely enough, it is a
lucky omen to meet a wild boar on issuing from one's tent. Prior to
Mohammed the Arabs used to eat swine's flesh, but the Prophet forbade it
to them, as well as the blood of animals and the flesh of every creature
that has not been bled.

The panther, as I have already remarked, seldom goes abroad during the
day; but if, by chance, shepherds or travellers happen to alight upon
one near an inhabited neighbourhood, they utter in shrill tones _ha
houa!_ "there it is!" These cries are repeated with incredible rapidity.
The entire population swarms forth—horse and foot, armed with whatever
first comes to hand, guns, sticks, swords, spears, or pistols, and
followed by their dogs and greyhounds. Surrounding on every side the
spot whither the beast has retired, generally difficult ground, covered
with thick high brushwood, they attack it fearlessly and usually end by
killing it. It rarely happens that it escapes while it is light.

But when, instead of this sudden outbreak of an entire population
against an unexpected enemy, a genuine hunt is projected, certain
preparations are made before starting. It is true, the panther will run
away if it has the chance, but it is always possible that it may show
fight; and although, in the long run, it is sure to be mastered without
a single casualty on the side of the hunters, it is as well to guard
against the wounds it may inflict, however insignificant in themselves.
It usually flies at the head. Against the lacerations of its teeth and
claws a sufficient defence is the thick woollen cap, the _shashia_, the
numerous folds of the haïk, the hood of the burnous, and the long,
coarse camel's rope. But the enemy may with a single bound spring on to
a horse's croup, and with one blow on the head with its paw knock over,
stun, and even kill the rider. On this account they not unfrequently don
a helmet—a helmet of modest pretentions, which at other times serves as
a kettle.

The panther is also killed, like the lion, from an ambush. A hole is dug
in the earth and covered over with branches, through which an opening is
made for the rifle of the concealed hunter, who fires at the distance of
about fifteen paces, as the animal approaches to devour the carcase of a
sheep or goat placed there for that purpose. But lest the brute, if only
wounded, should spring upon the _melebda_, as the hunter's hiding place
is called, the latter is always provided with two or three guns, and
perhaps with pistols likewise. At other times a gun is fastened to a
tree, and at the muzzle of the barrel is fixed a bait, to which a string
is tied, that passes round the tree and is attached to the trigger—so
that if the bait be pulled at all forcibly the gun is sure to go off.
And if the panther is not shot dead, it is certain to be wounded, and
the hunters set off in pursuit, guided by the tracks of blood it leaves
on its path. There is yet another mode of killing the panther, which is
by surprising it while sleeping. Should it happen to be awake, it is
merely a disappointment, not a danger, for it runs away at sight of a
man.

But whatever be the nature of the sport in which the Arabs indulge, the
least timorous are liable to superstitious fears. As it is not always
possible to relinquish an enterprise when they have once entered upon
it, they endeavour by all means to avoid chances of sinister omen. On
the other hand they become emboldened, and take courage if, on setting
out, they are greeted by one of those encounters which are reputed
fortunate—with a jackal in the morning for instance, or with a wild boar
in the evening.

Let thy morning be with a jackal,
And thy evening with a wild boar.

A hare or a fox is of ill omen; as is, also, a single crow, or a white
mare. A still worse and more detestable omen is the sight of an old
woman. But it is a good chance for whoever sees two crows or a mare of
any colour; and, above all, success, glory, and plunder, await the
_goum_ that, when starting on an expedition, is met by a beautiful young
and noble maiden, who will uncover her bosom and show one of her
breasts. It is the custom; and if the damsel were to refuse this
blessing to the warriors of her tribe, they would dismount to compel
her, were she the daughter of the chief and though he were himself at
the head of the _goum_—all the better, indeed, if her birth were so
exalted, for the nobler the damsel, the happier the augury. In the west,
young girls loosen their girdle. If, in the morning, you hear
affectionate and courteous words, you will have a pleasant day; but it
will be the reverse if on first awaking you are greeted with an
imprecation or an insult. Do not go out to hunt on a Tuesday, a
Thursday, or a Friday.

We now come to the sport that is really worthy to sharpen the
intelligence and inflame the souls of warriors. The Arab hunter acts
upon the aggressive with the lion. In this daring enterprise there is
all the more merit, because in Africa the lion is a formidable monster,
regarding whom there exist many mysterious and terrible legends, with
which an awe-struck superstition surrounds his dread Majesty. With that
keenness of insight which characterises them, the Arabs have made a
series of observations on the subject of the lion that are worthy of
being collected and preserved.

In the daytime the lion rarely seeks to attack man. Very commonly,
indeed, if a traveller happens to pass near him, he turns aside his head
and affects not to see him. At the same time, if any one, walking close
to the bush in which he is couched, be rash enough to cry aloud _ra
hena_—"he is there!"—the lion will at once spring upon his denouncer and
the disturber of his repose. As night comes on, his humour completely
changes. When the sun has set, it is perilous to venture into a wild,
woody, and broken country. It is there the lion lies in ambush—it is
there he is met on the path-ways, which he intercepts by barring all
further advance with his body. The Arabs thus describe some of the
nocturnal scenes which are continually happening. If a solitary
individual, a courier, traveller, or letter-carrier, chancing to meet a
lion, possess a courage of the highest temper, he will walk straight
towards the animal, brandishing his sword or gun, but carefully
abstaining from using the one or the other. He simply cries out: "Oh,
the robber! the highway-man! the son of a mother who never said No! Dost
thou think to frighten me? Thou canst not know, then, that I am
so-and-so, the son of so-and-so? Get up, and let me proceed on my
journey." The lion waits till the man has come close up to him, and then
goes off to lie down again a thousand paces farther on. The traveller
has to endure a long series of terrific trials. Each time that he quits
the path, the lion disappears, but only for an instant. Directly
afterwards he again presents himself, and all his movements are
accompanied by horrible noises. He breaks off innumerable branches with
his tail. He roars, howls, growls, and emits gusts of poisonous breath.
He plays with the subject of his fantastic and manifold attacks, and
keeps him constantly suspended between fear and hope, like a cat playing
with a mouse. If a man involved in such a difficulty does not allow his
courage to fail him, if—to use an Arab phrase—he succeeds in firmly
holding his soul, the lion will finally leave him, and seek his fortune
elsewhere. But if, on the contrary, the latter perceives that he has to
deal with a man whose countenance betrays his fear, whose voice
trembles, and who dares not articulate a word, he repeats over and over
again, in order to terrify him still more, the manœuvre above described.
He will approach him, push him out of the way with his shoulder, cross
his path every other minute, and amuse himself with him in various ways,
until at last he devours his victim already half dead with terror.

There is really nothing incredible in the facts thus stated by the
Arabs. The ascendancy of courage over animals is indisputable. The
professional robbers who roam abroad at night, armed to the teeth,
instead of shunning the lion, cry out to him if they meet with him: "I
am not what thou seekest. I am a robber like thyself; pass on, or, if it
please thee, let us rob in company." It is said that the lion sometimes
follows them, and attempts an assault on the _douar_ towards which they
are bending their steps. It is even affirmed that this good
understanding between the robbers and the lions frequently displays
itself in a striking manner. Robbers have been seen, when taking their
meals, to treat the lions as other people treat their dogs, and throw to
them at a certain distance the feet and entrails of the animals they
themselves are eating.

Women likewise have been known successfully to have recourse to
intrepidity in opposing a lion. They have run after him when engaged in
carrying off a ewe, and have forced him to let go his prey by giving him
a shower of blows with a cudgel, crying aloud all the time: "Ah, robber!
son of a robber!" The Arabs say that the lion is seized with shame, and
makes off as quickly as possible. This trait shows that in the eyes of
the Arabs the lion is a peculiar sort of creature midway between men and
beasts, which, by reason of its strength, appears to them to be endowed
with a special order of intelligence. The following legend, intended to
explain how it is that the lion allows a sheep to escape him more easily
than any other prey, is a confirmation of this belief. Enumerating one
day the various feats his strength enabled him to accomplish, the lion
remarked: "_An sha Allah_—if it be the will of Allah—I can carry off a
horse without distressing myself. _An sha Allah_, I can carry off a
heifer, without being prevented from running by its weight." But when he
came to the ewe, he deemed it so much beneath him that he omitted the
pious formula, "if it be the will of Allah;" and, to punish him, Allah
condemned him to be never able to do more than drag it along.

There are several modes of hunting the lion. When one makes his
appearance in the midst of a tribe, his presence is indicated by a
multitude of signs of all kinds. The earth shakes, as it were, with
roarings. Then a series of losses and accidents take place. A heifer, or
a colt is carried off, or a man is missing. The alarm spreads through
all the tents. The women tremble for their property and for their
children. Lamentations arise on all sides, and the hunters decree the
death of their troublesome neighbour. It is published in the
market-places that on such a day and at such an hour, all who are
capable of joining in the chace, whether on horseback or on foot, must
assemble in arms at an appointed spot. Prior to this, the thicket has
been discovered to which the lion retires during the day. Everything
being ready, the hunters set out, the men on foot leading the way. When
they have arrived within fifty paces of the bush in which they expect to
find the enemy, they halt and await him. Closing up, they form three
deep, the second rank ready to fill up the gaps in the first if succour
be necessary, while the third, firm and compact, and composed of capital
marksmen, forms an invincible reserve. Then commences a strange
spectacle. The front rank begin to insult the lion, and even send a few
balls into his hiding place to make him come out: "Look at him who
boasts of being the bravest of all, and yet dares not show himself
before men! It is not he—it is not the lion—it is a cowardly thief, and
may Allah curse him!" The animal sometimes comes while they are abusing
him in this manner, and, looking round serenely on all sides, yawns and
stretches himself, and appears perfectly insensible to what is passing
around him.

One or two balls now hit him, upon which, magnificent in his audacity,
he stalks forth and stands in front of the bush which sheltered him. Not
a word is spoken. The lion roars, rolls his glaring eyes, draws back,
crouches down, again rises up, and by the movements of his tail and body
snaps off all the branches that surround him. The front rank discharge
their pieces, whereupon the monster bounds forward, and generally falls
dead beneath the fire of the second rank, who step forward and fill up
the intervals left in the first. This is the critical moment, for the
lion resigns the contest only when a ball has struck him in the head, or
in the heart. It is no rare thing to see him continue the fight with ten
or a dozen balls through his body. In other words, he is seldom
overpowered until he has killed or wounded some of his foot assailants.
The horsemen who accompany the expedition have nothing to do, so long as
their foe does not quit the broken ground. Their part commences when, as
occasionally happens, the men on foot have succeeded in driving out the
lion upon a plateau, or into the plain. The combat then assumes a new
aspect, full of interest and originality. Each horseman, according to
his hardihood and agility, spurs on his horse at full speed, fires at
the lion as at an ordinary mark, at a short distance, and, wheeling his
horse round the moment he has fired, gallops off to reload his piece
before making a second assault. The lion, attacked on all sides and
wounded at every moment, faces about in every direction, rushes forward,
flees, returns, and falls, but only after a glorious struggle. His
defeat, indeed, must inevitably terminate in his death, for against
horsemen mounted on Arab horses success is impossible. He makes but
three terrific bounds, after which his pace is by no means swift, and an
ordinary horse will distance him without trouble. To form a just idea of
such a combat, it is absolutely necessary to have witnessed one. Every
horseman hurls an imprecation; there is a wild confusion of sounds, the
burnouses fly out, the powder thunders, the hunters crowd together or
scatter widely apart. The lion roars, the balls whistle, and the whole
forms a scene of movement and animation. But notwithstanding all this
tumult, accidents are very unusual. The hunters have little to fear,
unless a fall from their horse throws them under the paw of their enemy,
or—which is more frequent misadventure—they are hit by a friendly but
ill-directed ball.

Such is the most picturesque, the most warlike aspect that lion-hunting
assumes. Other measures, however, are sometimes adopted, both more sure
and more speedily efficacious. The Arabs have observed that on the
morrow after he has carried off and devoured sheep or oxen, the lion,
suffering from a weak digestion, remains in his lair, fatigued,
oppressed with sleep, and incapable of moving. When a place that is
usually disquieted with roaring is undisturbed for a whole night, it may
be inferred that the formidable inhabitant who dwells therein is plunged
in this state of lethargy. Upon this, a man of devoted courage,
following the tracks that lead to the covert in which the monster is
concealed, will go up to him, take a steady aim, and shoot him dead upon
the spot with a ball between the two eyes. Kaddour-ben-Mohammed, of the
Oulad-Messelem, a section of the Ounougha, is reputed to have killed
several lions in this manner.

Recourse is likewise had to various forms of ambush. The Arabs sometimes
excavate a hole in the path the lion usually takes, and cover it with
thin woodwork, which the animal breaks by its weight and is caught in
the trap. At other times they dig close to a dead body a hole covered by
thick boards, between which a small opening is left to allow the barrel
of a gun to pass through. In this hole, or _melebda_, the hunter squats
down, and when the lion approaches the body, he takes a careful aim and
fires. Not unfrequently the lion, if he has not been struck down, throws
himself on the _melebda_, shatters the barrier, and devours the hunter
behind his demolished rampart. On other occasions, again, a single man
will undertake an adventurous and heroic enterprise, recalling the feats
of chivalry. Si-Mohammed-Esnoussi, a man of approved veracity, who
inhabited the Djebel-Guerzoul, near Tiaret, thus describes his own mode
of going to work:

"I used to mount a good horse and proceed to the forest on a bright
moonlight night. In those days I was a capital shot, and my ball never
fell to the ground. Then I began to cry aloud several times, _Ould el
ataïah!_—'Daughter of a mother who yields herself up!'—The lion would
come forth, and direct his steps towards the spot whence issued the cry;
and at that moment I fired at him. Occasionally the same thicket would
contain several lions, who would issue forth all together. If one of
these brutes approached me from behind, I would turn my head and fire at
him over the back of my saddle, and then go off at full gallop in the
fear that I might have missed him. If I was attacked in front, I wheeled
my horse round and repeated the manœuvre."

The people of that district affirm that the number of lions killed by
Mohammed-ben-Esnoussi amounted to nearly a hundred. This intrepid hunter
was still alive in the year 1253 [A. D. 1836]. When I saw him, he had
lost his eyesight. May he participate in the mercy of Allah!

A yet more dangerous sport than hunting the lion himself, is hunting a
lion's cubs. There are individuals, however, adventurous enough to
undertake even this hazardous enterprise. Every day, about three or four
in the afternoon, the lion and lioness quit their lair to make a distant
reconnaissance, with the object, no doubt, of procuring food for their
litter. They may be seen upon the summit of an eminence, examining the
_douars_, and taking note of the smoke that issues from them, and of the
position of the flocks. After uttering some horrible roars, an
invaluable warning to the surrounding population, they again disappear.
It is during this absence that the hunters cautiously make their way to
the cubs and carry them off, taking care to gag them closely, for their
cries would not fail to bring back the old ones, who would never forgive
the outrage. After an exploit of this nature the entire neighbourhood is
obliged to be doubly vigilant. For seven or eight days the lions rush
about in all directions, roaring fearfully. The lion under such
circumstances is a truly terrible monster. At such a time the eye must
not encounter the eye.

The flesh of the lion, though sometimes eaten, is not good, but his skin
is a valued gift, and presented only to Sultans and illustrious chiefs,
and occasionally, to marabouts and _zaouïas_. The Arabs fancy that it is
good to sleep upon one, as it drives away the demons, conjures up good
fortune, and averts certain diseases. Lion's claws, mounted in silver,
are used as ornaments by women; while the skin of his forehead is a
talisman worn by some persons on their head to preserve the energy and
audacity of their brain. In short, lion-hunting is held in high repute
among the Arabs. Every combat with that animal may take the device:
_Kill or Die!_ He who kills him, eats him—says the proverb—and he who
kills him not is eaten by him. In this spirit they bestow on any one who
has killed a lion, this laconic and virile eulogy: _Hadak houa_—"that
one is he!" A popular belief illustrates the grandeur of the part played
by the lion in the life and imagination of the Arabs. When a lion roars,
they pretend that they can readily distinguish the following words:
_Ahna ou ben-el mera_—"I and the son of woman." Now, as he twice repeats
_ben-el mera_, and only once says _ahna_, they conclude that he
recognizes no superior save the son of woman.

THE CAMEL.[89]

It was said by the Prophet: "The good things of this world, to the day
of the last judgment, are attached to the forelocks of your horses;

"Sheep are a blessing;

"And the Almighty has created nothing, as an animal, preferable to the
camel."

The camel is the ship of the desert. Allah hath said: "You may load your
merchandize in barks and on camels." As in the desert there is very
little water, and there are long distances to be traversed, the Almighty
has endowed them with the faculty of easily enduring thirst. In winter
they never drink. The Prophet more than once gave the following advice:
"Never utter coarse remarks on the subject of the camel or of the wind:
the former is a boon to men, the latter an emanation from the soul of
Allah." Camels are the most extraordinary animals in the world, and yet
there are none more docile, owing to their being so much with men.
So great, indeed, is their docility, that they have been known to
follow a rat, that, in the act of gnawing, pulled a rope smeared with
butter, by which they were fastened. Such is the will of Allah. These
apophthegms suffice to show that the camel is, of all created animals,
the most useful in respect of the wants of the Arabs.

The Arabs of the Sahara can tell the age of a camel by its teeth. They
say it is long-lived, though they cannot give any very precise
information on the subject. They put the case, however, in this manner.
If a camel be born on the same day with a child, it has reached old age
by the time the latter has distinguished himself in combats, which
implies the age of eighteen to twenty-five years. Camels require much
care and experience in managing them. Whenever it is possible, the male
camels are led to a different pasture from the females. After the 15th
of April, they are not sent out to feed until the afternoon, because it
has been remarked that the grass is covered with a sort of dew that lays
the foundation of fatal diseases. Care is also taken to prevent the
camels from eating within the _douar_ what remains in the morning of the
small quantity of grass given to the horses overnight. These precautions
are necessary during the six weeks or two months in which the dew is
observed. Throughout the whole winter, the end of autumn, and the
beginning of spring, the camels may be permitted, with advantage, to
browse on shrubs with a salt flavour; but in the beginning of April, and
at the end of May, they must not be allowed to do so for more than five
or six days.

The shearing of the camels takes place in the latter part of April. They
are made to lie down, and are operated upon by the shepherds and female
slaves, a woman standing behind them to gather the fleece which she
thrusts into bags. It is a somewhat slow operation. _El oubeur_, or
camel's fleece, is used in making canvas for tents, camel-ropes, sacks
called _gherara_, and _djellale_, or horse-cloths. It is mixed almost
invariably with common wool.

The ordinary burden of a camel is two _tellis_ of wheat, or about 250
kilogrammes. If not over-driven, it can go from dawn to sunset, at least
if it be allowed, as it journeys along, to elongate its neck and pluck
the herbage that grows on either side of its path. In this manner it
will cover from ten to twelve leagues in the twenty-four hours, and
every fifth day it must be permitted to rest. In the desert, camels are
let out to hire, not by the day, but by the journey, going and
returning, according to the distance. For instance, from El-Biod, among
the Oulad-Sidi-Shikh, to the Beni-Mzab, or about fifty leagues, costs
from two to three _douros_, and from the same point to Timimoun six or
seven _douros_.

The flesh of the camel is eaten as food. The animal, however, is seldom
killed unless it has a broken leg, or is sick. The flesh is sometimes
salted, and, after being dried in the sun, is kept as a provision on a
journey. The love and veneration felt by the Arabs of the Sahara for
their camels are quite intelligible. "How should we not love them?" they
exclaim. "Alive, they transport ourselves, our wives, our children, our
baggage and provisions, from the land of oppression to that of liberty.
The weight they can carry is enormous, and the distance they traverse
very considerable. In other words, they further the relations of
commerce and render aid in war. Thanks to them, we are able, whenever we
please, to shift our encampment, whether in search of new pasturages, or
to escape from an enemy. Moreover, we drink their milk, which is also
useful in the preparations of food, and neutralises the injurious
qualities of the date. Dead, their flesh is everywhere eaten with
relish, and their hump is sought after as a savoury dish. Their skin
serves as shoe-leather. If soaked, and then sewed to the saddle-tree, it
imparts, without the aid of a single nail or peg, a solidity that
nothing can affect. Then, their sobriety and endurance of heat and
thirst permit them to be kept alike by rich and poor. They are truly a
boon from Allah, who hath said:—

Horses for a dispute,
Oxen for poverty.
Camels for the desert.

SHEEP.

No cattle are reared in the Sahara, owing to the scarcity of water, the
scantiness of the herbage, the stony nature of the ground, and the
frequent removals from one place to another. But, if the desert be
unfavourable for the rearing of cattle, it is, assuredly, the veritable
country of the sheep. This animal finds there the salt shrubs eaten by
the camel, as well as many fragrant and nutritious plants known by the
generic name of _el aâsheub_. Water it obtains from the ponds supplied
by the rains, or from the basins formed by the side of wells, and kept
up with great care. The wells themselves are, for the most part,
surrounded with masonry, and sheltered from the drifting sands. Sheep,
besides, are patient of thirst. In spring, they are given to drink once
in five or six days; in summer, every other day; in autumn, every third
day; and in winter every fourth day. During the great heats of summer,
they are not allowed to touch the pools of water lying on the surface of
the ground,—experience having shown that at that period of the year
stagnant water, rendered tepid by the sun's rays, is very unwholesome.
If a drought happens to have prevailed during the first two months of
spring, and if rain falls plentifully in the third, the herbage grows
luxuriantly, and is called _khelfa_, or compensation. As if to make
amends for their long abstinence, the sheep eat it greedily, but it is
apt to give them a sickness named _el ghoche_, or treason. This disease
does not manifest itself until after the summer heats. The head and
lower jaw become much swollen, the animal coughs continually, and death
usually supervenes. According to the Arabs, a rainy autumn, by causing
fresh grass to spring up early, greatly tends to mitigate the pernicious
effects of the _ghoche_.

Sheep are very prolific. They generally lamb twice in the year—in the
early part of spring and autumn. The large tribes possess from two to
three hundred thousand sheep, which are divided into flocks of four
hundred, called _ghelem_ or _aâssa_ [a stick]. Wealthy individuals have
from fifteen to twenty _ghelem_, and the poorest a half, or even a
quarter _ghelem_.

In the Sahara there is a species of sheep that yields a magnificent
wool, very soft but not very long. This is the wool employed in the
manufacture of articles of luxury. These animals are nearly red in the
head, and the ewes give a great deal of milk.

It is said of the finest ewes of this breed:

They see like an owl,
And walk like a tortoise.

Their wool descends to their hoofs and so completely covers their head
that, literally, nothing but their eyes is visible. In the Sahara and in
the _kuesours_, a _zedja_, or fleece, is worth only one _boudjou_, but
the price is greatly enhanced by the time it reaches the Tell, and
especially the sea-coast. Some sheep have no horns, and are called
_fertass_ [bald]. Others, again, have four, and are known as _el
kuerbourb_; while others have horns that are bent back, and are named
_el kheroubi_.

The Arabs take no care whatever of their sheep. They have no sheds in
which to shelter them from the severity of the weather, nor supplies of
forage to save them from starvation. Consequently, in bad seasons they
frequently lose one-half of their flocks, and if blamed for this
carelessness, or offered advice, they answer quite simply: "To what
purpose is all that? They are the property of Allah [_Kher Eurby_]. He
does with them as it pleases Him. Our ewes give us two lambs every year.
Next year our losses will be repaired."

The following sentiments are ascribed to sheep:—

"I love the close hand, that is, to belong to a miser who would neither
sell us, nor slaughter us for the entertainment of his guests.

"I love distant market-places; for when they are near to my master, for
one reason or another we are sold, or slaughtered.

"And every day a new house; that is, fresh and more abundant pasturage."

Sheep are the fortune of the child of the desert. He says of them:
"Their wool serves to make our tents, our carpets, our garments, our
horse-cloths, our sacks, our nose-bags, our camel's-packs, our ropes,
our cushions. And what remains in excess of our own necessities we sell
in the _kuesours_ or in the Tell, when we go there, after harvest, to
buy grain. Their flesh we eat, or give it to be eaten by the guests of
Allah. Dried in the sun, it will keep, and be of use to us in our
journeys. Their milk is very serviceable to our families, whether as
drink or food. We make of it _leben_ or _sheneen_ [sour milk], and what
is over we give to our horses. We also get butter from it, which enters
into the preparation of our food, or which we exchange in the _kuesours_
for dates. Of their skin we make cushions, and buckets to draw water
from the well. With it we ornament the _aâtatouches_[90] of our women,
or we dress it for shoe-leather. We have no need to plough, or sow, or
reap, or thresh out the corn, or to fatigue ourselves like vile slaves,
or like the wretched inhabitants of the Tell. No; we are independent, we
pray, we trade, we hunt, we travel, and if we have occasion to procure
that which others can only obtain by sweat and toil, we sell our sheep,
and forthwith provide ourselves with arms, horses, women, jewels,
clothes, or whatever else affords us gratification, or embellishes our
existence. The owner of sheep has no need to labour, nor is he ever in
want of anything. So Allah has willed it!"

LIFE IN THE DESERT.

In studying life in the desert, I have been greatly struck by its
analogy to that of the Middle Ages, and by the resemblance which exists
between the horseman of the Sahara and the knight of our legends,
romances, and chronicles. This analogy will appear yet more real, this
resemblance yet more striking, on a close observation of the accessory
characteristics which I now propose to sketch with a rapid hand.

By the Arab of the Sahara, I do not mean a dweller in the _kuesours_.
The latter is rallied by the wandering tribes as much as the inhabitants
of the Tell, and receives at their hands all sorts of derisive epithets.
Grown fat through his habits of indoor and commercial life, he is called
"the father of the belly," the grocer, the pepper-dealer. This rearer of
fowls—the Arab of the tent possesses no fowls—this shopkeeper resembles
the simple citizen of all countries and of all times. He is, at bottom,
the villain, the churl of the Middle Ages. He is the Moorish citizen of
Algiers—he has the same placid, apathetic, crafty physiognomy.

It is of the master of the tent that I propose to speak: of him who is
never more than fifteen to twenty days without changing his abode; of
the genuine Nomad, of him who never enters "the tiresome Tell" but once
a year, and then only to purchase grain. My horseman, my hunter, my
warrior is the man with a hardy iron-nerved constitution, a complexion
embrowned by the sun, limbs well proportioned, in stature rather tall
than short, but making light of the advantage of height, "of that lion's
skin on a cow's back," unless adroitness, activity, health, vigour and,
above all, courage be combined with it. But if he values courage, he
also pities rather than despises, and never insults those who "want
liver." It is not their fault, he good-humouredly remarks, but the will
of Allah. His abstinence cannot be exceeded, but, accommodating himself
to circumstances, he never neglects an opportunity of making a good and
hearty meal. His ordinary diet is simple and without much variety; but,
for all that, when the necessity arises, he understands how to entertain
his guests in a becoming manner. When the _ouadâa_, or peculiar festival
of a tribe, or _douar_, comes round, at which his friends will be
present, he would not offer them the slight implied by his absence, and
though it may be at a distance of thirty or forty leagues, he will not
fail to go there and fill himself with food. Besides, they know well
that he is quite ready to return their hospitality, and that they have
not to do with one of those stingy town traders who never offer more
than a space of four square feet to sit down in, a pipe of tobacco, and
a cup of coffee either without any sugar at all, or sugared only after
many preliminary phrases, carefully enunciated in recommendation of
coffee without sugar.

Among the Arabs, everything concurs to give power to the development of
the natural man. Nervous, hardy, sober, though occasionally displaying a
vigorous appetite, their eyesight is keen and piercing. They boast that
they can distinguish a man from a woman when two to three leagues
distant, and a flock of camels from a flock of sheep at double that
distance. Nor is this mere bragging. The extent and clearness of their
vision arise, as in the case of our sailors, from the incessant habit of
looking far ahead over an immense and objectless space. And, accustomed
as they are to scenes and objects always the same and which encircle
them within narrow limits, it would be strange if they did not recognize
them under almost any circumstances. Nevertheless, diseases of the eye
are very common. The refraction of the sun's rays, the dust and
perspiration cause numerous misadventures, such as ophthalmia and
leucoma, and blind and one-eyed men are numerous in many parts of the
desert—for instance, among the Beni-Mzab, at El Ghrassoul, Ouargla, and
Gourara.

The dweller in the desert, in infancy and youth, has beautiful white,
even teeth; but the use of dates as his habitual and almost exclusive
diet spoils them as he advances in years. When a tooth is entirely
decayed, he is compelled to have recourse to the armourer or farrier,
who is privileged to torture his patient, to break his jaw with his
pincers, and tear away the gums together with the tooth that was
troubling him.

The genuine chief, the real great lord, rarely leaves the saddle, and
very seldom goes on foot, though he wears both boots and shoes. The
common Arab, however, is an indefatigable walker, and in the course of a
day will get over an incredible distance. His ordinary pace is what the
French call the _pas gymnastique_ [which is quicker than the English
"double"], and what he himself calls a dog-trot. On flat ground, he
generally takes off his shoes, if he happens to have any, partly that he
may walk faster and more comfortably, and partly that he may not wear
them out. Consequently, his foot is like that of antique statues, broad
and flat, and with the toes wide apart. He is never troubled with corns,
and more than once Christians, who have insinuated themselves into
caravans, have been detected by this infallible sign and expelled. The
sole of the foot acquires such hardness, that neither sand nor stones
affect it, and a thorn sometimes penetrates to the depth of several
lines without being felt. In the desert, properly so called, however,
the sand during the great heat of summer is so burning hot that it is
impossible to walk upon it with naked feet. Even the horses are obliged
to be shod, or their feet would become painful and diseased. The dread
of being bitten by the _lefâ_, a viper whose venom is fatal, also
compels the Arabs themselves to wear buskins rising above the ankle.

The most common disease of the foot is the _cheggag_, or chaps, which
are healed by having grease rubbed in, and by being afterwards
cauterised with a hot iron. Sometimes these chaps are so long and deep
that they are obliged to be sewed up. The thread used for the purpose is
made of camel's sinews dried in the sun, and split into parts as fine as
silk; spun camel's hair is, likewise, employed. All the inhabitants of
the desert make use of this thread to mend their saddles, and bridles,
and wooden platters. Every one carries about with him a housewife, a
knife, and a needle.

Not a few turn their powers of pedestrianism to a good account, and make
it their profession. Hence come the runners and messengers, who gird
themselves tightly with a belt. These who are called _rekass_ undertake
affairs of great urgency. They will do in four days what the ordinary
runners take ten to accomplish. They scarcely ever stop, but if they
find it necessary to rest they count sixty inhalations of the breath and
start again immediately. A _rekass_ who receives four francs for going
sixty leagues thinks himself well paid. This modest reward, however, is
the more highly appreciated because it is paid in actual money. Specie
is rare, and is the smallest portion of an Arab's fortune. The
restricted circulation, and the facility of providing for the principal
necessities of life without buying or selling, by simply having
occasional recourse to barter are far from lowering the value of coined
money.

In the desert a special messenger travels night and day, and sleeps only
two hours in the twenty-four. When he lies down he fastens to his foot a
piece of cord of a certain length, to which he sets fire; and, just as
it is nearly burned out, the heat awakens him. In 1846, an Arab, named
El-Thouamy, a native of Leghrouât, was sent by the Kalifa
Sid-Hamed-ben-Salem to Berryân, a town situated in the country of the
Beni-Mzab. Starting at five in the morning from Kuesyr-el-Heyrân, he
reached his destination about seven in the evening of the same day. In
fourteen hours he had covered 168 kilomètres, travelling at the rate of
twelve kilomètres an hour. This same Thouamy set out one day from
Negoussa to go to Berryân, a distance of 180 kilomètres, charged with an
important message, and accomplished the journey in sixteen hours. During
both of these courses this man eat only a few dates and drank about two
_litres_ of water.

In 1850, El-Ghiry, of the tribe of the Mokhalif, was hunting the
ostrich, and, while wholly absorbed in chasing a _delim_, his horse
broke down just as his last drop of water was exhausted. All trace of
his companions was lost. For thrice twenty-four hours he wandered about
at random, in the desert, without food or water. During the day he slept
under a _bethoum_, and walked all night. His family had given him up
entirely, when at length they saw him approaching. At first they could
hardly recognize him, so utterly exhausted was he, so blackened by the
sun, and reduced to such a skeleton. He afterwards related that he
believed he owed his life to his dreams, in which he beheld his mother
tending him, and giving him something to eat and drink. These visions,
he said, had comforted and sustained him in his sore distress.

Let us now pass on from these examples of vigour and abstinence, which
might be multiplied to infinity, and give a tolerably correct estimate
of the goods and chattels of a Saharene nomad. This inventory will
afford a far better idea of life in the desert than can be obtained from
a long description. I take a man of influential family, and assume that
his household is constituted after the following fashion. Himself, four
wives, four sons, the wives of two of his sons, each of whom has a
child, four negroes, four negresses, two white men servants, two white
women servants: in all, twenty-five souls. He may also, of course, have
daughters, but they are sure to be married, and are no further trouble
to him. Such a household as this will possess:

A spacious tent in thoroughly good condition, to make
which will require sixteen pieces of woollen cloth,
forty cubits long by two in width, each worth from 7
to 8 _douros_, making a total of about 112 _douros_.

Two Arab beds, or rather carpets of shaggy wool,
thirty cubits in length by five broad; dyed with
madder, 20 _douros_ each; if dyed with kermes, 25
_douros_ 50

A carpet, twelve cubits long by four wide, hung up as
a curtain to separate the men's apartment from that of
the women. It is dyed with kermes and costs 16

Six cushions, to contain wearing apparel and used as
pillows: the price of each is 2 _douros_ 12

Six cushions of tanned antelope's skin, also used to
contain dresses and spun wool, and to lean against in
the tent 6

Six pieces of woollen stuff, made into a sort of
palanquin carried on camels' backs, and in which the
women travel 12

Five red _haïks_ to cover the palanquins 50

Twenty woollen sacks for the carriage of corn 40

Six _hamal_, or loads of wheat 48

Twelve loads of barley 60

Ten woollen sacks in which are kept jewels, wearing
apparel, cotton-stuffs, gunpowder, _filali_,[91]
money, etc., at 2 _douros_ each 20

Fifteen goat-skin bags to hold water 25

Twelve sheep- or goat-skin bags to contain butter,
valued each at 4 _douros_ 48

Four sheep- or goat-skin bags to hold honey, which is
an expensive article, as it comes from the Tell; at 8
_douros_ each 32

Eight _hamal_ of dates. These _hamal_ are sacks lined
with wool 64

Six _tarahh_, each _tarahh_ comprising six skins of
morocco leather; in all, thirty six skins, at one
_douro_ a piece 36

Gunpowder 30

Lead 5

Flints 4 _douros_.

Ten _mektaa_, or pieces of cotton-stuffs 20

Two _meradjen_, or vases of copper lined with tin,
with handles, to drink out of 2

Two _tassa_, or vases, also for drinking purposes 2

Two _guessaa_, or large wooden bowls for making or
eating kouskoussou 4

Six _bakia_, or drinking vessels of wood 2

A copper pot for cooking the food 2

Three _metreud_, or wooden platters for strangers to
eat from 3

Two _fass_, or mattocks, for preparing the site of the
tent, fixing it, etc., and for clearing wood 2

A _kadouma_, or small hatchet for shaping wood 1

Ten _meudjesa_, a kind of sickle for sheep-shearing 1

Two _rekiza_, or uprights of the tent 2

A _âeushut-el-zemel_, or tent with carpets, cushions,
etc., for travelling, or for receiving strangers 30

Total 741 _douros_.

The wearing apparel of five men will consist of:

Eleven white burnouses, three for the father, and two
for each of his sons: a burnous costs 4 _douros_ 44 _douros_.

Five _haïks_, at 4 _douros_ each 20

Five _habaya_, or woollen shirts 10

Five _mahazema_, or belts of morocco leather
embroidered in silk 10

Five pair of _belghra_, or morocco shoes 2

Five _shashia_, or morocco _fessy_ 2

Five _kate_, or complete suits, for grand occasions,
consisting of an _oughrlila_ or outer garment, a
_cedria_ or waistcoat, a _seroual_ or pair of
trousers; a _haïk_ of silk, a silken cord replacing
the camel's rope; and a cloth burnous: each suit at 60
_douros_ will make 300

Total 388 _douros_.

The wearing apparel of six women will consist of:

Six women's _haïks_, dyed with kermes 60 _douros_.

Six pair of morocco leather boots, embroidered 6

Six woollen girdles 12

Six white _haïks_ worn over the head 6

Six _benica_, or silken hoods 6 _douros_.

Six _aâsaba_, or thread cord by which the women fasten
the _haouly_, or white _haïk_, over their heads 2

Six pair of _kholkhale_, or silver anklets, 20
_douros_ the pair 120

Six pair of _souar_, or bracelets, 7 _douros_ the pair 42

Twelve _bezima_, or silver buckles, used by women to
fasten the _haïk_, 6 _douros_ the pair 36

Six _bezimat el gueursi_, or throat buckles, used to
fasten the _haouly_ under the chin after it has
encircled the head 12

Twelve _ounaiss_, or silver ear-rings set in coral.
Every woman wears two pair 24

Six _mekhranga_, or necklaces of coral and pieces of
money 48

Six necklaces of cloves interspersed with coral 5

Six _zenzela_, or silver chains with a small circular
plate in the middle, called "the scorpion:" the chain
stretches from ear to ear 18

Six _kuerrabar_, or silver boxes which the women hang
from their necks, and in which they put musk and
benjamin 18

Eighteen _khatem_, or silver rings 6

Six _melyaca_, or bracelets of djamous horn 6

Women in the desert do not wear any ornaments of gold;
the whole of their jewelry is in silver.

Total 815 _douros_.

The arms for seven men are:

Five guns for the masters, procured from Algiers, and
mounted in silver 100 _douros_.

Two guns for the servants 20

Five sabres, two of them mounted in silver 40

Five pistols, two of them mounted in silver 35

Four pistols for the negroes 1

Four sabres for the negroes 12

Total 219 _douros_.

Harness and horsemen's equipment consist of:

One saddle for the master 100 _douros_.

Four ordinary saddles 160

Two common saddles for the servants 20

One master's _djebira_ of tiger-skin 17

Four ordinary _djebira_ 28

One pair of master's _temag_, or boots of morocco
leather 12

Four pair of ordinary _temag_ 24 _douros_.

One pair of master's spurs, mounted in silver and
ornamented with coral 6

Four pair of ordinary _shabirs_, or spurs 4

Five _medol_, or straw hats adorned with ostrich
feathers 5

Total 376 _douros_.

Horses, cattle, negroes, etc., consist of:

A stallion for the chief of the tent 100 _douros_.

Four blood mares for his sons 320

Two servants' mares 60

Six asses 18

Two _slougui_, or greyhounds [not purchasable] »

Four negroes 240

Four negresses 200

Twenty _ghelem_ each _ghelem_ a flock of 400 sheep 8,000

Four _ibeul_, or droves of 100 camels each: of these
400 animals, 130 are she-camels which command a higher
price than the males, but I value them all round at 30
_douros_ a head 12,000

Ten he- or she-goats, the only use of which is to make
the sheep keep moving on a march 50

Two tame gazelles, a young antelope, and an ostrich
[these are never for sale] »

Total 20,988
_douros_.

The chief of a tent of this importance ought besides to possess, in
depôt, in three or four _kuesours_, or small towns:

Twelve hundred _zedja_, or fleeces, worth each half a
_boudjou_ 200 _douros_.

Thirty white burnouses, at 3 _douros_ each 90

Thirty _haïks_ at 2 _douros_ 60

Forty _habaya_, or woollen shirts at 2 _douros_ 80

Forty loads of dates at 7 _douros_ 280

Thirty camel loads of wheat 240

Thirty loads of barley 150

Four _khrabya_, or enormous earthen vessels filled
with butter

Total 1,100 _douros_.

I estimate at 600 _douros_ the amount of what he may
have lent or sold, to the people of the _kuesours_
with whom he has business transactions 600 _douros_.

In his tent he has 600

Buried in a hose belonging to him in one of the
_kuesours_[92] 1,000

--------

Total 2,200 _douros_.

--------

He has likewise a house in a kuesour in the charge of
a _khremass_, containing his most valuable property 60 _douros_.

--------

RECAPITULATION.

Tent and furniture, etc 741 _douros_.

Wearing apparel of both sexes 815

Arms 219

Harness and Accoutrements 376

Horses, cattle, etc. 20,988

Deposits 1,100

Loans, etc. 2,200

House 60

--------

Total 26,499
_douros_.[93]

--------

An Arab who possesses such a fortune does no work. He attends the
meetings and assemblies of the _djemâa_, hunts, rides about, looks at
his flocks, and prays. His only occupations are political, warlike, and
religious. A poor Arab equally disdains manual labour. He is not forced
to it, for there is no other kind of cultivation than that of
date-trees, which is left to the inhabitants of the _kuesours_. Negroes
are numerous and cost very little, and, with the assistance of a few
white servants, suffice for the services which the free men refuse to
perform for themselves. Some of the latter, however, mend their sacks
and harness, but they form the exception. There are likewise farriers,
but these, in fact, are artists—the privileges that are accorded to
them, of which I have already had occasion to speak, constituting them a
sort of special corporation. The armourers are, in truth, mere workmen
who repair, but cannot manufacture, arms. The Arabs of the desert are
for the most part worse armed than those of the Tell, though their
chiefs yield to none in pomp and luxury. This is easily accounted for.
As they obtain their arms from Tunis by way of Tougourt, or from Morocco
through the Gourara country, the great distance to be traversed prevents
them from getting their arms repaired as soon as they need repairs, and
the unskilfulness of those who undertake this business will not permit
them to do their work very efficiently. Many of the Saharenes are still
armed with lances, which they seldom use except when pursuing runaways.
Their spears consist of a shaft of wood six feet long, with a flat
double-edged head of iron, and are usually carried in a bandolier.

The Arab of the Sahara is very proud of his mode of life, which is not
only exempt from the monotonous toil to which the inhabitant of the Tell
is subject, but is full of action and excitement, of variety and
incident. If beards grow white at an early age in the desert, it is not
only because of heat, fatigue, journeys, and combats, but much more from
care, anxiety, and grief. He alone does not turn gray who "has a large
heart, is resigned, and can say: It is the will of Allah!" This pride in
their country and in their peculiar mode of existence amounts to
positive contempt for the Tell and its inhabitants. What the dweller in
the desert chiefly plumes himself upon is his independence; for in his
country the lands are wide and there is no Sultan. The chief of the
tribe administers and renders justice, a task of no great difficulty
where every delinquency has been provided for and its appropriate
penalty fixed beforehand. Whoever steals a sheep, pays a fine of ten
boudjous. Whoever enters a tent to see his neighbour's wife, forfeits
ten ewes. Whoever takes life, must lose his own; or, if he makes his
escape, all that belongs to him is confiscated, save only his tent,
which is given up to his wife and children. The fines are set apart by
the _djemâa_ for defraying the expenses of travellers and marabouts, and
of presents to strangers. Thefts within the tribe are severely punished.
If committed on another tribe, they are looked over, and, if a hostile
tribe be the sufferers, are even encouraged.

The women attend to the cooking, and weave various kinds of carpets,
sacks, stuff for tents, horse-cloths, camel-packs, and nose-bags, while
the negresses fetch wood and water. Burnouses, _haïks_, and _kabaya_ are
made in the _kuesours_. If rich, an Arab is always generous; and rich or
poor, he is sure to be hospitable and charitable. He seldom lends his
horse, but would regard it as an insult if the animal were sent back to
him. For every present he receives he makes a return of greater value.
Some men are quoted as never having refused anything. It is a common
saying: "He who applies to a noble never comes back empty-handed." It is
needless to speak of alms. Every one knows that next to a holy war, and
on the same line with going on a pilgrimage, alms-giving is the act of
all others the most pleasing to Allah. If an Arab is sitting down to a
meal, and a mendicant, who happens to be passing, exclaims: _Mtâ rebi ia
el moumenin_—"of what belongs to Allah, O Believer!"— he shares his
repast with him if there be enough for two, or else abandons it to him
entirely.

A stranger presenting himself before a _douar_, stands some little way
off, and pronounces these words: _Dif rebi_—"a guest sent by Allah." The
effect is magical. Whatever may be his condition of life, they throw
themselves on him, tear him from one another, and hold his stirrup while
he alights. The servants lead away his horse, about whom, if he be a man
of good breeding, he will not give himself any further trouble. He
himself is almost dragged into a tent, and whatever is ready to hand is
set before him, until a banquet can be prepared. Nor is less attention
shown to a traveller on foot. The master of the tent keeps his guest
company throughout the whole of the day, and only leaves him to make way
for sleep. No indiscreet questions are ever asked, such as: Whence
comest thou? Who art thou? Whither goest thou? There is no instance of
any evil having ever befallen a stranger thus received as a guest, even
though he were a mortal enemy. At his departure, the master of the tent
will say to him: "Follow thy good fortune;" and after the guest has
fairly taken his departure, his entertainer is no longer answerable for
anything. In retiring from the hospitable repast, if the stranger pass
before a _douar_ and be seen, he is obliged again to accept the
invitations that are pressed upon him.

A certain class of men live entirely on alms and hospitality. These are
the dervishes. Absorbed in prayer, these pious individuals are the
object of universal veneration. "Beware of offering them an insult, for
Allah will punish you." A request made by them is never refused. By the
side of these mendicant monks, who so exactly reproduce a particular
feature of the Middle Ages, it seems appropriate to place the _tolbas_,
or learned men, and the "wise women," who fill in the Sahara the part
that belonged in the olden times to the magicians, alchemists, and
sorcerers, and those other impostors celebrated by Tasso and Ariosto,
and ridiculed by Cervantes. It is to these _tolbas_ and aged dames that
both men and women apply for a philter, composed of various herbs
prepared with solemn invocations and awesome or grotesque ceremonies,
which is mixed with the food of the swain or damsel whose love is longed
for. It is they, again, who write magic words and the name of the hated
one on a piece of paper and a dead man's bone taken from a cemetery, and
then bury together the paper and the bone, which will soon be joined by
the enemy, "with his belly full of worms." They will teach you, too, the
formula you must pronounce while closing your knife, in order to sever
the life of an odious rival; and that which you must throw into the
furnace over which is being cooked the food of the family you would
poison; and that which you must write on a copper plate, or flattened
ball, to be flung into the stream whither repairs to drink the woman on
whom you would avenge yourself—seized with a dysentery as rapid as the
river, she will die, if she do not yield herself up to you. To effect
her cure, the first sorcery must be counteracted by a second.

After these come the long train of spectres, the phantoms of those who
have died a violent death. If one of them pursue you, lose no time in
exclaiming: "Return to thy hole. Thou canst not frighten me. I feared
thee not when thou didst carry arms." It will follow you yet a little,
but will soon desist. If you are seized with terror and attempt to flee,
you will hear in the air the clashing of arms, and a horse in full
pursuit behind, with yells and horrible uproar, until you drop exhausted
by fatigue.

In Morocco, on the banks of the Ouad Noun, about twenty days march
westward of Souss, the most famous sorcerers are found. There is there a
whole school of alchemists and necromancers, and of occult sciences,
besides a talking mountain, and many others marvels of the magical
world. The common people alone are debased to these superstitions. The
wealthy, the marabouts, the _tolbas_ of the _zaouïa_; and the
_sheurfaa_, scrupulously follow the precepts of religion and read the
sacred books; but the vulgar herd are plunged in ignorance, and barely
know two or three prayers and the confession of faith. They likewise
pray very rarely, and only perform their ablutions when they find water.
The chiefs do their utmost to dispel this ignorance. Even on a journey
they take care that the _moudden_ never fail to proclaim the hour of
prayer, and they establish schools in their tents. But a life of
fatigue, wandering, and migration, soon causes the Arabs to forget the
lessons of their childhood. Men of all ranks, however, take pleasure in
having them recalled to mind in the garb of poesy by the _meddah_, or
religious bards, who go about at festivals singing the praises of Allah,
and the saints, and the holy war, accompanying themselves the while with
flute and tambourine. These bards are rewarded with numerous presents.

THE ARAB ARISTOCRACY.

"Take a thorny shrub," said the Emir Abd-el-Kader to me one day, "and
water it for a whole year with rose-water, and it will still yield
nothing but thorns. But take a date-tree, and leave it without water,
without cultivation, and it still will produce dates." From the Arab
point of view the nobles are this date-tree, and the common people that
thorny shrub. In the East, great faith is placed in the power of blood
and in the virtue of race. The aristocracy is regarded not only as a
social necessity, but as an absolute law of nature. No one ever dreams
of revolting against this truism, which is accepted by all with a placid
resignation. The head is the head and the tail the tail, is what the
lowest of the Arab shepherds would say.

In addition to this long descended and sacred nobility composed of the
_sherifs_, or descendants of the Prophet, there are two distinct classes
of aristocracy—the one the aristocracy of religion, the other the
aristocracy of the sword. The marabouts and the _djouad_—for such are
their designations—the former deriving their position from their piety,
the latter from their courage, the former from prayer, the latter from
battle, regard each other with an implacable hatred. The _djouad_
reproach the marabouts with the offences which in all countries are
eagerly attributed to religious orders that aim at the direction of
human affairs. They accuse them of ambition, of intriguing, of underhand
proceedings, and of an insatiable covetousness for the good things of
the earth masked by a pretended love of Allah and of Heaven. One of
their proverbs declares "From the _zaouïa_[94] a serpent is ever
issuing." From this it appears that the Arabs, while chaunting the
praises of the aristocracy, do not hesitate, sound Believers as they
are, to speak the truth with regard to their priesthood. The marabouts,
on the other hand, charge the _djouad_ with violence, rapine, and
impiety. This last accusation furnishes them with a terrible weapon of
offence. They stand in the same relation towards their rivals as did the
clergy of the Middle Ages towards the lay nobles who, notwithstanding
the imposing appearance of their warlike power, could yet be reached by
an anathema. In like manner, if the _djouad_ exercise an influence over
the people through the memory of perils encountered and blood shed, and
all the prestige of military achievements, the marabouts on their part
are armed with the omnipotence of religious faith acting on popular
imagination. More than once has a marabout, feared or loved by the
people, imperilled the power and even the life of a _djieud_.[95]
Nevertheless it is the _djieud_ whom I now propose to portray, because
the life of the desert is especially the life of the warrior. To
exhibit at one glance a noble of the Sahara in all the pomp, noise, and
animation of his existence, it is necessary to depict the interior of a
great tent at the moment when the day begins, from eight o'clock to
noon.

The poets of antiquity have many a time described the crowd of clients
who were wont to inundate the porticoes of a patrician palace in ancient
Rome. A great tent in the desert in these days resembles in its way the
luxurious mansions painted by Horace and Juvenal. Gravely seated on a
carpet, with that dignified demeanour which is the peculiar privilege of
Orientals, the chief of the tribe receives in their turn all who come to
invoke his authority. This one complains of a neighbour who has
endeavoured to seduce his wife, that one accuses a wealthy man of
refusing to pay a debt, another is anxious to recover some cattle that
have been stolen from him, while a fourth demands protection for his
daughter whom a brutal husband maltreats in the most shameful manner.
The first quality in a chief is patience. Assailed on all sides by
violent recriminations, he lends an attentive ear to each, and strives
to heal the wounds of every description which are disclosed to him. "A
man in authority," says an eastern apophthegm, "ought to imitate the
physicians who never apply the same remedies to all diseases." In these
"beds of justice" that recall the primitive manner in which our ancient
kings disposed of the private interests of their subjects, the Arab
chief employs the utmost sagacity, the greatest force of character, with
which he may have been endowed. To some he gives orders, to others
advice: to no one does he refuse the aid of his wisdom and influence.
Nor has he need only of the quality that Solomon demanded of the Lord.
Wisdom must be combined with generosity and valour. The highest praise
that can be awarded is to say of him that "his sabre is always drawn,
his hand always open." He must never weary of practising the somewhat
ostentatious, and yet at the same time noble and touching, charity,
enjoined by the Mussulman law as an obligation on all Believers. His
tent must be a refuge for the unfortunate, nor may any one die of hunger
in his neighbourhood; for the Prophet hath said: "Allah will never
accord his mercy but to the merciful. Believers, give alms, if it be
only the half of a date. Whoso gives alms to-day shall be amply
recompensed to-morrow."

If a warrior loses the horse that was his sole strength, if a family is
robbed of the flocks that furnished its subsistance, it is to the chief,
and to the chief alone, the sufferers address themselves. However strong
may be the love of pelf, it never goes so far as to make him risk the
loss of his influence; and the Arab noble, while in so many respects
resembling the Baron of the Middle Ages, differs from him in one
essential point—he abhors gambling. Neither cards nor dice ever wile
away the leisure hours in a tent. An Arab chief may neither indulge in
play, nor lend money at usurious rates of interest. The only way in
which he may turn his money to account, is by indirect participation in
some commercial enterprise. He hands over a certain sum to a merchant,
who trades with it, and, at the end of so many years, divides with the
lender the profits he has gathered. It must not, however, be supposed
that riches are therefore despised by Orientals. With them, as in every
other part of the world, wealth is one of the indispensable conditions
of power. Whoever falls into poverty, falls also very quickly into
obscurity, while he who makes a fortune enters upon the path of honours.
But, in order to follow out an ambitious career, it is by the right arm
rather than by industry that wealth must be acquired. When a warrior has
made a number of razzias that have brought him at the same time glory
and gold, he is surnamed Ben-Deraou, "the son of his arm," and may
aspire to the highest dignities of the tribe. This brings us back to the
quality which should be the groundwork of every noble Arab's
soul—valour.

"Nothing," said Abd-el-Kader, "throws out so well as blood the dazzling
whiteness of a burnous." An Arab chief, like our captains in the olden
times, should be more valiant than all his men at arms. He must
distinguish himself by warlike feats as much as by his bearing at
fantasias. His influence would be for ever lost if he were suspected of
faintness of heart. But it is the reality, not the appearance, which the
Arabs appreciate. What they admire is a spirit nobly tempered, and not
the frame of a mere giant, or athlete. This is the place to combat the
widely spread prejudice that a lofty stature and bodily strength make a
deep impression upon them. Such is far from being the case. They take
pleasure in man's being robust, patient of thirst and hunger, and
capable of enduring severe fatigue; but they care very little for
tallness of stature, or for muscular force like that of our porters, or
showman's Hercules. They reserve their esteem for activity, address, and
courage. It little matters to them whether a man be tall or short; and
not unfrequently, while looking at some Colossus whose huge proportions
are being vaunted in their presence, they may be heard to murmur
sententiously: "What to us is the stature or strength! Let us see the
heart. After all, it may be only the skin of a lion on the back of a
cow."

But notwithstanding this admiration of valour, there is no point of
honour among the Arabs such as prevails among ourselves. In their eyes
there is no cowardice in retreating before superior numbers, or even in
fleeing before an enemy of inferior strength, if there is nothing to be
gained by fighting. They often laugh among themselves at our chivalrous
scruples. Fond as they are of riding at furious speed, and of the noisy
discourse of fire-arms, they nevertheless desire to have some object of
public utility as their motive for battle. Full of ardour so long as
Fortune leads them on, they disperse and disappear as soon as she
betrays them. In forming, therefore, their judgment of acts of bravery,
there are many essential points of difference between them and
ourselves. Their respect for courage never urges them to excessive
severity towards those who are deficient in that quality. A coward will
never rise to any post of dignity in his tribe, but neither will he be
an object of contempt. They will merely say of him, with that absence of
anger which usually accompanies fatalism: "It was not the will of Allah
that he should be brave. He is to be pitied rather than blamed." A man
of faint heart is expected, however, to redeem his shortcomings by the
prudence of his counsels, and above all by an unfailing generosity.

Braggadocio is treated with greater contempt than cowardice. "If thou
sayest that the lion is an ass, go and put a halter on him," is an
oriental proverb in very general use. In spite of the heat of their
blood and the hyperbolical character of their speech, the Arabs demand
from true courage that dignified silence which they regard so highly. In
this respect they have nothing in common with the nations with whom they
fought in the time of the Cid; nor yet under the head of single combats,
which are entirely unknown among them. A tradition, which probably dates
from the crusades, asserts that in the olden time illustrious chiefs met
each other in single combat, but the oldest members of the tribes of the
present day have no personal recollection of anything of the kind. If a
man deems himself seriously affronted, he avenges himself by
assassination. There are individuals with easy consciences and
complacent dispositions who, for a very moderate sum, will rid you of an
enemy. But if the aggrieved happens to be more sparing of his gold than
of his life—his hand being more ready to strike than his purse to
open—he watches his opportunity to fall upon the man who has wronged
him. He kills him, or is killed by him. In the former case it is a
common thing to bequeath to another the debt of blood; for, in the
absence of duelling, private revenge is in a very flourishing condition
among the Arabs, and descends from generation to generation. Among them
still prevail those family feuds which formerly dyed red the pavements
of Italian cities, and which even in the present day stain the soil of
an island of France.

The ordinary causes of the Arab _vendetta_ are disputes as to wells,
pasturage and landmarks, the rape of a young wife or daughter, the
murder of a jealous husband, of a successful rival, or of a woman who
has refused compliance,—or rivalries of chiefs, whose quarrel is
espoused, first of all, by their relations, friends, and clients, then
by the whole tribe, and at last by the tribes in alliance with them. As
a natural consequence of the absence of the duello, private disputes are
settled by assassination, and the feud, being transmitted from kin to
kin and constantly provided with new fuel, goes on to eternity. The
_vendetta_ is either of a private or public nature, according as the
injury to be avenged affects an individual or a tribe. If from any cause
a man happen to lose his life through the act of a chief, or even of a
humble member of a neighbouring tribe, the homicide can arrange the
affair legally by paying the _dya_, or blood money, to the heirs of the
deceased. The _dya_ is the same as the _Wehrgeld_ of the Germans, with
this difference—that not only is it legal, but from its first
institution it assumed a religious character. According to the _tolbas_,
it may be traced back to Abd-el-Mettaleb, the grandfather of Mohammed,
and was indirectly the cause of the birth of the Prophet.
Abd-el-Mettaleb, chief of the tribe of the Koreishites, had no children,
and in his despair he offered up the following prayer to Allah: "Lord,
if thou wilt bestow upon me ten sons, I swear to sacrifice one of them
unto thee as a thanksgiving offering." Allah heard his prayer and made
him ten times a father. Faithful to his vow, Abd-el-Mettaleb left it to
the drawing of lots to decide who should be the victim. The lot fell
upon Abd-Allah; but, the tribe opposing this sacrifice, it was resolved
by the chiefs that, instead of Abd-Allah, ten camels should be set aside
as a stake and recourse again had to lots until they turned up in favour
of the lad, ten camels being added to the first for every time the lots
had been unfavourable. It was not until the eleventh trial that
Abd-Allah was redeemed, and one hundred camels were sacrificed in his
place. Some time afterwards Allah manifested His satisfaction with this
exchange, for He caused Mohammed his Prophet to be born to Abd-Allah;
and ever since then the price of an Arab's life has been fixed at one
hundred camels. Circumstances, however, sometimes occur to reduce this
high standard.

There is scarcely an instance on record of a homicide who has paid the
_dya_ being otherwise proceeded against, or of the parents or the
children of the deceased hesitating to accept this satisfaction. But if
he be too poor to pay it, or if the Government has thought fit to
interfere in the matter, he is condemned to suffer like for like, an eye
for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a life for a life. When I was consul
for France at Mascara, in 1837, accredited to Abd-el-Kader, I had an
opportunity of witnessing the application of the _lex talionis_ in its
utmost rigour. Two children having quarrelled in the street, their
fathers interposed, and from insults proceeded to threats, until one of
them, gradually becoming infuriated, drew his knife and stabbed his
adversary, who fell down dead upon the spot. The latter received five
wounds; one on his right, a second on his left, breast, two in the
stomach, and the fifth in the back. A mob collected, and the _shaoushs_,
or police agents seized the murderer and led him before the _hakem_, or
mayor of the town. The _aoulemas_, or doctors of the law, immediately
assembled, and constituted themselves a tribunal. In less than half an
hour the witnesses were heard, and the culprit was sentenced to undergo
the full penalty of the _lex talionis_ at the hands of his victim's
brother. At a signal given by the Cadi, two _shaoushs_ bound his wrists
together with a rope, and, placing themselves on either side of him,
conducted him, preceded by the executioner, to the market-place,
thronged at the time by two or three thousand Arabs. However horrible
might be the singular drama about to be acted, it furnished me with an
opportunity for a rare experience, and I succeeded in overcoming the
instinctive repugnance, which I at first felt, to being present. By the
time I reached the spot, the _shaoushs_, by dint of freely plying their
sticks, had forced back the crowd to the circumference of a spacious
circle, the centre of which was occupied by the executioner and his
victim, the one with his knife in his hand, the other calm and
indifferent to what was about to happen. According to the sentence, the
murderer was to receive as many stabs as he had inflicted, and in the
same order and in the same parts of the body as the man he had murdered.
When all was ready,—and the preparations were merely what I have
described,—a _shaoush_ raised his staff, by way of signal. The Arab with
the knife immediately rushed on his victim, and stabbed him first on the
right and then on the left breast, but evidently without touching the
heart, for the poor wretch cried aloud: "Strike! Strike! But think not
that it is thou who takest my life. Allah alone takes away life." The
punishment, however, was continued with horrible fury, and the criminal,
whose entrails protruded from two fresh wounds he received in the belly,
never ceased to revile his executioner. There still remained one other
blow to give. The wounded man turned round of himself, and the blade of
the knife disappeared entirely in his loins. He staggered, but did not
fall. "Enough! Enough!" cried the mob. "He gave only five blows, and he
ought not to receive more." The execution was over, and the unfortunate
man who underwent all this torture had still sufficient strength to
return to his own house on foot. M. Warnier, physician to the consulate,
arrived there almost at the same instant as himself, and while he was
endeavouring to sew together the gaping mouths of the two wounds in the
belly, the patient kept crying aloud: "Oh! I pray you, heal me! They say
thou art a great physician; prove it, heal me, so that I may kill that
dog!" It was all in vain, for that night he died.

But if the murderer be the master of a great tent, and sufficiently
influential to induce the tribe to exercise forbearance towards him, and
therefore refuses to pay any blood money, he will sooner or later
expiate that refusal with his life, which the _vendetta_ will overtake
though justice lag behind. From his death, however, will arise a deadly
feud, as I have already shown. I could give many instances of the
_vendetta_; and the one that follows, being equally illustrative of the
customs of a powerful Saharene tribe, the Shamba, and of those of a
people of the Great Desert, the Touareg, separated from one another by
at least two hundred leagues, will afford a just notion of those
obstinate hatreds, of that thirst for vengeance which always embody
themselves in the same acts of violence. A band of the Shamba, commanded
by Ben-Mansour, chief of Ouargla, surprised, near the Djebel-Baten, some
Touaregs who were watering their camels in the Oued-Mia, under the
leadership of Kheddash, chief of the Djebel-Hoggar. An implacable
hatred, the origin of which is unknown, divides the Shamba from the
Touaregs—the latter, besides, being in a state of perpetual vendetta
against the Saharenes, either because they are Berbers and not Arabs, or
because they levy a tax on the caravans to and from Soudan. A bloody
conflict ensued, and the Touaregs were put to the rout, leaving ten of
their party dead upon the ground, and among them their chief, whose
headless body they found some days afterwards. Ben-Mansour had carried
off his head, which he exposed, as a trophy of his victory, over one of
the gates of Ouargla. The tidings spread mourning throughout the
Djebel-Hoggar, and an oath was taken: "May my tent be destroyed if
Kheddash be not avenged!" Kheddash left behind him a widow of great
beauty named Fetoum, and one young child. According to usage, Fetoum was
entitled to rule, assisted by the Council of Nobles, until such time as
her son should be of age to assume the leadership. One day, therefore,
when the leading men were assembled in her tent, she said to them: "My
brethren, whichever of you will bring me Ben-Mansour's head shall have
me for wife." That same evening all the young men of the mountain armed
themselves for war, and went to her, saying: "To-morrow we will set out
with our servants to seek thy wedding present." And at the dawn of day
three hundred Touaregs, commanded by Ould-Biska, a cousin of Kheddash,
set out on their march to the northward. Hardly had they taken up their
position at their first halt, when they beheld coming up behind them
half a score of camels with riders, and among them one fleeter of foot
and more richly accoutred than the others. They at once recognized the
camel of Fetoum, for Fetoum had come in person to join their little
army. She was greeted with loud acclamations, for it seemed to them, and
perhaps with reason, that she had come expressly to be able more
promptly to fulfil her promise. It was the month of May, when water is
to be found in every ravine, and the sands are clothed with herbage.
During the halt on the eighth day, the scouts came in with the news that
a strong body of the Shamba, commanded by Ben-Mansour, were driving
their flocks towards the grazing grounds of the Oued-Nessa. The Shamba,
however, having received intelligence of the approach of the Touaregs,
had turned suddenly towards the north and had already gained the
Oued-Mzab. But their retreat was speedily discovered, and by a forced
march of a day and a night, the Touaregs placed themselves in ambush in
ravines and brushwood at a distance of only a few leagues from the
enemy, who had now no suspicion of their presence. All that day they
rested, and when night came they again took to the plain, putting their
camels to a long swinging trot. At length about midnight the barking of
the dogs betrayed the _douar_ of which they were in search. The next
moment, on a signal given by Ould-Biska, they dashed forward uttering
their war-cry. Of the Shamba, at the most not more than five or six
escaped, and one even of these was wounded by Ould-Biska who, with a
thrust of his long spear, struck him in the loin. Run away with by his
mare, the ill-fated horseman, rolling from side to side but still
keeping his seat, went on a few steps, but presently he sank forward and
fell over on to the sand, dragging down with him in his fall a child
seven or eight years of age whom he had till then kept concealed in his
burnous. "Ben-Mansour! Ben-Mansour! knowest thou Ben-Mansour?" demanded
Ould-Biska. "He was my father—behold him!" replied the boy, calm and
erect beside the dead body. At that moment, Fetoum came up, followed,
surrounded, and closely hemmed in by a group of the Touaregs. "It is I
who have slain him!" cried Ould-Biska. "And it shall be done as I said,"
answered Fetoum; "but take thy poniard, open the body of the accursed,
tear out his heart, and throw it to the dogs."

While Ould-Biska, kneeling on the ground and stooping over the corpse,
proceeded to execute this order, Fetoum, her lips compressed and her
whole frame trembling with nervous excitement, gloated over the shocking
spectacle. And when at last the _slougui_ had finished their horrible
repast, her revenge being now complete, Fetoum remounted her _mahari_
and gave the signal for retreat, without taking any heed of the booty
her followers were piling up, or of the flocks they were driving
together. As to the son of Ben-Mansour, his life was spared, but they
abandoned him to his fate. For two days he remained there, weeping,
thirsting, hungering, and exposed to the sun, but on the third day he
was found by some shepherds who conveyed him to Ouargla, where he was
living in 1845. Thus the dogs of the Touaregs have eaten the heart of
the chief of the Shamba, and it may be easily imagined that this will be
the subject of an undying feud, that will know neither respite nor
mercy.

I will not dwell any further upon customs impressed with such savage
energy. By way of contrast, I will now trace some family sketches,
commencing with the reverence attached to the paternal authority. So
long as the child is in his infancy, the tent belongs to him, and his
father is in some respects the first of his slaves. His sports are the
delight of the family, his whims the life and soul of the domestic
circle. But as soon as he attains to puberty, he is taught the utmost
deference. He is not even allowed to speak in the presence of his
father, or to attend the same meetings. This absolute respect which he
is bound to exhibit towards the head of the family, he is also obliged
to pay to his eldest brother. However, notwithstanding their
aristocratic severity, the customs of the Arabs do not come up to the
gloomy rigour of the Roman Patricians. A father, for instance, would
never condemn his son to death unless he has dishonoured his couch—for
any other offence he would merely banish him from his presence.

Thus far I have sketched with a coarse and rapid pencil the character of
the Arab aristocracy; I will now endeavour to represent the actual life
of a noble in some of its most solemn moments.

The day on which a child is born in a great tent is one of much
rejoicing. Every one visits the father of the new-born, and says to him:
"May thy son be happy!" And while the men press round the father, the
mother is not neglected, for the women of the tribe flock to see her.
Both men and women have their hands full of presents, proportioned to
their means. From camels, sheep, and costly apparel, down to grain and
dates, all the treasures of the desert abound in the tent which Allah
has just visited with his blessing. The recipient of all these tokens of
affection and respect is obliged to exercise a large hospitality.
Sometimes for twenty consecutive days, he feeds and entertains his
guests. These festivals in the desert have that air of grandeur which
belongs to all the scenes that are enacted in this solemn theatre of
primitive life.

As soon as the child is old enough, he learns to read and write, which
is an innovation among the _djouad_, for until recently the marabouts
alone cultivated letters. The man of the sword, like our mediæval
barons, held learning in contempt. It seemed to him that, in cultivating
his mind, some sort of injury was done to his energy of character. But
since they have beheld the humblest of our soldiers possessed of
knowledge without their courage being impaired, the Arabs have changed
their opinion on the subject. Besides, those who took service with us
soon discovered that education conferred a title to favours. Many of
them too, murmur to one another with a tone of sad resignation:
"Formerly we were able to live in ignorance, for peace and happiness
were with us; but in this time of trouble through which we are compelled
to pass, science must come to our aid." Our influence thus gradually
accomplishes, in the very heart of the desert, the work of civilisation,
of which some among us speak so despondingly, and others so lightly.

The culture of letters, however, does not lead, in the education of the
Arab, to any neglect of the art of managing a horse or of handling
fire-arms. As soon as a child can sit on a horse, he is placed, first of
all, on the back of a colt, and then on the full grown animal. When his
frame begins to take form, he is taken out hunting, and taught to fire
at a mark, and to bury his spear in the flanks of a wild boar. By the
time he has attained his sixteenth or seventeenth year, has learned the
Koran, and has been accustomed to fast, he is married. The Prophet has
said: "Marry when young. Marriage subdues the glance of the man's eye,
and regulates the conduct of the woman." Up to that epoch, paternal
tenderness watches over the purity of his manners with unceasing
vigilance. The lad is never left to himself. A tutor or an attendant
accompanies him wherever he goes. Men of dissolute habits and women of a
loose course of life are carefully kept away from him. He is expected to
bring to the companion of his life a body in robust health, and a soul
untainted by pollution. They select for him a youthful maiden of birth
equal to his own, of unspotted reputation, and, if possible, of great
beauty. It is the women of the family who ascertain these points, being
permitted to examine the tents in which dwell young girls of
marriageable years. A betrothal takes place, followed in due time by the
wedding.

The first of these days of festival, which like those at the birth of a
child, last for some time, is called _nahr refoude_, or the day of the
rape. Four or five hundred horsemen, magnificently attired, riding their
finest horses, carrying their most valuable arms, and conducted by the
kinsmen of the bride, proceed to the tent of the latter. They are
accompanied by women closely veiled and mounted on camels and mules. The
youngest and most beautiful damsels of the tribe are chosen for this
joyful mission. The journey, which sometimes lasts three days, is one
continual fantasia. The horsemen gallop to and fro, there is a constant
discharge of fire-arms, and the women utter that long drawn cry of love
and joy which fills the heart of the children of the desert with
ineffable emotion. At the arrival of this triumphal procession, the
father of the bride comes forth and exclaims "You are welcome, O guests
of Allah!" Then follow banquetings and rejoicings until the morrow, when
they again set out. This time the bride forms one of the cavalcade,
mounted on a camel, or mule, richly caparisoned. She has taken no leave
of her father. An almost false sense of delicacy forbids her to appear
in his presence at a moment when her fate is about to undergo an entire
change. She is equally prohibited from seeing her elder brothers. Her
girlhood's life is finished. Henceforth she belongs to another family.

When she is on the point of starting, her mother tenderly embraces her
and says: "You are going away from those from whose loins you sprang.
You are going far away from the nest that has so long sheltered you, and
whence you issued forth to learn to walk, and that in order to go to a
man whom you know not, and to whose society you have never been
accustomed. I advise you to be to him as a slave, if you wish that he
should be to you as a servant. Be satisfied with little. Keep a constant
watch over all that is likely to come under his eyes, and let not his
eyes ever behold an evil action. See to his food and his sleep. Hunger
causes anger, the want of sleep produces ill humour. Take care of his
property. Treat his kinsfolk and slaves with kindness. Be dumb as to his
secrets. When he rejoices, show no signs of sorrow. When he is
sorrowful, show no signs of joy. Allah will bless you!"

While this nuptial journey is being accomplished, the bridegroom
prepares a tent richly ornamented, which he places under the safeguard
of some of his friends. Into this the bride enters with her mother and
female relatives. A choice banquet is presented to her, and outside a
festival is celebrated, which, with gunpowder and music, combines all
that enters into the desert notion of rejoicing. At ten at night the
husband glides into the tent, now silent and deserted.

A wedding feast is often prolonged over three days and nights, and is
repeated each time the husband takes a fresh wife. An Arab chief is
permitted by the law to have four wives at the same time, but even these
do not suffice for the gratification of these fickle and voluptuous
temperaments. It is in vain that, by a custom which recalls to mind
Biblical manners, a Mussulman husband is allowed to associate concubines
with his legitimate wives. Even this tolerance is insufficient, and
recourse is had to divorce to appease these insatiable and ever craving
appetites. Instances have been known of an Arab chief having had a dozen
to fifteen lawful wives. As may easily be imagined, peace is far from
reigning in households where the law recognizes the existence of such
elements of discord. Sometimes the tent is divided into two parts, one
chamber being exclusively reserved for the women, the other belonging to
the husband, who selects from among his wives the one he fancies for
that night. Terrible jealousies secretly spring into being, and,
gradually gaining strength, finish by an explosion. Frequently a wife
who is preferred to her fellows is seized with a mysterious illness,
under which she languishes, fades away, and dies—a poison prepared by a
rival's hand has passed into her veins. This is the gloomy side of
eastern manners—crime allying itself to lust.

The immense part played by wives in the life of the Mussulmans is shown
by the following fact. Tell an Arab that he is a coward, he will submit
to the insult—if he is a coward, it is the will of Allah that it should
be so. Call him a thief, he will smile; for in his eyes a theft is
sometimes a meritorious act. But address him as _tahan_—a word which the
language of Molière could alone translate with concise forcibleness—and
you will kindle in his breast a fury that blood only can extinguish. The
only man whom an Arab will never forgive is one who can with truth cast
in his teeth that ill-omened epithet.

After marriage the noble of the desert enters upon a new life, and upon
a sphere of individual action. He is now emancipated, though not in an
absolute fashion unless he is the head of the tent, and master of his
own goods and chattels, or if his father is still alive. However, even
under these circumstances, he henceforth counts among his tribe as a man
of action and of counsel, and by accumulated experience he will put the
finishing touch to his training as a great lord, thus far sketched out
by the habit of seeing good examples and hearing good advice. Already he
has his own clients, his own horses, his own greyhounds, his own
falcons, and all the equipments for war and the chace. His clients are
young men of his own age, the courtiers of his future eminence. His
horses have been chosen from among those that bring good fortune, and of
the best authenticated descent. His greyhounds have been fed on dates
crushed in milk, and on the kouskoussou of his own meals. They have been
broken in by himself; and, while the vulgar dogs of the tribe bark all
night at the hyænas and jackals, they lie couched at his feet, beneath
the tent, and even upon his very bed. His falcons have been reared under
his own eyes by his own falconer, and he himself has taken care to
accustom them to his cry on throwing them off and on calling them back.
Among his hunting and warlike equipments there are guns from Tunis, or
Algiers, damascened and mounted in silver, the stocks incrusted with
coral or with mother of pearl—sabres from Fez with scabbards of chased
silver—and saddles embroidered in gold and silk on a groundwork of
velvet or morocco leather. To complete his accoutrements, I may mention
the sabretache ornamented with panther's skin, plated spurs incrusted
with coral, the _medol_, or high-crowned broad-brimmed straw hat, with a
plume of ostrich feathers, and the _malhazema_, or cartridge-box of
morocco leather pinked with silk, gold, and silver.

At some future days when his father has paid "the contribution levied by
Allah on every head," that spacious tent will be his, with all its
luxurious furniture, carpets, pillows, jewel-bags, silver cups, and
supplies of arms, ammunition, and food for the whole family, consisting
of from twenty-five to thirty individuals, including master and
servants. His, also will be that stallion and those mares picketed in
front of the tent, those eight or ten negroes and negresses, those
stores of wheat, barley, dates, and honey prudently placed beyond all
danger of a _coup de main_ in a town or village of the desert, those
eight or ten thousand sheep, and those five or six hundred camels
scattered over the grazing ground, in the care of shepherds who follow
their wanderings. His fortune may then be estimated at from twenty-five
to twenty-six thousand _douros_ [nearly £6,000].

At the age, however, at which we parted from him, that is, at eighteen
or nineteen, he will have no need as yet to trouble himself about the
management of this fortune. At present, he is merely a man of pleasure.
In time of peace, he goes forth on horseback, accompanied by his friends
and followed by his attendants mounted on camels, who hold his
greyhounds in leash or even carry them on their saddle-bow, and proceeds
to the distant pasturages to inspect his flocks, taking advantage of the
opportunity to hunt the ostrich, or the gazelle, or the _bekeur el
ouhash_, according to the nature of the ground and the season of the
year. His leisure hours will be especially devoted to the peculiarly
aristocratic and lordly pastime of hawking. These violent sports, which
I have already described, mould the nobility for the toils of war and
the razzia, to which these children of the desert consecrate all the
adventurous ardour and energy that enter into their character.

But as he advances in years, the Arab becomes more sedate. Every white
hair in his beard leads him to thoughts of a religious nature. He more
and more frequents the society of the men of Allah, and loads them with
gifts; and more and more rarely he is seen at the chace, at wedding
feasts, and the fantasia. His occupations as a chief leave him, besides,
much less idle time. He has to administer justice, increase his means,
bring up his children, and contract alliances. Nevertheless, the
chivalrous spirit of his youth is only slumbering within him. Let the
powder speak to redress an insult offered to his tribe, he will not be
the one to remain in his tent. Too happy, he will say, to die like a man
in battle, and not like an old woman. Some great families loudly boast
that there is no tradition of any one of their ancestors having died in
his bed. If, however, he escapes that coveted end, as soon as he feels
the hand of death upon him, he summons his friends to his bed-side, for
the presence of friends is desired at all the great acts of human
existence. "My brethren," he will say to them if he be able to speak, "I
shall never see you again in this world; but I was only a pilgrim upon
the earth, and I die in the fear of Allah." He will then recite the
_shehada_, or symbolical act of the Mussulman faith: "There is only one
God, and Mohammed is the messenger of God." If his lips refuse to
pronounce these sacred words, one of those present takes his right hand
and lifts up the forefinger. This sign, to which the dying man adheres
with all the energy still remaining in his earthly tenement, is a
testimony offered to the unity of the Deity. After he has accomplished
the _shehada_, he can die in peace.

Funeral ceremonies are not wanting to the Arab chief, especially to a
warrior who has fallen in combating for his tribe. He is wrapped in a
white shroud, and exposed to view on a carpet, the borders of which have
been turned back. The _neddabat_, that is to say, the women who in the
East replace the hired mourners of antiquity, stand round the corpse,
their cheeks blackened with smoke, and their shoulders covered with
tent-canvass, or with camel-hair sacks. A few paces off, a slave holds
by the bridle the favourite mare of the deceased, and from the
_kerbouss_ of the saddle hang a long gun, a yatagan, pistols, and spurs.
A little further off, the horsemen of the tribe, old and young, in
silent sorrow, sit in a circle upon the sand, their _haiks_ held up
close to their eyes and the hood of their burnous brought down over
their brow. The _neddabat_ chaunt to a melancholy rhythm the following
lamentations:

Where is he?
His horse has come, but he has not come;

His sabre has come, but he has not come;
His spurs are there, but he is not there;
Where is he?

hey say that he died on his day, pierced to the heart.
He was a sea of kouskoussou [generosity];
He was a sea of powder;
The lord of men,
The lord of horsemen,
The defender of camels,
The protector of strangers.
They say that he died on his day.

THE WIFE OF THE DECEASED.

My tent is empty,
I am a-cold;
Where is my lion?
Where shall I find his equal?
He never struck but with the sabre;
He was a man for the dark days:
Fear is in the _goum_.

THE NEDDABAT.

He is not dead He is not dead!
He has left thee his brethren.
He has left thee his children;
They shall be the bulwarks of thy shoulders.
He is not dead! His soul is with Allah.
We shall see him again some day.

After these funereal lamentations, the _adjaïze_, or old women, take
possession of the body, wash it carefully, place camphor and cotton in
all the natural orifices, and wrap it in a white shroud sprinkled with
water from the well of Zem-Zem[96], and perfumed with benzoin. Four
relatives of the deceased then lift by the four corners the carpet on
which it is laid, and take the road to the cemetery, preceded by the
Iman, the marabouts, and the _tolbas_, and followed by the others. The
former chaunt in a grave manner: "There is only one God!" to which the
latter respond in chorus: "And our lord Mohammed is the messenger of
God!"

For a brief space resignation soothes their despair. Not a cry, not a
sob, troubles these prayers offered in common, these professions of the
faith of the deceased, which the pious assemblage repeats on his behalf.
On arriving at the cemetery, the bearers depose their sacred burden on
the edge of the grave, and the Iman, placing himself by its side and
surrounded by the marabouts, recites with a strong sonorous voice the
_salat el djenazat_, or the burial prayer:

"Praise to Allah who gives death and who gives life!

"Praise to Him who raises up the dead!

"To Him reverts all honour, all greatness. To Him alone belong the
commandment and the power. He is above all!

"Let praise be also to the Prophet Mohammed, his kindred, and his
friends! O Allah! watch over them and grant them Thy mercy as Thou didst
to Ibrahim, and his, for to Thee belong glory and praise!

"O Allah! N*** was Thy worshipper, the son of Thy slave. Thou didst
create him, and didst bestow upon him the good things which he enjoyed.
Thou, too, didst take his life away, and Thou wilt raise him up again
from the dead!

"Thou knowest his secrets and his innermost thoughts!

"We come here to intercede for him, O Allah! Deliver him from the
horrors of the grave and from the fire of Hell. Forgive him. Grant him
Thy mercy. Grant that the place he shall occupy be honourable and
spacious. Wash him with snow and hail water, and cleanse him from his
sins as they cleanse a white robe from the impurities that have soiled
it. Give him a habitation better than his own, relations better than his
own, and a spouse more perfect than his own. If he was good, make him
still better. If he was wicked, forgive him his wickedness, O Allah! He
has taken refuge with Thee, for Thou art the best of all refuges! It is
a poor man who has gone to share Thy munificence, and Thou art too rich
to chastise him and cause him to suffer.

"O Allah! strengthen the voice of the deceased at the moment when he
shall render to Thee an account of his actions, and lay not upon him
more than he is able to bear. We ask it of Thee through the intercession
of Thy Prophet, of all Thy angels, and of all Thy saints. _Amin!_"

"_Amin!_" cry all who are present, at the same time making a
genuflection. Then the Iman resumes:

"O Allah! Forgive our dead, our living ones, those of us who are
present, those of us who are absent, our little ones, our great ones.
Forgive our fathers, all those who preceded us, and all Mussulmans!

"Those whom Thou wilt bring to life again, bring to life in the faith.
And those among us whom Thou wilt cause to die, let them die true
Believers!

"Prepare us for a good death, and may that death give us rest, and the
favour of beholding Thee. _Amin!_"

This prayer being terminated, and while the _tolbas_ recite the _salat
el mokteâat_, the body is lowered into the grave, the face turned
towards Mecca. Large stones are fitted round it, and every one present
makes it a point of honour to throw in a little earth. The gravediggers
level the surface of the grave, and cover it with thorny shrubs to
protect it from hyænas and jackals.

It is now time to return, and all retake the road to the tribe with the
exception of a few women, the friends or relatives of the deceased, who,
bowed down with sorrow over the grave, speak to the dead man and
question him and wish him farewell, as if they thought he could hear
them. At last the _tolbas_ and the marabouts exclaim:

"Come, women. Retire trusting in Allah, and leave the dead in peace to
settle with Azrael;[97] cease your tears and lamentations. Death is a
tax levied upon our heads. We must all of us pay it. There is no
alternative, neither is there any injustice in this event. Allah alone
is eternal. What! should we accept the will of Allah when it brings us
joy, and refuse it when it brings us sorrow! Depart. Your cries are an
impiety."

They understand these words, and with their hands before their eyes they
go forth from the cemetery, but at every step turn round to renew their
last adieus to him whom they will never again behold until the day of
judgment. The foregoing funeral oration is pronounced in the desert over
every grave. The monotony of habit is the handmaid of grandeur. If the
Arab manners are deficient in variety, they are at least solemn and
imposing.

FINIS.

-----

Footnote 1:

_Borak_ is the animal upon which Mohammed was mounted when he made his
journey through the heavens. It was like a mule, and was neither male
nor female.

Footnote 2:

It is distinguished by the size of the respiratory duct, which enables
it to accomplish fabulous journeys.

Footnote 3:

A kilogramme is equal to 2-1/5 lb., a hectogramme to rather more than
3-1/2 ozs, and a décagramme is the 100th part of a kilogramme.

Footnote 4:

I know for a fact that in certain Mussulman countries in the list of
obligatory presents for a Christian personage, the donor wrote down:
_Kidar ala Khrater er-Roumi_—"a jade for the Christian."

Footnote 5:

The eye of the Arab stirrup invariably produce exostoses on the front
part of the leg. By them you may distinguish at once the rich man from
the poor, the cavalier from the man on foot.

Footnote 6:

_Mebrouk_ is Arabic for "the fortunate one."

Footnote 7:

_Guebla_, the south, the Sahara, the desert.

Footnote 8:

_Djellals_ are woollen cloths more or less ornamented with designs
according to the wealth of the chief. They are very wide and extremely
warm, and cover both the chest and the croup.

Footnote 9:

Slaves from Kora are in great request among the Mussulmans. They learn
Arabic with great difficulty, but they are very attentive to their
duties, and much attached to their masters.

Footnote 10:

What the Arabs understand by the evil eye is this: Some one may say to
you: "Oh! what a beautiful horse, what a beautiful mare you have
there!" Fear the worst from such a one, for he has only spoken out of
envy. If he had meant it in real kindliness, he would not have failed
to have added: "Allah protect you, or grant you his blessing." It is
not every one, however, who has the evil eye.

Footnote 11:

Red and all the brilliant colours fall to the lot of good fortune, in
the eyes of the Arabs; while the sombre hues, and especially yellow,
indicate misfortune.

Footnote 12:

The Arabs consider as green the colour we call a deep yellow dun,
especially when it approaches to that of a ripening olive.

Footnote 13:

The Arabs call blue the horse of a grayish colour shot like a
starling's back.

Footnote 14:

It is a matter of luxury for the Arabs and especially for those of the
desert to possess balls made in moulds. For the most part they use
rods cut into small pieces.

Footnote 15:

The Arabs of the desert are so fond of their independent wandering
life, that they regard as the most wearisome moment of their existence
the season when they are compelled to come to the Tell to purchase
their supplies of corn.

Footnote 16:

Feminine of _sherif_, signifying a descendant of the Prophet.

Footnote 17:

In their poetic effusions, the Arabs frequently call the sun _aâin
ennour_, "eye of light."

Footnote 18:

Among the Arabs, there are no rejoicings without firing off of guns.

Footnote 19:

When a desert tribe is at peace, the camels are sent away ten or
twelve leagues, to graze, and it may be easily conceived that if a
sudden swoop be made upon them it needs excellent horses and vigourous
horsemen to recover them.

Footnote 20:

Small and restless ears as well as lively and prominent eyes are a
sign, say the Arabs, of a healthy action of the heart, and that the
animal is full of life.

Footnote 21:

The _mahari_ is much more slender in its proportions than the
_djemel_, or common camel. It has the exquisite ears of the gazelle,
the supple neck of the ostrich, the hollow belly of the _slougui_ or
greyhound. Its head is lean and gracefully attached to the neck; its
eyes bright, black, and prominent; its lips long and firm, covering
well the teeth; the hump is small, but the chest where it touches the
earth when the animal couches down, is strong and protuberant; the
dock of its tail is short; its legs, very lean in the upper part, are
furnished with muscles from the ham and the knee down to the hoof, and
the sole of its foot is neither broad nor thick: finally, it has very
few hairs on the neck, and its coat, of a tawny colour, is as fine as
that of the jerboa. See General Daumas' work on the "Great Desert." In
the desert, the _mahari_ is to the _djemel_ what, with us, a race
horse is to a draught horse.

Footnote 22:

_Hôor_, in the plural _harar_. Not unlikely, this word brought by our
ancestors from the crusades is the origin of the word _haras_.

Footnote 23:

The nomadic tribe of the Arbâa encamps in the neighbourhood of
Leghrouât. It is divided into three great sections: el Mamera, el
Hedjadj, and Ouled Salah. (_Sahara Algérien_, p. 45.)

Footnote 24:

All these tribes pitch their tents in the quadrilateral comprised
between Sidi-Khaled, Tougourt, the Beni-Mzab, and Leghrouât.

Footnote 25:

The French league is rather less than 2-1/2 miles English.

Footnote 26:

A very populous tribe who occupy the whole of the Djebel-Sahri and the
greatest part of the basin of the Oued-Djedi.

Footnote 27:

Berouaguïa is six leagues south of Medeah; Souagui, thirty one leagues
from Berouaguïa; Sidi-Bouzid, twenty-five leagues farther on; and
lastly Leghrouât, twenty-four leagues beyond that, or one hundred and
seven leagues south of Algiers.

Footnote 28:

The Tell is the granary of the Sahara: the master of the Tell holds
the people of the Sahara with the grasp of famine. They are so
sensible of this that they frankly avow it in a phrase that has passed
into a proverb: "We cannot be either Mussulmans, Jews, or Christians:
we are forced to be the friends of our belly."

Footnote 29:

A fort built by the Spaniards, and the residence of the general
commanding the province.

Footnote 30:

A sort of woollen shirt frequently worn by the Arabs.

Footnote 31:

The Bactrian variety, which has two humps and is much larger than the
other.

Footnote 32:

A species of partridge, with a "tucked up" body and very short toes.

Footnote 33:

Among the Arabs of Upper Asia, but chiefly in the Nedjed, when a filly
is foaled, it is impossible to form an idea of the rapture that seizes
the family. "Allah has sent us a blessing; our lord Mohammed has
entered into our tent." Neither wives nor children would suffer
themselves to subtract one drop of the milk drawn from the camels, the
goats, and the ewes. The whole of it is reserved for the fortunate
foal, object of the love and most tender solicitude of all inhabitants
of the tent. (_Voyage dans la Haute Asie_, by M. Pétiniaud.)

Footnote 34:

An umbelliferous plant of the genus thapsia.

Footnote 35:

A kind of semolina made with wheaten flour. It is as universal with
the Arabs as soup with Continental Europeans.

Footnote 36:

During my long career, in my tribes, by my friends, or among my
followers, I have seen upwards of ten thousand colts reared, and I
affirm that all those whose education was not begun at a very early
age and according to the principles enunciated above, have never
turned out other than stubborn, troublesome horses, unfit for war. I
also affirm that when I have made long and rapid marches at the head
of twelve or fifteen hundred horsemen, horses however lean, if early
broken in to fatigue, never fell out of the ranks, while those that
were fat or mounted too late have always fallen to the rear. My
conviction on this head is based on such a long experience that
lately, finding myself at Masseur (Cairo), in the necessity of
purchasing some horses, I refused point blank all that were presented
to me that had been broken in at a comparatively advanced age.

"How has thy horse been reared?" was always my first question.

"My lord," an inhabitant of the city would reply "this gray stone of
the river has been brought up by me like one of my own children,
always well fed, well tended to, and spared as much as possible, for I
did not begin to ride him till he was full four years old. See how fat
he is, how sound in all his limbs."

"Well, keep him, my friend. He is thy pride and that of thy family. It
would be a shame to my gray beard to deprive thee of him."

"And thou!" I would then ask of an Arab whom I recognized as a child
of the desert, so embrowned was he with the sun, "How has thy horse
been reared?"

"My lord," he would answer, "betimes I formed his back to the saddle,
and his mouth to the bridle. With him I have reached a distant, very
distant point. He has passed many a day without food. His ribs are
bare, it is true, but if you encounter any enemies on your path he
will not leave you in peril. I swear it by the day of the last
judgment, when Allah shall be kadi and the angels witnesses."

"Hola, there! tether the dark chestnut before my tent," I would cry to
my servants, "and satisfy this man."

(SIDI-HAMED-BEN-MOHAMMED-EL-MOKRANI, khalif of Medjana,
chief of one of the most illustrious families of all Algeria.)

Footnote 37:

A sort of sabretache attached to the pommel of the saddle, in which
the Arabs carry their ammunition, their papers, and food, etc., etc.
Sometimes the _djebira_ is a marvel of elaborate embroidery.

Footnote 38:

"To-day we went out on horseback with our host Youssouf-ben-Bender,
and directed our course towards the desert. He was accompanied by his
sons and grandsons, all mounted on fine horses, while his servants
proceeded on dromedaries. During this excursion, we met an Arab who
caused me some surprise. Without saddle or bridle, with a slight
halter, the noseband of which was a thin iron chain, and holding in
his hand a wand crooked at one end with which he guided his horse, he
started off at full gallop, pulled up dead halt, was off again like an
arrow, turned sharp round at full speed, and while going at that pace,
made his horse change his feet, off the ground, on the right line. I
could scarcely believe my own eyes and I question if our most
celebrated riding masters or "sportsmen" could do better. What
particularly struck me was the simplicity of the means employed by
this son of Ishmael to obtain what he exacted from his courser. In
Europe, we study the functions and play of the muscles, only to
counteract them. In Arabia also are they studied, but in order to make
use of nature, not to do her violence. Besides, it is not merely one
Arab here and there who rides well; but all without exception are good
horsemen, all love the horse passionately, all understand how to train
him. At the bivouac an inhabitant of the Nedjed always sleeps with his
head resting on the shoulder of his horse, and every horse lies down
at his master's bidding. The latter thus obtains a pillow softer than
the ground, and also renders it difficult for any one to steal his
horse during his sleep." (_Voyage dans la Haute Asie_, by M.
Pétiniaud, General Inspector of the "Haras.")

Footnote 39:

While with us, in France, the stirrup is not supposed to bear more
than the weight of the leg; with the Arabs, on the contrary, the whole
weight of the body, when going at a good pace, is thrown upon the
stirrups.

Footnote 40:

France was indebted to the hatred of Abd-el-Kader cherished by
Mustapha-ben-Ismaïl for the unfailing loyalty of the illustrious chief
of the powerful tribe of the Douairs. He had been for upwards of
thirty years the Aga of the Turks. Thus, when the son of Mahi-Eddin,
at the age of twenty-five, was proclaimed Sultan by the tribe of the
province of Oran, the aged warrior refused to yield obedience to him,
saying that "never with his white beard would he go to kiss the hand
of a mere boy." The consequences of this enmity forced him to take
refuge in the _mechouar_ of Tlemcen, where for two years he held out
against the _hadars_, or citizens, all of whom were devoted to the
cause of him who had assumed the title of Commander of the Faithful.
Only when reduced to the last extremity did he demand and obtain
succour from Marshal Clauzel, whose column relieved him in 1836. From
that period, notwithstanding his great age, he took part at the head
of the "goums" of the Douairs and the Zmelas, in all the actions
fought in the province of Oran. France recompensed this energetic
attachment by a Marshal's baton and the cross of a Commander of the
Legion of Honour. Mustapha-ben-Ismaïl was killed by the Flittas, on
the 19th May 1843, in his eightieth year, while skirmishing in the
rear, protecting the rich booty taken from the Hashem-Gharabas, at the
capture of the Smala.

Footnote 41:

Tents pitched in a circle, a subdivision of the tribe.

Footnote 42:

A river in Algeria.

Footnote 43:

The plural form of _Ksar_, a hamlet, village, or town of the desert.

Footnote 44:

The _Stipa barbata_ of Desfontaines. This plant grows abundantly in
the Sahara. The inhabitants of that unproductive region wander far and
wide to gather the seeds of this grass, and often collect a large
quantity. The seed is ground down and used for the same purposes as
wheaten flour.

Footnote 45:

This plant is very common throughout Algeria, and is much used for
feeding horses. In our expeditions our chargers have often had nothing
else to eat. It is the _Lygeum Spartum_. The culms of this grass do
not rise above ten or twelve centimètres in height. It is the _Stipa
tenacissima_ used in the East for making basket work, etc., and in
some parts of Algeria the natives weave it into mats.

Footnote 46:

The Arabs understand by the hot season from April to September
inclusive, and by the cold season from October to March inclusive.

Footnote 47:

A very important tribe situated to the North-West of Oran.

Footnote 48:

Gold coins, worth from ten to twelve francs each.

Footnote 49:

An Indian prince who flourished before the birth of the Prophet, and
whose riches were proverbial.

Footnote 50:

Poison that is fatal within the hour.

Footnote 51:

_Kohol_, sulphide of antimony, used to stain the eyelids. When a
married woman has stained her eyes with _Kohol_, adorned herself with
_henna_, and chewed a stick of _souak_, which sweetens the breath,
whitens the teeth, and reddens the lips, she becomes more pleasant in
the eyes of Allah, and more beloved of her husband.

Footnote 52:

This mile is only a kilomètre.

Footnote 53:

A star in the constellation of Orion.

Footnote 54:

A parasang is equal to about 5,000 mètres. Sixteen parasangs are
equal, in round numbers, to fifty English miles.

Footnote 55:

_Sabok_, rapid, outstripping.

Footnote 56:

_Aâtika_, the noble lady.

Footnote 57:

_Hader_, inhabitant of cities.

Footnote 58:

_Bedoui_, inhabitant of the wild parts of the Sahara.

Footnote 59:

In the Sahara this name is given to hillocks the outline of which
resembles that of a ship.

Footnote 60:

_Rahil_, migration, a nomadic movement.

Footnote 61:

_Haouadjej_, red camel-litters.

Footnote 62:

_Taka_, windows: the bull's-eyes of litters.

Footnote 63:

Veils waving over the horses croups.

Footnote 64:

_Houache_, a species of bison, or wild ox.

Footnote 65:

_Ghezal_, the gazelle.

Footnote 66:

_Delim_, the male ostrich.

Footnote 67:

The odour of musk remains where the _ghezal_ has passed.

Footnote 68:

_Mahari_, a riding camel.

Footnote 69:

_Maha_, a species of white wild doe.

Footnote 70:

A thick silver pin used by women to fasten their _haïk_, a long piece
of woollen, stuff with which they robe themselves. In the desert this
pin is called _khelala_.

Footnote 71:

A small piece of polished wood, with which women smear on their
eyelids the _kohol_, or antimony, they value so highly.

Footnote 72:

A kind of seat, more or less ornamented according to the means of each
individual, which is placed on camel's backs for the use of women who
are going on a journey. _Temag_ are red morocco boots.

Footnote 73:

Many Arabs in battle load their pieces with seven balls or deer-shot;
but their fire-arms are generally in such bad condition that this
practice becomes the source of innumerable accidents. The number of
persons maimed by guns bursting in their hands is very considerable.

Footnote 74:

"Dash on at full speed." The metaphor is taken from the act of
swimming.

Footnote 75:

A salt soil that yields nothing but salt.

Footnote 76:

_Layahh_, he who amuses, or distracts the attention.

Footnote 77:

In some of the desert tribes a robber taken in the act is covered from
head to foot with _alfa_ (mat-weed), to which they set fire, and the
poor wretch rushes away, amid general hooting, to die a little way
off.

Footnote 78:

The Beni-Mezab form, in the midst of the populations of the desert, a
small nation by themselves, distinguished by the severity of their
manners, a peculiar dialect, honesty that has passed into a proverb,
and certain differences in their religious ceremonies.

Footnote 79:

The Arab pride is here revealed in its full force. The produce of our
horses, our camels, and our sheep, say they, exempts us from the
necessity of working, and yet we can procure without difficulty all
that these miserable Christians manufacture with so much labour.

Footnote 80:

A large tribe of Berber origin who hold the gates of the Sahara and
the Soudan, and levy upon caravans a tax for entering, a tax for
leaving, and a tax for passing through, their territory. They deal,
also, in slaves.

Footnote 81:

A negro kingdom to the southward, in which certain small tribes still
make use of poisoned arrows.

Footnote 82:

The Arabs give the name of _Djouad_ to the military nobility who
derive their origin from the Mehal, the conquerors from the East, and
followers of the companions of the Prophet. The common people suffer
much from the injustice and oppression of the Djouad, who strive to
efface the memory of their ill-treatment, and maintain their
influence, by generously according hospitality and protection to all
who claim them. In other words, they combine in the highest degree the
two salient traits of the national character, avidity of gain, and
love of pomp and ostentation.

Footnote 83:

Sister is here used in the sense of lover or mistress.

Footnote 84:

Blood money. In the Sahara the _dya_ is reckoned at three hundred
sheep, or fifty three-year old camels.

Footnote 85:

A small square chapel surmounted by a dome, in which a marabout has
usually been interred. Solitary travellers find in them a resting
place.

Footnote 86:

In order to make the purification complete, it is necessary to cut
through the œsophagus, the tracheal artery, and the two jugular veins.

Footnote 87:

A kind of leather dressed at Tafilalet.

Footnote 88:

Probably the Guinea-fowl.

Footnote 89:

I am aware that this is not the denomination bestowed by science upon
this animal, which is actually the dromadary. However, I have adhered
to the appellation of "Camel," because it is the only one used in
Algeria. Besides, the Arabic word _djemel_ applies to the camel as
well as to the dromadary.

Footnote 90:

A sort of arm-chair placed upon the backs of camels.

Footnote 91:

Goat-skins, generally dyed red, and prepared at Tafilalet in Morocco:
it is what we call morocco leather.

Footnote 92:

Money is never buried in the desert as it is in the Tell, lest the
floods of winter should betray the hiding-places.

Footnote 93:

About £5,721. The _douro_ worth about 4 shillings and 6 pence.

Footnote 94:

Religious establishments, generally comprising a mosque and a school,
and the tombs of their founders.

Footnote 95:

Singular of _djouad_.

Footnote 96:

A well at Mecca, the water of which is carried away by pilgrims. It is
said to be supplied from Paradise.

Footnote 97:

The angel of death. As soon as a man yields his last breath, Azrael is
sent by Allah to strike the balance between the deceased's good and
bad actions.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Punctuation and some spelling has been normalized.

Variations in hyphenation and accentuation were maintained.

Italicized words and phrases are presented by surrounding the text with
_underscores_.

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Horses of the Sahara - And the Manners of the Desert" ***

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