Title: The Naturalist's Library, Vol XXXI. Foreign Butterflies
Author: James, Duncan, others
Language: English
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[Illustration:

 _Lizars. sc._

LAMARCK

_Engraved for the Naturalist’s Library_]



  THE

  NATURALIST’S LIBRARY.

  ENTOMOLOGY.

  [Illustration: _Stewart del._     _Lizars sc._
  The Endymion Butterfly.       The Condomanus Butterfly.]

  LONDON. HENRY G. BOHN.
  YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.



  THE

  NATURALIST’S LIBRARY.

  EDITED BY
  SIR WILLIAM JARDINE, BART.
  F.R.S.E., F.L.S., ETC., ETC.

  VOL. XXXI.

  ENTOMOLOGY.

  FOREIGN BUTTERFLIES.

  BY JAMES DUNCAN,
  M.W.S., ETC.

  EDINBURGH:
  W. H. LIZARS, 3, ST. JAMES’ SQUARE.

  LONDON:
  HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.

  1858.



CONTENTS.


                                                                    PAGE

  MEMOIR OF LAMARCK                                                   17

  INTRODUCTION                                                        65

  GENUS ORNITHOPTERA                                                  87

  _Ornithoptera Priamus._ Plate I. Fig. 1.                            89

  _Ornithoptera Remus._ Plate I. Fig. 2.                              92

  GENUS PAPILIO                                                       93

  _Papilio Memnon._ Plate II. Fig. 1.                                 97

  _Papilio Æneas._ Plate II. Fig. 2.                                  99

  _Papilio Ascanius._ Plate III. Fig. 1.                             101

  _Papilio Paris._ Plate III. Fig. 2.                                102

  _Papilio Protesilaus._ Plate IV. Fig. 1.                           104

  _Papilio Sinon._ Plate IV. Fig. 2.                                 106

  _Leptocircus Curius._ Plate V. Fig. 1.                             107

  _Thais Medesicaste._ Plate V. Fig. 2.                              108

  GENUS PIERIS                                                       110

  _Pieris Epicharis._ Plate VI. Figs. 1 and 2.                       112

  _Pieris Philyra._ Plate VI. Fig. 3.                                113

  _Pieris Belisama._ Plate VII. Fig. 1.                              114

  GENUS ANTHOCHARIS                                                  115

  _Anthocharis Danæ._ Plate VII. Fig. 2.                             116

  GENUS IPHIAS                                                       118

  _Iphias Leucippe._ Plate VII. Fig. 3.                              119

  GENUS CALLIDRYAS                                                   120

  _Callidryas Eubule._ Plate VIII. Fig. 1.                           122

  GENUS TERIAS                                                       124

  _Terias Mexicana._ Plate VIII. Fig. 4.                             125

  GENUS EUPLŒA                                                       126

  _Euplœa Limniace._ Plate IX. Fig. 1.                               127

  _Euplœa Plexippe._ Plate IX. Fig. 2.                               128

  GENUS IDEA                                                         130

  _Idea Agelia._ Plate X. Fig. 1.                                    131

  _Idea Daos._ Plate X. Fig. 2.                                      132

  GENUS HELICONIA                                                    133

  _Heliconia Erato._ Plate XI. Fig. 1.                               135

  _Heliconia Cynisca._ Plate XI. Fig. 2.                             137

  _Heliconia Sylvana._ Plate XI. Fig. 3.                             138

  _Heliconia Flora._ Plate XII. Figs. 1 and 2.                       139

  _Heliconia Diaphana._ Plate XII. Fig. 3.                           141

  GENUS ACRÆA                                                        142

  _Acræa Pasiphæ._ Plate XII. Fig. 4.                                143

  GENUS CETHOSIA                                                     144

  _Cethosia Dido._ Plate XIII.                                       145

  _Cethosia Cyane._ Plate XIV.                                       147

  GENUS VANESSA                                                      149

  _Vanessa Juliana._ Plate XV. Fig. 1.                               150

  _Vanessa Amathea._ Plate XV. Fig. 2.                               151

  _Vanessa Orithya._ Plate XV. Fig. 3.                               152

  _Charaxes Jasius._ Plate XVI.                                      154

  _Nymphalis Etheocles._ Plate XVII. Fig. 1.                         157

  _Nymphalis Tiridates._ Plate XVII. Figs. 2 and 3.                  159

  _Peridromia Arethusa._ Plate XVIII. Fig. 1.                        160

  _Peridromia Amphinome._ Plate XVIII. Fig. 2.                       162

  _Marius Thetis._ Plate XIX. Fig. 1.                                164

  _Fabius Hippona._ Plate XIX. Fig. 2.                               167

  _Catagramma Condomanus._ Plate XX. Figs. 1 and 2.                  169

  _Catagramma Pyramus._ Plate XX. Figs. 3 and 4.                     171

  GENUS MORPHO                                                       172

  _Morpho Helenor._ Plate XXI.                                       174

  _Morpho Adonis._ Plate XXII. Fig. 1.                               176

  GENUS PAVONIA                                                      178

  _Pavonia Teucer._ Plate XXII. Fig. 2.                              179

  _Arpidea Chorinæa._ Plate XXIII.                                   180

  _Helicopis Gnidus._ Plate XXIV. Figs. 1 and 2.                     183

  _Erycina Octavius._ Plate XXIV. Fig. 3.                            185

  _Erycina Melibæus._ Plate XXV. Figs. 1 and 2.                      187

  _Loxura Alcides._ Plate XXV. Fig. 3.                               188

  _Polyommatus Marsyas._ Plate XXVI. Figs. 1 and 2.                  190

  _Polyommatus Endymion._ Plate XXVI. Figs. 3 and 4.                 192

  _Polyommatus Venus._ Plate XXVII. Figs. 1 and 2.                   193

  _Polyommatus Achæus._ Plate XXVII. Figs 3 and 4.                   194

  GENUS THALIURA                                                     195

  _Thaliura Rhipheus._ Plate XXVIII.                                 197

  GENUS URANIA                                                       200

  _Urania Sloanus._ Plate XXIX. Fig. 1.                              202

  _Urania Leilus._ Plate XXIX. Fig. 2.                               203

  _Rhipheus Dasycephalus._ Plate XXX.                                205

  Portrait of Lamarck                                                  2

  Vignette, Title Page                                                 3

 In all, Thirty-two Plates in this Volume. With one Plate double,
 making the number equal to

 THIRTY-THREE.



MEMOIR OF LAMARCK.



MEMOIR OF LAMARCK.


Among the many eminent French naturalists, whose loss to science we
have so often had occasion to lament during the few past years, the
above individual occupied a conspicuous place. He was long known
in Paris by his public prelections, and his numerous writings have
procured for him a high degree of reputation throughout Europe. In
this country he is best known by his admirable works on invertebrate
animals, which may be said to have formed a new era in the history of
that extensive department of the animal kingdom. But his studies had
a very extensive range; many of the most interesting inquiries which
for ages have fixed the attention of mankind, were the subjects of
his meditation, and on most of them he formed a number of definite
ideas which he promulgated under the form of theories. Although these
speculations are of a highly fanciful description, and some of them
greatly to be deprecated on account of their hurtful tendency, yet
they merit attention as the productions of a mind remarkable for
originality and penetration, as well as for extensive and varied
knowledge.

       *       *       *       *       *

JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET, generally called the Chevalier
de Lamarck, was descended from an ancient family of some distinction,
possessed of considerable property in the province of Bearn. He was
born at Bezantin, a small village in Picardy, on the 1st August, 1744.
His fathers pecuniary resources having become considerably impaired,
among other things by the maintenance of a numerous family, Jean
Baptiste being his eleventh child, he found it necessary to educate his
sons for some useful profession. Several of them entered the army, and
the subject of the present notice was destined for the church, which
at that period offered many lucrative and influential appointments to
the members of noble families. To qualify him for this office, he was
sent to study under the Jesuits at Amiens, with whom he remained for
a considerable time. From the first, however, he appears to have had
some aversion to the profession selected for him by his father, and
this was increased to positive dislike by the mode of life which he was
obliged to lead at college. His active and excursive mind submitted
with impatience to the punctilious restraints of college discipline,
and the mechanical routine of studies prescribed indiscriminately to
all, without reference to natural bias or acquired predilection. Most
of his companions were actively engaged in the field or in other public
services, for France was now occupied with the eventful struggle
which commenced in 1756. His eldest brother had fallen in the siege of
Bergen-op-Zoom; others of them were still in the army; and all his most
cherished associations were connected with the profession of arms. With
so much to inspire an aversion to seclusion and comparative inactivity,
nothing could have induced him to remain at college but the authority
of his father, who still enforced compliance with his wishes. That
salutary restraint, however, having been removed by death, in 1760,
no time was lost by young Lamarck in following his own inclinations.
With nothing but a letter of recommendation from a lady residing in
the neighbourhood of his father, addressed to the colonel of a French
regiment, he set out for the army, which was then in Germany. Lamarck’s
somewhat diminutive stature and boyish appearance, which made him look
younger than he really was, were ill fitted to make amends for the want
of influential patronage. His reception was by no means flattering,
but nothing could daunt the zeal of the young volunteer. He joined a
company of grenadiers, and determined to trust to fortune and his own
exertions for obtaining that rank which individuals of his birth and
education commonly acquire by other means.

Zeal like this seldom fails sooner or later in attaining its object,
and in the present instance it was speedily rewarded. Lamarck had
joined the army on the day preceding the battle of Fissingshausen, in
which a vigorous but unsuccessful attack was made by the combined
troops of the marshal de Broglie and the prince of Soubise, on the army
commanded by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Cuvier relates[1], that
in the vicissitudes of the contest, the company to which M. Lamarck
was attached happened to be thrown into such a position as completely
exposed it to the fire of the enemy’s artillery, and that, owing to
the confusion which took place in the French army, it was entirely
forgotten and left in that perilous situation. All the officers were
soon killed, as well as the greater number of privates, when an old
grenadier, perceiving that there were no longer any of the French
within sight, proposed to the young volunteer, who by the death of the
officers had unexpectedly acquired the temporary command, that the
little troop should be withdrawn. This, however, he resolutely refused
to do until he received regular orders to that effect, which at last
were dispatched, when the troop were discovered to be missing, and
reached him with the utmost difficulty, owing to the rapid advance
of the enemy. This instance of intrepidity and vigorous adherence
to orders gave so much satisfaction to the commander-in-chief, that
he instantly issued an order for Lamarck’s promotion. Some time
afterwards, he was nominated to a lieutenancy, and his warmest
anticipations of success, in a profession which he had made so many
sacrifices to embrace, promised in time to be realized. But these
prospects were speedily overclouded by an accident which completely
put a stop to his military career, and gave a different complexion to
the whole tenor of his life and habits. Some one of his companions, in
sport, had lifted him by the head, and thereby strained so severely the
glands of his neck, that he was for some time placed in the greatest
danger. After many remedies had been tried to no purpose, a cure was
at last effected by the celebrated M. Tenon, by means of a complicated
operation. But his health had by this time become so much impaired,
that after residing for a length of time in Paris in the hope of its
amendment, he found it necessary to abandon all intention of rejoining
the army.

In these circumstances it became necessary for him to think of some new
occupation, and he seems not to have been long in forming a resolution
to study medicine. His pecuniary circumstances, however, were so very
limited, consisting of a pension of only 400 francs, that he was
obliged in the mean time to employ himself as a clerk in the office
of a banker in order to obtain the means of daily subsistence. The
intervals he spent in study; and such were the buoyancy and activity
of his mind, that even when his prospects were most discouraging,
he never seems to have lost the expectation of rising to usefulness
and distinction. He reverted with eagerness to the physical studies
which he had commenced at college, and soon showed a preference for
certain departments of natural history. He delighted to engage in
controversial discussions on these subjects with his companions, and
to indulge in speculations respecting the most abstruse points in
physics and the phenomena of the natural world. It is not improbable
that it was about this time, when the wide and varied fields of science
were just beginning to open to his view, that he conceived some of
those crude and fanciful notions which characterise so many of his
theoretical views. It is less a matter of surprise that such ideas
should suggest themselves, at the outset of his career, to one of his
ardent temperament and lively imagination, than that he should have
persisted in maintaining them when his knowledge was more extended and
his judgment matured, although in the opinion of almost every other
person their fallacy appeared demonstrable.

Botany and meteorology were the branches on which he first bestowed
the greatest degree of attention. Even before he left the army, he
had become attached to the former; and during his stay at Monaco, had
examined the singular vegetation of that rocky country. During his
illness, he was lodged, for the sake of economy, in an apartment at
the top of a high house, from which the clouds formed almost the only
spectacle; and to relieve the tedium of his long solitude, he was
accustomed to watch their varying forms and aspects, and carefully to
observe all the other atmospheric phenomena, indulging his fancy in
forming conjectures about their nature and origin. This circumstance,
he himself states, first inspired him with a desire to study
meteorology; and we can perceive in these solitary meditations, one of
the causes which tended to give their fanciful complexion to many of
his subsequent speculations.

After continuing his physical studies with much ardour for several
years, he at length appeared in the character of an author. His
“French Flora, or a brief Description of all the Plants which grow
naturally in France,” was published in 1778. The immediate occasion of
this work was a desire to furnish his fellow-students with a system
of arrangement which should lead with greater ease and certainty to
the determination of plants than any then in use. For this purpose
he adopted a modification of the binary or dichotomous method, the
principle of which consists in arranging natural objects by their
positive and negative characters, dividing and subdividing always
by two, and allowing a choice only between two opposite characters.
Although this plan is, of course, highly artificial, and ill calculated
to throw light on the affinities and analogies of objects, yet it
is much recommended by its extreme simplicity, which adapts it to
the comprehension of those who have but little acquaintance with the
technical and descriptive language of natural history. If judiciously
applied, it affords an easy index to particular genera and species, and
renders the subject at once accessible without any preparatory labour.
Indeed, the principle on which it rests must to a certain extent be
implied in every artificial system of arrangement.

This work soon acquired a considerable degree of popularity, not
only by its intrinsic value, but from the seasonable time of its
appearance. The study of botany, which had hitherto been confined
almost exclusively to the members of the medical profession, was
now becoming a popular and even fashionable pursuit; a distinction
which it owed chiefly to the writings and example of J. J. Rousseau.
Every work, therefore, calculated to facilitate the study, was likely
to meet with a favourable reception among those who would probably
have been repelled by dry technical details and rigorous scientific
precision. Its publication had an important influence on Lamarck’s
fortune and prospects. It secured for him the friendship and patronage
of M. de Buffon, who was then in the height of his popularity, and
possessed of much influence, not only from his rank, character, and
celebrity, but also from his authority with the government. Even its
want of a very philosophical and precise system was probably one of
the circumstances that recommended it to Buffon’s attention, as it was
thereby assimilated to his own writings, from which every thing of that
nature was expressly excluded. Through his influence, an edition of the
work was printed at the royal press, and its author introduced to the
favourable notice of many of the leading savans of the day. He had soon
an opportunity of turning his popularity to some profitable account,
for a place happening to become vacant in the botanical department of
the Academy of Sciences, Lamarck was presented with the appointment, in
preference to others of older standing and much higher pretensions. He
thus acquired a certain status among men of science, which encouraged
him to prosecute the studies which he had so successfully begun, and at
the same time afforded him the means of doing so in a more efficient
manner.

Another important advantage was derived by Lamarck from the friendship
of M. de Buffon. When the son of the latter had completed his studies,
and was about to make a tour through various parts of Europe, Lamarck
was invited to accompany him as tutor; and in order that he might
enjoy greater privileges by appearing in a kind of official character,
Buffon procured for him a commission as botanist to the king, for
the purpose of visiting foreign gardens and cabinets, and opening a
correspondence between them and similar establishments in Paris. In
this double capacity he travelled through various countries in the year
1781 and 1782; visited Gleditsch at Berlin, Jacquin at Vienna, Murray
at Gottingen, and many other celebrated naturalists; greatly extending
his acquaintance, not only with botany, but with many other branches of
natural history.

The extent and accuracy of his botanical knowledge was evinced by
the important works in which he engaged shortly after his return,
which have conferred on him a high reputation in this department.
These consisted of voluminous contributions to the _Encyclopédie
Methodique_, forming a _Dictionary of Botany_, and an extensive series
of _Illustrations of Genera_. Of that portion of the Encyclopædia known
by the former name, Lamarck wrote the whole of the two first volumes,
and a part of the third, fourth, and fifth. The object of the work is
to give a detailed history of plants, accompanied with descriptions,
remarks on their synonymy, an account of their uses, and peculiarities
of their structure. The Illustrations profess to afford “an exposition
of the characters of all the plants established by botanists, arranged
according to the sexual system of Linnæus, with figures displaying
the characters of these genera, and a table of all the known species
referable thereto, the description of which is found in the Botanical
Dictionary of the Encyclopædia.” This laborious work contains no fewer
than two thousand genera, illustrated by half that number of quarto
plates, executed with great care, and generally representing one or
two of the typical species, with a view to afford a knowledge of their
general appearance and habit. The flower and parts of fructification
are carefully delineated, and the precision and accuracy of the
whole work, renders it one of the most valuable that can be named
for conveying a speedy knowledge of the extensive and interesting
subject of which it treats. The zeal with which Lamarck laboured to
produce works of such research and interest, is characteristic of
the temperament of his mind. He seems for a time to have allowed the
subject wholly to engross his thoughts; to have occupied himself with
nothing but plants, and to have associated almost exclusively with
botanists. He was a frequent visitor at the house of M. de Jussieu,
whose celebrity drew around him all who devoted themselves to this
branch of science. Whenever a new collection of plants arrived in
Paris, Lamarck was the first to inspect it; and when the celebrated
Sonnerat returned from India in 1781, he was so much pleased with
Lamarck’s enthusiasm, as contrasted with the comparative indifference
of most other naturalists, that he presented him with the magnificent
herbarium which he had made in the east. It is to zeal like this that
we are entitled to look for the achievement of the highest results in
science.

Notwithstanding the patronage of Buffon, and others having the
greatest influence with the government, it was long before Lamarck
succeeded in obtaining any permanent and lucrative appointment. His
chief dependence was on the casual and precarious engagements which he
formed with booksellers, according to whose direction he was obliged to
labour; a painful restraint to a man of genius, impatient to develope
his own conceptions in whatever way he judged best fitted to render
them effective. He was at length nominated by M. de la Billardiere,
a relation of his own, to a place which seems to have been created
expressly for him, by which the duty was assigned him of keeping the
herbaria in the king’s cabinet. Although the emolument arising from
this office was inconsiderable, and the tenure of it uncertain and
invidious, for the National Assembly were called upon to suppress it
as unnecessary, he continued to hold it for several years, till a
change occurred which opened new prospects and entailed new duties.
This happened in 1793, when the establishment known by the name of the
king’s garden and cabinet were remodelled and distinguished by the
title of _Museum of Natural History_. The professors of the suppressed
institution were appointed to superintend such departments taught in
the new, as most nearly corresponded to their previous occupations; and
as Lamarck was the last appointed, he was obliged to take charge of
that branch unappropriated by the others, which happened to be the two
extensive classes of the animal kingdom, named _Insecta_ and _Vermes_
by Linnæus.

A new direction was thus given to his studies, for zoology as a science
had hitherto occupied but little of his regard. Indeed, the only
knowledge of this subject which he possessed, directly available in his
new station, seems to have been limited to _Testaceous Mollusca_, which
attracted his attention at a pretty early period. But the occasion was
just such a one as was best calculated to excite the natural ardour
and energy of his character. He entered upon this new field of inquiry
with the utmost eagerness, and cultivated it with so much skill and
facility, that he was soon in a condition to instruct others, and
ultimately to produce works which will form a lasting monument to his
fame.

Before engaging in the study of practical zoology, Lamarck had
rendered himself conspicuous by the boldness and originality of his
speculations regarding a variety of physical phenomena. The general
laws of chemistry, the origin of the globe and its inhabitants, the
condition of the atmosphere and of living bodies, and most other great
questions fitted to attract an active fancy, had by turns been the
subjects of his contemplation; and on many of them he had elaborated
a theory which he conceived calculated to elucidate the most abstruse
phenomena they presented. To these views he attached the highest
importance, considering them destined to place almost every branch of
knowledge on a new and secure foundation. He therefore took advantage
of every opportunity to enforce and illustrate them, and they will be
found to pervade most of his published works, even such as afford no
obvious plea for their introduction. Although most of them are exploded
as fanciful and untenable, these theories display much ingenuity and
extensive knowledge, and a pretty full account of them is necessary to
show the character of Lamarck’s mind, and the wide range of his studies.

As early as 1780, he had presented his Theory of Chemistry to the
Academy of Sciences; but it was not published for several years
afterwards, when it appeared under the title of “Researches on the
Causes of the most important physical Facts, and particularly on those
of Combustion; of the raising of Water in the State of Vapour; of the
Heat produced by the Friction of solid Bodies against each other,” &c.
&c. A condensed view of the opinions promulgated in that work, and some
others on the same subject, is thus given by Cuvier. According to our
author, “Matter is not homogeneous; it consists of simple principles,
essentially different among themselves. The connexion of these
principles in compounds varies in intensity; they mutually conceal
each other, more or less, according as each of them is more or less
predominant. The principle of no compound is ever in a natural state,
but always more or less modified: as, however, it is not agreeable
to reason that a substance should have a tendency to depart from its
natural condition, it must be concluded, that combinations are not
produced by Nature, but that, on the contrary, she tends unceasingly to
destroy the combinations which exist, and each principle of a compound
body tries to disengage itself according to the degree of its energy.
From this tendency, favoured by the presence of water, dissolutions
result: affinities have no influence; and all experiments by which
it is attempted to be proved that water decomposes, and consists of
many kinds of air, are mere illusions, and that it is fire which
produces them. The element of fire[2] is subject, like the others, to
modification when combined. In its natural state, everywhere diffused
and penetrating every substance, it is absolutely imperceptible: only,
when it is put in vibration, it becomes the essence of sound; for air
is not the vehicle of sound as natural philosophers believe[3]. But
fire is fixed in a great number of bodies, where it accumulates, and
becomes, in its highest degree of condensation, _carbonic fire_, the
basis of all combustible substances, and the cause of all colours.
When less condensed, and more liable to escape, it is _acidific_ fire
(_feu acidifique_), the cause of causticity when in great abundance,
and of tastes and smells when less so. At the moment when it disengages
itself, and in its transitory state of expansive motion, it is _caloric
fire_. It is in this form that it dilates, warms, liquifies, and
volatilizes bodies by surrounding their molecules; that it burns them
by destroying their aggregation; and that it calcines or acidifies
them by again becoming fixed in them. In the greatest force of its
expansion, it possesses the power of emitting light, which is of a
white, red, or violet-blue colour, according to the force with which
it acts; and it is, therefore, the origin of the prismatic colours, as
also of the tints seen in the flame of candles. Light, in its turn, has
likewise the power of acting upon fire, and it is thus that the sun
continually produces new sources of heat. Besides, all the compound
substances observed on the globe are owing to the organic powers of
beings endowed with life, of which, consequently it may be said, that
they are not conformable to nature, and are even opposed to it, because
they unceasingly reproduce what nature continually tends to destroy.
Vegetables form direct combinations of the elements; animals produce
more complicated compounds by combining those formed by vegetables;
but there is in every living body a power which tends to destroy it;
all therefore die, each in his appointed season, and all mineral
substances, and all organic bodies whatsoever, are nothing but the
remains of bodies which once had life, and from which the more volatile
principles have been successfully disengaged. The products of the most
complex animals are calcareous substances, those of vegetables are
argils or earths. Both of these pass into a siliceous state, by freeing
themselves more and more from their less fixed principles, and at last
are reduced to rock-crystal, which is earth in its greatest purity.
Salts, pyrites, metals, differ from other minerals, only because
certain circumstances have had the effect of accumulating in them, in
different proportions, a greater quantity of carbonic or acidific fire.”

Lamarck’s opinion regarding the origin of living beings, and the manner
in which they acquired the various organs and forms which they now
possess, are well known. They were first given to the public in 1802,
in a work entitled “Researches on the Organization of living Bodies, on
the Cause of its Developements, and the Progress of its Composition,
and on that Principle, which, by continually tending to destroy it
in every Individual necessarily brings on Death.” He conceives that
the egg, for example, contains nothing prepared for life before being
fecundated, and that the embryo of the chick becomes susceptible of
vital motion only by the action of the seminal vapour; but if we admit
that there exists in the universe a fluid analogous to this vapour,
and capable of acting upon matter placed in favourable circumstances,
as in the case of embryos, we will then be able to form an idea of
spontaneous generations. The more simple bodies, such as a monad or
a polypus, are easily formed; and this being the case, it is easy to
conceive how, in the lapse of time, animals of more complex structure
should be produced, for it must be admitted as a fundamental law, that
the production of a new organ in an animal body results from any new
want or desire which it may experience. The first effort of a being
just beginning to develope itself, must be to procure the means of
subsistence, and hence in time there came to be produced a stomach or
alimentary cavity. Other wants, occasioned by circumstances, will lead
to other efforts, which in their turn will produce new organs. One of
the gasteropode molluscæ, for example, may be conceived to have felt
the necessity, as it moved along, of exploring by touch the bodies in
its path and to have made efforts to do so with some of the anterior
points of its head, which would continually direct to that point masses
of the nervous fluid, as well as other liquids: from these reiterated
affluences to the point in question, there would follow a gradual
expansion of the nerves which terminate there; and as the nutritious
and other juices likewise flow to the same point, it must necessarily
happen that two or four tentacula would insensibly be produced. This
is no doubt what happens in regard to all the gasteropode tribes,
whose wants occasion the habit of feeling bodies by touching them with
the parts of their head; and when such wants are not felt, the head
remains destitute of tentacula, as may be seen in other instances,
&c.[4] In like manner it is the desire and the attempt to swim, that
had, in time, the effect of extending the skin that unites the toes of
many aquatic birds, and thus the web-foot of the gull and duck were at
last produced. The necessity of wading in search of food, accompanied
with the desire to keep their bodies from coming in contact with the
water, has lengthened to these present dimensions, the legs of the
grallæ or wading-birds; while the desire of flying has converted the
arms of all birds into wings, and their hairs and scales into feathers.
Changes of this nature may appear to us contrary to what falls under
our observation, which leads us to suppose that the specific forms
of animals are constant; but this error is entirely owing to the
difficulty we experience in embracing a considerable portion of time
within the scope of our observations. It is from this cause that we
cannot be ourselves witnesses of these changes, and neither history nor
written observations extend to sufficiently remote a date to convince
us of our mistake. If we observe that the forms of the parts of animals
are always perfect when viewed in relation to their use, as is really
the case, it is not to be inferred that it is the form of the parts
which has led them to be employed in a certain way, as zoologists
assert, but that it is, on the contrary, the need of action which has
produced the peculiar parts, and it is the employment of these parts
which has developed them, and established a proper relation between
them and their functions. To affirm that the form of the parts induced
their functions, would be to leave Nature without power, incapable of
producing any act, or any change in bodies; and the different parts of
animals, as well as the animals themselves, as all created at first,
would from that moment present as many forms as are required by the
diversity of circumstances in which animals live; and it would be
necessary that these circumstances should never vary, and that such
should likewise be the case with the parts of each animal. Nothing,
however, of this kind takes place, and nothing can be more opposite
to the means which observation shows us that Nature employs to call
into existence her manifold productions. It must hence appear, that
what are called species do not exist in nature; that the constancy of
races to which that name has been given, can only be temporary and not
absolute, although they would no doubt continue the same as long as the
circumstances which effect them undergo no change, and they are not
forced to alter their habitudes. It is susceptible of demonstration,
that if species had an absolute constancy, there would be no varieties,
but naturalists cannot help acknowledging that such exist[5].

Whatever changes circumstances may have produced in individuals,
are all preserved by generation, and transmitted to new individuals
emanating from those which have undergone these changes. Unless this
were the case, Nature could never have introduced the diversity among
animals which we now witness, nor a progression in the composition of
their organs and faculties[6].

Such is Lamarck’s theory of life, and manner of accounting for the
innumerable variety of forms in which living nature now appears. If
his principles were once admitted, they would not only produce the
effects he ascribes to them, but it would be a matter of surprise that
natural productions are not infinitely more diversified than they
really are, for nothing more is necessary than time and circumstances
for any one animal form to be transformed into any other,--for a monad
or a polypus to become indifferently a frog, an eagle, an elephant,
or a man. But the two suppositions on which they rest, viz. that it
is the seminal vapour which organizes the embryo, and that efforts
and desires engender organs, are both so entirely arbitrary, and the
latter so obviously fallacious, that very few have ever thought it
worth while to attempt a formal refutation of them. It is difficult,
indeed, to conceive how Lamarck could advance a theory so utterly
opposed to observation and probability, and at the same time succeed so
effectually in convincing himself of its truth. He must have perceived
many of the inadmissible and absurd conclusions to which it led; yet he
persists in maintaining it by a kind of sophistry which could impose
on none but himself. He admits the value of observation and experience
in the discovery of truth; but finding that they bore no testimony to
the wonderful transformations he was desirous to prove, he gets rid of
their evidence altogether, by alleging that they do not extend over a
sufficiently lengthened period to take cognizance of these changes. The
argument, therefore, on this point, virtually amounts to this, that
observation gives no notice of these operations, but that instead of
thence inferring that they do not take place, the proper conclusion
is, that they are actually going on, and have been in progress since
the creation! How indispensable unlimited time is to give an air of
plausibility to Lamarck’s theory, is strikingly evinced by the fact,
of which he was perfectly aware, that we have the means of comparing
animals that lived upwards of two or three thousand years ago, with
the same species as they exist at present, and the conformity between
them is found to be complete. Numerous quadrupeds, birds, reptiles,
and insects, have been found embalmed in the Egyptian cemeteries, with
all the parts in such a state of preservation as to be perfectly
recognizable. “It would seem,” says the professors of the museum
at Paris, in their report on these valuable remains[7], “as if the
superstition of the ancient Egyptians had been inspired by Nature,
in order to transmit to future times a monument of her history. By
embalming with so much care the brutes which were the objects of their
foolish adoration, that extraordinary and capricious people have left
us, in their sacred grottoes, almost complete cabinets of zoology. The
climate has conspired with the art of embalming to preserve bodies
from corruption, and we can now satisfy ourselves, by our own eyes,
what was the condition of many species three thousand years ago. It
is difficult to restrain the transports of our imagination, when we
behold thus preserved, with their minutest bones, the smallest portions
of their skin, and in every respect most perfectly recognizable, many
animals, which at Thebes or Memphis, two or three thousand years ago,
had their own priests and altars.” In regard to these curious relicts,
Lamarck was forced to admit that they were identical with their living
descendants in the same country, and accounted for it by saying that
this happened because the climate and other physical conditions of
the latter had long continued unaltered. But he makes no attempt to
account for the fact which is so fatal to his theory, that these
remains entirely correspond to individuals of the same species in many
different quarters of the globe, where the physical conditions are so
dissimilar that they ought to have produced important changes[8].

It will likewise be observed as an important defect in Lamarck’s
argument, that he can cite no positive fact to exemplify the
substitution of some _entirely new_ sense, faculty, or organ, in the
room of some other suppressed as useless. “All the instances adduced,”
says Mr. Lyell, “go only to prove that the dimensions and strength
of members, and the perfection of certain attributes may, in a long
succession of generations, be lessened and enfeebled by disuse; or,
on the contrary, be matured and augmented by active exertion, just as
we know that the power of scent is feeble in the greyhound, while its
swiftness of pace and its acuteness of sight are remarkable; that the
harrier and staghound, on the contrary, are comparatively slow in their
movements, but excel in their sense of smelling. We point out to the
reader this important chasm in the chain of the evidence, because he
might otherwise imagine that we had merely omitted the illustrations
for the sake of brevity; but the plain truth is, that there were
no examples to be found, and when Lamarck talks of ‘the efforts of
internal sentiment,’ ‘the influence of subtile fluids,’ and the ‘acts
of organization,’ as causes whereby animals and plants may acquire
_new organs_, he gives us names for things, and with a disregard of
the strict rules of induction, resorts to fictions, as ideal as the
‘plastic virtue,’ and other phantoms of the middle ages.

“It is evident, that if some well authenticated facts could have
been adduced to establish one complete step in the process of
transformation, such as the appearance in individuals descending from
a common stock, of a sense or organ entirely new, and a complete
disappearance of some other enjoyed by their progenitors, that time
alone might then be supposed sufficient to bring about any amount of
metamorphosis. The gratuitous assumption, therefore, of a point so
vital to the theory of transmutation, was unpardonable on the part of
its advocate[9].”

The transmutability of species is a point which has been maintained by
many naturalists besides Lamarck, and the reasons they have adduced in
support of their opinions are so various, that the full consideration
of them would be inconsistent with our present purpose. It may be
assumed as capable of most satisfactory proof, that the mutations which
species undergo in accommodating themselves to a change of external
circumstances, have a definite limit, and are regulated by constant
laws; and that the capability of so varying, forms part of the specific
character. Indefinite divergence from the original type is guarded
against, in the case of intermixture of distinct species, by the
sterility of the mule offspring; circumstances which show that species
were designed to retain the individuality of character with which they
were endowed at the time of their creation, and that they have a real
existence in nature[10].

The intellectual faculties of animals, Lamarck regards as entirely the
result of organization. Even in the case of the most perfect of them,
the human species, there is no distinct recognition of a spiritual
substance derived from heaven; and all intellectual phenomena whatever,
are ascribed to some physical cause. Nature, he conceives, offers
nothing cognizable by us but _body_; the movements, changes, and
properties of _bodies_, form the only field open to our observation,
and the only source of real knowledge and useful truths[11]. The place
of the soul seems to be usurped by a certain _interior sentiment_, to
which he continually refers, as exercising a most powerful influence
over all the faculties, and giving rise to all the passions and
affections[12]. Thus the noblest faculties of the mind, “the capability
and godlike reason,” by which we are distinguished from other animals,

                          ----and this spirit,
    This all-pervading, this all-conscious soul,
    This particle of energy divine,
    Which travels nature, flies from star to star,
    And visits gods, and emulates their powers;

are made to emanate from a certain relation of parts and organs,--a
particular conformation of material substances, just as a desired
result is obtained by arranging in a certain order the parts of a piece
of mechanism.

“But who can believe that such a faculty, so divine, so godlike
and spiritual, can be the mere result of organization? That any
juxta-position of _material_ molecules, of whatsoever nature, from
whatever source derived, in whatever order and forms arranged,
and wherever placed, could generate thought, and reflection, and
reasoning powers, could acquire and store up ideas and notions, as
well concerning metaphysical as physical essences, may as safely be
pronounced impossible, as that matter and spirit should be homogeneous.
Though the intellectual part acts by the brain and nerves, yet the
brain and nerves, however ample, however developed, are not the
intellect, nor an intellectual substance, but only its instrument,
fitted for the passage of the prime messenger of the soul, its nervous
fluid or power to every motive organ. It is a substance calculated to
convey instantaneously that subtile agent, by which spirit can act
upon body, wherever the soul bids it to go and enables it to act. When
death separates the intellectual and the spiritual from the material
part, the introduction of a fluid, homogeneous with the nervous, or
related to it by a galvanic battery, can put the nerves in action, lift
the eyelids, move the limbs; but though the action of the intellectual
part may thus be imitated, in newly deceased persons, still there are
no signs of returning intelligence, there is no life, no voluntary
action, not a trace of the spiritual agent that has been summoned from
its dwelling. Whence it follows, that though the organization is that
by which the intellectual and governing power manifests its presence
and habitation, still it is evidently something distinct from and
independent of it[13].”

With opinions having such a decided tendency to materialism, it is not
surprising that Lamarck seldom makes allusion to a Deity, and when he
does so, he nearly confines himself to the bare acknowledgment of his
existence. In his earlier works, there is no mention made of a Supreme
Being whatever; and even when his existence is admitted, He is divested
of the attributes which belong to him. The glory of forming the works
of creation, in which His beneficence and power are so signally
manifested, is ascribed to _nature_, or a _certain order of things_.
This power to which the Deity has delegated his prerogatives, and which
he has appointed his vicegerent, Lamarck defines as “An order of things
composed of objects independent of matter, which are determined by
the observation of bodies, and the whole amount of which constitutes
a power, unalterable in its essence, governed in all its acts, and
constantly acting upon all the parts of the physical universe[14].”
This blind power, which acts necessarily, has not, indeed, called
matter into existence, but it has formed all bodies of which matter
is essentially the base; and as it exercises no power except on the
latter, which it modifies and changes in every possible manner,
producing all its various aggregates and combinations, we may be
assured that it is it which has made all bodies such as we now behold
them, and that it is Nature which confers on some their properties,
and on others the faculties which they exercise[15]. All this power
Lamarck distinctly admits has been delegated to Nature by the Deity,
and among other errors which he conceives to have attached to the ideas
which have been entertained regarding Nature, he refutes the notion
that Nature is the Deity himself. “Strange occurrence! that the watch
should have been confounded with its maker, the work with its author.
Assuredly this idea is illogical and unfit to be maintained. The power
which has created Nature, has, without doubt, no limits, cannot be
restricted in its will or made subject to others, and is independent of
all law. It alone can change Nature and her laws, and even annihilate
them; and although we have no positive knowledge of this great object,
the idea which we thus form of the Almighty Power, is at least the most
suitable for man to entertain of the Divinity, when he can raise his
thoughts to the contemplation of him. If Nature were an intelligence,
it could exercise volition, and change its laws, or rather there
could be no law. Finally, if _Nature_ were God, its will would be
independent, its acts unconstrained; but this is not the case; it is,
on the contrary, continually subject to constant laws, over which it
has no power: it hence follows, that although its means are infinitely
diversified and inexhaustible, it acts always in the same manner in the
same circumstances, without the power of acting otherwise[16].”

While thus admitting the existence of the Deity, any direct
interference in the affairs of the universe is wholly denied to him.
His sovereignty is reduced to a mere nominal supremacy, as he is
supposed to take no care or thought for the worlds which he authorized
or permitted to be created, and can have no sympathy for the creatures
which inhabit them. As with La Place, and so many other philosophers
of the French school, every thing is ascribed to _secondary causes_,
which are made to usurp the place and attributes of the Divinity.
Lamarck’s deity, therefore, is the exact counterpart of the god of
Epicurus, whose being is allowed seemingly more for the purpose of
giving consistency to a theory, or a compliance with generally received
opinions, than from any urgent conviction of his reality; and we may
justly apply to him what was said of the Grecian philosopher; _Re
tollit, oratione relinquit Deum_.

It has been already mentioned, that Lamarck’s attention was early
directed to meteorology, and it seems long to have continued to
form one of his most favourite studies. So comparatively limited
is our positive knowledge of atmospheric phenomena, that a careful
investigation of them afforded the prospect of new and important
discoveries; while the endless variety of appearances which they
present, and the complicated influences which operate in producing
them, offered a wide and interesting field for the exercise of that
speculative kind of inquiry which Lamarck loved to indulge. With his
usual facility in such matters, he was not long in advancing a theory,
according to which the atmosphere is regarded as resembling the sea,
having a surface, waves, and storms; it ought, likewise, to have a
flux and reflux, for the moon ought to exercise the same influence
upon it that it does on the ocean. In the temperate and frigid zones,
therefore, the wind, which is only the tide of the atmosphere, must
depend greatly on the declination of the moon; it ought to blow towards
the pole that is nearest to it, and advancing in that direction only,
in order to reach every place, traversing dry countries or extensive
seas, it ought then to render the sky serene or stormy. If the
influence of the moon on the weather is denied, it is only that it may
be referred to its phases; but its position in the ecliptic is regarded
as affording probabilities much nearer the truth[17].

So convinced was Lamarck of the accuracy and value of his theory, that
he resolved on reducing it to practice, and thus at the same time
establish its truth, and attract the attention of the public towards
it. For this purpose he drew up a series of almanacks, which he had
the perseverance to publish for ten consecutive years, the nature
of which will be best understood from the title of that which first
appeared. “Annual Meteorology for the Year VIII of the Republic (1800,
A. D.), containing an Exposition of the Probabilities acquired by a
long Series of Observations on the State of the Weather, and Variations
of the Atmosphere, in different Seasons of the Year; an Indication of
the Times when it may be expected to be fine Weather, or Rain, Storms
and Tempests, Frosts, &c.: finally, an Enumeration, according to
Probabilities, of the Times favourable for Fêtes, Journeys, Voyages,
Harvest, and other Undertakings, in which it is of Importance not to
be interrupted by the Weather; with simple and concise Directions
regarding these new Measures.” His predictions, as might have been
expected, proved more frequently erroneous than otherwise, but this
circumstance was far from inducing him to discontinue his exertions.
Every year he had recourse to some new consideration,--such as the
phases, the apogee and perigee of the moon, and the relative position
of the sun, to account for his previous failure, and afford greater
certainty in his future prognostications. After every expedient had
been tried without success, he was at last obliged to renounce the
labour as fruitless, satisfied that, however important it would be to
foresee the state of the weather, it depends on causes far too remote
and complex to be made the subject of calculation.

Speculations of an analogous character regarding the formation of
the globe and the changes which it has undergone, were laid before
the public, in 1802, in a work entitled “Hydrogeology, or Researches
on the Influence exerted by Water on the Surface of the terrestrial
Globe,” &c. &c. His opinions rest on the assumption that all composite
minerals are the remains of living beings. According to him, the
seas are continually hollowing out their bed in consequence of being
unceasingly agitated by the tides, produced by the action of the
moon; in proportion as the bed deepens in the crust of the earth,
it necessarily follows that their level lowers, and their surface
diminishes; and thus the dry land, formed by the _debris_ of living
creatures, is more and more disclosed. As the land emerges from the
sea, the water from the clouds forms currents upon its surface, by
which it is rent and excavated, and divided into valleys and mountains.
With the exception of volcanoes, our steepest and most elevated ridges
have formerly belonged to plains, even their substance once made a part
of the bodies of animals and plants; and it is in consequence of being
so long purified from foreign principles that they are reduced to a
siliceous nature. But running waters furrow them in all directions,
and carry their materials into the bed of the sea; and the latter,
from continual efforts to deepen its bottom, necessarily throws them
out on one side or other. Hence there results a general movement and a
constant transportation of the ocean, which has perhaps already made
several circuits of the globe. This shifting cannot occur without
displacing the centre of gravity in the globe; a circumstance which
would have the effect of displacing the axis itself, and changing the
temperature of the different climates.--In order to silence any doubts
that may arise in the minds of his readers from not observing these
changes going forward, Lamarck is careful to add, as in the case of the
supposed transformation of species, that an unlimited length of time
must be allowed for their accomplishment.

But the work on which Lamarck’s fame is principally founded, and
which has conferred a most important service on zoology, is his
_Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertébres_. From the time of its
appearance, this work has ever been regarded as one of the highest
authority, and has formed the principal regulator of most departments
of this extensive race of animals. The work extends to seven octavo
volumes, and is entitled “Natural History of invertebrate Animals,
presenting the general and particular Characters of these Animals,
their Distribution, Classes, Families, Genera, and the principal
Species referable thereto.” The first volume is entirely occupied with
an introduction, the object of which is to determine the essential
characters of an animal, its distinction from vegetables and other
natural bodies, and to explain the fundamental principles of zoology.
This introduction may be regarded as furnishing a synoptical view of
all the author’s peculiar opinions on the origin and developement of
living beings, which are illustrated more in detail in separate works.
The first five volumes are written entirely by Lamarck, but he was
assisted in the part relating to insects by M. Latreille. A portion of
the sixth volume and the whole of the seventh, were drawn up by his
daughter from his notes and papers, his want of sight preventing him
from undertaking that labour himself; and that part of the sixth, which
relates to the _mytilacés_, _malliacés_, _pectinides_, and _ostracés_,
is written by M. Valenciennes. The first part was published in 1815,
and the other parts appeared at intervals up to 1822, when the whole
was completed. Besides a luminous and comprehensive account of the
general history of the different groups and genera, the principal
species are cited and briefly characterized, with their synonymes,
reference to figures, and localities. The enumeration of species
sometimes includes all the known kinds, and is particularly copious
and instructive in relation to sponges and shell-bearing molluscæ.
The genera are established with much discrimination, and judiciously
characterized by obvious properties, such as form, proportion, nature
of the surface, and structure. The synonymy is unravelled with great
care, and the descriptions, though necessarily often very brief, are
in general highly satisfactory. These circumstances have rendered
this work the most valuable system that has ever appeared of the
invertebrate animals; and it has formed the guide to most authors who
have since written on the subject[18].

The phrase _invertebrate animals_ originated with Lamarck, and it
expresses, as Cuvier remarks, perhaps the only circumstances in their
organization which is common to them all. They were previously known
as _white-blooded animals_, a designation which was soon shown to be
improper, by the discovery that an entire class (the _annelides_)
possesses red blood. The system of Linnæus and Bruguière formed the
basis of his course when he first began to lecture on the subject; he
subsequently adopted a new classification, founded on their anatomy,
which had been published in 1795. This he afterwards modified in
various ways, as new discoveries were made, and as new relations
suggested themselves to him. In his system of invertebrata, forming an
octavo volume, published in 1810, he adopted the class of _crustacea_,
and created that of _arachnides_, a step which he judged necessary,
in consequence of some new information that had been communicated to
him on the heart and pulmonary sacs of spiders. In a previous work
he had admitted the _annelides_ to the rank of a separate class,
in consequence of Baron Cuvier’s observations on their circulating
organs and the colour of their blood, which resembles that of the
vertebrate races. Two other classes were created, in his “Philosophical
Zoology,” viz. the _infusoria_ and the _centipedes_; and in this work
also he first deviated from the ordinary practice of commencing the
arrangement with the most perfectly organized, the inverse order being
more in accordance with his theoretical views, which assumed a gradual
_progression_ in the composition of animal organs, proceeding from the
most simple to the most complex.

It was in a small volume, entitled “An Extract from the Zoological
Course in the Museum of Natural History, on the invertebrate Animals,”
&c. published in 1812, that he first presented his general distribution
of animals into three grand divisions, _apathetic_, _sentient_, and
_intelligent_. This plan he made the foundation of his great work,
and the method in which he applied it, as well as his ideas regarding
the constitution of the different classes, and their relation to each
other, will be understood from the subjoined table.


Invertebrate Animals.

I. APATHETIC ANIMALS.

  1. _Infusoria._
  2. _Polypes._
  3. _Radiarii._
  4. _Vermes._
     (_Epizoaires._)

II. SENTIENT ANIMALS.

   5. _Insecta._
   6. _Arachnides._
   7. _Crustacea._
   8. _Annelides._
   9. _Cirrhipedes._
  10. _Mollusca._

Vertebrate Animals.

 III. INTELLIGENT ANIMALS.

  11. _Pisces._
  12. _Reptilia._
  13. _Aves._
  14. _Mammiferæ._

The animals of the first primary division he defines as destitute of
feeling, and moving only by their excited irritability; and he assigns
as their character, the absence of a brain and of an elongate medullary
mass; senses wanting; forms various; articulations rarely existing.
The animals of the second division feel, but they obtain from their
sensations only _perceptions_ of objects, a kind of simple ideas which
they are unable to combine with each other in order to form complex
ones. They possess no vertebral column, but have a brain and most
frequently an elongate medullary mass; some distinct senses; organs
of motion attached under the skin; the form symmetrical, the parts
arranged in pairs. The _intelligent_ animals, forming the third grand
division, feel, and acquire ideas capable of being preserved, and
execute operations between these ideas which furnish them with others;
and they are intelligent in different degrees. They possess a vertebral
column, a brain and spinal marrow; distinct senses; organs of motion
fixed to an interior skeleton, and symmetrical forms, the parts being
placed in pairs[19].

This general distribution of animals has not been very much approved of
by naturalists; and Cuvier asserts that it is neither founded on their
organization, nor an exact observation of their faculties. The degree
of intelligence observed in the different classes, would certainly
lead most observers to give a very different position to several, from
that which they have obtained in the above scale. The _insecta_ and
_arachnides_, for example, which are made to occupy the lowest place
among the sentient races, are undoubtedly entitled to the rank assigned
to the _mollusca_ and _cirrhipedes_; for there can be no comparison in
this respect between a hive-bee or an ant, and an imperfectly organized
and almost inanimate mollusc.

At a subsequent period, in consequence of some new discoveries made
by M. M. Savigny, Leseur, and Desmarets, he separated certain tribes
from the polypi, and formed them into a distinct class under the name
of _ascidiens_. Some new views likewise occurred to him regarding the
general arrangement of animals, and instead of presenting them in a
simple series, he divided them into two subramose series, as follows:--

[Illustration:

                     |  Series of inarticulated    Series of articulated
                     |         Animals.                  Animals.
                     |  ----------^------------    ---------^-----------
                     |         Infusoria                    |
                     |             |                        |
                     |         ----^----                    |
                     |          Polypes                     |
  Apathetic Animals. <             |                        |
                     |         ----^----                    |
                     |         |       |                    |
                     |         |    Radiarii              --^---
                     |     Ascidiens                      Vermes
                     |         |                            |
                     |         |                        ----^----
                     |         |                        |       |
                     |         |                        |    Epizoaria
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     |     ----^----                    |    ----^----
                     |     Acephala                     |        |
                     |         |                        |     Insecta
                     |     ----^---                     |     ---^---
                     |     Mollusca               ------^--   |     |
  Sentient Animals.  <                            Annelides   |  Arachnides
                     |                                        |
                     |                                    Crustacea
                     |                                    ----^----
                     |                                        |
                     |                                    Cirrhipeda
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                | Pisces
  Intelligent   < Reptilia
  Animals.      | Aves
                | Mammalia]

This arrangement is particularly deserving of attention, from its
being admitted by the author of the circular system to be the first
approach to a perception of that order of affinities which he supposes
to pervade the whole animal kingdom. “In the first volume of his
celebrated work,” says Mr. Mac Leay, “Lamarck acknowledges that the
idea of a simple series constituting the whole of the animal kingdom
does not agree with the evident order of nature, because, to use his
own words, this order is far from simple; it is branched, and is at the
same time composed of several distinct series. He then presumes, that
animals offer two separate subramose series, one commencing with the
_infusoria_, and leading by means of the mollusca to the cuttlefish
(_cephalopoda_), and the other commencing with the intestinal worms,
and leading to insects. Now, this notion could only have gained a place
in the mind of Lamarck from a conviction by experience of its being
an incontrovertible truth. His table of affinities, however confused
it may appear, or _subramose_, as it is termed, coincides with the
tabular view which I have laid before the public. We have only to join
the _radiata_ to the _cirripeda_, and the _annelides_ to fishes, and
Lamarck’s table of affinities, with scarcely any alteration, becomes
precisely the same as mine[20].”

In addition to the various branches of natural history already
enumerated as cultivated by this indefatigable and ingenious inquirer,
another still remains to be mentioned, to which he communicated a
remarkable impulse; namely, the history of fossil shells. This highly
important and interesting subject had long attracted the attention of
geologists, but owing to the difficulties with which it is invested,
it still remained in comparative obscurity. One of the facts most
desirable to be ascertained in relation to these remains, was, whether
they were identical with species now living, a point which could be
determined only by a careful comparison. Applying to this investigation
that profound knowledge which he had acquired of recent shells, Lamarck
was enabled to illustrate the subject in a most satisfactory manner,
and to throw light on some of the most anomalous phenomena which it
presents to the inquirer. Besides his extensive acquaintance with
the _testacea_, he enjoyed another advantage for entering upon an
inquiry of this nature by residing at Paris, the vicinity of which
has long been celebrated for the number and variety of its fossil
productions[21]. The result of his investigation appeared in several
of the earlier volumes of the Annals of the Museum; but the memoir was
never brought to a conclusion. It was accompanied with a quarto volume
of plates, containing figures of great beauty and accuracy.

Such are the principal subjects to which Lamarck’s attention was
directed, together with some of the results to which his investigations
led him. After his establishment in the Museum of Natural History,
much of his time was occupied with the objects whose history he
was appointed to teach; and so favourably were his labours in this
department received by the public, that his interest as well as his
inclination would have conspired to make him cultivate it to the
uttermost. But his exertions received an early check, and were at
last entirely stopped, by the inroads of a most afflicting calamity.
His eyes had long been weak, and as he advanced in years, they
became so diseased, that he was obliged to refrain from using them
for the examination of any minute object. Hence it was that he had
recourse to the celebrated Latreille to assist him in that part of
his system of invertebrata which related to insects. Notwithstanding
every precaution, the disorder increased, and at last produced total
blindness, which continued till his death. “This event was the
more distressing,” says Cuvier, “because it overtook him in such
circumstances that he could obtain none of those means of alleviation
which might otherwise have been procured. He had been married four
times, and was the father of seven children. The whole of his little
patrimony, and even the fruits of his early economy, were lost in
one of those hazardous investments which shameless speculators so
often hold out as baits to the credulous. His retired life, the
consequence of his youthful habits, and attachment to systems so little
in accordance with the ideas which prevailed in science, were not
calculated to recommend him to those who had the power of dispensing
favours. When numberless infirmities, brought on by old age, had
increased his wants, nearly his whole means of support consisted of a
small income derived from his chair. The friends of science, attracted
by the high reputation which his botanical and zoological works had
conferred on him, witnessed this with surprise. It appeared to them,
that a government which protects the sciences, ought to have provided
for the wants of a celebrated individual; but their esteem for him
was doubled, when they saw the fortitude with which the illustrious
old man bore up against the assaults both of fortune and of nature.
They particularly admired the devotedness which he inspired in such
of his children as remained with him. His eldest daughter, entirely
devoted to the duties of filial affection for many years, never left
him for an instant, readily engaged in every study which might supply
his want of sight, wrote to his dictation a portion of his last works,
and accompanied and supported him as long as he was able to take some
exercise. Her sacrifices, indeed, were carried to a degree which it is
impossible to express; when the father could no longer leave his room,
the daughter never left the house. When she afterwards did so, for the
first time, she was incommoded by the free air, the use of which had
been so long unfamiliar to her. It is rare to see virtue carried to
such a degree, and it is not less so to inspire it to that degree;
and it is adding to the praise of M. de Lamarck, to recount what his
children did for him.”

After several years of affliction, his constitution at last gave way,
and he died on the 18th December, 1829, in the 85th year of his age.
Some of his children had been carried off previously, and at the time
of his disease only two sons and two daughters survived. The eldest of
the former was appointed to a situation of considerable trust under
government.

A just estimate of Lamarck’s merits, will entitle him to occupy a
high place among modern naturalists. Endowed by nature with varied
and vigorous mental powers, he was fitted to excel in many branches
of knowledge, and never failed to strike out a new path in every
department to which he attached himself. He possessed, in an eminent
degree, some intellectual qualities which are not frequently combined;
a lofty and active imagination, in no way unfitted him for the most
unwearied and laborious investigation of minute matters of fact. Hence
he seems equally following the natural bent of his mind, when devising
a theory to explain the most recondite operations of nature, and
describing the markings of a shell, or the ramifications of a coral. It
is to be lamented that his imagination so often gained the ascendency
over his other faculties, and led to those daring and licentious
speculations which have been alluded to. But in other instances, his
fancy becomes the legitimate handmaid of his reason, and lends her
aid in beautifying and illustrating his speculations. He possessed
especially all the requisite qualifications for a zoologist, and it
is on what he accomplished in this department that his fame must
principally rest. When we perceive the admirable manner in which he
discerned and characterized natural groups, his skill in seizing on
the most distinctive marks of species, the indefatigable industry with
which he investigated their history and synonymy, together with the
excellence of his system of arrangement,--we are led to regret that he
was so late in entering upon this field of labour, as to be obliged
to confine his attention to one division of the animal kingdom, and
that he so frequently deviated even from that, in order to indulge his
favourite practice of theorizing.

However little value may now be attached to these theories, without
a due consideration of them, we can neither appreciate some of the
best of Lamarck’s writings, nor understand the character of the man
himself. In his own eyes, they appeared of paramount importance. The
most practically useful of his zoological and botanical works he
regarded as trivial in comparison. He conceived them to present a key
to some of the most secret operations of nature, and to afford the
means of placing many branches of knowledge on a new foundation. This
ardent attachment to views which have so generally been considered
extravagant and untenable, may seem surprising in the case of an
individual whom all must acknowledge to be possessed of much acuteness
and discrimination. It is perhaps to be accounted for by their being
nursed in the long solitudes to which his bad health and limited
circumstances frequently confined him, without having his eyes opened
to their fallacies by a discussion of their merits, or interchange of
thought with others: for

    ’Tis thought’s exchange, which, like the alternate rush
    Of waves conflicting, breaks the learned scum,
    And defecates the student’s standing pool;
    By that untutor’d, contemplation raves,
    And nature’s fool by wisdom is outdone.

It may likewise be supposed that he would be unwilling to perceive, or
if he did perceive, equally reluctant to acknowledge, the imperfection
of systems which he had wrought out with so much care and labour. For
that they must have cost him a great degree of laborious thought,
will appear from the slightest inspection. It must also be allowed,
that they evince a reach of mind, a power of original thinking, and
a degree of varied knowledge, calculated to convey no mean idea of
his intellectual character. Neither can we deny to them a certain
degree of consistency, or adaptation of parts to each other; and
although the praise of consistency must be qualified by the admission
that it is consistency in error, yet, in such cases, this is of such
difficult attainment, as of itself to imply a high degree of acuteness
and circumspection. However startling the conclusions to which
Lamarck leads us, they are generally drawn by a legitimate and fairly
managed process of induction from the assumed premises. But the very
extravagance of the conclusions ought to have created a suspicion that
the premises were erroneous; and they are, in fact, almost invariably
found to be wholly inadmissible.

While, therefore, we acknowledge Lamarck’s preeminent excellence in the
ordinary subjects of natural history, we cannot fail to lament that his
attention was so often engrossed by fanciful speculations; speculations
of which, all things considered, it is no undue depreciation to affirm
that they are at once absurd and impious--alike opposed to reason
and religion; and the regret which must be felt in making such an
assertion in regard to so celebrated a man, is not a little enhanced
by the accompanying reflection, that, with Lamarck and others of his
school, the latter imputation would be regarded as infinitely less
discreditable than the former.



INTRODUCTION.

    But O! what terms expressive may relate
    The change, the splendour of their new-formed state!
    Their texture, nor composed of filmy skin,
    Of cumbrous flesh without, or bone within,
    But something than corporeal more refined,
    And agile as their blithe informing mind.
    In every eye ten thousand brilliants blaze,
    And living pearls the vast horizon gaze;
    Gemmed o’er their heads the mines of India gleam,
    And heaven’s own wardrobe has arrayed their frame:
    Each spangled back bright sprinkled specks adorn,
    Each plume imbibes the rosy tinctured morn,
    Spread on each wing the florid seasons glow,
    Shaded and verged with the celestial bow.
    Where colours blend an ever varying dye,
    And wanton in their gay exchanges vie.

    BROOKE.


Having already discussed the general history of butterflies at
considerable length, in a volume devoted to the illustration of
the kinds found in Britain, it is not our intention to resume the
subject in this place, further than to make a few remarks on certain
peculiarities presented by many foreign species, a selection from which
forms the subject of the present volume.

The remarkable superiority in size and beauty of most tropical
productions over those of temperate regions, is scarcely more
strikingly exemplified in any department of nature than in this. The
most richly ornamented of our native species, and we possess many of
great beauty, appear insignificant when contrasted with those of Brazil
and Eastern Asia. Various as are the modifications of form which they
present in this country, we find nothing to prepare us for the peculiar
outline and aspect which many kinds assume in the warmer regions of the
earth. Here we seldom find any having the hinder wings prolonged into a
tail, but among foreign species this is a common appendage, sometimes
long and linear, at other times broad and spatulate; and occasionally
there are not fewer than three or four on each of the hinder wings.
Along with this variety of outline, they exhibit almost every possible
shade of colour, from the most brilliant to the most obscure, combined
and blended in the most elegant and harmonious designs, rendering this
tribe of creatures one of the most ornamental to be found in nature.

Although such endless diversity of colouring is observable in this
class as a whole, it is, at the same time, worthy of remark, that
most of the principal groups are characterized by the prevalence of
particular hues, as well as considerable uniformity in their mode
of distribution; that is to say, certain modifications of structure
are generally accompanied with a certain pictorial design. Thus, the
greater proportion of the genus _Pieris_ are white; _Colias_ and
_Callidryas_ various shades of yellow, from the palest sulphur-yellow
to deep reddish-ochre. _Argynnis_ is almost invariably fulvous or
reddish brown, variegated with numerous undulating black lines or
spots; the under side more or less ornamented with silvery streaks and
spots. In the species of the European genus _Thais_, the wings are
spotted or chequered with black and red. The prevailing colour in the
genus _Argus_ is azure-blue. _Danais_, _Idæa_, and _Euplœa_, have this
character in common, that the breast and head are always punctured with
white. In _Cethosia_, hieroglyphical markings cover the under side of
the wings in such a manner as is observable in no other genus.

Many of the caterpillars of exotic butterflies offer peculiarities
in their forms and appendages, of which we find no prototype in the
kinds occurring in Britain. In the place of spines, some have the body
thickly covered with long fleshy prominences, of a corneous consistency
at the tip, and probably serving as a means of defence. In others,
spines of singular conformation and formidable size are thickly stuck
over the whole surface, making it resemble a miniature forest. A
few are provided with a long anal horn, resembling that which is so
conspicuous in the caterpillars of the Sphinges. If Madam Merian’s
delineation of the larva of _Urania Leilus_ be correct (which there is
now reason to believe is the case), it bears many slender spines, as
long as the whole body, and as stiff as iron wire. Another species
(that of _Papilio Protesilaus_), is likewise clothed with plumose
spines, two of which at the hinder extremity are much longer than the
rest, and terminate in an appendage like a star. Equally remarkable
with any of these is the caterpillar of one of the Nymphalidæ (_Adoleas
Aconthea_), which has a series of long filiform bodies projecting from
each side, thickly clothed laterally with hairs of considerable length
diminishing gradually to the extremity, which is armed with a few
minute spines.

As might be expected, great diversity likewise prevails in the
appearance of the chrysalides; but to these it will be more convenient
hereafter to refer, in the preliminary notices to the respective
genera. One of the most remarkable, however, may be mentioned, that
of _Morpho Menelaus_, which has the nasal prominence of the prothorax
produced into a long curved horn, which extends to the middle of the
abdomen. In another species of the same group, the head is obtuse,
projects considerably, and is curved upwards at the extremity, exactly
like the beak of an ancient galley.

Our acquaintance with the geographical distribution of the diurnal
lepidoptera was long very imperfect, and it may yet be said to be
very far from complete. The older naturalists seem to have been but
little alive to the importance of the subject, and even if it had
been otherwise, the means they possessed for illustrating it were
comparatively limited. Those who had opportunities of collecting
specimens in foreign countries, valued them merely as specimens, and,
in general, kept no record of their localities, or natural history
properly so called. Collections from China and the East Indies were
indiscriminately mixed, in their way homewards, with others from
the Cape of Good Hope; and American species were in like manner
mingled with such as are proper to the West Indian islands. Hence it
followed, that Fabricius and others were so often led into error when
they indicated the native country of the kinds they described: but,
indeed, the author just named did not very frequently attempt this,
but merely says, “From the Indies”--an expression which means nothing
more explicit, in his acceptation of it, than that the species in
question is exotic. Linnæus, also, when he uses the same word, means
indiscriminately either the East or West Indies. The indications
of localities in modern works are in general copious and accurate,
but they have not hitherto been made the basis of any general and
satisfactory view of the distribution of the species.

As might be expected in the case of animals endowed with considerable
power of flight, certain kinds of diurnal lepidoptera have a much
more extensive range than most other insects--than the coleoptera for
example. It is now ascertained that _Cynthia cardui_, a species well
known throughout Europe, (without confounding it, as may sometimes
have been done, with the kindred species _C. Hunteri_), occurs in
Senegal, Egypt, Barbary, Cape of Good Hope, in the islands of Bourbon
and Madagascar, in Bengal, China, Java, New Holland, Brazil, and
North America; so that it may be called a complete cosmopolite. Of the
four quarters of the globe, Europe is poorest in these insects; and
next to it is Africa. Asia, including the great islands of the Indian
Archipelago and America, are both exceedingly rich. Of the former,
the islands seem to be much more prolific than the continent; they
are the exclusive haunts of the gigantic _Ornithoptera_, several of
the largest and most richly coloured of the _Pierides_, as well as
several of the most remarkable species of the genus _Morpho_. South
America produces a greater number than any other country; and Brazil,
always preeminent for its exuberance both in animal and vegetable
life, may be said to be the richest portion of the new continent. It
has been estimated by an individual who has enjoyed the advantage of
personally examining the country, that Brazil alone affords between
600 and 700 species of diurnal lepidoptera, a calculation which seems
in no degree overcharged. Among these are many genera peculiar to
America, such as _Heliconia_, _Castnia_, _Erycina_, &c. In almost every
one of its physical properties, Africa affords a complete contrast
to the country just named; and however favourable its arid soil, and
far-extending deserts of parched and drifting sand, may be to the
existence of certain peculiar races of coleoptera, it is by no means
generally adapted to the support of creatures which derive their entire
sustenance from vegetable juices. The sea-coast, and umbrageous banks
of the larger rivers, however, are pretty abundantly supplied, and
afford many species peculiar to the country. This is the metropolitan
station of the genus _Acrea_, and it is likewise inhabited by several
peculiar groups of the genera _Papilio_, _Pieris_, &c. The neighbouring
island of Madagascar is much richer than the continent, and exemplifies
what has been observed in relation to many other islands, that their
zoological productions by no means correspond to those of the nearest
portion of the main land. Little relation exists between the diurnal
lepidoptera of Madagascar and the Cape of Good Hope, but a very close
one can be traced between the former and those inhabiting distant
parts of the continent, such as Senegal and Sierra Leone. Mauritius
and Bourbon likewise differ considerably in their lepidopterous
productions from Madagascar. In the latter, magnificent _Papilios_,
_Acrææ_, _Euplœæ_, _Danaides_, _Uraniæ_, _Cyrestes_, _and Xanthidia_,
embellish by their elegant forms and splendid colours, the marshy and
pestilential forests of that extensive island, and rival in beauty that
majestic and teeming vegetation which has always excited the admiration
of botanists[22]. New Holland is not without its peculiar species,
although this department of its zoology is not characterised by such
marked singularities as are observed among its higher animals and
vegetable productions.

A singular circumstance has been recorded by a recent traveller
regarding one of the species, _Euplœa humata_ (Mac Leay), found in the
country just referred to, namely, that it is employed as an article of
food!

He states that there is a certain mountain, called the Bugong Mountain
from multitudes of small moths, named Bugong by the natives, which
congregate at certain times upon the masses of granite which compose
it. The months of November, December, and January are quite a season
of festivity among these people, who assemble from every quarter to
collect these moths. They are stated also to form the principal summer
food of those who inhabit to the south of the Snow Mountains. To
collect these moths (improperly so called, for as above indicated, they
are true butterflies), the natives make smothered fires under the rocks
on which they congregate; and suffocating them with smoke, collect them
by bushels, and then bake them by placing them on heated ground. Thus
they separate from them the down and the wings; they are then grounded
and formed into cakes, resembling lumps of fat, and often smoked, which
preserves them for some time. When accustomed to this diet, they thrive
and fatten exceedingly upon it[23]. Millions of these butterflies were
likewise observed on the coasts of New Holland, both by Captains Cook
and King; and thus, says Mr. Kirby, has a kind Providence provided
an abundant supply of food for a race that, subsisting entirely on
hunting and fishing, must often be reduced to great straits[24].

These insects were, no doubt, the first that attracted the attention of
naturalists, in consequence of their imposing appearance and striking
metamorphoses. Collections of them began to be made at an early time,
and were valued not only by the lover of nature, but by those who
had no farther or more worthy design in view than to possess them as
objects highly ornamental. Very extensive collections exist in nearly
all the principal cities and museums of Europe; and many are to be
found throughout Britain, not only belonging to public institutions
for promoting natural history, but also in the possession of private
individuals. One of the best conditioned collections of exotic
lepidoptera in this country, is that in the possession of the East
India Company, made in Java by Dr. Horsfield. As the method followed
by that gentleman for preserving his specimens was attended with great
success, the following account of it will be interesting and useful
to those who have opportunities of making collections in foreign
countries:--“During the inquiries I made,” says Dr. Horsfield, “in
the early part of my residence in Java, to become acquainted with the
best methods for securing what I obtained in my excursions, I noticed
the plan described by Le Vaillant in his Travels in Africa, for the
preservation of entomological collections. It is the following:--Boxes
or chests carefully made of light wood, of a convenient portable size,
are provided with partitions or moveable shelves, each consisting of
a simple board; these are fitted at the distance of two inches one
from another, in grooves in the sides of the box, in which they are
made to slide with accuracy and facility, and are therefore removable
at pleasure. These boards or shelves have necessarily the exact
dimensions of the ends of the chest, and are placed in a vertical
position; a small vacancy is preserved between this lower extremity
and the floor, and any object detached by accident falls to the bottom
without causing further injury. Each board or shelf, lined with cork or
soft wood, supplies, in some measure, the place of a cabinet drawer.
When taken out of the box and placed on a table, it rests securely,
and affords a plain surface, upon which insects may be fixed and
examined with perfect ease and security: it is returned into the box
in an instant, which, if carefully made, when closed secures most
effectually the contents. A small quantity of camphor, at the bottom,
spreads its influence over the whole. One large box may conveniently
contain fourteen boards, answering the purpose of as many drawers;
and, being eighteen inches long, they have a manageable size. This
plan I resolved to adopt. In the early period of my pursuits, the
boxes which I provided were made of light wood, and to their use I
must ascribe, in a great measure, the preservation of my collection.
I found that they afforded a complete protection against the ants and
other destructive insects which abound in the island of Java, perhaps
as much as in any other tropical region. They were peculiarly useful
in travelling, and possessed the advantage of affording a ready access
to the subjects. As the ultimate object of my pursuits was to provide
an extensive and well-conditioned collection, which might be useful
and instructive in England, I had, soon after receiving the patronage
of the Honourable East India Company, directed my attention to the
provision necessary for its safety during a voyage. My residence at
Surakarta afforded me peculiar advantages in this point of view. Both
materials and workmen are here obtained, perhaps more readily than in
any other part of Java. Boxes, according to the plan described, were
therefore provided, of more substantial materials than those employed
in travelling, in proportion to the increase of the collection. The
wood of the _Bombax pentandrum_ was employed for lining the boards and
securing the pins; and I ascribe to an acquaintance with the peculiar
property of this wood--which renders it an effectual substitute for
cork--the preservation of the collection during its transportation.
After having carefully packed the subjects, every necessary precaution
that suggested itself was used in securing the boxes against accidents
during the voyage. They were individually painted and covered with
oil-cloth. Each box was then placed in an outer case, made of the same
substantial materials, and secured in the same manner. By these various
precautions, and by the care which the collection received from the
commander of the vessel during the voyage, I enjoy the satisfaction of
having brought the whole in safety to England[25].”

       *       *       *       *       *

The systematic arrangement of this tribe of insects has always been
considered a task of great difficulty. So convinced of this was
Latreille, who had himself studied the subject profoundly, that he
says a classification of lepidoptera may be considered the touchstone
of entomologists. This difficulty arises chiefly from the uniformity
of organization which prevails throughout the order--a uniformity
occasioned by all of them being designed to subsist on liquid food, and
to imbibe it in the same manner. The oral organs, therefore, which are
of the first importance in classifying other tribes--the coleoptera,
for example, in which they undergo almost endless variations of form
and consistency to fit them for consuming every kind of organic
substance, from semi-fluid animal or vegetable matter to the hardest
ligneous tissue--are, in this instance, of comparatively little avail.
Recourse must be had to secondary and subordinate characters; and
even when we are convinced that, owing to a peculiar _facies_, and
the concurrence of many minute resemblances, certain groups should
be regarded as distinct, it is found difficult to define them in a
satisfactory manner. Neither has the difficulty been much lessened
by the manner in which the subject has been handled by many modern
naturalists. The numerous illustrations of lepidoptera published of
late years, have been _partial_, being either selections from the
whole class, or forming part of a local fauna. In either case, the
subject is regarded in too insulated a light. The illustrator of
foreign butterflies selects a species, and by giving prominence to all
its minute characters, proposes it with considerable plausibility as
a distinct genus. The local faunist divides his groups in reference
to his own limited sphere of observation. Neither contemplates
the possibility of being ever called upon to elaborate a general
system, and he leaves it to those who are to reconcile all existing
inconsistences. Hence it follows, that so many of the genera proposed
in local and partial works can find no place in a general one; for
however specious they may appear when standing alone, it is often
found that they will not unite into a consistent whole, and they may
therefore be said still further to embroil the very subject they were
designed to elucidate.

The Linnean distribution was vague and unsatisfactory, even at the
time when it was first produced, and soon became utterly inapplicable
when the amount of known species was increased. But it did not fail
to exercise, like every other system emanating from that gifted
mind, a powerful influence on the progress of the science, and is
interesting on account of its ingenuity and poetical elegance. “It is
an attempt,” says Dr. Shaw, “to combine, in some degree, natural and
civil history, by attaching the memory of some illustrious ancient name
to an insect of a particular cast.” The first Linnæan division consists
of _Equites_, which are distinguished by the shape of the upper
wings; these are longer, measured from their posterior angle to their
anterior extremity, than from the same point to the base; the antennæ
sometimes filiform. The _equites_ are denominated _Troes_ or Trojans,
distinguished by having blood-coloured spots on each side of the
breast: or _Achivi_, Greeks, which are without red marks on the breast,
of gayer colours, and having an eye-shaped spot on the anal angle of
the inferior wings. The second division consists of _Heliconii_, which
are distinguished by having the wings narrow and entire, often naked or
without scales; the superior oblong, the inferior very short. The third
division consists of the _Danai_, so called from the sons and daughters
of Danaus. They are divided into _Danai candidi_, or such as have
whitish wings, and _Danai festivi_, in which the ground colour is never
white, and the surface variegated. The fourth division consists of the
_Nymphales_, distinguished by the edges of the wings being scolloped or
indented; it is subdivided into _N. gemmati_, in which the wings are
marked with ocellated spots, and _N. Phalerati_, without these spots.
The fifth division contains the _Plebeii_. These are commonly smaller
than the preceding butterflies, and are subdivided into _rurales_ and
_urbicolæ_; the former having the wings marked with obscure spots, the
latter for the most part with transparent spots.

In his earlier works, _Mantissa_ and _Species_, Fabricius made no
important change on the Linnæan method; but the many additional
species which had come to his knowledge when he drew up his _Systema
glossatarum_, led him to establish many new genera, and remodel
the arrangement of the old ones. This method consists of forty-one
genera, most of which have been adopted by subsequent authors; but it
is less complete than it might otherwise have been rendered, owing
to the death of the author before it was finished. Latreille did
not deviate materially from the Fabrician method, adopting nearly
all the genera; but he did not derive the distinctive characters
exclusively from the antennæ and palpi, as the Danish entomologist
had done, but had recourse to other parts of structure, and likewise
judiciously took into account the peculiarities of the caterpillar
and chrysalis. Several arrangements were proposed subsequent to or
contemporaneous with that of Latreille, such as those of Lamarck,
Dumeril, Dalman, &c. but most of them are of little importance. The
last mentioned individual, however, appears to have been the first
to apply to actual practice, in his description of the lepidoptera
of Sweden, characters derived from the neuration of the wings, the
value of which were first pointed out by Mr. Jones, in a paper in the
Linnæan Transactions, published in 1794. Godart, without appearing to
have been acquainted with what had been done by Dalman, likewise had
recourse to the structure of the wings in his arrangement, as published
in the Encyclopédie Methodique, and Lepidoptera of France. In the
latter work, the diurnal series is classified with reference to the
appearance of the discoidal cell in the inferior wings; and by adopting
this excellent character, he has, in most instances, greatly improved
on Latreille’s method.

In 1776, an arrangement was proposed which attracted little attention
at the time, but which has since risen to considerable distinction.
It is that exhibited in the Systematic Catalogue of the Lepidoptera
found in the neighbourhood of Vienna, by MM. Denis and Schiffermüller.
This original and highly valuable system is entirely founded on the
appearance of the caterpillars. It is singular that characters almost
exclusively drawn from that state, should confirm the classifications
founded on characters afforded by the imago or complete insect. But
to such a degree does this coincidence obtain, that almost all the
families proposed by the Austrian naturalists have been adopted as
genera by those who were guided by other principles. This method
remained for a long time almost unknown to the naturalists of this
country, and even on the continent its excellence seems to have been
but inadequately appreciated, except among the Germans. The only
authors that have acted upon it are Ochsenheimer, and his continuator
Treitschke, in their valuable and extensive work on the Lepidoptera of
Europe[26].

But there can be little doubt that those arrangements are the most
accurate and philosophical which are founded on characters derived
from all the different states in which these insects exist. This
conviction seems now to be generally entertained, and most writers
of very recent date have seen the propriety of acting upon it. In
the works of Curtis, Stephens, Horsfield, &c. it has been adhered to
to a greater or less extent, and in a general work on Lepidoptera
lately published by Dr. Boisduval of Paris, nearly equal importance
is assigned to the peculiarities of the caterpillar, chrysalis, and
butterfly. As this method presents some new features, and is the last
that has been laid before the public, we shall give an account of it
along with the accompanying remarks in the authors own words:--“It is
not till after a most attentive study of the butterflies of Europe in
their different states, and after having collected a certain number
of materials on the metamorphoses of exotic species, that we have
attempted to group the lepidoptera in a manner different from that
hitherto followed, not neglecting, at the same time, the study of
those authors who have occupied themselves with this order, that we
might be enabled to combine the results of their labours with our
own. We do not flatter ourselves, however, that the combinations
which we have made are altogether free from blame, any more than
those of our predecessors. When occupied with the productions of a
single country, the classification is much more easy; the greater
number of species associate pretty well with each other, and, if we
except a few of the most anomalous, a series is obtained free from
much irregularity. In this way, the European species form a pretty
homogeneous assemblage, and the same thing holds with regard to those
of South America, New Holland, or any other country taken by itself;
but when we attempt to classify those of the whole globe, we frequently
meet with intermediate genera which interrupt this harmony. If we
even take a somewhat numerous genus belonging at the same time to
several different countries, we find species which form a passage to
other races proper to each of these countries. For example, the genus
_Pieris_ of Latreille offers species in America (genus _Leptalis_)
which bear a perfect resemblance to the _Heliconii_ in their colour,
the length of their bodies, and narrowness of the wings. Others of the
same country (genus _Euterpe_) insensibly unite with that division of
American _Papiliones_ which is of a black colour with red spots; those
of Europe, on the contrary, present certain relations to _Parnassius_,
_Pieris Cratægi_ appearing to form the passage to _P. Mnemosyne_, while
those of India gradually approach _Colias_ through _P. Judith_ and _P.
Panda_, and to _Danais_ with green spots through _P. Valeria_. All
other genera of some extent, and distributed over several countries,
are in the same condition.

“What we have just stated, applies equally to the correlation of
species with each other. If we take, for example, the genus _Satyrus_
of Latreille, we perceive that it is composed of an infinite number
of secondary groups, scarcely any of which are proper to one country.
Thus, in Europe, we have the division to which _Galatea_ belongs,
extending along the basin of the Mediterranean, even into Persia;
that of _Hermione_, which takes the same direction, and continues to
Cachmere; that of _Norna_, proper to the polar regions of the two
continents; that of _Nigres_, which inhabits mountainous countries,
and is found only at the Cape and at Chili; finally, that of the
_Satyres_, properly so called, which are connected with the species of
New Holland, some of them with those of Chili, of North America, and
Siberia. America and the East Indies, likewise, present groups which in
general appearance differ widely from our European species; while there
are others which resemble several at the same time. A collection of the
_Satyres_ of one country would, therefore, form a sufficiently natural
series; but it would appear most irregular when the species of several
countries were brought together.

“Our method is partly founded on the caterpillar, and partly on the
perfect insect. We attach the greatest importance to the caterpillar
state, and the characters which it furnishes have often more value in
our estimation, than those afforded by the butterfly; but generally
these characters confirm each other, in other words, two caterpillars
presenting the same characters produce flies which likewise partake
of the same generic characters. It will no doubt be objected to us,
that it is illogical to deduce characters except from the animals we
are attempting to classify. We reply, that by following any other plan
we must despair of attaining to a natural method. Besides, it is not
necessary to be acquainted with the caterpillars of every species; it
is sufficient to study a caterpillar and chrysalis of _Vanessa_ or
_Pieris_ to have an exact idea of those of the two genera. Even though
it should be very difficult to verify the characters taken from the
larva, this is no reason why we should abstain from employing them. It
is not merely from the fruit that botanists obtain their characters,
but likewise from the flower, and even from the first developement of
the vegetable embryo. The flower is to the plant what the caterpillar
is to the lepidopteron, and the different modes of metamorphosis have
as much value as those of inflorescence.

“It appears to us that Latreille’s three divisions, taken from
Linnæus--_Diurnal_, _Crepuscular_, and _Nocturnal_--are too inaccurate
to be retained, especially the crepuscular section. The denomination
_Diurnal_ not only applies to all the known kinds of day butterflies,
but also to an almost infinite number of others forming a part of the
two other divisions, such as _Macroglossa_, _Zygenides_, _Castniariæ,
gocerides_, &c. That of _Crepuscular_ is adapted more or less to
some sphinges, but by no means to the _Zygenides_, which fly only
in the heat of the sun. Finally, the term _Nocturnal_ is not more
properly applicable to all the species, since many belonging to this
section appear only during the day. In order to avoid these improper
denominations, we have substituted for the word _Diurnal_, that of
_Rhopaloceres_, proposed by M. Dumeril. Being unable to perceive limits
between the _Crepuscular_ and _Nocturnal_ divisions of Latreille, we
have united those two great sections under the name of _Heteroceres_.
In our method, therefore, the lepidoptera are divided into two grand
legions, _Rhopaloceres_ and _Heteroceres_[27].”

Dr. Boisduval then proceeds to explain that the first of these
divisions is characterised by antennæ thickening to a club at the
extremity; and the second, by having these organs variously shaped;
this indeed is implied by the words themselves. The first division is
subdivided into three sections, according to the manner in which the
caterpillars transform themselves into chrysalides. Such as undergo
this change by attaching themselves by the tail and a band round
the middle, form the first division, named _Succincti_; such as are
suspended by the tail only, the second, _Penduli_; while those which
form a cocoon by rolling leaves together, compose the third division,
termed _Involuti_.

Each of these three sections is then divided into _tribes_, according
to characters derived from the caterpillars and the perfect insect.
Among those furnished by the latter, the most important are considered
to be the number of ambulatory legs and the form of the palpi. The
genera are characterised by the form of the caterpillar and chrysalis,
by the dispositions of the nervures of the wings, the form of the
antennæ, legs, palpi, thorax, &c. of the perfect insect.



GENUS ORNITHOPTERA.


The present generic group was first separated from _Papilio_ by Dr.
Boisduval. None of its characters, taken singly, are very strongly
marked, but their aggregate importance is sufficiently considerable to
authorise its adoption. As in _Papilio_ the antennæ form an elongate
club, having the extremity slightly curved upwards, the palpi are
longer than in the genus just named, but they never rise above the
forehead. The prothorax is much developed anteriorly, and forms a
pretty distinct neck. The abdomen is long and robust, that of the
male deeply grooved on the under side, and provided at the anal
extremity with two large rounded valves. The wings are large, of a
strong texture, and furnished with salient nervures; the anterior pair
elongate; the posterior with wide shallow indentations, and never
prolonged into a tail.

We are very imperfectly acquainted with the natural history of the
insects of this group in their early stages. Their remote localities,
and the rarity of most of the species, have, for the most part,
prevented them from falling under the notice of competent observers.
The caterpillar and metamorphoses of one of them (_O. Heliacon_),
however, have been described by Dr. Horsfield. Like the caterpillars
of _Papilio_, it is furnished with two retractile tentacula; the
body is large and thick, and bears eight rows of rather long fleshy
prominences, of a conical shape. The chrysalis into which it is
transformed is somewhat curved, having the head obtuse, and a few
projecting points above the middle. It is suspended by the tail, and a
transverse band, which, however, does not encompass the body, but is
inserted on each side. (See Fig.)

[Illustration]

This group is but of limited extent, but it comprehends some of the
largest and most beautiful lepidoptera yet known to us. With one
exception, which extends over a portion of the Indian continent, they
are confined to the Mollucca, Philippine, and others of the numerous
and extensive islands of the Indian Archipelago. The species figured,
which is the most beautiful of the whole, and to which Linnæus applies
the epithet of _august_, has been long known and highly prized by
collectors. It is named

[Illustration:

  PLATE 1.

  _1 Ornithoptera Priamus_      _2 Ornithoptera Remus_

Natives of the island of Amboina.]


ORNITHOPTERA PRIAMUS.

PLATE 1. Fig. 1.

 _Boisd. Species gener. des Lepidop._, 173.--Papilio Priamus, _Linn.
 Latr. Godart, Cramer_; _Papillons exotiques_, 23, A, B; _Donovan’s
 Insects of India_, Pl. 3.

 Female, Pap. Panthous, _Linn._; _Cramer_, 123, A, and 124, A; _Don.
 Ins. of India_, Pl. 2.

Such a remarkable discrepancy exists in the appearance of the sexes,
that they were always regarded as separate species till lately, when
their proper relationship to each other happened to be ascertained.
The anterior wings of the male are deep velvety black, with two broad
longitudinal stripes of rich silky green, curved, and narrowing at
both extremities; between these stripes there is a large brownish spot
disposed longitudinally. The hinder wings are silky green, with the
posterior margin, and a series of four pretty large circular spots,
velvet-black; between the black spots and posterior border are two
orange spots, and another of larger size towards the base of the wing.
On the under side, the anterior wings have a macular band of gilded
green, formed of contiguous wedge-shaped spots, an irregular patch
towards the centre, and two streaks near the apex. The under side of
the hinder wings corresponds to the surface, but the green is of a
more golden hue, and the circular spots larger, and seven in number.
The antennæ, head, and thorax, black--the latter with a central line
and two posterior spots of golden green; breast spotted with red on the
sides; abdomen bright yellow.

The female is considerably larger, frequently measuring nearly eight
inches between the tips of the wings. The prevailing colour is dark
brown, deepening towards the extremities of the wings; the upper pair
traversed by a macular band of impure white, the spots unequal and
generally interrupted or notched; the hinder pair having a curved row
of six large wedge-shaped spots behind, of a whitish colour powdered
with black, the base tinged with yellow, and each with an orbicular
black spot in the centre. Head and thorax entirely black, the abdomen
whitish yellow above and deep yellow beneath.

Varieties of both sexes have occurred, for there seems little reason to
doubt that the insect figured by Guerin (_Voyage de la Coquille, Ins._,
pl. 13, fig. 1 and 2) under the name of _P. urvillianus_, is a variety
of the male, while a female variety is described by Boisduval[28]. In
the former, the green of the superior wings is replaced by violet-blue
of a very brilliant tint, and in the hinder part that colour runs in
a broad stripe along the nervures, dilating considerably towards the
posterior margin. This example was found at Offack.

The Priam butterfly is found in the islands of Amboina, Rawack, and
Ceram. It has been observed to hover about the _Mangifera Indica_ in
preference to other trees, and it has hence been conjectured that it
deposits its eggs on the leaves, and that they constitute the food
of the caterpillar. It never occurs in large numbers, and is hence
somewhat rare in collections. Specimens of both sexes are preserved
in the valuable collection of insects belonging to the Edinburgh
University Museum.


ORNITHOPTERA REMUS.

PLATE 1. Fig. 2.

 Pap. Remus, _Fabr. Godart_, _Cramer_, 135, A, 136, A, and 386, A,
 B.--Pap. hypolithus, var. _Cramer_, 10, A, B, 11, A, B.

One of the largest species, the expansion of the wings sometimes
measuring nearly eight inches. The superior pair are black, with a
slight greenish reflection, and having a broad greyish-white stripe
running along each side of the secondary nervures. The inferior wings
are dark grey on the surface, and of a shining white on the under
side, the latter having a black sinuated border interrupted by seven
irregular spots of golden-yellow diminishing in size as they approach
the abdominal margin. In the female, which is the sex represented on
the adjoining plate, the golden-yellow spots are much larger, somewhat
wedge-shaped, and each of them, except the outermost, marked with a
large oval black spot. The abdomen is bright yellow above, paler on
the under side, and irregularly spotted with black; the head, thorax,
breast, and antennæ entirely of the latter colour.

The native country of this elegant species is the island of Amboina.



GENUS PAPILIO.


Passing from the Ornithoptera, which may be esteemed the chiefs and
princes of their race, we now come to the Papilios, properly so called,
some of which are scarcely inferior in their dimensions and imposing
aspect. Such, at least, is the case with _P. Antimachus_ and _P.
Antenor_, which besides their large size, partake of some of the other
characters of the group just referred to, and thus form the passage
from it to Papilio. But the great majority are of very inferior size,
and many of them so dissimilar in aspect that they might be thought to
afford sufficient distinctions for arranging them in numerous different
genera. On a close examination, however, the species are found to
be so intimately allied in all essential parts of structure, that
the most judicious systematists have not attempted to separate them.
Such authors as have followed an opposite course, Hubner for example,
have proved by no means successful in establishing sub-divisions;
and the only effect of such a proceeding is to encumber the subject
with a number of generic names without eliciting a more philosophical
arrangement, or one better adapted to aid the student. As at present
constituted, the genus is compact and natural; and if it were broken
up by attaching undue importance to very subordinate characters, no
partial change would suffice; for any principle that might be thought
to justify the establishment of one genus, would render it necessary,
if consistently acted upon, to create not fewer than thirty or forty.
One of the most obvious differences among the species is the presence
or absence of a tail; but an arrangement founded on this circumstance,
separates, by a wide interval, kinds which are in other respects most
closely allied. Nay, the tail itself is often more or less developed
in the same species, being sometimes distinct in the one sex while it
is inconspicuous or wanting in the other; its value as a diagnosis of
genera is thus in a great measure destroyed.

Considerable differences likewise prevail in the appearance of the
caterpillars, but these are too imperfectly known to be made the
groundwork of an arrangement, even if they were likely to be available
for such a purpose by indicating natural groups or affording additional
means of characterising them. “Some of them,” says Dr. Boisduval,
“such as those of _Machaon_, _Alexanor_, _Asterias_, are cylindrical
and smooth; others (_Crassus_, _Philenor_), are protected with rather
long fleshy prominences; in a very great number (_Pammon_, _Memnon_,
_Chalchas_, &c.) the two first segments are attenuated, and capable
of being retracted under the third and fourth, which are dilated and
often ornamented with ocular spots analogous to those presented by
many of the _Sphingides_; others are short and thick, and furnished
with numerous rather short fleshy points; finally, there are some
(_Podalirius_, _Ajax_, _Antiphates_) which somewhat resemble snails
in shape. The caterpillars of _Papilio_ may be distinguished from
those of other genera belonging to the same tribe by the following
characters:--They differ from those of _Ornithoptera_ in their
retractile tentaculum not being enclosed in two exterior cases; from
those of _Thais_, in the projections which they sometimes present being
never hispid at the extremity; and from those of _Parnassius_, in the
body being always free from pubescence; but it is more particularly
from the characters drawn from the chrysalis and perfect insect that
this last genus is distinguished from _Papilio_[29].”

The perfect insects are characterised by very short palpi not passing
beyond the eyes, all the joints very indistinct, the third quite
invisible; antennæ pretty long, the club slightly curved upwards;
abdomen pretty large, the anal valves in the male of moderate size;
wings rather strong, the inferior pair having the abdominal margin
folded upwards and leaving the abdomen free, their exterior border more
or less dentated, and often prolonged posteriorly into a tail.

According to the above definition, the genus comprehends rather upwards
of 220 species. They are distributed over almost every quarter of the
globe, but are by far most abundant in intertropical countries. They
are more numerous in the new continent than the old, but the difference
is by no means considerable. In the former, Brazil alone produces
between forty and fifty species; in the latter, the greatest number
occur in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, already referred to as
the native country of the magnificent Ornithoptera. The continental
parts of India, China, Java, &c. likewise possess many fine species,
and a few are found in New Holland. Europe is exceedingly poor in
insects belonging to this group, there being only four indigenous
kinds. These are _P. Xuthus_, _P. Alexanor_, _P. Machaon_, and _P.
Podalirius_; the two latter, which are the most common, are well known
to extend to Britain.

The first species selected to exemplify one of the prevailing forms of
this important genus, is

[Illustration:

  PLATE 2.

  _1. Papilio Memnon._      _2. Pap. Æneas._      _Lizars sc._

  China.      Surinam.]


PAPILIO MEMNON.

PLATE II. Fig. 1.

_Linn. Fabr. Cramer_, 91, C.--Papilio Agenor, _Linn. Fabr. Cramer_, 32,
A, B.

The upper wings in this species expand about five inches; they are
blackish and marked with numerous longitudinal rays of a greyish-ash
colour, each of them having a large blood-red or ochrey-yellow
triangular patch at the base. The inferior wings are waved on the
hinder margin, and narrowly edged with white in the emarginations, the
disk almost entirely occupied by a broad white band divided by the dark
nervures, the hinder portion dusky with a series of deep-black spots
of an ovate or rounded form, that placed on the anal angle smaller
than the rest and encircled with fulvous, which colour extends to the
extremity of the internal border; on the under side they are spotted
with red or ochre-yellow at the base: body black, the prothorax marked
with several white points.

The above description applies to one of the female varieties of _P.
Memnon_, which was usually regarded as a distinct species and known by
the name of _Agenor_. Indeed it is so unlike the male, that authors
would probably never have thought of associating them, had they not
been reared from the same description of caterpillar. The male is
entirely without the basal red spot, and the dark ground colour has
a greenish reflection; the upper wings have a red or ochreous spot
at the base on the under side, and there are likewise four small red
marks on the same part of the inferior wings: the latter are deep black
anteriorly and cinereous behind; the cinereous portions containing two
rows of deep black rounded spots, that next the anal angle encircled
with yellow. _P. Androgeos_ of Cramer (pl. 91, A. B.) is a variety
of this sex, while the _P. Anceus_, and _P. Laomedon_, of the same
iconographist are varieties of the female.

The caterpillar, which feeds on the different kinds of _Citrus_, is
described by Dr. Horsfield as of a green colour, with an ocelliform
lateral mark on the third segment, and a transverse white band; a band
of pale green between the fourth and fifth segments, and an oblique
white stripe on the eighth and ninth; the anal segment likewise of
that colour. The anterior part of the body is considerably attenuated,
similar to what is observed in the caterpillars of many of the
Hawkmoths. Chrysalis green, reddish-yellow on the back.

This insect is found in China, and the islands of the Indian Ocean, and
is rather a common species.


PAPILIO ÆNEAS.

PLATE II. Fig. 2.

 _Linn., Fabr., Cramer_, Pl. 279, Figs. A, B, C, D.--_Rösel Insect._
 vol. iv. Pl. 2, Fig. 2.--_Godart, Encyclop._ No. 24.--_Boisduval,
 Spec. gener._ 286, No. 112.

We have figured this insect as characteristic of a pretty extensive
group of butterflies inhabiting South America, distinguished by a
peculiar outline, and a certain similarity of design in the markings.
The space between the tips of the anterior wings always exceeds by
more than one half the space between the anterior edge of these wings
and the hinder margin of the posterior pair; that is to say, the
width of the insect, with its wings expanded, is more than double
its length. The ground colour of the wings is generally deep black,
with one or two insulated patches of some light colour on the disk of
the anterior pair, and a large blood-red patch in the middle of the
hinder wings; the latter deeply dentated on the margin, but without a
tail. In _P. Æneas_ the upper wings expand about three inches and a
quarter: they are velvet-black, becoming lighter towards the apex, with
a pretty large green spot, of a somewhat quadrangular shape, towards
the interior border, surmounted by three smaller ones of an obscure
white. Inferior wings likewise velvet-black, with a large discoidal
patch, deep red anteriorly and carmine behind intersected by dark
nervures; posterior margin with obtuse unequal dentations, the notches
margined with red. Under side of the inferior wings with five oval,
rose-coloured spots, placed in an irregular transverse line. Body
black, the sides of the breast spotted with red.

The insect regarded as the female of this species differs greatly from
the above: the wings are more rounded at the apex, and there is only a
single spot, of shining green, on the upper pair: the notches of the
hinder wings bordered with white.

This butterfly is found in greatest plenty in Surinam, but it likewise
occurs in other quarters of South America.

The other species belonging to this group, easily recognised by
their peculiar _facies_, are, _P. Opleus_, _Hippason_, _Euristeus_,
_Polymetus_, _Jacinthus_, _Eurymas_, _Eurymedes_, _Echelus_,
_Ariarathes_, _Marcius_, _Numa_ (Boisd.), _Cœlus_ (Lacordair),
_Arbates_, _Anchises_, _Dimas_, _Iphidamas_, _Arcas_, and a few others.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 3.

  _Lizars sc._      _1. Papilio Ascanius._      _2. Pap. Paris._

  Brazil.      China.]


PAPILIO ASCANIUS.

PLATE III. Fig. 1.

_Fabr. Drury’s Exot. Insects_, iii. Pl. ix. fig. 1; _Cramer_, Pl. xiv.
fig. A.

This insect may be regarded as the type of another South American
group, somewhat allied to the preceding in general appearance,
and in the distribution of colours, but presenting at the same
time considerable differences. The length of the hinder wings is
proportionally much greater, and each of them has a pretty long
spatula-shaped tail. In the species figured, the wings are deep-black
above, inclining to brown on the under side; the superior pair with a
broad transverse white band, crossed by black nervures, and surmounted
by a white arch, or two or three small white spots at the extremity
of the discoidal cell. The hinder wings are likewise traversed by a
wide band, frequently deeply notched or palmate, white anteriorly, and
tinged with carmine behind; beyond which there is a series of narrow,
slightly lunate, red spots parallel with the margin; tail of moderate
length, black: body black, with red spots on the sides of the breast
and abdomen.

This beautiful butterfly is not uncommon in the northern regions of
Brazil, but it becomes scarce in the south.


PAPILIO PARIS.

PLATE III. Fig. 2.

_Linn. Fabr. Drury’s Ins._ Pl. xii. fig. 1; _Cramer_, Pl. 103, A, B;
_Boisd. Spec. gen._ p. 208.

_P. Ulysses_, _Perianthus_, _Bianor_, _Polyctor_ (Boisd.), _Blumer_
(Boisd.), _Crino_, _Palinurus_, _Paris_, and _Arjuna_, form a very
natural group of butterflies, distributed over the eastern parts of
the continent of Asia, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago. The
great breadth of the wings and tail, combined with the general darkness
of their colours, give them a somewhat heavy appearance, but this is
often in some degree relieved by great richness of decoration. They are
occasionally ornamented with patches of very brilliant azure-blue, and
nearly all of them are sprinkled with shining points of golden-green,
making the surface appear as if powdered with gold-dust. The species
figured as an example is a native of China, and is often received in
collections from that country, although it does not appear to be very
common. In many cabinets a closely allied species stands for this,
which is so similar that the two may easily be confounded. The species
alluded to is _Pap. Arjuna_, a native of Java, accurately described
by Dr. Horsfield; but although now regarded as distinct, it may
ultimately prove to be a mere local variety. Godart confounds three
species, conceiving that _P. Bianor_ was the female of _P. Paris_, and
_P. Arjuna_ a variety.[30] The extension of the wings in _P. Paris_
is about four inches; the surface dark-brown, powdered with particles
of golden-green, which are condensed into two or three spots near the
extremity of the inner border of the upper wings: the under wings
have, towards the middle, a large patch of very brilliant azure-blue,
sinuated posteriorly, where it is on a line with a series of spots
formed by the union or condensation of the minute golden atoms; the
anal angle with an ocellated spot having a red iris surmounted by a
very narrow violet arc: tail black: under side brown, sprinkled with
grey particles, which are so condensed towards the apex of the upper
wings as to form a broad transverse band, interrupted by dark nervures:
under wings with a posterior row of seven ocelliform spots, dark in the
centre and having a yellowish-red iris, divided anteriorly by a slender
violet arc: body black, powdered with particles, in the same manner as
the wings.

The female differs only in the ground colour being a little darker, and
in having a transverse ray of condensed particles, which reaches from
the internal border nearly to the middle.

The caterpillar is probably very similar to that of _P. Arjuna_,
described by Dr. Horsfield.[31]


PAP. PROTESILAUS.

PLATE IV. Fig. 1.

_Linn. Fabr. Cramer_, Pl. 202, fig. A, B; _Merian’s Insec. Surin._ Pl.
43.

The two insects delineated on the adjoining plate exemplify a form
which prevails among a pretty extensive group of the genus _Papilio_,
and which is familiar to European entomologists as represented in
a very characteristic manner by the beautiful _P. Podalirius_. The
prolongation of the hinder wings into a long narrow tail is the most
striking feature, and has caused them to be termed swallow tails. The
ground colour is for the most part pale,--light yellow, or green,--and
the wings are marked with numerous transverse stripes of dark brown
or black. They are not confined to any particular country, but are
distributed over most regions of the globe, although the greatest
number are found in Brazil and other parts of America. _P. Protesilaus_
is one of the most common inhabiting the country just named. It expands
nearly four inches; surface pale white, almost transparent, tinged with
green at the base of the superior wings; the latter having seven narrow
transverse black bands commencing at the anterior margin, the innermost
five very short, the sixth descending to the internal angle, where
it unites with the seventh, which runs along the margin: inferior wings
black at the hinder extremity, that colour divided by two rows of large
lunules of the ground colour, the anal angle with a bright transverse
spot of carmine-red; tail very long and narrow, bordered with white,
and having before its base two or three greyish-blue spots, composed
of minute particles. On the under side the most remarkable differences
are, that the two interior bands are prolonged to the anal angle, where
they unite, and the outer one is bordered on one of its sides with a
stripe of carmine: body whitish, with a broad black stripe along the
back, another on the sides, and three along the belly.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 4.

  _1. Papilio Protesilaus._      _2. Pap. Sinon._
            Brazil.                    Jamaica.

  _Lizars sc._]


PAPILIO SINON.

PLATE IV. Fig. 2.

 _Fabr. Cramer_, Pl. 317, fig. C, D, E, F.--_Herbst. Pap._ Pl. 44, fig.
 5, 6.--Pap. Protesilaus, _Drury_, vol. i. Pl. 22, fig. 3, 4.

Considerably less than the preceding, the space between the tips
of the wings seldom exceeding three inches; wings black, with pale
coloured bands slightly tinged with green; viz. two towards the base,
extending across both wings, the third very slender and short, the
fourth forming a pretty broad central stripe bifid anteriorly, and
terminating in a point near the middle of the hinder wings; beyond this
are two transverse spots or rudimentary bands anteriorly, and lastly
a macular one of rounded spots parallel with the hinder margin; the
latter likewise extends along the hinder wings, the spots assuming a
crescent shape; anal angle marked with an oblique vermilion spot; tail
long, linear, and black. Under side brown, the design corresponding to
that on the surface, but having a narrow stripe of red near the middle,
placed in a dark band and edged with white on the anal angle: body
black, with two white streaks on the thorax, the abdomen ringed with
white above, and greyish-white beneath.

Inhabits Jamaica, Florida, and various parts of South America.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 5.

  _1. Leptocircus Curius._       _2. Thais Medesicaste._
          1 Java.                      2 Europe &c.

  _Lizars sc._]


LEPTOCIRCUS CURIUS.

PLATE V. Fig. 1.

 _Swainson’s Zoolog. Illus._ 2d series, Pl. 106.--_Boisduv.
 Spec. gener._ 380.--Pap. Curius, _Fabr._--_Donov. Insects of
 India._--Erycina Curius, _Godart, Ency. Meth._

This genus was first proposed by Mr. Swainson for the reception of a
remarkable insect from Siam and Java, to which various situations had
been assigned by different naturalists. In external aspect it has all
the appearance of an _Erycina_, but, on examining the disposition of
the nervures of the wings, the form of the palpi and antennæ, together
with the structure of the feet, which are all complete in both sexes,
its close affinity to the true _Papiliones_ becomes apparent. The
head and body are very thick; abdomen short; eyes large and salient;
palpi very short, the articulations very indistinct; antennæ rather
long, thickening at the extremity into a club which is slightly curved
upwards. The anterior wings are nearly hyaline, and have the discoidal
cell closed; the posterior folded longitudinally, and each drawn out
into a very long tail curved at the extremity. The expansion of the
wings, in the only known species, is about an inch and a half; the
inner half of the superior pair black, traversed in the middle by a
pretty broad green band; the exterior portion, consisting of a large
triangular space, transparent, with the nervures and external border
black. The inferior wings are black, edged externally with white, and
having a central blue band in continuation of the anterior one. On the
under side, the base of all the wings is whitish, and the abdominal
margin of the under pair is marked with three curved white streaks:
abdomen whitish beneath, and having a double row of black dots on each
side. In the female the bands on the wings are white.

A few years ago this curious butterfly was to be found in very few
cabinets, but it is now received not unfrequently.


THAIS MEDESICASTE.

PLATE V. Fig. 2.

 _Godart’s Pap. de France_, ii. Pl. 3, fig. 3, 4.--Pap. Medesicaste,
 _Hubn. Pap._ 124, fig. 632.--Pap. Rumina, _Hubn._ Pl. 394, 395.--Thais
 Honnoratii, _Boisd. Icon._ Pl. 3, fig. 3-5, var.

The genus Thais is confined to the southern countries of Europe, the
north of Africa, and Asia Minor. All the species are of moderate size,
and may at once be known by the peculiar design of the colouring of the
wings, which are always yellow spotted with red and black, and bordered
externally with a dark festooned line. The palpi are composed of three
nearly equal articulations, and rise conspicuously above the head; the
antennæ rather short and terminating in a club slightly curved upwards.
The body is slender, and the abdominal margin of the hinder pair of
wings is curved downwards as if to leave room for the movements of
the abdomen. The caterpillars are short and cylindrical, covered with
fleshy spines and short hairs, the first segment provided with a fleshy
bifurcated tentaculum. They live solitarily or in small groups on the
_Aristolochia_, and obviously bear a considerable analogy, as well as
the perfect insect, to _Parnassius_. The chrysalis is cylindrico-conic,
somewhat angular in front.

The species represented on the annexed plate may possibly be a variety
of _T. Rumina_. Surface pale ochreous yellow, with a black marginal
band divided on the upper wings by a series of eight or nine yellow
spots; along the costal margin are several black irregular transverse
bands, some of them inclosing rounded red spots; inferior wings with a
black festooned line along the exterior border; towards the base are
always three red spots, one near the abdominal margin, another in the
upper part of the discoidal cell, and a third near the anterior edge,
usually united in the form of a transverse band with that in the cell.
Body blackish, marked with rows of fulvous spots.

The caterpillar lives on the _Aristolochia pistolochia_. Sometimes the
colour is reddish-yellow, at other times brown or dull yellowish-green,
with numerous rows of black lines often interrupted; the body bearing
six rows of fleshy spines, of an orange yellow hue, and ciliated with
black at the extremity.

The insect is found in Languedoc, in the neighbourhood of Digne, &c.



GENUS PIERIS.


According to the definition which it has been found necessary to give
to this genus in general works on the lepidoptera, it includes a very
extensive range of species, and may be said to be represented in this
country by the white butterflies, which British authors generally
place in the genus _Pontia_. In this extended acceptation, however, it
comprehends individuals somewhat diversified in appearance, and which
may be assumed as the types of particular groups or sub-divisions,
perhaps of sufficient importance ultimately to become genera, if a
corresponding dissimilarity be found to characterise their different
states and metamorphoses. The antennæ are of moderate length or
slightly elongated, the articulations pretty distinct, the club obconic
and compressed; palpi thickly covered with fascicles of long hairs, the
terminal joint at least as long as the penultimate: wings of ordinary
size, the discoidal cell closed; the under pair partially embracing the
abdomen: eyes naked, head rather small.

The caterpillar is elongated, and nearly cylindrical, pubescent, and
marked with longitudinal rays; the head small and rounded. Chrysalis
terminating in a single conical point anteriorly, attached by the tail
and a medial band.

Not fewer than one hundred and sixty-six different kinds of butterflies
are referred to this genus. “They are diffused,” says Dr. Boisduval,
“nearly over the whole globe, but are particularly abundant in the
intertropical countries of the old continent. Considering the extent
of the New World, it produces comparatively few species. The most
remarkable inhabit Africa, the Indian continent and Archipelago,
and New Holland. Such of the caterpillars as are known, feed almost
exclusively on the _cruciferæ_, _residaceæ_, _tropioliæ_, and
_caparideæ_. Our _P. Cratægi_ is the only one in Europe which lives
on trees; but it is probable that many exotic kinds are of the same
habits. The prevailing colour among these lepidoptera is white, more or
less pure, with a black border, variable in width, but seldom wanting.
There are likewise species in which the ground colour is yellow or even
orange, while in others it is blackish or blue, &c. The inferior face
of the posterior wings generally differs considerably from the upper,
and is often very agreeably varied with brilliant colours. The sexual
differences, in certain species, are very conspicuous, particularly
on the surface; in others, they are much less so, the females being
distinguished from the males only by a somewhat wider border, or by
having the upper wings more rounded at the apex[32].”


PIERIS EPICHARIS.

PLATE VI. Figs. 1 and 2.

 _Godart, Boisd._--Pap. Hyparete, _Fabr._--Pap. Eucharis, _Drury’s
 Insect._ Pl. 10, fig. 5, 6.--_Cramer_, Pl. 201, fig. B, C ♂; Pl. 202,
 fig. C ♀.

This pretty insect belongs to a sub-division which inhabits the
continent of India and the adjacent islands. The wings, which expand
about three inches, are white, very faintly tinged with blue, with
a broad black border, interrupted by a series of rather larger
oval spots, the same as the ground colour on the upper wings, but
flesh-colour on the under; the nervures, on the former, defined by a
dilated black line: in the female, this is likewise the case with the
inferior wings. Under side of the primary wings similar to the surface,
except three marginal spots towards the apex, which are yellowish in
the male and of a bright yellow in the female; secondary wings bright
yellow beneath, the nervures black, and along the hinder border a row
of large oval, or somewhat heart-shaped, scarlet spots, placed in a
white circle; body whitish.

Common in Bengal, and many places in the more eastern parts of Asia.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 6.

  _1. & 2. Pieris Epicharis._      _3. P. Philyra._
             India.                      Amboina.

  _Lizars sc._]


PIERIS PHILYRA.

PLATE VI. Fig. 3.

_Godart, Boisd._--Pap. Hyparete, _Cramer_, Pl. 210, fig. A, B, and Pl.
339, fig. E, F.

The figure above referred to represents the under side of the female of
this handsome species. The male is of a bluish-white above, surrounded
with a black external margin, and having a black patch on the tip of
the anterior wings, divided by an arched row of white oval spots; the
female nearly black above, the inner half of the wings dull white, the
apex with white oval spots: on the under side both sexes are black,
with the inner half of all the wings yellow, sprinkled with minute
black points; the upper pair having a small white spot at the extremity
of the discoidal cell, and a posterior row of yellow oval spots
largest towards the anterior margin; the under pair with seven long
wedge-shaped reddish-brown spots behind the middle, becoming somewhat
lighter posteriorly, making the hinder part of the wing from the middle
of the discoidal cell sometimes appear entirely of that colour, with
dilated black nervures and a black border.

Inhabits Amboina, New Guinea, &c. _Pieris Plexaris_, described by
Godart (_Encyc. Meth._ p. 151) from a figure in Donovan’s Insects of
New Holland, is regarded by a recent author as a variety.


PIERIS BELISAMA.

PLATE VII. Fig. 1.

_Godart, Boisd._--Pap. Belisama, _Cramer_, Pl. 258, fig. A, B, C, D.

_P. Belisama_ is another of these handsome and warmly tinted species
which abound in Eastern Asia and the adjacent islands. It is generally
about a third larger than our common cabbage butterflies, but smaller
examples frequently occur; the male yellowish-white above, with the
whole of the outer angle and the costa of the anterior wings black;
the limb of the hinder pair of the same colour. Female with the
greater portion of the upper wings black, the remainder pale ochreous.
Under side of the upper wings black in both sexes, with a group of
yellow spots on the apex, and a small transverse whitish streak at
the extremity of the discoidal cell; the same side of the under wings
bright yellow, inclining to orange, with a black posterior border
dentated on the inner side, and bearing a row of rounded yellow spots;
at the base there is a transverse red stripe lying parallel with the
margin; body whitish; antennæ black.

Occurs plentifully in Java, Amboina, Sumatra, &c.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 7.

  _Lizars sc._

  1. Java.
  2. Cape.
  3. Amboina.

  _1. Pieris Belisama._
  _2. Anthocharis Danai._
  _3. Iphias Leucippe._]



GENUS ANTHOCHARIS.


A section of _Pieris_ has lately been established as a genus under
the above name, founded, however, on characters not of a very
decided description. The most important one perhaps is the shape of
the chrysalis, which is boat-shaped, or equally attenuated to both
extremities, somewhat arched, and without lateral points. The antennæ
of the perfect insect are short, with the articulations distinctly
marked, the club rather abrupt and forming an ovoid compressed mass.
The common British species _Mancipium Cardamines_ is referred to it,
and this insect may be regarded as a characteristic example of the
kinds which it includes. Like the _Orange-tip_, the majority have a
patch of bright red on the tips of the anterior wings, and the under
side of the posterior is often beautifully marked with green and pearl
white. Several other species, besides that just mentioned, are natives
of Europe, but their principal resort seems to be the intertropical
countries of Africa.


ANTHOCHARIS DANÆ.

PLATE VII. Fig. 2.

 _Boisd._--Pap. Danæ, _Fabr., Donov. Insects of India_, Pl. 1, fig.
 2.--Pap. Eborea, _Cramer_, Pl. 352, fig. C, D, E, F.--Pieris Danæ,
 _Godart_.--Pontia Danæ, _Horsfield, Insects of Ind. Comp._, p. 141, 68.

Surface of the male pure white; the upper wings having a large
triangular patch of bright carmine at the extremity bounded on the
inner side by a black oblique band, and narrowly margined with the
same colour externally, where the nervures are likewise black; there
is likewise a black point at the extremity of the discoidal cell:
under wings with a black border, variable in breadth, and occasionally
macular. Under side impure white, with a black streak at the extremity
of all the discoidal cells, those on the hinder wings divided by a
reddish brown point; the apex of the upper wings fulvous-red, divided
by a curved row of blackish spots, continued across the under wings
as far as the anal angle. The female differs from the male in having
a large space at the base of the wings dusky, and the marginal hand
wider, and better defined on its inner edge.

Males sometimes occur in which the marginal band is entirely wanting in
the hinder wings.

Found in the East Indies, at the Cape of Good Hope, &c.



GENUS IPHIAS, _Boisd._


The two conspicuous insects which at present compose this genus, were
wont to be referred either to Pieris or Colias. They have certainly a
close relation to both, as well as to _Anthocharis_, but the following
characters seem to warrant their separation; antennæ long, gradually
increasing into a club which is truncated at the extremity; palpi
contiguous and compressed, thickly covered with scales cut of equal
length, the terminal joint minute and truncated; head clothed with
rather long projecting scaly hairs; thorax robust; abdomen much shorter
than the inferior wings; wings very large and strong, the discoidal
cell closed. The caterpillar is attenuated at both extremities and
shagreened on the surface, the chrysalis much arched and fusiform at
both ends.


IPHIAS LEUCIPPE.

PLATE VII. Fig. 3.

Pap. Leucippe, _Fabr. Cramer_, Pl. 36, fig. A, B, C.--_Donovan, Insects
of India._--Pieris Leucippe, _Godart_.

One of the largest of the _Pierides_, frequently measuring upwards
of four inches between the tips of the wings; anterior pair bright
fulvous red, clouded at the base with greenish yellow, the nervures
and all the exterior parts black, the female with a row of fulvous
spots parallel with the external margin, and not far from it; posterior
wings citron-yellow, having a dentated or macular black border in the
female, usually preceded by a curved line of spots of the same colour;
but in the male marked with only one or two black spots towards the
external border. Under side deep fulvous in both sexes, sprinkled with
black points and marked with short transverse dusky lines, which are
greatly most numerous in the female; head and thorax brown; abdomen
citron-yellow; antennæ black, the extremity of the club reddish.

It is a native of Amboina; we have seen no particular account of the
caterpillar, but it is no doubt similar to that of _T. Glaucippe_,
which is described by Dr. Horsfield as of a green colour with a white
lateral ray. It feeds on a species of _Capparis_.



GENUS CALLIDRYAS.


This genus is composed of a selection of species from Colias, to which
it bears a very close relation. It is not long since it was proposed
by Dr Boisduval, who thinks that the following characters entitle it
to this distinction. Palpi approximating and very much compressed,
clothed with short hairs and dense scales, the terminal joint conical
and much shorter than the preceding one; antennæ thickening gradually
from the base to the apex, which is distinctly truncated; body robust,
the abdomen much shorter than the inferior wings; the latter forming
a groove which completely embraces the under side of the abdomen. The
caterpillars are naked and somewhat attenuated at both extremities; the
chrysalis arched, or boat shaped, with the extremities drawn out to a
narrow point; always attached by the tail and a transverse band.

According to the manner in which they have been respectively
constituted, _Callidryas_ therefore is best distinguished from Colias
by the antennæ, which in the latter terminate in an obconical club;
and from _Rhodocera_ (including _Gonopteryx_ of Dr. Leach), which has
these organs likewise truncated, by the shape of the wings, which
never present acute angular projections. The prevailing colour of the
species is yellow, from deep orange to the palest sulphur yellow. The
females are usually of a paler hue than the males, and the sexual
differences are strongly marked in other particulars. On the under
side of the wings there are almost invariably one or two small spots,
near the middle, of a silvery or rusty-brown hue; these are either
wanting or very minute in the males, while they are distinctly marked
in the females. The former sex, in the majority of species, presents a
very peculiar character in having the anterior edge of the under wings
provided with a kind of pulverulent glandular sac, which varies much in
size and colour in different species.

A great similarity prevails among the different species of
_Callidryas_, and they are consequently difficult to determine. They
inhabit the intertropical regions of the two continents.


CALLIDRYAS EUBULE.

PLATE VIII. Fig. 1.

 Pap. Eubule, _Linn. Cramer_, Pl. 120, F, C.--Caterpillar, _Stoll’s
 Supp. to Cramer_, Pl. 3, fig. 1, A.--Callidryas Eubule, _Boisd.
 Species general_, i. 613.

This insect so closely resembles _C. Marcellina_ that it is possible
they would still have continued to be confounded, as they were by
the earlier entomologists, had not the different appearance of the
caterpillar indicated their essential distinction. In the male the
surface of the wings is a fine citron-yellow, with a narrow border of
a deeper hue; the fringe of all the wings marked at remote intervals
with small rust-coloured spots. Beneath the colour is red, or
brownish-yellow; the upper wings with a double ferruginous spot at the
extremity of the discoidal cell, and a brownish zig-zag ray towards
the outer margin; the under wings likewise with two rounded discoidal
spots, silvery in the centre, and surrounded by a rust-coloured ring;
there are likewise several undulating brown lines running across the
surface more or less distinctly defined. The female is bright yellow
inclining to orange, the inferior wings much rounded, and having an
orange-coloured fringe interrupted with transverse brown stripes.
The position and appearance of the discoidal spots similar to what has
been described in the male: the under side deep ochre yellow. Body
yellow, with greenish hairs on the thorax; antennæ, and terminal joint
of the palpi, rose-colour mixed with brown.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 8.

1. _Callidryus Eubule with Cater. & Chrysalis._ Brazil.
          4. _Terias Mexico._ Mexico.

  _Lizars sc._]

The caterpillar (Pl. VIII. fig. 2) is green, covered with small black
granules, and having a yellow line along each side, surmounted by
another of a blue colour. It feeds on the different kinds of _Cassia_.
The chrysalis (Pl. VIII. fig. 3) is likewise green, changing ultimately
to brown.

The butterfly is very common in Guiana, Brazil, and many other parts of
America.



GENUS TERIAS.


We owe the establishment of this genus to Mr. Swainson. It includes
a considerable number of species, the greater proportion of which
have been but lately discovered. They are small insects, of delicate
structure, and usually of a light yellow colour, with the apex of
the upper wings deep black. The caterpillars, as far as we are
acquainted with them, are attached to leguminous plants, and live
between the tropics both of the old and new world. The most important
generic characters are the following: antennæ of moderate length, the
articulations pretty distinct, terminating in an ovoid or conical club,
which is slightly curved downwards, and compressed laterally: palpi
very short, the terminal joint half the length of the preceding one,
naked, and a little salient; abdomen slender and compressed, nearly
as long as the inferior wings; wings of delicate texture, the costal
line a good deal arched towards the base. Caterpillars slender, linear,
and pubescent; chrysalis a little arched, and somewhat compressed,
terminating in a point anteriorly.


TERIAS MEXICANA.

PLATE VIII. Fig. 4.

_Boisd. Spec. gen._ p. 655. Pl. iii. C, fig. 1.

This insect was discovered not long since in Mexico, and is considered
rare. The colour of the surface is very bright citron-yellow, the
upper wings with a broad black border externally, which ends in a
quadrangular expansion a little before the middle of the internal
margin. The under wings have the outer border prolonged into an acute
angle, forming a kind of rudimentary tail, and the anterior half is
widely bordered with black. The primary wings are pale citron-yellow on
the under side, with a central black point, and have the outer border
near the fringe tinged with red; the secondary pair yellow, speckled
with ferruginous particles, and having a black point in the centre, the
extreme angle marked with a ferruginous spot, and the posterior half
with four or five other spots of the same colour, having sometimes a
tendency to form an irregular transverse band. The above description
applies to the male; the female has the surface of the wings
whitish-yellow, with the black border broader, and the anterior margin
of the secondary wings widely orange-yellow. The expansion varies from
twenty to twenty three lines.



GENUS EUPLŒA.


This and several of the following genera may be readily distinguished
from any of the preceding by having the anterior legs, in both sexes,
short and imperfect, the tarsi not being distinguishable into five
joints, but generally consisting of a single piece with several crowded
spines at the extremity. In the present genus there is a slight
indication of an articulated structure, but very indistinct, and there
are scarcely any projecting points in the room of claws. The antennæ,
which are placed very close to each other at the base, terminate in a
pretty thick club elongated and somewhat curved. The palpi, which stand
considerably apart from each other, are short, not rising above the
head, densely clothed with hair-like scales which completely conceal
the joints: of the latter the terminal one is minute and globular
ending in a point, the second long and thick, the radical one about
one-third its length. Outline of the upper wings triangular: claws
simple. Chrysalis suspended by the tail, and never supported by a band
round the middle.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 9.

  _1. Euplœa Limniace._ E. Asia.
  _2. ---- Plexippe._ China &c.

  _Lizars sc._]


EUPLŒA LIMNIACE.

PLATE IX. Fig. 1.

Danais Limniace, _Godart_.--Pap. Limniace, _Cramer_, Pl. 59, fig. D,
E.--Pap. Similis, _Fabr._

Expands nearly four inches; surface of the wings deep black, entirely
covered with stripes and spots of shining light green, more or less
mixed with white: towards the base of the wings the green colour is
arranged in longitudinal stripes, externally in rounded spots, becoming
smaller at the hinder margin where they form a regular row. The design
on the under side is similar, but the ground colour of the under wings
and a large space at the apex of the upper are pale brown, and the
green marks are usually pale; the sinuosities fringed with white, the
projections on the margin of the hinder wings forming a pretty acute
angle; thorax and breast black, with numerous white points; abdomen
yellowish beneath.

Rather extensively distributed over the eastern countries of Asia, and
the adjacent islands.


EUPLŒA PLEXIPPE.

PLATE IX. Fig. 2.

Danais Plexippe, _Godart_.--Pap. Plexippus, _Linn., Fabr._--Pap.
Genutia, _Cramer_, Pl. 206, fig. C, D.

This insect affords an example of a pretty extensive and beautiful
group which is strikingly characterised by the prevalence of a peculiar
colour and uniformity of design in the markings. The ground colour is
a rich chestnut-brown, varying considerably in the intensity of the
shade, the wings widely margined on the outside with black, more or
less interrupted with white spots; the black colour sometimes running
along the nervures in a broad stripe. They are common both to the old
and new world, and many of them are very abundant. _E. Plexippe_ occurs
in the East Indies and China, also in the islands of Java, Ceylon, &c.
and often appears in great plenty The colour is light chestnut-brown,
approaching to fulvous, the whole external border of the wings with
a broad black band, dilated at the apex of the superior pair so as
to occupy the whole angle; this band bears two rows of small unequal
white spots, and the black space at the summit of the upper wings has a
broad oblique band of pure white, angular on the edges, and formed by
the confluence of five spots; between this and the middle of the costa
is a small group of white spots: all the nervures black and dilated.
The under side differs in having the space between the white patch at
the apex of the upper wings and the external margin ashy-brown; in
having the ground colour of the inferior-wings pale fulvous, and the
nervures of the same wings narrowly edged with white. The abdomen is
nearly of the same colour as the wings; the thorax, breast, and head
black, punctured with white; antennæ black, the extremity of the club
rust-red.



GENUS IDEA.


The above genus is of very limited extent, comprehending only four
species. They are, however, somewhat remarkable insects, both on
account of their size, and the manner in which their colours are
distributed. The wings are slightly transparent and of a greyish white,
with black stripes running along all the nervures, and occasionally
forming blotches on the surface. The nearest approach to this mode
of colouring among other tribes is presented by certain species of
Euplœa, and particularly by _Pap. dissimilis_, which on this account,
has been termed the Idea-likeness butterfly. The most conspicuous of
its generic characters are the slenderness of the antennæ, which are
so slightly thickened towards the apex as to appear nearly filiform,
and the elongated oval form of the wings: in other respects Idea nearly
conforms to the genera with which it is associated. The palpi have the
terminal joint minute and conical, the second long and thickest in the
middle, the radical one net half its length. The tarsal division of
the anterior legs is dilated, and furnished with two or three unequal
spines.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 10.

  _1. Idea Agelia._  _2. Idea Daos._
         Java.             Borneo

_Lizars sc._]


IDEA AGELIA.

PLATE X. Fig. 1.

Pap. Idea, _Linn. Fabr. Cramer_, Pl. 193, fig. 1, A, B, and pl. 362,
fig. D.--_Donovan’s Insects of India._

Varying in size from upwards of six inches across the wings to nearly
four and a half. The surface is of a greyish white, with the nervures
and posterior border black; the latter sinuated internally, and divided
by a series of large spots of a whitish colour, and generally an oval
shape; between each of the nervures, and beyond the middle of the wing,
is a longitudinal black stripe: the primary wings are moreover marked
rather before the middle with four irregular black spots, the anterior
one on the costa, the other three forming an abbreviated arched band.
The under side does not differ materially from the upper, but the black
stripes are rather broader, and there is a large irregular patch in the
discoidal cell. The body is whitish with a black line along the back,
the thorax having two black central lines and two short transverse ones
at their extremity: the breast is marked with oblique black lines, and
a row of dusky points runs along each side of the abdomen: antennæ
black.

The insect is a native of Java, Amboina, and other Asiatic islands.


IDEA DAOS.

PLATE X. Fig. 2.

_Boisd. Spec. gen._ Pl. 24, fig. 3.

This delicate and handsome species is much the smallest, the expansion
of the wings not being quite four inches. The ground colour is dusky
white, with two remote rows of rounded spots, another at the extremity
of the discoidal cell, and several smaller ones on the costa beyond the
middle. The abdomen is entirely whitish, the thorax with two connivent
black rays on the back and numerous black spots anteriorly: antennæ
black.

It is said by Dr. Boisduval, to whose excellent work we are indebted
for a knowledge of it, to be a native of Borneo.



GENUS HELICONIA.


This beautiful genus is easily recognized by its peculiar aspect, as
well as by the more precise characters which it affords. The anterior
wings are long, narrow, and entire, and the hinder pair often recede
considerably from the abdomen, which is long and slender. The breadth
of the insect, therefore, when flying, always greatly exceeds its
length. No lepidopterous insect is ever entirely without scales, but
in a section of this group, they are so few and minute as to leave
the wings perfectly transparent. The palpi rise obviously above the
head; the second joint is greatly longer than the first, and has a
long tuft of hair near the apex, the terminal one is also a good deal
produced. The antennæ are, at least, double the length of the head and
thorax, and thicken gradually at the extremity. The anterior tarsus is
considerably dilated and slightly dentated; claws simple. Such of the
caterpillars as have been described, differ remarkably from each other,
and some of them seem to have no analogy with those of the neighbouring
groups. This discrepancy, in connexion with some others in the perfect
insects, has already led to the separation of certain groups from
_Heliconia_ as it was formerly constituted. The larva of _H. Euterpe_
is robust and depressed, with a series of long fleshy lobes on each
side; that of _H. Calliope_ short and cylindrical, clothed with slender
spines and tufts of hair: these species form the genus _Nerias_,
although they are too dissimilar to be associated with propriety.
Others are smooth (_H. Psidii_), and some are covered with very long
white hairs (_H. Ricini_). In these circumstances, it is not likely
that a natural arrangement of this pretty group will be effected until
we become better acquainted with the caterpillars, very few of which
have hitherto been examined. Chrysalis invariably suspended by the tail
only.

These insects, as has been already mentioned, are confined to America
and the West India Islands, the larva subsisting on the different kinds
of _Passifloræ_, a beautiful tribe of plants well known to be likewise
peculiar to the new world. They seem to be represented in India, as Dr.
Horsfield remarks, by the genera _Euplœa_ and _Idea_.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 11.

  _1. Heliconia Erato._ _2. H. Cynisca._
  _3. H. Sylvana._

  1 Surinam.
  2 Guiana.
  3 Surinam.

  _Lizars sc._]


HELICONIA ERATO.

PLATE XI. Fig. 1.

_Godart._--Pap. Erato, _Linn._--Heb. Ricini (Mas.), _Fabr._---Pap.
Amathusia, _Cramer_, Pl. 177, fig. F.

Extent of the wings about three inches; the ground colour deep black.
Upper wings with three diverging rays of deep red at the base, the
inferior one longest and extending rather beyond the middle; not far
from the extremity of these rays there is a large discoidal patch of
sulphur-yellow, unequally divided into two parts by a black bifurcated
nervure; beyond this, near the apex, is a series of contiguous spots of
the same colour, varying from two to five. Under wings with six deep
red rays extending from the base towards the hinder margin, and behind
the place where these terminate, an arched row of small blue spots. The
colour beneath is dark brown; the upper wings marked nearly as on the
surface, except that the costa at the base is alone tinged with red;
under wings with eight diverging pale-red lines, and a row of whitish
marks parallel with the hinder margin. Body black; the sides of the
thorax and abdomen marked with small yellow spots. In the beautiful
variety figured, the red lines on the secondary wings, as well as the
discoidal nervure, are bordered with a narrow stripe of shining blue.

This species is a native of Surinam, where it occurs not unfrequently.


HELICONIA CYNISCA.

PLATE XI. Fig. 2.

_Godart._--Pap. Ricini (Fem.), _Linn._--H. Erato, _Fabr._--Pap. Vesta,
_Cramer_, Pl. 119, fig. A.

This species presents a considerable similarity to the preceding, both
in size and distribution of colours. The surface is deep black; a large
portion at the base of the anterior wings fulvous-red, traversed by
three black nervures; near the middle a large spot of sulphur-yellow,
and beyond it a circular series of smaller unequal spots of the same
colour. The under wings have from five to seven red stripes, extending
in a radiated form from the base towards the hinder margin. Beneath the
design is similar, but the ground colour inclines to brown, and one of
the yellow spots on the superior wings is prolonged nearly to the base.
The body is black, the sides of the thorax spotted with yellow, and
the breast marked with transverse lines of the same colour; there is
likewise a yellow line along the under side of the abdomen.

The above description applies to the most ordinary form of this insect,
but it is liable to a good deal of variation. It occurs in Guiana.


HELICONIA SYLYANA.

PLATE XI. Fig. 3.

_Godart._--Pap. Sylvana, _Cramer_, Pl. 364, C, D.--_Herbst., Pap._ tab.
xvii. fig. 1, 2.

This handsome species measures upwards of three inches and a quarter
between the tips of the wings; the latter are very much rounded, entire
on the edges, and the hinder pair diverge widely from the abdomen; the
superior fulvous from the base to the middle, with the costa, a slender
streak at the base, and a central kidney-shaped spot, black; beyond
this a pretty wide oblique band of sulphur yellow; the space between
this band and the apex deep black, with eight unequal spots of dull
yellow, slightly transparent, disposed in two irregular transverse
bands, and two or three small white points at the apex. Inferior wings
likewise with the inner half fulvous, the outer half black, emitting
narrow stripes internally, one of which reaches nearly to the base,
dividing the wing into two portions; towards the hinder margin are
a few yellow spots: body cinereous, with a yellow longitudinal line
on each side, and a similarly coloured band along the belly; antennæ
reddish-brown, dusky at the base.

A native of Surinam.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 12.

 _Lizars sc._

  _1. 2. Heliconia flora._
  _3. ------ diaphana._
  _4. Acræa Pasiphæ._

  1 & 2 from Surinam. 3 Jamaica. 4 Africa.]


HELICONIA FLORA.

PLATE XII. Figs. 1 and 2.

_Godart._--Pap. Flora, _Cramer_, Pl. 257, fig. B, C

The above plate affords examples of that division of the Heliconian
butterflies, in which the greater proportion of the wings is denuded
of scales and transparent. _H. Flora_ of Cramer very closely resembles
_H. Ægle_ (Fabr.), and may possibly prove a mere variety of that
species. It expands nearly two inches. The upper wings are black with
two transparent bands, that next the base very large, lying parallel
with the costa as far as the middle, and then descending obliquely
towards the posterior angle, divided by a transverse black stripe, and
a longitudinal nervure of the same colour; the second band macular, and
placed near the apex. The under wings are transparent, the whole of the
outer border surrounded by a black stripe, which is divided towards
the angle by a fulvous line; the nervures black. Under side similar in
design to the upper, but the whole of the outer border of the wings
surrounded by a rust-coloured line, and the extreme edge marked with a
few very small white points. Body cinereous above and greyish beneath;
antennæ black.

The caterpillar probably resembles that of _H. Ægle_, represented by
Madam Merian, which is brown, clothed with hairs, and feeds on the
_Sophora_. Both species are found in Surinam.


HELICONIA DIAPHANA.

PLATE XII. Fig. 3.

_Godart._--Pap. Diaphana, _Fabr., Cramer_, Pl. 231, fig. C, and Pl.
315, fig. D, E--_Drury’s Exot. Insects_, ii. Pl. 7, fig. 3.

About the size of the preceding, but the wings narrower and wholly
transparent, with the outer margin and nervures brownish-black. On the
upper wings, rather beyond the middle, there is a black abbreviated
transverse band, placed somewhat obliquely, and preceded by a small
white spot on the costa. On the under side the marginal band is not so
dark as above, and there is frequently a series of small white spots
on the hinder edge of the posterior wings; in the latter also, the
anterior edge is tinged with sulphur yellow. Body black above and grey
beneath, with white points on the head; antennæ black.

The marginal band varies in breadth, and in the secondary wings it is
sometimes longitudinally divided by a narrow line of rust-red.

Occurs in Jamaica, Brazil, Virginia, &c.



GENUS ACRÆA.


The insects of this genus are generally below the middle size, and of
a brownish-red colour, variously striped and spotted with black. With
the exception of a small division, which ought probably to be referred
to another genus, they are natives of the old world, principally of the
western coasts of Africa. The palpi are slender and nearly cylindrical,
the terminal joint minute, forming a kind of nipple on the apex of
the second which is very long; antennæ rather short and terminating
somewhat suddenly in a club; anterior tarsus spatulate, scarcely
toothed at the extremity; internal edge of the inferior wings not
embracing the abdomen. The caterpillars are either spiny, like those of
_Argynnis_, or covered with rigid hairs, but we are yet acquainted with
very few of them. The chrysalis is suspended by the tail.


ACRÆA PASIPHÆ.

PLATE XII. Fig. 4.

_Godart._--Helic. Pasiphæ, _Fabr._--Pap. Media, _Cramer_, Pl. 81, fig.
C, D.

Surface of the wings white, with a slight tinge of blue, a large space
at the base, and the nervures brown; the whole of the middle portion
clouded with black spots of various dimensions, and the extremity
bordered with a rather wide black band, sinuated on the inner side.
The under side is paler and has the marginal band interrupted by a row
of small greyish-blue quadrangular spots preceded by a reddish macular
line. Body black above, variegated with white marks on the back, and
yellowish beneath.

Found in Guinea, and other countries on the west coast of Africa.



GENUS CETHOSIA.


This genus includes several pretty large and showy insects, several
of which, have some resemblance, in the wide expansion of their wings
compared with their limited breadth in the direction of the body, to
the genera immediately preceding, while others shew a decided affinity
to _Argynnis_. The greater part of them are natives of America, but
others occur in the eastern countries of the old world. The palpi are
contiguous below, but diverge at the extremity, and terminate in a
slender acicular joint; antennæ with an oblong club; inferior wings
embracing the abdomen; claws simple. The caterpillars appear to be
generally spiny, and to resemble those of _Argynnis_.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 15.

_Cethosia Dido._
    Brazil.

  _Lizars sc._]


CETHOSIA DIDO.

PLATE XIII.

Ceth. Dido. _Fabr._--Pap. Dido, _Linn._--_Marian’s Surin. Insects_, Pl.
2, (with Caterpillar).--_Cramer_, Pl. 196, fig. E, F.

This species expands about four inches; the ground colour of the
surface is black, variously interrupted with stripes and patches
of green. On the upper wings a longitudinal stripe of that colour
extends from the base to the extremity of the discoidal cell; beyond
which there is a transverse series of large contiguous spots, and
two or three small insulated ones. The inferior wings have two
transverse green bands, one of them broad and continuous placed near
the base, and terminating nearly in a point towards the outer margin;
the other consisting of six or seven orbicular spots, and placed
nearly midway between the former band and the hinder extremity. The
under side differs considerably from the upper, the ground colour
being blackish-brown, while all the green parts are bordered with
pearl-white, and along the posterior margin there is a series of white
lunules, each of them divided by a brown nervure; near the origin
of the secondary wings a small longitudinal red line is likewise
observable. The body is blackish above and grey beneath, the thorax
marked with a few reddish points.

The caterpillar has been figured by Madam Merian. She represents it
as bearing several rows of short spines, rising in a radiated manner
from a tubercle, and two very long caudal appendages. It is of a green
colour, having a red and white ray along each side of the body.

The insect is found in Brazil and Guiana.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 14.

_Cethosia Cyane._
Coast of Malabar.

  _Lizars sc._]


CETHOSIA CYANE.

PLATE XIV.

Pap. Cyane, _Linn._--Cethosia Cyane, _Fabr. Godart._--Pap. Cyane,
_Drury_, i pl. 4, fig. 1. var.

Extent of the wings nearly four inches, the length not much exceeding
the breadth, the whole external margin deeply dentated and the notches
margined with white. Upper wings fulvous towards the base and spotted
with black; the external half brownish-black, traversed by an oblique
white band, having two rounded black spots at its lower extremity;
behind this are a few white marks in the shape of a horse-shoe, and
a line of white lunules; and on the margin itself a narrow festooned
white line. Surface of the secondary wings fulvous-yellow, with several
irregular black spots near the base, and three regular transverse
rows of black spots, the innermost formed of small rounded spots,
the intermediate one of larger spots surrounded with white, and the
external one of spots inclining to a crescent-shape; the hinder margin
brownish- black with a festooned white line similar to that on the
upper wings. The whole of the under side is reddish-yellow, with
markings nearly corresponding to those on the surface, but on the
anterior wings there are several abbreviated transverse yellow lines
anteriorly, bordered with black; and the under wings are traversed by
two yellow bands, bearing rows of black spots. The body is fulvous
above, and spotted beneath with black.

Found on the coast of Malabar. Drury’s figure seems to represent a
variety.



GENUS VANESSA.


The insects referred to this genus, which is well known as having many
handsome representatives in Britain, are distributed over almost every
quarter of the globe. Besides those which occur in this country, many
others are found on the continent of Europe, and they are equally
abundant in tropical regions. Contrary to what is observed in most
other instances, the species inhabiting the latter are in general
not superior in size or richness of colours to those of temperate
latitudes; our own _V. Atalanta_ will contrast favourably with any of
them. Among the few exceptions to this remark, in respect to size, may
be mentioned _V. Arsinoe_ and the rare species figured on the adjoining
plate. The latter is


VANESSA JULIANA.

PLATE XV. Fig. 1.

_Sodart._--Pap. N. Juliana, _Fabr._--Pap. Juliana, _Cramer_, Pl. 280,
fig. A, B.--_Herbst. Pap._ Pl. 220, fig. 1, 2.

It is the largest of the Vanessæ, measuring nearly five inches across
the upper wings. The surface is dull brown, with a broad common
transverse band of greenish white, placed between the middle and
the external margin of the wings. On the upper wings this band is
composed of a double series of spots, the interior ones small and
crescent-shaped, the exterior large and oval with a large black mark
in the centre: on the under wings it is more continuous, with a row of
white lunules externally, and two large ocelli, remote from each other,
having a blue pupil and a yellow iris. The under side is much paler
than the upper, and the band on the anterior wings is nearly as entire
as in the posterior pair.

This conspicuous species is a native of the island of Amboina.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 15.

  _1. Vanessa Juliana._
  _2. V. Amathea._
  _3. V. Orithya._

  1 Amboyna. 2 Brazil. 3 China.

  _Lizars sc._]


VANESSA AMATHEA.

PLATE XV. Fig. 2.

Pap. N. Amathea, _Linn. Fabr._--Pap. Amalthea, _Cramer_, Pl. 209, fig.
A, B.

The surface of the wings in this pretty insect is dark brown
approaching to black, with a broad band of deep red running across
the centre of both wings, but scarcely reaching the anal angle, and
bifid at its anterior extremity: beyond this on the anterior wings are
two transverse rows of small white spots, both of them irregular; and
on the hinder pair a single row-of similar spots: the notches on the
margins of the wings are also whitish. The under side is much paler
than the surface, but the markings are similar. Body dull black above;
antennæ of the same colour, with the extremity of the club reddish.
Expansion of the wings from two inches to two and a quarter.

A South American species, inhabiting Brazil, Guiana, &c.


VANESSA ORITHYA.

PLATE XV. Fig. 3.

 _Godart._--Pap. N. Orithya, _Linn. Fabr._--_Roesel’s Beslust. Insect._
 vol. iv. pl. 6, fig. 2.--Pap. Orithya, _Cramer_, Pl. 19, fig. C, D;
 Pl. 32, fig. E, F; Pl. 281, fig. E, F: Pl. 209, fig. A, B, C, D.

This very elegant species, which is a native of China and the island of
Java, is subject to much variation in its colour and markings. In its
most ordinary state the colour of the surface is velvet-black in the
male and dark brown in the female, with two large ocelli on each wing
having a violet-blue pupil and a yellowish-red iris. The costa of the
primary wings is generally dull white, and towards the base are two or
three transverse stripes alternately blue and tawny-yellow; towards the
apex are three whitish bands, the interior one broadest, the middle
one interrupted by the ocellus, the third narrow and lying along the
external margin. The secondary wings are surrounded by a white band
divided throughout its whole length by a double undulating black line;
the space between this band and the middle of the wing bluish-green
in the male, a colour which scarcely appears in the female, and the
anterior portion generally black in the former sex. Under side pale,
the transverse stripes much elongated and six in number; the under
wings greyish-brown or greyish-white, with several obscure undulating
lines towards the base, with a row of four or five unequal ocelli
having a blue iris in the female, but almost obsolete in the male. Body
black above, greyish beneath.

The figure represents a variety of the female, the same as that
delineated by Cramer.

The caterpillar, beset with branched spines, is of a black colour with
numerous scattered white points, and has a white line along each side
above the legs, and two rows of yellowish brown spots.


CHARAXES JASIUS.

PLATE XVI.

 _Ochsenheimer._--Pap. Jason, _Linn._--Pap. Jasius, _Fabr._--Esper.
 cater, and chrys.--Drury’s Insects, i. Pl. 1. fig. 1.--Pap. Jason.
 _Cramer_, Pl. 339, A, B.--Nymph. Jasius, _Godart_, _Latreille_.

The genus _Charaxes_ was separated from _Nymphalis_ by Ochsenheimer
for the reception of this butterfly, which may be regarded as the most
beautiful inhabiting Europe. It varies in the expansion of the wings
from three to four inches; the surface a rich silky brown, changing
slightly with the light. Along the hinder margin of the primary wings
there is a broad fulvous band, more or less sinuated on the inner
side and narrowly edged with black externally, divided by eight
nervures, which are dark brown ; rather beyond the middle of the wing,
a transverse band of large fulvous continuous spots extends from the
costa to the inner margin, and is sometimes continued for a short way
on the secondary wings; the latter likewise with a posterior band,
formed of contiguous spots of a fulvous colour, more or less tinged
with green, preceded by a series of from five to seven bluish-green
spots, commencing at the anal angle; the margin itself black, as
well as the projecting angles, two of which are prolonged into
tails. Beneath, the anterior portion of all the wings is rust-red,
marked with spots and transverse stripes of olive-brown, encircled with
white; beyond this there is a white band of a satiny lustre, bordered
externally on the upper wings with dusky lunules; the space beyond
these lunules is fulvous, traversed by a band of slate-grey, with a
series of black spots, inclining to triangular, on the inner side of
it. Beyond the white band on the secondary wings there is a row of
ferruginous spots, succeeded by an olive-coloured space bearing a row
of violet-blue points; the posterior band similar to that on the upper
side. Head and thorax rust-brown; abdomen dull brown, with greyish
hairs; antennæ black, proboscis shining rust-red.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 16.

_Charaxes Jasius._
   S. Europe.

  _Lizars sc_]

The female scarcely differs in appearance from the male, except in
having the under side of the hinder wings finely sprinkled in the
middle with blue points.

“The Jasius butterfly is one of the largest, rarest, and most beautiful
of the European diurnal Lepidoptera. It occurs in the southern
countries of France, for example, in the neighbourhood of Lyons, the
Isles d’Hières, near Toulon and Montpellier; also in Italy, Sicily,
Corsica, some parts of Northern Africa, and in Asia Minor. Lefebure de
Cerisy of Toulon has payed considerable attention to the metamorphoses
of this fine insect. The caterpillar, which in its early stage is
green, becomes afterwards of a yellowish hue, and its skin is as it
were shagreened and transversely plaited. Its head is singularly
armed with four vertical yellow horns tipped with red, of which the
two intermediate are the longest. A yellow line passes along each side
of the body in the region of the stigmata, and the back is marked with
four indistinct orange spots. The true feet are black, the membranous
ones green. It feeds on the leaves of the strawberry tree, and never
eats except during the night. Its habits are very lethargic. During
day-light it remains fixed and motionless on its favourite plant, which
it resembles in colour, and thus escapes observation. The chrysalis
is smooth, thick, carinated, and of a coriaceous texture, the colour
pale green. Two broods or flights of the perfect insect are produced
each year, the first in June, the second in September. The caterpillars
of the autumnal brood survive the winter, and are not transformed
into chrysalids till the ensuing May. The perfect insects are then
produced in about fifteen days. These speedily deposit their eggs,
which are hatched in June, and after three months occupied in the usual
transformations, the second flight appears in September, and continues
the race in the manner above mentioned. In many parts of France the
butterfly is named the _Pacha with two Tails_[33]”.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 17.

  _1. Nymphalis Ethiocles.   2. 3. N. Tiridates._
           Africa.                  Java.

  _Lizars sc._]


NYMPHALIS ETHEOCLES.

PLATE XVII. Fig. 1.

Pap. Etheocles, _Fabr._--_Cramer_, Pl. 119, fig. D, E.--Nymph.
Etheocles, _Godart_.

This and the following species present an outline very similar to
that of _C. Jasius_, and they might even, without much impropriety,
he referred to the same genus; but, as there are several points of
difference, and as we are yet unacquainted with the caterpillars, it
may he preferable in the mean time to allow them to remain in the
situation they occupied in Latreille’s arrangement.

_N. Etheocles_ is a native of Africa, and is found chiefly on the
coast of Guinea. It is nearly of the size of _C. Jasius_; the surface
greenish-black, with a broad white band running obliquely across the
middle of the wings; on the primary wings this band is divided into
spots and contracted anteriorly, having a group of three or four small
white spots on the inner side near its origin. Besides the white band,
which is regular and continuous, the under wings have a row of white
crescents parallel with the hinder border, succeeded by a black line,
the border itself of a lighter green than the general ground colour,
and having a few rust-coloured crescent-shaped marks. On the under side
the prevailing colour is pale brown, somewhat glossy, with a white band
similar to that described; three ocellated spots are observable at the
base of the upper wings, and in the same situation on the other pair
are three black transverse lines edged with blue. The internal angle of
the superior wings bears a double black spot, and a series of violet
lunules runs along the hinder border of the under wings; the border
itself green marked with a row of black points.


NYMPHALIS TIRIDATES.

PLATE XVII. Fig. 2 and 3.

 Pap. Tiridates, _Fabr. Cramer_, Pl. 161, fig. A, B; _Drury’s Insects_,
 iii. Pl. 23, fig. 1, 2; _Donov. Insects of India_, Part iii. Pl. 2,
 fig. 3.

Extent of the wings nearly four inches, the surface very dark blue
approaching to black, the nervures brown; beyond the middle are two
transverse rows of small round spots of pale blue, and along the hinder
margin a series of small dull yellow crescents. The ground colour
beneath is brownish-grey, somewhat glossy; the superior wings having
a few transverse waved streaks of black edged with blue towards the
base, then a few yellow streaks succeeded by a pretty regular row of
yellow spots, and on the internal angle are two black spots, partially
or wholly surrounded with blue and surmounted by yellow crescents:
under wings marked in a manner somewhat similar to the upper pair at
the base; the hinder margin with a continuous row of violet ocellated
spots, preceded and followed by a row of yellow lunules; tails rather
short and slender, brown; body dark brown above with four whitish
points on the head, the under side inclining to yellow, antennæ black,
the palpi yellow beneath.

Found in the islands of Java and Amboina.


PERIDROMIA ARETHUSA.

PLATE XVIII. Fig. 1, _Fem._

[Illustration]

This genus has lately been proposed for the reception of a few species
formerly classed among the _Nymphales_. They are remarkable for having
the surface covered with blue markings on a dark ground, and in other
respects seem to be entitled to generic distinction. The neuration
of the wings presents the annexed arrangement.--The caterpillar (at
least of _P. Amphinome_) bears some resemblance to that of _Morpho_.
It is long and attenuated behind, the anal extremity deeply forked,
and the head armed with eight strong unequal spines, resembling a kind
of coronet. The chrysalis is elongated, bifid anteriorly, and having
a series of dorsal spines. They are natives of the New World. The
male of the species above referred to is of a deep black colour on
the surface, with a silky gloss, sprinkled with numerous small blue
spots; the female is larger, and besides markings similar to those of
the male, has a broad white band in the middle of each of the superior
wings lying obliquely, and terminating in a point. The whole of the
under side, in both sexes, is shining brown with a very slight tinge
of green; the hinder wings with ten rounded bright red spots, three
near the base, two on the interior edge, and five forming a row on
the hinder margin towards the anal angle. The white band is likewise
conspicuous on the under side of the female, and in place of it, in the
male, there is a bluish interrupted oblique line; body black above and
spotted with blue; brown beneath, with red spots on the breast.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 18.

  _1. Peridromia Arethusa  2. P. Amphinome._
          S. America

  _Lizars sc._]

This beautiful species is a native of Brazil.


PERIDROMIA AMPHINOME.

PLATE XVIII. Fig. 2.

 Pap. Amphinome, _Linn. Cramer_, Pl. 54, fig. E, F.--_Roesel’s Ins._ i,
 Pl. 10, fig. 1, 2; _Merian, Ins. Surin._ Pl. 8.--Le Papier Marbré de
 la Chine, _Daubenton_, Pl. enl. 92, fig. 7, 8.

Bears considerable resemblance to the preceding on the upper side, the
ground colour being glossy black, the whole surface variegated with
waved streaks and spots of greenish-blue; these markings frequently
assume the appearance of hieroglyphics, and towards the hinder margin
of the inferior wings they indistinctly represent a series of oval
ocelli. Both sexes have a broad oblique white band across the upper
wings, but it is sinuated on the edges, while in the female of _P.
Arethusa_ the edges are always entire. On the under side the general
colour is brown; the upper wings with a triangular red patch at the
base, the colour between this and the central white band is black
glossed with green; beyond the white band are two rows of white points,
one of them lying along the margin. The under wings have the anterior
half red, that colour divided by rays of greenish-black, which occupies
the whole of the hinder portion, except where it is interrupted by
a few whitish spots. Body coloured like the wings above, greyish
beneath, the breast red.

We are indebted to Madam Merian for a representation of the
caterpillar, the peculiar appendages of which have been already
mentioned. The colour of its body is a delicate green, with
longitudinal rays alternately blue and yellow; the pectoral legs black;
the head dull yellow. It feeds on the _Jasminum Indicum_. The chrysalis
is of a yellow colour.

The insect inhabits various parts of South America, in some places
rather plentifully.


MARIUS THETIS.

PLATE XIX. Fig. 1[34].

 Pap. Thetis, _Fabr._--Nymph. Thetis, _Godart_.--Pap. Petreus,
 _Cramer_, Pl. 87, fig. D, E; _Stoll’s Supp._ Pl. 2, fig. 2, A,
 (caterpillar), fig. 2, B, (chrysalis); _Swainson’s Zool. Illus._ Pls.
 59 and 110.

This singular looking insect is distinguished generically by the
peculiar shape of the wings, and the equally remarkable appearance of
the caterpillar. Of the former the posterior edge of the primary pair
is concave, and the apex is distinctly truncated; the same edge of
the secondary wings has two long linear tails, the anal one shorter
and curved outwards, the external long, obtuse at the extremity, and
turned somewhat obliquely outwards. The caterpillar is naked, with four
long fleshy filaments on the back, and two others projecting from the
hinder part of the head; the chrysalis likewise with several projecting
filaments.

The Marius butterfly is a native of Guiana and Brazil. The colour of
the upper side is tawny, varying somewhat in the shade according to
the sex, the surface traversed by three black narrow lines, running
obliquely from the anterior to the abdominal margin: near the base, and
between the second and third lines are the rudiments of two others, and
the costa is likewise black, as well as the posterior margin behind the
middle: the under wings are black along the hinder edge, and likewise
the tails, and on the anal angle are a few whitish crescents placed
over two black points surrounded by a white circle. The colour of the
under side is rusty-brown, glossed with violet and pale green, and
across the middle of both wings there is a dark oblique line, having a
series of black ocellated spots behind it.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 19.

  _1. Marius Thetis._      _2. Fabius Hippona._ Guiana.

_Lizars sc._]

The following description of the caterpillar and chrysalis is given
by Stoll:--“The head of this beautifully coloured caterpillar is dull
yellow, with two short rays and small spots of black. The head is
furnished with two long black spines garnished with short stiff hairs.
The first five segments of the body are reddish-brown, spotted with
black. The belly is white, and the anterior legs black. The rest of the
body is reddish-brown; but from the sixth to the eleventh segment, the
back is of a beautiful yellow, and bordered on the sides with short
black and white rays. The back is armed with four long spines, the last
of which, placed on the eleventh segment, is curved backwards, and
very similar to the horns with which most of the caterpillars of the
Sphinges are provided. The intermediate and posterior legs are yellow.
It feeds on the leaves of the Cashew tree (_Anacardium occidentale_),
and transforms into a perpendicular chrysalis of a yellow colour,
spotted with black, garnished with black spines on the head, thorax,
and back. When the butterfly is about to appear, the yellow colour
changes into white.[35]”


FABIUS HIPPONA.

PLATE XIX. Fig. 2.

 Pap. Hippona, _Fabr._, _Donovan, Insects of India_.--Pap. Fabius,
 _Drury’s Ins._ iii. Pl. 16, fig. 1, 2; _Cramer_, Pl. 90, fig. C, D;
 _Stoll’s Supp._ (caterpillar and chrysalis.)

This species presents another remarkable form, bearing some analogy to
the preceding, but at once distinguished by having only one tail. The
hinder margin of the superior wings is dilated, in the middle, into an
acute angle; the same margin of the hinder pair is cut in a square form
towards the anal angle, and is furnished with an oblique lengthened
tail rounded at the extremity. The caterpillar tapers lightly towards
the hinder extremity, and has two short obtuse horns on the hinder part
of the head. The chrysalis is very short and thick, and without any
angular projections.

The butterfly expands from three to three and a half inches, and is
coloured somewhat in the manner of certain kinds of Heliconia. The
upper wings are black above with two broad bands, that next the base
tawny-red, the exterior one yellow, sinuated and oblique, extending
from the costa to the projecting angle on the hinder margin of the
wing; near the apex are likewise two or three yellow spots. Posterior
wings black, with a tawny-red stripe along the anterior border, and
a few white linear marks running transversely along the hinder margin
between the tail and anal angle. Beneath, the surface is rust-brown,
with pale clouds and transverse bands on the upper wings, and violet
reflections on the under pair. Body ferruginous above and brown beneath.

The caterpillar is accurately figured by Stoll, in his valuable
Supplement to Cramer’s work. It is of a dull green, with a brown or
nearly black ray on the back, and spots and short stripes of the same
colour on the sides. The head is black, with green rays; on the upper
part are two, and on each side of the anterior part of the first
segment, three small rounded yellow spots. It feeds on the leaves of
a species of Piperis, but only during the night, concealing itself
in the day by rolling a portion of the leaf round its body, in order
to protect it from the sun. The chrysalis is greyish, tinged with
flesh-colour, and marked with small brown spots.

The insect occurs in Guiana, Brazil, &c.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 20.

  _1. 2. Catagramma Condomanus._ }
                                 }  Brazil.
  _3. 4. ---- Pyramus._          }

  _Lizars sc._]


CATAGRAMMA CONDOMANUS.

PLATE XX. Figs. 1 and 2.

Pap. Astarte, _Cramer_, Pl. 256, fig. C, D--Nymph. Condomanus,
_Godart_.--Catagramma Condomanus, _Boisd._

This genus includes a pretty group of _Nymphalidæ_, which are mostly
of small size, and marked with annular lines of bright colours on the
under side of the inferior wings. They are pretty closely allied to
_Hipparchia_, but are natives of the new world. The wings are ample,
and all of them rounded on the posterior edges. In the species referred
to, the colour of the surface is black, glossed with violet, the upper
wings with two wide transverse red bands, one near the base, the other
beyond the middle; on the under wings the interior band is continued
nearly to the hinder margin. The under side of the superior wings
resembles the surface, but the costa is yellow at the base, and a
narrow blue line runs along the outer margin. The under wings are black
beneath, having a large oval yellow ring on the disk, enclosing three
pale blue points and a short yellow streak: behind this ring there is
a curved row of blue dots, succeeded by a yellow line running parallel
with the hinder border, and not far from it: at the base of the wing
there is likewise a yellow streak, and the sinuosities on the hinder
edge are white.

The individual figured differs slightly from most other examples, in as
much as it has two small white spots on the surface of the hinder wings
near the anal angle.

This species inhabits Brazil and Surinam.


CATAGRAMMA PYRAMUS.

PLATE XX. Figs. 3 and 4.

Pap. Pyramus, _Drury’s Insects_, iii. Pl. 23, fig. 3, 4, (Male);
_Stoll’s Supp._ Pl. 32, fig. 3, and 3 C.

This prettily coloured butterfly measures about an inch and
three-quarters between the tips of the wings. The surface is black,
finely tinged with violet, with a broad central common band of bright
red, not extending either to the costa or hinder extremity. The under
side of the upper wings nearly corresponds to the surface, but they are
grey at the base and tip, and near the latter there is an undulating
blue line: the under wings dark brown sprinkled with grey, with two
whitish spots towards the base, without any vestige of a red band, a
curved row of ocellated spots behind the middle, and a waved blue line
near the extremity.

The female is black on the surface without any violet reflection, and
the red band, which is narrower than in the male, does not extend to
the secondary wings. This insect is a native of Brazil. We have placed
it in the genus _Catagramma_, without knowing what limits are assigned
to the group so called by the continental entomologists, as the name
only has yet been published. Perhaps it rather belongs to the division
named _Hipparchia_.



GENUS MORPHO.


The butterflies arranged together under the above name are, in many
respects, the most remarkable of any to which our attention has yet
been directed. In size they are superior to all the other diurnal
lepidopterous tribes, except the _Ornithoptera_, and many of them rival
even that conspicuous group in their dimensions. Although surpassed by
many others of their tribe in elegance of form and harmonious blending
of colours, they afford examples of as rich tints as are to be found
in any other natural objects. The blue which adorns the whole surface
of _M. Menelaus_ and _Adonis_, has a beauty and lustre which it is
impossible to witness without admiration. When flying under the blaze
of a tropical sun, the brilliancy of the surface, as contrasted with
the dark hue of the under side, as they are alternately displayed, must
render them very striking objects. Most of them are from South America,
but a few occur in the eastern parts of India and the great islands of
the adjacent Archipelago.

The generic characters are more determinate than is the case with many
others of this order. The antennæ are slender, linear throughout their
whole length, or thickening so insensibly towards the extremity as
to deviate but slightly from that shape. The palpi are placed close
together, ascending, and clothed with scales, the terminal portion
narrow and very much compressed: abdominal margin of the inferior
wings curved downwards, and forming a deep groove for receiving the
body. Discoidal cell of the posterior wings open behind; claws bifid.
The caterpillars vary in form, as well as the chrysalides, and may
probably, if more fully known, enable us to subdivide this family into
more natural groups.


MORPHO HELENOR.

PLATE XXI.

 _Godart._--Pap. Helenor, _Cramer_, Pl. 86, fig. A, B; _Herbst. Pap._
 Pl. 26, fig. 1, 2; _Esper. Papillon’s Exotiques_, Pl. 42, fig. 2.

This affords an example of that section of the genus in which the upper
wings are more or less concave on the outer margin, and the inferior
pair without any prolongation behind. They are almost exclusively South
American. _M. Helenor_ expands from four to five inches; surface black,
with a broad band of silvery blue or violet blue, extending from the
middle of the anterior margin to the anal extremity; sometimes rather
narrow and well defined on the inner edge, at other times enlarged
to within a short distance of the base of the wings; at the anterior
extremity of this band, on the costa, there is an oblique white patch,
and beyond it, on the upper wings, a single row of small white spots in
the male, and two in the female. The secondary wings have an indistinct
row of red crescents near the hinder margin, and the sinuosities in
all the wings are white. The colour beneath is dark brown, the upper
wings with three large ocelli having a white pupil surrounded with
ferruginous and violet, the iris yellow, enclosed in a green circle
which has a crescent of the same colour on the inner side; under wings
with four similar ocelli, three of them contiguous, the interior one
insulated. Towards the base of both wings are several transverse
flexuose green stripes, and along the outer edge three greyish lines,
more or less interrupted with red, especially in the hinder wings. The
body is black above and brown beneath.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 21.

  _Morpho Helenar_

  From S. America.

  _Lizars sc._]

In the variety figured there are a few yellow streaks on the under side
of the anterior wings, and a red stripe at the base of each wing; at
the same time the three posterior ocelli are prolonged into a point,
and a spurious ocellus is observable adjoining the anterior one.

Found not unfrequently in many countries of South America.


MORPHO ADONIS.

PLATE XXII. Fig. 1.

 _Godart._--Pap. Adonis, _Cramer_, Pl. 61. fig. A, B; _Herbst. Pap._
 Pl. 26, fig. 3, 4; _Esper. Pap. Exotiques_, Pl. 55, fig. 2.

As a specimen of that division of Morpho which has the upper wings
scarcely or not at all concave on their outer edge, and the anal angle
of the under pair prolonged into an obtuse rudimentary tail, we have
represented a species of great beauty although inferior in size to
many of its congeners, the expansion of the wings seldom exceeding
three inches and a half. The surface of the male, when seen in certain
directions, is of the most brilliant azure-blue, the whole of the
exterior margin of the primary wings surrounded with black, and near
the apex are two small white spots, the anterior one longitudinal, the
other orbicular. In the female the blue colour has not such a high
degree of lustre; the posterior margin is widely black, and bears two
rows of white spots in the upper wings and one row in the under. On the
under side the colour is greyish-brown, with several common oblique
bands of a paler hue, and three or four oblong ocelli with a white
pupil and a black iris surrounded by a yellow ring; the anal angle
marked with short undulating black lines. Body brownish-black above,
concolorous with the same face of the wings beneath.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 22.

  _1. Morpha Adonis. 2. Pavonia Teucer_
                 Brazil.]

Found in various parts of South America, but apparently most plentiful
in Brazil and Guiana.



GENUS PAVONIA.


The group composing this genus was separated from the preceding by
Godart, chiefly on account of the discoidal cell in the secondary wings
being closed. Besides this character the palpi are not so densely
clothed with scales, and the inferior nervure of the upper wings
is curved near its origin in the form of the letter S. The species
very closely resemble the _Morphos_ in most other respects, but
their colours are generally less brilliant. They are all from South
America, and in that country they are far most abundant in Brazil. The
caterpillars of several different kinds have been represented by Madam
Merian, and, like those of _Morpho_, they differ from each other in
their appearance and properties.


PAVONIA TEUCER.

PLATE XXII. Fig. 2.

Pap. Teucer, _Linn._--_Merian, Surinam Ins._ Pl. 23; _Cramer_, Pl. 51,
fig. A, B.

Extent of the wings from five to six inches; the surface of the primary
pair of a livid hue at the base and dark brown at the extremity, the
latter colour traversed by a yellow flexuose line near the middle
of the secondary wings, slate-blue anteriorly, and black behind. On
the under side the wings are very richly mottled, the ground colour
being light brown, variegated with numerous undulating black lines,
the anterior pair with five very irregular yellowish-white transverse
bands, and four ocellated spots near the apex, the hinder one larger
than the others, surrounded by a yellow ring and having a white point
within, not in the centre, but inclining to the inner side: the
secondary pair with three broad indistinct whitish bands, and near the
middle three ocelli, the intermediate one minute, the hinder very large
and surmounted by a black arch. The body is dark brown above.

This insect inhabits an extensive tract of the warmer parts of South
America.


ARPIDEA CHORINÆA.

PLATE XXIII.

 Pap. Chorinæus, _Fabr._--Pap. Arcesilaus, _Cramer_, Pl. 294, fig. A, B
 (male), fig. C, D (fem.); _Stoll’s Supp._ Pl. 6, fig. 1 (caterpillar),
 fig. 1, A (chrysalis)--Satyrus Chorinæus, _Godart_.

Finding it impossible to include this insect, owing to its remarkable
form, in any of the genera hitherto proposed, we have been under the
necessity of assigning it a new name. Many of its characters seem to be
quite peculiar both in the perfect and preparatory states. The species
which makes the nearest approach to it is _Satyrus Philoctetes_, but
the differences are considerable, as will be seen by comparing the
adjoining figure with that insect. The costal line of the upper wings
is very much arched, and the hinder margin is strongly falcate. The
external edge of the under wings is likewise falcate posteriorly, and
the anal angle is a little produced; the line from that point runs
somewhat obliquely nearly to the middle of the hinder edge of the
wing, where there is a broad obtuse oblique tail. This outline
forms a broad, somewhat square figure, having perhaps rather a heavy
appearance, but the curves are graceful. The caterpillar is naked, or
covered only with short pubescence, thickest in the middle, and having
two very long hairy appendages at the hinder extremity. The chrysalis
is short, without any conspicuous projections, the abdominal portion
very much incurved.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 23.

_Arpidea Chorinæa, with Caterpiller & Crysalis._
     Surinam.

  _Lizars sc._]

The colour of the surface in the above species is deep brown, darkest
on the upper wings, which have a wide fulvous sinuated band, rather
beyond the middle, commencing at the costa and reaching nearly to the
opposite side, where it terminates in a point: the costa is likewise
yellowish, and towards the apex there is a round white spot. Posterior
wings of a lighter hue round the margin than on the disk, and near the
hinder extremity an indistinct row of whitish points. On the under side
all the wings are light brown and ash colour, covered with short waved
lines of dark brown, and bearing several continuous transverse bands of
the same colour, and towards the hinder margin of the inferior pair a
row of pale rounded spots. Body brown; prothorax with a fulvous mark.

The caterpillar is very beautifully coloured. The body is reddish,
inclining to violet, the sides of the belly and the legs dull yellow.
Along the back there is a broad yellow band formed of confluent
lozenge-shaped spots, each of them having a dusky line in the centre:
head ferruginous, bordered and rayed with yellow. The anal fork is
grey, with black ciliæ. This caterpillar feeds on the leaves of the
sugar-cane, and changes into a pale brown chrysalis dotted with black,
from which the butterfly emerges in about eleven days. The insect is a
native of Surinam.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 24.

_1. 2. Helicopis Gnidus._ } Surinam.
_3. Erycina Octavius._    }

  _Lizars sc._]


HELICOPIS GNIDUS[36].

PLATE XXIV. Figs. 1 and 2, _Fem._

 Hesperia Gnidus, _Fabr._--Pap. Endymion, _Cramer_, Pl. 224, C, D,
 (Male,) E, F, (Fem).--Erycina Gnidus, _Godart_; _Stoll’s Supp._ Pl. 4,
 fig. 5, A, (Cater), 5, B, (Chrysalis).

The genus Helicopis was proposed by Fabricius in his _Systema
Glossatarum_, and he refers to the species above mentioned as one
of its typical forms. Although its characters are sufficiently
distinctive, it was long confounded with other groups to which it has
little relation. It belongs to that section of the diurnal lepidoptera
in which the caterpillars are short and depressed, having some
resemblance to an _oniscus_, whence they are called onisciform. The
palpi are rather long and slender, and the terminal joint is nearly
naked or free from scales. In Helicopis the antennæ terminate in a
slightly curved club: the anterior legs are much shorter than the
others and clothed with hairs; hinder margin of the anterior wings
convex and entire, the corresponding margin of the posterior with six
linear tails, the central one much longer than the rest; discoidal cell
of the posterior wings open behind; claws very minute. Caterpillar
thickly clothed with soft hairs, the chrysalis suspended by the tail,
and having a band round the middle.

The best known and most common species of this genus is _H. Cupido_,
which is rather smaller than _H. Gnidus_. The former is commonly named
the Golden-spot, and the latter the Silver-spot Butterfly. The wings
of _H. Gnidus_, in the male, are white on both sides, with a slight
tinge of yellow at the base, and the outer margin black. At the hinder
extremity of the secondary wings there is a row of narrow white marks,
which is double at the anal angle; tails black on both sides, the two
longest ones tipped with white. The upper wings beneath have a white
line dividing the black border behind the middle, and the under pair
are ornamented with twenty-one silvery spots, three of which at either
extremity are elongated and placed on a white ground, while the rest
are insulated and on a ferruginous ground; all of them edged with
black. The female is larger than the sex just described, and differs in
having a larger fulvous space at the base of the wings, and in having
it bounded externally on the under side of the upper pair by a wide
black patch; the greater part of the surface of the hinder wings is
black, and the posterior row of white crescents is simple: body white,
the thorax yellow; antennæ black, ringed with white.

The caterpillar is white, and clothed with long hairs of the same
colour; the head yellow, surmounted by a tuft of red hairs. It feeds on
the leaves of the passion-flower, and changes into a brown chrysalis,
which has a tuft of red hairs at the head and tail.

This species, as well as _H. Cupido_, is a native of Surinam.


ERYCINA OCTAVIUS.

PLATE XXIV. Fig. 3.

Pap. Octavius, _Fabr. Mant._--Pap. Faunus, _Fabr. Species_.--Pap.
Chorineus, _Cramer_, Pl. 59, fig. A.

As the above genus at present stands, it contains many insects which
have but little affinity to each other, as may be seen by comparing
the present figure with that on the following plate, both of which
have been usually assigned a place in it. If we have not altered this
arrangement, it is not because we do not regard it as improper, but
from a reluctance to introduce many partial changes, in a place where
it would be irrelevant to enter at length on the general subject of
classification. The relation which groups bear to each other can be
satisfactorily shown only by treating of the whole; and insulated
changes are the less desirable at present, as a general arrangement
of the whole class will speedily be laid before the public by an
individual who has long directed his attention to the subject. The
above-named species belongs to a group in which the upper wings are
triangular, and the inferior very much elongated, truncated towards
the anal angle, and exteriorly drawn out into a long narrow tail.
With the exception of the dark bands and occasional crimson spots,
the whole wings are transparent. _E. octavius_ expands about an inch
and a half. The upper wings are transparent, the whole of the outer
margin, and a band running obliquely across the middle, black. Under
wings transparent anteriorly, the remainder, including the tail, black;
the anal angle with a large crimson patch. The tail is very narrow,
and somewhat whitish on the outer edge and at the tip. The under side
resembles the upper, except that the red spots are each marked with two
white points.

Found in Surinam.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 25.

  _1. 2. Erycina Melibaeus._
  _3. Loxura Alcides._

  1 & 2 from Brazil. 3 Africa.

  _Lizars sc._]


ERYCINA MELIBÆUS.

PLATE XXV. Figs. 1 and 2.

Pap. E. A. Melibæus, _Fabr._--_Herbst. Pap._ Pl. 59, fig. 4, 5.--Pap.
Pyretus, _Cramer_, Pl. 144, fig. A, B.

This beautiful insect belongs to that division of _Erycina_ which has
opaque wings, and a short obtuse tail to the hinder pair. It is about
two inches in extent of wing. The surface is uniform dark brown, with
a bright red oblique band running across the middle of both wings, and
a large crescent of the same colour near the origin of the tail. On
the inner side of the upper wings there is the appearance of another
oblique red band, but it is obsolete except at the hinder margin. The
under side forms a striking contrast with the surface, the ground
colour being black, with two brilliant blue bands, the outer one very
broad, the interior somewhat macular, and terminating behind in a red
point. Body brown above and black beneath.

Like most of the species constituting the genus _Erycina_, it is a
native of the new world, occurring in greatest plenty in Surinam and
Brazil.


LOXURA ALCIDES.

PLATE XXV. Fig. 3.

 Pap. P. R. Alcides, _Fabr. Mant._--Hesperia, R. Alcides, _Fabr.
 Syst._--Pap. Alcides, _Cramer_, Pl. 96, fig. D, E.--Myrina Alcides,
 _Godart_.

Loxura includes a few species formerly referred to _Myrina_, and,
like the latter, is distinguished from the allied genera by the
extraordinary length of the palpi which rise conspicuously above the
head, and are, in fact, nearly half the length of the antennæ. The
wings are entire on the edges, and the hinder pair are prolonged each
into a single tail, placed obliquely. The antennæ increase gradually
towards the apex into a lengthened club, and all the ambulatory legs
are of the same form in both sexes. The species represented is a native
of Guinea. The extent of the wings is about an inch and three-quarters.
On the upper side the wings are dark brown, sprinkled very thickly
towards the base with shining violet-blue atoms, making the whole inner
half of the wings appear of that colour, and the outer margin of the
posterior pair behind the middle, as well as the lengthened tail, are
of the same hue. Towards the extremity of the upper wings there is a
transverse band of a rusty-red colour, but it is very indistinctly
defined. Beneath, the colour is tan-brown as far as the middle of the
wings, where there is a narrow yellow line running across the whole
surface in the posterior, but abbreviated in the anterior, and placed
rather beyond the middle, the space beyond this band covered with a
kind of greyish dust. Body brown, the thorax clothed with hairs of the
same colour as the base of the wings, antennæ blackish, annulated with
white on the under side.

This is an African insect, and seems to be confined to the coast of
Guinea. _Pap. Corax_ of Cramer (Pl. 379, fig. D, E) seems to be a
variety of the female. The individual figured by Boisduval (_Spec.
Gen._ Pl. 22) appears to differ considerably from Cramer’s figures,
as well as Fabricius’ and Godart’s description: it is represented as
having a distinct ocellus at the base of the tail.


POLYOMMATUS MARSYAS.

PLATE XXVI. Figs. 1 and 2, _Male_.

 Pap. Marsyas, _Linn. Fair. Herbst. Pap._ Pl. 296, fig. 1, 2; _Cramer_,
 Pl. 332, fig. A, B.--Polyommatus Marsyas, _Godart_.

Notwithstanding the numerous groups which have been recently withdrawn
from this genus, it still includes a great variety of modifications
of form which would amply justify further subdivision. Even the few
examples which have been selected for illustration might afford the
types of more than one group; but, for the reasons already mentioned,
we prefer presenting them according to Latreille’s arrangement.
Most of these insects are beneath the middle size, they are usually
adorned with very beautiful colours on the surface, and ornamented
with ocelliform spots beneath, a circumstance which has suggested the
name. They are distinguished from the immediately preceding genera by
having the palpi of ordinary length, or rather short, and all the legs
complete, or adapted for walking, in both sexes. The group to which
the first species represented belongs, has the costa of the upper
wings more or less arched, particularly towards the base, and the
hinder margin of the same wings is very slightly concave, especially
in the male. The hinder wings have two linear narrow tails towards
the anal angle. _P. Marsyas_ is a native of Brazil, Guiana, and some
other countries of South America. It is greenish-blue on the upper
side, changing with the direction of the incident light into violet,
the costa and apical angle of the upper wings widely black. Beneath
the colour is lilac, glossy, with seven or eight small black spots,
surrounded by a white circle, scattered over the disk of each wing; the
anal angle bluish-green, with two short white transverse streaks and
two pretty large black spots; tails black with the extremity white,
the outer one about half the length of the other. Body blue above and
whitish beneath. The antennæ, as in most of the Polyommati, are black
with pale rings.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 26.

_1. 2. Polyommatus Marsyas._
_3. 4. ---- Endymion._

1 & 2 from S. America. 3 & 4. Surinam.

  _Lizars sc._]


POLYOMMATUS ENDYMION.

PLATE XXVI. Figs. 3, 4, _Fem._

Pap. P. R. Endymion, _Fabr. Herbst. Pap._ Pl. 298, fig. 1, 2. Pap.
regalis, _Cramer_, Pl. 72. fig. E, F. (Fem).

The outline of this richly-ornamented insect perfectly corresponds to
that of the preceding species, except that the hinder margin of the
upper wings is scarcely concave. The whole disk is very brilliant blue
with a tinge of green, surrounded by a black border, which is wide and
sinuated on its inner edge in the female, and narrow in the other sex.
The anal angle of each of the hinder wings bears a large blood-red
mark, and the tails are black tipped with white. On the under side the
green hue predominates, and the whole is thickly-powdered as it were
with gold dust, giving it a very rich appearance. Near the middle both
wings are traversed by a distinct black line, angular posteriorly, and
bordered externally by pale blue: behind this, on the under wings,
there is a broad deep red or ferruginous band, paler towards its hinder
edge and sprinkled with blue atoms: the outer margin of all the wings
is darker than the interior. Expansion of the wings about two inches.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 27.

  _1. 2. Polyommatus Venus._   } Surinam
  _3. 4. ---- Achaeus._        }

  _Lizars sc._]


POLYOMMATUS VENUS.

PLATE XXVII. Figs. 1, 2.

 Pap. P. R. Venus, _Fabr. Mantissa_.--Hesperia R. Venus, _Fabr.
 Systema_.--Pap. Venus, _Herbst. Pap._ Pl. 294, fig. 1, 2. Pap.
 Imperialis, _Cramer_, Pl. 76. fig. E, F.

This beautiful little insect is not unlike the preceding both in its
form and colours. It belongs to a section of _Polyommatus_, in which
the upper wings of the male are marked with an orbicular spot, of a
cottony appearance, and frequently a good deal impressed. The expansion
of the wings does not exceed an inch and a half. The colour of the
surface is brilliant blue, the costa and outer margin of the wings
black, and the disk of each marked with two ferruginous points in the
male. Beneath, the colour is likewise green, richly glossed with golden
yellow, the anterior portion of the under wings transversely streaked
with narrow black marks. The tails are wholly black.

All the examples hitherto brought to Europe seem to be from Surinam.


POLYOMMATUS ACHÆUS.

PLATE XXVII. Figs. 3, 4.

Hisperia R. Achæus, _Fabr._--Pap. Achæus, _Cramer_, Pl. 352, fig. G,
H.--_Herbst. Pap._ Pl. 297, figs. 3, 4.

Nearly the same size as _P. Venus_, and also a native of Surinam. Upper
side dark brown, the superior wings with two oval yellow spots on the
disk of each, and two transverse curved streaks of the same colour
on the inferior, the anal angle with a ferruginous spot. Under side
yellow, with numerous ferruginous patches, each of which is ornamented
with several small spots of golden-yellow, the outer border with a
continuous ferruginous band bearing a series of golden-yellow elongated
spots. Body brown above and yellowish beneath.



GENUS THALIURA.


The genus to which we have assigned the above name has been hitherto
blended with the _Uraniæ_. It is doubtless very closely connected
with these insects; but the differences both in the appearance of the
perfect insects and the respective caterpillars, render it expedient
that they should be separated. The character by which it and _Urania_
are widely separated from all others, is the form of the antennæ,
which are filiform nearly to the middle, where they thicken a little,
and from that gradually narrow to a point. The palpi are lengthened
and slender, having the second joint greatly compressed, the terminal
one more slender, nearly cylindrical, and naked. There is no closed
discoidal cell in any of the wings, and almost all the nervures diverge
from the base. Not many different kinds are known, and, with one
exception, they are natives of America and the West Indian Islands.
Their splendid tints of golden green arranged in transverse bars,
render them perhaps the most chastely beautiful insects that exist,
and has caused them to be named Emerald Butterflies in this country.
Sometimes also they are called _Pages_. They fly so high in the air
and with so much velocity, that it is nearly impossible, Madam Merian
informs us, to catch them, and the only way therefore to obtain good
specimens, is to feed the caterpillar. “Great numbers of this insect,”
says Mr. Swainson, speaking of a species almost the exact counterpart
of _U. Leilus_, “were flying during the whole of the morning, past
_Aqua Fria_ (Pernambuco) in a direction from north to south: not one
deviated from this course, notwithstanding the flowers which were
growing around: they flew against the wind, which blew rather strong,
and near the ground, but mounted over every tree or other high object
which lay in their course; yet their flight was so rapid, that I could
not capture a single specimen. They went singly, and near fifty or
sixty must have passed the spot opposite the window before mid-day:
they continued to pass for three or four days in this manner. 12th June
1817[37].”

The present genus differs from Urania in the perfect insect having
three distinct tails at the hinder extremity of the posterior wings;
neither are these wings so much elongated as in the group just named.
The differences between them in their early states will be seen by
comparing the following descriptions.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 28.

 _Lizars sc._

  _Thaliura Rhipheus._
  Madagascar.]


THALIURA RHIPHEUS.

PLATE XXVIII.

 Pap. E. A. Rhipheus, _Fabr._--Pap. Rhipheus, _Cramer_, Pl. 385, fig.
 A, B.--_Boisduval, Nouvel. Annal. du Museum d’His. Nat._ p. 260, Pl.
 8, fig. 1, 2.

This magnificent species is usually about the size of _Papilio
Machaon_, but sometimes it is a good deal larger. The surface is a
deep, velvet-black; the upper wings with numerous transverse lines
and stripes of beautiful golden-green, and a broad band of the same
colour near the middle deeply cleft anteriorly: this band is likewise
continued across the under wings in the direction of the anal angle,
but a large space on the latter is brilliant coppery-red with a violet
reflection, and marked with four or five black spots; besides this
there is another green band near the external margin, the outer edge as
well as the tails fringed with hairs: the tails are three in number,
that most remote from the anal angle longer than the others. On the
under side of the superior wings the green bands are dilated so as to
occupy greater part of the surface; the same side of the inferior pair
is gilded green at the base and extremity; the whole anal region bright
flame colour inclining to purple, with a changeable lustre, prolonged
to the anterior margin and forming a central band, the whole surface
marked with orbicular black spots, which become larger posteriorly.
Body black, fulvous beneath: antennæ wholly black.

The female is about one-third larger than the male, the anal mark
larger and of a golden colour with little mixture of purple.

“This species,” says M. Boisduval, who first completed the natural
history of this insect by describing its various states and
metamorphoses, “which may be considered as the most beautiful
lepidopteron known, inhabits Madagascar. It has been once taken
in Bourbon, whither the caterpillar had probably been transported
accidentally. According to Cramer it is likewise found on the coast of
Coromandel.

“The caterpillar lives on the _Mangifera Indica_. On first issuing
from the egg, it is nearly smooth and of a greenish tint; after the
first moult it assumes a black colour, becomes covered with spines, and
protrudes at pleasure two rose-coloured retractile horns, placed on
the first segment. Having attained its full size it is rather slender,
dilated laterally towards the middle, and is about two or three inches
long. On each side there is a festoon composed of many irregular bands
of white, green, and yellow points: the horns, which were of a delicate
rose-colour, become carmine-red; the first pair of membraneous legs
becomes very short, almost rudimentary, and are of no use in walking;
when in motion, therefore, it curves the centre of its body upwards
into a loop like the caterpillars of _Geometra_ and _Catocala_. Before
undergoing its metamorphoses, it attaches itself by the tail and a
band round the middle, like the caterpillars of _Papilio_, _Colias_,
_Pieris_, &c., or rather like those of _Geometra pendularia_ and
_Gyraria_.

“The chrysalis is elongated and pointed, scarcely angular, of a green
colour with a transverse gilded band; the extremity, which is of a
deeper green, is sprinkled with a great number of golden points.

“The perfect insect comes out in about three weeks. Exposed to the sun,
it developes itself completely in two or three hours, while individuals
born in the shade take nearly a day to develope themselves, and are
usually less brilliant.”



GENUS URANIA.


As already mentioned, _Urania_ is distinguished from all other
groups, except Thaliura, by the shape of the antennæ, and an obvious
character for separating it from that is the presence of only a single
tail. The palpi are short and project a little beyond the head, the
terminal joint being nearly naked. The tibiæ of the anterior legs
are furnished with spines in the middle; and the claws are minute.
When at rest the anterior wings are kept in a horizontal position,
or but slightly turned upwards, one peculiarity among many others in
which they resemble the nocturnal lepidoptera. We are indebted to
Mr. Macleay for an account of the metamorphoses of a species which
he has named _U. Fernandinæ_, but which is probably synonymous with
some previously known. The caterpillar feeds on a kind of _Omphalea_
which grows abundantly on the sea-coast of Jamaica. It never appears
during the heat of the day, but reposes in a torpid state within a thin
transparent web on the under side of the leaves, in order to avoid
the rays of the sun. Its only time of feeding is during the night.
In its appearance and habits it shows more affinity to the larvæ of
the Bombycidæ than to the diurnal Lepidoptera. When about to change
to a chrysalis it spins an oval cocoon of yellow silk, the meshes of
which are so lax as to allow the inmate to be easily seen. The pupa is
not at all angular. “The perfect butterfly,” he adds, “is perfectly
diurnal, and very swift in its flight. It is not found in the interior
of the island, but it may be seen in plenty as far as two or even three
leagues from the coast, sporting in the sun, and sucking the flowers of
_Cestrum diurnum_, _Ehretia tinifolia_, and other odoriferous trees of
small stature. In hot weather and about mid-day it flies particularly
high, and may be even observed surmounting the tops of the highest
members of the forest. In the afternoon I have often seen it sport
about some capriciously chosen spot, such as a particular branch of
Mango, where it would always return to alight on almost the same leaf,
in a manner that has sometimes reminded me of a well known habit of the
_Musicapæ_. Thus does our insect spend whole hours until sunset, when
the bats usually terminate its diversion and its life. On the approach
of winter it may be seen at times alighting on hedges, when specimens
are more easily captured. The flight, however, of _U. Fernandinæ_ is
always strong, and it starts like the _Fringillidæ_. When it alights
on a leaf, all the four wings are expanded horizontally; and rarely,
if ever, take a vertical position, like those of the species of the
Linnæan genus _Papilio_, when at rest[38].”


URANIA SLOANUS.

PLATE XXIX. Fig. 1.

 _Godart._--Pap. Sloanus, _Cramer_, Pl. 85, fig. E, F.--Pap. Leilius,
 _Var. Fabr._--Leilius Occidentalis, _Swainson, Illus._ Pl. 129.

Expands about two inches and a half or three inches; surface deep
black; the upper wings each with six or seven transverse lines
of golden green, and near the middle a band of that colour bifid
(sometimes trifid) anteriorly. Under wings with a central band of
bright coppery red, irregularly indented, the abdominal margin more
or less gilded green; the tail black with a few emerald green spots.
Design on the under side corresponding to that on the surface, the
green paler. Body black above, with a dorsal line of golden green, and
another on each side; brownish beneath.

This handsome species bears the name of the celebrated Sir Hans Sloane,
the early historian of Jamaica, who figured it in his work (Pl. 239,
fig. 11, 12). It is accounted a rare insect, and, we believe, has
hitherto been found only in the West Indian Islands.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 29.

  _1. Urania Sloanus._ _2. Urania Leilus._
         W. Indies.           Surinam.

 _Lizars sc._]


URANIA LEILUS.

PLATE XXIX. Fig. 2.

 Pap. Leilus, _Linn. Fabr. Cramer_, Pl. 85, fig. C, D; _Merian’s
 Surinam. Ins._ Pl. 29.--Urania Leilus, _Fabr. Syst. Gloss._--Leilus
 Surinamensis, _Swainson. Zool. Illus._ Pl. 125.--Le Page de Cayenne,
 _Daubenton_, Pl. enlum. 71, fig. 1.

Larger than the preceding, frequently expanding four inches. Ground
colour deep velvet black on both sides, the pictorial design on the
upper wings nearly as in _U. Sloanus_, there being eight or nine
slender transverse lines, slightly curved, of beautiful green, with
a silky lustre, and the usual band near the middle sometimes divided
into three or four ramifications as it approaches the costa. A band of
light sericeous green likewise runs across the inferior wings, deeply
indented on both sides, and often quite interrupted by transverse
patches of the ground colour; the tail nearly white; the fringe pure
white. Body thick and robust, especially in the females; black, rayed
with emerald green.

This lovely insect appears to be pretty abundant in Surinam, as great
numbers have been transmitted to this country.

Although the butterfly seems to occur so frequently, we are not aware
that the caterpillar has been noticed by any competent observer since
the time of Madam Merian, at least no notice of it has been published
since. It was long suspected that her figure of it was unworthy of
credit, but from what has been recently observed in relation to the
larvæ of kindred species (particularly that of _T. Rhipheus_), it now
appears probable that her information was correct. Anomalies similar
to those which characterise the perfect insects, likewise attend them
in their previous state. They are covered with spines, as is the case
among many of the _Nymphalidæ_, and they are provided with a retractile
tentaculum as in _Papilio_. In the present instance the spines are
remarkable for their length and rigidity, particularly those on the
anterior and posterior segments.

[Illustration:

  PLATE 30.

  _Rhipheus Dasycephalus._

  From China.

 _Lizars sc._ #/ ]


RHIPHEUS DASYCEPHALUS.

PLATE XXX.

Urania Rhipheus, _Var. Cramer, Godart_.--Rhipheus Dasycephalus,
_Swainson, Zool. Illus._ Pl. 131.

We have copied the accompanying figures from Drury’s work on exotic
insects, in order that they may be compared with those represented
on Plate XXVIII. It will at once be perceived that they present
numerous points of agreement, as well as very obvious differences,
and when every consideration is taken into account, it is not easy
to say whether they ought to be regarded as distinct species, or
merely varieties of the same. Drury states that his insect was brought
from China, and when the drawing was taken, it was in the possession
of Captain May of Hammersmith; in all probability, however, it is
now lost. The antennæ are described as black and knobbed at their
extremities, and the hinder wings are without tails.

On the supposition that Drury’s figures accurately represent the insect
as it appeared when alive, the only connexion which it has with Urania
arises from the similar distribution of colours and neuration of the
wings; in other respects it would be classed with the _Papiliones_.
But this anomaly is certainly a remarkable one, that it should combine
clavate antennæ, with an arrangement of the alary nervures exactly
corresponding to an insect with which in other respects it is so
nearly identical. There being no other example of such a peculiarity,
and the insect figured by Drury never having been found since, we are
naturally led to suspect that he has been, in some way or other, under
error. We have no doubt, however, that his figures afford a faithful
representation of the _specimen_ from which they were taken, as the
drawings were made by Moses Harris, whose accuracy in such matters is
well known. But there seems good reason to believe that the specimen in
question has been originally defective, and that improper means have
been taken to supply its deficiencies. By supposing that the head of
a genuine papilio had been attached, in order to supply the want of
that part in the specimen, and give it the appearance of being complete
(a practice which has often been followed by amateur collectors), we
get rid of the greatest objection to its being considered identical
with _Rhipheus_. The want of the tails is easily accounted for, these
appendages being so brittle when dry, that they are seldom preserved
except in specimens which have received the utmost care. In other
instances Drury has erroneously represented species as destitute of
tails; we recollect in particular _Satyrus Philoctetes_. We mention
these circumstances as affording means by which it is possible to
account for the peculiarities presented by Drury’s figure; but it
is likely that different opinions will be held on the subject. The
following are Mr. Swainson’s observations:--“If the imagination was
taxed to invent, or to concentrate into one figure all that was
splendid, lovely, or rare in the insect world, Nature would far exceed
the poor invention of man by the production of this incomparably
splendid creature; its rarity also is so great, that but one specimen
has ever been seen. It is not, however, on this account only that we
have been induced to copy this figure, but because its illustration
will clear up one of the most intricate and perplexing questions
that has hitherto impeded the natural arrangement of the Linnæan
_Papiliones_, and even of the whole order of the _Lepidoptera_.

“The error of Cramer regarding _Rhipheus_ has already been rectified.
It will now be demonstrated that not only are the two insects distinct
as _species_, but that they actually belong to different _genera_;
Cramers being a _Urania_ of Fabricius and Latreille, while Drury’s is
a _Papilio_ of the same authors. This is proved by the figures, and
confirmed by the following words of Drury :--‘The antennæ are black,
and knobbed at their extremities,’ in other words, clavate; while the
palpi, as expressed in the figure, are so small as not to project
beyond the head, where they lie hid among the frontal hairs; this
also being a typical distinction of the Latreillian _Papiliones_. The
figures in Drury’s work were all drawn and engraved by Moses Harris,
well known as one of the most accurate artists that ever lived; as a
remarkable proof of this, we find that he has not failed to delineate
that peculiar neuration of the anterior wings which belongs only to
the types of _Leilus_. A closer affinity therefore between _Papilio_
and _Leilus_ cannot possibly be imagined; while its remarkable hairy
front points out its analogy, as an aberrant type in its own genus,
to _Chlorisses_ among insects, and _Dasycephala_ among birds. So true
it is that the natural system ‘illuminates with a flood of light’
every supposed anomaly, and reconciles facts apparently the most
inexplicable[39].”


FINIS.


FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: See his _eloge_ on Lamarck, of which a translation will
be found in the Thirty-ninth Number of the Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal. To this memoir we have been chiefly indebted for the
particulars of Lamarck’s life.]

[Footnote 2: Memoir on the substance of fire, considered as a chemical
agent in analysis.--_Journal de Physique, Floreal, An._ vii.]

[Footnote 3: Memoir on the substance of sound.--_Journal de Physique,
16 & 26 Brumaire, An._ vii.]

[Footnote 4: _Animaux sans vertébres_, vol. i. p. 188, 189.]

[Footnote 5: _Animaux sans Vertébres_, vol. i. p. 197, 198.]

[Footnote 6: _Ib._ p. 199.]

[Footnote 7: Ann. du Museum d’Hist. Nat., tom. i. p. 234.]

[Footnote 8: Lyell’s Principles of Geology, ii. p. 31.]

[Footnote 9: Principles of Geology, ii. p. 8.]

[Footnote 10: This subject will be found to be discussed at
considerable length, and in a very satisfactory manner, in the second
volume of Mr. Lyell’s Principles of Geology, p. 1-65.]

[Footnote 11: _Animaux sans Vertébres_, i. p. 260.]

[Footnote 12: _Ibid._ 258, _N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ xvi. Art.
_Intelligence_.]

[Footnote 13: _Kirby’s Bridge. Treat. Intro._ p. xxxii.]

[Footnote 14: N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxii. Art. _Nature_, 377; _Anim.
sans Vert._ i. p. 317.]

[Footnote 15: _Anim. sans Vert._ i. p. 316.]

[Footnote 16: _Anim. sans Vert._, vol. i. 322.]

[Footnote 17: On the Influence of the Moon on the Earth’s Atmosphere;
_Journal de Physique_, Prairial, an. vi. Most of Lamarck’s other essays
on Meteorology will be found in the periodical just named.]

[Footnote 18: The most recent and probably the best edition of the
_Animaux sans Vertébres_, is in eight volumes octavo, augmented with
notes by M. M. Deshages and Milne Edwards.]

[Footnote 19: _Animaux sans Vertébres_, i. 381.]

[Footnote 20: Horæ Entomologicæ, p. 213.]

[Footnote 21: Cuvier conceives that the basin of Paris contains a
greater accumulation of fossil shells than any other place of equal
extent. At Grignon, no fewer than six hundred different species have
been collected in a space not exceeding a few square toises.]

[Footnote 22: See Boisduval, Nouv. Ann. du Museum, vol. ii.]

[Footnote 23: Benett’s Wanderings, &c. i. p. 265.]

[Footnote 24: Bridg. Treat. ii. 350.]

[Footnote 25: Horsfield’s Catal. of the Lepidopterous Insects of Java,
Intro. p. 9.]

[Footnote 26: This work extends to fourteen volumes (the last published
in 1833), and three supplementary ones are in course of preparation.]

[Footnote 27: Species général des Lépidoptères, p. 158.]

[Footnote 28: _Voyage de l’Astrolabe, Ent._, pl. 4, fig. 1 and 2.]

[Footnote 29: Species général des Lépidoptères, vol. i. p. 184.]

[Footnote 30: Encyclop. Methodique, Art. _Papillon_, p. 67. No. 116.]

[Footnote 31: Descrip. Catal. of Lepid. of Indian Company, pl. i. fig.
14.]

[Footnote 32: Species général des Lepidoptères, i. p. 435.]

[Footnote 33: Wilson’s Illust. of Zoology, fol. 27.]

[Footnote 34: On the Plate the under figure should have been marked 1,
the upper 2.]

[Footnote 35: Supp. to Cramer, p. 10, 11.]

[Footnote 36: Owing to the resemblance which this species bears to _H.
Cupido_, the latter name has been inadvertently attached to the figure
on the adjoining Plate.]

[Footnote 37: Zoological Illustrations, 126.]

[Footnote 38: Trans. of Zool. Society of London, i. p. 187.]

[Footnote 39: Zoological Illustrations, 2d series, 131.]


[Transcriber’s Note:

Obvious printer errors corrected silently.

Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.]





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