Title: The Mentor: Julius Caesar, Vol. 6, Num. 2, Serial No. 150, March 1, 1918
Author: Botsford, George Willis
Language: English
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                    THE MENTOR 1918.03.01, No. 150,
                             Julius Cæsar



                            LEARN ONE THING
                               EVERY DAY

                    MARCH 1 1918     SERIAL NO. 150

                                  THE

                                MENTOR

                             JULIUS CÆSAR

                                  By
                        GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD

                   DEPARTMENT OF           VOLUME 6
                   BIOGRAPHY               NUMBER 2

                          TWENTY CENTS A COPY



The Real Julius Cæsar


In person Cæsar was tall and slight. His features were more refined
than was usual in Roman faces; the forehead was wide and high, the nose
large and thin, the lips full, the eyes dark gray like an eagle’s, the
neck extremely thick and sinewy. His complexion was pale. His hair was
short and naturally scanty, falling off toward the end of his life and
leaving him partially bald. His voice, especially when he spoke in
public, was high and shrill.

       *       *       *       *       *

His health was uniformly strong until his last year, when he became
subject to epileptic fits. He was scrupulously clean in all his habits,
abstemious in his food, rarely or never touching wine, and noting
sobriety as the highest of qualities when describing any new people.
He was an athlete in early life, admirable in all manly exercises,
and especially in riding. From his boyhood it was observed of him
that he was the truest of friends, that he avoided quarrels, and
was most easily appeased when offended. In manner he was quiet and
gentlemanlike, with the natural courtesy of high-breeding.

       *       *       *       *       *

He was singularly careful of his soldiers. He allowed his legions
rest, though he allowed none to himself. He rarely fought a battle at
a disadvantage. He never exposed his men to unnecessary danger, and
the loss by wear and tear in the campaigns in Gaul was exceptionally
and even astonishingly slight. When a gallant action was performed, he
knew by whom it had been done, and every soldier, however humble, might
feel assured that if he deserved praise he would have it. The army was
Cæsar’s family.

JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE



[Illustration: IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES

JULIUS CÆSAR]



_JULIUS CÆSAR_

_The Career of Cæsar_

ONE


Gaius Julius Cæsar was born in 100 B. C. of old patrician stock. In
youth he received from Greek masters the elements of their culture,
including astronomy, philosophy, and rhetoric. To complete his
oratorical studies he sailed for Rhodes, but on the way was taken
captive by pirates and held for ransom. This mishap would have
subjected him to ridicule, had he not, on his release, manned a ship
and punished his captors. Returning to Rome, he entered politics, the
most ambitious career open to fashionable young men. In this vocation
he had to pay his respects to men of influence, plead cases at court,
and render financial or other assistance to unfortunate clients; he had
to call by name and compliment all whom he met, to entertain lavishly,
and attend the various social functions of all classes. Above all he
had to maintain a permanent coterie of supporters to act as agents in
time of need.

In 68 B. C. he reached the lowest rung in the political ladder. This
was the office of quæstor, who had the handling of public funds.
Soon afterward as ædile, commissioner of public works and games, his
magnificent entertainments won the good will of the voters, and brought
about his election to the Supreme Pontificate. In this capacity he
directed the state religion, and his person was esteemed sacred. It was
a great political advantage. Next he was elected prætor, whose chief
duty was to preside over one of the criminal courts. After a man had
held the prætorship or the consulship the Senate usually appointed
him as a proprætor or proconsul to the government of a province. As
proprætor accordingly Cæsar governed Spain in 61-60. Returning home
in the latter year, he formed a political ring, known as the First
Triumvirate, with Pompey, a general who had gained splendid victories
in the Orient, and Crassus, the wealthiest capitalist of the empire.
This combination secured the consulship for Cæsar for the year 59. His
opposition to the Senate during this year, and his legislation in the
interest of the people made him very popular. As proconsul (58-50) he
conquered Gaul. Meanwhile Crassus was killed in battle; and Pompey,
adopting the cause of the Senate, prepared nominally to defend the
Republic; in fact, to rid himself of a powerful rival. In the civil war
that followed the seasoned veterans of the popular hero proved superior
to the forces of the Senate, most of them hastily gathered from the
farms. Thereupon the Senate, shifting about, heaped honors and triumphs
upon the victor. As consul, dictator, and supreme pontiff Cæsar was
virtually, though not in name, a king (49-44). The power of the
aristocracy was broken, but its hatred lived and generated a plot to
kill the “enemy of the Republic.” On March 15, 44, Cæsar fell, stabbed
with twenty-three wounds, at the hands of erstwhile friends.

Cæsar began his career as a politician, but ended it as a statesman.
His courage, clemency, and personal charm won countless friends. While
costly entertainments were a political necessity, his moderation in
private life earned the respect of Roman society. A blue-blooded
patrician, he steadfastly championed the popular cause. This policy
alienated his own class, and finally resulted in his death. His
political understanding developed hand in hand with his patriotism.
Better than his contemporaries, he saw the economic and social decay
of the Republic, and felt that inefficiency and corruption could be
eradicated in no other way than by a strong monarchy. His own supremacy
he brought about with the minimum of bloodshed. When once in power he
vigorously swept away the weaknesses and oppression of aristocratic
rule, and laid a solid foundation for the future peace and prosperity
of the empire.

    PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
    ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
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[Illustration: THE RIVER TIBER--IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR]



_JULIUS CÆSAR_

_The Roman Empire_

TWO


Through nearly four centuries of conquest and alliance (400-44 B. C.)
the Roman empire came to embrace the entire Mediterranean region.
After Cæsar’s conquest of Gaul, it extended from the Atlantic to the
Euphrates, from the North Sea and Alps to the Sahara. This vast area
was organized into administrative divisions, called provinces. Its very
size meant a heterogeneous population, scores of peoples, each with its
own language and customs. In the east Greek had replaced local tongues
for literary, diplomatic, and business purposes. In the west many
dialects remained: for Latin, though official, was but gradually coming
into universal use.

Life in the empire was mainly agricultural. Tools were simple, if not
primitive; and only after a struggle could the peasant produce enough
to last until the next harvest. Industries were largely domestic,
carried on at home, or in small shops for local use. The eastern
parts--Egypt, Asia Minor, and western Asia--were far wealthier. Here
commerce and skilled industries were more flourishing, though by any
modern estimate, on a small scale. As there were no machines in the
modern sense, goods had to be made by hand. The imperial roads were
in excellent condition but distances were long, travel was slow, and
transportation expensive, save by water.

When a new territory was incorporated into the empire, it became
a province. It was placed in charge of a quæstor, who controlled
financial matters, and a general executive called proprætor or
proconsul--both appointed annually by the imperial government. The
governor commanded the army and acted as the highest judge in his
territory. The province was divided into city-states, each of which
retained its laws and customs, its magistrates, council, and popular
assembly. They managed their local affairs, and no attempt was made
to interfere in their religion. Instead of rendering military service
they had to pay annual tribute. At auction the highest bidders received
contracts for collecting taxes in the several cities.

Unfortunately, abuses crept into provincial rule. In the first place,
Rome favored her citizens at the expense of her subjects. Native
merchants were superseded by greedy speculators and traders, who,
reducing the people to poverty, drove the peasants from their farms and
built up vast estates of their own. The evil of “farming” taxes became
intolerable, for avaricious contractors made the peasants pay far more
than their due. In his year of service, too, the typical governor
expected to accumulate a fortune sufficient (1) to pay political debts,
(2) to bribe judges in case of prosecution, (3) to live in luxury the
remainder of his life. Few governors were honest enough to check these
wrongs. Furthermore, the wealthier provinces were heavily overtaxed
to help pay the expense of governing the newly acquired frontier
provinces, which as a rule were financial failures.

These evils Cæsar went far in remedying. He curtailed the system
of “farming” taxes, and placed it under strict supervision. Thus
capitalists were prevented from openly plundering the subjects. He
appointed able, honest governors, and held them to account. Legionary
commanders, too, appointed by him to serve under the governor, and
revenue officials--his own servants and freedmen--saw that his will
was everywhere enforced. The provinces, especially the poorer ones,
were to be cultivated and improved. An attempt was made to equalize the
burden of taxation, and the heavy drain on the eastern provinces was
lessened. Lastly, in order to abolish class and national distinctions,
and to weld together the empire, Cæsar allowed himself to be worshipped
as a god, and adopted the policy of rapidly granting citizenship
to provincials. In aiming to bring about such an empire devoid of
nationality Cæsar followed the procedure of the great Alexander, and
set an example for his successor, Napoleon.

    PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
    ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
    COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.



[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM--IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR]



_JULIUS CÆSAR_

_Rome and Egypt_

THREE


Early in his career of conquest Alexander the Great subdued Egypt and
founded Alexandria (332 B. C.) This country proved the most valuable
part of his vast realm, and afterward of the Roman Empire. The valley
of the Nile is exceedingly fertile, well watered as it is from the
river, and continually enriched by the alluvial deposits from the
yearly overflow. The people were patient and laborious. For thousands
of years they had toiled like slaves for their Pharaohs, whom they
looked upon as gods, and who owned all the land and most of the wealth
of the kingdom. Naturally Alexander usurped the property rights and
the divine rights of the Pharaohs; and ultimately when Egypt fell as
a kingdom, to his general, Ptolemy, the latter succeeded to all these
advantages. For nearly three centuries Egypt was ruled by the dynasty
thus founded, in which each king bore the name Ptolemy, inherited from
his father. The king was proprietor, not only of all the land but also
of the extensive industrial plants and shipping. As Alexandria was the
greatest manufacturing and commercial center of the world, Ptolemy was
far the wealthiest capitalist. His military and civil officers were
Greeks; his soldiers were Greeks and other foreigners; so that with
his complex military and administrative machine he was able to govern
the Egyptians as a conquered people. In the eyes of the kings they
were mere producers of wealth; the official language was Greek, and
the majority of sovereigns did not take the pains to learn the native
speech.

At first remarkably competent, the Ptolemies gradually declined in
ability, and even before the birth of Cæsar had come to be subservient
to Rome. We may imagine with what longing the greedy Roman oligarchs
viewed this kingdom, and how persistent was the agitation for its
conquest.

Such an object Cæsar undoubtedly had in view when he sailed against
Alexandria with the pretext of settling a dispute between Ptolemy
and his sister Cleopatra. This fascinating woman convinced the Roman
general of the justice of her cause, and was accordingly placed on the
throne. Their mutual infatuation became the gossip of Rome when she
afterward visited that city. Though not beautiful, the Egyptian queen
was a charming woman. A talented linguist, she could dispense with an
interpreter in dealing with her subjects and with foreign princes. Fond
of music, literature, and art, she made a pleasing hostess, while her
gorgeous entertainments captivated her guests. She was gifted, too,
with an instinct for the various paths to men’s affections; and her
melodious voice and pretty ways won her desires from the strongest of
rulers. This demoniac fascination, coupled with an ambition to found a
great empire, made her one of the most powerful women in all history.

After Cæsar’s death Octavianus (Octavius--called Cæsar Augustus)
remained at Rome, while Antony governed the eastern half of the
empire. Soon he fell under the spell of Cleopatra, and gladly married
her that he might become, without conquest, king of Egypt. Political
motives underlay this romance: he wanted to add Egypt with its vast
wealth to his domain, while she, no less ambitious, viewed the chaos
at Rome as an opportunity to secure for herself Antony’s share of
the empire. Octavianus saw the will of Antony bending before his
consort’s superhuman fascination. Appreciating the danger to Rome,
he defeated Antony in a naval battle, 31 B. C., sailed to Egypt, and
with little trouble captured Alexandria. Seeing that all was lost, the
royal lovers committed suicide. Thus fell the last glorious remnant
of the Alexandrian kingdom. Henceforth it was but a part of the Roman
world-state.

    PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
    ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
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[Illustration: ON EXHIBITION AT STERN BROS., N. Y. CITY.

CÆSAR CROSSING THE RUBICON, BY J. L. GÉRÔME]



_JULIUS CÆSAR_

_Cæsar as Author and General_

FOUR


Nowhere is the versatility of Julius Cæsar more clearly in evidence
than in his literary accomplishments, the majority of which
unfortunately have been lost. His scientific spirit is manifest in an
astronomical work, “Concerning the Stars,” which we do not have, but
which was doubtless connected with his reform of the calendar. As an
orator Cæsar was famed for his precise use of language, good taste,
and vivacious, forcible style of delivery, qualities as necessary to
his political career as to success in authorship. The “Dialogue on
Orators,” however, though highly praised by Cicero, has disappeared,
likewise his treatise on Grammar. The world no longer has his
collection of despatches and letters, many of them in cipher, or his
political pamphlets against Cato, who had been eulogized as “the martyr
of the Republic,” or his “Collective Sayings,” a veritable store-house
of satirical witticisms, or his many poems, with the exception of a
well-known criticism of Terence, the playwright.

We can only judge his varied literary talents by his “Commentaries
On the Gallic War” in seven books, and “On the Civil War” in three,
known to all schoolboys and college students. The former dictated
amidst anxiety and distraction were intended to show his ability and
courage as a general, to justify the moderation of his Gallic policy,
and to forestall attacks by political opponents. Written in the third
person, their modesty dispels the suspicion of egoism, yet the author
knew how, without violating the truth and without boasting, to display
his merits to the greatest possible advantage. The language is simple
and restrained yet vigorous and clear. There are thrilling moments,
for example, in the description of the ever-threatening danger of
Sabinus, or the exciting escape of Cicero, when the fort of Aduatuca
was endangered by a swoop of German marauders. Throughout the story
the natives, with their inferior civilization, their perfidies and
duplicities, are mere pigmies in the clutches of a giant. Like an
irresistible force of nature, the great Roman tramples down everything
in his path.

The same impassive restraint is shown in the “Civil War.” The work
contains fewer thrilling events; but dramatic movements like the
crossing of the Rubicon, grievances at the hands of his enemies, and
his frequent overtures for peace seldom fail to awaken the reader’s
sympathy. The word “commentaries,” applied to these books, signifies
merely “notes,” as the author himself regarded them; but in the
judgment of after ages they are model historical narratives.

From the “Commentaries,” too, we may form an estimate of Cæsar the
general. In knowledge of the technical departments of warfare he has
had few superiors. He knew how to enroll and organize vast numbers
of raw recruits, and to transform them rapidly into trained military
units. The ease with which he overcame the dangers and difficulties
constantly confronting him testify to his consummate tactics and
strategy. He was without a peer in practical psychology--a prime
factor in successful generalship. This quality enabled him to read and
understand the feelings of adversaries as well as of his own men. He
possessed coolness, too, and self-control to an extraordinary degree,
which served to win the confidence and affection of his troops, and to
discourage panic and disaster. He was, moreover, a just critic, eager
to praise, slow to blame. His inherent generosity willingly recognized
and rewarded merit in officers and men. Cæsar was especially fond of
his centurions--the flower of those who had risen from the ranks. Often
without political or family ties, they fought and died for him alone.
Though of slight physique and generally in poor health, through simple
living and sheer force of will Cæsar bore many arduous campaigns,
often marching on foot with his men. It was this unfailing vigor and
resolution, manifesting itself in acts of heroic daring, which gave
courage and moral determination to his forces.

    PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
    ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
    COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.



[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPHED FROM A PRINT

THE DEATH OF CÆSAR, BY J L. GÉRÔME.]



_JULIUS CÆSAR_

_Cæsar’s Associates and Opponents_

FIVE


The most distinguished of Cæsar’s contemporaries was Cicero. With an
exceptional education, he entered politics, where, in spite of scant
means and ignoble ancestry, he finally attained to the consulship,
63 B. C. Throughout his career, an ardent supporter of the Republic,
he opposed the arbitrary rule of Cæsar; and in the Civil War he
favored the Senatorial party. In the troubles following Cæsar’s
murder Cicero heroically defended the Republic in many a brilliant
oration; and in this cause he sacrificed his life. Though possessed
of many noble qualities, his vacillation, artistic temperament, and
supersensitiveness unfitted him for statesmanship.

Cicero’s chief claims to greatness lie in the fields of literature and
philosophy. He was a poet of no mean ability. His “Orations,” with
their kaleidoscopic range of mood and choice of words, are the most
brilliant in the Latin language. The painstaking labor required for
this supreme mastery of speech is shown in his rhetorical works. His
“Letters,” written in simple style, lay bare a human heart, with all
its shortcomings and aspirations, while through their wide range of
topics they bring the reader into intimate touch with the spirit of the
age. Of farther-reaching influence are his works on political science
and philosophy. His “Republic” aims to discover the best form of
government, and to examine into the foundations of national prosperity.
His many philosophic writings set forth the various Greek schools of
thought, especially the Platonic and the Stoic. Through the medium of a
diction so perfect as to make Latin the universal language of culture
for centuries to come, Cicero successfully transplanted Greek thought
to Latin soil. Nor did his influence cease there; from his philosophy
the Church fathers drew inspiration; and in it centuries later the
scholars of the Renaissance first found the vitalizing spark of Greek
culture.

Of Cæsar’s immediate associates, Cassius, Brutus, and Antony are most
interesting, if only for their important rôles in Shakespeare’s “Julius
Cæsar.” Though showered with offices, Cassius, a malcontent, bore a
grudge against Cæsar for being his master, and began to plot against
him. He found many influential men, who, jealous of Cæsar’s power, were
themselves anxious to divide the spoils of government. To give the plot
an air of respectability, he won over Brutus, ostensibly a student and
man of letters, but at heart an unfeeling usurer. Appointed by Cæsar
governor of Cisalpine Gaul and prætor, Brutus became an assassin of his
benefactor.

Among the three near associates of Cæsar, Mark Antony was far the
ablest, and possessed the merit of remaining faithful till the death
of the benefactor. He had filled many military and civil offices with
distinction, and was Cæsar’s colleague in the consulship at the time
of the murder. Shortly before this event, at a public festival, Antony
offered Cæsar a crown, alleging that it was from the people. Although
Cæsar would gladly have welcomed any device for legitimizing his rule,
he refused the kingly title because of its unpopularity.

The assassination left Antony sole consul. Having control of Cæsar’s
papers and property, he skilfully used these advantages to make himself
absolute. In a clever oration at the funeral he turned the feelings of
the populace against the murderers, who thereupon fled from Rome. With
young Octavianus (Octavius) he patched up a temporary alliance, and in
combination they defeated the armies of Brutus and Cassius in the two
battles of Philippi, 42 B. C. The beaten generals committed suicide,
and the victors divided the empire between them, Antony taking the
East and Octavianus the West. The later history of Antony is told in
connection with Cleopatra.

    PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
    ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
    COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.



[Illustration: RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE DEIFIED JULIUS CÆSAR--ROMAN
FORUM]



_JULIUS CÆSAR_

_The Portrait Sculpture and the Reproduction of Buildings in this
Number of The Mentor_

SIX


In the Rome of Cæsar Hellenic influence was active, not only in
literature and philosophy, but also in art. The Roman portrait
sculpture of this period reveals Greek knowledge and skill; but its
essential character was determined by native tradition. The earliest
Roman portraits were waxen death masks formed from a moulding over
the face. Hence they were mechanically accurate but utterly devoid
of animation. Though this material has perished, the visitor to the
museums of Rome will find in relief many a family group in which
the faces retain the mask-like quality. Only in a slighter degree
does the principle apply to portrait sculpture in the round. At
its best the Republican face accordingly is intensely realistic
yet with no intimation of the inner spirit. Commonly the hair is
indicated by parallel scratches made by firm chisel strokes. By these
characteristics many busts and statues may be easily dated. It should
be noticed, too, that in the Republican age the portrait heads, as
distinguished from statues, include in addition to the head scarcely
more than the neck, and that the bust is a gradual development during
the subsequent period. With this criterion we are able to assign the
Brutus of this number of The Mentor to the administration of Claudius,
41-54 A. D. In the colossal portrait of Cæsar of the National Museum
at Naples the bust is a modern restoration, and we may only cherish
the reasonable faith that the head is genuine, though somewhat later
than his lifetime. The famous Cæsar of the British Museum, comprising
head and neck, would satisfy the criterion here formulated, but fails
to pass another even more important test. The indication of the
pupil in the eye was not devised till after Hadrian, 117-138 A. D.,
and accordingly this head could be no earlier. Recently it has been
suggested, with some reason, that the work is a modern study. If so, it
is a great success, as it most admirably expresses the physique and the
character of the famous man.

Another aid to identification is the circumstance that a colossus could
represent no one but a preéminent person; and this criterion favors
the Neapolitan head of Cæsar mentioned above. The colossus statue in
the Conservatori Palace seems to be authentic, but was made a half
century or more after his death. The face is fuller than the literary
description or the coins would warrant, but the difference may well be
due to idealization. The images on coins are doubtless true likenesses,
but in the case of his sculptured portraits we can only deal in
probabilities.

For Pompey we are in a less fortunate condition. The colossal statue
in the Palazzo Spada, a detail of which is given in this number, has
long passed as the image at the feet of which Cæsar met his death;
but the proof is insufficient, and it seems at least as likely that
it represents an emperor. Other portraits are equally uncertain.
The Madrid bust of Cicero is genuine, and well represents the
orator’s great intelligence with a momentary expression of scorn.
The better-known Vatican head, the bust of which is modern, is also
genuine and stands second in merit. For Cleopatra there are no certain
sculptural portraits. The reclining woman of the Ariadne type has been
mistaken for her because of the snake, as she is known to have died by
the bite of an asp. The illustration is given merely because it long
passed for Cleopatra and is a Greek work of rare beauty. Her true image
is shown on coins.

The various reproductions of edifices are not creations of the fancy,
but have been carefully worked out by archæologists from remains of
buildings according to the well established principles of architecture.

    PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
    ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
    COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.



THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF BIOGRAPHY

MARCH 1, 1918

JULIUS CÆSAR

By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD

_Late Professor of History, Columbia University. Author of “Story of
Rome,” “History of Rome,” etc._

    _MENTOR GRAVURES_

    JULIUS CÆSAR

    THE ROMAN FORUM IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR

    THE RIVER TIBER IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR

    _MENTOR GRAVURES_

    CÆSAR CROSSING THE RUBICON

    DEATH OF CÆSAR

    RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE DEIFIED CÆSAR

[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan
Co., Publishers

JULIUS CÆSAR]

Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New
York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, by The
Mentor Association, Inc.


_Rome’s Conquest of the Civilized World_

To understand the world in which Cæsar lived it is necessary first to
review the growth of the Roman Empire. Four hundred years before the
beginning of the Christian era Rome was a small city, an independent
state, it is true, but in possession of a territory no larger than an
American county. In a succession of wars lasting through a century and
a third (400-264 B. C.), she gained control of the whole peninsula of
Italy. In another century (264-167 B. C.), through a new series of
wars, she built up an empire that nearly surrounded the Mediterranean
Sea. This rapid expansion of power is one of the most notable events in
the world’s history. In the present number of The Mentor, however, we
are less concerned with the process of conquest than with its result.
When Rome subdued a foreign state, she exercised her right of war in
depriving it of a great part of its wealth, including money, land,
and art treasures, not only paintings and marbles, but works of great
intrinsic value in bronze, silver, and gold. These confiscations and
the subsequent taxes levied by the imperial government, together with
the illegal exactions of officials, tended to impoverish the world for
the enrichment of Rome and of the few citizens who monopolized the
offices. The conquest differentiated the freemen of the empire into
three distinct classes: the few wealthy Romans, who governed the world,
the masses of Roman citizens who, though in possession of the right to
vote had gained no advantage by the conquest, and the subjects, barred
from all share in the imperial government and greatly oppressed by its
officials.

[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR

In the Capitoline Museum, Rome]

Rome became a great city with a population of about a million, who
had gathered from all parts of the empire. Some had come as slaves,
others to seek their fortunes, while others had been driven from the
surrounding districts by the pinch of poverty. As freemen could find
little work in the city, there grew up a great mob of idlers, who lived
in large part on food doled out to them by the state as the price of
their votes.

The ruling class was represented by the Senate, which was the chief
governing body. Generally the senators were the most cultured and
intelligent people at Rome; but they had all the faults of a narrow
plutocracy; through long enjoyment of wealth and power the class was
thoroughly corrupted and enfeebled. Hence the Senate proved incapable
of governing and protecting the empire and even of preventing the
frequent outbreaks of anarchy in the capital.

[Illustration: TEMPLE OF JUPITER--CAPITOLINE

As it appeared in the time of Cæsar]


_Early Life of Cæsar_

Such in brief was the world in which Gaius Julius Cæsar lived (100-44
B. C.) Belonging to the bluest-blooded aristocracy, he began life
with all the advantages of wealth and family repute. As a boy and
youth he enjoyed the best education of the time. It consisted mainly
in the study and imitation of Greek writers, especially orators,
in preparation for a career as public speaker and statesman. Rome
had derived her civilization from Greece; and every business man or
diplomatist had to speak the Greek language, which was the chief medium
of communication throughout the Mediterranean world.

In company with other young aristocrats Cæsar in early life indulged
in all the dissipations and vices of his class. The foppish negligence
of his attire proclaimed him a rake, while exorbitant luxuries, costly
entertainments, forbidden love-intrigues, gambling--in brief, the
indulging of a great variety of expensive tastes--exhausted his fortune
and loaded him with debts so portentous that he could never hope to pay
them by legal means. Through all these immoralities he kept a sound
mind and a body capable of extreme activity and endurance, though in
his later years he was subject to fainting and to epileptic fits.

The clearness and quickness of his intelligence was such that he could
carry on several lines of thought and keep a number of stenographers[1]
occupied simultaneously with his dictations. These extraordinary mental
powers enabled him to master the most complex political situations
and on the battlefield to turn many a defeat into victory. For the
knowledge necessary to his manifold activities he devoured the contents
of a multitude of books on a great variety of subjects. He was an
orator of splendid power, a writer of clear and simple Latin, a man
of scientific taste, interested in the customs and character of the
peoples with whom he came in contact, and in the phenomena of nature;
a general with few equals in the world’s history, and a statesman
variously estimated by modern historians.

    [1] In that age stenography was a well-developed art, essential to
    the work of a secretary.

[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM (restored), northwest side]

[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan
Co., Publishers

A ROMAN FEAST]

At the beginning of his career he cast his lot with the popular party.
This policy meant little more than a preference for dealing with the
Assembly rather than with the Senate. In theory the Assembly comprised
all the citizens; practically it was attended by the idler members of
the populace. There was no democracy; for those citizens that lived too
far from Rome to attend the Assembly had no voice in the government,
and the vast majority of people in the empire were subjects. It was
expected that a leader of the popular party should propose to the
Assembly bills for the benefit of the masses of citizens, particularly
of the populace, and for checking the powers and privileges of the
aristocracy.

Cæsar was by no means a believer in human equality. Speaking in early
life at the funeral of an aunt, he gave the following account of his
family’s genealogy: “My aunt Julia derived her lineage on her mother’s
side from a race of kings, and on her father’s side from the immortal
gods; for her mother’s family trace their origin to King Ancus Marcius,
and her father’s to Venus, of whose stock we are a branch. We unite in
our pedigree, accordingly, the sacred majesty of kings, who are the
most exalted among men, and the divine majesty of gods, to whom kings
themselves are subject.” Men of such pretensions could never descend to
the level of peasants and artisans, nor believe that the world would
benefit by popular rule.

[Illustration: POMPEY

In the Palazzo Spada, Rome]


_His Wars and His Consulship_

Through an attractive personality, political intrigue sometimes verging
dangerously on conspiracy, and the lavish use of borrowed money, Cæsar
rapidly made his way upward through the higher offices in the routine
order. In those times the surest avenue to political power was success
in military command; and for the years 61-60 B. C. Cæsar was appointed
governor of “Farther Spain.” On his arrival he found his province
at peace; but he managed to stir up trouble with some neighboring
tribes of mountaineers who were beyond the border of the empire. After
imposing upon them orders that they could not obey, he made war upon
them. They had little wealth to plunder, but he took captive great
numbers, whom he sold into slavery. As governor he found other ways
of making money, mostly illegal; so that he was able to reward his
soldiers, pay his huge debts, and have something left for the future.
In this policy he acted like former governors, but with greater
cleverness.

[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR

In the National Museum, Naples]

Returning to Rome, he gained the Consulship, which was the highest
standing office (59 B. C.) There were two consuls; and his colleague
was Bibulus, a stupid person, who chanced to be a political
adversary. For the first time Cæsar was in a position to display
his statesmanship. Two great problems were pressing, the economic
improvement of the masses throughout the empire and their protection
from the greedy oppression of Roman officials. Against the obstruction
of his colleague Cæsar carried a law through the Assembly for the
division of large tracts of public land among the needier citizens--a
measure which brought him great popularity. Although it did nothing to
benefit the subjects, it was a step in the right direction. Another
law, worked out in great detail, aimed to prevent officers of the
empire from committing extortion upon the subjects. Though doubtless
well intended, this law proved ineffective because no one in power
cared to enforce it. Most of his consular year, however, he devoted to
winning influential friends and to securing for himself an opportunity
for further military exploits after the expiration of his Consulship.
The territory placed under his government for this purpose included
especially Cisalpine Gaul--substantially the Po Basin--and Narbonensis,
a strip of land extending along the southern coast of Gaul, now France.

Disturbances beyond his borders gave him a pretext for war, which
lasted eight years (58-50 B. C.), and which resulted in the conquest
of Gaul. In accomplishing this end Cæsar employed his most brilliant
generalship, including lightning-like movements and daring strategy.
When we consider that he had had little experience in warfare, we must
regard his achievements as marvellous. The conquest was accompanied
by great cruelty to the conquered. On one occasion more than fifty
thousand captives were sold into slavery; on another he beheaded the
senators of a conquered community and sold all the people as slaves.
At another time he massacred an entire tribe, numbering more than four
hundred thousand men, women, and children. The plunder, and especially
the sale of captives, brought the victor enormous wealth, a part of
which he devoted to buying supporters at Rome. After overawing Gaul
with terrorism he adopted a policy of conciliation, by which he won the
fidelity of the survivors. Although in entering upon the conquest Cæsar
had merely his own aggrandizement in mind, he must in the end have come
to an appreciation of the value of the new province to the empire. Even
after the vast slaughter and enslavement of the bravest Gauls, the
survivors were full of vitality. The country was rich in agricultural
and mineral resources, and the Rhone River formed a convenient outlet
for the country’s products in the direction of Rome. This acquisition
added great strength to the empire, and prepared the ground for the
extension of Roman civilization into western and central Europe. The
conquest was, in fact, the greatest achievement of Cæsar’s genius.

[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan
Co., Publishers

WARFARE IN CÆSAR’S TIME]

[Illustration: ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER

From Duruy’s “History of Rome”]

[Illustration: GALLIC SOLDIER]

No sooner had he finished this work than he came to blows with the
Senate, which feared his towering ambition. A civil war ensued (49-45
B. C.) The champion of the Senate was Pompey, who also had met with
great success in war. Though in appearance the struggle was between
Cæsar and the Republic, its real object was to determine which of the
two leading generals should be master of the Roman world. Pompey was
defeated and killed; and in the end Cæsar subdued the whole empire
to his will. He ruled as Dictator, appointed to that office by the
submissive Senate.


_His Reforms as Dictator_

[Illustration: ROMAN WORKS OF APPROACH

Showing parts of a Gallic wall in which stones are intermixed with
beams]

During the civil war and the year following its close Cæsar gave
attention to internal reforms. Humanely and prudently he forgave
political offenders, and associated with himself in the government
many who had fought against him in the war. He sought to reconcile old
hatreds and to introduce an era of good feeling. There can be no doubt
of his sympathy with the subject peoples. Those in authority in the
provinces were no longer to enrich themselves and their friends by
oppression, but were held strictly accountable to the Dictator. Roman
citizenship was a highly-prized possession, as it meant justice and an
enviable social standing to the possessor. Cæsar granted it freely to
individuals and to entire communities. Obviously, his aim was the rapid
equalization of all freemen of the empire.

He took especial interest in public improvements at Rome. Among these
works was the completion of the temple to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva
on the Capitoline Hill. The earlier temple had been destroyed by fire,
and the construction of the new building required about thirty-six
years. This was the largest and most stately temple in the city. Cæsar
laid out a public square, named after his family the Julian Forum, in
which he erected a temple to Venus Genetrix (ancestress), from whom
he claimed descent. In it he placed a graceful statue of the goddess,
carved by Arcesilaus, the most famous sculptor of the age. It is a
remarkable example of clinging transparent drapery. In this public
exhibition of his descent from a goddess Cæsar boldly displayed his
egotism, which was further exalted by decrees of the Senate proclaiming
him a god. It was not till after his death, however, that a temple
was actually erected, at the east end of the Roman Forum, for his
worship.[2] The Curia, Senate House, Cæsar began to rebuild, but its
completion was left to Augustus, who named it the Curia Julia, after
the Julian family, to which Cæsar, and by adoption Augustus, belonged.
On the south side of the Forum he began the construction of the
Basilica Julia, afterward finished by Augustus. It was a great hall
intended for judicial and mercantile business. These are but a small
part of the vast improvements that he planned for Rome, Italy, and
the empire. The greater number remained mere schemes. To us the most
interesting was the cutting of a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth,
a work that has had to await the skill of the modern engineer.

    [2] The temple of the deified Cæsar, the ruins of which is pictured
    in this number.

As supreme pontiff Cæsar was the head of the state religion and
guardian of the sacred lore. In this capacity he reformed the
calendar, which in his day had fallen into dire confusion. The
improvement consisted essentially in the adoption of the Egyptian solar
year of 365¼ days. The Julian calendar remained in force throughout
the civilized world till 1582, when it was superseded by that of Pope
Gregory XIII, who introduced a more exact system.

[Illustration: ROMAN FASCES

Bundle of rods and axe bound together and borne before emperors and
other rulers as symbols of power]

[Illustration: THE BASILICA JULIA--Roman Forum (restored)]

[Illustration: A DENARIUS

Stamped with the head of Cæsar. A denarius was a silver coin worth
about 20 cents]


_Personal Appearance, Friends and Character_

The Romans as a people belonged to the Mediterranean race, and the
great majority, therefore, were short and dark, like the Sicilians of
today. Cæsar, however, was tall and fair, with round, well-proportioned
limbs and black piercing eyes. His portraits on coins and in sculpture
show a spare face with a high, broad forehead inclined to baldness,
representing a physique too delicate to sustain the enormous activities
of his brain. To the end of his days he paid, perhaps, an excessive
attention to his personal appearance, and was especially gratified when
the Senate in his honor decreed him the privilege of wearing a laurel
wreath; for he found it a means of covering his baldness. There was in
his face and manner a frank sympathy that won the hearts of all those
that came into close touch with him; and in spite of brutal conquests
he developed an expression of gentleness and clemency mentioned by
writers of his age.

The greatest of his contemporaries was Cicero, who by sheer energy and
ability had worked his way to the highest offices, and had rescued the
state from a dangerous conspiracy. Though he was a consummate political
orator, Cicero’s tastes lay chiefly in the direction of literary
and philosophic composition, pleasant country life, and association
with intellectual men. Cæsar tried to win him as a political ally;
but Cicero and those intimate associates that loved the Republic
feared Cæsar’s autocratic methods and ambition. This aloofness of the
intellectual class drove Cæsar to seek friends and helpers in the lower
ranks of society and among his subordinate military officers. Although
a few of these people served him faithfully, the great majority were
incompetent to fill the offices that he gave them, and were bent only
on shirking duty and enriching themselves. On such a basis no man,
however great, can build up a just and efficient system of government.

[Illustration: CICERO

In the Vatican Museum, Rome]

[Illustration: CICERO

In the Madrid Museum. Considered the most authentic marble portrait of
the great orator]

[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan
Co., Publishers

POMPEY]

In spite of many admirable qualities Cæsar shared fully in the moral
looseness of the age, which set at naught all marriage relations.
Not even his friends at Rome, nor friendly kings who gave him their
hospitality, could trust their wives to his honor. With Cleopatra,
queen of Egypt, he had associated in her capital; but he shocked even
his dissolute countrymen by bringing her to Rome and into his own house.


_An Imitation of Alexander_

[Illustration: POMPEY’S THEATER (restored)

First theater in Rome built of stone]

That Cæsar desired absolute power, not merely for his own enjoyment
but in the conviction that with it he could best serve the empire,
can hardly be disputed; but whether or not he wished the kingly title
no one can know. While he was in the Orient the glamor of Alexander’s
achievements seems to have overcome him; and under this spell he
neglected the work of improving the empire to plan the conquest of the
great Parthian kingdom, Rome’s only surviving rival. In this scheme the
conqueror got the better of the statesman. A motive to the new war,
in itself unnecessary, was to escape from the situation at Rome--from
flattery, intrigue, the incompetence of officials, from deadly though
silent envy and hatred, which were making his life every day more
unendurable. As the conqueror of Parthia he could overwhelm all
opposition and mold the empire as clay in the potter’s hands. For the
remainder of his days he could dwell serene on the pinnacle of glory;
and at his death, having no son of his own, he could bequeath the
regenerated world to his grandnephew Octavius, a youth of great promise
whom he had adopted as a son.

[Illustration: CLEOPATRA

In the Vatican Museum, Rome]

From all that we can learn, however, success in the Parthian war
would have been a catastrophe to European civilization. In wealth and
population, in the resources of war and peace, the Oriental part of
the empire would have overbalanced the European. The capital would
have shifted to Alexandria or farther east; and Oriental absolutism
would have dominated the civilized world. Three centuries after Cæsar,
autocracy was to come even to Europe. It came with its bureaucratic
accompaniment to destroy the little that remained of economic strength
and intellectual freedom, and to drag to ruin the decaying civilization
of the ancient world.

Cæsar, however, was not destined even to set out for Parthia. On March
15 (44 B. C.), the Senate met to take the last measures preparatory
to his departure. The place of session was the Senate House which
Pompey had built near his theater. Scarcely had Cæsar entered and taken
his seat when a throng of about sixty senators gathered round him,
pretending to greet him and to offer a petition. They were conspirators
who had engaged in a plot for his assassination, through no especial
love for the Republic, but for various personal reasons. Many had
gained office and wealth under his patronage; but in their greed for
greater wealth and political glory they lost all sense of gratitude.
The best among them was Marcus Brutus, in his own social circle a
philosopher and an idealist, but in business a hard, relentless usurer.
Caius Cassius, the brain of the conspiracy, was a plunderer of the
provinces and a robber of temples, whom envy drove into the plot. By
such men was Cæsar slain. It was a crime perpetrated upon the civilized
world, which had to endure thirteen more years of desolating civil
war (44-31 B. C.), before Octavius, the young heir to Cæsar, could
gain the mastery and bring the empire to peace. This young man, known
to history as Augustus, though less brilliant than his granduncle,
possessed a far greater degree of practical wisdom. It was he, rather
than Cæsar, who gave the Roman world an organization under which it was
to enjoy more than two centuries of prosperity and happiness. Viewed in
this light, the wisest act of the great Cæsar was the choice of this
youth of delicately modeled features and frail body as his son and
successor.

[Illustration: OCTAVIUS

Called “Augustus.” In the Vatican Museum, Rome]

[Illustration: MARCUS BRUTUS

In the National Museum, Naples. Found at Pompeii]

       *       *       *       *       *

THE PASSING OF CÆSAR--“On March 15 (the Ides of March), 44 B. C.,
Cæsar entered the Senate Chamber and took his seat. His presence awed
men, in spite of themselves, and the conspirators had determined to
act at once, lest they should lose courage to act at all. He was
familiar and easy of access. They gathered round him. He knew them
all. There was not one from whom he had not a right to expect some
sort of gratitude, and the movement suggested no suspicion. One had a
story to tell him; another some favor to ask. Tullius Cimber, whom he
had just made governor of Bithynia, then came close to him with some
request which he was unwilling to grant. Cimber caught his gown, as
if in entreaty, and dragged it from his shoulders. Cassius, who was
standing behind, stabbed him in the throat. He started up with a cry,
and caught Cassius’s arm. Another poinard entered his breast, giving a
mortal wound. He looked round, and seeing not one friendly face, but
only a ring of daggers pointing at him, he drew his gown over his head,
gathered the folds about him that he might fall decently, and sank
down without uttering another word. Cicero was present. Brutus, waving
his dagger, shouted to Cicero, congratulating him that liberty was
restored. The Senate rose with shrieks and confusion, and rushed into
the Forum. The crowd outside caught the words that Cæsar was dead and
scattered to their houses. The murderers, some of them bleeding from
wounds which they had given one another in their eagerness, followed,
crying that the tyrant was dead, and that Rome was free.”--_James
Anthony Froude._

[Illustration: THE FALLEN CONQUEROR

A reproduction of the pen drawing of the figure of Cæsar made by the
painter Gérôme as a preliminary sketch for his great picture of the
assassination of Cæsar]


_SUPPLEMENTARY READING_: JULIUS CÆSAR, by G. Ferrero; JULIUS CÆSAR,
a sketch, by J. A. Froude; JULIUS CÆSAR, by W. W. Fowler (Heroes of
the Nations Series); JULIUS CÆSAR, by J. Abbott; LIFE OF CÆSAR, in
Plutarch’s Lives.

⁂ Information concerning these books may be had on application to the
Editor of The Mentor.



_THE CONQUERORS_


[Illustration: Copyright by Braun, Clement & Co. Original painting
owned by John Wanamaker

THE CONQUERORS

This powerful painting by Pierre Fritel pictures the grim progress of
the great conquerors of the world through an avenue of death lined by
the victims of the world’s wars. Cæsar rides in the center--beside and
behind are Tamerlane, Alexander, Attila, Charlemagne, Napoleon and
other world conquerors.]

It is Human Desire that makes world history--desire for conquest,
possession, and control. The Conqueror of the World must have his will.
He treads the peoples of the earth under his feet, and spreads ruin in
his path. He knows no social distinctions--this Re-molder of Humanity.
The habitations of poor and rich alike are demolished, and the
treasured possessions of city and town desecrated. Monuments of revered
memory are razed to the ground, and new monuments to the Conqueror are
raised to the sky. Nations are subjugated; governments are revised;
territory is re-assigned; new laws are made. The people bow under the
yoke; the Conqueror is enthroned with pomp and ceremony, and hailed as
Master of the World.

And then--something happens that saves the world for the people. Some
call it the “Hand of Fate”; those that live in the faith call it the
“Will of God.” But history tells us that final defeat awaits the man
that aspires to be Conqueror of the World.

       *       *       *       *       *

Tamerlane, the Tartar tyrant, called “the Scourge of God,” swept the
hordes of Asia before him in world conquest. He died suddenly while
preparing to invade China. Alexander of Macedon, called “the Great,”
made himself master of the world of his day. He forestalled Fate by
dissipating his young life away, and died broken-hearted, sighing for
more worlds to conquer. Hannibal, the Carthaginian, carried the spirit
of conquest across the Mediterranean to Spain, Italy, and over the
Alps. He threatened Rome itself, and aspired to the overlordship of
land and sea. Finally, defeated by Scipio Africanus, he was exiled to
Syria, where, dishonored and deserted, he committed suicide. Julius
Cæsar conquered all Gaul, and carried the standards of Rome to far-off
Britain. The name of Cæsar became synonymous with conquest, so that
it has been borne by successive emperors for centuries, and is, even
in this day, the title of Imperialism. But Cæsar crossed the Rubicon,
“and Rome was free no more.” In the very fullness of his power he was
assassinated by his own senators, his friend Brutus among them.

“As he was ambitious,” said Brutus, “I slew him. There is joy for his
fortune; honor for his valor; and _death_ for his ambition.”

Napoleon Bonaparte gained leadership in France at a critical time,
reconstructed her shattered institutions, and built up a military
power that dominated all Europe. His ambition contemplated a personal
supremacy of the Continent, with vassal nations paying tribute to
his sovereignty. Beyond the bounds of Europe he carried conquest
into Egypt, riding his charger to the foot of the Pyramids. But his
over-weening ambition tempted him too far. As the crossing of the
Rubicon sealed the fate of Cæsar, the crossing of the Niemen marked the
beginning of Napoleon’s downfall. With the Grand Army of more than half
a million men, he invaded Russia, penetrating as far as Moscow. In a
few months, with a pitiful, broken and ragged remnant of his forces,
he recrossed the Niemen, minus glory and minus the trophies of war.
Soon after, Napoleon met his Waterloo, and ended his days in lonely
brooding, like an eagle chained to a rock, on the desolate island of
St. Helena.

       *       *       *       *       *

_Sic transit gloria mundi_--“so passes away the glory of the world”; so
ends the career of the Conqueror.

[Illustration: W. D. Moffat

EDITOR]



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     80 Oliver Cromwell, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
     81 China, by Elmendorf.
     82 Favorite Trees, by Hornaday.
     83 Yellowstone National Park, by Elmendorf.
     84 Famous Women Writers of England, by Mabie.
     85 Painters of Western Life, by Hoeber.
     86 China and Pottery of Our Forefathers, by Esther Singleton.
     87 The Story of The American Railroad, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
     88 Butterflies, by Holland.
     89 The Philippine Islands, by Worcester.
     90 Great Galleries of the World--the Louvre, by Van Dyke.
     91 William M. Thackeray, by Mabie.
     92 The Grand Canyon, by Elmendorf.
     93 Architecture in American Country Homes, by Embury.
     94 The Story of the Danube, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
     95 Animals in Art, by Kobbé.
     96 The Holy Land, by Elmendorf.
     97 John Milton, by Mabie.
     98 Joan of Arc, by Ida M. Tarbell.
     99 Furniture of the Revolutionary Period, by Esther Singleton.
    100 The Ring of the Nibelung, by Finck.
    101 The Golden Age of Greece, by Botsford.
    102 Chinese Rugs, by Mumford.
    103 The War of 1812, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
    104 Great Galleries of the World--The National Gallery, London,
        by Van Dyke.
    105 Masters of the Violin, by Finck.
    106 American Pioneer Prose Writers, by Mabie.
    107 Old Silver, by Esther Singleton.
    108 Shakespeare’s Country, by William Winter.
    109 Historic Gardens of New England, by Mary H. Northend.
    110 The Weather, by C. F. Talman.
    111 American Poets of the Soil, by Johnson.
    112 Argentina, by Newman.
    113 Game Animals of America, by Hornaday.
    114 Raphael, by Van Dyke.
    115 Walter Scott, by Mabie.
    116 The Yosemite Valley, by Elmendorf.
    117 John Paul Jones, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
    118 Russian Music, by Finck.
    119 Chile, by Newman.
    120 Rembrandt, by Van Dyke.
    121 Southern California, by C. F. Lummis.
    122 Keeping Time, by Talman.
    123 American Miniature Painting, by Mrs. Elizabeth Lounsbery.
    124 Gems, by Esther Singleton.
    125 The Orchestra, by Henderson.
    126 The Madonna and Child in Art, by Van Dyke.
    127 The American Triumvirate, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
    128 Brazil, by Newman.
    129 American Water Colors, by Kobbé.
    130 The Planets, by Prof. Jacoby.
    131 American Water Color Painters, by Gustav Kobbé, Author and Critic.
    132 Peru, by E. M. Newman, Lecturer and Traveler.
    133 The Story of The American Army, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
    134 Our Planet Neighbors, by Harold Jacoby.
    135 The Story of Russia, by Leo Pasvolsky.
    136 The Story of the Hudson, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
    137 Prehistoric Animal Life, by Dr. W. D. Matthew.
    138 Hawaii, by E. M. Newman.
    139 Earthquakes and Volcanoes, by C. F. Talman.
    140 The Canadian Rockies, by Ruth Kedzie Wood.
    141 Corot, by Elliott Daingerfield.
    142 Bolivia, by E. M. Newman.
    143 Russian Art, by William A. Coffin, N. A.
    144 The American Government, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
    145 Christmas in Picture and Story, by Esther Singleton.
    146 The Picture on the Wall, by Frank Weitenkampf.
    147 Lafayette, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
    148 American Composers, by W. J. Henderson.
    149 Luxembourg Gallery, by William A. Coffin.

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