The Homing Pigeon - War Department Technical Manual TM 11-410

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Title: The Homing Pigeon - War Department Technical Manual TM 11-410
Author: Various
Language: English
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_WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL
TM 11-410_

_This manual supersedes TM 11—410, 10 September 1940_

THE HOMING
PIGEON

[Illustration: War Office emblem]

_WAR DEPARTMENT • JANUARY 1945_

_DISSEMINATION OF RESTRICTED MATTER._

The information contained in restricted documents and the essential
characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person
known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of
undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government
work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press
except by authorized military public relations agencies. (See also
par. 23b, AR 380-5, 15 Mar 44.)

_U. S. Government Printing Office
Washington: 1945_

WAR DEPARTMENT
Washington 25, D. C., 1 January 1945

TM 11-410, The Homing Pigeon, is published for the information and
guidance of all concerned.

[AG 300.7 (6 Nov 44)]

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR:

OFFICIAL: G. C. MARSHALL
J. A. ULIO _Chief of Staff_
_Major General_
_The Adjutant General_

DISTRIBUTION:

AAF (10); AGF (10); ASF (10); Arm & Sv Bd (2); Dept (10); Tech Sv
(2); Sv C (10); PC & S (1); Gen & Sp Sv Sch (10); USMA (1); ROTC
(1); ROTC, Lib (1); A(10); CHQ (10); D(2); Bn(1); Bn 11(2); C
11(5); T/O & E 11-39 (50)

For explanation of symbols, see FM 21-6.

CONTENTS ★★

_Paragraph_ _Page_

SECTION I. GENERAL

Purpose 1 1
Methods 2 1
Origin and history 3 1
Nature 4 1
Utility 5 2

II. DESCRIPTION

General appearance 6 3
Weight 7 3
Plumage 8 3
Head 9 3
Neck 10 3
Body 11 3
Respiratory channels 12 5
Digestive organs 13 6
Bloom or milt 14 6
Molt 15 8
Varieties of feathers 16 9

III. CARE

Loft 17 11
Preparation of loft to receive
pigeons 18 11
Receipt of pigeons at loft 19 11
Watering 20 14
Feeding 21 15
Pigeon feed 22 16
Bathing 23 25
Catching and handling 24 25

IV. LOFT MANAGEMENT AND RECORDS

Routine 25 28
Classification of pigeon colors 26 28
Records and reports 27 29
Banding 28 37
Loft equipment 29 39
Message holders 30 42

V. TRAINING

Responsibility for training 31 45
Qualifications for pigeoneers 32 45
Introduction to pigeon training 33 46
Settling pigeons 34 46
Training for messenger service 35 50
Delivering pigeons by parachute 36 58

VI. MATING AND BREEDING

Mating 37 62
Sex 38 62
Selection of stock 39 62
Line breeding 40 64
Nests 41 64
Control of breeding 42 64
Laying 43 65
Hatching and feeding 44 65
Identification 45 65
Culling 46 65

VII. DISEASES AND MEDICINES

General 47 67
Prevention of disease 48 67
Control of disease 49 67
Anatomy and physiology 50 68
Indications of sickness 51 69
Diseases 52 69
External parasites 53 73
Internal parasites 54 77
Treatment of injuries 55 81
Medicines 56 82

_This manual supersedes TM 11-140, 10 September 1940_

SECTION I

GENERAL

1. Purpose

This manual provides instructions for proper breeding, care, and
training of the homing pigeon, and for the selection and training of
enlisted pigeoneers. With certain modifications this information can
be used by all pigeon units serving field forces, both in theaters of
operations and in the zone of the interior. Instructions in FM 24-5 for
units using the homing pigeon in communication have not been repeated.
The mission, function, and operation of a signal pigeon company and the
tactical employment of pigeons are described in FM 11-80.

2. Methods

The methods prescribed in this manual are based upon experience.
Accordingly, if any new procedures are found by experience to improve
pigeon communication they should be submitted to the Chief Signal
Officer for consideration.

3. Origin and History

The homing pigeon used by the Army for signal communication (referred
to in this manual as “pigeon,” “homing pigeon,” and “bird”) is a
distinct variety created through careful cross-breeding to obtain
maximum distance and speed in controlled and directed flight. Homing
pigeons are grouped in families or strains usually identified by
the names of the civilian pigeon fanciers who bred them for many
generations to develop certain characteristics of performance and
appearance. When the several varieties of pigeons used to breed the
modern homing pigeon actually originated is not certain. It is known,
however, that the following varieties existed in England and Belgium
before the nineteenth century, although the exact percentage and order
of their blend have not been determined: Smerle, Horseman, Cumulet,
Dragoon, Carrier, and Owl.

4. Nature

The principle of using homing pigeons as messengers is based on their
instinctive attempt to return to their home lofts whenever they are
removed some distance and released. They will do this even with an
attached message or other light article. This desire to return is
largely based on natural urges of hunger and reproduction. Because the
pigeon has only one mate the reproductive urge is often the stronger.
These impulses can be stimulated by _controlled_ feeding, mating, and
breeding without harming the pigeon’s health.

5. Utility

The pigeon’s usefulness to the Army is measured by the reliability
and speed with which it returns to its loft. Speed and reliability
are largely determined by the pigeon’s strain, physical condition,
training, and treatment. Therefore any lowering of standards for
these factors will be a serious handicap. Further handicaps are
discussed in _e_ below. Section V sets minimum ability standards for
properly-trained, well-bred, healthy birds to be used by combat units
as message carriers.

_a._ BREEDING. Since physical characteristics and homing instinct are
usually inherited from the parents, records are maintained for each
pigeon. Then pairs are selected, mated, and allowed to produce young
birds on the basis of these records, plus other desirable attributes
described in section VI.

_b._ CONDITION. The physical condition of a pigeon greatly affects its
performance. Therefore, study physical characteristics of pigeons and
enforce procedures prescribed in sections III and VII for feeding,
watering, and maintaining proper physical condition.

_c._ TRAINING. Training of the pigeon begins at an early age, and is
progressive and constant. The object is to settle the pigeon in its
home loft in order to develop reliability and speed as described in
section V.

_d._ TREATMENT. The pigeon is highly sensitive and responsive to
kindness, firmness, reward for good performance, and calmness of
personnel handling it. Make the loft as attractive as possible because
the pigeon prizes its home.

_e._ HANDICAPS. Bad weather, darkness, and injury, as well as
inadequacies in breeding, conditioning, and training, reduce efficiency
of pigeons (see par. 9_c_).

(1) _Bad weather._ This includes snow, fog, rain, and adverse winds, or
any other conditions which reduce visibility or oppose the flight of
the pigeon. Generally, flights may be predicted according to certain
atmospheric conditions as follows:

_Conditions_ _Results_

Blue sky, high ceiling with white Very fast speed.
fleecy clouds, and low humidity.

Solid grey or bluish grey sky with Very slow speed, losses may
low ceiling, no clouds, and high occur.
humidity.

(2) _Darkness._ Pigeons never lose their initial fear of flying at
night, but it is possible to train them to overcome this fear to a
great extent. Their natural instinct and intelligence will come to
their aid. Night operation, however, is considered impracticable for
the Army pigeons because of the highly mobile tactics of modern warfare.

(3) _Injury._ Injuries are commonly caused by improper handling,
predatory birds (such as hawks), enemy shellfire, or obstacles pigeons
strike in flight. Protect pigeons by destroying all hawks in the
vicinity of the lofts with shotguns provided for that purpose. Select
safe locations for releasing pigeons. Minor injuries rarely prevent a
homing pigeon from returning to its loft as long as they do not hamper
it from determining the proper course of flight. When vitally injured,
the pigeon will continue its return flight until physically exhausted.
Any injury which permanently impairs the eyes or wings of a pigeon
makes it unsuitable for any employment except breeding.

SECTION II

DESCRIPTION

6. General Appearance

Pigeons must look healthy, well-balanced, alert, intelligent, and
showing abundance of rich feathers and sheen. Figure 1 shows the main
parts of the homing pigeon (the right wing is extended for ease of
description).

7. Weight

A cock weighs from 14 to 17 ounces; a hen, from 13 to 16 ounces.

8. Plumage

Rich, abundant, and soft plumage should cover the entire body. The
color itself is of no importance, but rich shades, with the checkered
pattern (if present) standing out brightly and distinctly, usually
indicate good health and satisfactory condition. For classification of
pigeons according to color see paragraph 26.

9. Head

The head should be of a medium size, round or oval shaped, of broad
structure and strongly set. It should not be tight or drawn at any one
place.

_a._ BILL. The bill should be of medium length with small to medium
wattles and set well into the head. No openings should be noticeable
when the bill is closed.

_b._ EYE. See section VI.

_c._ EAR. The ear seems to play an important part in the bird’s sense
of direction. It includes three parts: external ear, middle ear, and
inner ear. At the top of the inner ear there are three semicircular
canals which appear to be the nerve conductors of orientation. Although
no one knows just what helps homing pigeons find their loft, it is
possible that the great sensitiveness of their ears enables them to
receive magnetic and atmospheric impression, and thereby to determine
direction either at departure or during flight. This theory is based on
the fact that atmospheric disturbances often cause the bird temporarily
to lose its way.

10. Neck

The neck is of medium length, with no sign of dewlap at the throat. It
tapers to a wide, well-sprung chest.

11. Body

_a._ BREAST. The breast (or chest) is broad and full in front; depth of
breastbone should not exceed the width.

_b._ SHOULDERS. The shoulders are heavy and strongly reinforced with
muscles.

_c._ BACK. The back is well-feathered, strong, flat and broad at the
shoulders, narrowing toward the rump.

[Illustration: _Figure 1. Parts of homing pigeon._

TL70171]

_d._ KEEL. The keel is strong, arched in front, and of medium length
and depth. Width of keel denotes strength.

_e._ ABDOMEN. The abdomen is reduced to the smallest proportions.

_f._ WINGS. The wings must be medium-sized, strong, well-proportioned,
and rounded at the butt, with plenty of muscle. Primary flights should
be of a good width, with plenty of overlapping space and a pronounced
curvature towards the body. See _i_ below. Secondary feathers should
also be long and wide to provide a good covering for the entire back.
Covert feathers should be sturdy and abundant, because they supply
additional wing strength, as well as protect pigeons against adverse
weather.

_g._ PELVIC BONES. The pelvic bones (or vent bones) are very firm,
close together over the vent, and extend toward the keel on each side
of the vent. These bones form a body girdle by which the legs are
joined to the body.

_h._ RUMP. The rump is wide and continues the line of the back. It is
well covered on all sides with fine, soft feathers.

_i._ TAIL FEATHERS. The tail feathers, 12 in number, are short, wide,
overlapping, and do not extend farther than 3/4 inch beyond the wing
tips.

_j._ LEGS. The legs are of medium length and well muscled. Thighs are
chubby. Lower leg is red and stout, and toes are short with firm nails.

=12. Respiratory Channels= (fig. 2)

[Illustration: _Figure 2. Respiratory channels of homing pigeon. (Air
sacs are named in accordance with McLeod and Wagers. Other names are
given in parenthesis.)_

TL70172]

Respiratory channels are highly developed, enabling the pigeon to fly
continuously from 12 to 15 hours. Air circulates through the bronchial
tubes and lungs and also through nine air sacs, from which other small,
irregular cavities extend under the skin between the muscles, and even
into the inside of the bones. These small air sacs contain a reserve
of warm air which feeds the lungs during flight when the muscular
apparatus consumes a large amount of oxygen. They inflate and collapse
alternately, acting as a lift and force pump which renews air in the
lungs.

13. Digestive Organs

Digestive organs of the pigeon are shown in figure 3 (for functions see
par. 50_b_).

[Illustration: _Figure 3. Digestive organs of homing pigeon._

TL70173]

14. Bloom or Milt

This white, chalky powder is one of the means provided by nature to
protect feathers against moisture during flight. When the pigeon
bathes, the bloom is deposited in the form of a white scum on the top
of the water. If a bird is caught and held closely, the bloom rubs off,
leaving a white substance on the clothes. Absence of bloom is a symptom
of poor health.

[Illustration: _Figure 4. A flight._

TL70174]

15. Molt

Molting is nature’s way of shedding feathers and furnishing new ones
for the entire body. Thus, feathers lost or injured the preceding year
are replenished, and a perfect coat is insured for the coming year. An
imperfect molt indicates an unhealthy condition which will reduce the
pigeon’s efficiency and result in the breeding of inferior offspring.

_a._ TIME OF MOLT. Every pigeon should molt once a year. Mated pigeons
start molting approximately 1 week after the second set of eggs has
been laid in the new season. Unmated old pigeons ordinarily begin
molting in May or June. The time young birds molt depends primarily on
the date of hatch. Those hatched during the early part of July begin
with head and neck feathers very soon after leaving the nest, and later
during the year partially molt all feathers. The process is completed
the following summer. Various influences hasten or retard molting. For
example, exceptionally warm weather may hasten it. Poor health retards
and may prevent a complete molt. Early breeding ordinarily hastens the
process, while late breeding tends to delay it.

[Illustration: _Figure 5. Tail feathers of homing pigeon._

TL70175]

_b._ ORDER OF MOLT. Feathers are shed in the following order (see par.
16 and fig. 1):

(1) Primary flight No. _1_ is shed first, and new feathers begin to
grow in its place.

(2) As soon as new feathers are one-half to three-quarters grown,
remaining primary flights are shed in numerical order.

(3) When flights Nos. _5_ or _6_ have been shed, molt spreads to neck
and shoulders.

(4) By the time flights Nos. _6_ or _7_ have been shed, the tail-molt
begins with feathers No. _2_ (fig. 8), then continues in the following
numerical order: _1_, _3_, _4_, _6_, and _5_.

(5) When the last flights have been shed, the molt is practically
complete, except for a few fine body feathers.

_c. Care during molt._ The molt is a great physical drain on pigeons;
therefore, if practicable, hard flying and breeding activities should
be temporarily abandoned during this period. Exercise flights should
be only as long as is necessary for the pigeon’s health. When weather
permits, the birds should be allowed to bathe regularly, because this
will soften the skin and help feathers drop. The only sure method
of correcting an unsatisfactory molt is to restore the pigeon to
a healthy, vigorous physical condition. No attempt should be made
to aid the molt by plucking the next feathers in order, as in all
probability the new feathers will be inferior, or may not even appear.
The substance which creates new feathers is lacking in the sockets
for about 2 months after the molt is completed. During the molting
period, it is especially necessary that birds be fed rich, oily, easily
digested food such as grain (hemp, canary, flax or linseed) and greens.
This food will keep weight up to normal and insure a good growth of
feathers.

16. Varieties of Feathers

Feathers grow in definite areas on the body. These feathered areas
or strips are known as pterylae. Bare spaces in between are called
apterylae. Feathers are divided into four types: contour feathers, hair
feathers, fluff feathers, and down feathers.

_a._ CONTOUR FEATHERS. Contour feathers are large feathers covering
the pigeon’s body. When the bird is not in flight or excited, they lie
close to its body, normally overlapping and presenting a smooth outer
surface. The larger ones are the flight and tail feathers. The average
pigeon has 12 main tail feathers; on each wing there are 10 primary
flights and 12 secondary flights. The bases of these large feathers
are covered by shorter feathers called coverts. These give a rounded,
smooth, and continuous line to the body.

The main tail feathers act as a rudder in flight, controlling the
bird’s direction. Flying is possible because every flight feather
overlaps, presenting a solid surface on the downbeat of the wing.
Besides, flight feathers provide lift and pull for the bird’s
propulsion. On the upbeat of the wing, the large flight feathers rotate
in such a manner as to cut through the air with little resistance, and
at the same time to permit escape of air.

The general structure of a contour feather can be best observed in a
primary flight from the wing or a large rectrix from the tail. The
stiff, hollow, cylindrical portion emerging from the skin is called
the quill. The bare quill proper extends only to the webbed portion
of the feather. It has a small hole (inferior umbilicus) at the end,
penetrating the skin. Nourishment for the feather passes through this
opening. The expanded portion of the feather, from the tip to the
quill, is known as the vane. The central portion of the vane, which
is called the shaft, is solid. Extending laterally from the shaft is
a web or webbing composed of barbs or rays. These rays are blade-like
in structure. The web of most feathers is generally wider on one side
of the shaft than on the other. The barbs are connected by a series of
cross structures called barbules which can be seen only with the aid of
magnifying lens. To see the barbs, however, apply a slight tension on
the webbing of the feather, causing it to spread apart. The invisible
barbules will split if too much tension is applied. Barbs can be
repaired so that little or no evidence of the split can be detected, by
stroking the feather between the index finger and thumb. Pigeons repair
a split in the barb by squeezing oil from the oil duct with their beak,
and then spreading it on the injured feather.

Feather textures vary greatly with the breed of the bird and the part
of the body from which they grow. When selecting homing pigeons, try to
select those with strong, firm feathers.

_b._ HAIR FEATHERS. Also known as filoplumes, hair feathers are
hair-like structures interspersed among the regular body feathers. They
are so fine that they are usually overlooked.

_c._ FLUFF FEATHERS. Sometimes called semiplumes, fluff feathers are
soft and fluffy because of the absence of a rigid feather shaft and
barbules in their web. The barbs are also long, soft, and fluffy, and
present a downy appearance. Fluff feathers grow only on certain parts
of the body.

_d._ DOWN FEATHERS. Down feathers are the soft, hairy, yellow feathers
on young pigeons. They are extremely fine, almost filamentous in
structure. These feathers drop off all through the period of the young
bird’s growth; a few, however, may remain after complete feathering has
taken place.

SECTION III

CARE

17. Loft

Pigeons are housed in lofts which may be buildings or vehicles designed
and equipped for that purpose. The loft includes all the equipment,
accessories and utilities necessary for the care of pigeons (figs. 6,
7, and 8). Perches are placed on the sides of loft walls. When a pigeon
is “settled” to a loft, that loft becomes its home.

_a._ An _aviary_ is the part of the loft where pigeons can be given
sunlight. It is usually built with wire netting on the sides and roof.

_b._ The _trap_ is a specially constructed opening which permits the
pigeon to enter but not to leave the loft. When a pigeon enters the
loft this way, it is said to have “trapped.” A trap which permits the
pigeon to enter and leave at will is called an “open trap.” A landing
board is placed in front of the trap upon which pigeons alight when
about to enter the loft.

_c._ A _settling cage_ of wire which is built to fit over the roof and
landing board of the loft, is used to aid in settling and training
pigeons to trap.

18. Preparation of Loft to Receive Pigeons

The first step in preparing to receive a shipment of pigeons is to
arrange for their housing. If it is the initial stock for a loft, the
entire loft will be available. In the case of subsequent shipment,
place new stock in a separate compartment for a period of observation.
In order to anticipate arrival of birds, maintain contact with the
agency making delivery. Then proceed as follows:

_a._ Clean the loft.

_b._ In good weather keep front of the loft open so that plenty of
sunlight and air can enter.

_c._ To keep drafts out during extreme cold and windy weather, cover
openings of the loft with porous materials which will allow passage of
air and will not interfere with the camouflage appearance.

_d._ Spread a small quantity of coarse sand on the floor of the loft to
aid cleanliness and to supplement the grit.

_e._ Provide 10 percent more perching space than is necessary for the
number of incoming birds.

19. Receipt of Pigeons at Loft

To receive pigeons at a loft, proceed as follows:

_a._ Immediately upon their arrival transfer the birds to the loft from
the crates or baskets in which they were transported. The pigeons may
have completed a lengthy trip and be in comparatively poor condition
because of delays in travel or lack of proper care and attention.

_b._ Immediately after the birds have been transferred to the loft,
carefully examine and handle each pigeon, separating the healthy
from the sickly. Place the healthy birds in a compartment where they
can obtain plenty of fresh drinking water, and feed them sparingly.
Isolate the birds which appear sick until they are fully recovered.

[Illustration: _Figure 6. Stationary loft._

TL70176]

[Illustration: _Figure 7. Loft PG-46-A._

TL70177]

_c._ It is imperative that the pigeons be vaccinated against pigeon pox
if they were not vaccinated prior to shipment.

_d._ Thereafter water, feed, and provide bathing water according to
instructions in paragraphs 20 to 23, inclusive.

_e._ Make an exact inventory of the pigeons, noting band markings,
colors, special markings, and physical condition of each bird.

_f._ Become familiar with the pigeons while they are confined. Accustom
them to the presence of caretakers and to feeding at definite times.

_g._ Begin training of the new birds immediately. The longer the time
between their arrival at their new home and the beginning of their
training, the more difficult it will be for them to be trained properly.

20. Watering

_a._ The health of a pigeon depends more upon pure drinking water than
upon any other factor; therefore, keep plenty of fresh water available
at all times.

_b._ The homing pigeon does not drink like most other birds. The pigeon
places its bill into the water, and takes a long, deep draft like a
horse. For this reason, keep the depth of the water in the drinking
fountain not less than 1-1/2 inches deep. Always supply water in a
fountain or other receptacle which will prevent bathing. Fountains
PG-37-C provide excellent watering facilities for the birds and are
constructed to reduce contamination to a minimum (fig. 9).

[Illustration: _Figure 8. Loft PG-68/TB._

TL70178]

_c._ In warm weather, change the water three times a day, cleaning
the container thoroughly each time. In cool weather, twice a day may
be sufficient, provided the water can be kept clean. Water containing
impurities gives the pigeon a sour crop or acute indigestion. If a
sanitary water supply is not readily available, use drinking water
purified for troops. When it is necessary to use water of doubtful
purity, add a sufficient amount of potassium permanganate until a light
pink color is attained. Empty drinking fountains at night in cold
weather so that the water will not freeze. Having running water in the
drinking fountain is not advisable as it is usually cool and may cause
diarrhea during hot weather.

21. Feeding

[Illustration: _Figure 9. Fountain PG-37-C in loft._

TL70179]

_a._ GENERAL. The health and general physical condition of a pigeon
largely depend on the amount of food, time of feeding, and the kind of
food provided. Pigeons should not refuse food unless they have just
been fed. They will be alert, active, happy, and much more manageable
if kept a little hungry. It is easy to overfeed pigeons so that they
become sluggish and listless. Many good pigeons have been spoiled by
overfeeding. The pigeoneer should hand-feed the birds and watch them
closely while they are eating because their appetite reflects their
general health and condition. Sick birds may be discovered by their
failure to eat. Pigeons become better acquainted with the pigeoneer
through hand-feeding, and he in turn can keep them alert and under
control.

_b._ METHOD. Feed pigeons _twice_ a day during training, light feeding
in the morning and heavier in the evening. After each exercise,
training, or other flight, call the pigeons into the loft and give them
a small quantity of feed as a reward. While the pigeons are taking
their morning exercise, clean the loft and place in it a fresh supply
of grit and drinking water. Call the birds in when they have completed
their exercises, then scatter the food slowly on the sand-covered floor
as the birds enter through the trap. Scatter the feed, a handful at
a time. Wait until the pigeons have eaten nearly all the feed before
distributing another handful. The feed should be well scattered so
that individual birds do not get all of the choice grains. No harm
is done if the pigeons eat some of the sand, providing it is clean,
as sand supplements grit as an aid to digestion. There are several
reasons why pigeons should be fed only a handful at a time. If the
whole amount of grain for one feeding is thrown on the floor at once,
the actual amount needed cannot be estimated exactly. If the amount
estimated was too little, the pigeons are underfed; if the amount was
excessive, the grain not immediately consumed becomes contaminated and
may cause sickness if eaten later. Another reason for scattering feed
in small quantities is to prevent the pigeons from picking out the
kinds of grain they particularly like and leaving those which contain
food elements they need for proper development. Pigeons always drink
immediately after feeding. When the first pigeon stops eating and takes
a drink, it is a sign that the pigeons have had enough food so do not
scatter any more grain.

_c._ BREEDING PIGEONS. Parent pigeons feed their young in the nest
by ejecting food from their own crops into the youngster’s crop.
Therefore, when young pigeons are in the nest, return in about 30
minutes after the initial feeding and offer additional food to the
parents. When the youngsters are approximately 18 days of age, start
placing a handful of grain each day in the back corner of the nest
compartment out of the way of the droppings. The parent pigeons will
eat a few grains in the presence of the youngsters. The youngsters will
imitate their parents and thus learn to eat by themselves more rapidly.

22. Pigeon Feed

The diet for a pigeon should include legumes (peas and vetch), seeds,
cereal grains, green foods, and grit. The seeds and grains are fed
as an ordinary diet in the form of a feed mixture, but grit is fed
separately. Feed must be of a specific grade and mixture to assure the
pigeon of proper growth, a generally healthy condition, and enough
energy to endure the hardships of messenger flights. Pigeon feed, which
is a perishable item, must be grown under prescribed conditions from
the finest quality seed, harvested, cleaned, stored, and then mixed
when required. When harvested, grain or seed is likely to contain many
impurities like chaff, weed seeds, weevils, or other injurious insects,
kernels which are dead or damaged, and excessive moisture. Practically
all of these impurities must be removed before the feed is suitable
for use. Mixing must be accomplished under conditions that will insure
uniformity. The word “feed” as used below will refer to either mixed
feed, grain, or seeds, as applicable. A single grain or seed will be
referred to as a “kernel.”

_a._ SUITABLE FEED. Feed should—

(1) Be sound and have a natural odor, without traces of sour, musty, or
foreign odors.

(2) Be well matured and of good natural color, without a noticeable
amount of dead or damaged kernels.

(3) Be free of dirt, dust, or foreign material, beyond a slight trace.

(4) Be free from live weevils or other insects and the defects caused
by them.

(5) Be free-flowing, without traces of webbyness.

(6) Not contain excessive moisture as determined by the field test
described in _b_ (5) below.

_b._ DEFECTIVE PIGEON FEED. Defects in feed can be recognized by smell,
visual inspection, or laboratory test. Feed is unsuitable for use if it
has any of the following defects:

(1) _Unsound._ This condition may be detected by a sour or musty odor
or by an “off color” appearance.

(2) _Foreign materials._ Chaff, dirt, dust, stones, etc., can be
detected by visual inspection.

(3) _Webbyness._ When feed has been, or is infected, with injurious
insects it is likely to be webby. The feed will cling together in small
balls by webs similar to cobwebs. It may also have an objectionable
odor.

(4) _Dead or damaged kernels._ Kernels that have sprouted, been bored
by insects, or are discolored as a result of frost, fermentation, or
immaturity, can be detected by a visual inspection.

(5) _Moisture._ Small amounts of moisture cannot be detected without
a laboratory test. However, a field method which may be employed to
determine roughly the moisture content of feed is to place a few of
the kernels on a flat surface and then strike them a few times with
a hammer or similar tool. If the feed tested does not contain an
excessive amount of moisture, the kernels will crumble into small
pieces like “corn meal.” If an excessive amount of moisture is present
the kernels will become pulpy. When performing this test, remember that
hulled oats, flax seed, hemp seed, and vetch, because of their oil
content, will become pulpy even though their moisture content is within
required limits.

_c._ HARMFUL INSECTS. The two most harmful insects to pigeon feed are
weevils and grain moths.

(1) _Weevils._ Weevils are small beetle-type insects which vary in
color from brown to black. They eat by boring holes into the portion of
the kernel containing the nutritive elements. Weevils can be detected
by the test described in _i_(2)(_b_) below.

(2) _Grain moths._ These small moths vary in color from buff to grayish
or yellowish brown. During the larva stage they gnaw their way into
the kernel and then eat the inside portion to secure nourishment for
growth. When fully grown they eat their way out of the kernel. The
presence of moths in feed can be detected by the holes they leave in
kernels.

_d._ FEED MIXTURES. Various seeds and grains are mixed in
specified percentages to acquire a feed mixture of certain required
amounts of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Factors determining the
type of feed mixture used are climatic conditions, the way in which
the pigeon is used, and the condition of the bird. Different mixtures
are fed during the breeding and molting period, while training or
conditioning, or while the pigeons are used for messenger service. Use
of feed mixtures is as follows:

(1) _Breeding feed_ is used to maintain a healthy physical condition
in parent pigeons, and at the same time supply essential food elements
necessary to raise strong young pigeons.

(2) _Training and conditioning feed_ builds and maintains a physical
condition suitable for short distance messenger service during the
training period.

(3) _Special feed_ supplies energy and replaces the body tissues
consumed by the pigeon when it is continuously used for messenger
service.

(4) _Molting feed_, a supplementary feed mixture containing hemp,
canary, flax, and rape, insures good feathers and keeps the weight of
the pigeon normal by supplying rich, oily, and easily digested feed.

_e._ ANALYSIS. The three principal properties of feed that are
necessary for development and maintenance of a sound physical condition
are proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

(1) _Proteins_ contribute a large portion of the elements necessary for
maintaining the pigeon’s health, muscular and respiratory system, and
the organs essential to flying. The most important feeds in the protein
class are peas and vetch.

(2) _Carbohydrates_ supply energy. The portion of carbohydrates not
used immediately changes to “fat” and is held in reserve by the pigeon
to be drawn upon when it is being used continuously for messenger
service. The most important suppliers of carbohydrates are rice,
kaffir, wheat, corn, and hulled oats.

(3) _Fats_ keep the pigeon warm and also build a reserve supply of
energy. The feeds which furnish fats are rape, flax, and hemp seed.

_f._ ANALYSIS CHART. The following chart gives a comparative
analysis of the grains and seeds used for pigeon feed:

_ANALYSIS CHART_

--------+------------------+--------+---+-------+--------------+----
| | | | | Carbohydrates|
| | | | +-----+--------+
| | | | | |Nitrogen|
Stock | | | | Crude |Crude| free |
No. | Ingredient |Moisture|Ash|protein|fiber| extract| Fat
--------+------------------+--------+---+-------+-----+--------+----
9A705 |Buckwheat, | | | | | |
| unofficial[2] | 12.6 |2.0| 10.0 | 8.7 | 64.5 | 2.2
| | | | | | |
9A747 |Seed, canary, 99% | | | | | |
| pure, | | | | | |
| unofficial[2] | 7.0 |5.5| 17.2 | 5.7 | 59.1 | 5.5
| | | | | | |
9A747.1 |Seed, flax, | | | | | |
| 99% pure, | | | | | |
| U. S. No. 1[1] | 9.2 |4.3| 22.6 | 7.0 | 23.2 |33.7
| | | | | | |
9A876.1 |Corn, American, | | | | | |
| small grain, | | | | | |
| U. S.No. 1[1] | 12.9 |1.3| 9.3 | 1.9 | 70.3 | 4.3
| | | | | | |
9A1360 |Seed, hemp, | | | | | |
| sterilized, 99% | | | | | |
| pure, | | | | | |
| unofficial[2] | 8.0 |2.0| 10.0 |14.0 | 45.0 |21.0
| | | | | | |
9A1550 |Kaffir, U. S. | | | | | |
| No. 1[1] | 9.4 |1.6| 11.1 | 2.1 | 72.6 | 3.2
| | | | | | |
9A1765 |Seed, millet, 99% | | | | | |
| pure, | | | | | |
| unofficial[2] | 9.1 |3.3| 11.8 | 7.8 | 64.7 | 3.3
| | | | | | |
9A1787 |Oats, hulled, | | | | | |
| table grade, | | | | | |
| unofficial[2] | 8.4 |1.8| 16.0 | 1.5 | 65.5 | 6.8
| | | | | | |
9A1848 |Peas, Canada, | | | | | |
| U. S. No. 1[1] | 9.2 |3.4| 23.0 | 5.5 | 57.8 | 1.1
| | | | | | |
9A1848.1|Peas, maple, | | | | | |
| unofficial[2] | 11.0 |2.5| 21.9 | 5.5 | 58.2 | 0.9
| | | | | | |
9A1848.2|Peas, white, First| | | | | |
| and Best, | | | | | |
| U. S. No. 1[1] | 9.1 |3.3| 11.8 | 7.8 | 64.7 | 3.3
| | | | | | |
9A1901 |Seed, rape, large,| | | | | |
| sweet, 99% pure,| | | | | |
| unofficial[2] | 14.0 |3.9| 19.4 | 7.8 | 16.4 |38.5
| | | | | | |
9A1940 |Rice, whole, extra| | | | | |
| fancy, U. S. | | | | | |
| No. 1[1] | 12.4 |0.4| 7.4 | 0.2 | 79.2 | 0.4
| | | | | | |
9A2600 |Vetch, common, | | | | | |
| unofficial[2] | 13.7 |3.3| 25.4 | 5.4 | 50.7 | 1.5
| | | | | | |
9A2800 |Wheat, hard red or| | | | | |
| durum, U. S. | | | | | |
| No. 1[1] | 10.6 |1.8| 12.3 | 2.4 | 71.1 | 1.8
--------+------------------+--------+---+-------+-----+--------+----

[Footnote 1: “U. S. No. 1 Grade” complies with standards for that
grade established by the U. S. Department of Agriculture.]

[Footnote 2: “Unofficial grade” indicates grain or seed
“well-matured, sound, clean, and of good natural color and odor” as
certified to by a recognized Official Grain Inspection Agency.

_Note._ The above analysis of ingredients for pigeon feed are
averages. Climatic conditions or the locality in which the grain or
seed is grown may slightly alter this analysis.]

_g._ GREEN FOOD. Certain amounts of this food are essential for the
pigeon’s digestive organs to function properly. Crisp young lettuce,
kale (preferably curly), and chickweed are the best green foods for
pigeons. Pigeons prefer green stuff sprinkled with a little table salt.
While green food is in season, give the pigeons as much of it as they
will eat about three times a week. The preferred method for feeding
this type of food is to suspend it in bunches on the inside of the loft
about 4 inches from the floor.

_h._ FORMULAS. (1) The formulas for the various feed mixtures are
listed below under their suggested use. It must be remembered that the
factor governing the use of these feed mixtures will be climate and
existing conditions.

_Breeding_

Stock No. 9A1219.2

25% American corn
10% Kaffir
25% Canada peas or white peas, First and Best
5% Millet seed
20% Vetch
15% Wheat, hard red or durum

_Molting_

Stock No. 9A1219.8

15% Rice, whole
20% Canary seed
15% Flax seed
20% Hemp seed
20% Millet seed
10% Rape seed

_Training or conditioning_

Stock No. 9A1219.5

3.5% Buckwheat
25.0% American corn
5.0% Kaffir
2.5% Oats, hulled
12.5% Canada peas or white peas, First and Best
12.5% Peas, maple
5.0% Rice, whole
2.5% Canary seed
5.0% Hemp seed
5.0% Millet seed
15.0% Vetch
6.5% Wheat, hard red or durum

Note. This mixture may also be used for a breeding feed.

Stock No. 9A1219.6

35% American corn
5% Oats, hulled
10% Canada peas or white peas,
First and Best
15% Maple peas
5% Rice, whole
5% Hemp seed
15% Vetch
10% Wheat, hard red or durum

Note. This mixture may also be used for a breeding feed.

_Special_

Stock No. 9A1219.4

25% American corn
25% Canada peas or white peas, First and Best
30% Maple peas
20% Vetch

Stock No. 9A1219.7

10% American corn
5% Hulled oats
20% Canada peas or white peas,
First and Best
25% Maple peas
5% Rice, whole
5% Hemp seed
20% Vetch
10% Wheat, hard red or durum

Note. Recommended for tropical climate.

(2) The following chart gives a comparative analysis of the above
mixtures:

---------+--------+-----+-------+------------------+------
| | | | Carbohydrates |
| | | +-----+------------+
| | | |Crude| Nitrogen |
Stock No.|Moisture| Ash |Protein|fiber|free extract| Fat
---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+------------+------
9A1219.2 | 11.26 | 2.42| 16.71 | 3.89| 63.33 | 2.39
| | | | | |
9A1219.4 | 11.57 | 2.58| 19.73 | 4.58| 59.63 | 1.91
| | | | | |
9A1219.5 | 11.27 | 2.27| 15.76 | 4.50| 62.76 | 3.44
| | | | | |
9A1219.6 | 11.64 | 2.06| 15.56 | 3.87| 63.32 | 3.55
| | | | | |
9A1219.7 | 11.12 | 2.49| 18.98 | 4.78| 59.87 | 2.76
| | | | | |
9A1219.8 | 9.46 | 3.25| 14.24 | 7.36| 50.76 |14.93
---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+------------+------

_i._ STORAGE AND FUMIGATION. Pigeon feed procured in
accordance with U. S. Army Specification 24-17-C, is of the finest
ingredients obtainable in accordance with U. S. Department of
Agriculture standards, and is processed prior to packing. If stored
properly this feed will not become contaminated. Improper storage,
however, counteracts the precautions taken to procure best quality
feed. Therefore, the instructions below have been prepared to safeguard
the original quality of the feed during storage.

(1) _Proper method of storage._ The larval, pupal and adult stages of
injurious grain insects are inactive in a temperature of 50° F. or
lower. Thus the first and the most important rule is to store feed in a
COOL, DRY PLACE, on a platform at least 6 inches above the floor.

(_a_) There are several simple methods of stacking bagged feed. One way
is to stand the first tier of bags on end on a movable floor of narrow
boards nailed to joists. Bags should be set far enough apart to admit
air and light. The air keeps the bags dry and the light discourages
rats. Other tiers of bags are laid flat, each tier at right angles to
the previous tier, to admit air and light (fig. 10). A second method is
to lay a tier of bags flat on two parallel timbers, each tier laid at
right angles to the previous tier (fig. 10).

(_b_) After feed has been stacked, it must be protected against rats.
An inexpensive protective method is to construct a wooden framework
inside the building where the feed is to be stored, and to cover it
completely with 1/4-inch wire mesh. The size of the wire mesh inclosure
depends on the amount of feed to be stored.

[Illustration: TL70180 _Figure 10. Methods of stacking bags._

TL70180]

(2) _Examination for contamination._ Feed stored in a hot climate or in
buildings where injurious grain insects are present is likely to become
infested. Therefore feed should be visually examined bimonthly for
presence of moths or adult insects.

(_a_) Take the temperature of the feed by inserting a thermometer into
the feed, especially in the bags at the center of the pile. If it
exceeds 75° F. make a closer and more frequent examination.

(_b_) A simple and practical test to discover the presence of insects
is to place a quantity of the questionable feed in a sieve with
1/16-inch wire mesh (sieve PG-35), and shake over a white cloth or
paper. Examine screenings and if insects are present, fumigate the feed
according to instructions in (3) below to prevent further damage and
ultimate ruin.

(3) _Fumigation._ There are three methods for fumigating contaminated
pigeon feed available to pigeon units.

[Illustration: _Figure 11. Bath Pan PG-38._

TL70217]

(_a_) Quartermaster, fumigation and bath companies (T/O & E 10-257)
have facilities, such as portable methyl bromide fumigation chambers,
for delousing clothing which may be used for fumigating pigeon feed.
These units are generally assigned to posts, camps, or stations and
to theaters of operations, and their services may be obtained. To use
their equipment, load chamber with bags of contaminated feed, seal,
and charge it with a 2-pound can of methyl bromide, Stock Number 51M892
(see Quartermaster supplement of the Federal Standard Stock Catalog).
Feed should remain in the chamber for at least 24 hours. Temperature of
the interior of the chamber should be maintained at a minimum of 70° F.

(_b_) If a portable fumigation chamber is not available, a building
which can be tightly sealed, like those used for training purposes
in the Chemical Warfare Service, may be used. The feed should be
loaded into the vault so that the entire floor space is utilized. Seal
vault tightly and apply methyl bromide from the outside of the vault
through a 1/4-inch diameter copper tubing at the top of the chamber.
The connection between the tubing and the methyl bromide container
should allow no leakage. The feed should remain in the vault for at
least 24 hours. The temperature of the interior of the vault should
be maintained at a minimum of 75° F. for best results. Use at least
1 pound of methyl bromide per 1,000 cubic feet of space. After the
24-hour exposure period, open vault and air it for a few hours before
removing feed. Methyl bromide is toxic to human beings. Therefore,
before opening or entering the vault after the exposure period, the
fumigator should wear a gas mask type M9A1, with a standard service
canister.

[Illustration: _Figure 12. Catching pigeon in loft._

TL70181]

(_c_) If a portable fumigation chamber or gas tight vault is not
available, “tarpaulin method” of fumigation may be used. Sweep clear
the floor (preferably cement) where the feed is to be placed for
fumigation. Stack the bags of feed in a square area to a height of 5
or 6 feet. After the feed is stacked, center four bags of feed in an
upright position on top of the pile to form a gas expansion dome. Throw
a tarpaulin which is large enough to cover completely the entire pile
of feed over the pile. Allow a minimum margin of 2 feet on the floor
for sealing. The tarpaulin should be of treated material, preferably
rubberized, to prevent leakage and to be impervious to the fumigant.
Seal the marginal excess of tarpaulin with filled bags or weights. The
fumigant is released from the container through a tubing extending from
the container under the tarpaulin to the top of the gas expansion dome.
The same type of fumigant, dosage, exposure, and temperature required
for vault or chamber fumigation are employed, and the same precautions
are observed when removing the tarpaulin after the exposure period. If
circumstances prevent a tight sealing of the tarpaulin use an increased
amount of fumigant to compensate for leakage.

_j._ USE AND PREPARATION OF GRIT. Grit is a prepared mixture which
serves as a mechanical grinder for the food in the pigeon’s gizzard
and assists in assimilation. Grit also purifies the crop and supplies
lime for bone building and forming of egg shells. Many grit mixtures
are available, most of which contain crushed oyster shell, gravel,
sand, small sea shells, crushed limestone, salt, charcoal, and other
ingredients.

(1) Between 5 and 10 percent of the food fed a pigeon should be grit.
Normally 5 percent is sufficient, except during the breeding season
when as much as 10 percent may be fed since the parent pigeons pump
grit into the youngsters when they start eating grains.

(2) A preferred grit is made as follows:

(_a_) Thoroughly mix (in the manner of mixing mortar) 20 pounds of
medium granite grit, 20 pounds of medium oyster shell, 20 pounds of
medium crushed limestone, 5 pounds of medium charcoal, and 1/8 pound
of oxide of iron (hematite). Then dissolve 3 pounds of table salt in
boiling water and add just enough of this solution to the mixture to
dampen it thoroughly. Do not add too much water. Thoroughly mix the
whole preparation and allow to dry before feeding to birds.

(_b_) Each of the various ingredients in the mixture has a purpose. The
granite is a grinder and pulverizes the food; the oxide of iron has
a beneficial effect upon the blood and acts as a tonic; the charcoal
purifies the crop, acting as a stomachic, that is, strengthening or
stimulating action of the stomach. Limestone provides the materials for
strengthening the bones. The oyster shells contribute lime which enters
into the composition of bones and egg shells.

(3) The grit mixtures used are listed in the Signal Corps General
Catalog, as Stock Nos. 9A1321 (color red), and 9A1322 (color natural)
“Seashell” or equal.

(4) Keep grit in the loft constantly except during the 24 hours before
the pigeons are to be sent away to a point 50 or more miles distant
for immediate liberation. Since grit contains salt and minerals which
cause thirst, pigeons might land en route for water, thereby losing
valuable time and exposing themselves to the danger of being shot or
captured. Place the grit in a wooden box designed so that the pigeons
cannot easily introduce foreign matter into the mixture. Inspect the
box daily and remove all foreign matter. Refill the grit container with
dry grit as needed. Once a week empty the grit container and clean it
thoroughly. Add a fresh supply and destroy the old grit. Always keep
an ample supply of grit in stock at the loft.

[Illustration:

(1) _Correct_ (2) _Incorrect_

_Figure 13. Holding pigeon for inspection._

TL70182]

[Illustration: _Figure 14. Catching pigeon in crate._

TL70183]

_k._ ALLOWANCE OF FEED AND GRIT. (1) The annual allowance of
feed mixture is 52 pounds for each pigeon because the average pigeon,
including those breeding and those not breeding, consumes 1 pound of
grain per week.

(2) The annual allowance of grit is 6 pounds a pigeon.

23. Bathing

_a._ No other class of fowl, except the duck family, enjoys a bath as
much as pigeons. Pigeons that are kept clean have less trouble with
mites or feather lice. The use of a quassia chip solution in the bath
water is excellent for keeping pigeons free from lice and should be
used once a week. To prepare the solution, boil one pound of quassia
chips in 2 gallons of water for 20 minutes. Strain off the liquid and
use 2 quarts of this solution to 3 gallons of bath water.

_b._ As far as practicable, provide bath water daily during warm
weather but omit in freezing weather. Approximately 1 hour after the
morning feeding prepare the bath pan PG-38 and leave it in position
about 1 hour. Scrub the pan thoroughly after the pigeons have finished
bathing. During the breeding season provide the bath after the morning
feeding as usual, but on alternate days provide the bath in the early
afternoon. This method enables both cocks and hens to bathe every other
day (see par. 44_a_).

24. Catching and Handling

Great care must be exercised when catching and handling pigeons because
their flying ability depends upon their physical condition, and awkward
and improper handling may result in the loss or breaking of tail and
flight feathers. The correct methods of catching and handling birds are
shown in figures 12 and 13.

_a._ CATCHING IN CRATE. To catch a pigeon in a crate or container,
gently force it to the corner or end of the container and place palm
of the hand in a firm position over pigeon’s shoulders (fig. 14); then
turn the bird around (facing bird to door or entrance) and gently
grasp it between both hands for lifting from crate. Bring pigeon to
normal position in front of the waistline. Pigeons must be taken head
first from all crates to prevent injury to the feathers.

[Illustration:

(1) _Correct_ (2) _Incorrect_

_Figure 15. Crating a pigeon._

TL70184]

_b._ CATCHING IN LOFT. This should be done with great care and ease as
both the physical and feather condition of a pigeon may be impaired by
awkward handling. There are several good methods for catching pigeons.
The following one has been found to be satisfactory when carried out
properly:

(1) Always catch pigeons while in nests or on perches (fig. 15).
Approach pigeon calmly, avoiding sudden movements that might frighten
it.

(2) Grasp bird by a quick movement of the hands. Catch it from the
front, with the thumbs on its back and fingers under its body.

=Caution=: Never attempt to catch birds in the aviary, or when they are
flying about the loft.

_c._ INSPECTING BIRDS. When examining the wings, back, or tail feathers
of a pigeon, always hold its chest or front portion against your body
(fig. 12) for security. To examine the head, eyes, or bill, place the
bird properly in one hand using the other hand as a front or side
support, leaving fingers free for examination.

_d._ CRATING BIRDS. Hold the bird with your thumb across its back and
its legs between your first two fingers; place the palm of the other
hand over the front part of the pigeon, extend fingers downward in the
direction of the keel (fig. 15), and guide the bird into the crate. Do
not release until bird’s feet are firmly on crate floor. Avoid crating
birds with one hand only.

SECTION IV

LOFT MANAGEMENT AND RECORDS

25. Routine

A pigeoneer in charge of a loft can best care for his pigeons by
observing the following daily routine in loft management:

_a._ Upon entering the loft, make a general inspection to see that
everything is in order.

_b._ Sweep or scrape all sand and droppings and sift through a fine
screen. Add new sand and spread in a thin layer.

_c._ Provide fresh drinking water (par. 20).

_d._ Provide bath water (par. 23).

_e._ Conduct prescribed exercise and other training for pigeons
according to schedule. This may include all types of flights.

_f._ Post loft records.

_g._ Prepare daily quantity of feed and give prescribed portions.

_h._ Inspect all pigeons as to condition, health, mating, breeding,
etc., whenever required.

_i._ Carry out any special instructions given for the day.

26. Classification of Pigeon Colors

_a._ The color of the upper body and wings determines the principal
color classification of pigeons. In addition to principal
color classification (see _b_(1) below), include the following
classifications when applicable:

(1) If any of the primary flights are white, the pigeon is classed as
a “white flight.” Unless the flights are pure white the classification
“white flight” is not made.

(2) If all the coverts exhibit a light gray fringe on their outer
edges, presenting a checkered appearance rather than a solid color, the
pigeon is classed as “checkered.”

(3) When a pigeon has white patches of feathers on its head, it is
classed as “pied.” If these white patches extend to its body, it is
classed as “splash.”

(4) If a pigeon exhibits one or two white feathers about the eyes, it
is classed as “tick.”

_b._ Main color classifications for pigeons and their authorized
abbreviations follow:

(1) _Principal colors._

_Type_ _Abbreviation_ _Description_

Black (Blk) All feathers are black.

Blue (B) All feathers are grayish blue, generally
with two black bars on each wing.

Silver (Sil) All feathers are deep grayish silver,
generally with two red bars on each
wing.

Red (R) All feathers are a solid brownish red
(often called chocolate).

(2) _Checkers._

_Type_ _Abbreviation_ _Description_

Black Checker (Blk ch) Principal color black with dark
gray or checker markings on rump
and underpart of body.

Dark checker (Dk ch) Similar to black checker but showing
more distinct checker markings on
the wing.

Blue checker (B ch) Principally blue with checker
markings on the body and wings.

Red checker (R ch) Principally red with checker markings
on the body and wings.

Dun (Dun) Similar to silver except principal
color is of a darker shade.

Mealy (Mly) Similar to dun except that they do
not have sharply defined red
markings on the wings.

Grizzle (Griz) Principal colors consist of red,
black, and white mottled together.
(Often the black or red colors are
not present.) Birds also will be
found with grizzle markings around
the head and neck only. However,
these birds will be classified as
grizzles and the wing markings may
be indicated as well.

(3) _Combinations._ Examples of combinations of colorings and markings,
together with their authorized abbreviations, are—

(_a_) Black with white flights pied (Blk wft pd).
(_b_) Red with white flights (R wft).
(_c_) Blue pied (B pd).
(_d_) Black splash (Blk spl).
(_e_) Red checkered splash (R Ch spl).
(_f_) Blue checkered tick (B Ch tk).
(_g_) Blue with white flights (B wft).
(_h_) Checkered (Ch).
(_i_) Grizzle with blue wing markings (B griz).

27. Records and Reports

The records and reports required for each pigeon unit are Breeding
Card, Pigeon Breeding Record, Pigeon Flight Record, Pigeon Pedigree,
and Monthly Pigeon Loft Report.

_a._ BREEDING CARD, WD SC FORM 1132 (fig. 16). The breeding card is
fastened on the outside of the nest compartment as soon as the cock
and the hen are mated and take possession of the nest. It remains
there during the breeding activities of the particular pair of parent
pigeons. The data provide the initial identification record of the
youngsters and permit a careful check on the progress of their
development. Entries must be timely, accurate, and legible. When the
youngster leaves the breeding compartment, pertinent information from
the breeding card is entered on the Pigeon Breeding Record (_b_ below).
Fill in the breeding card as follows:

(1) _Pair number._ Number of the nest compartment occupied by the
parent pigeons.

[Illustration: _Figure 16. Pigeon breeding card._

TL70185]

(2) _Loft of._ Name of the post, camp, or station where the loft is
located, and the designation of the loft.

(3) _Season._ Calendar year.

(4) _Cock number._ Date on the leg band that relates to the cock’s
identification.

(5) _Color._ Color of the cock.

(6) _Sire and dam._ Strain of each of the cock’s parents.

(7) _Hen number, color, sire, and dam._ Data relating to the hen,
similar to that furnished on the cock.

(8) _Date laid._ Month and day each egg is laid.

(9) _Hatched._ Month and day each egg is hatched.

(10) _Banded._ Month and day each youngster is banded.

(11) _Band number of youngsters._ The letters USA, and year of hatching
appear in the left column of the band placed on right leg of youngster.
Loft designation and serial number assigned to the youngster appear in
the right column of band.

(12) _Color, sex, remarks._ Color of the youngster and remarks, such
as disposition when it leaves the breeding compartment. Generally, sex
cannot be determined at this time and is entered at a later date.

(13) _Egg disposition._ If the egg is removed from its parents to be
hatched by other pigeons, or if it is destroyed, its disposition is
entered on the card.

_b._ PIGEON BREEDING RECORD BOOK, WD SC FORM 67 (fig. 17). The pigeon
breeding record is a _permanent_ record maintained at each loft where
breeding activities are conducted. Data are taken from the breeding
card of the youngster (see _a_ above) and the breeding record of the
parent pigeons, and are entered as follows:

(1) _Band number._ Band numbers assigned to youngsters hatched during
the year, in numerical sequence.

(2) _Color._ Opposite the band number, color and sex of each youngster.

(3) _Nest number._ Number of the nest occupied by the parent pigeons.

(4) _Band number, color, sire, dam._ Data on each parent, on a separate
line.

(5) _Band number, color, g. sire, g. dam._ Data for the parent pigeons
(grandparents of the youngsters), entered on separate lines, are
obtained from the breeding records of the grandparent birds.

(6) _Strain._ Opposite their band and color, strains of the
grandparents of the youngsters.

[Illustration: _Figure 17. Pigeon breeding record._

TL70186]

(7) _Notes._ A small space below each entry, as indicated in figure 16,
is used to show:

(_a_) Date youngster was hatched.

(_b_) Performance record of the youngster.

(_c_) Band numbers of any of its outstanding offspring.

(_d_) Under Sire and Dam, performance record of parent, including
maximum flight distance to date, and outstanding racing performance if
any.

_c._ PIGEON FLIGHT RECORD BOOK, WD SC FORM 1183 (fig. 18). The pigeon
flight-record book contains flight records of all the birds housed in
one loft and is a complete account of their individual performances
and training. Each flight made by a pigeon is entered on its record. A
flight record is started for each youngster when it is removed from its
parents and placed in the flying loft. The record is kept up to date.
Entries should be made as follows:

(1) _Band number._ Data on the identification band as shown on the
breeding card.

(2) _Color._ Color of the pigeons, also taken from the breeding card.

(3) _Sex._ If the sex cannot be determined when the form is started, it
is entered later.

(4) _Hatched._ Date shown on the breeding card.

(5) _Flight record._ Record of each flight on a separate line under
each column as follows:

(_a_) _Date of flight._ Month, day, and year the flight was made. Year
may be entered at the head of the column to avoid repetition.

(_b_) Nature of flight. Appropriate description of flight, such as
training, signal communication, or race; and how tossed, such as
single, double, or group. These abbreviations of entries may be
used: Tng, for training; Sig Com, for signal communication; ST, for
single-tossed; DT for double-tossed; GT, for group-tossed.

(_c_) _Competition._ Number of lofts and the number of pigeons entered
in a competition or race.

(_d_) _Distance._ Distance traveled in miles (air line) for each
flight, and the _direction from the loft to the point of release_.
Abbreviations for directions may be used, for example, NW, SE, etc.

(_e_) _Position and speed._ Position won in a race or single-tossed
training flight (such as first, second) and the speed attained in
yards per minutes (YPM) or miles per hour (MPH). Speed is entered for
all flights if facts are available for calculation. When birds are
group-tossed, enter “late” for those failing to arrive at the loft with
the group. If birds break away and arrive at the loft in advance of the
group, note position of arrival (such as 1, 2, etc.).

_d._ PIGEON PEDIGREE RECORD, WD SC FORM 68 (fig. 22). The pigeon
pedigree record is kept for each pigeon used for breeding. Data are
taken from breeding and other pedigree records, and are entered as
follows:

(1) Name, color and sex, registry number (band number), date hatched,
by what loft bred, and flight record.

(2) Band numbers and color of parents.

(3) Band number, colors, and strains of grandparents.

(4) In “remarks” include all matters about the pigeon or its strain
which bear upon its ability and breeding value.

(5) In the spaces under Father, Mother, Grandfather, and Grandmother,
enter appropriate information concerning their flying and breeding
records. Pigeon pedigree record, WD SC Form 1177, which is a long
form, may be used when necessary if the pedigree is available for the
great-grandparents.

[Illustration: _Figure 18. Pigeon flight record._

TL70187]

_c._ MONTHLY PIGEON LOFT REPORT, WD SC FORM 1133 (figs. 20 and 21). The
monthly pigeon loft report is prepared for each pigeon unit on the last
day of each month. Blank spaces on the report are filled in as follows:

(1) _Date._ Day, month, and year.

(2) _Organization._ Unit submitting report.

(3) _Station._ Name of post, camp, or station at which the unit is
located.

(4) _Pigeons on hand._ These notations pertain to birds over 4 weeks of
age.

(_a_) _Old cocks._ Total number of male pigeons over 1 year of age.

(_b_) _Old hens._ Total number of female pigeons over 1 year of age.

(_c_) _Youngsters over 4 weeks of age._ Total number of pigeons between
4 weeks and 1 year of age.

(5) _Aggregate total._ Total number of pigeons, old and young, listed
in (4) above.

[Illustration: _Figure 19. Pigeon pedigree record._

TL70188]

(6) _Authorized strength._ Total number of pigeons authorized.

(7) _Breeding activities._

(a) _Mated pairs._ Total number of pairs of parent pigeons mated for
breeding purposes.

(b) _Eggs._ Total number of eggs in nest.

(8) _Other pigeons._ (_a_) _Donated._ Total number of pigeons donated
to the Signal Corps by civilian pigeon fanciers.

(_b_) _Loaned._ Total number of pigeons loaned to the Signal Corps by
civilian pigeon fanciers.

(_c_) _Total._ Total number of donated and loaned pigeons on hand.

(9) _Losses during month._ (_a_) _Disease._ Total number of banded
pigeons lost or destroyed during the month as a result of disease.

(_b_) _Accident._ Total number of banded pigeons lost during the month
as a result of accident.

(_c_) _Flight._ Total number of pigeons lost during month while in
flight (enter band numbers under remarks).

(_d_) _Sale._ Total number of banded pigeons sold as surplus during the
month, if any. If none, so state.

[Illustration: _Figure 20. Monthly pigeon loft report, front._

TL70189]

(_e_) _Total._ Total number of banded pigeons lost during month from
all causes listed.

(10) _Number of birds shipped during month_ (destination).
Self-explanatory.

(11) _Number of birds received during month_ (source). Self-explanatory.

(12) _Summary of training._ Weekly Training Schedules supply
information for both classes of birds.

(13) _Instruction by loft personnel._ Organizations receiving
instruction, number of hours, and nature of instruction.

(14) _Personnel._ Self-explanatory.

[Illustration: _Figure 21. Monthly pigeon loft report, back._

TL70190]

(15) _Loft equipment and supplies._ Self-explanatory. Note any item of
equipment on hand superseded by an item listed.

(16) _Remarks and recommendations._ Note information on the tactical
operation of the unit; band numbers of birds lost in flight; birds
culled during the month (including youngsters), together with the
reasons for culling; and any remarks and recommendations not covered
elsewhere on this report. (If additional space is needed, use plain
sheets of bond paper.)

(17) _Commanding._ The name, grade, and office of the officer in charge
are typewritten or printed in ink below his signature.

28. Banding

_a._ Each breeding loft is furnished with identifying metal leg
bands to be used in banding all youngsters. These bands, PG-16, are
manufactured in pairs. Each pair bears the pigeon’s serial number.

(1) One of the pair of bands bears a marking which includes U*S, the
last two figures of the calendar year the bird was hatched, the letters
SC or AAF, and a serial number. This band is placed on the left leg and
indicates that the pigeon was bred by the United States Army. It should
not be removed as it serves to identify the pigeon with its breeding
record.

(2) The other band of the pair bears marking identical to that in (1)
above except that in place of the “U*S” it bears the letters “USA.”
This band is placed on the right leg, and it means that the pigeon was
bred by and is the property of the United States Army. This band is
removed whenever the pigeon ceases to remain the property of the United
States Army.

(3) Characteristic markings of leg bands now used are as follows:

(_a_) Right leg, USA 44 SC 15.
Left leg, U*S 44 SC 15.

(_b_) Right leg, USA 44 AAF 407.
Left leg, U*S 44 AAF407.

(4) The following designations were used prior to 1944:

FtM. Fort Monmouth
4CA 4th Corps Area
4th SC 4th Service Command
7th SC 7th Service Command
8CA 8th Corps Area
8th SC 8th Service Command
9th SC 9th Service Command
CZ Canal Zone
HT Territory of Hawaii
PI Philippine Islands
ML Mobile Loft
C Combat
PR Puerto Rico
SC Signal Corps
TH Territory of Hawaii

_b._ In addition to the banded pigeons bred and owned by the United
States Army, there are those of the United States Navy, and two large
national associations of civilian pigeon fanciers, the American Racing
Pigeon Union and the International Federation of American Homing Pigeon
Fanciers, as well as those of numerous smaller organizations. The
following examples illustrate the character of the legends used on the
bands:

USN 32 492
AU 28 EC 1245
IF 27 C 6700

[Illustration: _Figure 22. Method of banding youngsters._

TL70191]

_c._ When banded pigeons are lost in flight, their band markings are
listed on the Monthly Pigeon Loft Report (par. 27 _e_).

_d._ Each loft is authorized to use various colored, spiral, celluloid
leg bands for special identification purposes. For example, all pigeons
in a particular compartment of each loft may be fitted with celluloid
bands of the same color to facilitate keeping track of them. These
bands, PG-15, are requisitioned in the following colors: red, yellow,
green, light-blue, dark-blue, black, and pink.

29. Loft Equipment

_a._ T/O & E 11-39 prescribes the authorized allowances of
nonexpendable pigeon equipment for signal pigeon companies and is the
basis for requisition.

_b._ Army Service Forces Catalog SIG 4-1, Signal Supply Catalog,
Allowances of Expendable Supplies, prescribes the authorized allowances
of expendable items for signal pigeon companies and is the basis for
requisition.

_c._ The basis for other pigeon units to requisition equipment and
supplies depends upon the number of authorized pigeons they have and
their particular needs.

_d._ Sufficient descriptive information of items must be indicated
on the requisition to permit positive identification. All required
information pertaining to allowances, supplies on hand, due in (on
requisition), and basis for issue must be clearly stated on all
requisitions submitted to the station signal property officer.

_e._ In general, the following items of supplies and equipment in
varying numbers will meet normal requirements of pigeon lofts:

30. Message Holders

Message Holder PG-67 consists of a body, cap, leg clamp, strap,
and fastener (fig. 23). The body, cap, and leg clamp are made of
transparent plastic material.

_a._ To attach message holder to pigeon, place leg clamp of holder,
around the aluminum identification band on the pigeon’s leg and secure
strap by means of the fastener. The message holder must always be
attached with the cap pointing in the direction of the pigeon’s body.
If attached with the cap pointing down it will interfere with the
bird’s walking. The aluminum bands must be loose enough on the pigeon’s
leg to allow the message holder to adjust itself to positions that will
not interfere with the bird’s flying. In emergencies, a message holder
may be placed on each leg.

_b._ Pigeons to be used for signal communication should be trained with
the message holder attached to the leg to accustom them to carrying
it. Pigeons should be distributed to combat troops, with message
holders attached if it is known that the receiving troops have not had
training or experience in handling the birds. Otherwise, holders may be
delivered separately. Personnel of a loft should make every effort to
provide message center units being served with necessary information
concerning care, handling, and release of birds.

[Illustration: _Figure 23. Message Holder PG-67._

TL70192]

_c._ To remove a message from a pigeon, catch the bird after it has
trapped; hold it in one hand, extend its leg, and remove the message
holder with the other hand. Release pigeon in loft.

_d._ When it is necessary for a pigeon to carry a message and a message
holder is not available, fold message blank, attach it by looping it
around the leg band and tie its two ends together with a piece of
thread or light weight string.

=Caution=: _NEVER WIND a string or rubber band around a pigeon’s leg_
because it will stop the circulation and may cause the pigeon to lose
its leg.

[Illustration: _Figure 24. Message holder attached to pigeon’s leg._

TL70193]

SECTION V

TRAINING

31. Responsibility for Training

The commanding officer of a signal pigeon company, or the officer in
charge of a pigeon unit, will prepare a training program to serve as a
general guide for activities of the unit. Weekly training schedules for
the guidance of the enlisted personnel will be based upon this approved
training program for the unit.

32. Qualifications for Pigeoneers

_a._ GENERAL. Minimum specifications required for a pigeoneer are——

(1) _Skill._ That required for a basic private, plus the ability to
care for, feed properly, catch, and hold pigeons; to attach messages;
and to train birds for messenger service.

(2) _Knowledge._ That required for a basic private, plus a thorough
knowledge of capabilities, limitations, and habits of homing pigeons.

(3) _Personal traits._ A pigeoneer who is boisterous and of a turbulent
nature tends to frighten and upset pigeons and thus reduce their
effectiveness. The successful pigeoneer should possess——

(_a_) _Dependability._ To perform all his duties regularly and promptly.

(_b_) _Kindness._ To obtain confidence of the pigeons.

(_c_) _Patience._ To spend much time and repeated effort required for
training pigeons.

(_d_) _Neatness._ To maintain a sanitary and attractive loft for the
pigeons.

(_e_) _Firmness._ To enforce control over pigeons.

(_f_) _Power of accurate observation._ To note and learn
characteristics of individual pigeons in the loft by observing details
readily and accurately.

_b._ BASIC TRAINING. Only qualified basic privates are selected for
pigeoneer training. Skill and knowledge to be attained in this course
may be based on this manual.

_c._ ADVANCE TRAINING. Qualified pigeoneers who complete basic training
prescribed in _b_ above, and who possess the ability, may be selected
for advance training which will prepare them to become specialists or
non-commissioned officers. This training will teach:

(1) _Skill._ (_a_) Ability to manage a training loft and to train both
young and old pigeons.

(_b_) Ability to manage a breeding loft and supervise breeding
activities after schedules have been prepared.

(_c_) Ability to instruct others in (_a_) and (_b_) above.

(2) _Knowledge._ A pigeoneer should possess a thorough knowledge of
loft management; feeding, training, and breeding of pigeons; and
employment of pigeon communications described in this manual.

33. Introduction to Pigeon Training

It is almost impossible to prescribe any one method for training homing
pigeons. There are certain steps, however, that must be followed if the
birds are to give reliable messenger service. The methods for training
Army homing pigeons are prescribed in this section. However, they are
not the only methods by which birds can be trained. Success with the
birds depends largely on the individual pigeoneer’s experience and
technical knowledge. This is particularly true concerning operation of
combat lofts.

34. Settling Pigeons

Settling is the process of conditioning a pigeon to return to its home
loft when released. Best results can be expected from young birds just
out of the nest because settling and resettling become more difficult
as the age of the pigeon increases. Many different methods are used to
settle pigeons to lofts, and no ironclad rules can be set down to cover
all situations. The age of the birds, type of loft, and experience of
the pigeoneer will determine the method used and success achieved. Two
settling procedures will be explained in this section. The first will
be for young birds not strong on the wing, and the second for older
birds that are strong on the wing. These procedures are general and
may be used, with slight variations, to settle birds to all types of
lofts. In the case of the combat loft, however, remember that pigeons
are trained to recognize a certain type of loft rather than terrain
features or geographic locations. A combat loft is moved daily during
training so that the birds do not become accustomed to one location.
Otherwise settling to a combat loft is the same as settling to any
other loft.

_a._ SETTLING BIRDS NOT STRONG ON WING. The expression “not strong on
the wing” means that pigeons do not have sufficient strength in their
wings to stay in the air for sustained flight, for example, youngsters
removed from the nest when 28 to 36 days old. These young pigeons are
tame and easy to handle; they are not as excitable as older birds
because their sense of fear has not yet developed. For these reasons
they can be easily settled. They are not strong enough on the wing,
however, to stay away from the loft for prolonged periods.

(1) _Feed and water._ Feed birds liberally on the first day they are
placed in the loft, but never feed them heavily at any time after that.
Make sure the water fountain is placed where it can be found easily.
Young pigeons should be kept prisoners for about 2 days. During this
time watch them carefully to determine whether all have learned how to
drink. If any bird appears sleepy it may not have learned how to drink
or where to obtain water. This bird can be taught to drink by forcing
its entire beak into the water.

(2) _Learning to trap._ It is of the utmost importance that pigeons
used for delivering messages trap promptly. A bird may be the fastest
flyer in the loft yet be useless because it will not trap immediately
upon return to the loft. The message cannot be removed from the
pigeon’s leg if the bird stays on the roof of the loft instead of
entering the trap. For this reason it is essential that trapping
exercises be carefully carried out. The best time for this training
is when birds are being settled. Install the trap late in the evening
of the second day of confinement and allow the youngsters to go out
on their own initiative and look around. This enables them to become
familiar with the outside of the loft and the surrounding territory. On
the third day catch the youngsters, place them on the landing board,
and gently push one at a time through the trap. Some birds may take to
the wing but they will only stay in the air a few minutes at any one
time. These pigeons will not fly away; they are merely learning the use
of their wings and will return when tired. Place a small amount of feed
in the loft during this training and repeat the trapping exercise until
the youngsters overcome all fear of the trap. After the birds have
learned how to go through the trap allow them to remain outside the
loft for about 1/2 hour and then persuade them to trap into the loft
themselves. The birds are especially nervous at this time and should
not be frightened. While persuading the birds to enter the loft, the
pigeoneer should give them a small amount of feed by hand, and at the
same time acquaint them with the feed call.

(3) _Exercising._ On the fourth and following days of training the
birds may be turned out morning and late afternoon for approximately
1/2 hour of exercise. After each exercise period continue training the
birds to trap promptly upon their return to the loft. At this time
they should be fed only enough to assist in trapping. On these first
few days the pigeons may exercise singly or in small groups. On the
eighth day or soon after, however, most of the birds will begin to
take their exercise flights in one compact flock. As soon as they do
this, exercise the birds at noon as this will condition them faster
and also accustom them to flying during the heat of the day. If after
the seventh day there are a few birds that do not leave the loft for
exercise, induce them to fly by pushing them gently off the loft with
a bamboo fishing rod or similar pole. After all birds have learned to
exercise in a flock for 1/2 hour or more and then return to the loft
they may be considered settled. They are now ready for their first
training tosses (par. 35).

[Illustration: _Figure 25. Pigeons in trap of loft._

TL70194]

_b._ SETTLING BIRDS STRONG ON WING. The following method is suggested
for settling pigeons that are 36 days of age or older. It is assumed
that these birds have been trained to trap and that they are familiar
with the feed call. If they have not been taught to trap, then such
training must be carried on in conjunction with this method of
settling. It is necessary to use a wire inclosure such as a settling
cage in teaching these birds to trap because they will fly away if not
confined.

[Illustration: _Figure 26. Hand-feeding pigeons in loft._

TL70195]

(1) _Hunger and tameness._ These are the two most important factors in
settling birds strong on the wing, and the extent to which they are
developed and controlled will greatly determine the speed with which
the pigeons can be settled.

(_a_) _Hunger._ Never feed pigeons a full ration of feed at any one
time during the settling period. Keep them definitely on the hungry
side at all times. This serves to impress upon them that the loft is
the place to find food. Hand-feeding will control the distribution
of feed and, at the same time, encourage the birds to become tame.
Pigeoneers are urged to hand-feed their birds at all times if possible.

(_b_) _Tameness._ The pigeoneer should spend as much time as he can
in the loft with the birds. The loft should be arranged so that the
birds will be near the pigeoneer. This will serve a double purpose: the
pigeoneer becomes better acquainted with his birds, and they in turn
lose all fear of him.

(2) _Confinement._ It may be necessary to confine these birds for
several days, depending on their age. A settling cage to fit on the
landing board and roof of the loft may be constructed from wood and
wire mesh (fig. 27). This confines the pigeons, but at the same time
allows them to become acquainted with the roof, landing board, trap,
and immediate territory around the loft. The qualified pigeoneer can
anticipate by the tameness, hunger, and actions of the birds, when they
are ready to be given their first freedom.

(3) _First freedom._ Days with overcast skies or light rains are most
favorable for first releasing the birds. Best results can be expected
if birds are released in the late afternoon when they are hungry. When
the pigeoneer determines that the birds are ready to be given their
freedom, or on the third or fourth day of settling at the new location,
the following procedure is observed:

Force all of the pigeons into the settling cage, except for three
or four birds chosen in advance for their tameness. Give this small
group of birds their freedom. Pigeons love company; therefore, after
taking to the air, these birds will usually be attracted back by the
remaining birds in the settling cage. After the pigeons circle the loft
a few times call them in to prevent them from straying. For this first
liberation move the settling cage on the loft far enough to one side
to expose approximately half of the trap. This permits the pigeons to
enter the loft as soon as they return.

When the first group returns satisfactorily, give another small group
their freedom. The number of birds in the subsequent groups may be
increased if satisfactory results are obtained with the first few
groups. If the first group, or any part of it fails to return, however,
no other birds should be given their freedom that day. Repeat this
procedure the following day.

At no time during the first 2 days of liberty should the entire flock
be given its freedom at one time. After approximately 50 percent of the
birds has been given their liberty one or more times, the entire flock
may be given open loft and permitted to go in and out at will during
the late afternoon. Give open loft again the next day at the same time.
On subsequent days allow the birds their freedom each morning and
evening for approximately 1/2 hour of exercise.

Any birds that fail to take to the air should be gently forced to
exercise. Noon exercise periods will accustom birds to flying in the
heat of the day. When all birds have learned to exercise freely in a
flock and then return to the loft they are considered settled and ready
for further training as message carriers.

[Illustration: _Figure 27. Settling cage for loft, PG-68/TB._

TL70196]

(4) _Summary._ These essential points are to be remembered in settling
young pigeons:

(_a_) Teach birds to enter loft immediately after each exercise flight.
Loitering outside may become a fixed habit which will make the birds
undesirable for messenger service.

(_b_) Never drive pigeons from the loft during the first few days of
settling.

(_c_) Be sure pigeons are exercised and fed _regularly_.

(_d_) Keep birds as tame as possible and do not overfeed them.

(_e_) At no time allow the birds to become frightened.

(_f_) Do not interpret these instructions on settling as ironclad
rules. It may be necessary to vary them from time to time, depending
upon the situation.

35. Training for Messenger Service

This training is started as soon as the birds have been settled to the
loft from which they will be distributed. All pigeons except those
specifically reserved for breeding purposes may undergo training
continuously from the time they are 28 days old until they are no
longer suitable for messenger service. Fundamentally, the methods for
training pigeons to mobile combat lofts are the same as those for
stationary lofts. To avoid confusion, any difference in method will be
noted in the following paragraphs.

_a._ CONDITIONING. The first step in training homing pigeons for
messenger service is to develop the health and strength necessary to
endure sustained flight. This process is called conditioning. The
degree of training necessary to condition the birds will vary with the
mission for which they are being trained. Birds that will be required
to fly long distances will necessarily be given longer and more
intensive training than birds that will be required to fly only short
distances.

(1) _Health_ of the pigeon is dependent on proper care. Overcrowding
of birds should be avoided at all times. Good loft sanitation and
ventilation, together with proper diet and uncontaminated drinking
water, are factors in health that are under the control of the
pigeoneer. He is therefore largely responsible for the over-all health
of pigeons in his loft.

[Illustration: _Figure 28. Releasing pigeons from Crate PG-49._

TL70197]

(2) _Strength_ is developed by exercise flights around the loft, and by
training flights made from distant points.

_b._ TRAINING FLIGHTS. Pigeons may be given training flights in groups,
in pairs, or singly. This training procedure is sometimes called
“taking the birds down the road for a training toss.”

(1) _Group tossing._ Three or more birds are released at one time.
Young birds are gregarious and will work more satisfactorily when
released in small groups rather than individually. For this reason
birds being given their first training flights should be group tossed.

(2) _Double tossing._ A flock of pigeons is released in pairs; each
pair is permitted sufficient time to disappear before the next pair is
released.

(3) _Single tossing._ One bird at a time is released and permitted
to return to the loft alone. This is valuable training and all birds
should be given two or more single tosses of 10 or more miles before
being used in messenger service. Single tossing should not be practiced
at distances in excess of 10 miles until the pigeons have been well
settled in a particular location.

(4) _Use of cage PG-50 in training._ Preliminary training of pigeons
should include several brief periods of confinement in the 10-bird
training cage PG-50. After a period of confinement open doors carefully
and allow the birds to emerge of their own free will. The release point
should be within sight of the loft.

(5) _Use of pigeon equipment PG-103/CB and PG-105/CB._ Pigeons to be
used for carrying messages should be released from these 2- or 4-bird
containers after a brief interval of confinement. This will accustom
them to the boxes before combat use. Make sure fresh water is available
for the birds during confinement period.

[Illustration: _Figure 29. Cage PG-50, containing pigeons._

TL70198]

[Illustration: _Figure 30. Releasing pigeons from Pigeon Equipment
PG-103/CB._

TL70199]

_c._ ADVANCED TRAINING FLIGHTS. Advanced training of military pigeons
is primarily directional flight training, that is, releasing training
pigeons to fly back in one general direction from various distances
along the same course. The course may be north, south, east or west
as determined by the location of the loft in relation to the point of
release. Directional flights are the most suitable for military use,
since speed and reliability of the bird are considerably increased
and the time involved in training is comparatively short. If properly
trained, however, pigeons will return to their loft from reasonable
distances in any direction. A return flight from a direction different
from the trained line of flight would be called a nondirectional
flight. The speed from nondirectional flights will usually be slower
and less reliable than from directional flights. This is particularly
true when the pigeon must fly from the opposite direction of the
trained line of flight. For nondirectional flights to be reliable,
pigeons should be given training tosses from varying distances from all
points of the compass. Since this type of training is not stressed in
the Army Pigeon Service the subject will not be discussed any further.

[Illustration: _Figure 31. Pigeon Equipment PG-105/CB, containing
pigeons._

TL70200]

(1) _Directional training to stationary lofts._ The stationary loft
training chart (fig. 32) will aid the pigeoneer in directional training
of pigeons when the loft is in a permanent location. During training,
flight speeds will average 30 miles an hour from distances of 13 miles
or more if a direct line of flight is followed. When the training
flights (fig. 32) have been completed, the speed of pigeons will
usually be faster than 37-1/2 miles an hour. To maintain this speed
approximately once a week give pigeons one flight from 40 to 50 miles
and two or more short flights from 15 to 20 miles. Such flights will
keep the birds in condition for messenger service from distances up to
125 miles. Any bird returning in bad condition will be benefited more
by a rest of 3 or more days than by further training. If birds exceed
40 miles an hour on their first training flight from release points
of 13 miles or more, they may be failing to observe variations in
topography. Therefore, to be conservative during this training period,
release them again from the same point in order that they may learn
thoroughly the physical characteristics of the region over which they
fly. This second liberation from the same point greatly assists in
avoiding losses at future liberating points from greater distances. A
second liberation is also recommended if the birds return at speeds of
less than 20 miles an hour, since it can be assumed that they did not
follow a direct line of flight. A second flight over the same course
gives the birds an opportunity to learn a more direct line of flight.
Unless adverse weather conditions exist, pigeons generally continue to
fly in a direct line once it is learned. Strong head winds and the need
to fly around local storms will slow the birds down.

[Illustration: _Figure 32. Stationary loft training chart._

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[Illustration: _Figure 33. Combat loft training chart._

TL70202]

(2) _Directional training to combat lofts._ Combat (or mobile) lofts
are used during combat when it is necessary to establish immediate
pigeon communication. Since pigeons may be required to furnish reliable
messenger service within 8 days after moving to a new location, their
training must be carefully planned and skillfully accomplished.
Flight training begins as soon as the loft is established near the
headquarters to be served. Until this time, however, the birds are
not given any training tosses. They are, of course, fully settled
to the loft and have been taking daily exercise flights around the
loft at each new location to which the loft has been moved. Give the
birds their first exercise flight shortly after establishing the new
location. After the birds have had a brief rest they are given their
first training toss. If weather permits, group toss the birds many
times each day thereafter. Increase the distance and reduce the size
of the group each day so that the birds may be trained to distances of
25 to 50 miles in 5 days. When giving this flight training, follow the
combat loft training chart shown in figure 36.

_d._ REMOBILE TRAINING. (1) _Remobiling._ After combat birds have
been moved into a stationary position and have been flown from this
location, it is desirable to train them to mobility again before
moving them into a new location. This process is called remobiling
and can best be accomplished by moving the loft only a few feet at a
time until the pigeons again become accustomed to having it moved.
The birds will seem quite nervous and a few may settle on the ground
or fail to enter the loft the first few times it is moved. The birds
should become accustomed to searching for the loft regardless of its
location. After this stage of training has been reached, the loft
should be moved farther and farther away from the old location. Work
the pigeons as a regular mobile team from this point on, always making
sure that the birds are allowed plenty of time in the settling cage
before they are released. This process of remobiling homing pigeons
can best be accomplished with young birds that have not been settled
in one location for more than 6 weeks. If there is a shortage of young
birds and it is necessary to use older birds which have been remobiled
numerous times, transport them to the new location as many times as
possible. Feed the birds at the new location and never at the old home
loft. The birds will thus learn to retrace their flight to the new loft
if they return to their previous location. This method is useful only
when the new location is known in advance. Birds that fail to perform
properly as message carriers and are unsuitable for breeding purposes
should be destroyed. Birds showing symptoms of sickness should be
removed from the loft and forwarded for hospitalization, or destroyed
if hospitalization facilities are not available.

(2) _Reestablishing new location._ If the tactical situation requires
the message center to be moved forward, a new loft with birds that
have been trained in mobility will be placed in the new location. The
old loft may continue to operate until the new loft has established
reliable communication. This method of operation insures continuous
message service. As soon as the new loft has established reliable
message service, the old loft will be removed, and if the birds are
still suitable for combat loft flying the loft will be remobiled. If
the birds are no longer suitable for combat flying because of numerous
resettling at different locations, or from being settled in one
location too long, they may be returned to the base camp and put in one
of the breeding sections. The combat loft will then be restocked with
new youngsters from the breeding lofts and training in mobility will
begin.

_e._ TRAINING PRECAUTIONS. (1) _Overtraining._ Care should be taken
during flight training not to overtrain the birds. Such training does
more harm than good, particularly if long distances are involved.
Overtraining can be detected by the slightly dizzy, sleepy, and
unbalanced appearance of the birds while resting. When this condition
occurs, allow the pigeon to rest for a few days with open loft but no
forced exercise.

(2) _Feed mixtures while training._ The birds should have access to
fresh water and grit at all times. Make sure that the feed is clean
and in the best possible condition. Never change the mixture during
training or while the pigeons are being used for messenger service
because the change will throw the birds out of condition.

(3) _Training losses._ Forcing the birds to undertake distant flying
before they become properly settled to a location causes frequent
losses during the training stage. Care should be taken to limit the
first few training flights to distances of approximately 1 mile or less.

(4) _Catching pigeons._ The pigeoneer should avoid quick or sudden
movements in the loft and should never chase the birds in order to
catch them. When it is necessary to catch pigeons during daylight
hours, close the blackout windows or insert the shutters to darken
the loft. The pigeons may then be picked up easily with the aid of a
flashlight. The pigeoneer should avoid catching the pigeons in the loft
immediately after their return from a training flight.

36. Delivering Pigeons by Parachute

_a._ EQUIPMENT. Parachute equipment PG-100/CB consists of a
collapsible, cylinder-type, 4-bird container and a 6-foot hemispherical
baseball-type parachute with a quick release clip. Parachute equipment
PG-101/CB is of similar design except that the container has an 8-bird
capacity and is attached to a 9-foot parachute. This equipment is
specifically designed to supply initially or to resupply pigeons to
infantry parachute troops, infantry glider troops, or any isolated
forces requiring delivery of pigeons by air.

[Illustration: _Figure 34. Factory-packed parachute equipment
PG-100/CB, containing pigeons._

TL70203]

_b._ INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE. To insure safe delivery of the pigeons,
caution must be observed when attaching containers to the parachutes.

[Illustration: _Figure 35. Parachute laid out on flat surface._

TL70204]

[Illustration: _Figure 36. Parachute folded lengthwise._

TL70205]

[Illustration: _Figure 37. Parachute folded into pack._

TL70206]

[Illustration: _Figure 38. Parachute pack tied and static line
attached._

TL70207]

The instructions printed on each parachute pack should be strictly
adhered to.

_c._ RESULTS. Best results will be obtained when pigeons are launched
between the altitudes of 200 and 1,000 feet with air speed not
exceeding 125 miles an hour. Pigeons launched within these general
limits are less likely to become lost because of excessive drift. The
possibility of injury to the birds from high speed air rushing through
the container, or from shock when the parachute opens, will be reduced
to a minimum.

_d._ INSTRUCTIONS FOR REPACKING PARACHUTES. The following method is
suggested for repacking either 6- or 9-foot parachutes for future use
after they have been used once for dropping pigeons to ground troops.

(1) Stretch parachute full length, with one man holding the canopy
at the center of the top and another man holding the shroud lines
taut at the shroud line separator disk. Straighten all shroud lines,
making sure none are twisted. Lay the parachute on a flat surface and
pick each fold of the canopy as one would pick petals from a flower,
dividing the folds and associated shroud lines equally on each side
(fig. 35). Eliminate creases by running the hand between the folds.

(2) Make an “S” fold in the canopy lengthwise from the crown (fig. 36).
The hem will form a large letter “S” if the fold is made properly.

(3) Lay the shroud lines in small “S” folds on the canopy starting
approximately 10 or 12 inches back from the hem, making a sufficient
number of folds to bring the shroud line separator disk close to the
hem of the canopy. The parachute is now ready to be folded into a pack.
To do this, make three accordion folds in the canopy (fig. 37).

(4) Tie the folded canopy in position with two tie cords of not more
than 15 pounds strength. Place one cord approximately 2-1/2 inches
back from the hem and the other cord 2-1/2 inches from the end of the
pack. Attach the static line to the tie cord near the end of the pack,
leaving enough tail for another tie to be made to the other tie cord
near the hem with 3 inches of slack left between the two ties (fig.
38). The static line must have a tensile strength of at least 200
pounds and be 15 feet long. The 3 inches of slack left between the two
ties are necessary for each tie cord to receive a sharp individual
snap; otherwise both cords will break simultaneously.

(5) Push the remainder of the static cord between one of the folds in
the parachute. The parachute is now ready for reuse.

SECTION VI

MATING AND BREEDING

37. Mating

_a._ GENERAL. Pigeons will keep the same mate for life unless forcibly
separated. The desire to mate is a natural instinct. Since pigeons are
monogamous their mating can be controlled for breeding purposes. If
left to their own inclinations, pigeons will mate between the ages of
4 and 9 months. Mating for breeding purposes, however, should not be
permitted until pigeons are at least 9 months of age.

_b._ PURPOSE. The aim in mating is to produce youngsters which are
equal, if not superior, in ability, to either of the parents. Such
youngsters are obtained by selecting breeder stock with pedigree,
performance, physical qualities, and temperament which will probably
produce youngsters of the required type.

38. Sex

_a._ Sex of the pigeon is difficult to determine without experience;
however, some external characteristics help recognition. Under ordinary
circumstances the cock usually has—

(1) Broader skull.

(2) Larger head.

(3) Larger bill and wattle.

(4) Stronger neck.

(5) Broader shoulders.

(6) Closer vent bones.

(7) Larger legs and feet.

_b._ In some cases, where the physical characteristics of the male and
female are similar, it is often necessary to observe their actions when
together to determine sex. Some of the common actions of the cock are:

(1) Chasing hen when cooing.

(2) Scraping of the tail when cooing.

(3) Pecking the head of the hen when she shows no desire to mate.

(4) Cock’s coo is deep and full, while hen’s is sharp.

39. Selection of Stock

_a._ GENERAL. Stock for breeding at a loft should be selected with
the advice of the pigeon expert in charge of breeding. The pigeoneer
who desires to become an expert in the art of breeding pigeons is
encouraged to study additional literature on this subject. The pedigree
for at least two generations is used to determine probable qualities of
future youngsters since it shows family, strain, and kind of flying in
which the birds excel, as well as the performance of other youngsters
produced by the same parent.

_b._ PHYSICAL QUALITIES. Pigeons selected for breeding should be in
good health and as nearly perfect physically as possible. A pigeon
which has had a serious injury, or has been very ill, is unsuitable.
The following physical qualities are desirable:

(1) _Feathers._ Feathers should be of good quality. Flights, which are
most important, should be heavy and wide, and should overlap when the
wing is extended, showing no gaps. Birds with very thin flight should
not be bred. Body feathers should be soft and plentiful. Those on neck
and chest should be glossy and iridescent.

(2) _Eye._ The eye is complex and is of great importance. It should
never be of a sunken or extended nature, but should completely fill
the orbit (bone cavity containing the eye) and be surrounded by a fine
white textured cere. The eye should be clear and bright; its color is
of no importance. The eye may be best examined with a magnifying glass.

(_a_) The pupil is approximately one-third the size of the eye. It
dilates and contracts according to intensity of light and distance of
object being focused. The pupil should be black and brilliant.

(_b_) A thin visible muscle (often called the scouting sight) should
completely encircle the pupil. This muscle dilates and contracts the
pupil. A portion of the muscle may be of a darker shade and located
either at the front or lower front of the pupil. This muscle should
be prominent in at least one of the birds selected for breeding to
produce a higher percentage of dependable birds. If pigeons which do
not possess this muscle, or which have only a small portion of it
visible, are to be used for breeding purposes, they should be mated to
pigeons having a muscle which is more prominent even though it may not
completely surround the pupil.

(_c_) The iris determines the color of the eye. It should be well
blended and possess the brilliance denoting life and observance.
Pigeons possessing faded or weak eyes are not desirable for breeding
purposes.

Splashed birds often possess a “bull eye” which has an iris of a solid,
dark purplish-brown color. When this color appears only on a part of
the iris, the bird has a splashed eye. It is hard to detect the muscle
surrounding the pupil when the “bull eye” is present.

The color of the iris may be maroon, ruby-red, rose, pink, walnut,
chestnut-brown, orange, yellow-orange, carrot, violet, grayish white,
or pearl. When the iris consists of one color only, it will be
considered a “full eye.” Two colors may occasionally be present in the
iris, such as red and yellow, orange and yellow, and so forth. The two
colors should be well blended in any case. “Full eyes” and “two-colored
eyes” are both satisfactory for breeding purposes. Mated birds should
have irises of similar shades.

The outer part of the iris is normally darkest; the color diminishes
toward the center of the eye. This coloring is more pronounced when the
birds are in top condition.

(_d_) The thin line circumscribing the iris should be extremely dark
and very distinct.

(_e_) The remainder of the eyeball should be dark and well covered by
the cere. The bird is said to have an “open eye” when the portion of
the eyeball which should be covered by the cere is visible. Birds with
open eyes are undesirable for breeding.

(_f_) The upper and lower lids are a part of the eye cere. A third lid
which is a transparent membrane frees the eye from foreign material.
The blinking of the third lid can scarcely be detected when the pigeons
are in perfect health.

(3) _Size and temperament._ Medium-sized pigeons are most desirable and
birds should be mated to attain this uniform size. Birds being mated
to breed stock for pigeon communication should be calm and easy going,
not high-strung. Nervous or excitable birds should never be mated.

40. Line Breeding

The aim of breeding from pigeons of the same or closely related
parentage is to reproduce the qualities of the old birds in their
young, amplifying the good qualities and minimizing the bad. Line
breeding requires the services of an experienced pigeoneer. Only
champions which are physically perfect should be mated. Except for line
breeding, inbreeding should not be practiced.

41. Nests

_a._ Bowl PG-75 is an expendable item made of pressed wood pulp and is
used as a nesting place for pigeons. It is advisable to replace the
bowls occasionally to avoid vermin. Cocks display a keen desire to use
the same nest compartment each time they are mated or, if moved to a
different loft, the nest compartment in the same relative position as
the one occupied previously. If not permitted to do this, the cock will
fight the occupant of the compartment. Therefore, consult previous
breeding records carefully in assigning nest compartments. Hens do not
show this trait, but accept a change in compartments and follow their
mates.

_b._ Keep a supply of tobacco stems for nest material in a rack on the
floor of the loft. Allow the pigeons to arrange this material to suit
their fancy. Put a handful of sawdust or wood shavings in the nest bowl
to prevent breaking of eggs.

42. Control of Breeding

The method of control given below is simple, natural, and successful;
it requires minimum handling of the birds.

[Illustration: _Figure 39. Parent pigeons in nest with youngsters in
Bowl PG-75._

TL70208]

_a._ TIME. Since best youngsters are obtained when birds are mated
during February, March, and April, whenever possible, arrange all
breeding for the year during these months. Eggs which should not be
hatched should be replaced with EGG PG-50 (glass).

_b._ MATING. To begin breeding, place each pair to be mated in its
nest, and confine for approximately 1 day. Open one of the nests and
allow the pair to leave and return at will. The pair may be considered
mated after it returns to the nest several times. Close the nest
compartment and proceed in the same manner with the next pair, and so
on until each pair is mated.

_c._ AFTER MATING. To minimize the danger of birds entering the wrong
nest and fighting, open only alternate nest compartments for the first
few days after mating.

_d._ FOLLOWING SEASON. Any pair producing outstanding youngsters should
be mated the same way each year. Mated pairs producing unsatisfactory
youngsters should be separated and each pigeon remated. Destroy breeder
pigeons which produce unsatisfactory youngsters subsequently.

43. Laying

The first egg is usually laid during late afternoon from 7 to 10 days
after nesting has been started. The second egg is laid approximately 44
hours later. As a rule, parent birds do not hover the first egg until
the second egg has been laid. This usually enables the youngsters to
hatch within 1 hour of each other, and gives each one an equal chance.
The youngster from the first egg will be much larger than the other
if the parent birds start to hover at the time the first egg is laid.
Fertility is indicated if the egg becomes a light bluish color after 10
days, or if it shows blood lines after 5 days when held up to the sun’s
rays. Do not destroy the first pair of eggs as it is generally believed
that they often produce the best youngsters of that year.

44. Hatching and Feeding

_a._ The incubation period is from 17 to 18 days long. The hen pigeon
usually sits from 1600 of one day to 1000 the following morning; the
male pigeon sits the remainder of that day.

_b._ The young pigeons are fed by both parents. Their first feed is a
thick, creamy-white excretion produced in the crop of both female and
male (pigeon milk or pap). Pigeons are the only birds both sexes of
which produce milk for their young. The young pigeon places it’s bill
down the throat of either parent, and the parent in return forces the
food into the young one’s throat. This method of feeding is known as
“regurgitation.”

45. Identification

The identification record of the pigeon is started when the hen lays
the egg. Until the time that the youngster leaves the nest compartment,
this record is kept on a breeding card (par. 27). For identification
purposes, each pigeon is banded when approximately 8 days of age (par.
28).

46. Culling

It is necessary to cull (destroy) severely to keep the stock in a loft
up to standard. Cull birds which do not meet physical requirements
for breeding unless all birds are needed. In addition, destroy those
which show a definite lack of intelligence, or which do not perform up
to the average. About 30 percent of the young bred in any one season
are normally under the physical standard and should be culled to keep
the stock from degenerating. In addition to losses sustained through
culling, 20 to 30 percent of the remaining stock may be expected to
be lost during training flights, as result of disease and injury, or
through additional culling because of substandard performance.

SECTION VII

DISEASES AND MEDICINES

47. General

Certain diseases attack pigeons. Normal preventive methods usually
protect pigeons from disease. If, however, these diseases are not
detected immediately, they are likely to sweep through the loft,
destroying or ruining most of the birds. It is necessary, therefore,
that the pigeoneer be able to detect, correctly diagnose, and treat the
more common pigeon diseases, in addition to taking preventive measures.

48. Prevention of Disease

Disease prevention is much simpler and cheaper than control or cure.
Medicines are only emergency measures used in an attempt to overcome
disease.

_a._ SANITATION. This is the most important way of preventing disease
and its value should never be underestimated. The following rules for
sanitation in the care of pigeons must be strictly adhered to:

(1) Keep loft clean and dry.

(2) Keep drinking fountain clean and water free from pollution.

(3) Quarantine new stock until certain that all birds are free from
disease.

(4) Never permit stray pigeons, wild birds, or rodents (mice, rats,
etc.) to enter the loft.

(5) Never feed pigeons on a dirty floor, because most of the more
serious diseases are transmitted through the droppings.

(6) Bury or burn diseased birds that have been destroyed.

(7) Immediately isolate birds showing any signs of sickness.

(8) After touching diseased birds disinfect the hands before handling
other birds.

(9) Thoroughly clean and disinfect lofts contaminated by disease.

_b._ LOFT CONDITION. Pigeons must never be crowded in the loft. It is
best to subdivide large lofts into smaller compartments for better
control and ease of observation. Sunlight and dryness are two great
natural disinfectants which should be utilized fully through plenty of
window space and adequate ventilation. Eliminate strong direct drafts
because they chill birds and lower their resistance to disease.

49. Control of Disease

_a._ Pigeons showing any signs of sickness must be segregated
immediately. In combat lofts there is normally no place available to
isolate and treat diseased birds, therefore, it is usually advisable to
destroy them and burn or bury their remains to avoid contaminating the
rest of the flock.

_b._ In any case of disease, the loft should be thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected to destroy the germs of the disease as well as the mites
and lice which may be carriers. Cresol, saponated solution, is an
efficient disinfectant when used in a 4-percent solution in warm or
hot water. This disinfectant is issued to signal pigeon companies.

50. Anatomy and Physiology

A knowledge of the structure and function of the bird’s body helps
a pigeoneer understand his birds and certain of their diseases. For
convenience, the various organs are divided into groups or systems
according to their functions.

_a._ RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. (1) Mouth and nostrils admit air.

(2) Glottis or larynx is the opening into the trachea.

(3) Trachea conducts air to and from the lungs.

(4) Lungs are organs of gaseous interchange. Air spaces are surrounded
by a network of capillaries. Here the blood gives off carbon dioxide
and takes on oxygen.

(5) Nine air sacs cool the pigeon, give it buoyance, and mechanically
aid the pigeon to breathe.

_b._ DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. (1) Mouth is the opening through which food is
received.

(2) Esophagus conducts food to the crop.

(3) Crop, or ingluvius, stores and softens the food.

(4) True stomach, or proventriculus, furnishes gastric digestive juices
that digest proteins and carbohydrates.

(5) Gizzard is the grinding and mixing organ.

(6) Pancreas furnishes digestive juices that digest fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates, besides furnishing certain internal secretions.

(7) Liver produces bile which helps digest food.

[Illustration: _Figure 40. Loft cleaning equipment._

TL70209]

(8) Intestines provide space for food while it is being digested
and absorbed by the blood stream. The intestines also furnish some
digestive juices.

_c._ CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. The circulatory system consists of the heart,
arteries, veins, and capillaries. Its function is to convey nourishing
blood from the heart to all parts of the body and to dispose of the
waste material produced by the working tissues. The heart consists
of four chambers: two ventricles and two auricles. The right auricle
receives the stale blood from the veins and pumps it into the right
ventricle which pumps it through an artery to the lungs. Here waste
matter, such as carbon dioxide, is eliminated from the blood and fresh
oxygen is restored. The blood then returns to the heart through a vein
entering the left auricle. Proceeding from the left auricle to the left
ventricle, it is pumped out through the arteries to the capillaries,
which are the smallest vessels of the body. The capillaries circulate
the blood through every tissue of the body, dispensing oxygen and food.
The blood then picks up waste material on its return to the heart
through the veins. The circulation of blood in the pigeon is very
rapid, and with the heart beating 200 to 300 times a minute, only a few
minutes are required to complete the circuit.

_d._ REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. (1) Male birds have two testes (testicles).

(2) Female birds have one (left) ovary and one oviduct, or egg tube,
through which the yolks pass to get the albumin, shell membrane, and
shell.

_e._ URINARY SYSTEM. The kidneys take impurities out of the blood, and
pass them into the cloaca (combination bladder and rectum).

51. Indications of Sickness

_a._ The common indications of sickness are—

(1) Refusing to eat.

(2) Dull, watery eyes.

(3) Droopy appearance with ruffled feathers and no desire to move.

(4) Green, watery droppings. If such droppings are noted in the loft
all birds should be watched until the sick one is detected.

_b._ The easiest and best way to detect sick pigeons is to observe the
birds at feeding time. The pigeoneer should also examine all birds as
they are being basketed for training tosses.

52. Diseases

Pigeons are subject to numerous infectious and contagious diseases.
These diseases are caused by germs such as bacteria and viruses, and
are transmitted in poor feed, dirty water, unclean lofts, and similar
conditions showing mismanagement. Infectious diseases are contagious if
the birds themselves transmit germs to one another.

_a. Pigeon pox_ is a common infectious, contagious disease which
usually affects unfeathered portions of the pigeon’s head and feet.
Pox often develop on the mucous membrane, lining of the mouth and
throat. In an outbreak, both types are usually seen. The pox appear as
swellings covered with light yellow material and are sometimes called
wet pock, diphtheria, or canker.

(1) _Symptoms._ The course of the disease runs about 4 weeks.

(_a_) The virus gets into the skin or mucous membrane and causes a
wartlike swelling, called a pock, at the point of infection. The virus
grows and causes the pock to enlarge for about 10 days.

(_b_) During the next 10 days the tissues begin to die and turn
yellow. Sometimes a blister forms in the pock, but only a slight
enlargement occurs during this period. During the last 10 days the
affected tissues begin to dry and form scabs which soon heal and drop
off.

(_c_) Pock in the mouth and throat follows the same course as in (_b_)
above except they are covered with a light yellow layer of tissues.
Instead of becoming a dry scab formation, the pock becomes a yellow
cheesy formation.

(2) _Treatment._ Usually this is of little value, as pox will run its
course of about 4 weeks, regardless of treatment.

(_a_) One percent yellow oxide of mercury ointment will help soothe
affected eyes.

(_b_) Pock in the mouth may be cut away, and the area painted with
tincture of iodine or carefully cauterized with silver nitrate to stop
bleeding.

(_c_) Birds that refuse to eat may be fed by force until the disease
runs its course.

(_d_) Vaccination has no curative value on affected birds.

(_e_) Thoroughly clean and disinfect loft after an outbreak of this
disease.

(3) _Prevention._ This is simple if all susceptible birds are
vaccinated. Vaccination against pox is one of the most successful known
because all birds receiving it are made permanently immune. Birds may
be vaccinated at 5 or 6 weeks of age.

(_a_) Pluck five or six feathers from the breast region of the bird and
brush the vaccine into the follicles.

(_b_) In about 10 days the follicles swell and a pock develops. This
runs a course of about 4 weeks and heals.

(_c_) All susceptible birds in a loft should be vaccinated at the same
time and each should be examined for “takes” after vaccinations.

_b._ PARATYPHOID is a common infectious disease of pigeons and is
probably the most devastating of bacterial infectious diseases at
the present time. It may affect the bird in many ways, and produce
such a variety of symptoms that it is often mistaken for numerous
other diseases. The only definite way of diagnosing paratyphoid is by
laboratory tests. A tentative diagnosis can be made, however, upon
observing typical symptoms.

(1) _Symptoms._ The course of the disease varies from a rapidly fatal
blood poisoning to a slow, chronic disease with, or without, complete
recovery. The infection may take place through the egg, by way of milk
fed to youngsters, or by contaminated feed, water, and grit. The manner
of infection has no bearing on the course of the disease. The germs may
get into the blood-stream, go all through the body, and cause sudden
death; or the infection may be less severe and localize in any one of
the numerous organs.

(_a_) Bacteria may localize in the intestines and produce mild to very
severe inflammation. This usually results in diarrhea.

(_b_) Localizations in the lungs are very common and appear as hard,
dried abscesses. These are seldom so serious as to cause respiratory
distress.

(_c_) Joint boils result from direct localization of the germs in the
joints of the legs or wings. Naturally this produces lameness.

(_d_) Inflammatory reactions of the spleen and liver are often the
result of the localization of the germ in these organs. Chronic
inflammation of the entire liver is also observed. The abdomen of such
birds usually fills with fluid and the bird then gets thin and dies.

(_e_) Paratyphoid germs quite often localize in the brain and cause
abscess formation. Such abscesses cause a variety of symptoms,
depending on which part of the brain is involved. Usually the bird
shows loss of equilibrium. It may twist its head and neck about, show
trembling of the head and neck, or other nervous symptoms. Such birds
rarely recover.

(_f_) Occasionally the germ will localize in the eye. The inside of the
eye turns white and sight is lost. Only rarely are both eyes involved.
Such birds appear to be very ill and usually die in a short period of
time.

(_g_) Germs may localize in the ovary of the female or testes of the
male. Such birds may show no symptoms, or they may become sterile. Eggs
laid by such birds may be infertile. Youngsters, if hatched, may be
weak and die soon after. Germs may localize in the oviduct and cause an
impacted oviduct.

(_h_) The only definite way of diagnosing paratyphoid is by laboratory
tests. A tentative diagnosis can be made, however, upon observing the
typical symptoms.

(2) _Treatment._ Treatment is useless for visibly affected birds.
Neither drugs nor vaccines seem to be of any value in treating this
condition. Many birds recover from mild infections without treatment.
Therefore, the best possible care should be provided for the birds
in order to keep their resistance high so that they can successfully
combat the infection and overcome disease.

(3) _Prevention._ Since contamination of feed, water, and grit by
droppings is probably the greatest cause of paratyphoid, sanitation is
the best preventive.

(_a_) Clean the loft scrupulously.

(_b_) Maintain sanitary drinking fountains with fresh water to avoid
spreading infection by way of water. Take special care to prevent
dampness from spillage or leakage around the drinking fountain, as this
makes an ideal place for bacteria to accumulate.

(_c_) Feces from birds with diarrhea should be removed from the loft as
soon as noticed.

(_d_) Frequent disinfection of the loft with a strong disinfectant like
4 percent saponified cresol will help keep down contamination.

_c._ TRICHOMONIASIS. This is a very common disease of pigeons commonly
seen in the mouth, esophagus, or crop in the form of cheesy yellow or
white lesions. For this reason it is often called “canker” by pigeon
fanciers. The cause is a motile one-celled organism. Only the common
type of this organism will be considered here. This disease has many
carriers. It shows up only where sanitary conditions are bad or other
diseases are present.

(1) _Symptoms._ The course of the disease varies according to
resistance of the affected bird, treatment, and care. Young birds in
the nest become infected through “milk” of infected parents. Infection
doubtless spreads by contact while “billing” and fighting. Germs cause
affected tissues to die. This results in the formation of a sore or
opening down into the tissue with a varying-sized yellow, cheesy
exudate or scab forming over it. Sometimes such scabs become very large
and nearly fill the mouth, throat, or crop.

(2) _Treatment._ Various drugs and chemicals have been used to treat
trichomoniasis. However, this condition has proved quite unresponsive
to usual medication. In fact, drugs do not have much, if any, direct
effect on the healing of tissue. All that medicine can do is to cut
down the number of parasites present and permit nature to repair the
damage done to the tissue. Suggested procedures for treatment follow:

(_a_) Remove all yellow pus patches with cotton swabs. Then paint area
with a mixture of iodized oil and sulfanilamide powder. The iodized oil
is prepared by using 1 gram iodine, 1.5 grams potassium iodide, and 2
ounces light petrolatum. The iodine requires some time and frequent
shaking to dissolve. Make a small cotton swab on an applicator stick,
dip it into the oil, roll it in the sulfanilamide powder, and then
apply to cleaned trichomoniasis (canker) lesion. Daily treatment, rest,
and an abundance of good feed are necessary.

(_b_) Clean off exudate by local applications of tincture of iodine,
or a mixture of one part iodine to three parts glycerine; at the same
time lesions will respond to such treatment. Silver nitrate may be used
either in stick form or in solution.

(3) _Prevention._ Sanitation is the best preventive.

(_a_) Correct predisposing causes such as wet floors, nests, and
perches.

(_b_) Try to isolate infected birds, provided the number is not too
large.

(_c_) Attempt to control spread of parasitic infestation by using a
parasiticide like copper sulphate in the drinking water. This is used
in a 1-2000 solution.

_d._ TUBERCULOSIS. This is an infectious and highly contagious disease
caused by a highly-resistant germ which can live in soil for 2 years.

(1) _Symptoms._ The young die suddenly and old birds waste away.
Grayish white nodules appear in liver and spleen, basket ulcers in
intestines, and yellow nodules in all parts of the body.

(2) _Treatment._ There is no treatment for tuberculosis. Destroy all
affected birds and thoroughly clean and disinfect loft.

(3) _Prevention._ Keep all stray pigeons out of loft and maintain
sanitary conditions at all times.

_e._ ONE-EYE COLD (CONJUNCTIVITUS). (1) _Symptoms._ There is a watery
discharge from the eye, and the surrounding membranes are frequently
swollen.

(2) _Treatment._ Place bird in a warm room and treat eye daily with one
drop of metaphin, or one drop of 15 percent argyrol.

(3) _Prevention._ Provide proper ventilation in the loft. Avoid
dampness and drafts.

_f._ GOING LIGHT. This is not a disease in itself but a symptom or
result of a disease. Any pigeon showing loss of flesh should be
isolated and observed until the affecting disease is determined.

_g._ DIARRHEA. This is not usually a distinct disease, but the result
of some other disease.

(1) _Symptoms._ Droppings are green and watery.

(2) _Treatment._ Sick birds should be isolated and observed to
determine if they have some other disease. Feeding of rice will usually
check the condition if it is caused by feed or drinking water.

(3) _Prevention._ Sanitary loft conditions, proper diet, and fresh
drinking water will help prevent it.

_h._ SOUR CROP. Sour crop is caused by damp or mouldy grain, impure
water or lack of grit.

(1) _Symptoms._ The pigeon will sit with feathers ruffled. A greenish
diarrhea usually accompanies sour crop. On examination the crop is
found to be hard and distended.

(2) _Treatment._ Hold the bird with head down and gently press on
the crop until all feed has been removed. Flush out the crop with a
solution of 4 teaspoons of bicarbonate of soda to a quart of warm
water. Feed a light mixture, consisting mostly of rice, millet, kaffir
corn, and other small seeds. Repeat the cleaning and flushing of the
crop daily, if necessary, until this condition clears.

(3) _Prevention._ Sanitary loft conditions, proper diet, and fresh
drinking water will help prevent it.

53. External Parasites

Many insects and related species live off other animals. Some of these
parasites, like lice, live on the host but feed only upon bits of its
feathers and tiny scales and excretions of the skin. Others are more
vicious and suck blood from the animal. Diseases are often spread from
bird to bird through the life habits of these parasites.

_a._ LICE. Lice are undoubtedly the most common of these external
parasites.

(1) _Different species._ There are at least six different species of
lice that attack pigeons in this country. The three most common are—

(_a_) _Feather louse._ This is the long, slender species that lives on
the barbs and shaft of the feather over nearly any part of the bird’s
body.

(_b_) _Golden feather louse._ This louse is a little shorter and much
broader and lives on the feathers, particularly on the bird’s body.

(_c_) _Body louse._ This is the largest of the pigeon lice. It lives on
the skin rather than on the feathers. It is thought that these lice,
by biting the very young pin feathers when they are filled with blood,
cause the small pinhole perforations often seen in pigeon feathers.

[Illustration: _Figure 41. Life cycle of pigeon lice._

TL70210]

(2) _Habits_ (fig. 41). In order to combat lice properly and
intelligently, it is necessary to know something about where and how
they feed, live, and breed.

(_a_) Adult lice live on the skin and feathers of the bird and only
rarely leave the pigeon. When accidentally dislodged, they crawl very
short distances to other birds. Lice cannot live longer than a few days
away from the birds.

(_b_) Lice eat bits of feathers, scales, and other debris off the skin.
They do not suck blood.

(_c_) Female lice lay eggs (nits) along the shafts of the feathers,
particularly on the primary coverts.

(_d_) Louse eggs hatch in 10 to 14 days.

(_e_) Young lice eat, molt (3 to 5 times), and grow to maturity in
about 14 days.

(3) _Diagnosis._ Infested pigeons are restless and constantly pick and
scratch in an effort to dislodge the lice. Heavily infested birds may
become weak and thin because the constant annoying movement of lice
interferes with their proper relaxation and rest. Careful examination
of the birds will reveal the lice.

[Illustration: _Figure 42. Life cycle of common red mite._

TL70211]

(4) _Treatment._ The use of sodium fluoride is a good standard method
for ridding pigeons of lice. It can be applied in two ways:

(_a_) _Dip method_ is very efficient, but can be used only in warm
weather. Birds should be dipped on a warm, sunny day early enough so
they will dry before night. Each bird is immersed into the solution
up to the head, and the feathers ruffled to allow penetration of the
solution. Then the mouth and nostrils are held shut and the head
immersed. The dip is made of 1 gallon warm water, and 1 ounce sodium
fluoride.

(_b_) _Dust method_ may be used at any time. The birds are held while
a few pinches of powdered sodium fluoride are dusted into the feathers
over various parts of the body. Sodium fluoride poisons lice when
they eat it. Efficiency in delousing birds depends on thoroughness of
wetting or dusting.

(5) _Repeat treatment._ Neither method above will kill nits nor prevent
them from hatching; therefore, the delousing must be repeated in 10 to
14 days in order to kill newly hatched lice.

(6) _Prevention._ Normally, only pigeons carry pigeon lice. For this
reason, the spread of lice to or from other kinds of birds is of no
concern. However, common pigeons and stragglers are prolific sources of
spread. Contact in crates is also a common source of infestation. Lice
are often brushed from infested birds onto the hands and clothing of
pigeoneers who later carry them to clean birds handled later.

_b._ RED MITES. Red mites are a common parasite of the pigeon.

(1) _Habits_ (fig. 42). It is important to note the difference between
the habits of lice and mites.

(_a_) Mites live in, on, and under the nest bowls, nest boxes, and any
available crack or crevice.

(_b_) Mites go onto the birds only long enough to feed—usually about
1/2 hour.

(_c_) Red mites suck blood from the pigeons. It is the engorged blood
that makes the mite red.

(_d_) Mite eggs are deposited in the cracks and crevices or debris
around the nest box where they live.

(_e_) Eggs hatch in 2 or more days, according to weather conditions.

(_f_) Newly-hatched mites mature in about 5 days.

(2) _Diagnosis._ Pigeon’s loss of condition is the most evident
indication of mite infestation. Actual loss of blood is probably less
harmful to the bird than annoyance caused by crawling and biting of
mites.

(3) _Treatment._ Most good disinfectants supplied to lofts will kill
mites satisfactorily if worked well into all cracks and crevices.
Oily disinfectants are inexpensive and very effective, but leave the
loft rather unsightly. Whitewash kills only by covering up and is
ineffective if any areas are missed. For this reason, some of the more
refined cresols are used. Four percent saponified cresol in warm water
is quite effective.

(4) _Repeat._ Since the cresol does not kill the eggs, it is necessary
to repeat treatment in 5 to 7 days.

(5) _Prevention._ Mites that attack pigeons are apparently the same
as found on other birds, including domestic poultry. Therefore, wild
birds, straggling pigeons, and neighborhood poultry are possible
sources of infection. Light, dry, airy lofts do not favor breeding of
mites.

_c._ Pigeon flies which are particularly troublesome in warm climates
are true flies with short, flat, wide bodies and long wings.

(1) _Life cycle_ (fig. 46). (_a_) Pigeon flies live among body feathers.

(_b_) They leave the birds only to deposit larvae, or when disturbed.

(_c_) Adult flies suck blood from the birds.

(_d_) Female flies deposit living larvae in or around the nest bowl,
nest box, or around the loft.

(_e_) Newly deposited larvae are white and about the size of a small
buck shot. Within a few hours, a hard shell forms around them and they
turn from white to brown and then to jet black.

(_f_) Young flies emerge from these shells in about 30 days and are
ready for their first meal of blood.

[Illustration: _Figure 43. Life cycle of pigeon fly._

TL70212]

(2) _Diagnosis._ Pigeon flies can easily be observed crawling among
the bird’s feathers. Their movement as well as biting greatly annoys
the birds. However, the greatest damage they do is transmitting pigeon
malaria.

(3) _Treatment._ A very effective and easily applied method of
treatment is to dust the birds lightly with pyrethrum powder. Sweep
nest boxes and loft carefully to collect pupae so that they can be
destroyed. Pigeon flies will not travel far from the birds; therefore,
keep stragglers out of loft and carefully inspect newly-introduced
birds to avoid admitting flies.

_d._ MOSQUITOES. Mosquitoes are a very common but usually
underestimated pest. Besides molesting the birds by biting and sucking
blood, they may transmit pox. These troublesome insects breed in
standing water, such as swampy areas, old tin cans, and rain barrels.
Control consists of draining or oiling breeding places and using
screens on loft openings.

_e._ Other parasites attacking pigeons are fleas, chiggers, ticks,
bed bugs, depluming mites, feather mites, air sac mites, subcutaneous
mites, sand flies, and beetle larvae. Fortunately, these are rare.

54. Internal Parasites

These are the worms that live inside pigeons. Round worms are by far
the most numerous. Tape worms are occasionally found in pigeons, but
seldom present a serious problem.

_a._ Ascarids, or common large round worms are the largest and most
prevalent of the round worms. Adult worms are from 1 to 2 inches long.

(1) _Habits._ Knowledge of the life cycle of a round worm is of great
importance for successful control of this troublesome parasite. This
worm has a “direct” life cycle (fig. 47) (completing it in one species).

(_a_) Mature worms live in the upper part of the small intestines and
feed by absorbing food from the intestinal contents through their own
body walls.

(_b_) Eggs (ova) are deposited by female worms in the intestinal
contents of the pigeon, and later pass out in the pigeon droppings. It
has been estimated that female worms lay as many as 12,000 eggs a day.
Feces from parasitized birds often contain countless numbers of ova.

(_c_) Freshly deposited worm eggs are much like freshly laid pigeon
eggs, in that they must be incubated before they are ready to hatch.
They need to remain in warm, moist litter or soil for 10 to 16 days
before the worm larvae can develop. Severe freezing, excessively hot
soil, and direct sunlight will destroy the eggs.

(_d_) When birds eat the incubated eggs, the worms hatch out in their
intestines.

(_e_) The tiny larvae then “sew” themselves into the lining of the
intestines and begin to grow.

(_f_) After a few days, the larvae crawl back into the intestinal canal
where they mature in 30 to 40 days.

(2) _Diagnosis._ Ascarids injure birds in several ways.

(_a_) When the newly hatched worm “sews” itself into the intestinal
lining the area around the puncture becomes inflamed because of
mechanical injury, loss of blood, and introduced infection. This
localized inflammation renders that part of the intestinal lining
useless for digesting and absorbing food.

(_b_) The worm absorbs food from the intestinal contents which should
go to the birds.

(_c_) In order to protect themselves and avoid being digested, the
worms give off a substance that neutralizes digestive juices. This
substance becomes mixed with intestinal contents and prevents proper
digestion.

(_d_) Worms sometimes become so numerous that they actually clog the
intestines. As many as 500 worms have been found in a single bird.

(_e_) Worm-infested birds show loss of condition and general
unhealthiness. Diagnosis is made by finding worms or worm eggs in
droppings or by autopsy on typical specimens.

(3) _Treatment._ The following drugs are only effective against mature
worms and, at best, are only 80 percent efficient:

1-CC Oil of turpentine per bird.
1/2-CC Tetrachlorethylene per bird.
1/2-CC Carbon tetrachloride per bird.

(4) _Prevention._ This is relatively simple and practically 100 percent
effective.

(_a_) Clean loft daily and provide fresh water.

(_b_) If aviary does not have a wire bottom spread clean sand about 1
or 2 inches deep over its floor once every two weeks.

(_c_) Replace moisture and shade by sunshine and dry conditions.

_b._ Strongyles are the most dangerous of the common round worms and
one of the most common causes of death among poorly kept pigeons. The
“strongyle” is a very small parasite which multiplies rapidly and is a
vicious blood sucker. Adult worms are from 1/2 to 3/4 inches long and
about the same size as thin thread.

(1) _Habits._ This worm has a “direct” cycle; that gives the key to
successful control (fig. 45).

[Illustration: _Figure 44. Life cycle of pigeon ascarids._

TL70213]

(_a_) Adult strongyles live in the upper intestinal contents, but may
be found as far up as the crop.

(_b_) Strongyles are ravenous blood suckers.

(_c_) Female worms deposit eggs in the intestinal contents which later
pass out in the feces.

(_d_) Eggs incubate in about 1 day, if conditions are favorable.

(_e_) Young larvae hatch out and molt about 8 hours later. These larvae
again molt in about 3 days and are then infective. Thus, about 5 days
elapse from the time the eggs are voided by the bird and the time the
young larval worms hatch, molt, and become infective.

(_f_) The infective larvae are eaten by the pigeons. Then they pass to
the intestines where they mature.

(2) _Diagnosis._ (_a_) Strongyles injure the birds by lacerating
the intestine and sucking blood. After the parasite moves on, the
laceration still bleeds considerably before a blood clot forms. Each
laceration results in an area of infection and inflammation.

(_b_) Constant movement of the worms over the inflamed intestine adds
to the irritation.

(_c_) Severe, and sometimes rapid, loss of condition and accompanying
anemia are usual symptoms. Diagnosis is confirmed by finding strongyles
in the intestine upon autopsy of typical specimens.

(3) _Treatment._ Treatment is not satisfactory. One-half CC doses of
tetrachlorethylene may be tried.

[Illustration: _Figure 45. Life cycle of pigeon strongyle._

TL70214]

(4) _Prevention._ The same methods prescribed for ascarids apply to
strongyles.

_c._ Other round worms attacking pigeons are numerous, but only
capillary worms will be discussed here. These are very thin, hair-like
worms sometimes found in the digestive tract of pigeons from the crop
down through the intestine. Their life cycle is direct. No satisfactory
drug has been found to rid pigeons of this worm. Fortunately, their
life cycle is similar to that of ascarids, and the same preventive
measures are effective.

_d._ Tape worms, which are occasionally seen in pigeons, acquire a
length of 6 to 8 inches.

(1) _Life cycle._ Tape worms have what is called an indirect life
cycle, that is they must pass through at least two different species to
complete it (fig. 46).

(_a_) Adult tape worms are found in the small intestine. Their bodies
are made up of a head and segments. The head is essentially an anchor
that fastens the worm to the intestine of the bird. The body segments
form at the head and mature as they grow further from the head.

(_b_) Each segment contains both male and female sex organs and, as it
matures, becomes virtually a packet of tape worm eggs.

(_c_) Segments break off and pass out in the feces.

(_d_) The tape worm’s eggs are then eaten by a snail, slug, beetle, or
other insect which becomes the “intermediate host.” Here the tape worm
undergoes a certain amount of development.

[Illustration: _Figure 46. Life cycle of pigeon tape worm._

TL70215]

(_e_) If the intermediate host is eaten by a pigeon, the young tape
worm attaches itself to the bird’s intestine and soon grows to maturity.

(2) _Diagnosis._ Tape worms harm the host by injuring the intestine at
the point where they bury their heads, by absorbing food, and by giving
off antenzymes.

(3) _Treatment._ Unsatisfactory.

(4) _Prevention._ (_a_) Pigeons must be well-cared-for and fed so that
they will not care to eat the intermediate hosts.

(_b_) The method of prevention prescribed for ascarids is also
applicable for tape worms.

55. Treatment of Injuries

_a._ CUTS AND WOUNDS. Pigeons have marvelous powers of healing their
own tissues, perhaps because of their high body temperature and rapid
rate of body processes. The following are aids to healing.

(1) Clean solid or contaminated wounds with boric acid solution or some
very mild antiseptic. Strong disinfectants burn the exposed tissues and
delay wound healing.

(2) Stitch or suture large tears in the skin to make them relatively
smaller. Avoid placing suture in such a way that a pocket is formed for
this often results in an abscess formation. Use white silk or cotton
thread.

(3) Remove excessively rough edges or hanging flaps of skin with sharp
scissors.

_b._ FRACTURES. (1) Broken bones in the extremities of the legs usually
respond readily to treatment; those involving the large bones present a
more complicated problem.

(2) The type of fracture governs the seriousness of the injury.

(_a_) _Simple_ fractures are those in which there is no break in the
skin in the region of the fracture.

(_b_) _Compound_ fractures are those in which there is a break in the
skin over the bone injury.

(_c_) _Partial_ fractures are those in which the bone is cracked but
not completely separated.

(_d_) _Complete_ fractures are those in which there is actual
separation of the parts of bone.

(_e_) _Comminuted_ fractures are those in which the bone is splintered
or fragmented.

(3) Treatment of fractures is quite simple: bring broken parts into
contact and immobilize them to avoid movement which might injure
delicate healing tissues.

(_a_) Since bones heal in whatever position they are placed, it is
necessary to splint the limb in as nearly normal a position as possible.

(_b_) Take care that the splint does not interfere with healing.

_1._ Do not bandage splint too tightly. The bandage must be snug
to avoid movement of the parts, however, if it is too tight, the
blood supply will be cut off and the limb will die. Splints applied
before the injured limb has swollen must be closely observed for
several hours, or until the swelling has reached its maximum so
that circulation is not impeded.

_2._ Pad limb with cotton or gauze to protect it from the hard
surfaces of the splint.

_3._ Dust powdered boric acid on the region of the fracture,
particularly if the fracture is compound.

(_c_) Splints may be easily and satisfactorily fashioned from pieces
of pliable tin. Cut and bend to fit contour of limb in normal resting
position (fig. 47). Splints for fractures in the shank should extend
down along the shank on one side, then bend to form a loop down around
the foot and back up the opposite side of the limb. In a short time
the bird learns that it can step on the limb without pain because the
weight falls on the loop of the splint rather than on the foot.

(_d_) Splints should be left in place for 3 weeks before removing.
Healing, if successful, will be sufficient to permit removal of splint
at this time.

_c._ TORN CROPS. These may be successfully sutured if the edges are
turned in so that the outside surfaces, not the lining, of the crop
come in contact. The skin may then be sutured to help support the crop.

[Illustration: _Figure 47. Splint for broken leg._

TL70216]

56. Medicines

The following items of medical supplies and equipment, in the
quantities listed in existing instructions, should meet normal
requirements.

33775 Needle, eye, size 4, 3/8-circle, 6-in.
36624 Cotton thread, No. 80, 150 yds.
77110 Basin, hand.
77410 Capsule, size 00, gelatin, 100.
77600 Cork, No. 2, 1/2 × 3/8 in., 100.
77950 Dropper, medicine.
78090 Graduate, 10-CC, glass.
79460 Vial, 1-oz., with screw cap.
91110 Iodine, 15 GR, and Potassium; iodide, 22.5-GR, USP,
10 tubes.

☆ U. S. Government Printing Office: 1945—621966

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Homing Pigeon - War Department Technical Manual TM 11-410" ***

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