Title: A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer
Author: Wilhelm, Thomas
Language: English
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  Transcriber’s Notes

  Text in italics has been transcribed between _underscores_, bold text
  between =equal signs= and underlined text between ~tildes~. Small
  capitals have been changed to ALL CAPITALS. ^{text} and _{text}
  represent super- and subscript text, respectively.

  More Transcriber’s Notes can be found at the end of the text.



  A
  MILITARY DICTIONARY
  AND
  GAZETTEER.

  COMPRISING

  ANCIENT AND MODERN MILITARY TECHNICAL TERMS, HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS
  OF ALL NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, AS WELL AS ANCIENT WARLIKE
  TRIBES; ALSO NOTICES OF BATTLES FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD
  TO THE PRESENT TIME, WITH A CONCISE EXPLANATION OF
  TERMS USED IN HERALDRY AND THE OFFICES THEREOF.

  THE WORK ALSO GIVES VALUABLE GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION.

  COMPILED FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES OF ALL NATIONS.

  WITH AN APPENDIX CONTAINING THE ARTICLES OF WAR, ETC.


  BY
  THOMAS WILHELM,
  CAPTAIN EIGHTH INFANTRY.

  REVISED EDITION.

  PHILADELPHIA:
  L. R. HAMERSLY & CO.
  1881.


  Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by
  THOMAS WILHELM, U.S.A.,
  In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.


  TO
  BREVET MAJOR-GENERAL AUGUST V. KAUTZ,
  COLONEL EIGHTH REGIMENT OF INFANTRY, U.S.A.,

  BY WHOSE SUGGESTIONS, ENCOURAGEMENT, AND AID THE WORK WAS UNDERTAKEN,
  PERSEVERED IN, AND COMPLETED,

  THIS COMPILATION
  IS, WITH RESPECT AND GRATITUDE, DEDICATED
  BY HIS OBEDIENT SERVANT,
  THE COMPILER.



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.


It is with no small degree of relief that the compiler of this work now
turns from a self-imposed task, involving some years of the closest
application, to write a brief preface, not as a necessity, but in
justice to the work and the numerous friends who have taken the warmest
interest in its progress and final completion.

It is inevitable that in the vast amount of patient and persistent labor
in a work of this kind, extending to 1386 pages, and containing 17,257
distinct articles, there should be a few errors, oversights, and
inconsistencies, notwithstanding all the vigilance to the contrary.

Condensation has been accomplished where it was possible to do so, and
repetition avoided to a great extent by reference, where further
information was contained in other articles of this book.

The contributions to the Regimental Library, which afforded the
opportunity for this compilation, of standard foreign works, were of
infinite value, and many thanks are tendered for them.

To G. & C. MERRIAM, Publishers, for the use of Webster’s Unabridged
Dictionary; J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., Publishers, Philadelphia; D. VAN
NOSTRAND, Publisher, New York; Maj. WILLIAM A. MARYE, Ordnance
Department, U.S.A.; Maj. W. S. WORTH, Eighth Infantry, U.S.A.; Maj. D.
T. WELLS, Eighth Infantry, U.S.A.; Lieut. F. A. WHITNEY, Adjutant Eighth
Infantry, U.S.A.; Lieut. C. A. L. TOTTEN, Fourth Artillery, U.S.A.;
Lieut. C. M. BAILY, Quartermaster Eighth Infantry, U.S.A.; and Lieut. G.
P. SCRIVEN, Third Artillery, U.S.A., the compiler is indebted for
courteous assistance in the preparation of this volume.

  OCTOBER, 1879.



PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.


In submitting this volume to the public it is deemed proper to say that
the design of the work is to bring together into one series, and in as
compact a form as possible for ready reference, such information as the
student of the science and art of war, persons interested in the local
or reserve forces, libraries, as well as the editors of the daily press,
should possess. In short, it is believed that the work will be useful to
individuals of all ranks and conditions.

The compiler has labored under some disadvantages in obtaining the
necessary information for this volume, and much is due to the
encouragement and assistance received from accomplished and eminent
officers, through which he was enabled to undertake the revision of the
first issue of this work with greater assurance; and among the officers
referred to, Lieut. WILLIAM R. QUINAN, of the Fourth Artillery, U.S.A.,
deserves especially to be mentioned. It may not be out of place here to
state that the compiler takes no credit to himself beyond the labor
contributed in the several years of research, and bringing forward to
date the matter requiring it, with such changes as the advance of time
and improvements demand.

As it was thought best to make this work purely military, all naval
references which appeared in the first edition have been eliminated.

  MAY, 1881.



AUTHORITIES CONSULTED IN THE COMPILATION OF THIS WORK.


ENGLISH AND AMERICAN WORKS.

  A HANDY DICTIONARY OF MILITARY TERMS--Knollys.

  AIDE MEMOIRE TO THE MILITARY SCIENCES--Originally edited by a
  Committee of the Royal Engineers in England (Revised and Enlarged).

  ANALYTICAL DIGEST OF THE MILITARY LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES--Scott.

  A TREATISE ON THE LAW OF EVIDENCE--Greenleaf.

  BEETON’S DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY.

  BEETON’S DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY.

  CHAMBERS’S ENCYCLOPÆDIA.

  CUSTOMS OF SERVICE FOR NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS OF THE
  ARMY--Kautz.

  CUSTOMS OF SERVICE FOR OFFICERS OF THE ARMY--Kautz.

  CLASSICAL DICTIONARY--Smith.

  DIGEST OF OPINIONS OF THE JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL--Winthrop.

  DICTIONARY OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY--Gardner.

  DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES--Smith.

  DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY--Smith.

  DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPHY--Smith.

  DICTIONARY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND MINES--Ure.

  DICTIONARY OF EVERY DAYS DIFFICULTIES--Shilton.

  DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART--Brande.

  ELEMENTS OF THE ART AND SCIENCE OF WAR--Wheeler.

  ELEMENTS OF MILITARY ARTS AND SCIENCES--Halleck.

  ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA.

  FRENCH AND ENGLISH PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY--Spiers and Surenne.

  FIELD EXERCISE (English), 1870.

  FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION--Lossing.

  HAND-BOOK OF ARTILLERY--Roberts.

  HAYDN’S DICTIONARY OF DATES--Payne.

  HAYDN’S DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE--Payne.

  HAYDN’S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE--Payne.

  HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES--Bancroft.

  HISTORY OF THE WAR IN THE PENINSULA AND IN THE SOUTH OF
  FRANCE--Napier.

  HISTORY OF ENGLAND--Knight.

  HISTORY OF THE REBELLION--Tenney.

  INFANTRY, CAVALRY, AND ARTILLERY TACTICS, U.S.A.

  INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIELD ARTILLERY.

  JOMINI’S ART OF WAR--Translated from the French by Captains Mendell
  and Craighill, U.S.A.

  JOMINI’S TREATISE ON GRAND MILITARY OPERATIONS, OR A CRITICAL AND
  MILITARY HISTORY OF THE WARS OF FREDERICK THE GREAT--Translated by
  Colonel S. B. Holabird, U.S.A.

  JOHNSON’S NEW UNIVERSAL ENCYCLOPÆDIA.

  JUDGE-ADVOCATE AND RECORDER’S GUIDE--Regan.

  LAW DICTIONARY--Bouvier.

  LIPPINCOTT’S PRONOUNCING GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD--Thomas.

  MANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS--Duane.

  MAXIMS OF WAR--Napoleon.

  MILITARY BRIDGES--Haupt.

  MILITARY CATECHISM AND HAND-BOOK--Walshe.

  MILITARY DICTIONARY--Duane.

  MILITARY DICTIONARY--Scott.

  MILITARY ENGINEERING--Mahan.

  MILITARY LAW AND COURT-MARTIAL--Benet.

  MILITARY MISCELLANY--Marshall.

  MILITARY SCHOOLS AND COURSES OF INSTRUCTION IN THE SCIENCE AND ART OF
  WAR--Barnard.

  NATIVE RACES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE--Bancroft.

  NAVAL AND MILITARY TECHNICAL DICTIONARY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE--Burns.

  ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY--Benton.

  PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE WAR OF 1812--Lossing.

  PRACTICAL TREATISE ON ATTACK AND DEFENSE--Jebb.

  QUEEN’S REGULATIONS AND ORDERS FOR THE ARMY (British).

  REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, 1870.

  REPORT OF THE CHIEF OF ORDNANCE, 1878.

  SHIFTS AND EXPEDIENTS OF CAMP-LIFE--Lord and Baines.

  THE ARMIES OF EUROPE--McClellan.

  THE LAST CENTURY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 1767-1867--Fiwald.

  THE MILITARY LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES--Callan.

  THE SOLDIER’S POCKET-BOOK FOR FIELD-SERVICE--Major-General Sir G.
  Wolseley.

  UNITED STATES ARMY REGULATIONS.

  UNITED STATES BRIDGE EQUIPAGE--Prepared by a Board of Engineer
  Officers--Lieutenant W. R. Quinan, 4th U. S. Artillery.

  UNITED STATES REVISED STATUTES.

  WEBSTER’S DICTIONARY--G. & C. Merriam.


GERMAN WORKS.

  DIENST-VORSCHRIFTEN DER KÖNIGLICH PREUSSISCHEN ARMEE--Karl von
  Helldorff.

  DIE LEHRE VOM NEUEREN FESTUNGSKRIEG--W. Rüstow.

  GRUNDZÜGE DER TAKTIK DER DREI WAFFEN, INFANTERIE, KAVALLERIE, UND
  ARTILLERIE--Dr. H. v. Brandt.

  HEERWESEN UND INFANTERIEDIENST DER KÖNIGLICH PREUSSISCHEN ARMEE--A. v.
  Witzleben.

  KRIEGSFEUERWERKEREI ZUM GEBRAUCH FÜR DIE KÖNIGLICH PREUSSISCHEN
  ARTILLERIE--A. Bath.

  KRIEGSWÖRTERBUCH--Carl Ad. Loehr.

  MILITAIR CONVERSATIONS-LEXIKON--Hans Eggert Willibald von der Lühe.


FRENCH WORKS.

  ENCYCLOPÉDIE MILITAIRE ET MARITIME.

  GÉOGRAPHIE PHISIQUE, HISTORIQUE ET MILITAIRE--Théophile Lava.

  LÉGISLATION ET ADMINISTRATION MILITAIRES--M. Léon Guillot.

  SUR LA FORMATION DES TROUPES POUR LE COMBAT--Jomini.



IMPORTANT MAXIMS.


Misfortune will certainly fall upon the land where the wealth of the
tax-gatherer or the greedy gambler in stocks stands, in public
estimation, above the uniform of the brave man who sacrifices his life,
health, or fortune in the defense of his country.

Officers should feel a conviction that resignation, bravery, and
faithful attention to duty are virtues without which no glory is
possible, no army is respectable, and that firmness amid reverses is
more honorable than enthusiasm in success.

It is not well to create a too great contempt for the enemy, lest the
_morale_ of the soldier should be shaken if he encounter an obstinate
resistance.

It would seem to be easy to convince brave men that death comes more
surely to those who fly in disorder than to those who remain together
and present a firm front to the enemy, or who rally promptly when their
lines have been for the instant broken.

Courage should be recompensed and honored, the different grades in rank
respected, and discipline should exist in the sentiments and convictions
rather than in external forms only.--_Jomini._

An army without discipline is but a mob in uniform, more dangerous to
itself than to its enemy. Should any one from ignorance not perceive the
immense advantages that arise from a good discipline, it will be
sufficient to observe the alterations that have happened in Europe since
the year 1700.--_Saxe._

If the first duty of a state is its own security, the second is the
security of neighboring states whose existence is necessary for its own
preservation.--_Jomini’s “Life of Napoleon.”_

A good general, a well-organized system, good instruction, and severe
discipline, aided by effective establishments, will always make good
troops, independently of the cause for which they fight. At the same
time, a love of country, a spirit of enthusiasm, a sense of national
honor, will operate upon young soldiers with advantage.

The officer who obeys, whatever may be the nature or extent of his
command, will always stand excused executing implicitly the orders which
have been given to him.

Every means should be taken to attach the soldier to his colors. This is
best accomplished by showing consideration and respect to the old
soldier.

The first qualification of a soldier is fortitude under fatigue and
privation. Courage is only the second; hardship, poverty, and want are
the best schools for a soldier.

Troops, whether halted, or encamped, or on the march, should be always
in favorable position, possessing the essentials required for a field of
battle.

Some men are so physically and morally constituted as to see everything
through a highly-colored medium. They raise up a picture in the mind on
every slight occasion, and give to every trivial occurrence a dramatic
interest. But whatever knowledge, or talent, or courage, or other
good qualities such men may possess, nature has not formed them
for the command of armies or the direction of great military
operations.--_Napoleon’s “Maxims of War.”_



MILITARY DICTIONARY.



A.


=Aachen.= See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.

=Aar.= A river in Switzerland, flows into the Rhine opposite and near
Waldshut, in Aargau. Prince Charles, while crossing the river, August
17, 1799, was repulsed by the French generals Ney and Heudelet.

=Aarau.= A city in Switzerland. Peace was here declared, July 18, 1712,
ending the war between the cantons Zurich and Berne on one side, and
Luzerne, Uri, Schuyz, Unterwalden, and Zug on the other.

=Abad= (_Abadides_). A line of Moorish kings who reigned in Seville from
1026 to 1090.

=Abaisse.= In heraldry, when the fesse or any other armorial figure is
depressed, or situated below the centre of the shield, it is said to be
_abaisse_ (“lowered”).

=Abandon.= In a military sense, used in the relinquishment of a military
post, district, or station, or the breaking up of a military
establishment. To abandon any fort, post, guard, arms, ammunition, or
colors without good cause is punishable.

=Abase, To.= An old word signifying to lower a flag. _Abaisser_ is in
use in the French marine, and both may be derived from the still older
_abeigh_, to cast down, to humble.

=Abatement.= In heraldry, is a mark placed over a portion of the
paternal coat of arms, indicating some base or ungentlemanly act on the
part of the bearer.

=Abatis=, or =Abattis=. A means of defense formed by cutting off the
smaller branches of trees felled in the direction from which the enemy
may be expected. The ends of the larger branches are sharpened and the
butts of the limbs or trees fastened by crochet picket, or by imbedding
in the earth, so that they cannot be easily removed. Abatis is generally
used in parts of a ditch or intrenchment to delay the enemy under fire.

=Abblast.= See ARBALEST.

=Abblaster.= See ARBALIST.

=Abdivtes.= A piratical people descended from the Saracens, who lived
south of Mount Ida (Psilorati), in the island of Crete (Candia), where
they established themselves in 825.

=Abduction= (_Fr._). Diminution; diminishing the front of a line or
column by breaking off a division, subdivision, or files, in order to
avoid some obstacle.

=Abencerrages.= A Moorish tribe which occupied the kingdom of Granada.
Granada was disturbed by incessant quarrels between this tribe and the
Zegris from 1480 to 1492. They were finally extinguished by
Abou-Abdoullah, or Boabdil, the last Moorish king of Granada, and the
same who was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492.

=Abensburg.= A small town of Bavaria, on the Abens, 18 miles southwest
of Ratisbon. Here Napoleon defeated the Austrians, April 20, 1809.

=Aberconway=, or =Conway=. A maritime city of the Gauls in England,
fortified by William the Conqueror, and taken by Cromwell in 1645.

=Abet.= In a military sense it is a grave crime to aid or abet in mutiny
or sedition, or excite resistance against lawful orders.

=Abgersate.= Fortress of the Osrhoene, in Mesopotamia. The Persians took
it by assault in the year 534.

=Abii.= A Scythian tribe which inhabited the shores of the Jaxartes, to
the northeast of Sogdiana. They were vanquished by Alexander the Great.

=Abipones.= A tribe of Indians living in the Argentine Confederation,
who were formerly numerous and powerful, but are now reduced to a small
number.

=Able-bodied.= In a military sense applies to one who is physically
competent as a soldier.

=Ablecti.= Ancient military term applied to a select body of men taken
from the _extraordinarii_ of the Roman army to serve as a body-guard to
the commanding general or the consul. The guard consisted of 40 mounted
and 160 dismounted men.

=Abo.= A Russian city and seaport, on the Aurajoki near its entrance
into the Gulf of Bothnia. It formerly belonged to Sweden, but was taken
with the whole of Finland by the Russians in the war begun by Sweden in
1741. By a treaty of peace concluded hero in 1743 the conquered
possessions were restored to Sweden. They were ceded to Russia in 1809.

=Abolla.= A warm kind of military garment, lined or doubled, worn by
both Greeks and Romans.

=Abou-girgeh.= A city of Upper Egypt where the French defeated the
Egyptians in 1799.

=Aboukir= (anc. _Canopus_). A village of Egypt on a promontory at the
western extremity of the bay of the same name, 15 miles northeast of
Alexandria. In the bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, August 1, 1798.
This engagement, which resulted in a loss to the French of 11
line-of-battle ships, is known as the “battle of the Nile.” In 1801 a
British expedition under Sir Ralph Abercromby landed at Aboukir, and
captured the place after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the
French (March 8). Here also a Turkish army of 15,000 men was defeated by
5000 French under Bonaparte, July 25, 1799.

=Aboumand.= Village of Upper Egypt, near the river Nile, where the
French fought the Arabs in 1799.

=About.= A technical word to express the movement by which a body of
troops or artillery carriages change front.

=Abraham, Heights of.= Near Quebec, Lower Canada. In the memorable
engagement which took place here September 13, 1759, the French under
Gen. Montcalm were defeated by the English under Gen. Wolfe, who was
killed in the moment of victory.

=Abri= (_Fr._). Shelter, cover, concealment; arm-sheds in a camp secure
from rain, dust, etc.; place of security from the effect of shot,
shells, or attack.

=Absence, Leave of.= The permission which officers of the army obtain to
absent themselves from duty. In the U. S. service an officer is entitled
to 30 days’ leave in each year on full pay. This time he may permit to
accumulate for a period not exceeding 4 years. An officer, however, may
enjoy 5 months’ continuous leave on full pay, provided the fifth month
of such leave is wholly distinct from the four-year period within and
for which the 4 months’ absence with full pay was enjoyed. An officer on
leave over this time is entitled to half-pay only.

=Absent.= A term used in military returns in accounting for the
deficiency of any given number of officers or soldiers, and is usually
distinguished under two heads, viz.: _Absent with leave_, such as
officers with permission, or enlisted men on furlough. _Absent without
leave_; men who desert are sometimes reported _absent without leave_, to
bring their crimes under cognizance of regimental, garrison, or
field-officers’ courts; thus, under mitigating circumstances, trial by
general court-martial is avoided. Absence without leave entails
forfeiture of pay during such absence, unless it is excused as
unavoidable. An officer absent without leave for three months may be
dropped from the rolls of the army by the President, and is not eligible
to reappointment.

=Absolute Force of Gunpowder.= Is measured by the pressure it exerts on
its environment when it exactly fills the space in which it is fired.
Various attempts have been made to determine this force experimentally
with widely different results. Robins estimated the pressure on the
square inch at 1000 atmospheres, Hutton at 1800, and Count Rumford as
high as 100,000 atmospheres. While Rodman, by experiments upon strong
cast-iron shells, verified the accuracy of Rumford’s _formulas_, he
found that his estimate of the force was greatly in error. According to
Rodman the pressure is approximately 14,000 atmospheres. Dr. Woodbridge,
another American philosopher and inventor, has shown that, fired in
small quantities, the force of gunpowder does not exceed 6200
atmospheres. This agrees closely with the conclusion arrived at by the
English “Committee on Explosives,” 1875, who found that even in large
guns the force did not exceed 42 tons.

=Absorokas.= A tribe of North American Indians. See CROWS.

=Absterdam Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Abydus.= An ancient city of Mysia on the Hellespont nearly opposite
Sestus on the European shore. Near this town Xerxes placed the bridge of
boats by which his troops were conveyed across the channel to the town
of Sestus, 480 B.C.

=Abyssinia.= A country of Eastern Africa, forming an elevated table-land
and containing many fertile valleys. Theodore II., the king of this
country, having maltreated and imprisoned some English subjects, an
expedition under Lord Napier was sent against him from Bombay in 1867.
On April 14, 1868, the mountain fortress of Magdala was stormed and
taken with but little trouble, and Theodore was found dead on the hill,
having killed himself. The country is at present governed by Emperor
John of Ethiopia, who was crowned in 1872.

=Academies, Military.= See MILITARY ACADEMIES.

=Accelerator.= A cannon in which several charges are successively fired
to give an increasing velocity to the projectile while moving in the
bore. See MULTI-CHARGE GUN.

=Accessible.= Easy of access or approach. A place or fort is said to be
accessible when it can be approached with a hostile force by land or
sea.

=Accintus.= A word in ancient times signifying the complete
accoutrements of a soldier.

=Accolade.= The ceremonious act of conferring knighthood in ancient
times. It consisted of an embrace and gentle blow with the sword on the
shoulder of the person on whom the honor of knighthood was being
conferred.

=Accord.= The conditions under which a fortress or command of troops is
surrendered.

=Accoutre.= To furnish with accoutrements.

=Accoutrements.= Dress, equipage, trappings. Specifically, the
equipments of a soldier, except arms and clothing.

=Accused.= In a military sense, the designation of one who is arraigned
before a military court.

=Acerræ= (now _Acera_). A city in the kingdom of Naples, taken and
burned by Hannibal in 216 B.C. In 90 B.C. the Romans defeated under its
walls the allied rebels commanded by Papius.

=Acerræ.= A city of the Gauls, taken by Marcellus in 222 B.C.

=Achæan League.= A confederacy which existed from very early times among
the twelve states of the province of Achaia, in the north of the
Peloponnesus. It was broken up after the death of Alexander the Great,
but was set on foot again by some of the original cities, 280 B.C., the
epoch of its rise into great historical importance; for from this time
it gained strength, and finally spread over the whole Peloponnesus,
though not without much opposition, principally on the part of
Lacedæmon. It was finally dissolved by the Romans, on the event of the
capture of Corinth by Mummius, 147 B.C. The two most celebrated leaders
of this league were Aratus, the principal instrument of its early
aggrandizement, and Philopœmen, the contemporary and rival, in military
reputation, of Scipio and Hannibal.

=Achern.= A city in the grand duchy of Baden, on the river Acher. Near
this place a monument marks the spot where Marshal Turenne was killed by
a random shot in 1675.

=Acheron.= A small stream in ancient Bruttium. In 330 B.C., Alexander,
king of Epirus, was killed while crossing it.

=Acinaces.= A short sword used by the Persians.

=Aclides.= In Roman antiquity, a kind of missile weapon with a thong
fixed to it whereby it might be drawn back again.

=Acoluthi.= In military antiquity, was a title given in the Grecian
empire to the captain or commander of the body-guards appointed for the
security of the emperor’s palace.

=Aconite.= A poisonous plant. Several ancient races poisoned their
arrows with an extract from this plant.

=Acontium.= In Grecian antiquity, a kind of dart or javelin resembling
the Roman _spiculum_.

=Acquereaux= (_Fr._). A machine of war, which was used in the Middle
Ages to throw stones.

=Acqui.= A walled town of the Sardinian states on the river Bormida in
the division of Alessandria. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1745,
retaken by the Piedmontese in 1746; it was dismantled by the French, who
defeated the Austrians and Piedmontese here in 1794.

=Acquit.= To release or set free from an obligation, accusation, guilt,
censure, suspicion, or whatever devolves upon a person as a charge or
duty; as, the court acquits the accused. This word has also the
reflexive signification of “to bear, or conduct one’s self;” as, the
soldier acquitted himself well in battle.

=Acquittance Roll.= In the British service, a roll containing the names
of the men of each troop or company or regiment, showing the debts and
credits, with the signature of each man, and certificate of the officer
commanding it.

=Acre=, or =St. Jean d’Acre=. A seaport town of Palestine (in ancient
times the celebrated city of Ptolemais), which was the scene of many
sieges. It was last stormed and taken by the British in 1840. Acre was
gallantly defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bonaparte in July, 1798,
till relieved by Sir Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French,
between March 16 and May 20, 1799.

=Acre=, or =Acre-fight=. An old duel fought by warriors between the
frontiers of England and Scotland, with sword and lance. This dueling
was also called _camp-fight_.

=Acrobalistes= (_Fr._). A name given by the ancients to warlike races,
such as the Parthians and Armenians, who shot arrows from a long
distance.

=Acropolis.= In ancient Greece, the name given to the citadel or
fortress of a city, usually built on the summit of a hill. The most
celebrated was that of Athens, remains of which still exist.

=Acs.= A village in Hungary on the right bank of the Danube, noted as
the scene of several battles in the Hungarian revolution, that of August
3, 1849, being the most important.

=Acting Assistant Surgeons.= See SURGEONS, ACTING ASSISTANT.

=Action.= An engagement between two armies, or bodies of troops. The
word is likewise used to signify some memorable act done by an officer,
soldier, detachment, or party.

=Actium= (now _Azio_). A town of ancient Greece in Arcanania, near the
entrance of the Ambracian Gulf. It became famous for the great naval
engagement fought near here in 31 B.C. between Octavius and Antony, in
which the former was victorious.

=Active Service.= Duty against an enemy; operations in his presence. Or
in the present day it denotes serving on full pay, on the active list,
in contradistinction to those who are virtually retired, and placed on
the retired list.

=Activity.= In a military sense, denotes attention, labor, diligence,
and study.

=Acto=, or =Acton=. A kind of defensive tunic, made of quilted leather
or other strong material, formerly worn under the outer dress and even
under a coat of mail.

=Act of Grace.= In Great Britain, an act of Parliament for a general and
free pardon to deserters from the service and others.

=Actuarius.= A name given by the Romans to officers charged with the
supplying of provisions to troops.

=Adacted.= Applies to stakes, or piles, driven into the earth by large
malls shod with iron, as in securing ramparts or pontons.

=Adda.= A stream in Italy. The Romans defeated the Gauls on its banks in
223 B.C.

=Addiscombe Seminary.= An institution near Croydon, Surrey, England, for
the education of young gentlemen intended for the military service of
the East India Company; closed in 1861.

=Aden.= A free port on the southwest corner of Arabia. It was captured
by England in 1839, and is now used as a coal depot for Indian steamers.

=Aderbaidjan= (_Fr._). A mountainous province of Persia, celebrated for
raising the finest horses in the province for army purposes.

=Adige= (anc. _Athesis_). A river in Northern Italy formed by numberless
streamlets from the Helvetian Alps. In 563 the Romans defeated the Goths
and Franks on its banks. Gen. Massena crossed it in 1806.

=Adis.= A city in Africa. Xantippe, chief of the Carthaginians, defeated
under its walls the Romans commanded by Regulus.

=Adit.= A passage under ground by which miners approach the part they
intend to sap.

=Adjeighur.= A fortress in Bundelcund, which was captured in 1809 by a
force under the command of Col. Gabriel Martindell.

=Adjourn.= To suspend business for a time, as from one day to another;
said of military courts. _Adjournment without day_ (_sine die_),
indefinite postponement.

=Adjutant= (from _adjuvo_, “to help”). A regimental staff-officer with
the rank of lieutenant, appointed by the regimental commander to assist
him in the execution of all the details of the regiment or post. He is
the channel of official communication. It is his duty to attend daily on
the commanding officer for orders or instructions of any kind that are
to be issued to the command, and promulgate the same in writing after
making a complete record thereof. He has charge of the books, files, and
men of the headquarters; keeps the rosters; parades and inspects all
escorts, guards, and other armed parties previous to their proceeding on
duty. He should be competent to instruct a regiment in every part of the
field exercise, should understand the internal economy of his corps, and
should notice every irregularity or deviation from the established rules
or regulations. He should, of course, be an officer of experience, and
should be selected with reference to special fitness, as so much depends
upon his manner and thoughtfulness in the exercise of the various and
important duties imposed upon him. Unexceptionable deportment is
especially becoming to the adjutant.

=Adjutant-General.= An officer of distinction selected to assist the
general of an army in all his operations. The principal staff-officer
of the U. S. army. The principal staff-officers of generals of lower
rank are called assistant adjutant-generals.

=Adjutant-General’s Department.= In the United States, consists of 1
adjutant-general with the rank of brigadier-general; 2 assistant
adjutant-generals, colonels; 4 lieutenant-colonels, and 10 majors; also
about 400 enlisted clerks and messengers. The officers are generally on
duty with general officers who command corps, divisions, departments,
etc. “They shall also perform the duties of inspectors when
circumstances require it.” The lowest grades must be selected from the
captains of the army.

=Administration.= Conduct, management; in military affairs, the
execution of the duties of an office.

=Administration, Council of.= A board of officers periodically assembled
at a post for the administration of certain business.

=Admissions.= In a military sense, the judge-advocate is authorized when
he sees proper to admit what a prisoner expects to prove by absent
witnesses.

=Adobe= (_Sp._). An unburnt brick, dried in the sun, made from earth of
a loamy character, containing about two-thirds fine sand mixed
intimately with one-third or less of clayey dust or fine sand.

=Adour.= A river in the southwest of France, which Lord Wellington,
after driving the armies of Napoleon Bonaparte across the Pyrenees,
passed in the face of all opposition, on the 26th of February, 1814.

=Adrana.= A river in Germany, at present called Eder. Germanicus
defeated the Germans on its bank in 15.

=Adrianople.= A Turkish city named after the Emperor Adrian;
unsuccessfully besieged by the Goths in the 4th century; the army of
Murad I. took the city in 1361; unconditionally surrendered to the
Russians in August, 1829; peace was declared in this city between Russia
and Turkey, September 14, 1829, and the city relinquished to the Turks.

=Adrumetum=, or =Hadrumetum=. An ancient African city, now in ruins,
situated on the Mediterranean, southeast from Carthage. The Moors took
this city from the Romans in 549, but it was retaken soon after by a
priest named Paul.

=Advance.= Before in place, or beforehand in time; used for advanced;
as, advance-guard, or that before the main guard or body of an army; to
move forward.

=Advanced Covered Way.= Is a _terre plein_ on the exterior of the
advanced ditch, similar to the first covered way.

=Advanced Ditch.= Is an excavation beyond the glacis of the _enceinte_,
having its surface on the prolongation of that slope, that an enemy may
find no shelter when in the ditch.

=Advanced Guard.= A detachment of troops which precedes the march of the
main body.

=Advanced Guard Equipage.= See PONTONS.

=Advanced Lunettes.= Works resembling bastions or ravelins, having faces
or flanks. They are formed upon or beyond the glacis.

=Advanced Works.= Are such as are constructed beyond the covered way and
glacis, but within range of the musketry of the main works.

=Advancement.= In a military sense, signifies honor, promotion, or
preferment in the army, regiment, or company.

=Advantage Ground.= That ground which affords the greatest facility for
annoyance or resistance.

=Adversary.= Generally applied to an enemy, but strictly an opponent in
single combat.

=Advising to Desert.= Punishable with death or otherwise, as a
court-martial may direct. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 51.

=Advocate, Judge-.= See JUDGE-ADVOCATE.

=Adynati.= Ancient name for invalid soldiers receiving pension from the
public treasury.

=Ægide= (_Æges_). A name, according to Homer, for a protecting covering
wound around the left arm in the absence of a shield; used by Jupiter,
Minerva, and Apollo.

=Ægolethron= (_Gr._). A plant. This word means goat and death. It was
believed by the ancients that this plant would kill goats only, if eaten
by them. Xenophon reports that the soldiers of the army of the “Ten
Thousand” tasted of some honey prepared from this plant which caused
them to be affected with hallucinations.

=Ægospotamos= (“Stream of the Goat”). A small river flowing into the
Hellespont, in the Thracian Chersonese; is famous for the defeat of the
Athenian fleet by the Lacedæmonians under Lysander, which put an end to
the Peloponnesian war, and to the predominance of Athens in Greece, 405
B.C.

=Æneatores.= In military antiquity, the musicians in an army, including
those who sounded the trumpets, horns, etc.

=Ærarium Militare.= In Roman antiquity, the war treasury of Rome,
founded by Augustus; in addition to other revenues, the one-hundredth
part of all merchandise sold in Rome was paid into it.

=Æro.= A basket used by the Roman soldiers to carry earth in to
construct fortifications.

=Ærumnula.= A wooden pole or fork, introduced among the Romans by Consul
Marius. Each soldier was provided with one of these poles, which had
attached thereto a saw, hatchet, a sack of wheat, and baggage; and he
was compelled to carry it on a march.

=Affair.= An action or engagement, not of sufficient magnitude to be
termed a battle.

=Affamer= (_Fr._). To besiege a place so closely as to starve the
garrison and inhabitants.

=Affidavit.= In military law is an oath duly subscribed before any
person authorized to administer it. In the U. S. service, in the absence
of a civil officer any commissioned officer is empowered to administer
an oath.

=Afforciament.= An old term for a fortress or stronghold.

=Afghanistan.= A large country in Central Asia, at war with England
1838, and 1878-79.

=Afrancesados= (_Sp._). Name given to the Spaniards who upheld the oath
of allegiance to king Joseph Bonaparte; also called Josephins (in the
Peninsular war).

=Aga.= Rank of an officer in the Turkish army; the same as a general
with us.

=Age.= In a military sense, a young man must be 14 years old before he
can become an officer in the English army, or be entered as a cadet at
Woolwich, in the English military academy. For admission to the military
academy at West Point, U. S., the age is from 17 to 22 years. Men are
enlisted for soldiers at from 17 to 45 in the English army, and in the
U. S. army at from 18 to 35. Officers in the U. S. army may be retired,
at the discretion of the President, at 62 years of age.

=Agema= (_Gr._). In the ancient military art, a kind of soldiery,
chiefly in the Macedonian army. The word is Greek, and denotes
vehemence, to express the strength and eagerness of this corps.

=Agen.= Principal place of the department Lot-et-Garonne, France, on the
right bank of the river Garonne, which has a city of the same name, and
was the scene of many battles.

=Agency.= A certain proportion of money which is ordered to be
subtracted from the pay and allowances of the British army, for
transacting the business of the several regiments comprising it.

=Agent, Army.= A person in the civil department of the British army,
between the paymaster-general and the paymaster of the regiment, through
whom every regimental concern of a pecuniary nature is transacted.

=Agger.= In ancient military writings, denotes the middle part of a
military road raised into a ridge, with a gentle slope on each side to
make a drain for the water, and keep the way dry; it is also used for a
military road. Agger also denotes a work or fortification, used both for
the defense and attack of towns, camps, etc., termed among the moderns,
lines. Agger is also used for a bank or wall erected against the sea or
some great river to confine or keep it within bounds, and called by
modern writers, dam, sea-wall.

=Agiades.= In the Turkish armies are a kind of pioneers, or rather field
engineers, employed in fortifying the camp, etc.

=Agiem-clich.= A very crooked sabre, rounded near the point; an arm much
in use in Persia and Turkey.

=Agincourt=, or =Azincourt=. A village of France, celebrated for a great
battle fought near it in 1415, wherein Henry V. of England defeated the
French.

=Agmen.= Roman name for an army on the march.

=Agminalis.= Name given by the ancients to a horse which carried
baggage, equipments, etc., on its back; now termed pack-horse.

=Agnadello.= Village in the duchy of Milan, on a canal between the
rivers Adda and Serio, celebrated by the victory of Louis XII., king of
France, over the Venetian and Papal troops in 1509, and by a battle
between Prince Eugene and the Duke of Vendôme in 1705.

=Agrigente= (now _Girgenti_). City in Sicily, situated on the
Mediterranean; sacked by the Carthaginians under Amilcar in 400 B.C.,
and taken twice by the Romans in 262 and 210 B.C.

=Aguebelle.= City in the province of Maurienne, in Savoy. The French and
Spaniards defeated the troops of the Duke of Savoy in 1742.

=Aguerri= (_Fr._). A term applied to an officer or soldier experienced
in war.

=Agustina.= See SARAGOSSA, MAID OF.

=Ahmednuggur.= A strong fortress in the Deccan, 30 miles from Poonah,
which was formerly in the possession of Scindia, but fell to the British
arms during the campaign conducted by Gen. Wellesley.

=Aidan= (_Prince_). See SCOTLAND.

=Aid-de-camp.= An officer selected by a general to carry orders; also to
represent him in correspondence and in directing movements.

=Aid-major= (_Fr._). The adjutant of a regiment.

=Aigremore.= A term used by the artificer in the laboratory, to express
the charcoal in a state fitted for the making of powder.

=Aiguille= (_Fr._). An instrument used by engineers to pierce a rock for
the lodgment of powder, as in a mine, or to mine a rock, so as to
excavate and make roads.

=Aiguillettes.= A decoration, consisting of bullion cords and loops,
which was formerly worn on the right shoulder of general officers, and
is now confined to the officers of household cavalry; also worn in the
U. S. army by officers of the adjutant-general’s department,
aids-de-camp, and adjutants of regiments.

=Aiguillon.= A city in France; while in the possession of the English in
1345, it was besieged by the Duke of Normandy, son of Philip de Valois.
According to some authors, cannons were used on this occasion for the
first time in France.

=Aile= (_Fr._). A wing or flank of an army or fortification.

=Ailettes= (_Fr._). Literally “little wings,” were appendages to the
armor worn behind or at the side of the shoulders by knights in the 13th
century. They were made of leather covered with cloth, and fastened by
silk laces. They are supposed to have been worn as a defense to the
shoulders in war.

=Aim.= The act of bringing a musket, piece of ordnance, or any other
missive weapon, to its proper line of direction with the object intended
to be struck.

=Aim-frontlet.= A piece of wood hollowed out to fit the middle of a gun,
to make it of an equal height with the breech; formerly made use of by
the gunners, to level and direct their pieces.

=Aiming Drill.= A military exercise to teach men to aim fire-arms. Great
importance is justly attached to this preliminary step in target
practice.

=Aiming-stand.= An instrument used in teaching the theory of aiming with
a musket. It usually consists of a tripod with a device mounted upon it,
which holds the gun and allows it to be pointed in any direction.

=Ainadin.= Name of a field near Damas in Syria, celebrated by a battle
on July 25, 633, in which Khaled, chief of the Saracens, defeated
Verdan, a general of the Roman army. Verdan lost 50,000 men and was
decapitated.

=Ain-Beda= (Africa). An engagement at this place between the French and
Arabs in October, 1833.

=Ain Taguin.= “Spot of the little desert,” in the province of Algiers;
here the Duke d’Aumale surprised and dispersed the troops of
Abd-el-Kader.

=Air-cylinder.= A pneumatic buffer used in America to absorb the recoil
of large guns. For 10-inch guns, one cylinder is used; for the 15-inch,
two. They are placed between the chassis rails, to which they are firmly
secured by diagonal braces. A piston traversing the cylinder is attached
to the rear transom of the top carriage. When the gun recoils the
piston-head is drawn backwards in the cylinder, and the recoil is
absorbed by the compression of the air behind it. Small holes in the
piston-head allow the air to slowly escape while the gun is brought to
rest. The _hydraulic buffer_ largely used abroad operates in the same
way, water being used in place of air.

=Air, Resistance of.= The resistance which the air offers to a
projectile in motion. See PROJECTILES, THEORY OF.

=Aire.= A military position on the Adour, in the south of France, where
the French were defeated by the English under Lord Hill, on March 2,
1814.

=Air-gun.= An instrument resembling a musket, used to discharge bullets
by the elastic force of compressed air.

=Aix.= A small island on the coast of France between the Isle of Oleron
and the continent. It is 12 miles northwest of Rochefort, and 11 miles
from Rochelle. On it are workshops for military convicts.

=Aix-la-Chapelle= (Ger. _Aachen_). A district in the Prussian province
of the Lower Rhine. Here Charlemagne was born in 742, and died in 814.
The city was taken by the French in 1792; retaken by the Austrians in
1793; by the French 1794; reverted to Prussia 1814. Congress held by
the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, assisted by ministers
from England and France, at Aix-la-Chapelle, and convention signed
October 9, 1818.

=Akerman= (Bessarabia). After being several times taken it was ceded to
Russia, 1812. Here the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey was
concluded in 1826.

=Aketon.= Another name for a portion of armor, used in the feudal times,
called the _gambeson_ (which see).

=Akhalzikh= (Armenia). Near here Prince Paskiewitch defeated the Turks
Aug. 24, and gained the city, Aug. 28, 1828.

=Akindschi.= A sort of Turkish cavalry, employed during the war between
the Turks and the German emperors.

=Aklat.= A small town in Asiatic Turkey, taken by Eddin in 1228, and by
the Turks in the 14th century.

=Akmerjid.= A city in the Crimea; an ancient residence of the khan of
Tartary; taken by the Russians in 1771.

=Akoulis.= A city in Armenia, often pillaged by the Persians and Turks;
taken in 1752 by the Persian general Azad-Khan, by whom the majority of
the inhabitants were put to the sword.

=Akrebah.= At this place, about the year 630, Khaled, general of the
Mussulman troops, fought the army of a new prophet named Mosseilamah,
who perished in the combat.

=Ala.= According to Latin authors, this word signifies the wing of an
army, _i.e._, the flanks, on which were placed troops furnished by the
allied nations; also sometimes used to designate a brigade of cavalry
occupying the same position in battle.

=Alabama.= One of the Southern States of the American confederacy, is
bounded on the north by Tennessee, east by Georgia, south by Florida and
the Gulf of Mexico, and west by Mississippi. The celebrated exploring
expedition of De Soto in 1541 is believed to have been the first visit
of the white man to the wilds of Alabama. In the beginning of the 18th
century the French built a fort on Mobile Bay, but the city of that name
was not commenced till nine years later (1711). In 1763, the entire
French possessions east of the Mississippi (except New Orleans) fell
into the hands of the English. Alabama was incorporated first with
Georgia, afterwards, in 1802, with the Mississippi Territory; but
finally, in 1819, it became an independent member of the great American
confederacy. In 1813 and 1814 the Creek Indians waged war on the
settlers and massacred nearly 400 whites who had taken refuge at Fort
Mimms, on the Alabama River. They were, however, soon reduced to
subjection by Gen. Jackson, and after their defeat at Horseshoe Bend,
March, 1814, the greater portion of their territory was taken from them,
and they were subsequently removed to the Indian Territory. On the
outbreak of the civil war in 1861, the temporary capital of the
Confederate States was established at Montgomery, Ala., but it was soon
afterwards removed to Richmond, Va.

=Alabanda= (_Bour Dogan_, or Arab _Hissar_). A city in Asia Minor;
destroyed by Labienus, a Roman general, in 38 B.C.

=Alacays.= Name given by the ancients to a kind of soldiery, and
afterwards to servants following an army.

=Alage.= A mounted guard of the Byzantine emperors, doing duty in the
palace of Constantinople, and defending, in case of danger, the person
of the emperor.

=Alaibeg.= A Turkish commander of regiments of levied troops.

=Alamo, Fort=, or =The Alamo=. A celebrated fort in Bexar County, near
San Antonio, Texas, where a small garrison of Texans bravely resisted a
body of Mexicans ten times their number, and perished to a man, March 6,
1836. This spot has hence been called the Thermopylæ of Texas, and
“Remember the Alamo!” was used as the battle-cry of the Texans in their
war of independence.

=Alanda.= Name of a legion formed by Julius Cæsar from the best warriors
of the Gauls.

=Aland Isles= (Gulf of Bothnia). Taken from Sweden by Russia, 1809. See
BOMARSUND.

=Alani.= A Tartar race; invaded Parthia, 75; were subdued by the
Visigoths, 452, and eventually incorporated with them.

=Alarcos= (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards under Alfonso IX., king of
Castile, were totally defeated by the Moors, July 19, 1195.

=Alares.= Name given by the Romans to troops which were placed on the
wings of an army; these troops were generally furnished by allies.

=Alarm.= A sudden apprehension of being attacked by surprise, or the
notice of such attack being actually made. It is generally signified by
the discharge of fire-arms, the beat of a drum, etc.

=Alarm Gun.= A gun fired to give an alarm.

=Alarm Post.= In the field, is the ground appointed by the
quartermaster-general for each regiment to march to, in case of an
alarm. In a garrison, it is the place allotted by the governor for the
troops to assemble on any sudden alarm.

=Alaska.= A large territory forming the northwest part of North America,
which was purchased by the United States from Russia in 1867, and was
annexed as a county to Washington Territory in 1872. The native
inhabitants are Esquimaux, Indians, and Aleuts, with a few persons of
Russian descent.

=Alba de Tormes.= A city in Spain, where the French defeated the
Spaniards in 1809.

=Albana.= A city in ancient Albania, situated on the coast of the
Caspian Sea; a wall was constructed to the west of the city for the
purpose of staying the progress of the Scythians, by Darius I., or by
Chosrois.

=Albania.= A province in European Turkey, formerly part of the ancient
Epirus, a scene of many battles; a revolt in Albania was suppressed in
1843.

=Albanians=, or =Albaniers=. The inhabitants of the Turkish territory of
Albania, are a very brave and active race, and furnish the best warriors
for the Turkish army.

=Albans, St.= (Hertfordshire, Eng.). Near the Roman Verulam; first
battle of St. Albans took place in May, 1455, between the Houses of
Lancaster and York, wherein the former were defeated, and King Henry VI.
taken prisoner; second battle took place in February, 1461, wherein
Queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists and rescued the king.

=Albe.= A city in Naples, situated near the Lake Celano; in ancient
times it was an important city in Samnium.

=Albeck.= A village in Würtemberg where 25,000 Austrians, under the
command of Gen. Mack, were defeated by 6000 French in 1805.

=Alberche.= A river of Spain, which joins the Tagus near Talavera de la
Reyna, where, in 1809, a severe battle was fought between the French
army and the allied British and Spanish troops, in which the former were
defeated.

=Albe-Royale.= A city in Lower Hungary, which sustained several sieges.

=Albesia.= In antiquity, a kind of shield, otherwise called _decumana_.

=Albi.= A city in the department of Tarn, France; pillaged by the
Saracens in 730, and taken by Pepin in 765.

=Albigenses.= A sect of heretics, who were in existence during the 12th
and 13th centuries, and inhabited Albi, France; fought many battles;
went to Spain in 1238, where they were slowly exterminated.

=Albuera.= A small village near the river Guadiana, in Spain, where the
French army under Marshal Soult was defeated by the British and Spanish
forces under Marshal, afterwards Lord, Beresford, March 16, 1811.

=Albufera= (Spain, East Central). A lagoon, near which the French
marshal Suchet (afterwards Duke of Albufera), defeated the Spaniards
under Blake, January 4, 1812; this led to his capture of Valencia,
January 9.

=Alcacsbas= (Portugal). A treaty was concluded here between Alfonso V.
of Portugal and Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile.

=Alcantara.= A creek near Lisbon, on the banks of which a battle was
fought between the Spaniards under Alva and the Portuguese under Antonio
de Crato (prior of the Maltese order).

=Alcantara, Order of.= Knights of a Spanish military order, who gained a
great name during the wars with the Moors.

=Alcassar=, or =Alcacar=. A fortified city in Morocco, situated between
Ceuta and Tangier; the narrowest point of the Strait of Gibraltar. The
Portuguese seized this city in 1468.

=Alcazar-Quiver.= A city near Fez, Northwest Africa, where the Moors
totally defeated the Portuguese, whose gallant king, Sebastian, was
slain August 4, 1578.

=Alcmaer.= A city in Holland; besieged by the Spaniards in 1573 without
success; here the British and Russians were defeated by the French in
1799.

=Aldenhofen.= A village of the Prussian Rhenish province, where the
French, under Gen. Miranda, were defeated by Archduke Charles, March 1,
1793; the Austrians were defeated March 18, 1793.

=Aldershott, Camp.= A moor near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In
April, 1854, the War Office, having obtained a grant of £100,000,
purchased 4000 acres of land for a permanent camp for 20,000 men;
additional land was purchased in 1856. The camp is used as an army
school of instructions.

=Aldionaire= (_Aldionarius_). A sort of equerry, who in the army was
kept at the expense of his master. Under Charlemagne, the _aldionaires_
were of an inferior rank.

=Alem.= Imperial standard of the Turkish empire.

=Alemanni= (or all men, _i.e._, men of all nations, hence _Allemannen_,
German). A body of Suevi, who took this name; were defeated by
Caracalla, 214. After several repulses they invaded the empire under
Aurelian; they were subdued in three battles, 270. They were again
vanquished by Julian, 356-57. They were defeated by Clovis at Tolbiac
(or Zulpich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants.

=Alemdar.= An official who carries the green banner of Mahomet
(Mohammed), when the sultan assists in ceremonies of solemnity.

=Alençon= (Northern France). Gave title to a count and duke. Martel,
count of Anjou, seized this city, which was retaken by William the
Conqueror in 1048. It was the scene of many battles.

=Aleppo= (Northern Syria). A large town named Berœa Seleucus Nicator
about 299 B.C. It was taken by the Turks in 638; by Saladin, 1193, and
sacked by Timur, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent;
60,000 persons were computed to have perished by it in 1797; and many in
the year 1827. On October 16, 1850, the Mohammedans attacked the
Christians, burning nearly everything. Three churches were destroyed;
five others plundered, and thousands of persons slain. The total loss of
property amounted to about a million pounds sterling; no interference
was attempted by the pasha.

=Aleria.= An important city in Corsica, at the mouth of the river
Tavignano; was taken in 259 B.C. by the Romans under Consul Cornelius.

=Alert.= Watchful; vigilant; active in vigilance; upon the watch;
guarding against surprise or danger.

=Alesia=, or =Alisia=. Now called Alise-Sainte-Reine, a city in the
department of Cote-d’Or. This city was besieged and taken by the Romans
in 52 B.C.; it was one of the greatest events of Cæsar’s war in Gaul.

=Alessandria.= A city of Piedmont, built in 1168, under the name of
Cæsarea by the Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the
emperor, and named after Pope Alexander III. It has been frequently
besieged and taken. The French took it in 1796, but were driven out July
21, 1799. They recovered it after the battle of Marengo, in 1800, and
held it until 1814, when the strong fortifications erected by Napoleon
were destroyed. They have been restored since June, 1856.

=Alet=, or =Aleth=. A small city in the department of Ande, France; was
taken by the Protestants in 1573.

=Aleut.= An inhabitant of the Aleutian Islands. These people differ both
from the Indians of the neighboring continent and the Esquimaux farther
north. They are expert hunters of the seal and other animals. They are
industrious and peaceful, but addicted to drunkenness.

=Aleutian Islands.= A number of islands stretching from the peninsula of
Alaska in North America to Kamtschatka in Asia. The greater number
belong to the territory of Alaska.

=Alfere=, or =Alferez=. Standard-bearer; ensign; cornet. The old English
term for ensign; it was in use in England till the civil wars of Charles
I.

=Alford= (Northern Scotland), =Battle of=. Gen. Baillie, with a large
body of Covenanters, was defeated by the Marquis of Montrose, July 2,
1645.

=Alfuro.= A city in Navarre, Spain. The British proceeded against the
city in 1378, the garrison being absent; they found the women ranged on
the ramparts disposed to defend the place. Capt. Tivet, commander of the
English forces, would not attack the brave women, but retreated and did
not molest the place.

=Algebra.= A peculiar kind of mathematical analysis allied to arithmetic
and geometry.

=Algidus.= A mountain-range in Latium, Italy, where Cincinnatus defeated
the Æqui in 458 B.C.

=Algiers= (now _Algeria_, Northwest Africa). Part of the ancient
Mauritania, which was conquered by the Romans, 46 B.C.; by the Vandals,
439; recovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534, and subdued by the
Arabs about 690. The city of Algiers was bombarded a number of times,
and finally taken by the French in 1830. Algeria at present belongs to
France.

=Algonkins=, or =Alogonquins=. One of the two great families of Indians
who formerly peopled the country east of the Mississippi. The Chippewas
are at present the most numerous race descended from this stock.

=Alhama.= A city in Spain, in the province of Granada. It was a most
important fortress when the Moors ruled Granada, and its capture by the
Christians in 1482 was the most decisive step in the reduction of their
power.

=Alhambra.= The ancient fortress and residence of the Moorish monarchs
of Granada; founded by Mohammed I. of Granada about 1253; surrendered to
the Christians in November, 1491.

=Ali Bey.= Colonel of Turkish cavalry; also the rank of a district
commander.

=Alibi= (_Lat._ “elsewhere”). An alibi is the best defense in law if a
man is innocent; but if it turns out to be untrue, it is conclusive
against those who resort to it.

=Alicante.= A fortified city and seaport in Spain, where the French
defeated the Spaniards in a naval battle, April 1, 1688.

=Alidade.= The movable arm or rule carrying the sights of an
angle-measuring instrument.

=Alien.= In law, implies a person born in a foreign country, in
contradistinction to a natural born or naturalized person.

=Alife= (_Alifa_). A city in the kingdom of Naples, where Fabius
defeated the Samnites in 307 B.C.

=Alighur.= See ALLYGHUR.

=Align.= To form in line as troops; to lay out the ground-plan, as of a
road.

=Alignment.= A formation in straight lines, for instance, the alignment
of a battalion means the situation of a body of men when drawn up in
line. The alignment of a camp signifies the relative position of the
tents, etc., so as to form a straight line from given points.

=Aliwal.= A village on the banks of the Sutlej, contiguous to the
Punjab, where a British division, commanded by Maj.-Gen. Sir Henry
Smith, on the 29th of January, 1846, encountered and defeated a superior
body of Sikhs.

=Aljubarrota= (Portugal). Here John I. of Portugal defeated John I. of
Castile, and secured his country’s independence, August 14, 1385.

=Alkmaer.= See BERGEN-OP-ZOOM.

=Allahabad= (Northwest Hindostan). The holy city of the Indian
Mohammedans, situated at the junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges;
founded by Akbar, in 1583; incorporated with the British possessions in
1803. During the Indian mutiny several Sepoy regiments rose and
massacred their officers, June 4, 1857; Col. Neil marched promptly from
Benares and suppressed the insurrection. In November, 1861, Lord Canning
made this the capital of the northwest provinces.

=Allecrete.= Light armor used by both cavalry and infantry in the 16th
century, especially by the Swiss. It consisted of a breastplate and
gussets, often reaching to the middle of the thigh, and sometimes below
the knees.

=Allecti Milites.= A name given by the Romans to a body of men who were
drafted for military service.

=Allegiance.= In law, implies the obedience which is due to the laws.
_Oath of Allegiance_ is that taken by an alien, by which he adopts
America and renounces the authority of a foreign government. It is also
applied to the oath taken by officers and soldiers in pledge of their
fidelity to the state.

=Allegiant.= Loyal; faithful to the laws.

=Allia= (Italy). A small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and
the Gauls defeated the Romans, July 16, 390 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome
and committed so much injury that the day was thereafter held to be
unlucky (_nefas_), and no public business was permitted to be done on
its anniversary.

=Alliage= (_Fr._). A term used by the French to denote the composition
of metals used for the fabrication of cannon, mortars, etc.

=Alliance.= In a military sense, signifies a treaty entered into by
sovereign states for their mutual safety and defense. In this sense
alliances may be divided into such as are offensive, where the
contracting parties oblige themselves jointly to attack some other
power; and into such as are defensive, whereby the contracting powers
bind themselves to stand by and defend one another, in case of being
attacked by any other power. Alliances are variously distinguished
according to their object, the parties in them, etc. Hence we read of
equal, unequal, triple, quadruple, grand, offensive, defensive
alliances, etc.

=Alligati.= A name given by the Romans to prisoners of war and their
captors. A chain was attached to the right wrist of the prisoner and the
left wrist of the warrior who captured him.

=Allobroges.= A powerful race in ancient Gaul; inhabited a part of
Savoy; vanquished by Fabius Maximus, 126 B.C.

=Allocutio.= An oration addressed by a Roman general to his soldiers, to
animate them to fight, to appease sedition, or to keep them to their
duty.

=Allodial.= Independent; not feudal. The Allodii of the Romans were
bodies of men embodied on any emergency, in a manner similar to our
volunteer associations.

=Allonge.= A pass or thrust with a rapier or small sword, frequently
contracted into _lunge_; also a long rein used in the exercising of
horses.

=Allowance.= A sum paid periodically for services rendered. The French
use the word _traitment_ in this sense. The allowances of an officer are
distinct from his pay proper, and are applicable to a variety of
circumstances.

=Alloy.= Is a composition by fusion of two or more metals. The alloy
most used for gun-making is bronze (which see).

=Allumelle.= A thin and slender sword which was used in the Middle Ages,
to pierce the weak parts or joints of armor.

=Ally.= In a military sense, implies any nation united to
another,--under a treaty either offensive or defensive, or both.

=Allyghur.= A strong fortress on the northwest of India, which was
captured, after a desperate conflict, by Lord Lake, in 1803. The French
commander-in-chief, Gen. Perron, surrendered himself after the siege.

=Alma.= A river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on
September 20, 1854, between the Russian and Anglo-French armies; the
Russians were defeated with great loss.

=Almadie.= A kind of military canoe or small vessel, about 24 feet long,
made of the bark of a tree, and used by the negroes of Africa. Almadie
is also the name of a long boat used at Calcutta, often from 80 to 100
feet long, and generally 6 or 7 broad; they are rowed with from 10 to 30
oars.

=Alman-rivets=, =Almain-rivets=, or =Almayne-rivets=. A sort of light
armor derived from Germany, characterized by overlapping plates which
were arranged to slide on rivets, by means of which flexibility and ease
of movement were promoted.

=Almaraz, Bridge of.= In Spain, which on the 18th of May, 1812, was
captured by Lord Hill, when he defeated a large French _corps d’armée_,
which was one of the most brilliant actions of the Peninsular war.

=Almeida.= A strong fortress of Portugal, in the province of Beira. The
capture of it by the Duke of Wellington, in 1811, after it had fallen
into the hands of the French, was deemed a very brilliant exploit.

=Almenara=, or =Almanara=. City in Spain, in the province of Lerida,
where, in 1710, Gen. Stanhope, with 4 regiments of dragoons and 20
companies of grenadiers, defeated a Spanish corps, composed of 4
battalions and 19 escadrons.

=Almeria.= City and seaport in Andalusia, Spain; captured from the Moors
in 1147, by the united troops of Alfonso VII., king of Castile, Garcias,
king of Navarre, and Raymond, count of Barcelona.

=Almexial, Battle of.= Between the Spaniards and Portuguese in 1663. The
Portuguese were commanded by Sanctius Manuel, count of Vilaflor, and the
celebrated Count Frederick von Schomberg, the latter being the veritable
hero of the day. The Portuguese gained a great victory; the Spanish army
was commanded by Don Juan of Austria, son of Philip IV.

=Almissa= (Dalminium). City in Dalmatia, Austria; it was the ancient
capital of Dalmatia, but was ruined by Scipio Nasica in 156 B.C.

=Almogavares.= See CATALANS.

=Almohades.= Mohammedan partisans, followers of El-Mehedi in Africa,
about 1120. They subdued Morocco, 1145; entered Spain and took Seville,
Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56; ruled Spain until 1232, and Africa until
1278.

=Almonacid-de-Zorita.= A town in the province of Guadalaxara, Spain,
where the French defeated the Spaniards in 1809.

=Almora.= City in Bengal, which the English captured in 1815, and still
hold.

=Almoravides.= Mohammedan partisans in Africa, rose about 1050; entered
Spain by invitation, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in 1147.

=Alney.= An island in the Severn, Gloucestershire, England. Here a
combat is asserted to have taken place between Edmund Ironside and
Canute the Great, in the sight of their armies. The latter was wounded,
and proposed a division of the kingdom, the south part falling to
Edmund. Edmund was murdered at Oxford shortly after, it is said, by
Aedric Streon, and Canute obtained possession of the whole kingdom,
1016.

=Alnwick= (Sax. _Elnwix_). On the river Alne in Northumberland, England,
was given at the Conquest to Ivo de Vesco. It has belonged to the
Percies since 1310. Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick in 1093,
where he and his sons were killed. It was taken by David I. in 1136, and
attacked in 1174, by William the Lion, who was defeated and taken
prisoner. It was owned by King John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448.
Since 1854 the castle has been repaired and enlarged with great taste
and at unsparing expense.

=Alost.= A city in Belgium, captured and dismantled by Turenne in 1667,
then abandoned to the allies after the battle of Ramillies, in 1706.

=Alps.= European mountains. Those between France and Italy were passed
by Hannibal, 218 B.C.; by the Romans, 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I., May,
1800.

=Alsace.= See ELSASS.

=Altenheim.= A village on the banks of the Rhine, grand duchy of Baden,
where the French under Count de Lorges fought the Imperials, July 30,
1675, neither side being victorious; the French army retreated after the
death of Turenne.

=Altenkirchen.= A town in the Prussian Rhine province, where several
battles were fought during the war of the Republic, in one of which Gen.
Marceau was killed, while protecting the retreat of Gen. Jourdan,
September 20, 1796.

=Altiscope.= A device which enables a person to see an object in spite
of intervening obstacles. In gunnery it is used to point a piece without
exposing the person of the gunner. The simplest form consists of a small
mirror set in the line of the sights, which reflects the sights and the
object aimed at to the eye of the gunner. This form of reflecting sight
is used with the Moncrieff counterpoise carriage, and has been recently
proposed by Col. Laidley (U. S. Ordnance Corps) for small-arms.

=Altitude.= Height, or distance from the ground, measured upwards, and
may be both accessible and inaccessible. Altitude of a shot or shell, is
the perpendicular height of the vortex of the curve in which it moves
above the horizon. Altitude of the eye, in perspective is a right line
let fall from the eye, perpendicular to the geometrical plane.

=Alumbagh.= A palace with other buildings near Lucknow, Oude, India,
taken from the rebels and heroically defended by the British under Sir
James Outram, during the mutiny, September, 1857. He defeated an attack
of 30,000 Sepoys on January 12, 1858, and of 20,000 on February 21.

=Aluminium Bronze.= An alloy of copper and aluminium, having great
strength and hardness. See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Alure.= An old term for the gutter or drain along a battlement or
parapet wall.

=Alveda.= An ancient city in Spain, where a battle was fought between
Ramire I., king of the Austurias, and the Moors under the famous
Abdolrahman, or Abd-el-Rahm; according to Spanish history, the Moors
lost 60,000 men.

=Amantea=, or =Amantia=. City and seaport in Naples; sustained a siege
against the French in 1806. It is believed that this city is the ancient
_Nepetum_.

=Amazons.= Female warriors. Tribes, either real or imaginary, belonging
to Africa and Asia, among which the custom prevailed for the females to
go to war; preparing themselves for that purpose by destroying the right
breast, in order to use the bow with greater ease. According to Greek
tradition, an Amazon tribe invaded Africa, and was repulsed by Theseus,
who afterwards married their queen. Hence all female warriors have been
called Amazons.

=Amberg.= A town in Bavaria, where the French were defeated by the
Austrians in 1796.

=Ambit.= The compass or circuit of any work or place, as of a
fortification or encampment, etc.

=Ambition.= In a military sense, signifies a desire of greater posts or
honors. Every person in the army or navy ought to have a spirit of
emulation to arrive at the very summit of the profession by his personal
merit.

=Amblef.= Ancient residence of the kings of France on the river of the
same name, in Germany. Here Charles Martel defeated Chilperic II. and
Rangenfroi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716.

=Ambulances.= Are flying hospitals, so organized that they can follow an
army in all its movements, and are intended to succor the wounded as
soon as possible; a two- or four-wheeled vehicle for conveying the
wounded from the field; called also an ambulance-cart.

=Ambuscade.= A snare set for an enemy either to surprise him when
marching without precaution, or to draw him on by different stratagems
to attack him with a superior force.

=Ambush.= A place of concealment where an enemy may be surprised by a
sudden attack.

=Ame.= A French term, similar in its import to the word _chamber_, as
applied to cannon, etc.

=Amende Honorable= (_Fr._). In the old armies, of France, signified an
apology for some injury done to another, or satisfaction given for an
offense committed against the rules of honor or military etiquette, and
was also applied to an infamous kind of punishment inflicted upon
traitors, parricides, or sacrilegious persons, in the following manner:
The offender being delivered into the hands of the hangman, his shirt
stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand; then
he was led into the court, where he begged pardon of God, the court, and
his country. Sometimes the punishment ended there; but sometimes it was
only a prelude to death, or banishment to the galleys. It prevails yet
in some parts of Europe.

=Amenebourg.= A place in Hanover which was captured from the English by
the French in 1762.

=Amentatæ.= A sort of lance used by the Romans, which had a leathern
strap attached to the centre of it.

=Amentum.= A leathern strap used by the Romans, Greeks, and Galicians,
to throw lances. It was fastened around the second and third fingers, a
knot was tied on it, which at the throwing of the lance loosened itself.

=America.= One of the great divisions of the earth’s surface, so called
from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator, who visited South America
in 1499. It is composed of two vast peninsulas called North and South
America, extending in a continuous line 9000 miles, connected by the
Isthmus of Panama or Darien, which is only 28 miles wide at its
narrowest part. The physical features of this large continent are on a
most gigantic scale, comprising the greatest lakes, rivers, valleys,
etc., in the world; and its discovery, which may be said to have doubled
the habitable globe, is an event so grand and interesting that nothing
parallel to it can be expected to occur again in the history of mankind.
Upon its discovery, in the latter half of the 15th century, colonists,
settlers, warriors, statesmen, and adventurers of all nations began to
flock to its shores, until after a lapse of nearly four centuries of
wars, struggles, civilization, progress, and amalgamation of the more
powerful races, and weakness and decay of the effete, it ranks in wealth
and enlightenment as the first of the great divisions of the earth. Of
the different races, governments, etc., occupying its area, it is not
necessary here to speak; events of importance in their histories will be
found under appropriate headings in this work.

=Ames Gun.= The rifled guns made by Mr. Horatio Ames, of Falls Village,
Conn., are made of wrought iron on the built-up principle. See ORDNANCE,
CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Amiens.= A city in Picardy (Northern France). It was taken by the
Spaniards March 11, and retaken by the French September 25, 1587. The
preliminary articles of the peace between Great Britain, Holland,
France, and Spain were signed in London by Lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto,
on the part of England and France, October 1, 1801, and the definitive
treaty was subscribed at Amiens, March 27, 1802, by the Marquis of
Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain,
and Schimmelpennick for Holland. War was declared in 1803.

=Amisus.= A city in the ancient kingdom of Pontus, fortified by
Mithridates, and captured by Lucullus in 71 B.C.

=Ammedera.= An ancient city in Africa, where the rebel Gildon was
defeated by Stilicho in 398.

=Ammunition.= Is a term which comprehends gunpowder, and all the various
projectiles and pyrotechnical composition and stores used in the
service. See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR.

=Ammunition Bread.= That which is for the supply of armies and
garrisons.

=Ammunition-chest.= See ORDNANCE FOR CAISSON.

=Ammunition Shoes.= Those made for soldiers and sailors in the British
service are so called, and particularly for use by those frequenting the
magazine, being soft and free from metal.

=Ammunition, Stand of.= The projectile, cartridge, and sabot connected
together.

=Amnesty.= An act by which two belligerent powers at variance agree to
bury past differences in oblivion; forgiveness of past offenses.

=Amnias.= A stream in Asia near which the army of Nicomedes, king of
Bithynia, was defeated by the troops of Mithridates in 92 B.C.

=Amorce= (_Fr._). An old military word for fine-grained powder, such as
was sometimes used for the priming of great guns, mortars, or howitzers;
as also for small-arms, on account of its rapid inflammation. A
port-fire or quick-match.

=Amorcer= (_Fr._). To prime; to decoy, to make a feint in order to
deceive the enemy and draw him into a snare; to bait, lure, allure.

=Amorcoir= (_Fr._). An instrument used to prime a musket; also for a
small copper box in which were placed the percussion-caps.

=Amoy.= A town and port in China, which was taken by the troops under
Sir Hugh Gough, assisted by a naval force, in August, 1841.

=Ampfing.= A village in Bavaria, where Louis, king of Bavaria, defeated
Frederick of Austria in 1322; here Gen. Moreau was attacked by a
superior force of Austrians in 1800, and accomplished his celebrated
retreat.

=Amphea.= A city of Messenia, captured by the Lacedæmonians in 743 B.C.

=Amphec.= A city in Palestine where the Philistines defeated the
Israelites in the year 1100 B.C.

=Amphictyonic Council.= A celebrated congress of deputies of twelve
confederated tribes of ancient Greece, which met twice every year. The
objects of this council were to insure mutual protection and
forbearance among the tribes, and for the protection of the temple of
Delphi.

=Amphipolis= (now _Emboli_). A city situated on the Strymon in
Macedonia; was besieged in 422 B.C., by the Athenians, where Cleon their
chief was killed. Philip of Macedon captured the city in 363.

=Amplitude.= In gunnery, is the range of shot, or the horizontal right
line, which measures the distance which it has run.

=Ampoulette= (_Fr._). A wooden cylinder which contains the fuze of
hollow projectiles.

=Amsterdam.= The capital of Holland. It was occupied by the French
general Pichegru on January 19, 1795, and by the Prussians in 1813.

=Amstetten.= A village on the highway between Ems and Vienna, where the
Russians were defeated by the French under Murat, November 5, 1805.

=Amusette= (_Fr._). A brass gun, of 5 feet, carrying a half-pound leaden
ball, loaded at the breech; invented by the celebrated Marshal Saxe. It
is no longer used.

=Amyclæ.= An ancient town of Laconia, on the right bank of the Eurotas,
famous as one of the most celebrated cities of the Peloponnesus in the
heroic age. It is said to have been the abode of Castor and Pollux. This
town was conquered by the Spartans about 775 B.C.

=Anabash.= In antiquity, were expeditious couriers, who carried
dispatches of great importance in the Roman wars.

=Anacara.= A sort of drum used by the Oriental cavalry.

=Anacleticum.= In the ancient art of war, a particular blast of the
trumpet, whereby the fearful and flying soldiers were rallied to the
combat.

=Anah.= A city in Asiatic Turkey, which was captured and devastated in
1807 by the Wahabites, who were a warlike Mohammedan reforming sect.

=Anam=, or =Annam, Empire of=. Also called Cochin China, an empire in
Southeastern Asia, which became involved in a war with France (1858-62),
concluded by a treaty by which the emperor of Anam ceded the provinces
of Cochin China, Saigon, Bienhoa, and Mytho to France. Subsequently
three other provinces were annexed to France in 1867.

=Anapa.= A city in Circassia which was fortified by the Turks in 1784;
stormed and taken by the Russians in 1791.

=Anarchy.= Want of government; the state of society where there is no
law or supreme power, or where the laws are not efficient, and
individuals do what they please with impunity; political confusion;
hence, confusion in general.

=Anatha.= A fort on an island of the Euphrates; taken by Julian the
Apostate in 363.

=Anatolia=, =Nadoli=, or =Natolia=. The modern name of Asia Minor, a
peninsula in the most western territory of Asia, extending northward
from the Mediterranean to the Euxine, or Black Sea, and eastward from
the Grecian Archipelago to the banks of the Euphrates. It is a part of
the Turkish dominions, and was in ancient times the seat of powerful
kingdoms and famous cities.

=Anazarba=, or =Anazarbus=. A city in Asia Minor, where the Christians
were defeated by the Saracens in 1130.

=Anazehs.= Nomadic Arabs, who infested the desert extending from Damas
to Bagdad; they often laid under contribution the caravans on the way to
Mecca.

=Ancile.= In antiquity, a kind of shield, which fell, as was pretended,
from heaven, in the reign of Numa Pompilius; at which time, likewise, a
voice was heard declaring that Rome would be mistress of the world as
long as she should preserve this holy buckler.

=Ancona.= An ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. In 1790 it was taken by
the French; but was retaken by the Austrians in 1799. It was occupied by
the French in 1832; evacuated in 1838; after an insurrection it was
bombarded and captured by the Austrians, June 18, 1849. The Marches
(comprising this city) rebelled against the papal government in
September, 1800. Lamoriciere, the papal general, fled to Ancona after
his defeat at Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender himself, the
city and the garrison, on September 28. The king of Sardinia entered
soon after.

=Ancyra.= A town in ancient Galatia, now _Angora_, or _Engour_, Asia
Minor. Near this city, on July 28, 1402, Timur, or Tamerlane, defeated
after a three days’ battle and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, and is
said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in a cage.

=Andabatæ.= In military antiquity, a kind of gladiators who fought
hoodwinked, having a kind of helmet that covered the eyes and face. They
fought mounted on horseback, or on chariots.

=Andaman Islands.= A group of small islands in the Bay of Bengal, which
has been used by Great Britain as a penal colony for Hindoos. The Earl
of Mayo, governor-general of India, was assassinated here by a convict,
February 8, 1872.

=Anderlecht.= A town near Brussels, in Belgium, where the French under
Gen. Dumouriez defeated the Austrians, November 13, 1792.

=Andernach.= A city in Rhenish Prussia; near here the emperor Charles I.
was totally defeated by Louis of Saxony, on October 8, 876.

=Andersonville.= A post-village of Sumter Co., Ga., about 65 miles
south-southwest of Macon. Here was located a Confederate military prison
in which Union soldiers were confined during the civil war. So severe
was the treatment which they received here (nearly 13,000 having died),
that a general feeling of horror was excited against the superintendent,
Capt. Henry Wirz; and after the close of the war he was tried for
inhuman treatment of the prisoners, found guilty, and executed
November, 1865. The place is now the site of a national cemetery.

=Andrew, St.=, or =The Thistle, Order of=. A nominally military order of
knighthood in Scotland. The principal ensign of this order is a gold
collar, composed of thistles interlinked with amulets of gold, having
pendent thereto the image of St. Andrew with his cross and the motto,
_Nemo me impune lacessit_.

=Andrew, St., Knights of.= Is also a nominal military order instituted
by Peter III. of Muscovy in 1698.

=Andrussov, Peace of.= This peace was ratified (January 30, 1667)
between Russia and Poland for 13 years, with mutual concessions,
although the latter power had been generally victorious.

=Anelace=, or =Anlace=. A kind of knife or dagger worn at the girdle by
civilians till about the end of the 15th century.

=Anemometer=, or =Wind-gauge=. An instrument wherewith to measure the
direction and velocity of wind under its varying forces,--used in the
Signal service.

=Aneroid Barometer.= A pocket instrument indicating variations in
atmospheric pressure. Used in military surveys to obtain the height of
mountains. It consists of a circular metallic box, hermetically sealed,
from which the air has been extracted. The play of the thin, metallic
cover under atmospheric pressure, is made to operate a hand pointing to
a scale on the dial-face.

=Angaria.= According to ancient military writers, means a guard of
soldiers posted in any place for the security of it. Angaria, in civil
law, implies a service by compulsion; as, furnishing horses and
carriages for conveying corn and other stores for the army.

=Angeliaphori.= Reconnoitring parties of the Grecian army.

=Angel-shot.= A kind of chain-shot. See CHAIN-SHOT.

=Angers.= Principal city of the department of Maine-et-Loire, France. It
was sacked by the Normans during the 9th century; taken and retaken
several times by the Bretons, English, and French.

=Anghiari.= A city of Tuscany, where the Florentines under Berardino
Ubaldini were defeated by the Milanese general Torello, in 1425, and in
1440 the Florentine general Orsini defeated the Milanese general
Piccinino.

=Angle.= In geometry, is the inclination of two lines meeting one
another in a point, or the portion of space lying between two lines, or
between two or more surfaces meeting in a common point called the
_vertex_. Angles are of various kinds according to the lines or sides
which form them. Those most frequently referred to in fortification and
gunnery are:

ANGLE, DIMINISHED, is that formed by the exterior side and the line of
defense.

ANGLE, FLANKED, or SALIENT, is the projecting angle formed by the two
faces of a bastion.

ANGLE, INTERIOR FLANKING, is that which is formed by the meeting of the
line of defense and the curtain.

ANGLE OF ARRIVAL. The angle of arrival is the angle which the tangent to
the trajectory at the crest of the parapet makes with the horizon.

ANGLE OF DEPARTURE, or ANGLE OF PROJECTION, is the angle which the
tangent makes with the horizontal at the muzzle.

ANGLE OF ELEVATION, or ANGLE OF FIRE, in gunnery, is that which the axis
of the barrel makes with the horizontal line.

ANGLE OF FALL, in gunnery, is the angle made at the point of fall by the
tangent to the trajectory with a horizontal line in the plane of fire.

ANGLE OF FIRE, in gunnery, is the angle included between the line of
fire and horizon; on account of the balloting of the projectile, the
angle of fire is not always equal to the angle of departure, or
projection.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE is that which the line of direction of a ray of
light, ball from a gun, etc., makes at the point where it first touches
the body it strikes against, with a line drawn perpendicularly to the
surface of that body.

ANGLE OF REFLECTION is the angle intercepted between the line of
direction of a body rebounding after it has struck against another body,
and a perpendicular erected at the point of contact.

ANGLE OF SIGHT, in gunnery, is the angle included between the line of
sight and line of fire. Angles of sight are divided into natural and
artificial angles of sight, corresponding to the natural and artificial
lines of sight, which inclose them. See POINTING.

ANGLE OF THE CENTRE is the angle formed at the centre of the polygon by
lines drawn thence to the points of two adjacent bastions.

ANGLE OF THE EPAULE, or SHOULDER, is formed by one face and one flank of
the bastion.

ANGLE OF THE FACE is formed by the angle of the face and the line of
defense produced till they intersect each other.

ANGLE OF THE FLANK is that formed by the flank and curtain.

ANGLE OF THE LINE OF DEFENSE is that angle made by the flank and the
line of defense.

ANGLE OF THE POLYGON is that formed by the meeting of two of the sides
of the polygon; it is likewise called the _polygon angle_.

ANGLE OF THE TENAILLE, or FLANKING ANGLE, is made by two lines
fichant,--that is, the faces of the two bastions extended until they
meet in an angle towards the curtain, and is that which always carries
its point towards the outworks.

ANGLE, RE-ENTERING. An angle whose vertex points inward, or towards the
place. A re-entering angle which is not defended by a flanking fire is
said to be _dead_.

=Angles.= An ancient German tribe from which England derives its name.
They occupied a narrow district in the south of Sleswick, whence some of
them passed over in the 5th century, in conjunction with other Saxon
tribes, into Britain, where they conquered the native Britons, and
established the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. See HEPTARCHY.

=Anglou.= A place in Armenia where a Persian army 4000 strong defeated
and cut to pieces a Roman army of 30,000, in 543.

=Angon.= In ancient military history, was a kind of a dart of modern
length, having an iron beaded head and cheeks; in use about the 5th
century. This sort of javelin was much used by the French. The iron head
of it resembled a _fleur-de-lis_.

=Angora.= See ANCYRA.

=Angouleme.= A city in the department of Charente, France. It was ruined
by the Normans during the 9th century, and devastated several times
during the 16th century.

=Anguis.= A flag adopted by the Romans, which was carried at the head of
a cohort (the tenth part of a Roman legion, consisting of 600 men); this
flag resembled a serpent in shape, and was more commonly called _draco_.

=Angusticlave.= A robe or tunic embroidered with purple studs or knobs,
and with _narrow_ purple stripes, worn by Roman knights, to distinguish
them from members of the senatorian order, who wore a garment with
_broad_ stripes, called _latus clavus_.

=Anholt, Island of= (Denmark). Was taken possession of by England, May
18, 1809, in the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring
British commerce. The Danes made an attempt to regain it with a force
which exceeded 1000 men, but were gallantly repulsed by the British
force, not amounting to more than 150, March 27, 1811.

=Animate, To.= In a military sense, is to encourage, to incite, to add
fresh impulse to any body of men who are advancing against an enemy, or
to prevent them from shamefully abandoning their colors in critical
situations.

=Anime= (_Fr._). A sort of ancient cuirass, also called _brigandine_;
was used in Italy until the 17th century, under the name of _anima_, or
_animetta_.

=Anio= (now _Teverone_). A river of ancient Italy, an affluent of the
Tiber. On its banks the Romans gained two great battles over the Gauls,
one by Camillus about 367 B.C., and the other about sixty years
afterwards.

=Aniocrater.= The highest military rank of the Lacedæmonians; one who
commanded the whole army during the absence of the king.

=Anippus.= Name of the light cavalry of the Grecians.

=Anisocycle.= An ancient machine of a spiral form, like the spring of a
watch, used for throwing arrows to a great distance.

=Anitorgis.= A city in Spain, near which Asdrubal, general of the
Carthaginians, gained a memorable battle over the Romans under Scipio
and his brother Publius, in 212 B.C.

=Anjou=, or =Beauge, Battle of=. Between the English and French; the
latter commanded by the Dauphin of France, March 22, 1421. The English
were defeated; the Duke of Clarence was slain by Sir Allan Swinton, a
Scotch knight, and 1500 men perished on the field; the Earls of
Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. Beauge was the
first battle that turned the tide of success against the English.

=Annals.= A species of military history, wherein events are related in
the chronological order they happened. They differ from a perfect
history, in being only a mere relation of what passes every year, as a
journal is of what passes every day.

=Annatinæ.= Were transport-ships (so called by Julius Cæsar) in which
were transported provisions, etc., to armies and fleets. Also called
_Corbitæ_.

=Anneau d’Or= (_Fr._). A gold ring. In accordance with the example of
the ancients, Francis I. of France instituted a military recompense in
the shape of an _anneau_, for all who distinguished themselves in any
military enterprise.

=Annee de Corbie= (_Fr._). Name given to the year 1636, when the capture
of Corbie (by the Austrians), a small city of the department of the
Somme, France (during the war which Richelieu had decided to undertake
against the Austrian house), nearly caused the overthrow of France.

=Anne, St., Order of.= An order of knighthood, originally established in
Holstein, and carried with the princes of that country into Russia. It
was made a Russian order in 1796, and is now widely diffused.

=Annihilate.= To reduce to nothing; to destroy the existence of; to
cause or cease to be; as, the army was annihilated.

=Annoy.= To injure or disturb by continued or repeated acts; to
incommode or molest; as, to annoy an army by impeding their march, or by
a continued cannonade.

=Annuity.= A sum of money payable yearly, to continue for a given number
of years, for life or forever; an annual allowance. The U. S. government
furnishes annuities and annuity goods to certain tribes of Indians.

=Annul.= To make void, or of no effect; to abrogate; to rescind;--used
of laws, decisions of courts, or other established rules, permanent
usages, and the like, which are made void by competent authority.

=Annunciada.= An order of military knighthood in Savoy, first instituted
by Amadeus I. in the year 1409; their collar was of fifteen links,
interwoven one with another, and the motto “F. E. R. T.,” signifying
_fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit_. Amadeus VIII. changed the image of St.
Maurice, patron of Savoy, which hung at the collar, for that of the
Virgin Mary, and instead of the motto above mentioned, substituted the
words of the angel’s salutation. Now extinct.

=Anse des Pieces= (_Fr._). A term for the handles of cannon. Those of
brass have two, those of iron seldom any. These handles serve to pass
cords, handspikes, or levers through, the more easily to move so heavy a
body, and are made to represent dolphins, serpents, etc.

=Antandros= (now _St. Dimitri_). A city of Troas, inhabited by the
Leleges, near which Æneas built his fleet after the destruction of Troy.

=Antecessores=, or =Antecursores=. Light cavalry of the Romans, which
formed the advance-guard of an army while on the march.

=Antemuraille.= In ancient military art, denoted what now the moderns
generally call the outworks.

=Antepilani.= Soldiers of a Roman legion who composed the first and
second ranks in line of battle, and who were accordingly placed in front
of the third rank. The first rank was called _hastati_, the second
_principes_, and the third _pilani_, or _triarii_.

=Antequera.= A city in Spain, formerly fortified; besieged and captured
from the Moors by Ferdinand of Castile, September 16, 1410; he also
defeated under the walls of this city the Moorish king of Toledo, who
had an army of 100,000 men.

=Antesignani.= A name given to the soldiers of the Roman army who
protected the colors, etc.; according to some authorities they were the
_hastati_ or _principes_, and according to others they were a select
detachment consisting of picked soldiers.

=Antestature= (_Fr._). A small intrenchment or work formed of palisades
or sacks of earth.

=Anthony, St., Knights of.= A military order instituted by Albert, Duke
of Bavaria, Holland, and Zealand, when he designed to make war against
the Turks in 1382. The knights wore a collar of gold made in the form of
a hermit’s girdle, from which hung a stick like a crutch, with a little
bell, as they are represented in St. Anthony’s pictures.

=Antibes.= A city in the department of Alpes Maritimes, France. It was
ruined some time after the capture of Marseilles by Cæsar. This city was
fortified by Francis I. and Henry IV.; besieged without success by the
Imperials in 1746.

=Anti-corrosion.= A lacker applied to iron traversing platforms,
gun-carriages, and the outside of guns. See LACKER.

=Antietam.= A small, deep river in Maryland, which empties into the
Potomac about 6 miles above Harper’s Ferry. Here was fought a terrible
battle on September 17, 1862, between the Federals, under Gen.
McClellan, and the Confederates, under Gen. Lee. After his victory at
Bull Run, August 30, Lee invaded Maryland, and was immediately followed
by McClellan. On September 16, Lee was joined by Jackson. The battle on
which was staked “the invasion of Maryland,” in the view of the Federal
government, but in reality the sovereignty of the Union, was near at
hand. On the night of the 15th the greatest part of McClellan’s troops
were in bivouac behind the heights on the left bank of the Antietam,
sheltered from, but within range of, the enemy’s batteries. The morning
of the 16th was occupied in reconnoissance of the enemy’s position, in
rectifying the position of the Federal troops, and perfecting the
arrangements for the attack. At about 3 o’clock P.M. Gen. Hooker crossed
the Antietam by the bridge in the village on the Hagerstown road, and an
adjacent ford, and soon gained the crest of the height on the right bank
of the stream. He then turned to his left and followed down the ridge
under a strong opposition, until brought to a standstill by the
darkness. Gen. Mansfield was ordered to follow Gen. Hooker, so as to be
in a position to support him at daybreak.

At daybreak on the 17th, Gen. Hooker attacked the forces in his front,
and for a time drove them before him. The enemy, however, rallying, and
strengthened from their supporting columns, repulsed him. Gen.
Mansfield’s corps was then drawn to Hooker’s support, and the two masses
repelled the enemy. Gen. Mansfield was killed and Gen. Hooker wounded at
this crisis, and obliged to withdraw from the field. Gen. Sumner’s corps
soon reached this portion of the field and became hotly engaged. This
corps suffered greatly at this period of the contest, Gens. Sedgwick and
Crawford being wounded, and portions of the line were compelled to fall
back. The enemy, however, were checked by the Federal artillery.
Sumner’s corps was soon reinforced, and the lost ground was recovered.
The contest in the mean time on the right was most obstinate, and the
losses in this part of the field were very heavy. Gen. Burnside’s corps,
on the left, was ordered early in the day to carry the bridge across the
Antietam and to attack the enemy’s right. The approaches to the bridge
being in the nature of a defile, and being swept by batteries of the
enemy, the opposite bank of the Antietam was only reached after a severe
struggle. It was afternoon before the heights were in his possession.
The enemy were driven back, and a portion of their line in disorder. By
the most desperate efforts, however, the enemy rallied their retreating
regiments, strengthened their lines with all their available fresh
troops, and opened batteries on the hills.

Gen. Burnside could not maintain his advantage, and was obliged to
withdraw from the extreme position which he had gained to one slightly
in rear. He, however, held his bank of the river completely, and
maintained much ground beyond it which he had taken from the enemy.
During the advance on the left Gen. Rodman was wounded.

Notwithstanding substantial and decided successes of the day, the
Federal forces had suffered so severely during the conflict, having lost
11,426 killed and wounded, and among them many general and superior
officers, that it was deemed prudent by Gen. McClellan to reorganize and
give rest and refreshment to the troops before renewing the attack. The
18th was accordingly devoted to those objects. On the night of the 18th,
however, Gen. Lee withdrew his forces hastily across the Potomac,
abandoning further contest with the Union forces, and yielding all hopes
of further remaining on Maryland soil. The Confederate army is supposed
to have lost nearly 30,000 men during its brief campaign in Maryland.
The Federal forces captured 39 colors, 13 guns, more than 15,000
small-arms, and more than 6000 prisoners.--_Extracts from D. Appleton’s
“History of the Rebellion,” by Tenney, “Lippincott’s Gazetteer,” and
Haydn’s “Dates.”_

=Antioch.= A city in Syria, built by Seleucus 300 B.C.; after the battle
of Ipsus it acquired the name “Queen of the East.” Here the disciples
were first called Christians, A.D. 42. Antioch was taken by the
Persians, 540; by the Saracens about 638; recovered from the Eastern
emperor, 966; lost again in 1086; retaken by the Crusaders in 1098, and
held by them till 1268, when it was captured by the sultan of Egypt. It
was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, Aug. 1, 1833, by Ibrahim
Pasha, but restored at the peace.

=Antium.= A maritime city of Latium, now _Porto d’Anzio_, near Rome;
after a long struggle for independence it became a Roman colony at the
end of the great Latin war, 340-38 B.C. The treasures deposited in the
Temple of Fortune here were taken by Octavius Cæsar during his war with
Antony in 41 B.C.

=Antonia.= A fortress in Jerusalem on the north side of the area of the
temple, originally built by the Maccabees under the name of Baris, and
afterwards rebuilt with great strength and splendor by the first Herod.
The fortress communicated with the northern and western porticoes of the
temple area, so that the garrison could at any time enter the courts of
the temple and prevent tumults. Josephus describes it as standing on a
rock 50 cubits high, and having everything necessary within itself.

=Antustriones.= A body-guard of the kings or chiefs of the ancient
Germans, which was composed of volunteers.

=Antwerp= (Fr. _Anvers_). The principal port of Belgium; is mentioned in
history in 517; it was pillaged and burnt by the Spaniards and the
inhabitants massacred, November 4, 1576. This event has been termed the
“Spanish Fury.” After Marlborough’s victory at Ramillies, Antwerp
surrendered at once, June 6, 1706; the Barrier treaty concluded here,
November 16, 1715; taken by Marshal Saxe, May 9, 1746; occupied by the
French, 1792-94 and 1814. The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp,
were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict,
being driven into their citadel, cannonaded the town with hot shot and
shells, October 27, 1830; the citadel was bombarded by the French,
December 4; surrendered by Gen. Chasse, December 23, 1832. The exchange
burnt, archives, etc., destroyed, August 2, 1858; fortification
completed, 1865.

=Anvil.= An archaism for the handle or hilt of a sword. Also, a little
narrow flag at the end of a lance.

=Anvil.= The resisting cone, plate, or bar against which the fulminate
in a metallic cartridge is exploded. See PRIMER.

=Aosta.= A town in Piedmont, which was captured by the Romans in 24 B.C.

=Aous=, or =Aeas= (now the _Voyussa_). A river in Epirus, Greece, which
flows into the Adriatic Sea; on the banks of this river Philip of
Macedon was twice defeated by the Romans.

=Apaches.= A warlike tribe of savage Indians who infest New Mexico and
Arizona. Until within a few years they were hostile, making frequent
raids into the neighboring Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua, and
robbing and murdering the settlers. They are now peaceable, and settled
on reservations (with the exception of a few renegades); but being
entirely uncivilized, their peaceful condition is uncertain. See INDIANS
AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Aparejo.= A kind of pack-saddle used in the American military service.
See PACK-SADDLES.

=Apex.= The tip, point, or summit of anything. The Romans so named the
crest of a helmet, or the part whereon the horse-hair plume was
attached.

=Aphracti.= In the ancient military art, open vessels, without decks or
hatches, furnished only at head and stern with cross-planks, whereon the
men stood to fight.

=Apobates.= A name given by the ancients to warriors who fought mounted
on chariots; they were also called _Anabates_, or _Paraebates_; they
were generally leaders who fought in this manner; their armor and arms
consisted of helmet, breast-armor, lance, javelin, sword, and shield.
These warriors occasionally alighted from the chariots to attack their
adversaries on foot.

=Apology.= In a military sense, when made and accepted, debars the
officer who accepts from bringing forward the matter as a substantive
accusation. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 25.

=Apomaque.= This word, with the Grecians, signified those soldiers who
were disqualified for military service from physical disability or other
causes.

=Appalachee Indians.= A tribe of Indians once powerful in West Florida.
In 1700 a part of them removed into what is now Alabama, and the tribe
soon ceased to exist.

=Apparatus.= Ammunition and equipage for war.

=Appareilles.= Are those slopes that lead to the platform of the
bastion.

=Appastis=, or =Pactis=. A war-tax, which was levied in ancient times
upon the inhabitants of conquered countries.

=Appeal.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 29, 30.

=Appel= (_Fr._). A smart stroke with the blade by a fencer on the sword
of his antagonist on the opposite side to that which he engaged,
generally accompanied with a stamp of the foot, and used for the purpose
of procuring an opening.

=Appian Way.= A Roman road, made by Appius Claudius Cæcus, while censor,
312 B.C.

=Appointe= (_Fr._). This word was applicable to French soldiers only,
during the old monarchy of France, and meant a man who for his service
and extraordinary bravery received more than common pay. There were
likewise instances in which officers were distinguished by being styled
_officers appointes_.

=Appointing Power.= It has been contended by advocates of executive
discretion, that army appointments are embraced in the power granted to
the President in the 2d section of the Constitution, to nominate, and,
by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoint “all other
officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein
otherwise provided for, and which may be established by law. But the
Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as
they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in
the heads of departments.” If due regard, however, be paid to the words
“_whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for_,” the
pretension set up in favor of executive power will receive no support
from the terms of the Constitution. The powers granted to Congress to
_raise_ and support armies, and to make all _rules_ for the _government_
and _regulation_ of the land and naval forces, are necessarily so
comprehensive in character, as to embrace all means which Congress,
according to circumstances, may deem proper and necessary in order to
raise armies, or govern them when raised. Rules of appointment to
office, rules of promotion,--another form of appointment,--and all rules
whatever in relation to the land and naval forces, save the appointment
of the commander-in-chief of those united forces, who is designated by
the Constitution, are hence within the competency of Congress.

=Appointment.= Office, rank, or employment.

=Appointment.= The equipment, ordnance, furniture, and necessaries of an
army.

=Appointments, Military.= The accoutrements of an officer.

=Appointon= (_Fr._). A sort of poniard which was used in ancient times.

=Apprehend.= In a military sense, implies the seizing or confining of
any person; as, to apprehend a deserter, etc.

=Apprenti= (_Fr._). Apprentice. Formerly in the French service they had
apprentices or soldiers among the artillery, who served for less pay
than the regular artillerymen, until they became perfect in their
profession, when they were admitted to such vacancies as occurred in
their respective branches.

=Approach.= The route by which a fortified place or military position
can be approached by an attacking force.

=Approaches.= The trenches or covered roads by which the besiegers
convey ordnance, ammunition, and stores, and march troops to and from
the parallels; also the trenches by means of which the successive
parallels are established.

=Appropriations.= For the support of the U. S. army are made annually;
the bill for the same must originate in the lower house of Congress. The
English army is raised by the queen, and maintained by annual
appropriations by Parliament; the system for the support of armies is
much the same throughout Europe. In the United States, the term is also
used by post and regimental councils of administration in the
expenditure of funds.

=Appui.= See POINT D’APPUI.

=Apri=, or =Apros=. A small town in Thrace, on the river Melas, where
the daring leader of the Catalonians, Berengar de Rocafort, defeated the
Greeks under the Emperor Michael, 1307.

=Apron.= A piece of sheet-lead used to cover the vent of a cannon.

=Apulia.= A province in Southeast Italy, conquered by the Normans, whose
leader, Guiscard, received the title of Duke of Apulia from Pope
Nicholas II. in 1059. After many changes of masters, it was absorbed
into the kingdom of Naples in 1265.

=Aqueduct.= A channel to convey water from one place to another.
Aqueducts in military architecture are generally made to bring water
from a spring or river to a fortress, etc.; they are likewise used to
carry canals over low ground, and over brooks or small rivers; they are
built with arches like a bridge, only not so wide, and are covered by an
arch, to prevent dust or dirt from being thrown into the water,--there
are also subterranean aqueducts, such as pipes of wood, lead, or iron.

=Aquila= (Southern Italy). Near here the Aragonese, under the
condottiere Braccio Fortebraccio, were defeated by the allied Papal,
Neapolitan, and Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, June 2, 1424.
Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, and died, June 5.

=Aquila.= The principal standard of a Roman legion. The standard of
Romulus is said to have consisted of a handful of hay, straw, or fern,
affixed to a pole or spear; whence the company of soldiers who served
under it was called _Manipulus_. This primitive standard was soon
superseded by the figures of animals. In 104 B.C. the eagle was
permanently adopted; it was made of silver or bronze, and was
represented with expanded wings.

=Aquilifer.= A name given by the Romans to the officers who carried the
eagles of the legions.

=Aquitaine.= A province in the southwest of France; conquered by the
Romans in 28 B.C.; by the Visigoths, 418; taken from them by Clovis in
507. Henry II. of England obtained it with his wife Eleanor, 1152. It
was erected into a principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; but
was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken
by the crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in
1418. The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI.

=Arabia.= A tract of land in Western Asia; the terms _Petræa_ (stony),
_Felix_ (happy), and _Deserta_ are said to have been applied to its
divisions by Ptolemy, about 140. Arabia was unsuccessfully invaded by
Gallus, the Roman governor of Egypt, 24 B.C. In 622, the Arabians under
the name of Saracens (which see), followers of Mohammed, their general
and prophet, commenced their course of conquest. The Arabs greatly
favored literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy,
and chemistry. To them we owe our ordinary (_Arabic_) numerals and
arithmetical notation.

=Aracillum.= A city in Spain. The Cantabrians being besieged in this
city by the Romans, killed each other rather than surrender.

=Aradus= (now _Ruad_). A city of Phœnicia; captured by the Roman general
Ventidius, 38 B.C.

=Aragon.= Part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a kingdom, Northeast Spain,
was conquered by the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans
about 200 B.C. It became an independent monarchy in 1035.

=Aranjuez= (Central Spain). Contains a fine royal palace, at which
several important treaties were concluded. On March 17, 1808, an
insurrection broke out here against Charles IV. and his favorite, Godoy,
the Prince of Peace. The former was compelled to abdicate in favor of
his son, Ferdinand VII., March 19.

=Aransas.= A small river of Texas, which empties into a bay of the same
name, immediately north of Corpus Christi Bay. The Confederate works
near this place were captured by the Federal troops November 20, 1864.

=Arapahoe Indians.= A tribe of Indians associated with the Cheyennes,
who inhabit the country between the South Fork of the Platte River and
the head-waters of the Arkansas. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Arapiles.= A village of Spain, 4 miles southeast of Salamanca. It was
the scene of the sanguinary engagement called the battle of Salamanca,
in which the allies under Wellington defeated the French under Marmont,
July 22, 1812.

=Arausio= (now _Orange_, Southeast France). Through jealousy of the
Roman proconsul Q. Servilius Cæpio, who would not wait for the arrival
of the army of the consul C. Manlius, both were here defeated by the
Cimbri with much slaughter, 105 B.C.

=Arbalest.= In the ancient art of war, a cross-bow made of steel, set in
a shaft of wood, with a string and trigger, bent with a piece of iron
fitted for that purpose, and used to throw bullets, large arrows, darts,
etc.

=Arbalestina.= In the military system of the Middle Ages, was a small
window or wicket through which the cross-bow men shot their quarrels or
arrows at an enemy besieging a fortified place.

=Arbaletrier d’une Galere= (_Fr._). That part of a galley where the
cross-bow men were placed during an engagement.

=Arbalist=, or =Arblast=. A cross-bow man.

=Arbela= (now _Erbil_). A city in Asiatic Turkey; near here was fought
the third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius
Codomanus which decided the fate of Persia, October 1, 331 B.C., on a
plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. The army of Darius
consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army
amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. The gold and silver found
in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander
from this victory, amounted to £30,000,000 sterling; and the jewels and
other precious spoil belonging to Darius sufficed to load 20,000 mules
and 5000 camels.

=Arbourg.= A city in Switzerland, whose citadel, which was constructed
in 1600, is an important depot for military stores.

=Arbrier= (_Fr._). Stock of a cross-bow.

=Arc= (_Fr._). A bow; an arch in building.

=Arc à Jalet= (_Fr._). A small cross-bow, used to throw bullets, etc.

=Arc, Elevating.= In gunnery, is an arc attached to the base of the
breech parallel to the ratchets and graduated into degrees and parts of
a degree. A pointer attached to the fulcrum points to the zero of the
scale when the axis of the piece is horizontal. Elevations and
depressions are indicated by the scale. Besides the graduations on the
arc, the ranges (in yards) and the charges for shot and shells are
given.

=Arch.= In military architecture, is a vault or concave building, in
form of a curve, erected to support some heavy structure, or passage.

=Archers.= In military history, a kind of militia or soldiery, armed
with bows and arrows. They were much used in former times.

=Archery.= The use of the bow and arrow; the practice, art, or skill of
archers; the art of shooting with a bow and arrow.

=Arch-gaye=, or =Lance-gaye= (_Fr._). A lance used by the Gauls and
Franks, which consisted of a sharp-pointed piece of iron attached to a
light wooden handle.

=Architonnerre= (_Fr._). A machine made of copper, which threw iron
bullets with great force and noise; it was used in ancient times, being
an invention of Archimedes.

=Architrave.= The master-beam, or chief supporter, in any part of
subterraneous fortification.

=Arch, Triumphal.= In military history, is a stately monument or
erection, generally of a semicircular form, adorned with sculpture,
inscriptions, etc., in honor of those heroes who have deserved a
triumph.

=Arcis-sur-Aube.= A small town in the French department of Aube; here a
battle took place on March 20, 1814, between Napoleon and the allied
forces under Prince Schwartzenberg. The battle, beginning with several
skirmishes on the first day, and ending in a general engagement on the
second day, when the French retreated over the Aube, was not in itself
very important. But Napoleon now formed the plan of operating in the
rear of the allies, and left the road to Paris open; assuming that they
would not venture to proceed without attempting first to secure their
rear. The allies marched, nevertheless, on the capital, and thus decided
the campaign.

=Arco.= A metal composed of 70 parts of pure copper, 27 of zinc, and 3
of lead; used for the brass-work of small-arms.

=Arcola= (Lombardy). The site of battles between the French under
Bonaparte, and the Austrians under Field-Marshal Alvinzi, fought
November 15-17, 1796. The Austrians lost 18,000 men in killed, wounded,
and prisoners, 4 flags, and 18 guns. The French lost about 15,000, and
became masters of Italy.

=Arcot= (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) was taken by Col. Clive
August 31, 1751; was retaken, but again surrendered to Col. Coote,
February 10, 1760; besieged and taken by Hyder Ali, when the British
under Col. Baillie suffered severe defeat, October 31, 1780. Arcot has
been subject to Great Britain since 1801.

=Arcubalist.= See ARBALEST.

=Ardalion.= A river in Algeria. On the banks of this river in 398,
Mascezil, a Roman general, defeated Gildo, a Moorish chieftain, then in
rebellion against Rome.

=Ardebil.= A city in Persia; its citadel was constructed by French
officers; captured by the Turks in 1827.

=Ardres.= A city in the department of Pas-de-Calais, France, it was
dismantled in 1850. This city was captured by the Duke of Burgundy,
brother of Charles V., from the English in 1377; a treaty was concluded
here between Francis I. of France and Henry VIII. of England June 7,
1546; captured by the Spaniards in 1596; returned to France in 1598.

=Area.= In a military sense, is the superficial contents of any rampart
or other work of a fortification.

=Areoscope.= An instrument used for analyzing the air of rooms; used in
English medical corps.

=Ares.= The god of war in Greek mythology, corresponding to the Roman
Mars (which see).

=Argaum.= A village in the Deccan, near to which Gen. Wellesley
(afterwards Duke of Wellington) totally defeated the army of Dawlut Rao
Scindia in October, 1803.

=Argelinos=, or =Algerinos=. The Spaniards so named the foreign legion,
which was sent to them from Algiers by France, during the reign of Louis
Philippe.

=Argent.= This word means silver in French, and is always used in
heraldry to designate that metal. In engraving English shields the part
designated as argent is left white.

=Argentaria= (now _Colmar_, Northern France). Where the Roman Emperor
Gratian totally defeated the Alemanni and secured the peace of Gaul,
378.

=Argentine Republic.= Formerly the Confederation of La Plata, a South
American federal republic, consisting of 14 provinces extending over an
immense area of country. Buenos Ayres, one of its provinces, with the
city of the same name, now the capital, seceded from the confederation
in 1853, and was reunited in 1860. The country is remarkable chiefly for
its internecine wars, revolutions, and struggles, incident to all the
countries colonized by the Spanish race. See BUENOS AYRES.

=Argives.= The inhabitants of Argos, a state of ancient Greece of which
Mycenæ was the capital, and which was ruled by Agamemnon at the time of
the Trojan war. The name is frequently used by Homer to signify the
whole body of the Greeks.

=Argos= (now _Panitza_). An ancient city of Greece; near here, in 272
B.C., Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedon, defeated the army of Pyrrhus,
king of Epirus; the latter was killed.

=Argoulet= (_Fr._). An ancient dragoon. Also an inferior sort of a
musket made at Liege for trading with the negroes.

=Arich= (anc. _Rhinocolura_). A fortress in Lower Egypt. The French
occupied this place in 1793, but were obliged to surrender it in 1800.

=Aries= (_Lat._ “a ram”). An ancient battering-ram. See BATTERING-RAM.

=Arizona.= A Territory of the United States, originally part of New
Mexico, organized February, 1803. For many years known for its Indian
hostilities, and conflicts between the Indians and U. S. troops; also
for frequent terrible massacres of whites.

=Arkansas.= One of the Southwestern States of the Union. It was settled
by the French in 1685, and formed a part of the great tract purchased
from the French in 1803 under the name of Louisiana Territory. It was
organized as a Territory in 1819, and admitted as a State in 1836.
Arkansas passed an ordinance of secession March 4, 1861; was the scene
of several engagements during the civil war, and suffered its share of
the hardships of that eventful period. The battles of Pea Ridge and
Fayetteville were fought in its territory; Arkansas Post was captured in
1863; and Helena and Little Rock were taken the same year.

=Arkansas Indians.= A tribe of Indians allied to the Dakotas, who
formerly resided on the Ohio. At present they number about 200, and live
in the Indian Territory.

=Arkansas Post.= A village in Arkansas, on the Arkansas River, about 40
miles from its mouth, garrisoned by the Confederates during the civil
war. The combined forces of Admiral Porter and Gen. McClernand made an
attack upon the place January 11, 1863, and carried it by storm.

=Arklow.= A town in Ireland, where a battle was fought between the
insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of
British, which signally defeated them, June 10, 1798.

=Arles.= A city in the department Mouths-of-the-Rhone, France; said to
have been founded 2000 B.C.; was formerly a powerful Roman city;
sustained four memorable sieges against the Visigoths, in 425, 429, 452,
and 457; besieged by Clovis I., king of the Franks, 508. The Count of
Barcelona took possession of it in 1156, and Alfonso II., king of
Aragon, in 1167.

=Arlon.= A town in the province of Luxembourg, Belgium. Here the French,
commanded by Jourdan, defeated the Austrians in April, 1793, and again
in April, 1794.

=Arm.= In a military sense, signifies a particular species of
troops,--thus the artillery is an arm, and the cavalry, and infantry,
etc., are each called an arm of the service. The word is also used to
denote an instrument of warfare; a weapon of offense or defense.

=Arm.= To be provided with arms, weapons, or means of attack or
resistance; to take arms.

=Armament.= A body of forces equipped for war;--used as a land force.
All arrangements made for the defense of a fortification with musketry
and artillery.

=Armamentary.= An armory; a magazine or arsenal.

=Arm a Shot, To.= Is to roll rope-yarns about a cross-bar shot in order
to facilitate ramming it home, and also to prevent the ends catching any
accidental inequalities in the bore.

=Armatoles.= A Grecian militia of Thessaly, instituted by Selim I. at
the beginning of the 16th century, to oppose the raids of the
mountaineers called _klephtes_, or brigands. Later the Armatoles and
Klephtes united against the Turks.

=Armatura.= In ancient military history signified the fixed and
established military exercises of the Romans. Under this word is
understood the throwing of the spear, javelin, shooting with bows and
arrows, etc. Armatura was also an appellation given to the soldiers who
were light-armed; and was a name also given to the soldiers in the
emperor’s retinue.

=Armature.= Armor; whatever is worn or used for the protection and
defense of the body.

=Arm-chest.= A portable locker for holding arms, and affording a ready
supply of pistols, muskets, or other weapons. Also used in the military
service for the transportation of rifles, revolvers, etc.

=Arme Courtoise= (_Fr._). This arm was used in tilts or tournaments
during the Middle Ages; it was a kind of sword with a ring or knob
placed at the tip of the blade to prevent it causing a dangerous wound.

=Armed.= Furnished with weapons of offense or defense; furnished with
the means of security or protection; furnished with whatever serves to
add strength, force, or efficiency. _Armed neutrality_, the condition of
affairs when a nation assumes a threatening position, and maintains an
armed force to repel any aggression on the part of belligerent nations
between which it is neutral.

=Armentiers.= A city of the department of the North, France; captured
and burned by the English, 1339; pillaged by the French, 1382; destroyed
by the Calvinists in 1566; occupied by Marshals de Gassion and de
Rantzan, 1645; by Archduke Leopold, 1647; by the French in 1667, and
remained a city of France in accordance with the peace treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.

=Armes de Jet= (_Fr._). Missive weapons; offensive arms or instruments
which act by propulsion, whether by the force of powder, steam, wind, or
mechanism.

=Armet= (_Fr._). A helmet or head-piece much in use in the 16th century,
and worn with or without the beaver.

=Armgaunt.= Worn by military service; as, an armgaunt steed.

=Armiger.= Formerly an armor-bearer, as of a knight; an esquire who bore
his shield and rendered other services. In later use, one next in degree
to a knight, and entitled to a coat of arms.

=Armilausa.= A military uniform coat, worn by the Romans over their
armor.

=Armiludia.= A name given by the Romans to the exercises of arms, and
also applied to the day on which these exercises took place.

=Armilustrium.= This name was given by the Romans to a military festival
which took place on the 19th of October annually. After review the
soldiers offered up sacrifices for the success of the Roman arms.

=Armipotent.= Powerful in arms; mighty in battle.

=Armisonous.= Rustling in arms; resounding with arms.

=Armistice.= A cessation of hostilities between belligerent nations for
a considerable time. It is either partial and local, or general. It
differs from a mere suspension of arms, which takes place to enable the
two armies to bury their dead, their chiefs to hold conferences or
pourparlers, and the like. The terms truce (see TRUCE) and armistice are
sometimes used in the same sense.

=Armless.= Without arms or armor.

=Armlet.= The name of a piece of armor for the arm, to protect it from
the jar of the bow-string.

=Armor.= Defensive arms for the body; any clothing or covering worn to
protect one’s person in battle. In English statutes, armor is used for
the whole apparatus of war, including offensive as well as defensive
arms. The _statutes of armor_ directed what arms every man should
provide. Armor has also been extensively used in England in plating
important fortifications as those of Portsmouth, and also in Germany for
the forts along the frontier.

=Armor-bearer.= One who carries the armor of another; an armiger; an
esquire.

=Armorer.= The person who makes, cleans, or repairs arms.

=Armorial.= Belonging to armor, or to the arms or escutcheon of a
family.

=Armor Plates.= From experiments of the effects of shot and shell on
armor plates in England, the following results have been obtained: Where
it is required to perforate the plate, the projectile should be of hard
material, such as steel, or chilled iron, and the form best suited for
this purpose is the pointed ogeeval. The resistance of wrought-iron
plates to perforation by steel projectiles varies as the squares of
their thickness. Hitting a plate at an angle diminishes the effect as
regards the power of perforation in the proportion of the sine of the
angle of incidence to unity. The resistance of wrought-iron plates to
perforation by steel shot is practically not much, if at all, increased
by backing simply of wood, within the usual limits of thickness; it is,
however, much increased by a rigid backing either of iron combined with
wood, or of granite, iron, brick, etc.

Till quite recently armor plates have been made of wrought iron only, as
numerous experiments in England had served to show that notwithstanding
the enormous resistance of steel to penetration it was unfit for armor
plating,--the damage from the impact of shot not being localized as in
wrought iron. The Italians were led, however, by the experiments with
the 100-ton gun on targets of both metals at Spezzia, 1876, to adopt
steel for their new ships, the “Duilio” and “Dandolo.” Since that time
an armor compounded of steel and wrought iron has been introduced in
England which bids fair to supersede all others. It is made by casting a
heavy facing of steel upon wrought-iron plates. A section of this
compound armor exhibits a gradual change of structure from the hard
steel face to the soft iron backing. Its resistance to penetration is
equal to steel, while in toughness and endurance under the blows of
shot it resembles wrought iron.

To glance at some of the heaviest armor plating afloat, the English
“Inflexible” carries a maximum thickness of 24 inches of iron, the
Italian frigates mentioned above 21.5 of steel, the French “Admiral
Duperré” 21.6 of iron, the Russian “Peter the Great” 14 inches of iron.
In regard to the power of some of the most noted of modern guns, the
12-inch calibres used now by all leading nations will penetrate, at 1000
yards, 16 to 18 inches of iron. The 38-ton English gun of this calibre
has penetrated (at shorter range) 22 inches of iron and 6 inches of teak
backing. The 80-ton Woolwich gun will penetrate 23 inches of iron at
1000 yards. The largest Krupp, 72 tons, will penetrate 26 inches, and
the 100-ton Armstrong 30 inches at the same distance. None of the guns
mentioned would penetrate at a single shot the steel armor of the
Italian ships, but any of them would destroy it in a number of rounds.

=Armory.= A manufactory, or place of deposit for arms. See ARSENAL.

=Armory, National.= The U. S. government establishment for the
manufacture of small-arms at Springfield, Mass.

=Arm-rack.= A frame or fitting for the stowage of arms (usually
vertical) out of harm’s way, but in readiness for immediate use. In the
conveyance of troops by sea arm-racks form a part of the proper
accommodation. Arm-racks are also used in soldiers’ barrack-rooms.

=Arms.= In a general sense, comprehend weapons both of an offensive and
defensive character, but in the usual restricted sense they only embrace
the former, and in modern warfare include the gun and bayonet, the
rifle, the pistol, the carbine, the sword, the lance, cannon, etc., all
of which are noticed under their respective heads. For punishment
inflicted upon soldiers who sell or otherwise dispose of their arms, see
APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 17.

=Arms.= This term is used in heraldry to designate the devices borne on
shields, and includes all the accompaniments, such as the crest, helmet,
supporters, etc.

=Arms, Bells of.= Are tents, used in the English service, mostly of a
conical shape, for containing the small-arms for each company in a
regiment of infantry. The tent is frequently painted with the color of
the facings of the regimental uniforms.

=Arms, Stand of.= A complete set for one soldier, as a rifle and
bayonet, cartridge-box and belt, frequently the rifle and bayonet alone.

=Armstrong Gun.= The Armstrong gun as a breech-loading field-piece first
attracted attention in England about 1850. About 1858 it was adopted by
the British government. This gun was made of wrought iron, and consisted
of a single coiled tube reinforced at the breech with two thin tubes,
the outer one being a coiled tube, the inner being formed by bending a
plate and welding the edges. The coiled tubes were formed by bending
square bars of iron around a mandrel and welding the coils together.
Tubes made in this way offer great resistance to tangential strains. The
intermediate tube was designed to take up the longitudinal strain near
the breech, and for this reason was made differently. The breech was
closed with a vent-piece, slipped by the band into a slot cut in the
piece near the breech, and held in its place by a breech-screw, which
supported it from behind. This screw was made in the form of a tube, so
that its hollow formed a part of the bore prolonged, when the vent-piece
was drawn. Through the hollow screw the charge was passed into the
chamber. The vent was formed in the breech-piece. This gun was a 3-inch
12-pounder, firing a lead-coated projectile. It was followed by the
40-pounder, 110-pounder, and other calibres. Muzzle-loaders were also
made. The breech-loading apparatus did not prove entirely successful in
large guns, and was accordingly discarded except for small calibres. The
method of construction was changed for larger guns, and a plan adopted
which has been adhered to ever since, and is that now used. The barrel
or part surrounding the bore is made of steel tempered in oil; that
portion at and in rear of the trunnions is enveloped by several layers
of wrought-iron tubes, the number of layers depending upon the size of
the gun. These tubes, instead of being joined at their ends by welding,
are hooked on to each other by a system of shoulders and recesses. There
are also projections fitting into corresponding recesses, which serve to
prevent the tubes from slipping within each other. The tube which
immediately surrounds the barrel opposite to the seat of the charge is
called the breech-piece. It is made with its fibres and welds running
longitudinally, so as to resist the recoil of the barrel against the
head of the breech-plug, which is screwed into the breech-piece. The
shunt system of rifling was first applied to muzzle-loading Armstrong
guns, which have fewer grooves than the breech-loaders. The method of
manufacturing originally proposed by Sir William Armstrong has been
greatly modified by Mr. Fraser, of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. (See
ORDNANCE, ARMSTRONG CANNON). For some years large numbers of Armstrong
guns were made at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, under the supervision of
the inventor. His works are now located at Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
and are known us the Elswick Ordnance Works. To distinguish the system
of gun-construction from the “Woolwich,” which it closely resembles, it
is frequently called the “Elswick” system. The largest, as well as the
most powerful guns ever made, are the 100-ton guns manufactured at
Elswick for the Italian navy. See CANNON AND ORDNANCE, MODERN HISTORY
OF.

=Armstrong Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Army.= A large and organized body of soldiers, consisting of infantry,
cavalry, and artillery, completely armed, and provided with the
necessary stores, etc., the whole being composed of companies,
battalions, regiments, brigades, divisions, and corps, under proper
officers, and the entire force being under the direction of one general,
who is called the general-in-chief, and sometimes the _generalissimo_.
Armies are distinguished by different appellations; as, a _covering
army_, a _blockading army_, an _army of obstruction_, an _army of
reserve_, a _flying army_, etc. An army is said to _cover_ a place when
it is encamped or in cantonments for the protection of the different
passes which lead to a principal object of defense. An army is said to
_blockade_ a place when, being well provided with heavy ordnance and
other warlike means, it is employed to invest a town for the direct and
immediate purpose of reducing it by assault or famine. An _army of
obstruction_ is so called because by its advanced positions and
desultory movements it is constantly employed in watching the enemy. _A
flying army_ means a strong body of horse and foot, which is always in
motion, both to cover its own garrisons and keep the enemy in continual
alarm. For method of providing for armies, see APPROPRIATIONS.

=Army Corps.= See CORPS D’ARMÉE.

=Army Regulations.= This is the name of a work published by the War
Department embodying all the acts of Congress, and the rules laid down
by the President for the management of the army, both in peace and war.
See REGULATIONS.

=Arnaouts=, or =Arnouts, Corps des=. Militia of Greece organized during
the war of Russia against the Porte in 1769.

=Arnheim.= A fortified city in Holland; it was captured by the French in
1672; taken by storm by the Prussians under Gen. Von Bulow in 1815.

=Arnott’s Pump.= An ingeniously arranged machine for forcing pure air
into buildings.

=Arquebusade.= Shot of an arquebuse. Also distilled water from a variety
of aromatic plants, as rosemary, millefoil, etc., applied to a bruise or
wound; so called because it was originally used as a vulnerary in
gunshot wounds.

=Arquebuse=, or =Harquebuse=. An old fire-arm resembling a musket, which
was supported on a rest by a hook of iron fastened to the barrel. It was
longer than a musket, and of large calibre, and formerly used to fire
through the loop-holes of antique fortifications.

=Arquebusier.= A soldier armed with an arquebuse.

=Arques= (Northern France). Near here the league army, commanded by the
Duc de Mayenne, was defeated by Henry IV., September 21, 1589.

=Arracan.= A province of Northeast India. Arracan, the capital, taken by
the Burmese, 1783; was taken from them by Gen. Morrison, April 1, 1825.
The subjugation of the whole province soon followed.

=Arrah.= A town in British India, in the presidency of Bengal, the scene
of several exciting incidents in the Indian mutiny. The English troops
gained a victory here over the mutinous Sepoys in 1857.

=Arras= (Northeast France). The ancient Atrebates; conquered by Cæsar in
50 B.C.; captured and sacked by the Vandals in 407; captured by the
Normans in 880; besieged by Charles VI. in 1414; captured by Louis XI.;
held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it was taken by Louis
XIII.; besieged by the Spaniards in 1654.

=Arrawak Indians.= A race or collection of tribes of Indians in Guiana,
who were formerly numerous and powerful.

=Array.= Order; disposition in regular lines; hence, a posture for
fighting; as, drawn up in battle array.

=Arrayer.= In some early English statutes, an officer who had care of
the soldiers’ armor, and who saw them duly accoutred.

=Arrest.= The temporary confinement of officers in barracks, quarters,
or tents, pending trial by court-martial, or the consideration of their
imputed offenses previous to deciding whether they shall or shall not be
tried. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 65.) Private soldiers are usually
placed under guard; by the custom of the service non-commissioned
officers may be simply placed in arrest in quarters.

=Arrest= (_Old Fr._, now _arret_). A French phrase, similar in its
import to the Latin word _retinaculum_; it consisted of a small piece of
steel or iron, which was formerly used in the construction of fire-arms,
to prevent the piece from going off. A familiar phrase among military
men in France is, _Ce pistolet est en arret_, “this pistol is in arrest
or is stopped.”

=Arreste of the Glacis.= Is the junction of the talus which is formed at
all the angles.

=Arretium.= A city of the Gauls, now in the department of the Yonne,
France, where the Gauls defeated the Romans in a bloody battle in 284
B.C.

=Arrow.= In fortification, a work placed at the salient angles of the
glacis, communicating with the covert way.

=Arrow.= A missile weapon of defense, straight, slender, pointed, and
barbed, to be shot with a bow.

=Arrow-head.= The head of an arrow.

=Arrow-wood.= A species of _Viburnum_, from the long straight stems of
which the Indians dwelling between the Mississippi and the Pacific make
their arrows.

=Arrowy.= Consisting of arrows.

=Arroyo del Molinos.= A small town in Estremadura, Spain, near the river
Guadiana, where Lord Hill, on the 28th of October, 1811, surprised and
defeated the French under Gen. Gerard. Nearly 1500 prisoners were taken,
including Prince d’Aremburg, Gen. Brun, one colonel, two
lieutenant-colonels, a commissaire de guerre, and no less than 30
captains and inferior officers. It was altogether a most brilliant
achievement.

=Arsenal.= A public establishment for the storage or for the manufacture
and storage of arms and all military equipments, whether for land or
naval service. In the United States there are 17 arsenals and 1 armory
(Springfield, Mass.), situated at different points throughout the whole
country convenient for the distribution of _materiel_, as follows:
Alleghany arsenal, at Pittsburg, Pa.; at Augusta, Ga.; Benicia, Cal.;
Fort Monroe, Va.; Fort Union, N. M.; Frankford arsenal, Philadelphia,
Pa.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Kennebec arsenal, Augusta, Me.; New York;
Pikesville, Md.; Rock Island, Ill.; Jefferson Barracks, Mo.; San
Antonio, Texas; Vancouver, W. T.; Washington, D. C.; Watertown, Mass.;
and Watervliet arsenal, West Troy, N. Y.

=Arsouf= (Syria). At a battle here Richard I. of England, commanding the
Christian forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin’s army of 300,000
and other infidels on September 6, 1191. Ascalon surrendered, and
Richard marched to Jerusalem, 1192.

=Art, Military.= Military art may be divided into two principal
branches. The first branch relates to the order and arrangement which
must be observed in the management of an army, when it is to engage an
enemy, to march, or to be encamped. This branch is called _tactics_. The
same appellation belongs to the other branch of military art, which also
includes the composition and application of warlike machines. See
LOGISTICS, STRATEGY, STRATAGEM, TACTICS, and WAR.

=Arta=, or =Narda=. A town in Albania. The Greek insurgents against the
Porte were defeated here, July 16, 1822.

=Artaxata.= The ancient capital of Armenia; burned by the Roman general
Carbulo, about 59.

=Artemisium.= A promontory in Eubœa, near which indecisive conflicts
took place between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days, 480 B.C.
The former retired on hearing of the battle of Thermopylæ.

=Articles of War.= Are known rules and regulations, fixed by law, for
the better government of an army. The articles of war of the United
States consists of 128 articles. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.) All
that relates to the army not comprehended therein is published in
general orders or in established regulations, issued from time to time
from the War Department, copies of which are furnished and read to the
troops. In England they may be altered and enlarged at the pleasure of
the sovereign, but must be annually confirmed by Parliament under the
Mutiny Act.

=Artifice.= Among the French, is understood as comprehending everything
which enters the composition of fire-works, as the sulphur, saltpetre,
charcoal, etc. See PYROTECHNICS.

=Artificer.= One who makes fire works, or works in the artillery
laboratory, and prepares the shells, fuzes, grenades, etc. It is also
applied to military mechanics, such as carpenters, blacksmiths, masons,
etc.

=Artificial Line of Sight.= Is the right line from the eye to the object
to be hit, passing through the front and rear sights. See POINTING.

=Artillery.= In a general sense, signifies all sorts of great guns or
cannon, mortars, howitzers, petards, and the like, together with all the
apparatus and stores thereto belonging, which are not only taken into
the field, but likewise to sieges, and made use of both to attack and
defend fortified places; also the officers and men of that branch of the
army to which the care and management of such machines have been
confided. (See ORDNANCE.) Artillery, in a particular sense, signifies
the science of artillery or gunnery, which art includes a knowledge of
surveying, leveling, geometry, trigonometry, conic sections, laws of
motion, mechanics, fortifications, and projectiles. See BATTERY, FIELD
BATTERY, FIELD ARTILLERY, SIEGE ARTILLERY.

=Artillery Company, Honorable.= A band of infantry, rifles, and
artillery, forming part of the militia, or city guards of London,
England. It was instituted in 1585; having ceased, was revived in 1610.
In the civil war, 1641-48, the company took the side of the Parliament,
and greatly contributed towards its success. The company numbered 1200
in 1803, and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have been appointed by
the queen. On the decease of the Duke of Sussex, in 1843, the prince
consort became colonel and captain-general. He died December 14, 1861,
and the Prince of Wales was appointed his successor, August 24, 1863.

=Artilleryman.= A man who manages, or assists in managing, large guns in
firing.

=Artillery-park.= The camp of one or more field batteries; the inclosure
where, during a siege, the general camp of foot artillery, and depots of
guns, _materiel_, etc., are collected.

=Artillery, Royal Regiment of.= Is the collective name for the whole of
the artillery belonging to the British army. There was no regular
regiment or corps of artillery soldiers in the British army till the
time of Queen Anne, when the present royal regiment was formed. Since
that period, from some anomaly which is not easily explained, all the
additions have been made to the same regiment, instead of forming new
regiments, to be combined into a division or corps. The regiment is now
almost an entire army in itself, and to increase the anomaly, it
comprises horse as well as foot. Formerly the foot was divided into
battalions and companies, and the horse into troops, but these terms
have been abolished, in favor of brigade and battery, which apply both
to horse and foot artillery. The regiment now consists of 33,500 men,
thus distributed:

   6 brigades, horse artillery,  30 batteries.
   8    „      field artillery,  62    „
  14    „      garrison art.,   103    „
   3    „      mixed artillery,  19    „
                                ---
                                214

   1    „      coast artillery not in batteries.
   1    „      depot artillery      „    „

Of the above, the field, garrison, and mixed are foot artillery. This
force represents from 1200 to 1300 guns fully equipped for action. Of
the foot artillery, the garrison batteries are readily converted to
field batteries by the addition of a few drivers.

=Artillery Schools.= Are special schools for instruction and training in
artillery, which are organized through all civilized countries. In the
United States, an artillery school was established at Fort Monroe, Va.,
1867. Its object is to train both officers and enlisted men in the
construction and service of all kinds of artillery and artillery
material, and in gunnery and mathematics as applied in the artillery
service. For artillery schools in other countries, see MILITARY
ACADEMIES.

=Artillery, Systems of.= See SYSTEMS OF ARTILLERY.

=Artillery-train.= A number of pieces of ordnance mounted on carriages,
with all their furniture, fit for marching.

=Arx.= In the ancient military art, a fort, castle, etc., for the
defense of a place.

=Arzegages= (_Fr._). Batons or canes with iron at both ends. They were
carried by the Estradiots, or Albanian cavaliers, who served in France
under Charles VIII. and Louis XII.

=Asapes.= An inferior class of Turkish soldiers employed in sieges to
work in intrenchments and perform other pioneer duty.

=Asaraouas.= A tribe in Algeria against whom the French undertook an
expedition in 1837.

=Ascalon= (Syria). A city of the Philistines which shared the fate of
Phœnicia and Judea. The Egyptian army was defeated here by the Crusaders
under Godfrey of Bouillon, August 12, 1099; it was besieged by the
latter in 1148, taken in 1153, and again in 1191. Its fortifications
were destroyed through fear of the Crusaders, by the sultan, in 1270.

=Aschaffenburg.= On the Maine, Bavaria, Southwestern Germany; here, on
July 14, 1866, the Prussians defeated the German Federal army, captured
the town, and took 2000 prisoners.

=Asculum= (now _Ascoli_, Apulia, Southern Italy). Near it Pyrrhus of
Epirus defeated the Romans 279 B.C. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with
all their country, was conquered by the Consul Sempronius 268 B.C.
Andrea, general of the Emperor Henry VI., endeavoring to wrest Naples
from Tancred, was defeated and slain in 1190.

=Ashantees.= Warlike negroes of West Africa. In 1807 they conquered
Fantee, in which the British settlement of Cape Coast Castle is
situated. On the death of their king, who had been friendly to the
English, hostilities began; and on January 21, 1824, the Ashantees
defeated about 1000 British under Sir Charles McCarthy at Accra, and
brought away his skull with others as trophies. They were totally
defeated August 27, 1826, by Col. Purdon. The governor of Cape Coast
Castle began a war with them in the spring of 1863; but the British
troops suffered much through disease, and the war was suspended by the
government in May, 1864.

=Ashburton Treaty.= Concluded at Washington, August 9, 1842, by
Alexander, Lord Ashburton, and John Tyler, President of the United
States; it defined the boundaries of the respective countries between
Canada and Maine, settled the extradition of criminals, etc.

=Ashdod=, or =Azotus=. An ancient city of Judea, identified with the
site of the modern _Asdood_, about 12 miles northeast of Ascalon. It is
celebrated by Herodotus as having stood a siege of 29 years from
Psammatichus, king of Egypt (about 630 B.C.). It was taken by the
Assyrians under Tartan, the general of Sennacherib (713 B.C.); taken and
destroyed by Judas Maccabæus and his brother Jonathan; restored by
Gabinius, and given by Augustus to Salome.

=Ashdown=, or =Assendune=. Now thought to be Ashton, Berks, England,
where Ethelred and his brother Alfred defeated the Danes in 1171.

=Asia Minor.= See ANATOLIA.

=Askeri Mohammedize.= A name given to the Turkish regular troops
organized according to modern tactics.

=Aslant.= Formed or placed in an oblique line.

=Asow.= An old fortified city in Southern Russia. Towards the end of the
14th century it fell into the hands of Timur; the Turks took possession
of it in 1471; captured by the Cossacks in 1637; besieged without
success by the Turks in 1641, they returned the following year with a
large army to attack the city, when the Cossacks, thinking it impossible
to hold the city against such a force, plundered and burned it; the
Turks then rebuilt the city and fortified it; it was surrendered to
Peter the Great in 1696; the city again came into the Turkish possession
after the peace treaty on the Pruth. In the war between Turkey and
Russia, Asow was besieged by Field-Marshal Munich; it surrendered to
Gen. Lascy, July 4, 1736.

=Aspe.= A village in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, France, where
a small detachment of the French army defeated 6000 Spaniards in 1792.

=Aspect.= An army is said to hold a menacing aspect, when by advanced
movements or positions it gives the opposing enemy cause to apprehend an
attack. A country is said to have a military aspect, when its general
situation presents appropriate obstacles or facilities for an army
acting on the offensive or defensive. An army is said to have an
imposing aspect, when it appears stronger than it really is. This
appearance is often assumed for the purpose of deceiving an enemy, and
may not improperly be considered as a principal _ruse de guerre_, or
feint in war.

=Aspern, Great.= A town near the Danube and Vienna, where a series of
desperate conflicts took place between the Austrian army under the
Archduke Charles, and the French under Napoleon, Massena, etc., on May
21-22, 1809, ending in the retreat of Napoleon on May 22. The loss of
the former exceeded 20,000 men, and of the latter 30,000. The daring
Marshal Lannes was mortally wounded on May 22, and died May 31. The
bridge of the Danube was destroyed and Napoleon’s retreat endangered;
but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on the
subsequent prosecution of the war.

=Aspic= (_Fr._). An ancient piece of ordnance which carried a 12-pound
shot; the piece itself was 11 feet long, and weighed 4250 pounds.

=Aspis.= A large, round, or oblong shield which was used by the heavy
infantry of the ancient Grecians.

=Aspromonte= (Naples). Here Garibaldi was defeated, wounded, and taken
prisoner, August 29, 1862, having injudiciously risen against the French
occupation of Rome.

=Assagai=, or =Assegai=. An instrument of warfare among the Kaffirs.

=Assail.= To attack with violence, or in a hostile manner; to assault,
etc. See ATTACK.

=Assailable.= Capable of being assailed, attacked, or invaded.

=Assas-Bachi.= A superior officer of janissaries, who was also
administrator of the police department in Constantinople, and presided
over public executions.

=Assassins=, or =Assassinians=. Fanatical Mohammedans, collected by
Hassan-ben-Sabah, and settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they
possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They
murdered the Marquis of Montferrat in 1192, Louis of Bavaria in 1213,
and the Khan of Tartary in 1254. They were extirpated in Persia about
1258, and in Syria about 1272. The chief of the corps was named “Old Man
of the Mountain.” They trained up young people to assassinate such
persons as their chief had devoted to destruction. From them the word
_assassin_ has been derived.

=Assault.= A furious but regulated effort to carry a fortified post,
camp, or fortress by personal attack, uncovered and unsupported. While
an assault during a siege continues, the batteries of the besiegers
cease, lest the attacking party should be injured. The party which leads
the assault is sometimes called “the forlorn hope.”

=Assaye.= A small town in the province of Bahar, in the Deccan,
celebrated for a battle fought in 1803, between the British army, 4500
strong, under the Duke of Wellington, then Gen. Wellesley, and the
confederated armies of India, numbering 50,000 troops; the latter were
completely routed, leaving 1200 dead on the field, with nearly the whole
of their artillery. Such was the battle of Assaye, which established the
fame of the greatest commander of the age, and fixed the dominion of
Britain over prostrate India.

=Asseerghur.= A strong hill fortress, situated about 12 miles northerly
and easterly from Burhampoor, India. It was taken from the Mahrattas by
the British on two occasions; the first time in 1803, and finally in
1819.

=Asseguay.= The knife-dagger used in the Levant.

=Assembly.= A beat of the drum or sound of the bugle as a signal to
troops to assemble.

=Assens.= A maritime town of Denmark on the island of Funen; here
Christian III. defeated his insurgent subjects in 1535.

=Asser.= An instrument of warfare used by the Romans on their war ships;
it consisted of a heavy pole with an iron head, and was used as a
battering-ram against hostile ships. Other authorities assert that it
was used to destroy the rigging only.

=Assessment of Damages.= In the English army, is the determination by a
committee of officers of the value of the injury done to the barracks
each month, in order that stoppages in liquidation may be made from men
who have committed the damage.

=Assidui Milites.= Roman soldiers who served in the army without
receiving pay.

=Assignment.= If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps
of the army shall happen to join or do duty together, the officer
highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by
commission, there on duty or in quarters, shall command the whole, and
give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise
specially directed by the President of the United States, according to
the nature of the case. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 122.

=Assignment of Pay.= By a non-commissioned officer or private, previous
to discharge, is invalid. A transfer subsequent to the discharge is
valid.

=Assinaries=, or =Assinaires=. Festivals which were instituted at
Syracuse, in commemoration of the destruction of the Athenian fleet
commanded by Nicias and Demosthenes.

=Assinarus= (now _Falunara_). A small river in Sicily, near which the
army of Nicias and Demosthenes was defeated 413 B.C.

=Assistant.= In the English army, is the third grade in any particular
branch of the staff, such as the quartermaster-general’s or
adjutant-general’s. After the principal comes the deputy and then the
assistant. In the United States it is the second grade in the staff
branches of the army.

=Assyria.= A name which is usually appropriated to the first of what are
known as the four great empires of the world, but which in geography
nearly corresponds with the modern Koordistan. Its capital was Nineveh,
of which the ancient ruins may still be traced. In 625 B.C., Nineveh was
destroyed by Cyaxares the Mede, and Assyria became a province of Media.

=Astapa= (now _Estepa_). A city in the province of Seville, Spain; it
was besieged by the Romans under Marius; the besieged slew their women
and children and allowed themselves to be cut down to a man before they
would surrender to the Romans.

=Asta-Regia.= A city of Spain (now in ruins); near here the prætor Caius
Atinius gained a victory over the ancient Lusitanians, in 186 B.C.

=Asti=, or =Asta=. A city in Piedmont, Italy. Chevert took its fortress
in 1745.

=Astorga= (anc. _Asturica Augusta_). A city in Spain, which was taken by
the French in 1810.

=Astragal and Fillets=. Are the mouldings at the front end of the chase,
used in the ornamental work of ordnance.

=Astrakhan= (Southeast Russia). Capital of a province of the same name;
it was captured by the Russians in 1554; besieged by the Turks in 1569,
who were defeated with great slaughter; seized by the rebel Stenko Razin
in 1670, who was soon dispossessed of it by his uncle Jacolof. The
province was visited and settled by Peter the Great in 1722.

=Astrolabe.= An instrument for observing the position of the stars, now
disused. A graduated ring with sights for taking altitudes at sea was
also formerly so called.

=Asturias.= An ancient principality in Northwest Spain. Here Pelayo
collected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, and by
his victories checked Moorish conquests. In 1808 the junta of Asturias
began the organized resistance to the French usurpation.

=Asylum, Royal Military.= A benevolent institution erected at Chelsea,
Middlesex, England, for the reception and education of the children of
soldiers of the regular army. The first stone was laid by the Duke of
York, June 19, 1801. The direction and control of the institution are
placed in the hands of commissioners appointed by her majesty, the
principals of which are the commander-in-chief, the secretary of war,
the master-general of the ordnance, and other high officials connected
with the government. In the selection of children for admission
preference, in general, is given:--First, to orphans; second, to those
whose fathers have been killed, or have died on foreign service; third,
to those who have lost their mothers, and whose fathers are absent on
duty abroad; fourth, to those whose fathers are ordered on foreign
service, or whose parents have other children to maintain. There is
also a branch establishment at Southampton, for the maintenance and
education of girls.

=Asylum, Military.= See SOLDIERS’ HOMES.

=As You Were.= A word of command corresponding to the French _remettez
vous_, frequently used by drill instructors to cause a resumption of the
previous position, when any motion of the musket or movement of the body
has been improperly made.

=Atabal.= A kettle-drum; a kind of tabor, used by the Moors.

=Ataghan.= See YATAGHAN.

=Ataman.= A hetman, or chief of the Cossacks.

=Atchevement.= In heraldry, is a term nearly equivalent to arms, or
armorial bearings, and is often used in its abbreviated form of
_hatchment_ when speaking of the arms of a deceased person as displayed
at his funeral or elsewhere.

=Ategar.= The old English hand-dart, named from the Saxon _aeton_, “to
fling,” and _gar_, “a weapon.”

=Ategna.= An important city of ancient Italy. It was taken from the
Republicans by Julius Cæsar, in 45 B.C.

=Atella= (now _San Arpino_). A place in Italy, where the French under
the Duke of Montpensier, general of Charles VIII., had to capitulate and
surrender to Ferdinand II. of Naples, in 1496. The prisoners were
transported to the island of Procida, where the majority of them,
including the Duke of Montpensier, perished by contracting an infectious
disease.

=Ath.= A fortified town in Belgium; it was ceded to France in 1668;
fortified by Vauban; restored to the Spaniards in 1678; captured by the
French under Marshal Catinat in 1697, but was restored in the same year
by the peace of Ryswick. The allies under Field-Marshal d’Auvergne took
it October 1, 1706. It remained in the possession of the Dutch till
1716, when it was given up to the emperor of Austria, with the remainder
of the Spanish Netherlands. Louis XV. of France captured it in 1745.
France lost it by the treaties of 1814-15.

=Athanati.= A corps of picked soldiers belonging to the ancient Persian
army, 10,000 strong, which were called the “Immortals,” for the reason
that, as soon as one of the corps died, another was put in his place.

=Athenry.= A town in Galway, Ireland; near here the Irish were totally
defeated, and a gallant young chief, Feidlim O’Connor, slain in 1316.

=Athens.= A celebrated city, the capital of the modern kingdom of
Greece, situated in the plain of Attica, about 4 miles northeast of the
Gulf of Ægina. It was for several ages the centre of European
civilization. The city is said to have been founded by Cecrops, and
afterwards enlarged by Theseus, who made it the capital of the new state
which he formed by uniting into one political body the 12 independent
states into which Attica had previously been divided. A new era in the
history of the city commences with its capture by Xerxes, who reduced it
almost to a heap of ashes, 480 B.C. This event was followed by the rapid
development of the maritime power of the city and the establishment of
her empire over the islands of the Ægean Sea. Her increasing wealth
afforded her ample means for the embellishment of the city, and during
the half century which elapsed between the battle of Salamis and the
commencement of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians erected those
masterpieces of architecture which have been the wonder of succeeding
ages. The city was captured by the Lacedæmonians in 404 B.C., and was
conquered by Sulla, the Roman general, 86 B.C., after which it dwindled
into insignificance as a maritime city. Its prosperity continued,
however, under the Roman sway, and it continued to be famous as the
centre of philosophy, literature, and art, many famous buildings having
been erected there by foreign rulers after the decline of its power.
During the Middle Ages it sunk into insignificance. It has successively
belonged to the Goths, Byzantines, Bergundians, Franks, Catalans,
Florentines, Venetians, and Turks. In 1687 the buildings of the
Acropolis suffered severe injury in the siege of Athens by the Venetians
under Morosini. In 1834 Athens was declared the capital of the kingdom
of Greece.

=Athlone.= A town in Roscommon, Ireland, which was burnt during the
civil war in 1641. After the battle of the Boyne, Col. R. Grace held
Athlone for James II. against a besieging army, but fell when it was
taken by assault by Ginkel, June 30, 1691. See AUGHRIM.

=Atilt.= In the manner of a tilter; in the position or with the action
of a man making a thrust. “To run a tilt at men.”

=Atlanta.= A city of Fulton Co., Ga., and the capital of the State. In
its vicinity a battle was fought between the Federal forces under Gen.
Sherman and the Confederates under Gen. Hood, July 22, 1864. The city
was taken by Gen. Sherman on September 2, and held by him until November
15, when he set out on his famous “march to the sea.”

=Atmidometer=, or =Admometer=. An instrument for measuring the rate of
evaporation, used in English medical corps.

=Atrebates.= A Belgic people subdued by Cæsar, 57 B.C.

=Attach.= To place, to appoint. Officers and non-commissioned officers
are said to be attached to the respective army, regiment, battalion,
troop, or company with which they are appointed to act.

=Attache= (_Fr._). The seal and signature of the colonel-general in the
old French service, which were affixed to commissions of officers after
they had been duly examined.

=Attack.= Any general assault or onset that is given to gain a post or
break a body of troops. _False attack_, a feigned or secondary movement
in the arrangements of an assault, intended to divert the attention of
an enemy from the real or principal attack. Such a movement has been
sometimes converted into a real attack, and succeeded when the main
assault, to which it was intended to be subsidiary, had failed. _Attack
of a siege_ is a furious attack made by the besiegers by means of
trenches, galleries, saps, breaches, or mines, etc., by storming any
part of the front attack. _To attack in front or flank_, in
fortifications, means to attack the salient angle, or both sides of the
bastion.

=Attack and Defense.= A part of the sword exercise drill.

=Attacking.= The act of making a general assault or onset for the
capture of a post, fort, etc., or the breaking of a body of troops.
Previous to an assault on a fortified position, the artillery ought to
support the other troops by a combined fire of guns, howitzers, and
small mortars, so that, if possible, the fire may be simultaneous, as
such diversity of projectiles would tend to distract the defenders, and
prevent them from extinguishing any fires among buildings, besides
throwing them into confusion at the moment of assault. In cases of
surprise, when immediate action is required, this method cannot, of
course, be practicable.

=Attention.= A cautionary command addressed to troops preparatory to a
particular exercise or manœuvre. _Gare-a-vous_ has the same
signification in the French service.

=Attestation.= In the English service, is a certificate which is granted
by a justice of the peace within four days after the enlistment of a
recruit. This certificate bears testimony that the recruit has been
brought before the justice in conformity to the Mutiny Act, and has
declared his assent or dissent to such enlistment, and that (if
according to the said act he shall have been duly enlisted) the proper
oaths have been administered to him by the magistrate, and the sections
of the articles of war against mutiny and desertion read to the said
recruit.

=Audenarde.= See OUDENARDE.

=Auditor, Second.= An official connected with the Treasury Department,
whose duties consist in examining all accounts relating to the pay and
clothing of the army, the subsistence of officers, bounties, premiums,
military and hospital stores, and the contingent expenses of the War
Department, etc., and transmitting them with vouchers, etc., to the
Second Comptroller for his decision.

=Auditor, Third.= To him is assigned the duty of examining all accounts
relative to the subsistence of the army, the quartermaster’s department,
and generally all accounts of the War Department other than those
provided for; also all accounts relating to pensions, claims for
compensation for loss of horses and equipments of officers and enlisted
men in the military service of the United States, etc.

=Auditor, Fourth.= Examines all accounts accruing in the Navy
Department, or relative thereto, and all accounts relating to navy
pensions.

=Auerstadt= (Prussia). Here and at Jena, on October 4, 1806, the French
signally defeated the Prussians. See JENA.

=Auget.= A kind of small trough used in mining, in which the saucisson
or train-hose is laid in straw, to prevent the powder from contracting
any dampness.

=Aughrim.= Near Athlone, in Ireland, where, on July 12, 1691, a battle
was fought between the Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and
the English, under Gen. Ginkel. The former were defeated and lost 7000
men; the latter lost only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was
slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interests of James
II., and Ginkel was created earl of Athlone.

=Augusta.= A city and capital of Richmond Co., Ga., on the Savannah
River. It was an important place at the time of the Revolution, and was
captured by the English and Tories in 1779, but surrendered to Col.
Henry Lee, of the Revolutionary army, June 5, 1781.

=Augusta=, or =Agosta=. A well-built and fortified city in the
intendancy of Catania, in Sicily; near here, on April 21, 1676, a naval
battle was fought between the French under Duquesne, and the Dutch and
Spanish fleet under Ruyter, the advantage remaining with the French.
Ruyter was wounded at this battle, and died a few days after at
Syracuse.

=Augusticum.= A bounty that was given by the Roman emperors to their
soldiers upon the latter taking the oath of allegiance for the first
time, or upon a renewal of the oath.

=Aulic Council.= A term applied to a council of the War Department of
the Austrian empire, and the members of different provincial chanceries
of that empire are called aulic councillors.

=Aumacor.= A title similar to general-in-chief, which was given to the
chief of the Saracens during the Crusades.

=Ausen.= A name given by the Goths to their victorious generals. This
word in their language signifies “more than mortal,” _i.e._, demi-gods.

=Aussig.= A village in Prussia, where, in 1426, the army of the margrave
Frederick von Meissen was defeated by the Hussites and Poles under
Jakubko von Wrezezowecez and Prince Sigismund Koribut. The city was
plundered and burned the same night by the Hussites.

=Austerlitz= (Moravia). Here a battle was fought between the French and
the allied Austrian and Russian armies, December 2, 1805. Three emperors
commanded: Alexander of Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of
France. The killed and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of the
allies, who lost 40 standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and thousands of
prisoners; the French loss amounted to about 12,000 men. The decisive
victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, signed December 26,
1805.

=Austria, Empire of= (Ger. _Oesterreich_, “eastern kingdom”). One of the
most extensive and most populous of European kingdoms, comprising the
southeast part of Central Europe and more than half the territory of the
Danube. It is composed of a union of different states, some of them at
one time forming independent kingdoms, inhabited by races of people
differing from each other in descent, language, customs, laws, and
religion, held together as one empire by being united under one
sovereign and one central government. This territory, which was
comprised in Noricum and part of Pannonia, was annexed to the Roman
empire in 33, was overrun by Huns, Avars, etc., in the 5th and 6th
centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, who united it to Germany
as the “eastern kingdom,” 791-96. In 1156 the country was made a
hereditary duchy by the emperor Frederick I., and in 1453 was raised to
an archduchy. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected emperor of Germany in
1273, acquired Austria in 1278, and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants
were emperors of Germany. On August 11, 1804, Francis II. became
hereditary emperor of Austria. Vienna, the capital, was entered by a
French army November 14, 1805, and evacuated January 12, 1806, Austria
losing Venice and the Tyrol by the treaty of Presburg. Francis renounced
the title of emperor of Germany August 6, 1806. Vienna was again taken
by the French May 13, 1809, but was restored at the peace, October 14
following. In 1848 Lombardy revolted, and Milan and other disaffected
towns formed an alliance with Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, who then
invaded the Austrian territory at the head of a large army, victory
seeming for a time to favor the Italians. In the following year,
however, both the insurgents and their Sardinian ally were repeatedly
defeated by the Austrian forces under Marshal Radetzky, and Lombardy was
again brought under the Austrian sway, but was ceded to Sardinia in
1859. Prussia and Italy declared war against Austria in 1866; but,
through the intervention of Napoleon, peace was concluded the same year,
Austria losing Venice and the Quadrilateral.

=Authority.= In a general acceptation of the term, signifies a right to
command and a consequent right to be obeyed. For the appointment of
officers of the U. S. army, see APPOINTING POWER. It appears that the
sovereigns of Great Britain and other nations have the power to appoint
and dismiss officers at pleasure.

=Autocrat.= A person vested with an absolute independent power, by which
he is rendered unaccountable to any other for his actions. The power of
the Athenian generals or commanders was usually limited, so that, at
the expiration of their office, they were liable to render an account of
their administration. But, on some extraordinary occasions, they were
exempted from this restraint, and sent with a full and uncontrollable
authority; in which sense they were styled autocrats. Somewhat similar
was the Roman _dictator_. This term is sometimes applied to the czar of
Russia.

=Automatic Fire.= A mixture of combustibles used by the Greeks. It was
exploded by the rays of the sun.

=Autonomy.= The power or right of self-government. This was a privilege
jealously preserved in all the important cities of ancient Greece,
nearly every one of which was an independent state. The right to make
their own laws and elect their own magistrates was also granted by the
Romans to some of their cities, and was regarded as a mark of honor.

=Autun= (anc. _Bibracte, Augustodunum_). A town in France, department of
the Saöne-et-Loire. Here, in the year 21, two Roman legions under Silius
gained a victory over Sacrovir, chief of the Ædui, who had assembled a
considerable force to oppose Silius. The Germans besieged it in 355;
captured by the Burgundians in 414; devastated by the Saracens in 731;
burned by the Normans in 888 and 895. This city was besieged without
success by Marshal d’Aumont in 1591. It was also the scene of hostile
operations between Garibaldi and the Germans in the winter of 1870-71.

=Auxerre.= Chief town of the department of Yonne, France. It is supposed
to be on the site of the ancient _Autissiodorum_, which was a
flourishing town before the Roman invasion of Gaul. It successfully
resisted the Huns under Attila, was taken from the Romans by Clovis, and
after his death became a part of the kingdom of Burgundy. The English
took it in 1359, but it was retaken by Du Guesclin. It was finally
united to the kingdom of France by Louis XI. John, “Sans Peur,” duke of
Burgundy (reigned from 1404-19), caused the assassination of Louis, duke
of Orleans, in 1407, which gave rise to a civil war between the
Burgundians and the dukes of Orleans and their allies, which was ended
by the treaty of Auxerre, August 10, 1412.

=Auxiliary.= Foreign or subsidiary troops which are furnished to a
belligerent power in consequence of a treaty of alliance, or for
pecuniary considerations. Of the latter description may be considered
the Hessians that were employed by Great Britain to enslave America.

=Auxiliary War.= See WAR, AUXILIARY.

=Auximum= (now _Osimo_). A town in Italy, 9 miles from Ancona, which
Belisarius (a great general of the Byzantine empire) captured from the
Goths in 539.

=Avallon= (anc. _Aballo_). A town in the department of Yonne, France,
which sustained a long siege and was dismantled during the reign of King
Robert in the 10th century. It was sacked by the Saracens in 731, and
by the Normans in 843; taken by Charles VII. in 1433, retaken by Philip
the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1455, and pillaged by the troops of the
League in 1593.

=Avant= (_Fr._). Foremost, most advanced towards the enemy; as,
_Avant-chemin couvert_, the advanced covered way which is made at the
foot of the glacis to oppose the approaches of an enemy. _Avant-duc_,
the pile-work which is formed by a number of young trees on the edge or
entrance of a river. They are driven into the ground with battering-rams
or strong pieces of iron, to form a level floor by means of strong
planks being nailed upon it, which serve for the foundation of a bridge.
Boats are placed wherever the _avant-duc_ terminates. The _avant-duc_ is
had recourse to when the river is so broad that there are not boats
sufficient to make a bridge across. _Avant-ducs_ are made on each side
of the river. _Avant-fosse_, the ditch of the counterscarp next to the
country. It is dug at the foot of the glacis. _Avant-garde_,
advance-guard. _Avant-trains_, the limbers of field-pieces on which are
placed boxes containing ammunition enough for immediate service.

=Avars.= Barbarians who ravaged Pannonia and annoyed the Eastern empire
in the 6th and 7th centuries; subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an
eight years’ war.

=Avein=, or =Avaine=. A village in Luxembourg, where, on May 20, 1635,
the French and Dutch, under Marshals de Chatillon and de Brere, defeated
the Spaniards under Prince Thomas of Savoy. The prince lost 4000 men
killed and wounded, 900 prisoners, and 14 pieces of cannon.

=Aventaile.= The movable part of a helmet.

=Averysborough.= A village of North Carolina, on Cape Fear River, about
40 miles south of Raleigh. During Gen. Sherman’s South Carolina
campaign, in 1865, this place was the scene of an engagement between his
forces and about 20,000 Confederates under Gen. Hardee, who were
intrenched in a swampy neck between Cape Fear and South Rivers in order
to check Sherman’s progress, and gain time for the concentration of Gen.
Johnston’s forces in the rear at Raleigh, Smithfleld, or Goldsboro’. The
position of the Confederates was a strong one to carry by reason of the
nature of the ground, which was very soft; but after four hours’
fighting they were driven back to a second line better and more strongly
held, losing 3 guns and 217 prisoners. Here the fighting was continued
until late in the afternoon, when the entire Federal line advanced and
drove the Confederates within their intrenchments, pressing them so hard
that during the night of March 16, which was stormy, they retreated
towards Smithfield. The Union loss was 12 officers and 65 men killed and
477 wounded.

=Avesnes.= A city in the department of the North, France; ruptured by
Louis XI.; recaptured by the Spaniards in 1559; returned to France in
1659; occupied by the Russians in 1814, and by the Prussians in 1815.

=Avesnes le Sec, Battle of.= The French were defeated by the Austrians
in this battle, September, 1793.

=Avigliana.= A city in Italy where the French defeated the Piedmontese
in 1630.

=Avignon.= A city in Southeastern France; besieged and captured by Louis
VIII. of France in 1226; ceded by Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The
papal seat was removed by Clement V. to Avignon in 1309. In 1348,
Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from Jane, countess of Provence
and queen of Naples. In 1408 the French, wearied of the schism, expelled
Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be the seat of papacy. Here were
held nine councils (1080-1457). This city was seized and restored
several times by the French kings; the last time in 1773. It was claimed
by the National Assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the
congress of sovereigns in 1815. In October, 1791, horrible massacres
took place here.

=Avis=, or =Aviz=. An order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by
Sancho, the first king of Portugal, in imitation of the order of
Calatrava, and having, like it, for its object the subjugation of the
Moors. The king of Portugal is grand-master of the order.

=Avranches= (anc. _Abrancæ_). A city in the department of La Manche,
France. It was a place of importance during the Roman period.
Charlemagne fortified it, but it was taken by the Normans in 865. It was
captured by Geoffrey Plantagenet in 1141; by Guy de Thouars in 1203; by
the English in 1418; by the Calvinists in 1562; besieged by the royal
troops in 1591.

=Award.= A judgment, the result of arbitration. In a military sense, the
decision or sentence of a court-martial. To award medals of honor.

=Awkward Squad.= See SQUAD.

=Axel.= A town in the province of Zealand, Holland; captured by escalade
from the Spaniards August 20, 1586, by Prince Maurice of Saxony, who was
then but twenty years of age; captured by assault on May 16, 1747, by
Marshal Maurice de Saxe.

=Axis.= A straight line, real or imaginary, about which a body revolves
is called the axis of rotation. In gunnery, the axis of the piece is the
central line of the bore of the gun.

=Axum=, or =Axoum=. A town in Abyssinia, said to have been the capital
of a kingdom whose people were converted to Christianity by Frumentius,
in the 4th century, and to have been the allies of Justinian, 533;
captured and burned by the Arabs in 1532.

=Aya-Bassi=, or =Bachi=. A non-commissioned grade in the corps of
janissaries, corresponding to that of corporal in modern armies.

=Ayacucho.= A city in Peru; here the Peruvians finally gained their
independence by defeating the Spaniards, December 9, 1824. The Spaniards
lost 6 generals killed, and General Lascerna wounded and taken prisoner;
700 men under Canterac and Valdez, who tried to escape, were forced to
surrender.

=Aylesbury.= A town in Buckinghamshire, England; was reduced by the West
Saxons in 571. St. O’Syth, beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried
there, 600. William the Conqueror invested his favorites with some of
its lands, under the tenure of providing straw for his bed-chambers,
three eels for his use in winter, and in summer, straw, rushes, and two
green geese, thrice every year.

=Aylesford.= A town in Kent, England; here, it is said, the Britons were
victorious over the Saxon invaders, 455, and Horsa was killed.

=Azaine= (_Fr._). A name formerly applied to a trumpet in the French
army.

=Azapes.= Auxiliary troops which were levied by the Turks among the
Christians (under their dominion), whom they exposed to the first attack
of the enemy.

=Azay-le-Rideau.= A small town in the department of Indre-et-Loire,
France, formerly fortified; it sustained several sieges during the reign
of Charles VI.

=Azaz.= A fortress which was situated between Aleppo and Antioch;
captured by the Saracens in 688 B.C.

=Azmooz.= A village in Switzerland, where the French under Massena
defeated the Austrians and took 3000 prisoners.

=Azoe=, or =Azov=. A town in Russia in Europe, captured by Tamerlane in
1392, by the Turks in 1471, by the Russians in 1696; returned to the
Turks in 1711; ceded to Russia in 1774. It was bombarded and destroyed
by an allied English and French squadron in 1855.

=Azof, Sea of.= The _Palus Mæotis_ of the ancients, communicates by the
Strait of Yenikale, or Kertch (the Bosphorus Cimmerius), with the Black
Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian territory. An expedition
composed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by Sir G.
Brown, arrived at Kertch, May 24, 1855, when the Russians retired, after
blowing up the fortifications. On the 27th the allies marched upon
Yenikale, which also offered no resistance. On the same evening the
allied fleet entered the sea of Azof, and in a few days completed their
occupation of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels,
etc. Immense quantities of stores were destroyed by the Russians to
prevent them falling into the hands of the allies.

=Azotus.= See ASHDOD.

=Aztecs.= The ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish
invasion, 1519.

=Azure.= A French word used in heraldry to signify blue. In engraving
arms it is always represented by horizontal lines.



B.


=Baalbec.= An ancient city of Syria. From the accounts of Oriental
writers, it was a place of importance down to the time of the Moslem
invasion of Syria. After the capture of Damascus, it was regularly
invested by the Moslems, and after a courageous defense at length
capitulated; sacked and dismantled by the caliph of Damascus, and the
principal inhabitants put to the sword, 748; pillaged by Timour Bey,
1400; afterwards subjected to Turkish supremacy; pillaged August 8,
1860, and the Christian inhabitants massacred by the Mohammedans.

=Bab-el-Thaza.= A place in Algeria where the French fought the Arabs,
April 22, 1842.

=Babylon.= One of the oldest and most celebrated cities in the world,
the ancient capital of the Babylonio-Chaldean empire, was situated in an
extensive plain on the Euphrates, about 60 miles south of Bagdad. The
modern town of Hillah is supposed to occupy a portion of its site. About
588 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusalem, burned
the great temple of Solomon, and carried away the Jews as captives to
Babylon. Cyrus besieged Babylon, took it by stratagem in 538, and put to
death the king Belshazzar, after which the kingdom of Babylon ceased to
exist. The city was occupied by Darius in 518, and taken by Alexander
the Great in 331. Alexander having selected it as the capital of his
empire, died there in 323 B.C.

=Bacchi.= Two ancient warlike machines; the one resembled a
battering-ram, the other cast out fire.

=Bachelier= (_Fr._). A young squire, or knight, who has passed through
his first campaign, and received the belt of the order.

=Bachevaleureux.= A term which, in the old French language, signified
warrior, brave, valiant, etc.

=Backing.= The heavy plating of wood, or of wood and iron, used to
support and strengthen iron plates.

=Back-plate.= A piece of armor for covering the back.

=Back-sight.= See SIGHT, REAR.

=Back-step.= The retrograde movement of a man, or a body of men, without
changing front.

=Backsword.= A sword with one sharp edge. In England, a stick with a
basket handle, used in rustic amusements; the game in which it is used;
called also “single stick.”

=Backwards.= A technical word made use of in the British service to
express the retrograde movement of troops from line into column, and
_vice versa_. Also a word of command in the U. S. service, to cause a
man, or body of men, to march to the rear without changing front.

=Bactria= (now _Bokhara_). A province of the Persian empire; it was
inhabited by a rude and warlike people, who were subdued by Cyrus or his
next successors. It was included in the conquests of Alexander, and
formed a part of the kingdom of the Selucidæ until 255 B.C., when
Theodotus, its governor, revolted from Antiochus II., and founded the
Greek kingdom of Bactria; overthrown by the Parthians 134 or 125 B.C.

=Bacule.= A kind of portcullis or gate, made like a pitfall, with a
counterpoise. See BASCULE BRIDGE.

=Badajos= (Southwest Spain). An important barrier fortress, surrendered
to the French, under Soult, March 11, 1811; was invested by the British,
under Lord Wellington, on March 16, 1812, and stormed and taken on April
6, 1812. The French retreated in haste.

=Badaleers.= Musket-charges of powder in tin or copper tubes, worn
dangling from a shoulder-belt, before the introduction of cartridges.

=Baddesdown Hill=, or =Mount Badon=. Near Bath, England, where Bede says
the Britons defeated the Saxons, 493; others say in 511 or 520.

=Badelaire=, or =Bandelaire= (_Fr._). A short, broad, curved, and
double-edged pointed sword.

=Baden= (Southwest Germany). A grand duchy; broke out in insurrection
and joined by the free city of Rastadt, May, 1849; the Prussians entered
it, and defeated the insurgents commanded by Mierolawski, June 15, 1849.
Noted as the place where the Emperor Napoleon III., the prince regent of
Prussia, and the German kings and princes held an interview, June 16,
1860.

=Badge.= A distinctive mark, token, or sign, worn on the person. _Corps_
badges were worn to distinguish the army corps during the civil war,
1861-65. _Marksmen’s badges_ are given to good shots in most armies.

=Badon, Mount.= The scene of a battle said to have been fought by King
Arthur against the Saxons who invaded his kingdom, and in which the
latter were signally defeated. By some writers Badon has been identified
with Bath, by others in Berkshire.

=Bæcula.= An ancient town in Hispania Tarraconensis, west of Castulo,
where the Romans under Scipio defeated the Carthaginians under
Hasdrubal, 209 B.C.

=Bagaudes.= A name given to the peasants of Gaul, who revolted against
the Romans in 270; they pillaged cities and villages and massacred the
Roman officers; two of the insurgent chiefs, Aliandus and Amandus, were
elected emperors; their reign was of short duration; besieged in their
camp near the confluence of the Seine and Marne, where Saint-Maur is now
situated, they died in arms. This place was named for a long time “Camp
des Bagaudes.”

=Bagdad.= In Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Mansour, and made the seat of
the Saracen empire about 762; taken by the Tartars, and a period put to
the Saracen rule, 1258; often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the
Turks, with great slaughter; the latter took it in 1638, and have held
it since.

=Baggage.= The clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, and provisions,
etc., belonging to an army, or part of an army.

=Baggonet.= The old term for bayonet.

=Bagpipe.= The name of a musical warlike instrument, of the wind kind,
used by the Scotch regiments, and sometimes by the Irish. Bagpipes were
used by the Danes, by the Romans, and by the Asiatics. The Greeks also
had an instrument composed of a pipe and blown-up skin. The bagpipe has
been a favorite instrument among the Scots. There are two varieties, the
one with long pipes, sounded with the mouth; the other, with short
pipes, filled with air by a bellows, and played on with the fingers. The
first, the loudest and most ear-piercing of all music, is the genuine
Highland pipe, and was suited to the warlike genius of that people. It
formerly roused their courage to battle, alarmed them when secure, and
collected them when scattered, solaced them in their long and painful
marches, and in time of peace kept up the memory of the gallantry of
their ancestors by the tunes composed after signal victories. The other
is the Irish bagpipe.

=Bags.= Articles used in field fortifications, and in works to cover a
besieging army. _Sand-bags_, which are generally 16 inches in diameter,
and 30 high, are filled with earth or sand, to repair breaches and
embrasures of batteries, when damaged by the enemy’s fire or by the
blast of the guns. They are also placed on parapets, so arranged as to
form a covering for men to fire through. _Earth-bags_ contain about a
cubical foot of earth, and are used to raise a parapet in haste, or to
repair one that is beaten down. They are only employed where the ground
is rocky, or too hard for the pickaxe and spade, and does not afford
ready material for a temporary parapet.

=Bags, Cartridge-.= See CARTRIDGE.

=Bags of Powder.= Are used to blow down gates, stockades, and slight
obstructions. In future wars the higher explosives will probably be used
for such purposes.

=Bahama Isles= (North America). Were the first points of discovery by
Columbus. New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. They were
expelled by the Spaniards in 1641; returned in 1666; again expelled in
1703. These isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. The
Bahamas profited by blockade-running during the American civil war,
1861-65.

=Bahar.= A province in Northern India; conquered by Baber in 1530.
Bahar, Bengal, and Orissa, a princely dominion, became subject to the
English East India Company in 1765, by the treaty of Allahabad.

=Baiclaklar.= A color-bearer in the Turkish army.

=Baiky.= The ballium, or inclosed plat of ground in an ancient fort.

=Bail.= A stout iron yoke placed over heavy guns and fitting closely
over the ends of the trunnions, to which it is attached by pins in the
axis of the trunnions; used to raise or lower the gun by means of the
gin.

=Baille= (_Fr._). A term formerly used to designate a work or
fortification which served as an outpost or exterior defense.

=Baionnier= (_Fr._). A name formerly given to soldiers who were armed
with a bayonet.

=Baker, Post.= The person who bakes bread for a garrison. In the U. S.
service an enlisted man, who receives additional pay for his labor.

=Bakery=, or =Bakehouse=. See OVENS.

=Balaklava.= A small town in the Crimea, with a fine harbor, about 10
miles from Sebastopol. Near here about 12,000 Russians, commanded by
Gen. Liprandi, were repulsed by a furious charge of heavy English
cavalry, led by Brig.-Gen. Scarlett, under the orders of Lord Lucan,
October 25, 1854. After this, from an unfortunate misconception of Lord
Raglan’s order, Lord Lucan ordered Lord Cardigan, with the light
cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had reformed on its own
ground, with its artillery in front. This order was most gallantly
obeyed, and great havoc was made on the Russians; but of 670 British
horsemen only 198 returned (termed by Tennyson “The Charge of the Six
Hundred”). On March 22, 1855, a sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol
led to a desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were
vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 men killed and wounded; the
allies lost about 600.

=Balance-step.= An exercise in squad drill, a preliminary to marching.

=Balbec.= See BAALBEC.

=Baldrick=, or =Baudrick=. A girdle, or richly ornamented belt, worn
pendent from one shoulder across the breast, and under the opposite arm.

=Bale=, or =Basel=. One of the largest towns in Switzerland; captured
and burned by the Hungarians in 917. In 1444 there was a bloody battle
fought about a quarter of a mile beyond its gates, called the battle of
St. Jacob, between the Swiss, 1600 strong, and a French army that was
twenty times their number, commanded by the dauphin, afterwards Louis
XII. For ten hours the brave Swiss band kept this large army in check;
but nearly all the Swiss fell, not more than 10, according to some
accounts, escaping alive. This exploit first spread the fame of Swiss
valor, and led to the enrollment of the Swiss body-guard of France. The
treaties of peace between France and Spain, and France and Prussia, were
signed here, July 22, 1795.

=Balearic Islands.= A group of islands in the Mediterranean; conquered
by the Romans 123 B.C.; by the Vandals about 426 B.C., and formed part
of Charlemagne’s empire, 799. They were conquered by the Moors about
1005, and held by them till about 1280, when they were annexed by
Aragon. See MAJORCA and MINORCA.

=Balista.= A machine in ancient warfare used for throwing stones,
burning objects, leaden balls, and even dead and putrefied bodies. The
latter were thrown to cause sickness in besieged cities.

=Balistarium.= A store-room or arsenal in which the Romans stored their
balistas.

=Balister.= A term applied in ancient times to a cross-bow.

=Balistrier.= A name applied to cross-bow men in ancient times.

=Balkan.= The ancient Hæmus, a range of mountains extending from the
Adriatic to the Euxine. Their passage, up to that time deemed
impracticable, was completed by the Russians under Diebitsch during the
Russian and Turkish war, July 26, 1829. An armistice was the
consequence, and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, September
14, following. The Balkan was again crossed by the victorious Russians
in the face of all opposition during the Russian and Turkish war, 1877.

=Balks.= Joist-shaped spars, which rest between the cleats upon the
saddles of two pontons, to support the chess or flooring.

=Ball.= Is a general term applied to every kind of spherical shot fired
from a musket, rifle, or cannon. Leaden balls are chiefly used for the
small-arms and iron for the artillery. See CARTRIDGE, SHOT, SHELLS.

=Ball and Chain.= For serious offenses soldiers are sometimes sentenced
to wear a 6- or 12-pounder ball attached by a chain to the leg.

=Ball-cartridge.= A cartridge containing a ball.

=Ballinamuck.= A town in the county of Longford, Ireland. Here, on
September 8, 1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries were
defeated and captured.

=Ballistea.= In antiquity, songs accompanied by dancing, used on
occasions of victory.

=Ballistic=, or =Electro-ballistic Machine=. Is a machine designed to
determine by electricity the initial velocity of a projectile. The West
Point ballistic machine, devised for use at the Military Academy by Col.
Benton, of the ordnance department, and since adopted by that
department, consists of a bed-plate of metal supporting an arc placed in
a perpendicular position, and graduated. Suspended perpendicular to the
plane of this arc are two pendulums, having a common axis of motion
passing through the centre. Two electro-magnets are attached to the
horizontal limb of the arc to hold up the pendulums when they are
deflected through angles of 90°. There is also an apparatus which
records the point at which the pendulums pass each other, when they fall
by the breaking of the currents which excite the magnets, two targets
being placed so as to support the wires in a position to be cut by the
projectile. The velocity of the electric currents being considered
instantaneous, and the loss of the power of the magnets simultaneous
with the rupture of the currents, it follows that each pendulum begins
to move at the instant that the projectile cuts the wire, and that the
interval of time corresponds to the difference of the arcs described by
the pendulums up to the time of meeting.

=Ballistic Pendulum.= A machine consisting of a massive block of wood
suspended by a bar. It was devised for experiments on the initial
velocities of cannon-shot. The shot being fired into the block, the
velocity is calculated from the vibrating effect on the pendulum.

=Ballistics.= Is that branch of gunnery which treats of the motion of
projectiles.

=Ballistraria.= Cruciform apertures in the walls of a stronghold,
through which the cross-bow men discharged their bolts. It also
signified a projecting turret, otherwise called a bartizan, such as is
commonly seen in old castles.

=Ballium.= A term used in ancient military art, and probably a
corruption of vallium. In towns, the appellation “ballium” was given to
a work fenced with palisades, and sometimes to masonry covering the
suburbs; but in castles, it was the space immediately within the outer
wall.

=Ballon.= A town in the department of the Sarthe, France, formerly
fortified; captured by the English in 1417; retaken by Charles VII. of
France.

=Balloon.= A bag or hollow vessel, made of silk or other light material,
and filled with hydrogen gas or heated air, so as to rise and float in
the atmosphere; called for distinction an _air_-balloon. Balloons were
used extensively as a means of observation during the American civil
war, 1861-65, and in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870.

=Balloting.= A bounding movement of a spherical projectile in the bore
of a cannon. See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Ball-proof.= Incapable of being penetrated by balls from fire-arms.

=Ball’s Bluff.= In Virginia, on the banks of the Potomac. On October 21,
1861, by direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone, the heroic Col.
Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the Confederate
camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss. The disaster was
attributed to mismanagement, and in February, 1862, Gen. Stone was
arrested on suspicion of treason, but was afterwards discharged, and at
a later period again given a command. The Federal loss in killed,
wounded, and drowned was probably 1000 men.

=Ballynahinch.= A town in Ireland where a sanguinary engagement took
place between a large body of the insurgent Irish and the British
troops, under Gen. Nugent, June 13, 1798. A large part of the town was
destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely.

=Balots= (_Fr._). Sacks or bales of wool, made use of in cases of great
emergency, to form parapets or places of arms. They are likewise adapted
for the defense of trenches, to cover the workmen in saps, and in all
instances where promptitude is required.

=Baltic Sea= (Ger. _Ostsee_, or “Eastern Sea”). Separates Sweden and the
Danish Isles from Russia, Prussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for
commerce by treaty between Russia and Sweden, 1759, and Denmark, 1760.
It is often partially frozen. Charles X. of Sweden with an army crossed
the Belts in 1658. Several Baltic expeditions were undertaken by the
British and French against Denmark and Russia.

=Baltimore.= The chief city in Maryland, situated at the head of
navigation on the Patapsco River; it was founded in 1729. On September
12, 1814, the British army under Col. Ross advanced against this place.
He was killed in a skirmish, and the command was assumed by Col. Brooke,
who attacked and routed the American army, which lost 600 killed and
wounded, and 300 prisoners. The projected attack on the town was,
however, abandoned.

=Baltimore= (Ireland). A decayed town; early in the 17th century, the
Algerine pirates plundered the town, carrying away 200 prisoners.

=Baltinglass.= A town in the county of Wicklow, Ireland. Here an action
took place in 1798 between the royalists and the insurgents, in which
the latter were defeated.

=Bamberg.= A town in Bavaria, said to have been founded by the Saxons in
804; taken and pillaged by the Prussians in 1759.

=Bampton.= A town in Devonshire, England. A great battle was fought
here, 614, between the West Saxons and Britons, in which the former were
defeated.

=Ban= (_Fr._). A sort of proclamation made at the head of a body of
troops, or in the several quarters or cantonments of an army, by sound
of trumpet or beat of drum, either for observing martial discipline, or
for declaring a new officer, or punishing a soldier, or the like. At
present such kind of proclamations are given out in the written orders
of the day.

=Ban.= In the former days of France, when the feudal barons, who held
their estates and honors from the king, were summoned to attend him in
time of war, they were called the ban, or the levy first called out;
while the tenants, subordinate to these barons, formed the _Arrière
ban_, or secondary levy.

=Banbury.= A town in Oxfordshire, England. The castle erected by
Alexander de Blois, 1125, has been frequently besieged; in 1646 it was
taken by the Parliamentarians and demolished. At Edgecote, or Danesmore,
near Banbury, Edward IV. defeated the Lancastrians under the Earl of
Pembroke, July 26, 1469, and their leader and his brother were soon
after taken prisoners and executed.

=Bancal= (_Fr._). A curved sabre, which was used in France during the
Republic and the Empire.

=Band, Military.= Consists of a body of musicians attached to each army
regiment or battalion. The law provides for a band at the Military
Academy at West Point, and for each artillery, cavalry, and infantry
regiment. A chief musician, who shall be instructor of music, and for
each artillery and infantry regiment two principal musicians; each
cavalry regiment to have one chief trumpeter. Musicians for regimental
bands are enlisted as soldiers, and formed under the direction of the
adjutant, but are not permanently detached from their companies, and are
instructed in all the duties of a soldier.

=Banda Isles.= Eastern Archipelago, visited by the Portuguese (1511),
who settled on them 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 1600.
Rohun Island was ceded to the English in 1616. The Bandas were taken by
the latter in 1796; restored in 1801; retaken, 1811, and restored in
1816.

=Banded-mail.= A kind of armor, which consisted of alternate rows of
leather or cotton and single chain-mail.

=Banderet.= In military history, implies the commander-in-chief of the
troops of the canton of Berne, in Switzerland.

=Banderol.= A small flag used in marking out a camp, etc.; a camp color.

=Bandes= (_Fr._). Bands, bodies of infantry. _Bandes Françaises_; the
French infantry was anciently so called; the term, however, became less
general, and was confined to the _Prevôt des Bandes_, or the judge or
provost-marshal that tried the men belonging to the French guards.

=Banditti.= Bands of robbers who infest the mountainous parts of Italy
and Greece. Formerly they frequently attacked travelers, hurried them
off into their mountain fastnesses, and held them captive until
ransomed.

=Bandoleer.= In ancient military history, a large leathern belt worn
over the right shoulder, and hanging under the left arm, to carry some
kind of warlike weapons.

=Bandoleer.= A little wooden case covered with leather; every musketeer
used to wear 12 of them hanging on a shoulder-belt; each case contained
the charge of powder for a musket. Bandoleers are now superseded by the
cartridge-box.

=Banffshire.= A maritime county in the northeast of Scotland; it was the
scene of many bloody conflicts between the Scots and their Danish
invaders, and was the theatre of almost incessant struggles from 1624 to
1645.

=Bangalore.= A fortified town of Hindostan, in Mysore, which was taken
from Tippoo Saib by Lord Cornwallis in 1791.

=Baniwas.= A tribe of South American Indians living on the Amazon and
the Rio Negro.

=Banner.= Originally a small square flag borne before a banneret, whose
arms were embroidered on it; hence, a military ensign; the principal
standard of a prince or state; a pennon; a streamer.

=Bannered.= Furnished with or bearing banners.

=Banneret.= Was originally a military rank conferred only on such as
were able to bring a certain number of vassals into the field; hence, a
rank corresponding to this; also, a small banner.

=Bannockburn.= In Stirlingshire, Scotland; the site of two battles: 1.
Between Robert Bruce of Scotland and Edward II. of England, June 24,
1314. The army of Bruce consisted of 30,000; that of Edward of 100,000
men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed the rivulet to the
attack, and Bruce having dug and covered pits, they fell into them and
were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete; the English king
narrowly escaped, and 50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. 2. At
Sanchieburn, near here James II. was defeated and slain on June 11,
1488, by his rebellious nobles.

=Banquette.= Is the step of earth within the parapet, sufficiently high
to enable the defenders, when standing upon it, to fire over the crest
of the parapet with ease.

=Banquette Slope.= Is a slope of earth or timber, placed in rear of the
banquette when the top cannot be reached by an ordinary step.

=Bantam.= In Java; here a British factory was established by Capt.
Lancaster in 1603. The English and Danes were driven from their
factories by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the British in
1811, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in 1814.

=Bantry Bay.= In the south of Ireland, where a French fleet bringing
succor to the adherents of James II. attacked the English under Admiral
Herbert, May 1, 1689. A French squadron of 7 sail of the line and 2
frigates, armed _en flute_, and 17 transports anchored here for a few
days, but without effect, December, 1796. Mutiny of the Bantry Bay
squadron took place in December, 1801.

=Banyuls-de-Aspres.= A town in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees,
France, which is memorable for the defense which its inhabitants made
in 1793, when they compelled 7000 Spaniards, who had attacked them, to
surrender.

=Bapaume.= A fortified town of France, department of Pas-de-Calais. A
portion of the allied troops advanced to this place after compelling the
French to abandon their fortified position, and to retreat behind the
scarpe, in August, 1793.

=Baptism of Blood.= As the name implies, is the act of being baptized
with blood, and was used specially with reference to soldiers who fought
on their first battle-field. In the old French service, baptism of blood
equalized all grades, and military services, not rank, were the
recognized claims for promotion.

=Baptism of Fire.= A figurative term applied to soldiers who have passed
through their first fire in battle.

=Bar.= A long piece of wood or iron. Bars have various denominations in
the construction of artillery-carriages, as sweep- and cross-bars for
tumbrils, fore, hind, and under cross-bars for powder-carts, shaft-bars
for wagons, and dowel-bars, used in mortar-beds.

=Bar.= In heraldry, is one of those important figures or charges known
as _ordinaries_. It is formed by two horizontal lines passing over the
shield like the fess, but it differs from it in size,--the fess
occupying a third, the bar only a fifth part of the shield. The fess is
also confined to the centre, while the bar may be borne in several parts
of the shield.

=Barb.= The reflected points of the head of an arrow. The armor for
horses was so called.

=Barbacan=, or =Barbican=. In fortification, a watch-tower for the
purpose of descrying an enemy at a distance; advanced works of a place
or citadel, properly the boulevards of the gates and walls; a fort at
the entrance of a tower or bridge, with a double wall; or an aperture or
loop-hole in the walls of a fortress through which to fire upon an
enemy.

=Barbary.= A country in North Africa, considered to comprise Algeria,
Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, with their dependencies (all of which
see). Piratical states (nominally subject to Turkey) were founded on the
coast by Barbarossa about 1518.

=Barbets.= Were peasants of Piedmont, who abandoned their dwellings when
an enemy had taken possession of them. They formed into bodies and
defended the Alps.

=Barbette.= An earthen terrace, raised within a parapet, so high as to
enable guns to be fired over the latter, and therefore with a freer
range than when worked at an embrasure.

=Barbette Carriage.= Is a carriage of the stationary class, on which a
gun is mounted to fire over a parapet; and a barbette gun is any gun
mounted on a barbette carriage.

=Barbette Centre-pintle Carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR,
SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Barbette Front-pintle Carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST
CARRIAGES.

=Barbole= (_Fr._). A heavy battle-axe, used in ancient times.

=Barboursville=, or =Cabell Court-house=. The capital of Cabell Co., W.
Va. It was the scene of a brilliant action between the Confederate and
Federal forces, in which the latter were victorious, July 18, 1861.

=Barce=, or =Berche= (_Fr._). A small gun, shorter and thicker than a
falconet, which was formerly used on board ship.

=Barcelona.= An ancient maritime city in Northeastern Spain, said to
have been rebuilt by Hamilcar Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about
233 B.C. The city has suffered much by war. The siege by the French, in
1694, was relieved by the approach of the English fleet commanded by
Admiral Russell; but the city was taken by the Earl of Peterborough in
1706; bombarded and taken by the Duke of Berwick and the French in 1714;
taken by Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It revolted against
the queen in 1841, and was bombarded and taken in December, 1842, by
Espartero.

=Bard.= A fortress and village of Piedmont on the bank of the Dora
Baltea, 23 miles south-southeast of Aosta. The fortress is situated on
an impregnable rock, and arrested for some time Napoleon’s march in the
valley of the Dora, at the outset of his campaign of 1800, almost
compelling him to abandon it. The garrison consisted of 400 men, and was
finally passed only by stratagem. It was subsequently razed by the
French (1800), but has since been restored.

=Bardewick.= A town in Hanover, which was dismantled by Henry the Lion
in 1189.

=Bareilly.= A province of Delhi, Northwest India, ceded to the East
India Company by the ruler of Oude, 1801. A mutiny at Bareilly, the
capital, was suppressed in April, 1816; on May 7, 1858, it was taken
from the cruel Sepoy rebels.

=Barezim.= A small town in Poland, where the Russians were defeated by
the Poles in 1675.

=Barfleur.= An ancient seaport town in the department of Manche, France,
where William the Conqueror equipped the fleet by which he conquered
England, 1066. Near it Prince William, duke of Normandy, son of Henry
I., in his passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked November 25, 1120.
Barfleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign in which they won
the battle of Crécy, 1346. The French navy was destroyed near the cape
by Admiral Russell after the victory of La Hogue in 1692.

=Bari= (Southern Italy). The _Barium_ of Horace was in the 9th century a
stronghold of the Saracens, and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a
descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th century it became subject
to the Eastern empire, and remained so till it was taken by Robert
Guiscard, the Norman, about 1060.

=Baril Ardent= (_Fr._). Fire-barrel; a barrel filled with layers of
tarred chips intermixed with powder and primed at each end with a
shell-fuze; it had holes bored in it for the purpose of admitting air to
the burning contents; formerly used for illuminating purposes.

=Baril Foudroyant=, or =D’artifice= (_Fr._). Of the same nature as the
_baril ardent_, with the addition of grenades placed between the layers
of chips. Barils foudroyants were used at the defense of a breech, by
rolling them upon the assailants.

=Barkam.= A fortress on the banks of the Danube. Near here John
Sobieski, king of Poland, was defeated by Pasha Ka-Mehemed, October 7,
1683.

=Barking-irons.= Large dueling pistols.

=Barnacles.= In heraldry, resemble what are now called twitchers, or
instruments used by farriers to curb unruly horses. They are frequently
introduced into coats of arms as a charge.

=Barnet.= A town in Hertfordshire, England. Here, at Gladsmore Heath,
Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians on
Easter-day, April 14, 1471, when the Earl of Warwick and his brother,
the Marquis of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,000 men were slain.

=Barometer.= An instrument for measuring the weight of the atmosphere.
The form ordinarily used was invented in 1643, by Torricelli. It
consists of a glass tube filled with mercury inverted in an open cup.

=Baron.= In England a title of nobility,--the grade between the baronet
and viscount,--the lowest grade in the House of Lords.

=Barons’ War.= Arose in consequence of the faithlessness of King Henry
III. and the oppression of his favorites in 1258. The barons, headed by
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl of
Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to which the
king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to the
decision of Louis IX., king of France. War broke out, and on May 14,
1264, the king’s party were totally defeated at Lewes, and De Montfort
became the virtual ruler of the kingdom. Through treachery the war was
renewed, and at the battle of Evesham, August 4, 1265, De Montfort was
slain, and the barons were defeated. They, however, did not render their
final submission till 1268.

=Barrackpore.= A native town and military cantonment on the river
Hoogly, 16 miles from Calcutta, India. In 1857 it became famous as the
cradle of the formidable mutiny or rebellion of that year. Several
regiments of native troops were stationed at Barrackpore. The men
objected to bite off the ends of the cartridges for the Enfield rifle,
believing the paper to be polluted by animal fat. The troubles connected
therewith--a mere prelude to the fatal outbreak at Meerut in
May--commenced about the beginning of February, and continued to assume
various degrees of intensity, till at last two regiments of Bengal
native infantry had to be disbanded. An intoxicated Sepoy of one of the
disbanded regiments attacked and wounded his officer, Lieut. Baugh, with
sword and pistol. This fellow, whose name was Mungal Pandy, would seem
to have had the equivocal honor of giving the local designation of
Pandies to the entire body of insurgents.

=Barrack-allowance.= In the British army, is a specific allowance of
bread, beef, wood, coals, etc., to regiments stationed in barracks.

=Barrack-guard.= When a regiment is in barracks the principal guard is
called the barrack-guard, the officer being responsible for the
regularity of the men in barracks, and for all prisoners duly committed
to his charge while on that duty.

=Barrack-master.= The officer who superintends the barracks of soldiers.

=Barracks.= Are permanent structures for the accommodation of soldiers,
as distinguished from huts and tents, which have usually a square or
open place in front, for the purpose of drill and parade.

=Barrack-sergeants.= In the British army, are faithful old sergeants who
are selected from the line and placed in charge of barracks, under the
superintendence of the barrack-masters.

=Barrel.= A round vessel or cask, of more length than breadth, and
bulging in the middle, made of staves and headings and bound with hoops.
Powder-barrels are made to contain 100 pounds each, the barrels being
large enough to allow sufficient space for the powder to move when
rolled, to prevent its caking. Also any hollow cylinder or tube, as the
barrel of a gun. See FIRE-BARREL.

=Barricade.= An obstruction formed in streets, avenues, etc., so as to
block up access to an enemy. They are generally formed of overturned
wagons, carriages, large stones, breastworks, abatis, or other obstacles
at hand.

=Barrier.= In a general sense means any fortification or strong place on
the frontiers of a country. It is likewise a kind of fence composed of
stakes and transoms, as over-thwart rafters, erected to defend the
entrance of a passage, retrenchment, or the like. In the middle of the
barrier is a movable bar of wood, which is opened or shut at pleasure.
It also implies a gate made of wooden bars, about 5 feet long,
perpendicular to the horizon, and kept together by two long bars going
across and another crossing diagonally. Barriers are used to stop the
cut made through the esplanade before the gate of a town.

=Barrier Treaty.= A treaty by which the Low Countries were ceded to the
emperor Charles VI., and which was signed by the British, Imperial, and
Dutch ministers November 15, 1715.

=Barritus=, or =Bardites=. A word which not only signified the
battle-cry of the ancient Germans, but all battle-cries were formerly so
called.

=Barrosa=, or =Barosa=. In Southern Spain, where a battle was fought on
March 5, 1811, between the British army, commanded by Maj.-Gen. Sir
Thomas Graham, afterwards Lord Lynedoch, and the French under Marshal
Victor. After a long conflict, the British achieved one of the most
glorious triumphs of the Peninsular war. Although they fought at great
disadvantage the British compelled the French to retreat, leaving nearly
3000 dead, 6 pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the British
had taken. The loss of the British was 1169 men killed and wounded.

=Bar-shot.= An obsolete projectile, consisting of two shot connected by
a bar of iron.

=Bar-sur-Aube.= An ancient town of France, on the Aube, in the
department of Aube, where the French under Oudinot and MacDonald were
defeated by the allies, February 27, 1814.

=Bar-sur-Seine.= A town in the department of Aube, France; often ruined
and sacked during the wars of Burgundy. It was the scene of a severe
engagement between Napoleon and the allies, May 25, 1814.

=Bartholomew, St.= The massacre of St. Bartholomew commenced at Paris on
the night of the festival of this saint. According to Sully 70,000
Huguenots, or French Protestants, including women and children, were
murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders from Charles IX., at
the instigation of his mother, the queen-dowager, Catherine de Médicis,
August 24, 1572.

=Bartholomew, St.= A West India island held by Sweden. It was colonized
by the French in 1648; and has been several times taken and restored by
the British. It was ceded to Sweden by France in 1785.

=Bartizan.= A small stone closet thrown out upon corbels over doorways
and on other parts of mediæval castles, generally for defensive
purposes, but sometimes for the convenience of the inmates.

=Bascinet.= A light helmet, generally without a visor; so called from
its resemblance to a basin.

=Baschi.= A Turkish title, signifying a superior commander, officer,
chief, etc.; this title is only used in connection with the office
title; the most prominent are:

TOPTSCHJY-BASCHI, general of artillery and inspector of forts, etc.

SOLACKI-BASCHI, sub-commander of the archers.

SANDSCHJACK-DARLARS-BASCHI, chief of the 50 color-bearers.

KONADSCHJY-BASCHI, quartermaster-general.

BOLUCK-BASCHI, colonel of a regiment (Boluck) of 1000 militia.

ODA-BASCHIS, company officers who superintend drill.

=Bascule Bridge.= A kind of draw-bridge with a counterpoise swinging up
and down, and usually a pit behind it, in which the counterpoise falls
or rises as the bridge rises or falls. Bascule is the arrangement of the
counterpoise in bascule bridges.

=Base.= In fortifications, is the exterior side of the polygon, or that
imaginary line which connects the salient angle of two adjacent
bastions.

=Base.= In heraldry, denotes the lower part of the shield.

=Base-line.= In gunnery, is a line traced around the gun in rear of the
vent; also the measured line used to obtain ranges by triangulation.

=Base of Operations.= That secure line of frontier or fortresses, or
strong country occupied by troops, or of sea occupied by fleets, from
which forward movements are made, supplies furnished, and upon which a
retreat may be made, if necessary.

=Base of the Breech.= In gunnery, is the rear surface of the breech of a
gun.

=Basel, Treaty of.= This place gives its name to two important treaties
of peace, concluded here on April 5 and July 22, 1795, between the
representatives of the French Republic, Prussia, and Spain, by which
Prussia withdrew from the coalition against France, took under her
protection all the states of Northern Germany which should like herself
relinquish the war in which the German empire was engaged, and also give
up to the victorious republic her possessions beyond the Rhine; whilst
Spain gave up her portion of St. Domingo, and prepared the way for that
alliance with France which was afterwards productive of consequences so
important.

=Base-ring.= In gunnery, is a projecting band of metal adjoining the
base of the breech, and connected with the body of the gun by a concave
moulding.

=Bashaw.= See PASHA.

=Bashi-Bazouks.= Are irregular troops in the pay of the sultan. Very few
of them are Europeans; they are mostly Asiatics, from some of the
pashalics in Asiatic Turkey; they are wild, turbulent men, ready to
enter the sultan’s service under some leader whom they can understand,
and still more ready to plunder whenever an opportunity offers. During
the Russo-Turkish war of 1854, etc., they had many encounters with the
enemy in that kind of irregular warfare which the Russians intrust to
Cossack horsemen; but the peaceful villagers had almost as much distrust
of the Bashi-Bazouks as of the Russians. They were also partially
employed by the British during the Crimean war.

=Bashkirs.= A race supposed to be descended from the Nogay Tartars, who
inhabit the Russian provinces of Ufa and Yekaterinboorg, in the
governments of Orenburg and Perm respectively. They are but partially
civilized, and are generally employed by Russia as guards on the
frontier of Asia.

=Basientello= (Southern Naples). Here the army of Otto II., in an
ambuscade, was nearly cut to pieces by the Greeks and Saracens, July 13,
982; the emperor barely escaped.

=Basilisk.= An ancient piece of ordnance, which was 10 feet long and
weighed 7200 pounds; so called from its supposed resemblance to the
serpent of that name, or from its size.

=Basillard.= An old term for a poniard.

=Basket-hilt.= The hilt of a sword, so made as to contain and guard the
whole hand.

=Basket-hilted.= Having a hilt of basket-work.

=Baskets.= See GABION.

=Baslard.= A short sword or dagger, worn in the 15th century.

=Basnet.= See BASCINET.

=Basque Provinces= (Northwest Spain, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alva). The
Basques, considered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were termed
Vascones by the Romans, whom they successfully resisted. They were
subdued with great difficulty by the Goths about 580, and were united to
Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries.

=Basque Roads= (Western France). Four French ships of the line, riding
at anchor here, were attacked by Lords Gambier and Cochrane (the latter
commanding the fire-ships), and all, with a great number of merchant and
other vessels, were destroyed, April 11-12, 1809. Cochrane accused
Gambier of neglecting to support him, and thereby allowing the French to
escape. At a court-martial Lord Gambier was acquitted.

=Bassée, La.= A town in the department of the North, France, formerly
fortified. It sustained several sieges. Louis XIV. captured it from the
Spaniards and caused it to be dismantled.

=Basseterre Roads=, St. Christopher’s, West Indies. Here the French
admiral, the Comte de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate
attacks on the British fleet, commanded by Sir Thomas Graves, January
25-26, 1782.

=Basson= (Northern Italy). Here the Austrians under Wurmser were
defeated by the French under Massena, September 8, 1796.

=Bassorah=, =Basrah=, or =Bussorah= (Asia Minor). A Turkish city,
founded by the Caliph Omar about 635. It has been several times taken
and retaken by the Persians and Turks.

=Bass Rock.= An isle in the Frith of Forth, Southern Scotland; granted
to the Landers in 1316; purchased for a state prison, 1671; taken by the
Jacobites, 1690; surrendered, 1694; granted to the Dalrymples, 1706.

=Bastard=, or =Batarde= (_Fr._). An ancient piece of ordnance of about 8
pounds calibre, 9¹⁄₂ feet long, and weighing 1950 pounds. It was
invented by Jean Maurique de Lard, master-general of ordnance under
Charles V. of France in 1535. He also had several bastards cast of a
larger calibre. This term was also applied to guns of an unusual make or
proportion, whether longer or shorter.

=Bastarnæ=, or =Basternæ=. A warlike German people who migrated to the
country near the mouth of the Danube. They are first mentioned in the
wars of Philip and Perseus against the Romans, and at a later period
they frequently devastated Thrace, and were engaged in wars with the
Roman governors of the province of Macedonia. In 30 B.C. they were
defeated by Marcus Crassus, and driven across the Danube, and we find
them, at a later period, partly settled between the Tyras (now
_Dniester_) and Borysthenes (now _Dnieper_), and partly at the mouth of
the Danube, under the name of _Peucini_, from their inhabiting the
island of Peuce, at the mouth of the river.

=Bastia.= A fortified seaport town, and formerly capital of Corsica, on
its northeast coast, and 67 miles from Ajaccio; besieged without success
by the Piedmontese in 1748; captured by the English, 1794.

=Bastide= (_Fr._). In ancient times, a bastion, block-house, fortress,
or outer fortifications.

=Bastile.= Originally, a temporary wooden tower used in warfare; hence,
any tower or fortification.

=Bastile=, or =Bastille= (Paris). A castle built by Charles V., king of
France, in 1369, for the defense of Paris against the English; completed
in 1383, and afterwards used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his
veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris during the war,
1587-94. On July 14-15, 1789, it was pulled down by the populace, the
governor and other officers seized, conducted to the Place de Grève,
their hands and heads were cut off, and the heads carried on pikes
through the streets.

=Bastinado.= A punishment among the Turkish soldiers, which is performed
by beating them with a cane or flat of a sword on the soles of their
feet.

=Bastion.= A work consisting of two faces and two flanks, all the angles
being salient. Two bastions are connected by means of a curtain, which
is screened by the angle made by the prolongation of the corresponding
faces of two bastions, and flanked by the line of defense. Bastions
contain, sheltered by their parapets, marksmen, artillery, platform, and
guards. They are protected by galleries of mines, and by demi-lunes and
lunettes outside the ditch, and by palisades, if the ditch is inundated.
The _faces_ of the bastion are the parts exposed to being enfiladed by
ricochet batteries, and also to being battered in breach.

BASTION, COMPOSED, is where two sides of the interior polygon are very
unequal, which makes the gorges also unequal.

BASTION, CUT, is that which, instead of a point, has a re-entering
angle.

BASTION, DEFORMED, is when the irregularity of the lines and angles puts
the bastion out of shape; as, when it wants a demi-gorge, one side of
the interior polygon being too short.

BASTION, DEMI, is that which has only one face and one flank, cut off by
the capital,--like the extremities of horn- and crown-works.

BASTION, DOUBLE, is that which is raised on the plane of another
bastion.

BASTION, FLAT, is a bastion built in the middle of the curtain, when it
is too long to be defended by the bastions at its extremes.

BASTIONS, HOLLOW, are those surrounded only with a rampart and parapet,
having the space within unoccupied where the ground is so low that no
retrenchment can be made in the centre in the event of the rampart being
taken.

BASTION, REGULAR, is that which has true proportion of faces, flanks,
and gorges.

BASTIONS, SOLID, are those which have the void space within them filled
entirely, and raised of an equal height with the rampart.

=Bastioned Fort.= A fort having bastions.

=Baston.= A staff or cudgel formerly used in tournaments. In heraldry, a
staff or cudgel generally borne as a mark of bastardy, and properly
containing one-eighth in breadth of the bend-sinister.

=Bat de Mulet= (_Fr._). A pack-saddle used on service when mules are
employed to carry stores. Aparejos in the United States service are used
for a similar purpose. See PACK-SADDLES.

=Batage= (_Fr._). The time employed in reducing gunpowder to its proper
consistency. The French usually consumed 24 hours in pounding the
materials to make good gunpowder. Supposing the mortar to contain 16
pounds of composition, it would require the application of the pestle
3500 times each hour. The labor required in this process is less in
summer than in winter, because the water is softer.

=Bataillon de la Salade= (_Fr._). A name formerly given in France to old
corps which wore a peculiar kind of helmet called salade. See SALADE.

=Batardeau= (_Fr._). A wall built across a ditch or fortification, with
a sluice-gate by which the height of the water in the ditch on both
sides may be regulated. To prevent this wall being used as a passage
across the ditch, it is built up to an angle at the top, and armed with
iron spikes; and to render the attempt to cross still more difficult, a
tower of masonry is built on it.

=Batavia and Batavian Republic.= See HOLLAND.

=Bateau= (_Fr._). A light boat.

=Bateau-bridge.= Is a floating bridge supported by bateaux or light
boats. See PONTONS.

=Bateau d’Avant-garde= (_Fr._). A small light boat attached to the
advance-guard of an army. It is 33 feet in length by 5 feet 6 inches in
breadth.

=Bate Isle.= An island of Hindostan, belonging to the province of
Guzerat, situated at the southwestern extremity of the Gulf of Cutch.
It was formerly a rendezvous for pirates, who were the dread of all
traders on the western coast of India. In 1803 a naval force, consisting
of a British frigate and two Bombay cruisers, succeeded in destroying
several of the pirate boats and vessels; but an attack upon the castle,
though conducted under the fire of the ships, was repulsed with some
loss. In 1807 a treaty was entered into with the chiefs of the island,
whereby they consented to relinquish their piratical practices.

=Bath, Knights of the.= See ORDER OF KNIGHTS OF THE BATH.

=Bat-horse.= A baggage horse which bears the bat or pack.

=Bat-man.= A servant in charge of the bat-horses. The term is now
applied in the English service to a soldier who acts as servant to an
officer.

=Baton.= A truncheon borne by generals in the French army, and
afterwards by the marshals of other nations. Henry III. of France before
he ascended the throne was made generalissimo of the army of his brother
Charles IX., and received the baton as the mark of the high command,
1569.

=Baton.= A staff used by drum-majors of foot regiments.

=Baton Rouge.= A city of Louisiana. It was captured by the Federals
August 5, 1862, after a fierce conflict.

=Batourin.= A town of Russia, 63 miles east of Tcheringov, on the Seim.
It was the residing place of the hetman of the Ukraine Cossacks from
1699 to 1708; captured and sacked by the Russians in 1708.

=Batta.= An allowance made to military officers in the service of the
East India Company in addition to their pay. See HALF-BATTA.

=Battalia.= The order of battle; disposition or arrangement of troops,
brigades, regiments, battalions, etc., as for action. Formerly the term
applied to the main body of an army in array, as distinguished from the
wings.

=Battailant.= Equipped for battle; warlike; a combatant. This word is
now obsolete.

=Battalion.= A body of troops, so called from being originally a body of
men arranged for battle; consisting in European armies of about 800 or
1000 men; in the U. S. service, an aggregation of from two to twelve
companies.

=Battard.= An early cannon of small size.

=Batten.= The sloping of a wall which brings the perpendicular from the
top inside the base.

=Batter.= A cannonade of heavy ordnance, from the first or second
parallel of intrenchment, against any fortress or works. To batter _in
breach_ implies a heavy cannonade of many pieces directed to one part of
the revetment from the third parallel.

=Batterie en Rouage= (_Fr._). Is an enfilading battery, when directed
against another battery.

=Battering.= In military affairs, implies the firing with heavy
artillery on some fortification or strong post possessed by an enemy, in
order to demolish the works.

=Battering Charge.= The charge of powder used in battering. The heaviest
charge used in a gun.

=Battering-pieces.= Are large pieces of ordnance, used in battering a
fortified town or post.

=Battering-ram.= In antiquity, a military engine used to batter and beat
down the walls of places besieged. There were two different kinds of
battering-rams, one rude and plain, the other compound. The former seems
to have been no more than a great beam, which the soldiers bore on their
arms and shoulders, and with one end of it, by main force, assailed the
walls. The compound ram was a large beam with a head of iron, which was
sometimes made to resemble the head of a ram. It was suspended by ropes
to a beam supported by posts, and balanced so as to swing backwards and
forwards, and was impelled by men against the wall. These rams were
sometimes 120 feet in length.

=Battering-train.= A train of artillery used solely for besieging a
strong place, inclusive of mortars and howitzers. See SIEGE-TRAIN.

=Battery.= A battery consists of two or more pieces of artillery in the
field. The term battery also implies the implacement of ordnance
destined to act offensively or defensively. It also refers to the
company charged with a certain number of pieces of ordnance. The
ordnance constitutes the battery; men serve it; horses drag it, and
epaulments may shelter it.

AMBULANT BATTERY, heavy guns mounted on traveling carriages, and moved
as occasion may require, either to positions on the coast or in besieged
places.

BARBETTE BATTERIES are those without embrasures, in which the guns are
raised to fire over the parapet.

BATTERY D’ENFILADE is one that sweeps the whole length of a line, or the
face or flank of any work.

BATTERY DE REVERSE is one which plays upon the rear of the troops
appointed to defend a place.

BATTERY EN ECHARPE is that which plays obliquely.

BREACHING BATTERY. See BREACH.

COVERED, or MASKED BATTERY is when the cannon and gunners are covered by
a bank or breastwork, commonly made of brushwood, fagots, and earth.

CROSS-BATTERIES are two batteries which play athwart each other upon the
same object, forming there an angle, and battering with more effect,
because what one battery shakes the other beats down.

FACINE and GABION BATTERIES are batteries constructed of those machines
where sods are scarce, and the earth very loose and sandy.

FLOATING BATTERIES are such as are erected either on rafts or on the
hulls of ships.

GUN-BATTERY is a defense constructed of earth faced with green sods or
fascines, sometimes of gabions filled with earth. It consists of a
breastwork, epaulment, or parapet; the open spaces through which the
muzzles of the cannon are pointed are called _embrasures_, and the solid
masses between the embrasures, _merlons_; the _genouilleres_ are those
parts of the parapet which cover the carriage of the gun. The platforms
are plank floors made to prevent the cannon from sinking into the
ground; they are made with a slope to check the recoil of the guns, and
to render it more easy to bring them forward again when loaded.

HALF-SUNKEN BATTERY. This term is applied to a battery in which the
earth to form the parapet is derived partly from a ditch in front and
partly from the excavation of the terre-plein. See ARTILLERY, also
CAVALIER.

MORTAR-BATTERIES differ from gun-batteries in this, that the parapets
have no embrasures, and the platforms have no slope, but are exactly
horizontal; the shells being fired quite over the parapet, commonly at
an elevation of 45°.

OPEN BATTERY is a number of cannon, commonly field-pieces, ranged in a
row abreast on some natural elevation of ground, or on an artificial
bank raised for that purpose.

RAISED BATTERY, one whose terre-plein is elevated considerably above the
ground.

REDAN BATTERIES are such as flank each other at the salient and
re-entrant angles of a fortification.

RICOCHET BATTERY, so called by its inventor Vauban, was first used at
the siege of Aeth in 1697. It is a method of discharging cannon with a
very small charge of powder, and with just elevation enough to fire over
the parapet. When properly managed its effects are most destructive; for
the shot, rolling along the opposite rampart, dismounts the cannon and
disperses or destroys the troops. Ricochet practice is not confined to
cannon alone; small mortars and howitzers may be effectually employed
for the same purpose.

SUNKEN BATTERY, where the sole of the embrasures is on a level with the
ground, and the platforms are consequently sunk below it.

=Battery-boxes= are square chests or boxes, filled with earth or dung;
used in making batteries, where gabions and earth are not to be had.
They must not be too large, but of a size that is governable.

=Battery-wagon.= It consists, besides the limber, of a long-bodied cart
with a round top, which is connected with the limber in the same way as
all other field-carriages. The lid opens on hinges placed at the side;
and in the rear is fixed a movable forage-rack for carrying along
forage. One of these wagons accompanies each field battery, for the
purpose of transporting carriage-maker’s and saddler’s tools, spare
parts of carriages, harness, and equipments, and rough materials for
replacing different parts. Both it and the forge are made of equal
mobility with the other field-carriages, in order to accompany them
wherever they may be required to go. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Battery, Electric.= The apparatus used to generate a current of
electricity.

=Battery=, or =Traveling Forge=. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Battery Gun.= A gun capable of firing continuously a great number of
shots in a short time. Applied to guns mounted upon tripods, stands,
swivels, or carriages. A _magazine cannon_ in contradistinction to a
magazine small-arm. Also called _machine gun_ and _mitrailleur_. Guns of
this kind existed as early as the 14th century. From the arrangement of
the barrels they were called _killing organs_. They have always been
used in various forms, but were comparatively inefficient till recent
times, when the introduction of the metallic cartridge gave the subject
a new importance.

_Puckle’s revolver_, 1718, was ingeniously mounted upon a tripod with
good elevating and traversing arrangements. It had one barrel and a
movable rotating breech containing nine charges. These were fired in
succession, and a new breech, ready charged, was slipped on. Two kinds
of bullets were used,--round bullets against Christians and square ones
for Turks.

_Winans’s steam gun_, invented about 1861 by the celebrated American
inventor and engineer Thomas Winans, of Baltimore, was a battery gun of
large calibre. The shot fell from a hopper into a breech-chamber, and
were projected through the barrel by the sudden admission behind it of
steam under enormous pressure.

The _infernal machine_ with which Fieschi killed Marshal Mortier and a
large number of others in his attempt to assassinate Louis Philippe, in
1835, was a crude form of battery gun, consisting of a row of
gun-barrels fired by a train of powder. Many battery guns are of this
type.

The _Requa battery_--American--used in the civil war, 1861-65, consisted
of a row of 24 barrels on a wheel-carriage, so arranged as to give
either parallel or divergent fire. It was breech-loading, the cartridges
being forced into the barrels by a transverse bar worked by levers. It
was capable of seven volleys a minute.

One of the forms of _mitrailleur_ used in the Franco-Prussian war was
very much the same. The loading-bar was rotating, and had two sets of
chambers. One set was fired while the other was being loaded.

The _Abbertini gun_ used in Europe has 10 barrels arranged as in the
Requa battery. It is worked by a crank. The cartridges are conveyed by
mechanical devices from a box magazine to the rear of the barrels.

The form in which a _cluster of barrels_ is used was probably first
introduced in France, and was made by inserting 25 gun-barrels into the
bore of a brass field-piece, into the breech of which a slot was cut,
the open rear ends of the barrels being flush with the front wall of the
slot. A cylinder-case containing cartridges being placed in the slot, a
set of plungers pushed the cartridges into the barrels. The case was
then replaced by a firing-block containing a lock and pin for each
cartridge.

This was improved by mounting the barrels (37) without the casing and
replacing the cartridge-case by a steel block in which the cartridges
were fired without being pushed into the barrels.

The first successful gun in which the _cluster of barrels_ was made to
revolve was the Gatling. (See GATLING GUN.) In this both the barrels and
the locks revolve. The Gatling gun in its various forms is used by all
the leading nations of Europe. It is used in a variety of ways for field
service, mountain service, flank defense of fortifications, in the
main-tops of ships, etc. It has been mounted upon the backs of camels,
on tripods, swivels, and field-carriages. In Europe its principal rival
is the _Nordenfelt_, in which the barrels are stationary and the breech
mechanism works horizontally. It is probably superior to the Gatling in
the amount of metal thrown in a given time. In mechanism and accuracy it
is inferior. Its principal claim to superiority is that it fires either
volleys or single shots. The recoil, which is always great in
volley-guns, requires a very heavy stand, making it clumsy and unwieldy
compared to the Gatling. Accidents have also happened in its use from
defective mechanism. Among other American battery or machine guns are
the _Lowell_ and _Gardner_, both of which have won enviable reputations.
A late form of the Gardner consists of two barrels fixed in a brass
casing, giving it the external appearance of an ordinary field-piece. It
has less rapidity of fire (its maximum being about 357 shots a minute)
than some other guns, but it is simple, strong, and efficient.

The _Taylor gun_ was something like the Nordenfelt in principle, having
a fixed cluster of barrels and a sliding breech mechanism, firing
volleys or single shots at discretion. A later form of Taylor gun has
the barrels in a horizontal row. The improvement consists in rapidity of
loading. The cartridges are carried in the ordinary paper or wooden
cases, exposing the heads. The gun has a number of upright pieces at the
breech with grooves between them. By drawing the cartridge-case downward
over these uprights the cartridges are caught in the grooves by their
flanged heads. They fall by gravity, and are conducted by suitable
devices in grooved channels to the barrels. This gun, it is believed,
fires more shots a minute than any other, but its mechanism is not so
perfect as several of its rivals.

The _Hotchkiss revolving cannon_ has the largest calibre of the modern
machine guns. It differs from the Gatling in having but one lock for all
the barrels. It is worked by a crank like the Gatling, but the mechanism
is such that during a part of the revolution of the crank the barrels
are stationary. It is during this time that one cartridge is fired and
another case extracted. The rapidity of fire is much less than the
Gatling and most others, but in perfection of mechanism, accuracy, and
other qualities, it is unsurpassed. A peculiar form of brake is fitted
to the wheels of the field-gun to prevent the recoil from moving the
carriage. For the larger sizes both shells and canister are used. The
metallic cartridge-case is of brass. This gun is the invention of B. B.
Hotchkiss, an American, now residing in Paris. His guns are made at the
Hotchkiss Works, near that city, and have been adopted for flank defense
of fortifications and for naval use by several of the continental
powers.

=Battle.= An action or engagement between the forces of two armies. A
battle is either general or partial; general, where the whole or the
greater part of each army is brought into action; and partial, where
only brigades, divisions, or _corps d’armée_ are engaged. But, however
the numbers may vary, the great principles to be applied in delivering
battle are in almost every case the same. Palamedes of Argos is said to
have been the first who ranged an army in order of battle, placed
sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier’s vigilance by giving
him a watch-word.

BATTLES may be arranged into three general classes, _defensive_,
_offensive_, and _mixed_ battles. In a purely _defensive_ battle, an
army chooses a position in which to await the enemy, and there to give
battle with no other end in view than to hold this position and repulse
the enemy. In a purely _offensive_ battle, an army seeks the enemy and
attacks him wherever he is to be found. A _mixed_ battle, is a
combination of these two. The most common case of this last class is
that in which a position is selected beforehand, where the army awaits
the attack of the enemy, and, at a suitable moment, moves from it, and
attacks the assaulting columns. This case is sometimes known as a
_defensive-offensive_ battle. Details of particular battles and
engagements are given under their respective headings in this work.

=Battle-Abbey.= In Sussex, England; founded by William I. 1067, on the
plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, October 14, 1066. It was
dedicated to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine monks, who were to
pray for the souls of the slain. The original name of the plain was
Hetheland. After the battle of Hastings, a list was taken of William’s
chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the _Battle-Roll_; and among these
chiefs the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated
Harold were distributed.

=Battle-array.= Array or order of battle; the disposition of forces
preparatory to a battle.

=Battle-axe.= A weapon much used by the early northern nations, Celtic
and Scandinavian, requiring great strength in its use. Some were held
with one hand, some with two; the former kind could be wielded equally
by horse and foot, but the latter was for foot soldiers only. The
battle-axe has a longer handle, and a broader, stronger, and sharper
blade than the common axe. During the Middle Ages and somewhat earlier,
it was much used in sorties, and to prevent the escalading of a besieged
fortress. The _pole-axe_ differed but little from the battle-axe. The
_black-bill_ and _brown-bill_ were a sort of halbert, having a cutting
part like a woodman’s bill, with a spike projecting from the back, and
another from the head. The _glaive_ was a kind of pole-axe or bill used
by the Welsh.

=Battle-cries.= See WAR-CRIES.

=Battle-ground.= A village of Tippecanoe Co., Ind., where the battle of
Tippecanoe was fought, November 7, 1811, between Gen. Harrison and the
Indians under the chief Tecumseh and his brother the “Prophet.”

=Battlements.= The indentations in the top of old castles, or fortified
walls, in the form of embrasures, for the greater convenience of firing
or looking through.

=Battle of the Giants.= See MARIGNANO.

=Battle of the Herrings.= A name given by historians to an engagement
which took place February 12, 1429, in which Sir John Fastolfe, an
English general at the head of 1500 men, gained a victory over 6000
Frenchmen near Orleans, and brought a convoy of stores in safety to the
English camp before that place. The stores comprised a large quantity of
herrings.

=Battle of the Nations.= See LEIPSIC.

=Battle of the Spurs.= A name given to the battle of Courtrai (which
see); also to that of Guinegate. See GUINEGATE.

=Battle of the Standard.= A name given to a battle between the English
and Scotch at Northallerton (which see).

=Battle of the Thirty.= A name given in English and French history to a
celebrated engagement which took place at a spot known as Midway Oak,
half-way between the castles of Josselin and Ploermel, in France, March
27, 1351. The French general Beaumanoir, commanding at the former place,
being enraged at the English general Bemborough, occupying the latter
position, challenged him to fight. Upon this it was agreed that 30
knights of each party should meet and decide the contest. At the first
onset the English were successful, but Bemborough having been killed,
the French renewed the struggle with redoubled courage, and finally won
the victory.

=Battle-range.= The range corresponding to the maximum “dangerous
space” for the trajectory of any fire-arm. This range is somewhat
greater for such fire-arm employed against mounted troops than against
foot troops. For instance, it is 262 yards for the Springfield rifle
(calibre .45) when used against foot troops, and represents the extreme
range for which the rear sight may be set so as to cover such foot
troops continuously between that point and the firer. There is also a
“dangerous space” of 75 yards behind that point for the foot soldier;
hence the maximum “dangerous space” is 337 yards, and is a continuous
one. For the same arm and against cavalry, the “battle-range” is 291
yards, corresponding to a maximum continuous “dangerous space,” front
and rear, of (291 + 95 =) 386 yards. For the carbine (cal. .45) against
infantry, this range is 204 yards, and the maximum “dangerous space” is
300 yards. Upon the latest model sights (1879) for these two fire-arms,
the letter “_B_” is placed opposite the “battle-range” elevation, and
indicates the most suitable one for firing at an enemy’s line of battle;
with this elevation and the aim taken at the foot, the enemy will be hit
wherever he may be within a range of about 400 yards. The most effective
fire, and one covering the greatest zone of continuous “dangerous
space,” can be secured by causing troops to lie down, to fire at the
feet of the opposing line, and to use the “battle” elevation. The zone
then swept will be round about 500 yards for troops armed with the
service rifle. See DANGEROUS SPACE.

=Battle, The Fearless.= An engagement between the Lacedæmonians under
Archidamus III. and the Arcadians.

=Battre= (_Fr._). To direct one or more pieces of ordnance in such a
manner that any given object may be destroyed or broken into by the
continued discharge of cannon-ball, or other warlike material; it
likewise means to silence an enemy’s fire.

=Battre de Front= (_Fr._). To throw cannon-balls in a perpendicular or
almost perpendicular direction against any body or place which becomes
an object of attack. This mode of attack is less effectual than any
other unless _battering in breach_.

=Baulois.= A piece of punk stuff, used by miners for firing the
saucision, or train.

=Bavaria.= A kingdom in South Germany; conquered from the Celtic Gauls
by the Franks, between 630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed
by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasillon II. was deposed by
Charlemagne, who established margraves in 788. Henry the Lion, duke of
Saxony, Bavaria, and Brunswick, was dispossessed in 1180 by the emperor
Frederick Barbarossa (who had previously been his friend and
benefactor.) Bavaria supported Austria in the contest with Prussia in
June, 1866, and took part in the war; made peace with Prussia August 22.
Took part with Prussia against the French in the Franco-Prussian war,
1870.

=Bavier.= The beaver of a helmet.

=Bavin.= The old word for fascine.

=Bayberry Tallow.= A product of the wax myrtle, used as lubricant for
bullets.

=Bayeux.= A city in the department of Calvados, France, 17 miles
west-northwest of Caen; captured and sacked by Henry I. of England in
1106; by Philip of Navarre in 1356; the English took possession of it,
1450; the Protestants in 1561; Lamoricière for the League in 1589, and
the Duke of Montpensier in 1590.

=Baylen.= A town in Southern Spain, where on July 20, 1808, the French,
commanded by Gens. Dupont and Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards
under Reding, Coupigny, and other generals, whose force amounted to
25,000.

=Bayonet.= A triangular dagger, made with a hollow handle and a
shoulder, to fix on the muzzle of a rifle, so that its presence does not
impede either the charging or firing of the piece. It is said to have
been invented at Bayonne, in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was
used at Killiecrankie in 1689, and at Marsaglia by the French in 1693,
“with great success against the enemy, unprepared for the encounter with
so formidable a novelty.” Bayonets are sometimes made in other shapes.
See SWORD-BAYONET and TROWEL-BAYONET.

=Bayonet Exercise.= A drill in fencing with the bayonet fixed on the
gun.

=Bayonet Scabbard.= A leather or metallic case for carrying the bayonet
suspended from the belt.

=Bayonne.= An ancient city in Southern France, at the confluence of the
Adour and Nive; held by the British from 1295 till it was taken by
Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France met here in 1565 the cruel
Duke of Alva, it is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in favor of his “friend and ally,”
the emperor Napoleon, May 4, 1808. In the neighborhood of Bayonne was
much desperate fighting between the French and English armies, December
10, 11, and 13, 1813; invested by the British January 14, 1814; on April
14, the French made a sally and attacked the English with success, but
were at length driven back. The loss of the British was considerable,
and Lieut.-Gen. Sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner.

=Bayou.= A long and narrow place; a branch of a trench in fortification;
a hose or leathern pipe; the outlet of a lake; a channel for water.

=Baza.= A city in Andalusia, Spain; it was taken by the Spaniards under
Ferdinand V. from the Moors in December, 1489, after a siege of nearly
seven months; in 1810 the Spaniards under Gens. Blake and Freire were
defeated by the French under Marshal Soult.

=Bazar.= The sutler establishment which accompanies a native regiment in
the India service wherever it goes.

=Bazeilles.= A village in the Ardennes, Northeast France. During the
dreadful battle of Sedan, September 1, 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the
Bavarians, and outrages committed. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants scarcely
50 remained alive, and these indignantly denied having given
provocation. The cause of provocation appears to have been that an old
woman whose husband and sons had been killed had fired upon and killed
two Bavarians.

=Bazoche-des-Hautes.= Near Orleans, Central France. Here a part of the
army of the Loire, under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines, was defeated after
a severe action by the Germans under the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg,
December 2, 1870.

=Beach-master.= Formerly a superior officer, appointed to superintend
the disembarkation of an attacking force, who holds plenary powers, and
generally leads the storming-party. His acts when in the heat of action
are unquestioned.

=Beachy Head.= A promontory, Southeast Sussex, England, near which the
British and Dutch fleets, commanded by the earl of Torrington, were
defeated by a superior French force under Admiral Tourville, June 30,
1690; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch lost 2 admirals, 500
men, and several ships,--sunk to prevent them from falling into the
hands of the enemy; the English lost 2 ships and 400 men. The admirals
on both sides were blamed,--the English for not fighting, the French for
not pursuing the victory.

=Beacon.= A signal-fire to notify the approach of an enemy.

=Bear.= In a military sense, a piece of ordnance is said to _bear_, or
_come_ to _bear_, or is _brought_ to _bear_, when pointed directly
against the object; that is, pointed to hit the object.

=Bear, Order of.= Was a military order in Switzerland, instituted by the
emperor Frederick II. in 1213, by way of acknowledgment for the service
the Swiss had done him, and in favor of the abbey of St. Gall. To the
collar of the order hung a medal, on which was represented a bear raised
on an eminence of earth.

=Beard.= The reflected points of the head of an ancient arrow,
particularly of such as were jagged.

=Beat.= In a military sense, to gain the day, to win the battle, etc.

=Beating the Wind.= Was a practice in use in the ancient method of trial
by combat. If one of the combatants did not appear in the field at the
time appointed, the other was to make so many flourishes with his
weapon, by which he was entitled to all the advantages of a conqueror.

=Beaucéant=, or =Beaucent= (_Fr._). Standard of the Knights Templar; it
was white on one side and black on the other.

=Beaugency.= An ancient town of France, in the department of Loiret, and
situated on the right bank of the Loire. It was at one time surrounded
by walls, flanked with towers and bastions, and defended by a strong
castle, now ruined. In the history of the wars of France Beaugency
occupies a conspicuous place; it was successively in the hands of the
Huns, Saxons, Normans, and English, but the town sustained most damage
during the religious wars of the 16th century.

=Beaumont.= A town in the department of the Somme, France; here the
French routed the allies, June 16, 1815.

=Beaumont.= A village near Sedan, department of Ardennes, Northeast
France. Near here a part of the army of Marshal MacMahon, under De
Failly, which, after vainly endeavoring to reach Metz, was retreating
before the Germans under the crown prince of Prussia, was surprised,
defeated, and driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, August 30, 1870. The
French loss included about 7000 prisoners, many guns, and much camp
equipage. The victory was chiefly gained by the Bavarians.

=Beaune-la-Rolande.= A village in the Loiret, France. Here the French
army of the Loire under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines was defeated by the
Germans under Prince Frederick Charles, in an attempt to march in the
direction of Fontainebleau, to relieve Paris, November 28, 1870. The
French loss was reported by the Germans to be 1000 dead and 4000
wounded, with more than 1700 prisoners. Their own loss was also heavy.

=Beauvais= (Northern France). The ancient _Bellovaci_, formerly capital
of Picardy. When besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, with
80,000 men, the women under Jeanne Fourquet or Lainé, also called de la
Hachette, from her using that weapon, particularly distinguished
themselves, and the duke raised the siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of
this, the women of Beauvais walk first in the procession on the
anniversary of their deliverance.

=Bebra.= A sort of javelin, used by the ancient Germans; it was an
imitation of the _pilum_ of the Romans.

=Bec de Corbin= (_Fr._). A kind of halbert formerly used by the
body-guards of the kings of France.

=Bechlis.= Light cavalry of the Turks, composed of picked men and
horses.

=Bedaines= (_Fr._). Stone bullets which were thrown from catapults
during the Middle Ages.

=Bednore=, or =Nuggur=. A large city of Mysore, India. In 1763 it was
taken and pillaged by Hyder Ali, who subsequently made it the seat of
his own government. It was taken by the British under Gen. Matthews in
1783, but was soon retaken by Tippoo, at the head of a vastly superior
force, when Gen. Matthews and all the principal British officers were
put to death.

=Bedouins.= Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of
travelers, etc. They profess a form of Mohammedanism, and are governed
by sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ishmael.

=Beds.= Are receptacles for ordnance of large calibre,--_mortar-beds_
serve the same purpose as gun-carriages. They are made of solid timber,
consisting generally of two pieces fastened together with strong iron
bolts and bars. Their sizes depend on the kind of mortar they carry. The
beds for the smaller mortars are made of one solid block only. The
reason that a bed is used for a mortar instead of a wheel-carriage is on
account of the high elevation at which a mortar is usually fired, when
the recoil, instead of forcing the piece backwards, tends to force it
downwards, and this tendency becomes so great at the higher angles that
no wheel-carriage could long sustain the shock.

=Beeren, Gross.= A village of Prussia, 11 miles east-southeast of
Potsdam, well known as the scene of a great victory gained by the
Prussians over the French on August 22-23, 1813.

=Beetles.= In a military sense, are large wooden hammers for driving
down palisades, and for other uses.

=Beetlestock.= The stock or handle of a beetle.

=Befort=, or =Belfort=. A fortified town in the department of Haut-Rhin,
France; sustained several sieges; taken by the Austrians in 1814. Its
citadel was constructed by Vauban.

=Beg=, or =Bey=. A Turkish title, rather vague in its import, and
commonly given to superior military officers, ship-captains, and
distinguished foreigners. More strictly, it applies to the governor of a
small district, who bears a horse-tail as a sign of his rank. Beglerbeg,
or more correctly Beilerbegi (“lord of lords”), is the title given to
the governor of a province who bears three horse-tails as his badge of
honor, and has authority over several begs, agas, etc.

=Begkos=, or =Beikos=. A large village of Anatolia, on the Bosphorus, 8
miles north-northeast of Scutari, said to be the locality of the contest
between Pollux and Amycus, in which the latter was killed. At the
commencement of the Crimean war, the allied fleets anchored in Begkos
Bay, prior to their entering the Black Sea, in January, 1854.

=Behourd=, =Bihourt=, or =Bohourt= (_Fr._). This name was given during
the Middle Ages, to a combat on horseback, lance in hand; also a tilting
of cavaliers, which took place at public amusements.

=Beilan.= A town and mountain-pass of Syria at its northern extremity,
on the east side of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. Here the Egyptian troops
totally defeated the Turks in 1882.

=Belbeys=, or =Belbeis=. A town of Lower Egypt, on the eastern arm of
the Nile, 28 miles north-northeast of Cairo; it is inclosed by earthen
ramparts, and is a station on the route from Egypt to Syria. During the
expedition of the French into Egypt, Gen. Bonaparte had the ancient
fortifications repaired.

=Beleaguer.= To invest a town or fortress, so as to preclude escape; to
besiege; to blockade.

=Belem.= A town of Portugal, on the right bank of the Tagus, near
Lisbon. It is historically interesting as the place from whence Vasco de
Gama set sail on his voyage of oriental discovery; it was taken in
November, 1807, by the French, the royal family of Portugal embarking
from its quay for Brazil as they entered; in 1833, it was occupied by
Don Pedro’s troops.

=Belemnon.= A dart used by the ancient Grecians.

=Belfry=, or =Beffroi=. Among military writers of the Middle Ages, a
movable tower, often several stories high, erected by besiegers for
purposes of attack and defense.

=Belgian-fuze.= See BORMANN-FUZE.

=Belgium.= Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands,
and anciently the territory of the Belgæ, who were finally conquered by
Julius Cæsar, 51 B.C.; a revolution commenced at Brussels, August 25,
1830; Antwerp taken (except the citadel), December 23, 1830. The king of
the Netherlands commenced war August 3, 1831, but France sent 50,000
troops to assist Belgium, which effected an armistice. Antwerp was taken
by the French, December 23, 1832, and the French army returned to France
immediately after. For previous history, see FLANDERS.

=Belgrade.= An ancient city in Servia, on the right bank of the Danube.
It was taken from the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, in
1086; gallantly defended by John Huniades, against the Turks under
Mahomet II., July to September, 1456, when the latter was defeated with
the loss of 40,000 men; it was taken by Sultan Solyman, 1521, and
retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by the
Turks, 1690; besieged in May, 1717, by Prince Eugene. On August 5, of
that year, the Turkish army, 200,000 strong, approached to relieve it,
and a sanguinary battle was fought at Peterwardein, in which the Turks
lost 20,000 men; after this battle Belgrade surrendered. In 1739 it was
ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been demolished;
retaken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach in 1790. The
Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806; in 1815, it was placed
under Prince Milosch, subject to Turkey; the fortifications were
restored in 1820; the fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the
Servians about August, 1867.

=Belier= (_Fr._). A battering-ram, invented by the Carthaginians about
441 B.C.; used in ancient times for siege purposes. Also a wooden
machine for driving wedges under a ship’s bottom.

=Bellair.= In North America; this town was attacked by the British
forces under Sir Peter Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, were
repulsed with considerable loss; their gallant commander was killed
August 30, 1814.

=Belle-Alliance.= A farm-house on the field of Waterloo, Belgium; it is
situated on the right side of the high-road to Brussels and about two
miles from Mount-Saint-Jean. Here Napoleon marshaled his guards for
their last effort at Waterloo; and here Wellington and Blücher met after
the battle was gained by the allies.

=Bellegarde.= A hill fortress of France, in the department of the
Pyrénées Orientales. Here the French under Philip III. were defeated by
Peter III. of Aragon, in 1285; captured by the Spaniards in 1674, and
again by the French under Marshal Schomberg, in 1675; blockaded and
taken by the Spaniards under Ricardos, but was retaken by the French in
the following year.

=Belleisle.= An isle on the southeast of Brittany, France, erected into
a duchy for Marshal Belleisle in 1742, in reward of his military and
diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was taken by the British
forces under Commodore Keppel and Gen. Hodgson, after a desperate
resistance, June 7, 1761; restored to France in 1763.

=Belley=, =Bellica=, =Bellicum=, or =Bellicium=. A town in the
department of Ain, France, 39 miles east from Lyons, formerly fortified.
Belley served as a place of arms to Cæsar against the Allobroges; burned
by Alaric in 390; it was in the possession of the dukes of Savoy; it was
ceded to France in 1601.

=Belligerent.= In a state of warfare. Hence any two or more nations at
war are called belligerent powers.

=Bellinzona.= A town in the Swiss canton of Ticino, on the river Ticino.
It has several castles, and was captured and recaptured several times by
the Germans, Swiss, and French.

=Bellipotent.= Powerful or mighty in war.

=Bell-metal.= An alloy of about 78 parts copper and 22 of tin, used in
making bells. It is harder and more sonorous than gun-metal, but much
more brittle.

=Bellovaci.= The most powerful of the Belgæ, dwelt in the modern
_Beauvais_, between the Seine, Oise, Somme, and Bresle. In Cæsar’s time
they could bring 100,000 men into the field, but they were subdued by
Cæsar with the other Belgæ.

=Bellows-house.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, TRAVELING FORGE.

=Bells of Arms.= In the British service, are tents in front of the
quarters of each company of infantry, in which the arms are piled. In
Indian cantonments, the bells of arms are of masonry.

=Beloochistan=, Southern Asia. The ancient _Gedrosia_. The capital,
Kelat, was taken by the British in the Afghan war, in 1839; abandoned in
1840; taken and held for a short time in 1841.

=Belt, Great.= A strait forming the central communication between the
Baltic and the Cattegat; it separates the island of Funen from that of
Seeland. In the winter of 1658, while frozen, it was crossed by Gustavus
Adolphus, king of Sweden, and his army, on his way to besiege
Copenhagen.

=Belts.= Leathern suspenders of different sorts and for various
purposes, viz.: _sword_ belts, to which swords hang; _shoulder_ or
_cross_ belts, broad leathern belts, crossing from the right shoulder,
and to which the pouch is affixed; and leathern straps fixed round the
waist, by which a sword or bayonet is suspended.

=Benares.= A holy city of the Hindoos in India; it was ceded by the
nabob of Oude to the English in 1755; the scene of an insurrection in
1781, which nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan.
In June, 1857, Col. Neil succeeded in suppressing attempts to join the
Sepoy mutiny.

=Ben-Azzedin.= A place in Algiers, where the French fought the Kabyles,
September 9, 1848.

=Benburb.= Near Armagh (Northern Ireland). Here O’Neill totally defeated
the English under Monroe, June 5, 1646. Moore says that it was “the only
great victory since the days of Brian Boru achieved by an Irish
chieftain in the cause of Ireland.”

=Bend.= In heraldry, is one of the ordinaries, or more important
figures. It is formed of two parallel lines drawn from the dexter to the
sinister base, and consequently passing athwart the shield. It is
supposed to represent a shoulder-belt, or scarf worn over the shoulder.

=Bender= (Bessarabia, European Russia). Was the asylum of Charles XII.
of Sweden after his defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, July
8, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded in 1711; it was taken by
storm, by the Russians, in September, 1770; again taken by Potemkin in
1789; and again stormed in 1809. It was restored at the peace of Jassy,
but retained at the peace of 1812.

=Benevente.= A small town of the province of Alentejo, Portugal, where
Lord Paget, afterwards Marquis of Anglesea, in 1808, greatly
distinguished himself by a brilliant cavalry action, against the French
under Marshal Soult; when Gen. Lefebre Desnouettes, who commanded the
advanced guard of the French forces, was taken prisoner.

=Benevento= (anc. _Beneventum_). An ancient city in South Italy, said to
have been founded by Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy; Pyrrhus
of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was totally defeated near
Beneventum, 275 B.C. At a battle fought here, February 26, 1266,
Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who
thus became virtually master of Italy. It was seized by the king of
Naples, but restored to the pope, 1773; it was taken by the French in
1798, and restored to the pope in 1814.

=Bengal.= Chief presidency of British India, containing Calcutta, the
capital. Its governors were delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi till
1340, when it became independent. It was added to the Mogul empire by
Baber about 1529.

=Beni-Abbes.= An Algerian tribe who fought the French, May 16, 1847.

=Beni-Achour.= An Algerian tribe who were defeated by the French,
September 22, 1848.

=Benicke.= A kind of military fête among the Turks, similar to a
tournament, but without the presence of ladies.

=Beni-Mered.= An Algerian tribe who were defeated by the French, May 27,
1836.

=Beni-Yala.= An Algerian tribe who were chastised by the French, May 31,
1847.

=Ben-Nahr.= A place in Algeria where the French defeated the Arabs,
February 7, 1846.

=Bennington.= A post-township of Bennington Co., Vt., 117 miles
southwest of Montpelier. Here a detachment of the English army under
Gen. Burgoyne were defeated by the Americans under Gen. Stark, August
16, 1777, and 600 prisoners captured.

=Ben-Tijour.= A place in Algeria where the French engaged the Arabs,
September 22, 1848.

=Bentonville.= A village in Johnston Co., N. C. Here part of the army of
Gen. Sherman encountered a Confederate army (40,000 strong) under Gen.
Johnston, March, 1865. The attack was made by Gen. Johnston on the left
wing of the Federal army with the intention of overwhelming it before it
could be relieved. Six assaults were gallantly sustained by the Federals
against the combined forces of Gens. Hoke, Hardee, and Cheatham. During
the night Gen. Slocum received reinforcements which rendered his
position impregnable. On March 21, Gen. Sherman ordered a general attack
by his skirmish-line, and the ensuing night Johnston retreated towards
Smithfield, leaving his pickets to fall into Gen. Sherman’s hands. The
Federal loss was 1646; the Confederate loss is unknown, but about 1300
prisoners were taken by the Union forces.

=Beraun.= A walled town of Bohemia, capital of a circle, on the Beraun
River. Here the Austrians defeated the Prussians in 1744.

=Berbers.= The general name usually given to the tribes inhabiting the
mountainous regions of Barbary and the northern portions of the Great
Desert. They were conquered in succession by the Phœnicians, Romans,
Vandals, and Arabs. They are of middle stature, sparely but strongly
built; complexion varies from a red to a yellow brown; hair is, in
general, dark, and eyes dark and piercing. Their manners are austere,
and in disposition they are cruel, suspicious, and implacable. They are
usually at war with their neighbors or among themselves.

=Beresina=, or =Berezina=. A river in Russia, crossed by the French main
army after its defeat by the Russians, November 25-29, 1812. The French
lost upwards of 20,000 men, and their retreat was attended by great
calamity and suffering.

=Bereung.= A description of Swedish militia, consisting of every man in
the kingdom, from 20 to 25 years of age, capable of bearing arms.

=Bergamo.= A fortified city of Lombardy, Italy; captured by the French
in 1698. During the height of the Venetian power, Bergamo was a
dependency on its territory; under Napoleon, it was the capital of the
department of Serio.

=Bergedorf.= A town of North Germany; it was taken from the Duke of
Saxe-Lauenberg in 1736 by the cities of Hamburg and Lubeck; recaptured
in 1412; and again taken by the same two cities in 1720.

=Bergen.= A small town in Germany, about 5 miles from Frankfort. Here
the French, under the Duke of Broglie, defeated the allies under the
Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, April 13, 1759. The allies lost 2500 killed
and wounded, and the French lost about 1800.

=Bergen.= A town in Holland. Here the allies under the Duke of York were
defeated by the French, under Gen. Brune, with great loss, September 19,
1799. In another battle fought October 2, the same year, the duke gained
the victory over Brune; but on the 6th, the duke was defeated before
Alkmaer, and on the 20th entered into a convention, by which his army
was exchanged for 6000 French and Dutch prisoners in England.

=Bergen-op-Zoom=, or =Berg-op-Zoom=. A strongly-fortified town of
Holland, in North Brabant, on the river Zoom. In 1586 it was
unsuccessfully besieged by the famous Duke of Parma, and afterwards, in
1622, it defied the utmost attempts of Spinola, who was forced to
abandon the enterprise after a siege of ten weeks, with the loss of
12,000 men. It was taken by the French under Count Lowendahl in 1747,
and in 1795 was again occupied by them. An attempt made by the British
under Gen. Sir T. Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch) to carry the
fortress by storm was defeated; after forcing an entrance, their retreat
was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued; nearly all were cut to
pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814.

=Bergerac.= A town in the department of Dordogne, France; it was
formerly fortified, and sustained many sieges; taken by the English in
1345, and retaken by the Duke of Anjou in 1370. Its fortifications were
razed by Louis XIII. in 1621.

=Bergfried, Combat of.= A combat which took place between the French and
Russians, February 3, 1807, in which the latter were repulsed.

=Bergues.= A fortified town in the department of the North, France; it
was captured and recaptured by the Spaniards and French; the last time
by Turenne in 1658.

=Berlin.= Capital of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg; alleged
to have been founded by the margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. It was
taken by an army of Russians and Austrians in 1760, but they were
obliged to retire in a few days. On October 26, 1806, after the battle
of Jena (October 14), the French entered Berlin; and from this place
Napoleon issued the famous “Berlin decree” or interdict against the
commerce of England, November 20. On November 5, 1808, Napoleon entered
into a convention with Prussia by which he remitted to Prussia the sum
due on the war-debt and withdrew many of his troops to reinforce his
army in Spain. An insurrection commenced here in March, 1848; a treaty
of peace between Prussia and Saxony was signed on October 21, 1866.

=Berme.= A narrow path round fortifications between the parapet and the
ditch, to prevent the earth from falling in.

=Bermuda Hundred.= In Chesterfield Co., Va., on the right bank of the
James River, just above the mouth of the Appomattox. Here on May 16,
1864, the Federal forces under Gen. Butler were attacked by the
Confederates under Beauregard, and after several hours’ severe fighting
Butler was compelled to fall back to his first line of intrenchments,
with a loss of about 2500.

=Bermuda Islands=, or =Bermudas=. A group of islands in the North
Atlantic Ocean, discovered by Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard, in 1527, but
not inhabited until 1600, when Sir George Somers was cast away upon
them. The Bermudas are garrisoned by British troops.

=Bernard, The Great St.= A famous mountain-pass of the Pennine Alps, so
called from a monastery founded on it by Bernardine de Meuthon in 972.
Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, covered with perpetual
snow. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass
into Italy, 218 B.C.; and by the same route, in May, 1800, Bonaparte led
his troops to Italy before the battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800.

=Berne.= The sovereign canton of Switzerland; joined the Swiss League in
1352; the town of Berne was made a free city by the emperor Frederick,
May, 1218; it successfully resisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1288. It
surrendered to the French under Gen. Brune, April 12, 1798; the town was
made capital of Switzerland in 1848.

=Berry= (anc. _Biturigum regis_), Central France; held by the Romans
since the conquest by Cæsar, 58-50 B.C., till it was subdued by the
Visigoths; from whom it was taken by Clovis in 507.

=Bersaglieri.= The sharpshooters of the Sardinian army; first employed
about 1848.

=Berserker.= A legendary Scandinavian hero of the 8th century,
celebrated for his strength and valor. He fought without a coat of mail
or helmet, whence his name. The name Berserkers was also applied to a
class of warriors who, under the influence of a sort of demoniac
possession, fought naked, performing marvelous feats of valor,
unmindful or insusceptible of wounds.

=Berwick-on-Tweed.= A fortified town on the northeast extremity of
England; the theatre of many bloody contests while England and Scotland
were two kingdoms; it was claimed by the Scots because it stood on their
side of the river; annexed to England in 1333; and after having been
taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to England in 1482; in
1651 it was made independent of both kingdoms; the town surrendered to
Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to Gen. Monk in 1659.

=Besançon.= A fortified city of France, capital of the department of
Doubs; sacked by Attila; captured and ruined by the ancient Germans;
rebuilt by the Burgundians; it was ceded to Spain by the peace of
Westphalia; taken by Louis XIV. on May 15, 1670; united to France in
1678; in 1814 the Austrians besieged it without success.

=Besiege.= To lay siege to or invest any fortified place with armed
forces.

=Besieged.= The garrison that defends the place against the army that
lays siege to it.

=Besiegers.= The army that lays siege to a fortified place.

=Bessarabia.= A frontier province of European Russia, part of the
ancient Dacia. After being possessed by the Goths, Huns, etc., it was
conquered by the Turks in 1474, and ceded to Russia in 1812.

=Bessemer Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Bessi.= A fierce and powerful Thracian people, who dwelt along the
whole of Mount Hæmus as far as the Euxine. After the conquest of
Macedonia by the Romans, 168 B.C., the Bessi were attacked by the
latter, and subdued after a severe struggle.

=Bethoron.= A village of Palestine. Near here Judas Maccabæus gained
advantages on two different occasions over the generals of Antiochus.

=Bethsur.= An ancient city of Palestine, now extinct. The Syrian general
Lysias captured it, 163 B.C., after a severe combat in which Eleazar, a
brother of Judas, perished.

=Béton.= French term for concrete. Much used in permanent
fortifications. See CONCRETE.

=Béton Aggloméré.= A species of concrete invented by M. Coignet. Used in
building arches, aqueducts, cellar walls, etc. It differs from ordinary
béton, having much greater strength and hardness,--qualities derived
from the ramming to which it is subjected.

=Betray.= To deliver perfidiously any place or body of troops into the
hands of the enemy. To discover that which has been intrusted to
secrecy.

=Betty.= A machine used for forcing open gates or doors. See PETARD.

=Bey.= See BEG.

=Beyroot=, or =Beyrout= (anc. _Berytus_). A seaport of Syria, colonized
from Sidon; alternately possessed by the Christians and Saracens; and
after many changes, fell into the power of Amurath IV., since when it
remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pasha in
1832. The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British,
Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyroot (the Egyptians
losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 20 pieces of cannon),
took place October 10, 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral
engaged. Beyroot suffered greatly in consequence of the massacres in
Syria in May, 1860.

=Béziers.= A city of France, department of Hérault; sacked by the
Vandals in the 5th century; by the Visigoths in the 5th, 6th, and 7th
centuries; by the Saracens in 720; by Charles Martel in 737; in 1209,
this city was taken by the Catholics under Simon de Montfort and Arnaud,
abbé of Citeaux, and was the scene of a barbarous massacre of the
Albigenses; 60,000 inhabitants were slain without consideration of sex
or age (7000 were found dead in the church _de la Magdeleine_, where
they sought refuge from their relentless slayers).

=Bhootan.= A country north of Lower Bengal. Invaded by the British in
December, 1864, in consequence of injurious treatment of an envoy.

=Bhurtpoor= (India). Capital of Bhurtpoor, was besieged by the British,
January 3, 1805, and attacked five times up to March 21, without
success. The fortress was taken by Gen. Lake, after a desperate
engagement with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805; this led to a
treaty on April 17. On the rajah’s death, during a revolt against his
son, Bhurtpoor was taken by storm, by Lord Combermere, January 18, 1826.

=Biacolytes.= A military organization in the Grecian empire, whose duty
was to prevent the committal of any excesses against life or property.
Their service was analogous to that of the French gendarmes.

=Biagrasso=, or =Abbiategrasso=. A city on the Ticinella, in Lombardy;
here, in 1524, the French were defeated by the Imperialists.

=Bibans=, or =Bibens=. “The Gates of Iron.” A dangerous defile of the
Atlas Mountains, between Algiers and Constantine; it is traversed by a
number of currents. The French, led by the Duke of Orleans and Marshal
Valée, passed through it in 1839.

=Bibaux=, or =Petaux= (_Fr._). In ancient times, were soldiers who
fought on foot, with cross-bow and lance.

=Biberach= (Würtemberg). Here Moreau twice defeated the
Austrians,--under Latour, October 2, 1796, and under Kray, May 9, 1800.

=Bicker.= A word formerly used in the sense of to skirmish; to fight off
and on; to make repeated attacks.

=Bicocca= (Northern Italy). Lautrec and the French were here defeated by
Colonna and the Imperialists, April 29, 1522, and Francis thereby lost
his conquests in Milan.

=Bicoque= (_Fr._). A term used in France to signify a place ill
fortified and incapable of much defense. It is derived from a place on
the road between Lodi and Milan, which was originally a gentleman’s
country-house surrounded by ditches. In 1522, a body of Imperial troops
were stationed in it, and stood the attack of the whole French army,
during the reign of Francis I. This engagement was called the battle of
Bicoque.

=Bicorneurs= (_Fr._). Name given to the militia of Valenciennes.

=Bidarkee.= A skin boat used by the Aleuts.

=Bidassoa.= A river of the Pyrenees, which forms one of the boundaries
of France and Spain, the passage of which is memorable as completing the
endeavors of Lord Wellington to drive the French, under Marshal Soult,
out of the Peninsula into France. In 1808, Marshal Junot crossed the
Bidassoa with the armies of France to invade the Peninsula, and in 1813,
Lord Wellington crossed it, after driving the French out of Spain.

=Bidauts=, or =Bidaux= (_Fr._). An ancient French corps of infantry;
according to some authorities they were armed with two javelins.

=Bien-Hoa.= A fortified seaport town of the French colony in Cochin
China; it was taken from the Annamites by the French under Rear-Admiral
Bonard, December 15, 1861.

=Bienne.= A town of Switzerland; it was captured and burned by the
bishop of Basel in 1367.

=Biga.= A Roman term applied in ancient times to vehicles drawn by two
horses abreast, and commonly to the Roman chariot used in processions or
in the circus. In shape it resembled the Greek war-chariot,--a short
body on two wheels, low, and open behind, where the charioteer entered,
but higher and closed in front.

=Big Bethel.= A village of York Co., Va., near Back River, about 12
miles northwest of Fortress Monroe, on the road from Hampton to
Yorktown, and about 3 miles beyond Little Bethel, on the same road. In
June, 1861, the main body of the Confederate army, under Gen. Magruder,
being in the vicinity of Yorktown, an outpost of considerable strength
was established at Little Bethel, which Gen. Butler, who was in command
at Fortress Monroe, determined to dislodge. Accordingly, on the night of
June 9, two New York regiments were ordered to gain the rear of the
enemy’s position, while a battalion of Vermont and Massachusetts troops
and a New York regiment were to attack in front at break of day. Before
daybreak, through some error, these forces approached and fired into
each other, and thus betrayed their projected movements to the enemy,
who retreated to Big Bethel, where there was another outpost, with works
of some strength in process of erection. Gen. Pierce, who was in command
of the Federal expedition, determined to carry these works. An attack
was ordered, and after nearly three hours’ fighting, the Federals being
exposed to a heavy fire, while the Confederates were almost entirely
protected, Gen. Pierce determined to retreat, which he did in good
order, the enemy falling back the same day to Yorktown. The number of
Federal troops was between 3000 and 4000, while that of the enemy was
nearly 1500. The Federal loss was about 60, that of the Confederates was
small in comparison.

=Big Horn.= A navigable river of the United States, near Fremont’s Peak,
in the Rocky Mountains. It has a northeast course of about 400 miles,
being the longest affluent of the Yellowstone, which, again, is the
largest affluent of the Missouri. A desperate battle was fought on the
Little Big Horn, between the 7th U. S. Cavalry and the Sioux Indians,
June 25, 1876.

=Bigles.= A military corps of Rome, whose particular duty was to furnish
sentinels; the bread which these troops received was called
_bigliaticum_.

=Bihach=, or =Bichacz=. One of the strongest fortress-towns of Croatia,
European Turkey; it has been the scene of frequent contests during the
Turkish wars.

=Bilbo.= A rapier, a sword; so named, it is said, from _Bilboa_, in
Spain, where the best are made.

=Bilboa=, or =Bilbao= (Northeast Spain). Founded about 1300; taken by
the French in 1795; captured and recaptured during the invasion of the
French in 1808; delivered from the Carlists by Espartero, aided by the
British, December 24, 1836.

=Bilboquet.= A small 8-inch mortar, whose bore is only half a caliber in
length. It throws a shell of 60 pounds about 400 toises.

=Bill.= A weapon much used by infantry, in the 14th and 15th centuries,
for defense against cavalry, consisting of a broad, hook-shaped blade,
having a short pike at the back and another at the summit, and attached
to the end of a long staff.

=Billet= (Fr. _Billet de logement_). In England, is a ticket for
quartering soldiers on publicans and others, which entitles each
soldier, by act of Parliament, to candles, vinegar, and salt, with the
use of fire and the necessary utensils for dressing and eating his meat.
In the United States, no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered
in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but
in the manner to be prescribed by law (Art. 3, Amendments to the
Constitution of the United States).

=Bill-hook.= A small hatchet used in European armies in cutting wood for
fascines and other military purposes. The pioneers of the infantry are
always provided with them, and a sufficient supply is issued to
regiments engaged on active service.

=Binche.= A town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. The French drove
the Austrians out of this place in 1794.

=Bipennis.= A double-headed axe, the weapon which, according to ancient
historians and authors, particularly distinguished those fabulous female
warriors, the Amazons.

=Biporus.= With the ancients this word signified a double-prowed boat,
so that it could change its course to the opposite direction without
turning.

=Bir=, or =Biridjek=. A walled town of Asiatic Turkey, on the Euphrates,
which was ruined by Tamerlane.

=Birse.= A small river in Switzerland, on the banks of which, on August
26, 1444, 1500 Swiss fought an army of about 20,000 men, commanded by
the dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XI. There were but 11 of the
Swiss who survived the day, while their enemy left 8000 men and 1100
horses on the battle-field. On the same river 6000 confederate Swiss
gained a splendid victory over 15,000 Austrians, July 22, 1499.

=Birtha.= See TEKRIT.

=Biscaïen= (_Fr._). A name formerly given to a long-barreled musket, the
range of which was greater than the ordinary musket. Now this
appellation is given to a leaden ball about the size of an egg, which is
used for canister or case-shot.

=Bisceglia.= A fortified seaport town of Naples, on the Adriatic, 21
miles northwest of Bari. Here a celebrated combat took place between 13
Spaniards and the same number of French. Among the latter was the
Chevalier Bayard.

=Biskara=, or =Biskra=. A town of Algeria, on the Kantara, taken by the
French, March 3, 1844.

=Bistritz.= A fortified town of Transylvania, situated on the Bistritz
River. Forming, as it does, the last strong position in the northeast of
Transylvania, it was repeatedly, during 1848-49, the scene of hot strife
between the Hungarian and Austrian generals.

=Bitche.= A town of France, in the department of the Moselle, in a wild
and wooded pass of the Vosges. The Prussians, under Colonel Count von
Wartensleben, attempted to surprise it in 1793, but failed.

=Bithynia.= An ancient division of Asia Minor, separated from Europe by
the Propontus (Sea of Marmora) and the Thracian Bosphorus (Strait of
Constantinople). It contained the famous Greek cities or colonies of
Chalcedon, Heraclea, etc., and at later periods, Nicomedia, Nicæa, and
Prusa. The inhabitants were supposed to be of Thracian origin. The
country is said to have been subdued by Crœsus of Lydia (560 B.C.), and
five years later fell under the Persian dominion. About 440 or 430 B.C.
it became an independent kingdom, under a dynasty of native princes, who
made Nicomedia their capital. It afterwards fell into the hands of the
Romans, and was governed as a province. In 1298, Osman the Turk broke
into the country, and in 1328 Prusa, or Brusa, then its chief town,
became the capital of the kingdom of the Osmanli.

=Bitonto.= A town of Naples where Mortemar and the Spaniards defeated
the Germans, on May 26, 1734, and eventually gained the kingdom of the
Two Sicilies for Don Carlos.

=Biturritæ= (now _Bedarrides_). In the department of Vaucluse, France.
It was a city of the Allobroges, who were totally defeated in its
environs by Domitius Ahenobarbus in 122 B.C.

=Bivouac.= A night-watch in open air. Troops bivouac when they make the
best of it for the night, encamping in the open air. The term was also
applied to a night-guard of the whole army, when apprehensive of
surprise. The word comes from the German bei, “near,” and wache,
“watch.” In recent times it is common for soldiers on the march to use
the _tente d’abri_, or shelter-tent.

=Bizerta=, or =Benzerta=. The most northern town of Africa, and a
fortified seaport of Tunis. It is defended by two castles, which,
however, are commanded by adjacent heights. Though its port now only
admits small vessels, it was formerly one of the best in the
Mediterranean. This city was noted for the piracy of its inhabitants.

=Black.= In blazonry, sable denotes constancy, wisdom, and prudence.

=Black-book.= An ancient book of English admiralty law, compiled in the
reign of Edward III. It has always been deemed of the highest authority
in matters concerning the admiralty in England.

=Blackfeet.= A once powerful and ferocious tribe of American Indians of
Algonkin stock, who infest the country between the Yellowstone and
Missouri Rivers, and are also found in British America. See INDIANS AND
THEIR AGENCIES.

=Blackheath= (Kent, near London). Here Wat Tyler and his followers
assembled, June 12, 1381, and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish
men encamped, June 1, 1450. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated and
Flannock’s insurrection quelled, June 22, 1497. The cavern on the ascent
to Blackheath, the retreat of Cade and the haunt of banditti in the time
of Cromwell, was rediscovered in 1780.

=Black Hole.= The appellation familiarly given in England to the dungeon
or dark cell of a prison. The name is associated with a horrible
catastrophe in the history of British India, namely, the cruel
confinement of a party of English in an apartment called the “Black Hole
of Calcutta,” on the night of June 19, 1756. The garrison of a fort at
Calcutta having been captured by the nabob Surajah Dowlah, he caused the
whole of the prisoners taken, 146 in number, to be confined in an
apartment 20 feet square, having only two small windows, which were
obstructed by a veranda. After a night of excruciating agony from heat,
thirst, and want of air, there remained in the morning but 23
survivors.

=Black Rod, Usher of the.= An officer of the English House of Lords,
whose emblem of authority is the wand or rod, with a gold lion on top.
He belongs to the order of the Garter, and keeps the door when the
chapter of that order is in session. His principal duty is to summon the
Commons to the House of Lords when royal assent is given to bills, etc.,
and to take into custody any peer guilty of breach of privilege.

=Black Sea=, or =Euxine=. _Pontus Euxinus_ of the ancients; a large
internal sea between the southwest provinces of Russia and Asia Minor,
connected with the Sea of Azof by the Straits of Yenikalé and with the
Sea of Marmora by the Bosphorus. This sea was much frequented by the
Greeks and Italians till it was closed to all nations by the Turks after
the fall of Constantinople, in 1453. The Russians obtained admission by
the treaty of Kainavdji, July 10, 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened
to British and other traders, since which time the Russians gradually
obtained the preponderance. It was entered by the British and French
fleets, January 3, 1854. A dreadful storm in this sea raged from
November 13 to 16, 1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, and
valuable stores for the allied armies. By the treaty of 1856 the Black
Sea was opened to the commerce of all nations, the Russians and Turks
not being allowed to keep ships of war on it. In 1871 the Russians were
again permitted to have men-of-war on this sea.

=Black Watch.= Armed companies of the loyal clans (Campbells, Munros,
etc.) employed to watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, when they
were formed into the celebrated 42d Regiment, which was formerly
enrolled “The Royal Highland Black Watch.” Their removal probably
facilitated the outbreak of 1745. They wore dark tartans, and hence
their name.

=Blackwater, Battle of.= In Ireland, August 14, 1598, when the Irish
chief O’Neal defeated the English under Sir Henry Bagnall. Pope Clement
VIII. sent O’Neal a consecrated plume, and granted to his followers the
same indulgences as to Crusaders.

=Bladensburg.= A village of Prince George Co., Md., memorable for the
battle which was fought here August 24, 1814, between the British and
Americans, and which resulted in the capture of Washington.

=Blair-Athol.= A village in Perthshire, Scotland; it was occupied by the
Marquis of Montrose in 1644; stormed by a party under the command of one
of Cromwell’s officers in 1653; and gallantly defended by Sir Andrew
Agnew, in 1746, when besieged by a portion of the Highland army, until
he was relieved by the Hessians under the Earl of Crawford. The pass of
Killekrankie, about two miles from Blair Castle, is famous for the
battle which was there fought in 1689, between the Highlanders under
Viscount Dundee, and King William’s troops under Gen. Mackay.

=Blaise.= A military order instituted by the kings of Armenia, in honor
of St. Blaise the Martyr, anciently bishop of Sebasta, and the patron
saint of Armenia. Justinian calls them Knights of St. Blaise and St.
Mary, and places them not only in Armenia, but in Palestine. They made a
vow to defend the Church of Rome, and followed the rule of St. Basil.
This institution appears to have commenced about the same time with the
Knights Templar and Hospitallers.

=Blakely Gun.= See ORDNANCE, BUILT-UP GUNS.

=Blakely Projectiles.= See PROJECTILE.

=Blamont.= A small town of France, department of Doubs. This small place
was protected by an ancient fortress, which was ruined by the allies in
1814.

=Blanch-Lyon.= A title of one of the English pursuivants-at-arms. See
PURSUIVANT.

=Blank.= The point of a target at which aim is taken, marked with a
white spot; hence, the object to which anything is directed.

=Blank Cartridge.= See CARTRIDGE.

=Blanket-boats.= A practical and highly useful plan for crossing streams
is by means of boats constructed of a single rubber blanket, capable of
carrying a soldier, knapsack, arms, and accoutrements, with only 4
inches of displacement. The size of some of the ordinary blankets is 6
feet long and 4 feet 9 inches wide; but 7 feet by 5 feet would be
preferable. If the height of the boat be made 1 foot, the length will be
4 feet, and the width 2 feet 9 inches, so as to be completely covered by
the blanket. The frame may be made of round sticks, 1 inch and 1¹⁄₂ inch
in diameter, in the following manner:

For the bottom the two end-sticks are 2 feet 9 inches long, and the
side-pieces 3 feet 9 inches long. They are connected by boring a
¹⁄₂-inch hole through the end-pieces, and into the ends of the
side-pieces, into which pins are driven. The top is formed in the same
manner, and both top and bottom of 1¹⁄₂-inch sticks. The side-pieces of
the bottom, and the top and bottom frames are connected by 1-inch round
sticks inserted in ¹⁄₂-inch holes, in the same manner as the upright
pieces are fastened in a chair. To keep the frame from falling apart,
loops of cord are passed from top to bottom, and from side to side, and
twisted with a stick. The rubber blanket is then spread upon the ground,
the frame placed upon it, the sides and eyes turned up and lashed to the
top rail by twine passed through the eyelets. Loops of cord are passed
over these projecting ends, and twisted with a stick, which binds the
parts together. One of these boats having a horizontal area of 11 square
feet, would require 687 pounds to sink it 1 foot, and the average weight
of a man would displace less than 4 inches.

In using these blanket-boats it will be convenient to lash several
together, side by side, upon which soldiers can be transported. The
float can be paddled or a rope may be stretched across, supported by
floats, and the men can pull themselves across. If used for cavalry,
some of the men can hold the bridles of the horses, while the others can
pull, paddle, or pole across the stream, the saddles being placed in the
boats. The frames are abandoned, or used for fuel, when the army has
crossed over.

Several of these boats lashed together, and covered with poles, would
form a raft on which wagons could be carried over; but for artillery,
rafts of wagon-bodies, or something possessing greater powers of
flotation, should be employed. The bill of materials for the frame of a
blanket-boat is: 4 end-pieces, 1¹⁄₂ inches round or square, 2 feet 9
inches long; 4 side-pieces, 1¹⁄₂ inches round or square, 3 feet 9 inches
long; 30 uprights, 1 inch round or square, 1 foot long; 10 pieces across
bottom, 1 inch round or square, 2 feet 9 inches long; 8 double pins,
¹⁄₂-inch in diameter, 3 inches long; 4 pieces of cord or strong twine,
each 9 feet long; 6 pieces of cord or strong twine, each 3 feet long; 1
india-rubber blanket, 6 feet long, 4 feet 9 inches wide, with eyelet
holes around all sides, not more than 6 inches apart, and 30 feet of
twine to lash the blanket to the frame.

=Blanketeers.= A number of operators who, on March 30, 1817, met in St.
Peter’s Field, near Manchester, England, many of them having blankets,
rugs, or great-coats rolled up and fastened to their backs. This was
termed the “blanket meeting.” They proceeded to march towards London,
but were dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was
to commence a general insurrection. Eventually the ringleaders had an
interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between
the working-classes and the government ensued.

=Blasting.= The displacement of earth or rock by the use of an
explosive. One of the most important parts of the art of mining in its
various branches of _tunneling_, _shaft-boring_, _well-digging_,
submarine _mining_, etc. The explosive is ordinarily placed in a bore
hole, but in submarine mining this is sometimes dispensed with when a
high explosive like nitro-glycerine is used.

=Blasting Powder.= An explosive in the form of powder used for blasting.
The most powerful blasting powders in common use are made by adding
certain substances to nitro-glycerine, which, by absorbing it, reduce it
to the form of powder, and thus render it comparatively safe against the
shocks and jars of use. (See GIANT POWDER, DYNAMITE.) The term blasting
powder is also specially applied to a powder analogous to gunpowder, but
which contains sodium nitrate in place of potassium nitrate, or
saltpetre.

=Blaubeuren.= A town of Würtemberg, on the Blau; here the French
defeated the Austrians in 1800; the fortress was razed in 1806.

=Blayle= (anc. _Blavia_). A fortified seaport of France, in the
department of Gironde, 20 miles north-northwest of Bordeaux. The Duchess
de Berry was imprisoned in the citadel in 1833. This city was captured
by the French, from the English, in 1339; the Protestants took
possession of it in 1568, and the English tried in vain to take it in
1814.

=Blazonry= (from the German _Blasen_, “to blow”). The art of describing
in technical language the objects or charges borne in a coat of arms,
and the manner of arranging them on a shield. The term originated from
the custom of blowing a trumpet to announce the arrival of a knight, or
his entrance into the lists at a joust or tournament. The blast was
answered by the heralds, who described aloud and explained the arms
borne by the knight.

=Blechstreifen=, or =Blechschienen= (_Ger._) (_Les laisches_, Fr.). Thin
metal plates which the ancient Gauls placed upon the buff coats of
infantry; they were placed between the buff and the lining.

=Bleneau.= A village of France, in the department of the Yonne, about 29
miles west-southwest of Auxerre, celebrated as the place where Turenne
gained a victory over the Prince of Condé in 1652.

=Blenheim= (Ger. _Blindheim_). A village of Bavaria, 23 miles
north-northwest of Augsburg, memorable in connection with Marlborough’s
great victory over the French and Bavarians, August 13, 1704. The
battle, though known in English history by the name of “Blenheim,” did
not occur here, but at the neighboring village of Hochstädt, by which
name it is known to the French and Germans. The French and Bavarian army
consisted of 56,000 men, commanded by Tallard, Marsin, and the Elector
of Bavaria, and opposed to it was the allied army 52,000 strong,
commanded by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. The loss of the
French and Bavarians was estimated at from 30,000 to 40,000. Near here,
also, in 1800, the French defeated the Austrians.

=Bleus, Les= (_i.e._ “The Blues”). A name given to the soldiers of the
Republic, by the Royalists, during the wars of La Vendée, on account of
their uniform.

=Blidah.= A considerable town of Algeria, on the border of the Metidjah
Plain; taken by the French in 1830, and permanently occupied by them
since 1838.

=Blieskastel.= A small town of Rhenish Bavaria; near here, on November
19, 1793, 7000 Prussians and Saxons under Gen. Kalkreuth fought the
French, about 20,000 strong, under Gen. Hoche, neither side gaining the
victory. The Prussians held their ground without any great loss until
dark, when, deeming their position untenable, they evacuated it during
the night.

=Blindage.= A temporary bomb-proof or splinter-proof roofing,
constructed of timber and the like, to give cover to magazines,
batteries, hospitals, etc. See BLINDS.

=Blinds.= In military affairs, are wooden frames, composed of four
pieces, either flat or round, two of which are 6 feet long, and the
others 3 or 4 feet, which serve as spars to fasten the two first
together: the longest are pointed at both ends, and the two others are
fastened towards the extremities of the former, at about 10 or 12
inches. Their use is to fix them either upright, or in a vertical
position against the sides of the trenches or sap, to sustain the earth.
Their points at the bottom serve to fix them in the earth, and those at
the top to hold the fascines that are placed upon them; so that the sap
or trench is formed into a kind of covered gallery, to secure the troops
from stones and grenades.

=Blind-shell.= A shell, the bursting charge of which is exploded by the
heat of impact. Used in modern ordnance against armor.

=Blistered Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Block.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Blockade.= In military art, is an operation for capturing an enemy’s
town or fortress without a bombardment or regular siege. The attacking
party throws up works on the neighboring heights and roads, and part of
the besieging force remains under cover in villages, or in a temporary
camp, ready to repel any sortie attempted by the besieged. The whole
purpose in view is to prevent the besieged from receiving supplies of
any kind, in order that, when food or ammunition is exhausted, they may
be compelled to surrender. Fortresses situated on steep and rocky
eminences, difficult to conquer by bombardment or assault, may often be
reduced by blockade, because the roads or paths for the reception of
supplies are few, and can be guarded by a small number of troops.

=Blockade.= In international law, is the means in time of war of
rendering intercourse with an enemy’s port unlawful on the part of
neutrals; and it is carried into effect by an armed force (ships of
war), which blocks up and bars export or import to or from the place
blockaded. To be valid, a blockade must be accompanied by actual
investment of the place, and it may be more or less rigorous, either for
the purpose of watching the operations of the enemy, or to cut off all
excess of neutral vessels to that interdicted place. To be binding on
neutrals, it ought to be shown that they have knowledge, or may be
presumed to know of the blockade, for which reason a formal notification
of the fact is usually made by the blockading power. The breach of
blockade, which may be effected by coming out of a blockaded port, or
going in, subjects the property so employed to confiscation. On the
proclamation of peace, or from any political or belligerent cause, the
continuance of the investment may cease to be necessary, and the
blockade is then said to be _raised_. The blockading force then
retires, and the port is open as before to all other nations. In the
present century recourse has been had to this means of cutting off
supplies from the enemy on several occasions. The Elbe was blockaded by
Great Britain, 1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; the Gulf
of Finland by the allies, 1854; and the ports of the Southern States by
President Lincoln, April 19, 1861.

=Blockader.= One who blockades.

=Block Battery.= In gunnery, a wooden battery for two or more small
pieces, mounted on wheels, and movable from place to place; very ready
to fire _en barbette_, in the galleries and casements, etc., where room
is wanted.

=Block-house.= An edifice or structure of heavy timber or logs for
military defense, having its sides loop-holed for musketry, and often an
upper story projecting over the lower, or placed upon it diagonally,
with projecting corners, to facilitate a firing downward, and in all
directions; the sides and ends are sometimes much like a stockade, and
the top covered with earth; there may also be a ditch around it.
Formerly much used in Germany and America, and used extensively in the
United States as a defense against Indians, and during the civil war,
1861-65, for the protection of important places on railroads, such as
bridges, etc. If exposed to the fire of artillery, block-houses should
be formed of double rows of logs 3 feet apart, with well-rammed earth
between them.

=Bloodhound.= A name given to certain species of the dog, distinguished
for their keenness of scent, and the persistency with which they follow
the track of game. They have been frequently employed during wars to
track partisans, and even in the American civil war, 1861-65, were
employed by the Confederates to track Union prisoners who escaped from
their prisons. In time of peace they are sometimes employed to hunt
felons, fugitive slaves, etc. When they are thus employed they acquire a
peculiarly bloodthirsty and ferocious character.

=Bloreheath.= In Staffordshire, England; here on September 23, 1459, the
Earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians, whose
leader, Lord Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. A cross
commemorates this conflict.

=Bludgeon.= A short stick, with one end loaded, or thicker and heavier
than the other, used as an offensive weapon.

=Blue-light.= A composition, burning with a blue flame, used as a night
signal in ships, or for military purposes. See PYROTECHNY.

=Blunderbuss.= A short gun or fire-arm, with a large bore, capable of
holding a number of balls, and intended to do execution without exact
aim.

=Blyde=, =Bly=, or =Blude= (_Ger._). A kind of a war machine which was
used in ancient times to throw stones; some authors compare it to the
catapult. In the year 1585, at the siege of the castle of Rucklingen,
Albert, duke of Saxony and Lüneburg, was killed by a stone thrown by a
blyde.

=Board of Officers.= A number of officers assembled by military
authority for the transaction of business.

=Board of Ordnance.= A government department, which formerly had the
management of all affairs relating to the artillery and engineering
corps of the British army. This board was abolished after the Crimean
war.

=Board, Pointing.= In gunnery, this is a piece of wood 1 foot long, 2 or
3 inches wide, and 1 inch thick, having a notch cut in the middle of one
side to fit on the stake, and graduated into equal divisions from its
middle. When not in use the pointing cord may be wound on it. This board
is used for directing mortars.

=Boards of Examination.= In the army, are instituted to determine upon
appointments in regiments, and for appointments and promotion in the
medical staff, engineer corps, and ordnance department. They are
composed of army officers.

=Boards of Survey.= In the army, are convened for the purpose of fixing
the responsibility for public property lost, damaged, or destroyed, of
ascertaining what articles of public property may have been lost or
abstracted whenever a soldier deserts, and of taking an inventory of the
public property in charge of a deceased officer.

=Boats, Blanket-.= See BLANKET-BOATS.

=Bobruisk.= A fortified town of Russia, in the government of Minsk. It
is situated on the right bank of the Beresina, and is a station for the
steam-packets navigating the Dnieper and Beresina. It was besieged
ineffectually by the French in 1812.

=Boccacci.= The Italians have a peculiar kind of fire-arm which they
call by this name; it is enlarged towards the muzzle in the shape of a
trumpet. This gun is principally used by the Calabrians.

=Bocchetta.= A celebrated pass of the Apennines, the key of the route
from Novi to Genoa. Redoubts were constructed here by the Imperialists
in 1746 for the defense of the pass. The French traversed this pass when
they entered Italy in 1796.

=Bodegraven.= A fortified town of Holland. On November 28, 1672, it was
captured by the Duke of Luxemburg, who tarnished his victory by
authorizing the town to be pillaged.

=Bodkin.= A dirk or dagger; a word still in use, though Johnson says it
is the oldest acceptation of it.

=Body.= In the nomenclature of modern ordnance, is the part of the piece
in rear of the trunnions.

=Body.= In the art of war, is a number of forces, horse or foot, united
and marching under one commander. _Main_ body of _an army_, sometimes
means the troops encamped in the centre between the two wings, and
generally consists of infantry. The main body on a march, signifies the
whole of the army exclusive of the van- and rear-guards.

=Body of the Place.= The _enceinte_ of a fortress, or main line of
bastions and curtains, as distinguished from outworks.

=Body-guard.= A guard to protect or defend the person; a life-guard.

=Bœotia.= One of the political divisions of ancient Greece, lying
between Attica and Megaris on the south, and Locris and Phocis on the
north, and bounded on the other side by the Eubœan Sea and the
Corinthian Gulf. The tribes of greatest importance who appear as rulers
of Bœotia in the heroic age were the Minyæ and the Cadmeans, or
Cadmeones,--the former dwelling at Orchomenus, and the latter at Thebes.
About 60 years after the Trojan war the Bœotians, an Æolian people who
had hitherto dwelt in Thessaly, having been expelled from that country,
took possession of the land then called Cadmeis, to which they gave
their own name of Bœotia. At the commencement of the historic period all
the ancient tribes had disappeared, and all the cities were inhabited by
Bœotians, the most important forming a political confederacy under the
presidency of Thebes. After the battle of Chæronea (338 B.C.) and the
destruction of Thebes by Alexander three years after, Bœotia rapidly
declined, and so low had it sunk in the time of the Romans, that of all
its great cities there remained only two, which had dwindled into
insignificant towns; of the other great cities nothing remained but
their ruins and their names. The people are represented as a dull and
heavy race, with little susceptibility and appreciation of intellectual
pleasures.

=Bohain.= A small town of France, in the department of Aisne, which fell
into the hands of the Imperialists in 1537, and was recaptured a short
time afterwards.

=Bohemia.= A political and administrative division of the Austrian
empire, bounded on the north by Saxony and Prussian Silesia, east by
Prussia and Moravia, south by Lower Austria, and west by Bavaria. It
derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic people who settled in the
country about 600 B.C., and who were expelled by the Marcomanni in the
time of Augustus. About the middle of the 6th century a numerous army of
Czechs entered the country and subdued it. In 1310 the crown came to the
house of Luxemburg, when Charles IV. united Bohemia with the German
empire. After many vicissitudes it fell to the house of Austria in the
person of the Archduke Ferdinand, brother of Charles V., and
brother-in-law of Louis II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, who was killed
in battle with the Turks near Mohacs, in 1526. In 1619 the Bohemians
revolted against the house of Austria, and offered the crown to
Frederick V., elector palatine, but Frederick was defeated at the battle
of White Mountain in November, 1620, and the country has ever since
remained under the sway of the emperors of Austria.

=Bohmisch-Brod.= A small town of Bohemia. Here the emperor Sigismund
defeated the Hussites in 1434.

=Boii.= An ancient Celtic people who emigrated into Italy, where they
waged war for several centuries against the Romans. They were defeated
at the Vadimonian Lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio
Nasica, 191 B.C., and expelled front Italy. A portion of them founded
the kingdom of Boiohemum (Bohemia), from which they were expelled by the
Marcomanni in the time of Augustus.

=Bois-le-Duc.= A fortified city of Holland, capital of North Brabant;
besieged and captured by the Dutch in 1629, and by the French in 1794;
surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in January, 1814.

=Bojano.= A town in the province of Molise, Naples. The site of Bojano
has been identified as that of the famous Samnite city of _Bovianum_,
which played so conspicuous a part in the Samnite, Punic, and Social
wars. Unsuccessfully besieged by the Romans in 314 B.C., it was taken by
them in 311 B.C., and yielded immense spoils. Passing out of their
hands, it was retaken by them in 305 B.C., and once more reverting to
its original owners, was a third time captured by the Romans in 298 B.C.
During the second Punic war it formed the headquarters of the Roman army
on more than one occasion. In the great Social war the confederates made
it their capital. It was surprised by Sulla, and retaken by the Marsic
general, Pompædius Silo. Cæsar established a military colony, and it
afterwards throve under the Roman empire.

=Bojeleschti.= A village of Wallachia, where, in 1828, the Russians
under Gen. von Geismar defeated the Turks, although the latter were
superior in force. The Russians captured 7 guns, 24 ammunition- and 400
bread-wagons, 24 colors, and guns enough to arm 10,000 men. The Cossacks
took 507 prisoners.

=Bokhara.= The ancient _Sogdiana_, a state of Central Asia in
Independent Toorkistan. It was conquered by the Turks in the 6th
century, by the Chinese in the 7th, and by the Arabs about 705. After
many changes of masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, 1505. The
British envoys, Col. Stoddart and Capt. Conolly, were murdered at
Bokhara, the capital, by the khan in 1843. In the war with Russia,
beginning in 1866, the emir’s army was defeated several times in May and
subsequent months during that year. Peace was made July 11, 1867. The
Russians were again victors, May 25, 1868, and occupied Samarcand the
next day. Further conquests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand was
secured by treaty November, 1868.

=Bolade= (_Fr._). A weapon of the shape of a mace.

=Bologna.= The ancient _Felsina_, afterwards Bononia. A distinguished
city of Italy, capital of the province of the same name; besieged and
taken by Pope Julius II., 1506; taken by the French, 1796; by the
Austrians, 1799; again by the French after the battle of Marengo, in
1800; restored to the Pope in 1815; a revolt suppressed by Austrian
interference, 1831; rebellion in 1848; taken by the Austrians, May,
1849; provisional government formed June 15, 1859; Victor Emmanuel
entered Bologna as sovereign, May 2, 1860.

=Bolster.= A block of wood on the carriage of a siege-gun, and on the
mortar-wagon upon which the gun rests when moving it from place to
place. The first is a _breach_-, the second a _muzzle-bolster_.

=Bolster.= A cushioned or padded part of a saddle.

=Bolt.= A pointed shaft or missile intended to be shot from a cross-bow
or catapult; an arrow; a dart.

=Bolt.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Bolt, Palliser.= A screw-bolt for securing armor plates. The end upon
which the screw-thread is cut is larger than the shank.

=Bomarsund.= A strong fortress on one of the Aland isles in the Baltic
Sea, taken by Sir Charles Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition,
aided by the French military contingent under Gen. Baraguay d’Hilliers,
August 16, 1854. The governor Bodisco and the garrison, about 2000 men,
became prisoners, and the fortifications were destroyed.

=Bomb.= A hollow ball or shell of cast iron filled with explosive
materials, and furnished with a fuze, which being ignited when the
missile is discharged from a mortar or howitzer, burns during its
flight, and causes it to explode with destructive violence when it
falls. They are now commonly called shells.

=Bombard.= An ancient piece of ordnance, very short, thick, and wide at
the bore. Some of the bombards used in the 15th century propelled stones
weighing from 200 to 500 pounds each.

=Bombard.= To assault a town or fortress by projecting into it shells,
etc., from mortars, in order to set fire to and destroy the houses,
magazines, and other buildings.

=Bombardelle= (_Fr._). A small bombard which was used in ancient times.
In 1830, one was disinterred near Laon, France; it is the opinion of
some that this bombardelle was manufactured during the reign of Charles
VII., from 1436-40.

=Bombardier.= Is an artilleryman versed in that department of arms which
relates especially to bombs and shells, mortars and howitzers, grenades
and fuzes. In some foreign armies, the bombardiers form a separate
corps. In the British service a bombardier is a non-commissioned grade
in the artillery below that of corporal.

=Bombardment.= Is an attack upon a fortress or fortified town by means
of shells, red-hot shot, carcasses, rockets, etc., to burn and destroy
the buildings, and kill the inhabitants, and by this means compel its
surrender. A bombardment requires little engineering skill; whereas a
regular siege requires the aid of engineers to direct the attack against
fortifications, guns, and soldiery, leaving the inhabitants and
buildings untouched. It is generally regarded by military engineers as a
cruel operation, and in modern times is mostly adopted as an adjunct to
a siege. The stores required for a vigorous bombardment are immense.
Thus, in 1759, Rodney threw 20,000 shells and carcasses into Havre; in
1792, the Duke of Saxe Teschen threw 36,000 shot and shell into Lille in
140 hours; in 1795, Pichegru threw 8000 shells into Mannheim in 16
hours; and in 1807, the English threw 11,000 shot and shell into
Copenhagen in three days. Of the bombardments recorded in history may be
mentioned that of Algiers by Duquesne in 1682-83, by the Venetians in
1784, and by the English in 1816; of Genoa in 1684; of Tripoli in 1685,
1728, and 1747; of Barcelona in 1691; of Brussels in 1694; of Toulon by
the English in 1707; of Prague in 1744, 1759, and 1848; the bombardment
of Lille by the Austrians in 1792; of Le Quesnoy, Breda, Lille, Lyons,
Maestricht, and Mayence in 1793; of Menin, Valenciennes, and Ostend in
1794; of Copenhagen by the English in 1807; of Glogau, Breslau, and
Schweidnitz by the French in 1806-7; of Saragossa by the French in 1808;
of Flushing by the English in 1809; of Antwerp in 1832; of St. Jean
d’Ulloa by the French in 1838; of Beyrout and St. Jean d’Acre by the
English in 1840; of Barcelona by Espartero in 1842; of Mogador by the
French in 1844; and of Odessa by the English and French fleets in 1854.
Vera Cruz was bombarded by Gen. Scott for three days before its
surrender, March 27, 1847. During the civil war recourse was had several
times to this method of reducing fortified places. Among the most noted
were the bombardment by Admiral Farragut for six days, April 18, 1862,
of Forts Jackson and St. Philip (after which they surrendered); the
bombardment of Fort Pulaski, Ga., by Gen. Gillmore, in April, 1862; the
first bombardment of Fort Sumter in August, 1863, which effectually
disabled the fort for immediate defense of Charleston harbor, although
the works remained in the possession of the Confederates; and the second
bombardment, which took place in October following, leaving the place in
ruins. During the Franco-German war Strasburg was bombarded by the
Prussians on August 18, 1870, and after an immense number of shells were
thrown into it with ruinous effect the city surrendered on September 27.
During the siege of Paris it was estimated that for two weeks in
January, 1871, about 500 shells a day were thrown into the city, to the
great destruction of life and property.

=Bomb-chest.= A chest filled with bombs, or only with gunpowder, placed
under ground, to cause destruction by its explosion.

=Bomb-proof.= A term applied to military structures of such immense
thickness and strength that bombs cannot penetrate them.

=Bomb-shell.= A hollow globe of iron, filled with powder, and thrown
from a mortar; a bomb.

=Bone=, =Bona=, or =Bonah=. A fortified seaport town of Algeria, 85
miles northwest of Constantine; it is surrounded by a wall with square
turrets which has four gates. Fort Cigogne is its chief defense; the
French occupied this place in July, 1830.

=Bonn.= A town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna) was in the electorate of
Cologne; it has been frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia in
1814.

=Bonnet.= In fortification, is a small defense work constructed at
salient angles of the glacis or larger works. It consists of two faces
only, with a parapet 3 feet high by 10 or 12 feet broad. There is no
ditch. A larger kind, with 3 salient angles, is called a _priest’s
bonnet_, or _bonnet à prêtre_. The use of the bonnet is to check the
besiegers when they are attempting to make a lodgment.

=Bonneval.= A town of France, formerly fortified; it was partially
destroyed by the English during the 15th century.

=Bontchouk.= A lance ornamented with a horse’s tail. When the kings of
Poland led their armies, boutchouks were carried before them.

=Boomerang.= A very singular missile weapon used by the natives of
Australia. It is made of hard wood, usually from 20 to 30 inches in
length, from 2 to 3 inches wide, and ¹⁄₂ or ³⁄₄ of an inch thick. It is
curved or bent in the middle at an angle of from 100° to 140°. When
thrown from the hand with a quick rotary motion, it describes very
remarkable curves, according to the shape of the instrument and the
manner of throwing it, often moving nearly horizontally a long distance,
then curving upward to a considerable height, and finally taking a
retrograde direction, so as to fall near the place from which it was
thrown, or even very far in the rear of it.

=Booneville.= A river-port, capital of Cooper Co., Mo., situated on the
right bank of the Missouri River, 48 miles northwest of Jefferson City.
During the civil war a Confederate force of about 2500 raw troops was
here attacked by the Federals under Gen. Lyon, June 17, 1861. After a
short conflict the Confederates were routed, abandoning their guns and
camp equipage, which fell into the hands of the Union forces.

=Boothauk.= A fortified pass of Afghanistan, 12 miles to the east of
Cabul. It runs for 5 miles between cliffs 500 feet high, and in some
places only 50 yards wide.

=Boots and Saddles.= In cavalry tactics, a trumpet call which is the
first signal for mounted drill, and for all other formations mounted; it
is also the signal for the trumpeters to assemble.

=Booty.= Is the victors’ share in property captured from the vanquished.
It is generally a military term, the word _prize_ being more frequently
used in the navy.

=Bordeaux=, or =Bourdeaux= (Southwest France). This city was sacked by
the Visigoths, who were driven from it by Clovis; it was ravaged by the
Saracens and Normans in the 8th and 9th centuries. It came into the
possession of the Duke of Gascoyne in 911; in 1653 the city rebelled,
but was taken by the royal troops; Bordeaux was entered by the
victorious British army after the battle of Orthes, fought February 27,
1814.

=Bordure=, or =Border=. In heraldry, coats of arms are frequently
surrounded with a bordure, the object of which is to show that the
bearer is a cadet of the house whose arms he carries. Its character
often has reference to the profession of the bearer; thus a _bordure
embattled_ is granted to a soldier, and a _bordure ermine_ to a lawyer.

=Bore.= Of a piece of ordnance includes all the part bored out, viz.,
the cylinder, the chamber (if there is one), and the conical or
spherical surface connecting them.

=Borghetto.= A town of Italy, on the Mincio, 15 miles southwest of
Verona; it has a castle and a vast fortified causeway. The French here
defeated the Austrians in 1796.

=Borgo Forte.= A town of Italy, in Lombardy, on the Po, 7 miles south of
Mantua. The Austrians were here defeated by the French in 1796.

=Bori.= A Turkish term for military trumpets.

=Boring Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Borissov.= A town of Russia, on the left bank of the Berezina. A
conflict took place here November 23, 1812, between the French and
Russians; near this town, at the village of Studienka, the disastrous
passage of Berezina was effected by the French army, November 26-27,
1812.

=Bormann-fuze.= A fuze which is used for spherical case-shot. The
fuze-case is made of metal (a composition of lead and tin), and consists
of a short cylinder, having at one end a horseshoe-shaped indentation,
_one_ end only of which communicates with the magazine of the fuze
placed in the centre by a channel filled with _rifle_ powder. This
horseshoe indentation extends nearly to the other end of the cylinder, a
thin layer of the metal only intervening. This is graduated on the
outside into equal parts representing seconds and quarter-seconds. In
the bottom of this channel a smooth layer of the composition is placed,
with a piece of wick or yarn underneath it. On this is placed a piece of
metal, the cross-section of which is wedge-shaped, and this, by
machinery, is pressed down upon the composition, sealing it
hermetically. The cylindrical opening is filled with musket powder and
covered with a sheet of tin, which is soldered, closing the magazine
from the external air. Before using the fuze several holes are punched
through this sheet of tin, to allow the flame to enter the shell. On the
side of the fuze the thread of a screw is cut which fits into one cut on
the inside of the fuze-hole, and the fuze is screwed into the shell with
a wrench. The thin layer of metal over the composition is cut through
with a gouge or chisel, or even a penknife, at the interval marked with
the number of seconds which we wish the fuze to burn. To prevent the
metal of this fuze, which is soft, from being driven into the shell by
the explosive force of the charge, a circular piece of iron, with a hole
through its centre, and the thread of a screw on the outside, is screwed
into the fuze-hole before the fuze is inserted. The most important
advantage of this fuze is, that the shells can be loaded, all ready for
use, and remain so any length of time, perfectly safe from explosion, as
the fuze can be screwed into its place, and the composition never
exposed to external fire until the metal is cut through.

=Borneo.= An island in the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except
Australia; discovered by the Portuguese about 1520; the pirates of this
island were several times chastised by the British government;
incorporated with the British empire, December 2, 1846.

=Bornhoevede.= A village of Holstein, where a battle was fought on July
22, 1227, between Woldemar II., king of Denmark, and Adolphus IV. of
Holstein; the Danes were totally defeated.

=Borodino.= A Russian village on the Moskwa, near which a sanguinary
battle was fought, September 7, 1812, between the French under Napoleon,
and the Russians under Kootoosof, 240,000 men being engaged. Each party
claimed the victory; but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which
the French entered September 14. The French name it the battle of
Moskwa, and it gave Marshal Ney his title of Prince of Moskwa.

=Boroughbridge.= A town in Yorkshire, England, the site of a battle
between the Earls of Hereford and Lancaster and Edward II., March 16,
1322. The latter at the head of 30,000 men pressed Lancaster so closely
that he had not time to collect his troops together in sufficient force,
and being defeated and made prisoner, was led, mounted on a lean horse,
to an eminence near Pontefract, and beheaded by a Londoner.

=Boscobel.= Near Donington, Shropshire, England, where Charles II.
concealed himself after his defeat at Worcester.

=Bosnia.= In European Turkey, formerly part of Pannonia, was governed by
chiefs till a brother-in-law of Louis, king of Hungary, was made king,
1376. He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became their vassal.
Bosnia was annexed to the Ottoman empire in 1522. Many efforts have been
made by the Bosnians to recover their independence; they rebelled in
1849, and were subdued by Omar Pasha in 1851.

=Bosniaken.= Formerly light cavalry of the Prussians, resembling the
present Uhlans. Frederick I. formed this cavalry in 1745.

=Bosphorus=, or =Bosporus, Thracian= (now _Strait of Constantinople_).
The ancient name of the strait which connects the Black Sea with the Sea
of Marmora. Darius Hystaspes threw a bridge of boats over this strait
when about to invade Greece, 493 B.C.

=Bosporus.= The country on both sides of the Bosporus Cimmerius, or
Strait of Yenikalé, formed in ancient times the kingdom of Bosporus. The
Scythians conquered Bosporus, 285 B.C.; conquered by Mithridates VI., 80
B.C.; conquered by Cæsar, 47 B.C.; Polemon conquered Bosporus, 14 B.C. A
list of obscure kings given by some writers ends with Sauromates VII.,
344.

=Boss.= The apex of a shield.

=Bosse=, =Bosse à Feu= (_Fr._). A term used in the French artillery to
express a glass bottle which is very thin, contains 4 or 5 pounds of
powder, and round the neck of which 4 or 5 matches are hung after it has
been well corked. A cord 2 or 3 feet in length is tied to the bottle,
which serves to throw it. The instant the bottle breaks the powder
catches fire, and everything within the immediate effects of the
explosion is destroyed.

=Bostanji.= The first Turkish foot-guards, about 12,000 strong; they
guard the imperial castles and accompany the sultans to the field. They
were originally employed as gardeners, guards for the seraglio, etc.
Their number is now greatly reduced.

=Boston.= A city and capital of Massachusetts, situated on the west side
of Massachusetts Bay, at the mouth of Charles River. It was built about
1627. Here originated that resistance to the British authorities which
led to American independence. The act of Parliament laying duties on
tea, papers, colors, etc. (passed June, 1767), so excited the
indignation of the citizens of Boston, that they destroyed several
hundred chests of tea, December 16, 1773. Boston seaport was shut by the
English Parliament, until restitution should be made to the East India
Company for the tea lost, March 25, 1774. The town was besieged by the
British next year, and 400 houses were destroyed. A battle between the
royalist and independent troops, in which the latter were defeated, took
place June 17, 1775; the city was evacuated by the king’s troops, April,
1776. The inhabitants were very zealous against slavery in 1861.

=Boston Massacre.= A name popularly given to a disturbance which
occurred in the streets of Boston on the evening of March 5, 1770, when
a sergeant’s guard belonging to the British garrison fired upon a crowd
of people who were surrounding them and pelting them with snowballs, and
killed 3 men besides wounding several others. The leader of the
townspeople was a black man named Crispus Attucks. The affair is of
historical importance, as it prepared the minds of men for the
Revolutionary struggle which followed.

=Bostra=, or =Bozrah=. A city of Arabia, in an oasis of the Syrian
Desert, 76 miles south of Damascus; it was besieged, captured, and
sacked by the Saracens, who were commanded by Khaled.

=Bosworth Field.= In Leicestershire, England, the site of the thirteenth
and last battle between the houses of York and Lancaster, August 22,
1485, when Richard III. was defeated and slain by the Earl of Richmond,
afterwards Henry VII. Sir William Stanley at a critical moment changed
sides, and thus caused the loss of the battle. It is said that Henry was
crowned on the spot with the crown of Richard found in a hawthorn bush
near the field.

=Bothwell Bridge.= In Lanarkshire, Scotland. The Scotch Covenanters, who
took up arms against the intolerant government of Charles II., and
defeated the celebrated Claverhouse at Drumclog, June 1, 1679, were
totally routed at Bothwell Bridge, June 22, 1679, by the Earl of
Monmouth, and many persons were tortured and executed.

=Botoné=, or =Bottony=. In heraldry, a _cross-botoné_ is a cross of
which the ends are in the form of buds or buttons.

=Bottle Cartridge.= See CARTRIDGE, BOTTLE.

=Bottoming.= The foundation of a roadbed.

=Botzen=, or =Bolzana= (anc. _Pons Drusi_). The capital of the circle of
Etsch in Tyrol. This town was captured by the French in 1809.

=Boucanier= (_Fr._). A long, heavy musket, used by the American
buccaneers, and with such skill as to give the weapon a high degree of
celebrity.

=Bouchain.= A small strongly fortified frontier town of France, in the
department of the North; besieged and captured by Louis XIV. in 1673; by
the Duke of Marlborough in 1711; retaken by the French in 1712, and
ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht.

=Bouche= (_Fr._). Means the aperture or mouth of a piece of ordnance,
that of a mortar, of the barrel of a musket, and of every species of
fire-arms from which a ball or bullet is discharged.

=Boufarik=, or =Boofareek=. A place in Algeria where the French
encountered the Arabs, October 2, 1832.

=Bouge=, or =Boulge= (_Fr._). An ancient war-club, the head of which was
loaded with lead, also called _plombée_.

=Bougiah= (anc. _Salvæ_). A seaport town of Algeria, which was captured
by the French, October 19, 1833, and successfully defended against the
Arabs, August 25, 1842.

=Bouillon= (Belgium). Formerly a duchy, was sold by Godfrey, its ruler,
to Albert, bishop of Liège, to obtain funds for the crusade, 1095; it
was seized by the French in 1672, and held by them till 1815, when it
was given to the king of the Netherlands, as duke of Luxemburg. It was
awarded to Belgium after the revolution of 1830.

=Boulaf.= A kind of baton or very short mace, formerly used by the
Polish generals.

=Boulak=, or =Boolak=. A town of Lower Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile; burned by the French in 1799; since rebuilt by Mohammed Ali.

=Boulanger Chronograph.= See CHRONOSCOPES.

=Boulanger Telemeter.= See RANGE FINDERS.

=Boulevard= (_Fr._). An ancient bastion, bulwark, or rampart.

=Boulogne.= A seaport in Picardy, Northern France; was taken by the
British under Henry VIII., September 14, 1544, but restored at the
peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked this city, disabling 10 vessels and
sinking 5, August 3, 1801; in another attempt he was repulsed with great
loss. In 1804, Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, and a
flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors, to invade England; it is
supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration,
and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the invasion. Sir Sidney
Smith unsuccessfully attempted to burn the flotilla with fire-machines
called catamarans, October 2, 1804. Congreve rockets were used in
another attack, and they set the town on fire, October 8, 1806. The army
was removed on the breaking out of the war with Austria in 1805. Louis
Napoleon, afterwards emperor, made a descent here with about 50
followers, August 6, 1840, without success.

=Bounty.= A premium offered or given to induce men to enlist into the
public service.

=Bourbon, Isle of= (in the Indian Ocean). Discovered by the Portuguese
about 1545. The French here formed a colony in 1653 (according to
others, 1642, 1646, 1649). In 1810, after a gallant resistance, it fell
into the hands of the British, who retained it till the general peace,
1814. In 1815, before the downfall of Napoleon, it was once more
besieged by the English, and along with the Mauritius again fell into
their hands. After the general pacification of Europe, Bourbon was
restored to France, in whose possession it now is; but the adjoining
island has since been retained by its English conquerors.

=Bourdonnante= (_Fr._). A name formerly given to a kind of bombard of a
heavy caliber.

=Bourg-en-Bresse.= A town of France, capital of the department of Ain.
The town was captured by the allies in 1814.

=Bourges.= The capital of the department of the Cher, in France;
captured by Cæsar, 52 B.C.; destroyed by Chilperic, 583; carried by
assault by Pepin, 762; sustained a siege during the reign of Charles
VII., in 1415; captured by the Protestants, 1562; by Henry IV., 1594; by
the Protestants, 1615, and by Marshal Matignon in 1616.

=Bourguignote=, or =Bourgignotte= (_Fr._). A helmet worn by the
Burgundians, from whom it was named. It was of polished iron, with a
visor. Under Louis XIV. their head-dress was changed to a kind of
bonnet.

=Bourlette= (_Fr._). In antiquity, a mace which was garnished with iron
points.

=Bournous=, =Burnoose=, or =Burnos=. A kind of cloak or overcoat, used
by the Arabs, and which constitutes a part of the military clothing of
some corps of the French army.

=Bouton=, or =Boutoou= (_Fr._). A kind of war-club, formerly used by the
Caribs of the Antilles.

=Bovianum= (now _Bojano_). A town of Italy, 10 miles southwest of
Campobasso. It was sacked by the Romans in 311, 305, and 298 B.C. During
the second Punic war it was several times the headquarters of the Roman
army.

=Bouvines= (Northern France). The site of a desperate battle, July 27,
1214, in which Philip Augustus of France was victorious over the emperor
Otho and his allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. The Counts of
Flanders and Boulogne were taken prisoners.

=Bow.= A weapon made of a strip of wood, or other elastic material, with
a cord connecting the two ends, by means of which, when drawn back and
suffered to return, an arrow is propelled.

=Bow, Cross.= An ancient weapon of offense of the 11th century. Philip
II., surnamed the Conqueror, introduced cross-bows into France. In this
reign Richard I. of England was killed by a cross-bow at the siege of
Chalus.

=Bowie-knife.= A knife from 10 to 15 inches long, and about 2 inches
broad, worn as a weapon in the Southern and Southwestern States of the
United States,--so named from its inventor, Col. James Bowie.

=Bowman.= A man who uses a bow; an archer.

=Bow-shot.= The space which an arrow may pass when shot from a bow.

=Bowstring.= The string of a bow. Also a string used by the Turks for
strangling offenders.

=Bowyer.= The man who made or repaired the military bows was so called.

=Boxer-cartridge.= The metallic cartridge used in the service rifle of
England. See CARTRIDGE.

=Boxtel= (in Dutch _Brabant_). Here the British and allied armies,
commanded by the Duke of York, were defeated by the French republicans,
who took 2000 prisoners and 8 pieces of cannon, September 17, 1794.

=Box Pontons.= See PONTONS.

=Boyaca.= A village of the republic of New Granada, South America,
celebrated for the victory gained by Bolivar over the Spaniards, August
7, 1819, which secured the independence of Colombia.

=Boyau.= In military engineering, is a winding zigzag or trench, made by
besiegers to enable them to approach a town or fortified place under
cover. These trenches are also called zigzags, or approaches.

=Boyne.= A river in Kildare, Ireland, near which William III. defeated
his father-in-law, James II., July 1, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of
30,000) men; the Protestant army lost about a third of that number (out
of 30,000). James fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to
France. The Duke of Schömberg was killed, shot by mistake by his own
soldiers as he was crossing the river.

=Brabançons= (_Fr._). Soldiers of fortune, adventurers, freebooters of
Brabant, who, during the Middle Ages, hired their services to those
chiefs who paid them best.

=Bracelet.= In ancient times, a piece of defensive armor for the arm; a
part of a coat of mail.

=Bracket.= The cheek of a mortar-carriage, made of strong plank.

=Braconnière=, or =Bragonnière= (_Fr._). In antiquity, a mail-armor, of
the shape of a petticoat, which was attached to the cuirass, and reached
from the hips to the middle of the thigh, and sometimes below the knee.

=Braga= (anc. _Bracara Augusta_). The capital of the province of Minho,
in Portugal; it is fortified and defended by a citadel. The Suevi were
here vanquished by the Goths in 585.

=Brailoff=, =Brahilow=, or =Ibraila=. A fortified town and the principal
port of Wallachia, European Turkey. In 1770 the town was taken by the
Russians, and almost razed to the ground; rebuilt, and again taken by
the Russians in 1828, after a brave defense. It was restored to Turkey
by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. During the war of 1854-56, it was
occupied by Russian troops.

=Brake.= That part of the carriage of a movable battery or engine which
enables it to turn.

=Brake.= An ancient engine of war analogous to the cross-bow and
balista.

=Bramham.= In Yorkshire, England; near here the Earl of Northumberland
and Lord Bardolf were defeated and slain by Sir Thomas Rokeby, the
general of Henry IV., February 19, 1408; and Fairfax was defeated by the
royalists under the Duke of Newcastle, March 29, 1643.

=Brand.= The Anglo-Saxon for a burnished sword.

=Brandenburg.= A city in Prussia, founded by the Slavonians. Henry I.,
surnamed the Fowler, after defeating the Slavonians, fortified
Brandenburg, 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and bestowed the
government on Sigefroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave,
or protector of the marches or frontiers. Occupied by the French,
October 25, 1806.

=Branding.= Was a mode of punishment, in nearly all armies, inflicted on
soldiers who were convicted of the crime of desertion,--the branding or
marking being with ink, or other similar preparation. This practice is
now discontinued in the American, and several European armies.

=Brandschwaermer= (_Ger._). A small rocket which contained a bullet; it
was fired out of a gun and used for the purpose of setting fire to
straw-thatched buildings.

=Brandywine.= A river in Pennsylvania and Delaware, near which a battle
took place between the British and Americans, in which the latter (after
a day’s fight) were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell into
the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777.

=Brass.= See BRONZE.

=Brassar.= A piece of defensive armor for the arm.

=Brassart.= In plate-armor, joined plates of steel which protected the
upper part of the arm, from the elbow to the shoulder. When the front of
the arm only was shielded, the pieces were called _demi-brassarts_.

=Brasset.= A casque or head-piece of armor.

=Braunau.= A town of Bohemia, Austria; captured by the French, October
28, 1805.

=Bray.= A small town in the department of Seine-et-Marne, France; it was
occupied by the allies, February 12, 1814.

=Brazil.= An empire in South America, was discovered by Vincent Pinzon
in February, and Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its
coasts by a tempest, in 1500. The French having seized Portugal in 1807,
the royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and landed March 7,
1808. Brazil declared war against Uruguay in February, 1865; entered
into a treaty with Uruguay and the Argentine Republic against Paraguay,
governed by Lopez, in May, 1865, and war was waged with varying results
up to 1870.

=Breach.= Rupture made in a fortification to facilitate the assault. The
operation by which the opening is produced is called _breaching_, and
the guns used for this purpose are _breaching batteries_. _To repair a
breach_, is to stop or fill up the gap with gabions, fascines, etc., and
prevent the assault. _To fortify a breach_, is to render it inaccessible
by means of chevaux-de-frise, crow’s feet, etc. _To make a lodgment in
the breach._ After the besieged are driven away, the besiegers secure
themselves against any future attack in the breach. _To clear the
breach_, that is, to remove the ruins, that it may be better defended.

=Breach of Arrest.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 65.

=Bread and Water.= A diet used as a military punishment.

=Break Ground.= Is to commence the siege of a place by opening trenches,
etc.

=Breast-height.= In fortification, the interior slope of a parapet.

=Breastplate.= A plate worn upon the breast as a part of defensive
armor.

=Breastwork.= In fortification, a defensive work breast-high, hastily
thrown up, of earth or other material.

=Brechin.= A place in Scotland; sustained a siege against the army of
Edward III., 1333. The battle of Brechin was fought between the Earls of
Huntly and Crawford; the latter was defeated, 1452.

=Breech.= In ordnance, is the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of
the bore, extending to the cascabel. The _base of the breech_ is its
rear surface.

=Breech-block.= The block of metal which closes the bore in
breech-loading arms.

=Breech-loader.= A fire-arm that receives its load at the breech.

=Breech-loading.= Receiving the charge at the breech instead of the
muzzle. A feature of modern small-arms. The principle, however, is very
old, as some of the earliest guns were breech-loaders. A gun of the time
of Henry VIII. still extant is substantially the same as the modern
_Snider_. Puckle’s revolver of 1718 was mounted on a tripod, and was
very much like the _Gatling gun_ in its general features. The first
American patent was to Thornton & Hall, of Massachusetts, 1811. These
guns were extensively issued to U. S. troops. There is a specimen in the
West Point Museum. Prior to 1861 the best known breech-loading
small-arms were _Sharps’_, _Burnside’s_, _Maynard’s_, _Merrill’s_, and
_Spencer’s_. See SMALL-ARMS.

In modern times the _breech-loading_ principle for _heavy ordnance_ has
gained and lost favor at different epochs. On the continent of Europe it
is generally accepted. Italy, however, has committed itself in the
largest calibers to the enormous 100-ton muzzle-loaders of Sir William
Armstrong. The same inventor introduced his breech-loading field-piece
in England about 1850. His principle was approved and adopted for
various calibers about 1858, but partial failures in his system led to
an investigation by a committee of the House of Commons, 1862-63, and
after a tedious discussion, the breech-loading principle was officially
discarded (1866), though many of the guns were retained in the service.
The successful application of hydraulic machinery in handling and
loading heavy guns (1876) confirmed the government in its choice of
muzzle-loaders. The difficulty of muzzle-loading in a turret and the
impossibility of employing the great length of bore necessary to obtain
the best results was, up to this time, the strong argument in favor of
_breech-loaders_. Loading by hydraulic machinery from beneath the deck
through a trap-door outside the turret obviated these objections to
muzzle-loaders, and gave the gunners ample protection by closing the
port, thus placing these guns for the time being on a par with
breech-loaders. The bursting of the 38-ton gun on the “Thunderer”
(1878), however, which has been generally attributed to double loading,
has shaken confidence in hydraulic ramming, and now there is a strong
current in favor of a return to breech-loaders. The splendid performance
of _Krupp_ guns on the practice-ground at Meppen, 1879, and the
numerous misfortunes which have recently befallen the Woolwich and
Elswick systems, have doubtless had their weight in this change of
opinion.

=Breech Mechanism.= The mechanism used for opening and closing the
breech of a fire-arm and securing it against the escape of the gas. In
_small-arms_ this is readily accomplished. The use of the metallic
cartridge-case renders any special gas-check unnecessary, as the case
itself by being expanded against the walls of the chamber serves the
purpose. The various mechanisms used in _small-arms_ have been
classified as follows: 1st, _Fixed chamber_; 2d, _Movable chamber_. The
second class is now obsolete. The _fixed chamber_ class is subdivided
into--1st, _Barrel moves_; 2d, _Breech-block moves_. The first class
comprises many of the _shot-guns_ in use, the second, the best known of
_military arms_. Under this latter class are the following subdivisions:
1st, _Sliding block_; 2d, _Sliding and rotating_; 3d, Rotating about an
axis. We find excellent guns under each of these classes which are
further subdivided as to the direction of the motions. The _Sharps’_ may
be taken as typical of the first of these classes, the _Hotchkiss
magazine_ gun of the second, and the _Springfield_ of the third.

A similar classification may be made for _breech-loading_ devices in
_heavy ordnance_, but the problem here is not so simple. The pressure is
much greater, the masses of metal much larger, and the cartridge must be
used without a case to check the gas. Breech-loaders were impossible
until the problem of checking the gas had been solved. The inventor of
the first successful gas-check was an American, L. W. Broadwell, now
residing abroad. The term _Broadwell ring_ has been applied to all
similar devices. This is a steel ring which fits in a recess reamed out
in the rear of the chamber and abutting upon the breech-block. The
inside of the ring is so shaped as to be pressed by the gas outwards and
backwards, thus closing both the space outside of the ring and between
it and the block. Broadwell is also the inventor of a breech mechanism
which, with a few modifications, is that used by Krupp for all of his
guns. The breech-block slides horizontally through a rectangular slot in
rear of the chamber. In the _Armstrong_ breech-loader, the block called
the vent-piece is taken out and put in through a rectangular orifice on
the top of the gun. It is locked in place by a hollow breech-screw. The
French use a breech-screw with the threads cut away in longitudinal
rows. The female-screw being similarly arranged, a very small rotation
enables it to be entirely withdrawn. Among American devices are
_Thompson’s_, a breech-block which rolls to the side and opens or closes
the bore. _Sutcliffe’s_, a cylindrical block, with its axis parallel to
the one hanging on a pin projecting from the front periphery of the
hollow screw. The block is raised and locked by turning the screw, and
falls into a recess below when the screw is half turned back. _Mann’s_,
in which the gun rotates upwards about the trunnions something like a
shot-gun, and many others.

=Breech-pin.= A strong plug firmly screwed in at the breech of a musket
or other fire-arm.

=Breech-sight.= In gunnery, an instrument having a graduated scale of
tangents by means of which any elevation may be given to a piece.
Correctly speaking, the breech-sight gives the angle made by the line of
aim or sight with the axis of the piece. The base of the breech-sight is
a plate of brass curved to fit the base-ring or line, the scale and
slides are similar to those of the pendulum hausse except that a hole is
made in the plate, instead of a notch to sight through. Breech-sights
are graduated for no _disparts_, a _front-sight_ equal in height to the
dispart being screwed into the top of the muzzle; in the Rodman guns,
into the seat provided for the purpose between the trunnions.
Breech-sights are also frequently held in sockets, and when the
front-sight is placed on the trunnion, the socket is on the side of the
breech. The _pendulum hausse_ (see HAUSSE) is a breech-sight used for
field-guns to correct the error arising from difference of level in the
wheels of the carriage. The _Quinan breech-sight_ (invented by Lieut. W.
R. Quinan, 4th U. S. Artillery) is an improvement on the pendulum
hausse. It is fixed in a socket on the right side of the breech. The
scale has a spirit-level, by means of which it is made vertical. The
front sight is a short tube with cross-hairs fixed in it. The advantages
claimed over the hausse are increased steadiness and accuracy.

=Bregenz=, or =Bregentz=. A town of Tyrol, Austria; it was occupied by
the French in 1799.

=Breisach, Old.= A very old town of the grand duchy of Baden; taken by
Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul. Being regarded as the key to the west
of Germany, it was a prominent scene of action during the Thirty Years’
War, at the conclusion of which it was ceded to the French. During the
next century it frequently changed masters, now belonging to France and
now to Austria; its fortifications were destroyed by the French in 1744,
and during the war of the Revolution, in 1793, part of the town was
burned by them. In 1806 the French handed it over to the house of Baden.

=Breitenfeld.= A village and manor of Saxony, about 5 miles north of
Leipsic. It is historically remarkable for three battles, fought on a
plain in its neighborhood. The first of these, between the Swedes and
the Imperialists, which was fought September 7, 1631, was of the highest
importance to Europe, as it secured the permanency of Protestantism and
the freedom of Germany. Tilly’s pride had reached its highest point
after the fall of Magdeburg, which took place on May 20, 1631; and in
the early part of September of the same year he advanced against the
Saxons with an army of about 40,000 men for the purpose of forcing the
elector, John George I., into an alliance with the emperor. Gustavus
Adolphus, king of Sweden, joined by the Saxons, advanced towards
Leipsic, where Tilly lay, the latter advancing into the plain of
Breitenfeld. The Imperial forces were completely defeated, and their
three most distinguished generals, Tilly, Pappenheim, and Fürstenberg,
wounded. The second battle which Breitenfeld witnessed again, resulted
in the triumph of Swedish valor: it took place on October 23, 1642,
between the Swedes, headed by Torstenson, one of the pupils of Gustavus,
who had invested Leipsic, and the Archduke Leopold, with Gen.
Piccolomini, who were advancing from Dresden to its relief. The Swedes
gained a complete victory over the Imperialists, who fled into Bohemia,
leaving behind them 46 cannon, 121 flags, 69 standards, and the whole of
their baggage. The third battle of which Breitenfeld was the scene was
fought on October 16-18, 1813. See LEIPSIC.

=Bremen= (Northern Germany). Said to have been founded in 788; in 1648
it was erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712; it was taken
possession of by Denmark in 1731, by whom it was ceded to Hanover; it
was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the Hanoverians in
1758; annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; its independence
restored in 1813; its old franchises in 1815 It became a member of the
North German Confederation in 1866.

=Brenneville= (Northwest France). Here Henry I. of England defeated
Louis VI. of France, who had embraced the cause of William Clinton, son
of Robert, duke of Normandy, August 20, 1119.

=Brenta.= A river which rises in Tyrol and flows, after a course of 90
miles, into the Adriatic Sea, at Porto di Brondolo. On the banks of this
river the French twice defeated the Austrians in 1796.

=Brentford.= A county town of Middlesex, England. Here Edmund Ironside
defeated the Danes, May, 1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp
fight, November 12, 1642.

=Brescelia=, or =Bregelia= (anc. _Brixellum_). A town on the right bank
of the Po, in North Italy. Here the emperor Otho put himself to death in
69. On May 20, 1427, an army under Duke Philip Maria Visconti, of Milan,
was here defeated by an army sent against him by the republic of Venice,
under Francis Carmagnola.

=Brescia.= A town in Northern Italy (the ancient _Brixia_), became
important under the Lombards, and suffered by the wars of the Italian
republics, being attached to Venice. It was taken by the French under
Gaston de Foix in 1512, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were
massacred. It surrendered to the Austrian general Haynau, March 30,
1849, on severe terms; annexed to Sardinia in 1859.

=Breslau.= Capital of the province of Silesia, Prussia; it was burnt by
the Mongols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of Prussia in
January, 1741. A fierce battle took place here between the Austrians and
Prussians, the latter under Prince Bevern, who was defeated November
22,1757. Breslau was taken, but was regained, December 21, the same
year; besieged by the French, and surrendered to them January, 1807, and
again in 1813.

=Bressuire.= A small town of France, department of Deux-Sèvres; it was
fortified during the Middle Ages, and was captured from the English by
the celebrated Du Guesclin in 1373; it was nearly destroyed during the
wars of La Vendée.

=Brest.= A seaport in Northwestern France; besieged by Julius Cæsar, 54
B.C.; possessed by the English in 1378; given up to the Duke of Brittany
in 1390. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army were repulsed here
with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt to the value of some
millions of pounds sterling, 1744; marine hospital, with 50
galley-slaves, burnt, in 1766; the magazine again destroyed by fire,
July 10, 1784. England maintained a large blockading squadron off the
harbor from 1793 to 1815, but with little injury to France. It is now a
chief naval station of France, and from the fortifications and other
vast works of late construction it is considered impregnable.

=Bretigny, Peace of.= Concluded with France, May 8, 1360, by which
England retained Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces;
renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; was
to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release King John, long a prisoner.
The treaty not being carried out, the king remained and died in London.

=Breuci.= A powerful people of Pannonia, near the confluence of the
Savus and the Danube, took an active part in the insurrection of the
Pannonians and Dalmatians against the Romans, 6 A.D.

=Brevet.= An honorary rank conferred upon an officer, for meritorious
services, above the rank he holds in his own corps. In the U. S. army
rank by brevet is conferred, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, for “gallant actions or meritorious services.” A brevet rank
gives no right of command in the particular corps to which the officer
brevetted belongs, and can be exercised only by special assignment of
the President. Officers while so serving under assignment are said to
have _local rank_ (which see).

=Brevet.= To confer rank or title upon by brevet.

=Brevetcy.= The rank or condition of a brevet.

=Bricole.= An improved kind of traces used by the French in drawing and
manœuvring artillery; analogous to the old drag-rope, but having the
addition of a leather strap or girdle with a buckle, to which the drag
is affixed, and an iron ring and hook at the end to drag by.

=Bridge.= A structure usually of wood, stone, brick, or iron, erected
over a river or other water-course, or over a ravine, railroad, etc., to
make a continuous roadway from one bank to the other.

=Bridge.= In gunnery, two pieces of timber which go between the two
transoms of a gun-carriage. Not used in the U. S. service.

=Bridge, Flying.= See PONTONS.

=Bridge, Trail.= See PONTONS.

=Bridge, Train.= See EQUIPAGE.

=Bridge, Trestle.= See TRESTLE BRIDGE.

=Bridges.= When a river is more than 4 feet in depth, or when its bottom
is of mud or quicksand, recourse must be had either to ferrying by means
of boats, rafts, etc., or to military bridges. The latter are always to
be preferred when circumstances will permit their establishment.

Military bridges are composed of a roadway and its supports; the first
consists of beams or balks reaching across the adjacent supports, and
covered with plank called chess.

The supports, from which the bridge takes its name, may be either fixed,
as trestles, gabions, carriages, piles, or floating, as pontons, boats
of commerce, rafts, etc.

Ponton bridges are preferable to all others when a passage by main force
or surprise is to be undertaken. They may be constructed on any stream
of sufficient depth; they may be replaced by rafts when the velocity of
the stream does not exceed 6 feet per second. In swifter currents the
latter are unmanageable, drag their anchors, and are liable to
destruction from floating bodies.

Trestle bridges may be constructed in rivers whose depth does not exceed
9 feet, and whose velocity is not more than 6 feet. They may be employed
with advantage in rivers of moderate depth and gentle current, with
hard, even bottoms. When the bed of the river is uneven the adjustment
of the trestles to the bottom is very tedious, and if the current is
rapid, almost impossible. When the bed is of mud or fine sand, the
settlement of the legs is liable to be irregular.

Gabion bridges are used over marshes and shallow streams. They consist
of gabions constructed in the ordinary way, and of a height necessary to
give a level road; these are placed in rows perpendicular to the axis of
the bridge, are filled with stones, or gravel, and are capped with a
piece of timber on which the balks rest.

Pile bridges are superior in point of stability to all other military
bridges, but requiring much labor and time in their construction; they
are usually restricted to securing the communications in rear of the
army.

=Bridge-head.= A fortification covering the extremity of a bridge
nearest the enemy. The French term for the same is _tête du pont_.

=Bridle.= An instrument with which a horse is governed and restrained,
consisting of a head-stall, a bit and reins, with other appendages,
according to its particular form and uses.

=Bridle.= In gunnery, the piece in the interior of a gun-lock, which
covers and holds in place the tumbler and sear, being itself held by the
screws on which they turn.

=Bridle, Arm Protect.= The term for a guard used by the cavalry, which
consists in having the sword-hilt above the helmet, the blade crossing
the back of the head, with the point of the left shoulder, and the
bridle-arm; its edge directed to the left and turned a little upwards,
in order to bring the mounting in a proper direction to protect the
hand.

=Bridoon.= The snaffle rein of a military bridle, which acts
independently of the bit, at the pleasure of the rider.

=Brieg.= A town of Silesia, Prussia, about 27 miles from Breslau; it was
taken by Frederick II., April 4, 1741; dismantled by the French in 1807.

=Briel=, =Brielle=, or =The Brill=. A fortified seaport town on the
north side of the island of Voorne, Holland. It was the nucleus of the
Dutch republic, having been taken from the Spaniards by William de la
Marck in 1572. This event was the first act of open hostility to Philip
II., and paved the way to the complete liberation of the country from a
foreign yoke. Briel was the first town of Holland which, without
extraneous aid, expelled the French in 1813. The celebrated admirals De
Witt and Van Tromp were natives of this place.

=Brienne=, or =Brienne le Château=. A town of France, department of the
Aube. It has a fine castle, but it is chiefly celebrated as the place
where Napoleon received the rudiments of his military education, and
where, in 1814, a bloody battle was fought between the French and the
allied forces of Russia and Prussia.

=Brier Creek.= In Warren Co., Ga. An American force 2000 strong, under
Gen. Ashe, was defeated on this creek by the English under Prevost,
March 4, 1779.

=Brigade.= A body of troops, whether cavalry, artillery, or infantry, or
a mixed command, consisting of two or more regiments, under the command
of a brigadier-general. Two or more brigades constitute a division,
commanded by a major-general; two or more divisions constitute an army
corps, or _corps d’armée_, the largest body of troops in the
organization of the U. S. army.

=Brigade.= To form into a brigade, or into brigades.

=Brigade.= In the British service the artillery is divided into
brigades, which consist of seven batteries each, under the command of a
colonel. The Household Brigade is composed of the Horse Guards, Life
Guards, and Foot Guards.

=Brigade-Inspector.= An officer whose duty it is to inspect troops in
companies before they are mustered into the service.

=Brigade-Major.= An officer appointed to assist the general commanding a
brigade in all his duties.

=Brigadier-General.= An officer in rank next above a colonel and below a
major-general. He commands a brigade; and this officer is sometimes
called simply brigadier.

=Brigand.= A species of irregular foot soldiers, frequently mentioned by
Froissart. From their plundering propensities comes the modern use of
the term.

=Brigandine=, or =Brigantine=. A coat of mail, consisting of thin,
jointed scales of plate, pliant and easy to the body.

=Brigantes.= The most powerful of the British tribes, inhabited the
whole of the north of the island from the Abus (now Humber) to the Roman
wall, with the exception of the southeast corner of Yorkshire. They were
conquered by Petilius Cerealis in the reign of Vespasian. There was also
a tribe of this name in the south of Ireland.

=Brignais= (anc. _Priscinniacum_). An ancient fortress in France,
department of the Rhone; it was captured in 1361 by bodies of
adventurers, called _Grandes Compagnies_. Prince Jacques de Bourbon made
an effort to dislodge them, but was completely defeated, and died of
wounds received upon this occasion.

=Brihuega.= A town of New Castile, Spain; it was formerly surrounded by
walls, of which traces still exist. Here, in 1710, during the War of the
Succession, the English general Stanhope, owing to the dilatoriness of
his allies in affording him support, was defeated by the Duke of
Vendôme, and compelled to surrender with all his force, amounting to
about 5500 men.

=Brindisi= (anc. _Brundisium_). A fortified seaport of Italy, on a small
bay of the Adriatic; it was the usual place of embarkation for Greece
and the East; taken by the Romans from the Sallentines in 267 B.C., and
was afterwards the principal naval station of the Romans on the
Adriatic. During the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey, this place was
invested by Cæsar in 49 B.C.

=Brins d’Est= (_Fr._). Large sticks or poles resembling small pickets,
with iron at each end. They were used to cross ditches, particularly in
Flanders.

=Brise-mur= (_Fr._). A heavy piece of ordnance which was used during the
15th century to batter down walls, etc.

=Brissarthe.= A village of France, department of Maine-et-Loire. Here
the Normans were defeated in 886 by Robert the Strong.

=Bristol= (West England). Built by Brennus, a British prince, 380 B.C.;
is mentioned in 430 as a fortified city; taken by the Earl of Gloucester
in his defense of his sister Maud, the empress, against King Stephen,
1138; taken by Prince Rupert, 1643; by Cromwell, 1645.

=Brisure.= In fortification, any part of a rampart or parapet which
deviates from the general direction.

=Britain= (called by the Romans _Britannia_, from the Celtic name
Prydhain). The Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh,
were the first inhabitants of Britain; it is referred to by Herodotus,
450 B.C.; invaded by Julius Cæsar, 55-54 B.C.; Aulus Plautus and
Vespasian reduced South Britain, 47. Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000
slain, and London burnt; she is defeated by Suetonius; 80,000 slain, 61.
Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesea, and overruns Britain in seven
campaigns, and reforms the government, 78-84. He defeats the Caledonians
under Galgacus; surrenders the island, 84. The Romans held sway in
Britain down to about 420, soon after which time the Saxons invaded
South Britain, and ultimately subdued it. It was merged into the kingdom
of England about 829. See ENGLAND.

=Britain, Great.= The name given in 1604 to _England_, _Wales_, and
_Scotland_.

=Briteste.= A small town of France, in the old province of Guienne;
besieged by the Duke of Vendôme in 1622, who was compelled to retreat,
without accomplishing his object, after firing 2000 shots; he made five
assaults and lost 1500 men.

=British Legion.= Raised by Lord John Hay, Colonel De Lacy Evans, and
others, to assist the queen of Spain against the Carlists in 1835;
defeated them at Hernani, May 5, 1836, and at St. Sebastian’s, October
1.

=Brittany=, or =Bretagne= (Northwest France). The ancient _Armorica_.
Conquered by Julius Cæsar, 56 B.C. Brittany was formerly united to the
monarchy, 1532; held by the Spaniards, 1591; recovered by Henry IV.,
1594. The Bretons took part in the Vendean insurrection in 1791.

=Brixham.= A seaport town in the county of Devon, England. Here William
III. (of Orange) landed in England on November 6, 1688.

=Brizure=, =Brizé=, or =Brisé=. Terms used in heraldry to indicate that
a charge is bruised or broken.

=Broad-axe.= A military weapon used in ancient times.

=Broadsword.= Is a sword with a broad blade, for cutting only, not for
stabbing, and therefore not sharp at the point like a sabre.

=Broadwell Ring.= A gas-check for use in heavy breech-loading guns,
invented by L. W. Broadwell. See BREECH MECHANISM.

=Brod= (Slavonian). A military frontier fortress of Austria, on the
Save, defended by a fort. Here Ziska defeated the emperor Sigismund in
1422.

=Broke.= Sentence of a court-martial depriving an officer of his
commission, or a non-commissioned officer or warrant-officer of his
warrant. Also said of a non-commissioned officer being reduced by order.

=Brondolo.= A fortified village of Northern Italy, on the Brenta-Nuova;
it was formerly a flourishing town; destroyed by the Genoese in 1380.

=Broni.= A town of Redmont, in the province of Alessandria, about 11
miles southeast of Pavia. In its vicinity is the castle of Broni,
celebrated in history as the place where Prince Eugène obtained a
victory over the French in 1703.

=Bronnitza.= A town of Russia, in the government of Novgorod, on the
Masta. Here the Swedes defeated the Russians in 1614.

=Bronze.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, BRONZE.

=Bronze.= Gun-barrels are bronzed by acting upon them with the chloride
or butter of antimony, or with hydrochloric or nitric acids, when the
surface of the iron gets partially eaten into, and covered with a thin
film of oxide, after which the gun-barrel is thoroughly cleaned, oiled,
and burnished. A brownish shade is thus communicated to the barrel,
which protects it from rust, and at the same time renders it less
conspicuous to an enemy.

=Brooke Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Brooklyn.= A city and seaport of the United States, at the extremity of
Long Island, opposite New York City. In 1776 this part of Long Island
was one of the principal localities of the war of independence. Here on
August 27, 1776, was fought the first great battle of the Revolutionary
war after the Declaration of Independence. The American army occupied
Manhattan, Governor’s, and Long Islands, a large force being placed by
Washington under the command of Gen. Greene in a fortified camp
extending from Wallabout Bay to Gowanus Cove. Unfortunately, Gen. Greene
was taken sick, and four days before the battle the command was given to
Gen. Putnam. On August 22 the British forces under Lord Howe landed and
encamped at the western point of Long Island. About midnight on the 26th
the British attacked the American left, and about daybreak on the 27th
the Hessians under Von Heister attacked the centre, and were met bravely
by the American forces; but an important pass through the hills on their
right, called the Jamaica Pass, being left unguarded, a select body of
English troops poured through, followed by Percy and Cornwallis with the
main army, and, attacking them from the flank and rear, drove the
patriots in confusion with heavy loss. On the night of the 29th,
Washington succeeded, under cover of a dense fog, in withdrawing all his
troops from Brooklyn to New York, and finding it impossible to defend
that city, he removed his forces to the heights of Harlem. During the
civil war Brooklyn was not surpassed by any city in her zeal for the
cause of the Union.

=Brother Officers.= Those of the same regiment.

=Brother Soldier.= See SOLDIER.

=Brownbill.= The ancient weapon of the English foot soldiers,
resembling a battle-axe.

=Browning.= See BRONZE.

=Bruges.= A city in Belgium. In the 7th century it was the capital of
Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th centuries had become almost the
commercial metropolis of the world. It suffered much through an
insurrection in 1488, and the consequent repression. It was incorporated
with France in 1794, with the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in
1830.

=Brumaire.= A division of the year in the calendar of the French
Republic. It is derived from the Latin _bruma_, “winter,” and included
the time from October 23 to November 21. The celebrated 18th Brumaire,
which witnessed the overthrow of the Directory and the establishment of
the sway of Napoleon, corresponds with November 9, 1799, of the
Gregorian calendar.

=Brunanburg= (supposed by some to be near Ford, Northumberland,
England). Anlaf, with an army of Northmen from Ireland, and Constantine
III., king of Scots, landed at the mouth of the Humber, and were
defeated with very great slaughter at Brunanburg by Athelstan in 937.

=Brunette, La.= An ancient fortress of Piedmont; dismantled by the
French in 1798.

=Brünn.= Capital of Moravia. Its citadel was blockaded by the Hungarians
in 947; the town was besieged by the Swedes in 1645, and by the
Prussians in 1742; entered by the French under Murat, November 18, 1805,
and by the Prussians, July 13, 1866.

=Brunswick.= A city of Germany, the capital of a duchy of the same name.
It was formerly fortified; besieged in 1761, and a combat took place
under its walls in 1813.

=Brunt.= The troops who sustain the principal shock of the enemy in
action are said to bear the brunt of the battle.

=Bruttium= (now _Calabria Ultra_). In Southern Italy; the Bruttians and
Lucanians defeated and slew Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.C.
They were conquered by Rome 277 B.C.

=Brüx=, or =Brix=. A town of Bohemia, on the river Bila. Here the
Prussians defeated the Austrians in 1759.

=Bruyeres-sous-Laon.= A town of France, in the department of the Aisne.
It was captured and pillaged by the Normans in 882; sacked by the
English in 1358 and 1373; Jean de Luxembourg took possession of it in
1433, and the Calvinists in 1567.

=Brzesc Litewski.= A fortified town of Russia, in the government of
Grodno. Here the Russians defeated the Poles in 1794. The Poles were
13,000 strong, out of which 500 were taken prisoners, 300 escaped, and
the remainder fell on the field of battle.

=Buccellarii.= An order of soldiery under the Greek emperors, appointed
to guard and distribute the ammunition bread, though authors are
somewhat divided as to their office and quality.

=Bucephalus.= The celebrated horse of Alexander the Great, which no one
could ride except that monarch, and which is said to have carried
Alexander through all his Indian campaigns. He died about 327 B.C., and
Alexander built the city of Bucephala, on the Hydaspes, in his honor.

=Bucharest.= The capital of Wallachia; preliminaries of peace were
ratified at this place between Russia and Turkey, May 28, 1812. The
subsequent war between these powers altered many of the provisions of
this treaty. Bucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turks, and
Austrians successively in the Crimean war. The last quitted it in 1856.

=Buck and Ball.= A cartridge for small-arms. See CARTRIDGE,
BUCK-AND-BALL.

=Buck-board.= A simple four-wheeled vehicle, consisting of a board
resting on the axle-trees, forming a spring seat by its elasticity.

=Buckler.= A kind of shield or piece of defensive armor, anciently used
in war. It was often 4 feet long, and covered the whole body.

=Buckshot.= A small leaden bullet, weighing about 165 to the pound.

=Buda=, or =Ofen=. A free city of the Austrian empire, on the west bank
of the Danube, opposite Pesth, and with it the capital of Hungary. It
was taken by Charlemagne in 799; and sacked by Solyman II. after the
battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and
200,000 of his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a
second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hungary was
annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1541. Retaken by the Imperialists, under
the Duke of Lorraine, and the Mohammedans delivered up to the fury of
the soldiers, 1686. It suffered much in 1848, and was entered without
resistance by the Austrians, January 5, 1849. Here the emperor Francis
Joseph was crowned king of Hungary, June 8, 1867. See PESTH.

=Buderich.= A town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine,
opposite Wesel. Here the Duke of Lorraine was defeated by the emperor
Otho I. It was taken by the French in 1672; burned by the French in
1813.

=Budge-barrel.= A small barrel with only one head; on the other end a
piece of leather is nailed, which is drawn together with a string, like
a purse. It is used for carrying powder from the magazine to the
battery, in siege or coast service.

=Buena Vista.= A celebrated battle-field of Mexico, situated about 90
miles southwest of Monterey and 7 miles from Saltillo, famous for the
victory gained there by an American force not 5000 strong, under Gen.
Zachary Taylor, over a Mexican army four times their number under Santa
Anna, February 22-23, 1847. Gen. Taylor, on the way from Victoria to
Monterey, having learned that Santa Anna was threatening him with an
overwhelming force, decided to withdraw his troops from their camp at
Agua Nueva to a position more favorable for withstanding a superior
force, which had been selected a little south of the small village of
Buena Vista, at a point where the road passed through a mountain gorge
called Angostura. Accordingly, on the afternoon of February 21, the camp
at Agua Nueva was broken up, and Santa Anna, believing the American
forces were retreating, eagerly pursued them until he was drawn into
their chosen position. After a useless summons to surrender, on the
afternoon of the 22d the Mexicans opened the attack on the American
left, but they made no impression, while they suffered severe loss.
During the night the Mexicans occupied a position on the heights to the
east of the American lines with the intention of forcing their left
flank, and it was here that the fighting commenced on the 23d, and
continued during the day with varying success, finally resulting in the
repulse of the enemy. Meanwhile a force of Mexican cavalry had been
detached to attack the American camp at Buena Vista, but was gallantly
repulsed. The final attack was made against the American centre--where
Gen. Taylor commanded in person--by Santa Anna himself, with his entire
reserve, but he was met with such a deadly fire from the American
batteries that he was obliged to draw off his much-diminished forces,
and during the night he fell back to Agua Nueva. The American loss in
killed and wounded was about 700; the Mexicans lost about 2000.

=Buenos Ayres.= A province of the Argentine Republic, with a capital of
the same name. A British fleet and army took the city with slight
resistance, June 27, 1806; retaken August 12, 1806. Gen. Whitelock and
8000 British entered Buenos Ayres, and were severely repulsed, July 5,
1807; independence of the province declared July 19, 1816; a prey to
civil war for many years. It seceded from the Argentine Republic in
1853, and was reunited to it in June, 1860.

=Buffalo.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Buffalora.= A town of Italy, on the river Ticino. In its environs in
1636, the French and Spanish armies met in combat, in which the former
were victorious. There is a bridge at this place crossing the Ticino,
over which a division of the invading army of Austria marched, April 29,
1859. This was the first act of overt hostility in the war between
Austria and Sardinia.

=Buff Coat.= A close military outer garment, with short sleeves, and
laced tightly over the chest, made of buffalo-skin, or other thick and
elastic material, worn by soldiers in the 17th century as a defensive
covering.

=Buffer, Pneumatic.= See AIR CYLINDERS.

=Buffers.= See HURTER.

=Buff Jerkin.= Originally a leathern waist-coat; afterwards one of a
buff color, worn as an article of dress by sergeants and catchpoles;
used also as a dress.

=Buff Leather.= A sort of leather prepared from the buffalo, which,
dressed with oil, makes what is generally called buff-skin. In European
armies, troopers’ breeches, shoulder-belts, and sword-belts are made of
this leather.

=Buff Stick.= A wooden stick covered with buff leather, used by soldiers
in cleaning their equipments.

=Bugle-horn=, or =Bugle=. The old Saxon horn, now used by all infantry
regiments. By its soundings their manœuvres are directed, either in
advancing, skirmishing, or retreating.

=Bugler.= One who plays a bugle.

=Built-up Guns.= See ORDNANCE.

=Bukors.= Kettle-drums of the Swedish cavalry.

=Bulgaria.= Anciently _Mœsia_, now part of European Turkey. The
Bulgarians were a Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire and
Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a kingdom. They defeated
Justinian II., 687; but were subdued, after several conflicts, by the
emperor Basil in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, having taken 15,000
Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye
only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen
home. The kingdom was re-established in 1086; but after many changes,
was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1396.

=Bull.= A fort which the English possessed in Canada, and which
constituted one of their military depots; it was captured by the French,
March 27, 1756.

=Bulletin.= A brief statement of facts respecting some passing events,
as military operations, etc.

=Bullet-mold.= An implement containing a cavity of the proper shape into
which lead is poured to form a bullet.

=Bullet-proof.= Capable of resisting the force of a bullet.

=Bullets.= Are projectiles of lead to be discharged from various kinds
of small-arms. The first bullets used were round, and were designated by
the number weighing one pound. The sizes employed were very large. Until
quite recently the round ball still held its place with rifles and
smooth-bores. Various devices were used for making it take the grooves
of the rifle,--a guard-patch being among the best. (See SMALL-ARMS.) It
was with this that the early settlers of America won their reputation as
marksmen. Robins, in 1742, showed the superiority of the conical form,
but it was not till about 1840 that round balls were generally
discarded. The conical bullet was often used in grooves with an
increasing twist, and gave wonderfully accurate results at short range.
For long ranges, long bullets are necessary, and these require uniform
twists, which are now generally used in military arms. Various forms of
the elongated bullets were used. Most of these bullets had an expansive
base, either hollow or plugged with wood; the design being to force the
soft lead outward, so as to cause it to fit the grooves of the rifle,
and thus give the bullet a rotation around its long axis during the
motion forward. (See SMALL-ARMS.) This rotation, as is well known,
increases the range and precision. Bullets were formerly cast, but now
they are more frequently stamped in steel dies, and, as in
breech-loading arms, the bullet takes the grooves by compression; the
exploding base is omitted. The form of bullet now used in military arms
is the cylindrical conoidal. The tendency recently has been to reduce
the caliber. (See PROJECTILES.) Copper bullets are used by the
Circassians. Bullets of stone were used in 1514; iron ones are mentioned
in the _Fœdera_, 1550, and leaden ones were made before the close of the
16th century.

=Bullets, Explosive.= Oblong bullets carrying a percussion-cap on the
front end and sometimes containing a small charge of powder in a cavity,
used to blow up caissons and magazines. There is a strong sentiment
against the use of these bullets in firing at troops.

=Bullets, Express-.= An explosive bullet of great killing power, used in
hunting large game. It is of large caliber but quite light, being much
shorter than the ordinary rifle-bullet. A cylindrical cavity bored in at
the point carries a small metallic cartridge-case filled with powder. It
is fired with a large charge of powder, which, owing to its lack of
weight, gives it a high initial velocity and a very flat trajectory up
to about 200 yards, obviating the necessity for an elevating sight. _The
Winchester Express-bullet_ (a good type of those made in America) has a
caliber of .50, weighs 300 grains, and is fired with 95 grains of
powder, giving an initial velocity of 1640 feet. It is made of pure
lead, the softness of which increases its deadliness. The shock from
this bullet will bring down the largest game. See EXPRESS-RIFLE.

=Bullets, Grooved.= Bullets having grooves, or cannelures. These grooves
were originally used to increase the relative resistance of the air on
the _rear_ of the bullet, thus assisting the rotation in keeping the
point to the front. In muzzle-loading arms they also increased the
_setting up_ of the bullet to take the grooves. They are now used to
hold the lubricant, and to facilitate the swaging action of the grooves
and lands in breech-loading guns. For the other form of modern bullets,
see BULLETS, PATCHED.

=Bullets, Patched.= One of the forms of modern rifle-bullets. The bullet
has wrapped around its cylindrical portion a layer of thin paper called
the _patch_. The bullet is perfectly smooth. The other form has grooves,
or cannelures. (See BULLETS, GROOVED.) The lubricant for the patched
bullet is a greased wad or disk of wax, placed between powder and
bullet. The _grooved bullet_, carrying its own lubricant, is best
adapted to shallow lands and grooves. The _patched bullet_ to sharp
lands. The grooved bullet would seem to be the best for military
service, as the cartridge-case can be tightly crimped upon it, making
the case waterproof. For very long range the best shooting has been done
with patched bullets.

=Bullets, Percussion-.= See BULLETS, EXPLOSIVE.

=Bullock.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Bull Run Battles.= See MANASSAS.

=Bull’s-eye.= In gunnery and archery, is the centre of a target.

=Bulwark.= In fortification, a rampart or bastion; an outwork for
defense; that which secures against an enemy; a shelter or means of
protection.

=Bunker Hill.= A hill in Charlestown, now part of Boston, Mass., which
gave its name to the first important battle of the American Revolution.
The Americans learning that Gen. Gage, who was in command of the British
forces in Boston, intended to fortify Bunker Hill, determined to
forestall his design, and for this purpose a detachment of 1000 men
under Col. Prescott was ordered on the night of June 16, 1775, to throw
up a breastwork on the hill. After a consultation, however, it was
decided to fortify instead another eminence which was nearer to Boston,
known as Breed’s Hill. During the night they worked with such activity
that by daybreak a strong redoubt was nearly completed. Upon its
discovery by the British on the morning of the 17th, they opened fire on
it from the ships in the harbor, and Gen. Gage sent about 3000 men under
Howe and Pigot to attack it. They landed under cover of the fire from
the guns, and setting fire to Charlestown, advanced to the attack. The
Americans awaited their approach in silence until the whites of their
eyes could be seen, then poured a deadly fire into their ranks, causing
them to retreat in disorder. They were rallied by Howe, and again
advanced over the same ground with a like result as on the first attack.
Clinton now arrived with reinforcements, and an attack was made on three
sides of the redoubt at once. The ammunition of the Americans being now
exhausted they met their assailants with clubbed muskets, but the
superiority of the British in numbers being so great, Col. Prescott
ordered a retreat. This was effected across Charlestown Neck, where they
were exposed to a galling fire from the ships in the harbor. During the
retreat Gen. Warren was killed, and the Bunker Hill monument erected to
commemorate this engagement now stands near the spot where he fell. The
British loss was over 1000 killed and wounded; the Americans lost less
than half that number.

=Bureaux.= See Military Departments throughout this work under
appropriate headings.

=Buren.= A town of Switzerland, canton of Berne. It was the scene of
several combats. The Spaniards under Gilles de Barlemont took
possession of it in 1575.

=Burford.= A town in the county of Oxford, England. It is celebrated for
a battle fought between Cuthred, king of the West Saxons, and Ethelbald,
king of the Mercians; and for a victory by Fairfax in 1649 over the army
of Charles I. at Edgehill, in its vicinity.

=Burganet=, or =Burgonet=. A kind of helmet used by the French.

=Burgos.= A city of Spain, capital of the new province of the same name,
was founded in 844; sacked by the French in 1808; in 1812 the castle was
four times unsuccessfully besieged by Wellington, who, however, took it
in the following year, when the French blew it up, as well as the
fortifications.

=Burguete.= A town of Navarre, Spain. Here the army of Charlemagne was
defeated in 778.

=Burgundy.= A large province in France, derives its name from the
Burgundians, a Gothic tribe who overran Gaul in 275, but were driven out
by the Emperor Probus; they returned in 287, and were defeated by
Maximin. In 413 they established a kingdom, comprising the present
Burgundy, large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence,
etc., Gondicaire, their leader, the first king. It was conquered by the
Franks, 534. Annexed to France, 1477.

=Burhampoor.= A town of Hindostan, in the province of Bengal. It is one
of the military stations of the British government; and the cantonments,
consisting of a grand square inclosing a fine parade ground, command the
notice of the traveler. It was captured by the English troops under Col.
Stevenson in 1803.

=Burial Honors.= See FUNERAL HONORS.

=Burich.= A small town in the circle of Lower Rhine; its fortifications
were burned by the French in 1672.

=Burkersdorf.= A village of Austria, where a combat took place between
the Prussians and Austrians, July 21, 1762, in which the former were
victorious.

=Burley.= The butt end of a lance.

=Burlington Heights.= Here a fierce contest took place between the
British and the U. S. forces, June 6, 1813. The British carried the
heights.

=Burmah=, =Burma=, or =Birmah=. Also called the Burmese empire, or
kingdom of Ava, formerly the most extensive and powerful state in
Farther India. The most celebrated ruler of the country was Alompra, the
founder of the present dynasty, who reigned about the middle of the 18th
century. The Burmese became involved in a war with the English 1824-26,
which terminated in the curtailment of their power and the loss of
several provinces.

=Burning, Quickness of.= The relative quickness of two different powders
may be determined by burning a train laid in a circular or other groove
which returns into itself, one-half of the groove being filled with
each kind of powder, and fire communicated at one of the points of
meeting of the two trains; the relative quickness is readily deduced
from observation of the point at which the flames meet.

=Burnish.= In a military sense, is to give a peculiar lustre to a
gun-barrel or other part of a rifle by rubbing it with a piece of steel.
It is generally forbidden as injurious to the gun.

=Burque= (_Fr._). A kind of cuirass which was worn with the brigantine.

=Burr.= In gunnery, a round iron ring, which serves to rivet the end of
the bolt, so as to form a round head.

=Burrel-shot.= Small shot, nails, stones, pieces of old iron, etc., put
into cases to be discharged from any piece of ordnance. Very seldom
used.

=Bursting.= The simplest method of bursting open strong gates is, to
explode a bag of gunpowder containing 50 or 60 pounds suspended near the
middle of the gate upon a nail or gimlet, by means of a small piece of
port-fire inserted at the bottom, and well secured with twine.

=Busaco.= A hamlet in the province of Beira, Portugal. Here the British
under Wellington repulsed an attack of the French under Masséna,
September 27, 1810. The French lost about 4000 killed and wounded; the
English loss did not exceed 1300.

=Busby.= A military coiffure, or cap, or bear-skin; the French
_colbach_.

=Bushiere= (on the Persian Gulf). Attacked by sea by Sir H. Leeke, and
by land by Gen. Stalker, was taken December 10, 1856. The place proved
stronger than was expected, and was bravely defended.

=Bushing a Gun.= Inserting a piece of metal about an inch in diameter
(near the bottom of the bore) through the centre of which the vent has
been previously drilled. It is screwed in. The object of bushing a piece
is to prevent deterioration of the vent, or provide a new one, when this
has already occurred. In bronze pieces pure copper is always used in
bushing, as it is not so liable to run from heat as gun-metal. Only
rifled and bronze pieces are bushed.

=Bushwhackers.= This term was used during the civil war to designate a
class of men who claimed to be non-combatants in the presence of a
superior force, and who, to outward appearance, pursued their peaceful
avocations, but who did not hesitate, when an opportunity offered, to
slay stragglers, and pick off soldiers from ambush. When caught in the
commission of such acts they were treated with merciless severity.

=Buskins.= A kind of shoe, or half-boot, adapted to either foot,
formerly part of the Roman dress. They are now worn by some European
armies.

=Butin= (_Fr._). Booty or pillage. At the beginning of the French
monarchy, and for a long time after its establishment, a particular spot
was marked out by the prince or general, to which all persons belonging
to the victorious army were directed to bring every species of booty
that might have fallen into their hands. This booty was not divided, or
appropriated according to the will and pleasure of the prince or
general, but was thrown into different lots, and drawn for in common.
The soldiers who distributed these spoils were called _Butiniers_.

=Butler Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Butrinto.= A fortified maritime town of European Turkey, opposite
Corfu. The town and fortress are of Venetian construction; taken by the
French from the Venetians in 1797.

=Butt.= In gunnery, is a solid earthen parapet, to fire against in the
proving of guns, or in practice.

=Butt=, or =Butt-end=. That extremity of a musket which rests against
the shoulder when the piece is brought up to a position of firing.

=Button.= In gunnery, is a part of the cascabel, in either a gun or
howitzer, and is the hind part of the piece, made round in the form of a
ball.

=Buttress.= A sustaining wall at right angles to the main wall, which it
is intended to strengthen.

=Buxar.= A town in Bengal near which, on October 23, 1764, Major,
afterwards Sir Hector, Munro (with 857 Europeans and 6215 Sepoys) gained
a great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 40,000 in number;
6000 of these were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon taken.

=Byblos.= An ancient town of Egypt, on the Delta of the Nile. Here the
Athenians sustained a memorable siege against the Persians, 456 B.C.

=Byrnie.= Early English for body-armor.

=Byssa.= An ancient cannon for throwing stones.

=Byzantium.= See CONSTANTINOPLE.



C.


=Cabas= (_Fr._). A basket made of rushes, used in ancient Languedoc and
Rousillon, for the purpose of conveying stores and ammunition.

=Cabasset=, =Cabacet=, or =Capacète=. A kind of helmet, lighter than the
morion, terminating in a rounded top. It was also called _Cervelière_,
because it only covered the upper part of the head.

=Cabeira= (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, king of Pontus, was defeated
by Lucullus, 71 B.C.

=Cabell Court-house.= See BARBOURSVILLE.

=Cabezon de la Sal.= A town of Spain, in the province of Valladolid. It
is celebrated as the scene of one of the first battles of the Peninsular
campaign, in which the Spaniards were signally defeated by the French.

=Caboched=, or =Cabossed=. A heraldic term from the old French word
_caboche_, “head.” When the head of an animal is borne without any part
of the neck, and exhibited full in face, it is said to be _caboched_.

=Cabrera.= One of the Balearic Islands, 10 miles south of Majorca.
Celebrated in the annals of war for the number of French prisoners who
were there decimated by hunger, disease, and other physical and mental
tortures.

=Cabul=, or =Cabool=. A city of Afghanistan, taken by Subuctajeen,
grandfather of Mohammed, founder of the Gaznevide dynasty, and by Nâdir
Shah in 1738. In 1809, the sovereign Shah Soojah was expelled by Futleh
Khan; and in 1818, Cabul came into the hands of Dost Mohammed, a clever
and ambitious chieftain. In 1839, the British restored Shah Soojah; but
in November, 1841, a dreadful outbreak took place. The British civil
officer, Sir William McNaughten, was massacred, and the British
commenced a most disastrous retreat. Of about 3849 soldiers, and about
12,000 camp-followers, only one European, Dr. Dryden, and four or five
natives escaped. In the same year (September 16), General, afterwards
Sir George, Pollock retook the town, and rescued Lady Sale and many of
the prisoners. After destroying many public buildings he left Cabul,
October 12, 1842.

=Cabule= (_Fr._). A machine of war, used during the 12th century to
throw stones, etc.

=Cache.= A hidden reservoir of provision (to secure it from bears) in
Arctic travel. Also, a deposit of dispatches, etc.

=Cadence.= A uniform time and pace in marching, indispensable to the
correct movements of bodies of troops.

=Cadency, Marks of.= In heraldry, are marks on the shields of younger
members of families, by which they are distinguished from the elder and
from each other.

=Cadet, Military= (Fr. _cadet_, “younger,” “junior”). Is a youth
studying for the military service in a school established for military
training, such as the Military Academy at West Point, N. Y., the Royal
Military Academy at Woolwich, England, the Polytechnic School at Paris,
etc. (See MILITARY ACADEMIES.) There are also medical and engineer
cadets, who are youths undergoing special instruction for the public
service in the several professions implied by their names.

=Cadetship.= The rank or commission of a cadet; as, to get a cadetship.

=Cadiz= (anc. _Gades_). A fortified maritime city of Spain, in the
province of the same name. The Carthaginians became masters of Cadiz
during the first Punic war, but the Romans obtained possession of it in
206 B.C. It was taken and pillaged by the Earl of Essex in 1596, and was
blockaded in 1656 by Admiral Blake, who captured two rich galleons. It
was besieged by the French from February, 1810, until August, 1812.
Captured by the Duc d’Angoulême, October 3, 1823, and held till 1828;
declared a free port in 1829.

=Cadore.= A town of Venice, 22 miles northeast from Belluno. This place
stands on the Piave, and is distinguished as the birthplace of Titian.
In 1797 the French obtained a victory over the Austrians near this town.

=Caen.= A city of France, in Normandy. A place of importance before 912,
when it became the capital of the possessions of the Normans, under whom
it flourished. It was taken by the English in 1346 and 1417; but was
finally recovered by the French, July 1, 1450. Here were buried William
the Conqueror (1087) and his queen (1083).

=Caernarvon.= A town in North Wales. In the castle (founded in 1283 or
1284) Edward II. was born, April 25, 1284; and the town was chartered by
Edward I. in the same year. The town suffered by the civil war of
Charles, but was finally retained for the Parliament.

=Caffa=, =Kaffa=, or =Theodosia=. A town in European Russia, in the
Crimea, at the end of a large bay on the northern shore of the Black
Sea. In 1770 the Russians took this place by assault, and in 1774 it was
ceded with the rest of the Crimea to the khan of Tartary, who made it
his residence.

=Caffraria=, and =Caffre War=. See KAFFRARIA.

=Cahors.= A town of France, capital of the department of Lot. It is
supposed to have been the capital of the _Cadurca_, before the conquest
of Gaul. It was captured by assault in 1580, by Henry IV.

=Caic.= See CAIQUE.

=Caiffa.= See KAIFFA.

=Cai-fong.= In China, capital of Honan, on the right bank of the
Hoang-ho. It was besieged by 100,000 rebels in 1642. The commander of
the relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down the
embankments of the river. It is said all the besiegers and 300,000 of
the citizens perished.

=Cairo=, or =Grand Cairo=. The modern capital of Egypt, partially built
by the Saracens in 969; it is surrounded by stone walls which are
surmounted with antique battlements; taken by the Turks from the
Egyptian sultans, 1517; taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte;
they entered the city July 23, 1798; captured by the British and Turks,
when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 1801; massacre of the Mamelukes,
March 1, 1811.

=Caisson.= In gunnery, is a carriage used for conveying ammunition for a
field battery. It is a four-wheeled carriage, consisting of two parts,
one of which is a limber similar to that of a gun-carriage, and
connected in a similar way by a wooden stock and lunette. On the
axle-body of the rear part, and parallel to the stock, are placed three
rails upon which are fastened two ammunition-boxes, one behind the
other, and similar to the one on the limber; so that the caisson has
three ammunition-boxes, which will seat nine cannoneers. The interior
compartments of the ammunition-boxes vary according to the nature of the
ammunition with which they are loaded. In the rear of the last box is
placed a spare wheel-axle of iron, with a chain and toggle at the end of
it. On the rear end of the middle rail is placed a carriage-hook similar
to a pintle-hook, to which the lunette of a gun-carriage whose limber
has become disabled may be attached, and the gun carried off the field.
The caisson has the same turning capacity and mobility as the
gun-carriage, so that it can follow the piece in all its manœuvres, if
necessary. It also carries a spare wheel, spare pole, etc. See ORDNANCE,
CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Cake-powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Caking.= To prevent powder caking, the barrels should be taken outside
the magazine and rolled on boards.

=Calabozo.= A town of Venezuela, South America; it was captured by
Bolivar, 1820.

=Calabria= (anc. _Messapia_). A region of Southern Italy; it was
conquered by the Romans 266 B.C. It formed part of the kingdom of the
Ostrogoths under Theodoric, 493; was reconquered (for the Eastern
empire) by Belisarius, 536; subdued by the Lombards and joined the duchy
of Benevento, 572. After various changes, it was conquered by Robert
Guiscard, the Norman, 1058.

=Calabuss.= An early kind of light musket with a wheel-lock. Bourne
mentions it in 1578.

=Calagurris= (now _Calahorra_, Spain). A town of the Vascones and a
Roman municipium in Hispania Tarraconensis, near the Iberus (Ebro),
memorable for its adherence to Sertorius and for its siege by Pompey and
his generals (78 B.C.), in the course of which mothers killed and salted
their children.

=Calais.= A fortified seaport town of France, department of
Pas-de-Calais, on the Strait of Dover. The town and harbor are defended
by a castle and several forts, and can be rendered inaccessible by land
by flooding the adjacent ground, which is low and marshy. It was taken
by Edward III. after a year’s siege in August, 1347; retaken by the Duke
of Guise, January, 1558. It was taken by the Spaniards, April, 1596;
restored, 1598. Louis XVIII. landed here in 1814, after his exile.

=Calasiries=, or =Calosires=. One of the two divisions (the other being
the Hermotybii) of the warrior-caste of Egypt. Their greatest strength
was 250,000 men, and their chief abode in the western part of the Delta.
They formed the king’s body-guard.

=Calatafimi.= A town of Sicily, province of Trapani. Here, in May, 1860,
Garibaldi defeated the royalist troops under Gen. Landi.

=Calatañazor.= A small town of Spain in Old Castile. Here Al-Mansoor
gained a great victory over the Christians in 1001.

=Calatayud.= A town of Spain, province of Saragossa. It was captured
from the Moors by Alfonso of Aragon in 1118; taken from the descendants
of Alfonso by the king of Castile in 1362.

=Calatrava, The Order of.= Was founded in 1158 by Sancho III. of
Castile. For a long period the war against the Moors was carried on
almost entirely by the knights of Calatrava. The knights bear a cross
gules, fleur-de-lised with green, etc.

=Calcans.= The bucklers of the Turks were so called during the Middle
Ages.

=Calcinato.= A town of Italy, on the river Chiese. The Duke of Vendôme
here defeated the Austrians under Count de Reventlau in 1706.

=Calcium-light.= A brilliant light produced by projecting the
oxyhydrogen flame upon a surface of lime. Called also the
Drummond-light.

=Calcutta.= Capital of Bengal and British India; the first settlement of
the English here was made in 1689. The town was attacked and taken by an
army of 70,000 horse and foot and 400 elephants (146 of the British were
crammed into the “Black-Hole prison,” a dungeon about 16 feet square,
from whence 23 only came forth alive next day), June 20, 1756; it was
retaken by Clive, January 2, 1757.

=Caldiero.= A village of Northern Italy. Here, just before the battle of
Arcola, the French under Napoleon I. were repulsed by the Austrians
under Alvinzi in 1796, and in 1805 were beaten under Masséna by the
Archduke Charles.

=Caledonia.= The name given by the Romans to that part of Britain north
of the Wall of Antoninus, and afterwards applied to the whole of the
country now known as Scotland. The inhabitants were called Caledonii
until about the beginning of the 4th century, when they began to be
spoken of as Picts and Scots. In 84 they were defeated under their chief
Galgacus by the Roman general Agricola, and a great part of the country
was overrun by the Romans, who formed many encampments there; but the
country was never reduced to a Roman province.

=Caliano.= A town of the Tyrol, Austria, on the left bank of the Adige.
Here the Venetians were defeated by the Austrians in 1487.

=Caliber=, or =Calibre=. From the Latin _qua librâ_, “what pound,”
applied first to the weight of a bullet, then to the diameter, which
determined the diameter of the gun, now signifies the diameter of the
bore of a cannon or any fire-arm, and is expressed in inches or
fractional parts of an inch, as a 15-inch gun; a Springfield rifle,
caliber .45. Cannon are sometimes also designated by the weight of metal
which they throw, as a 24-pounder.

=Caliber-rule.= A gunner’s calipers; having two scales, to determine the
weight of a ball from its diameter, and conversely.

=Calicut= (now _Kolikod_). A town in Southwestern India; the first
Indian port visited by Vasco de Gama, May 20, 1498. It was seized by
Hyder Ali, 1766, and taken by the English, 1790.

=California= (from the Spanish _Caliente Fornalla_, “hot furnace,” in
allusion to the climate). Was discovered by Cortez in 1537; others say
Cabrillo in 1542; and visited by Sir Francis Drake, who named it New
Albion in 1579. The Spaniards established missionary and military
stations in California, 1698; it became subject to Mexico in 1823;
became independent in 1836; occupied by the army of the United States in
1846; ceded to the United States, 1848; admitted into the Union as a
sovereign State, 1850.

=Caligæ.= A kind of half-boots worn by the Roman soldiers. These
soldiers were sometimes called _Caligati_.

=Caliper-compass.= An instrument by which the bore of cannon,
small-arms, etc., is measured; said to have been invented by an
artificer of Nuremberg, 1540.

=Caliver.= A hand-gun or arquebuse; probably the old name for the
match-lock or carabine.

=Call.= A military musical term, signifies a signal given by a trumpet,
bugle, or drum.

=Callao.= A fortified seaport of Peru. Lord Cochrane gallantly cut out
the “Esmeralda,” a Spanish ship-of-war, from under the guns of the fort
in 1821. Its roadstead (the best on the Peruvian coast) was the scene of
a combat between the Spaniards and the Independents; the Colombians took
it in 1826. The attempt of the Spanish admiral Nuñez to bombard Callao
on May 2, 1866, was defeated by the Peruvians.

=Calle, La.= A seaport on the coast of Algeria. The French, who
possessed it before the revolution of 1789, lost it during that epoch;
again occupied it in 1815, but lost it in 1827. It has been in the
possession of the French since the conquest of Algeria.

=Callinger.= One of the hill-forts of Bundelcund. From its position and
size, Callinger must at one time have been a place of great strength. It
was stormed by the British in 1812.

=Calmar.= See KALMAR.

=Calones.= A term applied to menials of the Roman armies; also slaves
belonging to the Roman soldiers, who followed their masters to the wars.

=Calore.= A river in Italy; on its banks the Romans (composed of
slaves), commanded by Tiberius (Gracchus), defeated the Carthaginian
general Hanno in 215. After the battle each Roman (slave) who could
present the head of an enemy slain by him was granted his freedom.

=Calpee=, or =Kalpee=. A city of India, in Bundelcund, on the right bank
of the river Jumna. It was conquered by the British in 1803, and in May,
1858, was captured by Gen. Rose from the mutinous Sepoys, it being the
headquarters of the Gwalior contingent.

=Caltrop=, or =Crow’s-foot=. An instrument with 4 iron points, so
disposed that, three of them being on the ground, the other projects
upward. They are scattered on the ground where an enemy’s cavalry are to
pass, to impede their progress by endangering the horses’ feet.

=Calumet.= A kind of pipe used by the North American Indians for smoking
tobacco, having the bowl usually of soft red stone, and the tube a long
reed ornamented with feathers. The calumet is used as a symbol or
instrument of peace. To accept the calumet is to agree to the terms of
peace, and to refuse it is to reject them. The calumet is used to seal
or ratify contracts and alliances, and to receive strangers kindly.

=Calvi.= A seaport on the island of Corsica, situated on a peninsula in
the Gulf of Calvi. It is strongly fortified and has a good port. It was
captured by the English in 1794, after a siege of 51 days.

=Calvi.= A decayed town of Naples. Here the French gained a victory over
the Neapolitans, December 9, 1798.

=Cam.= A river in England. On its banks was fought a battle between the
Saxons and Danes during the reign of Edward I.

=Camail.= Ancient armor, consisting of a guard for the throat made of
chain-mail coming down from the helmet.

=Cambrai=, or =Cambray=. A fortified city of France, department of the
North. It was fortified by the Romans; besieged and captured by
Childebert in 535; taken by Edward III., king of England, in 1337; in
1544 by Charles V.; by the Spaniards in 1595; captured by the French and
annexed, 1667; taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general, on September
10, 1798. The French were defeated at Cæsar’s camp, in the neighborhood,
by the allied army under the Duke of York, April 24, 1794. Cambray was
seized by the British under Sir Charles Colville, June 24, 1815. Several
important treaties were entered into at this place.

=Cambria.= See WALES.

=Cambridge.= The Roman _Camboricum_ and the Saxon _Granta_; a town of
England, in Cambridgeshire. It was burned by the Danes in 870 and 1010.
Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword, to be revenged of
King William Rufus. During Wat Tyler’s and Jack Straw’s rebellion, the
rebels entered the town, seized the University records and burned them
in the market-place, 1381.

=Cambuskenneth= (Central Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English
under Warrenne and Cressingham, September 10, 1297.

=Camden.= A village in Kershaw Co., S. C. Gen. Gates was defeated here
August 16, 1780, by Lord Cornwallis, and April 25, 1781, Gen. Greene was
here defeated by Lord Rawdon. During the civil war this place was
captured, February 24, 1865, by the Federal forces under Gen. Sherman,
and the bridge over the Wateree, the railroad depot, and a considerable
quantity of stores, etc., burned by the 15th Corps.

=Camel.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Camelford.= A town of England, in Cornwall. It was the scene of a
famous battle between King Arthur and his nephew Modred in 543, in which
the former was victorious. The West Saxons, under Egbert, had a battle
with the Britons here in 823.

=Cameron Highlanders.= The designation given to the 79th Regiment of
Infantry in the British service, in consequence of the corps having been
raised by Allan Cameron of Erroch in 1793. This gallant regiment, which
wears the Highland garb, performed distinguished services in the
Peninsula and at Waterloo, and has been engaged in the principal warlike
struggles of more recent times.

=Camisado.= A shirt formerly worn by soldiers over their uniform, in
order to be able to recognize one another in the darkness, in a night
attack.

=Camisado.= An attack by surprise at night, or at break of day, when the
enemy is supposed to be in bed, by soldiers wearing the camisado.

=Camouflet= (_Fr._). A small mine containing about 10 pounds of powder,
sufficient to compress the earth all around it without disturbing the
surface of the ground. It is sometimes formed in the wall or side of an
enemy’s gallery, to blow in the earth and cut off the retreat of the
miner.

=Camp.= From the Latin word _campus_, a “plain”; is the whole extent of
ground covered by an army when under canvas. Its breadth should not
exceed the line occupied by the troops when drawn out in order of
battle. As a general rule, camps should be located in a position
convenient to wood and water, with the front close and well covered, and
the rear perfectly open.

=Campaign.= A connected series of military operations, forming a
distinct stage or step in a war. Formerly, when troops kept the field
only during the summer months, the term was used to include all that was
done from the time an army took the field until it went again into
winter quarters. In modern times, when no ordinary degree of cold is
allowed to arrest military operations, the term is frequently used to
include all steps taken to accomplish one immediate object.

=Campaigner.= One who has served in an army several campaigns; an old
soldier; a veteran.

=Camp and Garrison Equipage.= All the tents, fittings, utensils, etc.,
carried with an army, applicable to the domestic rather than to the
warlike wants of the soldier. The allowance of camp and garrison
equipage to U. S. troops is prescribed in general orders from the War
Department.

=Campania= (Southern Italy). Was occupied by Hannibal and various cities
declared in his favor, 216 B.C.; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its
capital was Capua (which see).

=Camp-bedstead.= A bedstead made to fold up within a narrow space, as
used in war; a trestle bedstead.

=Campbell’s Station.= A post-village of Knox Co., Tenn. Here on November
16, 1863, Gen. Burnside, marching from Knoxville to meet the Confederate
forces under Gen. Longstreet, was attacked by them, and after several
hours’ fighting succeeded in repulsing them. Burnside then withdrew to
the neighborhood of Knoxville and fortified his position.

=Camp-boy.= A boy that serves in camp.

=Campeachy.= A city of Central America, and the principal seaport of
Yucatan. The country was discovered about 1517, and settled in 1540.
This city was taken by the English in 1659; by the buccaneers in 1678,
and by the freebooters of St. Domingo in 1685. These last burnt the town
and blew up the citadel.

=Campestre.= A kind of girdle or apron worn by Roman soldiers around
their waists at certain exercises, where the rest of their bodies
remained naked.

=Camp-followers.= The sutlers, traders, and dealers generally; also
civilian employés, servants, and women who follow troops, and are
amenable to the regulations and restrictions of the service.

=Camp-guard.= A camp-guard consists of one or two rows of sentinels
placed around a camp, and relieved at regular intervals. The number of
rows of sentinels, and the distance between each man, will depend upon
the character of the ground and the degree of danger apprehended.

=Campidoctores.= Officers who drilled the Roman soldiery.

=Camp, Intrenched.= Is a position fortified by field-works, which may be
selected by an army in the field, for important operations during a
campaign or a war,--such as to secure itself while covering a siege, or
in winter quarters to accommodate a corps of observation, while the
active army is engaged elsewhere, or to defend a position near a
fortified place.

=Camp of Instruction.= Is an encampment of troops in the field to
habituate them to the duties and fatigues of war. They may be either
temporary or permanent. Of the latter description are the camps at
Aldershott, England, and the Curragh of Kildare, Ireland.

=Campo Formio.= A town of Northern Italy; here a treaty was concluded
between France and Austria, the latter yielding the Low Countries and
the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the
Cisalpine Republic, October 17, 1797. By a secret article the emperor
gained the Venetian dominions.

=Campo Mayor.= A stronghold which covers the district between the
Guadiana and the Tagus, where the French, retreating from this place in
March, 1811, were suddenly confronted by a large British force under
Marshal Beresford, and a combat ensued which was disastrous to the
French.

=Campoos.= Regiments of infantry in the service of the Mahratta
confederates.

=Campo Santo.= A town of Northern Italy, situated on the Panaro. In 1743
a sanguinary battle was fought here between the Spanish and Austrian
forces.

=Camp Out, To.= To rest for the night without a standing roof; whether
under a light tent, a screen of boughs, or any makeshift that the
neighborhood may afford.

=Camprodon.= A fortified town of Catalonia, Spain. This town was taken
by the French in 1689, and again in 1794.

=Camp-stool.= A portable seat used on campaigns. It is usually made with
crossed legs, so as to fold up, and with a full-sized seat of leather or
canvas, or else of strips of dressed hide.

=Canada, Dominion of.= A country of North America which embraces all of
the American possessions of Great Britain lying north of the United
States. It was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, June 24, 1497;
the French founded Quebec in 1608. The English general Wolfe captured
Quebec in 1759, and the conquest of Canada was completed in 1760. The
Americans under Montgomery invaded Canada, and surprised Montreal,
November, 1775; expelled by Carleton, March, 1776; the Americans under
Gen. Hull again invaded Canada; defeated at Brownstown, August 8, and
surrendered August 16, 1812. The Americans took York April 27, Fort
George May 27, 1814; they were defeated at Chippewa July 25, and peace
was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814. Several rebellions took place in
Canada, but were speedily suppressed. Invasions of Canada by armed
Fenians from the United States were attempted in 1866 and 1870, but were
repelled without difficulty.

=Cananore.= A seaport town of British India, in the presidency of
Madras; it is the chief military station of the British in Malabar. In
1501 a small fort was built here by the Portuguese, which was taken by
the Dutch in 1664. These were subsequently driven out by Tippoo Saib,
and in 1790 the British took possession.

=Candahar=, or =Kandahar=. A fortified city of Afghanistan; stands in a
fertile plain, 200 miles southwest from Cabool. This city is supposed to
have been founded by Alexander the Great. Candahar was held by Tartary,
India, and Persia in turn. During all the disasters of the Afghan war,
the British succeeded in holding possession of the city, 1839-42.

=Candia= (anc. _Crete_). An island in the Mediterranean Sea. It was
conquered by the Romans, 68 B.C.; seized by the Saracens, 823; retaken
by the Greeks, 960; sold to the Venetians, 1204; gained by the Turks
after a 24 years’ siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished,
1669; ceded to the Egyptian pasha, 1830; restored to Turkey, 1840; in
1866 the Christian inhabitants revolted against the Turks, and demanded
an annexation to the kingdom of Greece. This war excited much sympathy
among Christian nations, but the Cretans were subdued in 1869.

=Candle Bombs.= Pasteboard shells filled with pyrotechnic compositions
which make a brilliant display upon explosion. They are used for
signaling, and are made up with a powder charge attached to one side; a
strand of quick-match leads to the charge when placed in the mortar. The
mortars used are very light, being simply hollow cylinders of stout
paper, sole-leather, or wood. They are made very light for ease of
transportation.

=Candy.= A kingdom of Ceylon; it was taken by a British detachment,
February 20, 1803, who capitulated June 23, following, anxious to
evacuate the place on account of its unhealthiness; on the third day
many were treacherously massacred at Columbo. The war was renewed in
October, 1814; the king made prisoner by Gen. Brownrigg, February 19,
1815, and the sovereignty vested in Great Britain, March 2, 1815.

=Canister.= In the U. S. service, a round of canister consists of a
hollow tin cylinder filled with cast iron or lead balls, which vary in
size and number with the caliber and kind of piece; the cylinder is
closed at the bottom by a thick cast-iron plate, and at the top by one
of sheet-iron. The interstices between the balls are filled with dry
sawdust, the object of which is to give more solidity to the mass, and
to prevent the balls from crowding on one another when the piece is
fired. In the English service this is called case-shot.

=Canister-shot.= One of the lead or iron balls in a round of canister.

=Cannæ.= A town of Naples, province of Terra di Bari. It is celebrated
for the great victory gained there by Hannibal over the Romans, in the
summer of 216 B.C. The loss of the Romans is stated by Livy at 45,000
infantry and 3000 cavalry.

=Cannon.= A military engine of which the general form is that of a
hollow cylinder closed at one end, and variously mounted, used for
throwing balls and other instruments of death by force of gunpowder.
Cannons are made of iron, brass, bronze, and sometimes of steel rods
welded together, and are of different sizes. They are classified, from
their nature, _guns_, _howitzers_, and _mortars_; also from their use,
as _field_, _mountain_, _prairie_, _sea-coast_, and _siege_; also as
_rifled_ and _smooth-bore_. See ORDNANCE.

The following are the most famous cannon of all ages, arranged according
to the diameter of the bore:

1. The _Tsar Pooschka_, the great bronze gun of Moscow, cast in 1586;
bore 36 inches, weight 86,240 pounds; threw a stone ball weighing 2000
pounds.

2. _Mallet’s Mortar_, English, 1857-58; built up of cast and wrought
iron; bore 36 inches; cast-iron shell weighing 2986 pounds.

3. The _Malik-I-Mydan_, “Master of the Field,” the great bronze gun of
Bejapoor, India; cast 1538; bore 28.5 inches; basalt ball, 1000 pounds.

4. _The Bronze Gun of Mahomet II._, A.D. 1464; bore 25 inches; granite
ball, 672 pounds.

5. The _Dulle-Griete_ of Ghent, wrought iron, A.D. 1430; bore 25 inches;
stone ball, 700 pounds.

6. The _Dhool-Dhanee_, bronze gun of Agra, India; bore 23.2 inches;
stone balls, 520 pounds.

7. _Mons Meg_ of Edinburgh; wrought iron, A.D. 1455; bore 20 inches;
stone ball, 400 pounds.

8. _Rodman Gun_, American, 1863; cast iron; bore 20 inches, weight
117,000 pounds; cast-iron solid shot weighing 1080 pounds.

The most powerful cannon the world has ever seen have been made within
the present decade (1870-80). They are rifles.

The _100-ton Armstrong guns_ sold to Italy to arm the “Duilio” and
“Dandolo”; bore 17 inches, weight of oblong shot of chilled iron 2000
pounds, charge of _Fossano powder_ 552 pounds. _Muzzle-loading._

The _80-ton Woolwich guns_ made to arm the “Inflexible”; bore 16 inches,
weight of shot 1700 pounds, charge of _cubical powder_ 440 pounds.
_Muzzle-loading._

The _72-ton Krupp guns_; bore 15.75 inches, weight of steel shot 1700
pounds, charge of _prismatic powder_ 452 pounds. Guns all steel.
_Breech-loading._

=Cannonade.= The act of discharging shot or shells from cannon for the
purpose of destroying an army, or battering a town, ship, or fort;
usually applied to an attack of some continuance.

=Cannon-ball.= A ball usually made of cast iron, to be thrown from
cannon.

=Cannon Baskets.= The old English phrase for gabions.

=Cannon-bullet.= A cannon-ball.

=Cannoneer.= A man who manages cannon.

=Cannoneering.= The use of cannon.

=Cannoneers’ Seats.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF
ARTILLERY CARRIAGES.

=Cannon-lock.= A contrivance, like the lock of a gun, placed over the
vent of a cannon to explode the charge.

=Cannon-metal.= An alloy of copper with about 9 per cent. of
tin;--called also _gun-metal_.

=Cannon-perer.= An ancient piece of ordnance throwing stone shot.

=Cannon-proof.= Proof against cannon.

=Cannon Royal.= A 60-pounder of 8¹⁄₂ inches bore.

=Cannonry.= Cannon collectively; artillery.

=Cannon-shot.= A ball for cannon.

=Canonnière= (_Fr._). This name was given formerly to a tent which
served to shelter four canonniers, but later the term was applied to all
infantry tents which contained seven or eight men.

=Canonnière= (_Fr._). An appellation formerly given to a gun-proof
tower; it also designated an opening in the walls of cities, forts,
etc., through which the defenders of these places could fire on an enemy
without being exposed.

=Canonniers= (_Fr._). Artillerymen, gunners. In 1671, during the
administration of Louvois in France, the name of _canonniers_ was given
to the first company of the regiment of the king’s fusileers; in April,
1693, this regiment was named _artillerie royal_, but the first company
retained the name of _canonniers_.

=Canonniers Gardes-côtes= (_Fr._). Were instituted in 1702, by Louis
XIV. of France, for the service of coast batteries. They are similar to
the Artillery Coast Brigade in the British service.

=Canstadt=, or =Cannstadt=. A town of Würtemberg, on the river Neckar.
In the vicinity a battle was fought in 1796, between Gen. Moreau and the
Archduke Charles of Austria.

=Cantabri.= A rude race of ancient mountaineers who lived in Cantabria,
the northern part of Spain, near the Bay of Biscay. They made a brave
resistance to the Romans in the Cantabrian war, 25-19 B.C. They are said
to have been of Iberian origin.

=Cantabrum.= A large banner used during the time of the Roman emperors,
and borne on festive occasions.

=Canteen.= A tin vessel used by soldiers to carry water on the march, or
in the field. It is usually suspended by a strap from the shoulder. In
the British service the canteen is made of wood. The name is also
applied to the store authorized within the precincts of British barracks
for the sale of liquors, small stores, etc. (See POST TRADER.) A leather
or wooden chest divided into compartments, and containing the table
equipage of an officer when on active service, is also called a canteen.

=Canterbury= (the _Durovernum_ of the Romans). A town in Kent, England.
Its cathedral was sacked by the Danes, 1011, and burnt down, 1067;
rebuilt, 1130; again burnt down, 1174, and again rebuilt. During the
civil war in England, Cromwell’s dragoons used Canterbury Cathedral as a
stable.

=Cantinière= (_Fr._). Women who are authorized to establish themselves
in the barracks or follow the troops in time of war, selling them
liquors and provisions. The _cantinières_, whether attached to regiments
or barracks, are selected from the wives of non-commissioned officers or
privates, and wear a uniform. See VIVANDIÈRE.

=Cantle.= The hind-bow or protuberance of a saddle; also written
_cantel_.

=Canton.= The only city in China with which Europeans were allowed to
trade till the treaty of August 29, 1842. In 1856 a serious
misunderstanding arose between Great Britain and China, on account of
the Chinese having boarded the “Arrow,” a small vessel, lying in the
Canton River, with a British colonial register. The Canton forts were
taken, and Canton was bombarded by Sir Michael Seymour in 1856, and in
the following year the Chinese fleet was entirely destroyed. In 1858
Canton was taken, and the forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho River were
taken by the allied French and English forces.

=Canton.= One of the nine honorable ordinaries in heraldry. It occupies
a corner of the shield either dexter or sinister, and is a third of the
chief.

=Cantonments.= In the general operations of European armies are
temporary resting-places. In cantonments the men are not under canvas,
as in camps, but occupy during an armistice, or in intervals between
active operations, adjacent towns and villages. In India cantonments are
permanent places, being regular military towns, distinct and at some
little distances from the principal cities.

=Cantonné.= In heraldry, when a cross is placed between four other
objects it is said to be _cantonné_.

=Canusium= (now _Canosa_). An important and very ancient city of Apulia,
in Italy. It was probably founded by the Greeks. Here a battle took
place between the Carthaginians under Hannibal, and the Romans under
Marcellus, 209 B.C.; it lasted two days; the first day the
Carthaginians were victorious, but on the second day the Romans gained
the victory after committing great havoc among their adversaries. It was
captured by the Romans, 318 B.C.

=Canvas.= A coarse hempen or linen cloth which is extensively used in
the form of tents, etc.

=Cap-a-pie= (_Fr._). “Head to foot.” In military language of the Middle
Ages, this term was applied to a knight or soldier armed at all points,
with armor for defense and weapons for attack.

=Caparison.= The bridle, saddle, and housing of a military horse.

=Cape Breton.= A large island of British North America, separated from
Nova Scotia by the Gut of Canso. Said to have been discovered by Cabot,
1497; by the English in 1584; taken by the French in 1632, but was
afterwards restored, and again taken in 1745, and retaken in 1748. The
fortress of Louisburg was captured by the English, July 26, 1758, when
the garrison were made prisoners, and 11 French ships were captured or
destroyed. The island was ceded to England, February 10, 1763.

=Cape Coast Castle.= In Southwest Africa; it was settled by the
Portuguese in 1610, but it soon fell to the Dutch; it was demolished by
Admiral Holmes in 1661. All the British factories and shipping along the
coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, Ruyter, in 1665. It was
confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See ASHANTEES.

=Cape Colony.= See CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

=Capeline= (_Fr._). A helmet without a visor, nearly in the form of a
round head; it was formerly worn by infantry.

=Cape of Good Hope.= In Southern Africa; long held by the Dutch; was
captured by the British, September 16, 1795; restored to the Dutch at
the general peace, but was again taken by the British, January 9, 1806;
it still belongs to the British, though a severe desultory warfare has
often been carried on with the native tribes.

=Capital.= In technical fortification, is an imaginary line bisecting
the salient angle of a work.

=Capitulation.= The surrender of a fortress or army on stipulated
conditions.

=Caponiere.= A covered passage across the ditch of a fortified place,
for the purpose either of sheltering communication with outworks or of
affording a flanking fire to the ditch in which it stands. If the
caponiere is protected only on one side, it is single; if on both sides,
and covered, it is double.

=Capote.= A heavy coat with a hood, worn by soldiers, sailors, and
others.

=Cappadocia.= An ancient province of Asia Minor, now included in Asiatic
Turkey. It was conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, and was ruled by
independent kings after the time of Alexander the Great until 17, when
Tiberius reduced it to a Roman province.

=Cappel.= A village of Switzerland. Here the reformer Ulric Zwinglius
was slain in a conflict between the Catholics and the men of Zurich, in
October, 1531.

=Capri= (anc. _Capreæ_). An island near Naples, the sumptuous residence
of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he committed during the last
seven years of his life. Capri was taken by Sir Sidney Smith, April 22,
1806; taken from the British, October 4, 1808, by a French force under
Gen. Lamarque.

=Caps.= The head-dress or shako of such troops as are not supplied with
helmets.

FORAGE CAPS are the cloth undress head-covering of the officer or
soldier.

=Caps.= In gunnery, are the leathern plugs, or bungs, used to prevent
rain or rubbish from collecting in the bore of the guns and howitzers.
There are also cannon caps for similar purposes, used for mortars.

=Caps, Percussion-.= Are small metal covers, inlaid with detonating
powder, and placed on the nipple of a rifle or revolver. The hammer,
striking on the outer surface of the cap, causes the powder to explode
and ignite the charge.

=Cap-square.= A strong plate of iron which comes over the trunnion of a
cannon, and keeps it to its place.

=Capstan.= A strong, massy column of timber, formed somewhat like a
truncated cone, and having its upper extremity pierced to receive bars,
or levers, for winding a rope round it, to move great weights, or to
exert great power; used in moving heavy guns considerable distances;
called also a _crab_.

=Capsules.= Copper caps for percussion-locks.

=Captain.= In a limited and technical sense, is the title of an officer
who commands a troop of cavalry, a company of infantry, or a battery of
artillery. He is the next in rank below a major, and in the U. S. army
is responsible for the camp and garrison equipage, the arms, ammunition,
and clothing of his company.

There is no position in the army that will give as much satisfaction in
return for an honest, capable, and conscientious discharge of his duty
as that of captain or commanding officer of a company. There is a reward
in having done his full duty to his company, that no disappointment of
distinction, no failure can deprive him of; his seniors may overlook him
in giving credits, unfortunate circumstances may defeat his fondest
hopes, and the crown of laurel may never rest upon his brow, but the
reward that follows upon the faithful discharge of his duty to his
company he cannot be deprived of by any disaster, neglect, or injustice.

He receives it whenever he looks upon his little command, and sees the
harmony, comfort, and discipline that prevail; he feels it when he comes
to part with his men in the due course of promotion, or as they
individually take their discharge after a faithful service; he remembers
it when, in after-years, no matter if rank and honors have in the mean
time fallen upon him, he meets an old soldier who, with respect and
affection, still calls him his captain.

He is a small sovereign, powerful and great within his little domain,
but no imbecile monarch ever suffered more from intrigues, factions, and
encroachments than an incapable company commander; no tyrant king must
contend more with rebellions, insurrections, and defections than an
arbitrary and unjust captain, and no wise and beneficent ruler ever
derived more heartfelt homage, more faithful services, or more patriotic
devotion than a just, competent, and faithful commander receives from
his company. They will love him truly, they will obey him faithfully,
and whilst there is life they will stand by him in the hour of battle.

The command of a company divides itself into two kinds of duty,
requiring very different capacity, viz., _Government_ and
_Administration_. The former requires force of character, judgment, and
discretion, and has often been well performed without much capacity for
the latter. Administration requires a certain amount of knowledge
absolutely indispensable to a discharge of a duty.

_Government._--Under this head may be included instruction in tactics
and discipline, the preservation of order and subordination, and the
cultivation of a military spirit and pride in the profession among the
men. It involves the appointing and reduction of non-commissioned
officers, and the subject of rewards and punishments.

_Administration._--Providing the clothing and subsistence, and keeping
the accounts of soldiers in order, that they may be paid, and attending
to the transportation of the men and their supplies, belong under this
head. They involve the keeping of the records of the company, and the
pay and clothing accounts of the men; the drawing and distributing of
supplies, and the care and accountability of public and company
property. The efficient administration of the affairs of a company
greatly facilitates the discipline and government of the company, makes
the men content and cheerful in the performance of their duties, and
attaches them to their commander.

=Captaincy.= The rank, post, or commission of a captain.

=Captaincy-general.= The office, power, territory, or jurisdiction of a
captain-general.

=Captain-General.= This was the proper appellation of a
commander-in-chief till Marlborough’s time, if not later. The rank is
sometimes still given on extraordinary occasions. It was born by the
Marquis of Wellesley during his government in India, and is applied to
the governor-general of the Canadas. In the United States, the governor
of a State is captain-general of the militia. _Captain-lieutenant_, an
officer, who with the rank of a captain, and pay of lieutenant,
commands a company or troop.

=Captainry.= The power, or command, over a certain district;
chieftainship; captainship.

=Captainship.= The condition, rank, post, or authority of a captain or
chief commander. Also skill in military affairs; as, to show good
captainship.

=Captive.= A prisoner taken by force or stratagem in war, by an enemy;
made prisoner, especially in war; kept in bondage or confinement.

=Captivity.= The state of being a prisoner, or of being in the power of
the enemy, by force or the fate of war.

=Captor.= One who takes, as a prisoner or a prize.

=Capture.= The act of taking or seizing by force; seizure; arrest; as,
the capture of an enemy. The thing taken; a prize; prey taken by force,
surprise, or stratagem.

=Captured Property.= As civilization has advanced during the last
centuries, so has likewise steadily advanced, especially in war on land,
the distinction between the private individual belonging to a hostile
country and the hostile country itself, with its men in arms. The
principle has been more and more acknowledged that the unarmed citizen
is to be spared in person, property, and honor, as much as the
exigencies of war will admit. A victorious army appropriates all public
money, seizes all public movable property until further direction by its
government, and sequesters for its own benefit or that of its government
all the revenues of real property belonging to the hostile government or
nation. The title to such real property remains in abeyance during
military occupation, and until the conquest is made complete. As a
general rule, the property belonging to churches, to hospitals, or other
establishments of an exclusively charitable nature, to establishments of
education, or foundations for the promotion of knowledge, whether public
schools, universities, academies of learning, or observatories, museums
of the fine arts, or of a scientific character,--such property is not to
be considered public property; but it may be taxed or used when the
public service may require it. Classical works of art, libraries,
scientific collections, or precious instruments, such as astronomical
telescopes, as well as hospitals, must be secured against all avoidable
injury, even when they are contained in fortified places whilst besieged
or bombarded. And if they can be removed without injury, the ruler of
the conquering state or nation may order them to be seized and removed
for the benefit of the said nation. The ultimate ownership is to be
settled by the ensuing treaty of peace.

The United States acknowledge and protect, in hostile countries occupied
by them, religion and morality; strictly private property; the persons
of the inhabitants, especially those of women; and the sacredness of
domestic relations. Offenses to the contrary are rigorously punished.
This does not interfere with the right of the victorious invader to tax
the people or their property, to levy forced loans, to billet soldiers,
or to appropriate property, especially houses, land, boats or ships, and
churches for temporary and military uses. Private property can be seized
only by way of military necessity, except the owner forfeits his right
to it by committing a crime or offense against the victorious power. All
captures and booty belong, according to the modern law of war, primarily
to the government of the captor. See STORES, MILITARY.

=Capua.= A town of Naples, in the province of Terra di Lavoro; took the
part of Hannibal when his army wintered here after the battle of Cannæ,
216 B.C., and, it is said, became enervated through luxury. In 211, when
the Romans retook the city, they scourged and beheaded all the surviving
senators; many of them having poisoned themselves after a banquet
previous to the surrender of the city. During the Middle Ages, Capua was
successively subjugated by the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans.
It was restored to Naples in 1424, and was taken, November 2, 1860, by
Garibaldi.

=Capuchons= (_Fr._). A society formed in France from 1181 to 1183, for
the suppression of the brigandage of the _Routiers_; they exterminated
7000 brigands in an engagement near Verdun.

=Caracas= (South America). Part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus in
1498. It was reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers,
German merchants, by Charles V.; but for their tyranny they were
dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. The province
declared its independence, May 9, 1810.

=Caracole= (Sp. _caracol_). A French term used in horsemanship or the
manège to denote a semi-round or half-turn. When cavalry advance to
charge in battle they sometimes perform caracoles in order to perplex
the enemy, and excite a doubt whether they will attack the flank or the
front.

=Caravaggio.= A walled town of Italy, in the province of Bergamo. Here a
battle was fought, September 15, 1448, between the Milanese and
Venetians, in which the latter were defeated.

=Carberry Hill.= In Southern Scotland; here on June 15, 1567, Lord Hume
and the confederate barons dispersed the royal army under Bothwell, and
took Mary, queen of Scots, prisoner. Bothwell fled.

=Carbine.= A short light musket, used by cavalry. It is so called from a
kind of light horse (Carabins), whose weapon it was. They were employed
by Henry II. of France in 1559.

=Carbineers=, or =Carabineers=. Dragoons armed with carbines, who
occasionally acted as infantry. All regiments of light-armed horse were
formerly called carbineers; but since the establishment of hussars and
lancers, they have, for the most part, lost that denomination.

=Carbon.= See CHARCOAL.

=Carcass.= In gunnery, is a spherical shell having three additional
holes, of the same dimensions as the fuze-hole, pierced at equal
distances apart in the upper hemisphere of the shell, and filled with a
composition which burns with intense power from 8 to 10 minutes, and the
flame issuing from the holes sets fire to everything combustible within
its reach; it is used in bombardments, setting fire to shipping, etc.,
and is projected from cannon like a cannon-shell.

=Carcassonne= (anc. _Carcaso_). A city in the south of France, capital
of the department of Aude. It was taken from the Visigoths by the
Saracens in 724.

=Carchera.= A name given by the Corsicans to their cartridge-belts.

=Cardiff.= A seaport and county town of Wales, in Glamorganshire.
Cardiff is an ancient place, and is surrounded by walls, in which were
four gates. Its castle, once large and strongly fortified, was erected
about the year 1079. Robert, duke of Normandy, was confined in it for 28
years after the battle of Tinchebria. This fortress was afterwards taken
and partially destroyed by Cromwell.

=Cardigan.= A town in Cardiganshire, Wales. It was an important town
about the Norman conquest, and the Normans were frequently defeated
before mastering it. The town suffered much in the struggles between the
Welsh and the Normans.

=Cardinal Points.= The four intersections of the horizon with the
meridian, and the prime vertical circle, or north and south, east and
west. In astrology, the cardinal points are the rising and setting of
the sun, the zenith and nadir.

=Caria.= An ancient province in the extreme southwest of Asia Minor. It
was conquered by Cyrus, 546 B.C.; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedæmonian, 397.
Caria was absorbed in the Turkish empire.

=Carignan.= A small town about 12 miles from Sedan, department of
Ardennes, Northeast France. At the plain Douzy, near this place and the
encampment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon’s army, retreating before the
Germans, turned round and made a stand, August 31, 1870. After a long
and severe engagement, in which the positions were taken and retaken
several times, the Germans turned the flank of their enemies, who were
compelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were finally overcome,
September 1.

=Caripi.= A kind of cavalry in the Turkish army, which, to the number of
1000, are not slaves, nor bred up in the seraglio, like the rest, but
are generally Moors, or renegade Christians, who have obtained the rank
of horse-guards to the Grand Seignior.

=Carisbrooke Castle.= In the Isle of Wight, England; it is said to have
been a British and Roman fortress; was taken in 530, by Cerdic, founder
of the kingdom of the West Saxons. Here Charles I. was imprisoned in
1647.

=Carizmians.= Were fierce shepherds living near the Caspian Sea; having
been expelled by the Tartars, they invaded Syria in 1243. The union of
the sultans of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to stem the
torrent, and the Christian military orders were nearly exterminated in a
single battle in 1244. In October they took Jerusalem. They were totally
defeated in 1247.

=Carlaverock Castle.= In Southern Scotland; it was taken by Edward I. in
July, 1300.

=Carlisle.= A frontier town of England, in the county of Cumberland,
wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. Just below this town
the famous Picts’ wall began, which crossed the whole island to
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. The
castle was destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 1092 by William II.;
was the prison of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the
Parliamentary forces, in 1645, and by the young Pretender, November 15,
1745; retaken by the Duke of Cumberland, December 30, same year. The
cathedral was almost ruined by Cromwell in 1648.

=Carlisle.= Capital of Cumberland Co., Pa. This town was shelled by the
Confederates, July, 1863.

=Carlow.= A town in Southeastern Ireland; the castle, erected by King
John, surrendered after a desperate siege to Rory Oge O’Moore, in 1577;
again to the Parliamentary forces in 1650. Here the royal troops routed
the insurgents, May, 1798.

=Carlowitz=, or =Karlowitz=. A town of the Austrian empire, on the
Danube. Here, in 1699, a treaty was concluded between Turkey and
Austria; and here Prince Eugène defeated the Turks in 1716.

=Carlsruhe=, or =Karlsruhe=. Capital of the grand duchy of Baden; built
by the Margrave Charles William, 1715. It was occupied by the Prussians,
June 25, 1849, who aided to suppress the revolution, and enabled the
grand duke to return, August 18, 1849.

=Carmagnola.= A town of Piedmont, on the river Po. It was captured by
Catinat troops in 1691; taken by the French Republican troops in 1795.

=Carmel, Knights of the Order of Our Lady of Mount.= A semi-religious
order of knighthood instituted by Henry IV. of France, and incorporated
with the order of the Knights of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem. The order
consisted of 100 gentlemen, all French, who were to attend the king in
his wars, and had considerable revenues assigned them.

=Carnatic.= A district of Southern Hindostan, extending along the whole
coast of Coromandel. Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops
in 1780, and was defeated by the British under Sir Eyre Coote, July 1
and August 27, 1781, and decisively overthrown, June 2, 1782. The
Carnatic was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British have possessed
entire authority over the Carnatic since 1801.

=Carnifex Ferry.= Over the Gauley River, West Virginia. A force of about
5000 Confederates under Gen. Floyd, who occupied a strong position here,
became engaged with a Federal brigade of the troops under Gen. Rosecrans
on the afternoon of September 10, 1861, when some severe fighting
occurred until night put an end to the contest. The Federals intended to
renew the attack in the morning with a stronger force, but during the
night Gen. Floyd withdrew his troops across the river, burned the
ferry-boats and the bridge which he had constructed, thus cutting off
pursuit, but leaving his camp, baggage, small-arms, and munitions of war
in the hands of the Federals.

=Carolina, North.= See NORTH CAROLINA.

=Carolina, South.= See SOUTH CAROLINA.

=Caroling.= A custom of the ancients before going to war, which
consisted of singing, etc.

=Carpet Knight.= A man who obtains knighthood on a pretense for services
in which he never participated.

=Carpi.= In Northern Italy; here Prince Eugène and the Imperialists
defeated the French, July 9, 1701.

=Carquois= (_Fr._). A quiver of iron, wood, leather, etc., which was
worn slung over the right shoulder.

=Carrago.= A kind of fortification, consisting of a great number of
wagons placed round an army. It was employed by barbarous nations, as,
for instance, the Scythians and Goths.

=Carreau=, =Quarreau=, or =Carre= (_Fr._). A bolt or dart, with a large
steel head, for a cross-bow.

=Carriage.= A gun-carriage is designed to support its piece when fired,
and also to transport cannon from one point to another. It consists of
two cheeks, connected together and with a stock by assembling bolts. The
front part supports the piece, and rests upon an axle-tree furnished
with wheels, the rear end of the stock or trail resting on the ground.
See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Carriage, Casemate.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Carriage, Field-.= See FIELD-CARRIAGE.

=Carriage, Mountain.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Carriage, Prairie.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Carriage, Sea-coast.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Carriage, Siege.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Carrical=, or =Karical=. A seaport town of Hindostan, on the coast of
Coromandel. It was formerly strongly fortified, but is now thoroughly
dismantled. It came into possession of the French in 1759; was taken by
the English in 1803; and restored to the French in 1814.

=Carrick.= An old Gaelic term for a castle or fortress, as well as for a
rock in the sea.

=Carrickfergus.= A seaport town in the county of Antrim, Ireland. Its
castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de Lacy in 1178. The town
surrendered to the Duke of Schömberg, August 28, 1689. The castle
surrendered to Thurot, a French naval officer, in 1760.

=Carrick’s Ford.= Over the Cheat River, Virginia. On July 13, 1861, a
force of Confederates under Gen. Garnett, retreating from Laurel Hill,
were pursued and here attacked by Union troops under Gen. Morris, and
after a few attempts to make a stand, were completely routed, and Gen.
Garnett killed.

=Carroccio= (_Ital._). A very large four-wheeled carriage, which was
used by the Crusaders during the Middle Ages. On its platform, which was
large enough to hold 50 persons, was erected a tower surmounted with a
cross and a standard, and to it was attached a bell, which indicated the
passing of the carroccio. Before engaging in battle, an effigy of Christ
of life size was placed on the platform and at its feet an altar; then a
mass was held. A number of knights guarded it, and it was drawn by oxen
richly caparisoned. Its invention is attributed to the people of
Lombardy.

=Carron.= A village in Stirlingshire, Scotland, on a stream of the same
name, falling into the river Forth. It is noted for its extensive
iron-works. The carronade, a peculiar kind of gun, derives its name from
this place.

=Carrousel.= A species of knightly exercise in imitation of the
tournament, common in the courts of Europe till the beginning of the
18th century. It usually consisted in tests of skill in horsemanship,
and in the use of the lance, sword, and pistol, the competitors being
mostly dressed as were the knights of former times.

=Cart.= In a military sense, is a vehicle mounted on two wheels, and
drawn by hand or by horses or oxen. See HAND-CART, HAND SLING-CART.

=Cartagena.= A city and fortified seaport of Spain, is in the province
of Murcia, and on a bay of the Mediterranean. It was built by Hasdrubal,
the Carthaginian general, 242 B.C.; taken by Scipio, 210. It was
subsequently taken by the Goths, and did not begin to rise into
importance again till the time of Philip II. It was taken by a British
force under Sir John Leake in 1706; retaken by the Duke of Berwick,
1707.

=Cartagena=, or =Carthagena=. A fortified city of New Granada, South
America. It was taken by the French in 1544, and subsequently by the
English under Sir Francis Drake, in 1585, who plundered it and set it on
fire; pillaged by the French in 1697; bombarded by Admiral Vernon in
March, 1740; and unsuccessfully besieged by the English in 1741. In the
contest with the mother-country, Cartagena was first besieged by
Bolivar, and afterwards by Morillo, to whom it surrendered. It was
subsequently reduced by the independent troops.

=Carte=, or =Quarte=. A movement of the sword in fencing, as tierce and
carte. Also a movement of the rifle bayonet drill.

=Carte-blanche.= In a military sense, means a full and absolute power
which is lodged in the hands of a general of an army, to act according
to the best of his judgment, without waiting for superior instructions
or orders. It likewise strictly means a blank paper, to be filled up
with such conditions as the person to whom it is sent thinks proper.

=Cartel.= As a military term it is used to denote an agreement between
two belligerents for the exchange of prisoners.

=Cartel-ship.= A vessel used in exchanging prisoners or carrying
proposals to an enemy.

=Carthage.= An ancient and celebrated city in Africa, the renowned rival
of Rome. It was founded by the Phœnicians, and was one of the latest
settlements made by them on the African coast of the Mediterranean,
about the middle of the 9th century B.C. No record of the early history
of Carthage has been preserved. First alliance of Carthaginians and
Romans, 509 B.C.; the Carthaginians in Sicily were defeated at Himera by
Gelo, 480 B.C.; they took Agrigentum, 406 B.C., and were defeated by
Agathocles, 310 B.C. The first Punic war began (which lasted
twenty-three years) in 264 B.C., and ended in 241 B.C. Hamilcar Barcas
was sent into Spain, and took with him his son, the famous Hannibal, 237
B.C. Hannibal conquered Spain as far as the Iberus, 219 B.C. The second
Punic war began (which lasted seventeen years) in 218 B.C., and ended in
201 B.C. The third Punic war commenced 149 or 150 B.C.; Carthage taken
and burned by order of the senate, 146 B.C. A colony settled at Carthage
by C. Gracchus, 122 B.C.; its rebuilding planned by Julius Cæsar, 46
B.C., and executed by his successors; it was taken by Genseric the
Vandal in 439; retaken by Belisarius, 533; taken and destroyed by
Hassan, the Saracenic governor of Egypt, 698.

=Carthage.= The capital of Jasper Co., Mo., on Spring River. Near here,
on July 5, 1861, an engagement took place between some of Gen. Lyon’s
troops under Col. Sigel, and a superior force of Confederates under Gen.
Rains and Col Parsons. The Union loss was 13 killed and 21 wounded.

=Carthoun.= The ancient cannon royal, carrying a 66-pound ball, with a
point-blank range of 185 paces, and an extreme one of about 2000. It was
12 feet long and of 8¹⁄₂ inches diameter of bore.

=Cartouch.= A roll or case of paper, etc., holding a charge for a
fire-arm.

=Cartouch.= In gunnery, a case of wood, about 3 inches thick at the
bottom, bound about with marline, holding about 400 musket-balls,
besides 8 or 10 iron balls of a pound each, to be discharged from a
howitzer, for the defense of a pass, etc. It also implies an article
made of leather, to sling over the shoulder of the gunner, who therein
carries the ammunition from the tumbril for the service of the
artillery, when at exercise in the field.

=Cart-piece.= An early battering cannon mounted on a peculiar cart.

=Cartridge.= _For cannon_, is the powder charge and its case. The case
is a cylindrical bag of flannel, wildbore, or serge, in which the charge
is placed. The mouth is closed by tying with twine, forming the _choke_,
which is always turned towards the muzzle when the gun is charged. For
chambered pieces the mouth of the cartridge-bag is closed with a
_cartridge-block_ to give it a proper form. For some services the
cartridge is attached to the projectile, in others it is carried
separately. See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR.

For _small-arms_, is the complete charge when the powder and lead are in
the same case; if separate, it applies only to the powder and its case.
A case containing powder only is called a _blank cartridge_.
Cartridge-cases for military small-arms were formerly made of paper. In
loading the gun the case was torn and the powder and ball put in
separately. By using an inflammable paper the cartridge was afterwards
used entire, especially in pistols and breech-loaders. Paper cases made
very strong and reinforced by metallic heads are still much used in
breech-loading shot-guns. Linen or cloth cases were also used at one
period.

The introduction of breech-loaders into the military service has led to
the universal adoption of _metallic cartridges_. The cases are cylinders
of copper or brass, closed at the breech end, and holding both powder
and bullet, the latter being retained in the case by a slight crimp. A
small quantity of fulminate in the base inflames the powder upon being
struck by the firing-pin. England is behind all other nations in the use
of the _Boxer cartridge_, the case of which is made by a _wrapping_ of
thin sheet-brass. In the manufacture of metallic cartridges the United
States leads the world. Millions were supplied the Turks in their late
war with Russia by the Winchester Arms Company, of New Haven, Conn.
Metallic cartridge are _reloading_ and _single fire_. _Reloading_
cartridges have an external primer, which can be renewed for successive
loadings. The _single fire_ have the fulminate inside the base, and
cannot readily be reloaded. The copper cartridges for the U. S. service
rifle, made at Frankford Arsenal, Pa., are of this latter class.

=Cartridge-bag.= See CARTRIDGE.

=Cartridge-bags.= See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR, AMMUNITION FOR FIELD
SERVICE.

=Cartridge-belt.= A belt for carrying small-arm cartridges. A form
extensively used in the Western United States, called the
_prairie-belt_, has a number of leather or canvas loops sewed on the
outside in which the cartridges are stuck.

=Cartridge-block.= See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR, STRAPPED AMMUNITION.

=Cartridge, Bottle.= A metallic cartridge, so called from its shape. It
contains a larger charge than the ordinary cylindrical cartridge for the
same caliber. The cartridge used in the Martini-Henry is of this shape.

=Cartridge-box.= A leathern case, with cells for cartridges, which are
protected by a flap of leather. This box is suspended by a leathern
strap, which passes over the left shoulder and under the right arm of
the wearer, or is suspended from the waist-belt, as in the U. S.
service.

=Cartridge, Buck-and-ball.= A cartridge containing a round musket-ball
and 3 buckshot, formerly much used in smooth-bore muskets.

=Cartridge, Buckshot.= Containing a charge of buckshot. Formerly used in
muskets, but now obsolete for military purposes.

=Cartridge, Centre Primed.= A metallic cartridge in which the fulminate
is placed in the centre of the cartridge head or base.

=Cartridge, Multi-ball.= A metallic cartridge recently proposed by Capt.
E. M. Wright, U. S. Ordnance Corps, in which two or more bullets or
pieces of lead are substituted for the ordinary bullet, with the idea of
doing more execution at short ranges.

=Cartridge-paper.= A stout paper formerly used in making military
cartridges.

=Cartridge, Reloading.= See CARTRIDGE.

=Cartridge, Rim-fire.= A metallic cartridge in which the fulminate is
placed in the rim surrounding the head. This rim being struck at any
point, explodes the powder. Formerly much used in pistols and magazine
guns. These cartridges are not _reloading_.

=Cartridge, Single-fire.= See CARTRIDGE.

=Casale=, or =Casal=. A town of Piedmont, the capital of a province of
the same name, on the river Po. Here the French defeated the Spaniards
in 1640. In May, 1859, an Austrian reconnoitring party, who had advanced
from Vercelli, were here repulsed by the Sardinian Bersaglieri
(riflemen).

=Casal Nova.= A village in Spain, where a corps of Lord Wellington’s
army had an affair with the French troops under Marshal Masséna, during
their retreat from Portugal on March 14, 1811.

=Cascabel.= In gunnery, is the projection in rear of the breech, and is
composed of the _knob_, the _neck_, and the _fillet_. It is used to
facilitate the handling of the piece in mounting and dismounting it, and
moving it when off its carriage.

=Cascans.= In fortification, are holes in the form of wells, serving as
entrances to galleries, or giving vent to the enemy’s mines.

=Case-hardening.= The process of converting the surface of iron into
steel. Formerly much used in making small-arms. The parts to be
hardened, such as the _hammer_, _tumbler_, etc., were inclosed in an
airtight iron box, filled with charcoal, bones, particles of horn, or
other carbonizing substance. The box and its contents were then
submitted to prolonged heat. The process is that of incomplete
cementation (which see).

=Casemate.= Was originally a loop-holed gallery excavated in a bastion,
from which the garrison could fire on an enemy who had obtained
possession of the ditch without risk of loss to themselves. The term was
afterwards applied to a bomb-proof vault in a fortress, which is
designed for the protection of the garrison, without direct reference to
the annoyance of the enemy. A casemated battery consists of such a vault
or vaults, with openings for the guns.

=Casemate Carriage.= A gun-carriage used in casemates. See ORDNANCE,
CARRIAGES FOR.

=Casemate Gun.= A gun mounted in a casemate.

=Casemates Nouvelles= (_Fr._). Arched batteries which are constructed
under all the openings of revetments or ramparts. The different forts of
Cherbourg are defended by these casemates; the works erected around
Dover Castle come likewise under this description; the works at Fort
Columbus, N. Y., are erected on the same principle.

=Casemate Truck.= Consists of a stout frame of wood mounted upon three
barbette traverse wheels. The front wheel is pivoted so as to change
direction. It is used to move cannon and heavy weights through posterns
and along casemate galleries.

=Casernes.= In fortification, are buildings for the soldiers of the
garrison to live in; generally erected between the houses of fortified
towns and the rampart. In a general acceptation, casernes signify
barracks.

=Case-shot.= In the U. S. service, a case-shot is a hollow cast-iron
projectile filled with musket-balls. The projectile has thinner walls
than the ordinary shell. To fill it a tube is inserted in the fuze-hole,
the balls are introduced, and melted sulphur or rosin is poured in to
fill up the interstices and keep the balls in position. When this has
solidified the tube is withdrawn, leaving a vacant space for a small
bursting charge. This description answers for the two kinds used,--the
spherical case for the 12-pounder smooth-bore and the oblong case for
rifle guns. Case-shot should be burst in the air a short distance in
front of the troops fired upon. Time-fuzes are, therefore, used with
both; the Bormann-fuze for the former, and the paper fuze for the
latter. In Europe this ammunition is called _shrapnel_, from the
inventor. There the term case-shot is applied to what is called in the
United States _canister_,--that is, a thin case filled with bullets,
used for short range without fuzes, the case being disrupted in the gun.

=Cashier.= To dismiss from the service with ignominy. An officer thus
dismissed is understood to be excluded from the service thereafter. A
dismissed officer may be restored; a cashiered officer is deemed
unworthy of the indulgence.

=Cashmere.= A province of Northern India; was subdued by the Mohammedans
in the 16th century; by the Afghans in 1752; by the Sikhs in 1819; and
ceded to the British in 1846, who gave it to the Maharajah Gholab-Singh,
with a nominal sovereignty.

=Casing.= The cast-iron case of converted guns (which see).

=Casks, Raft of.= See RAFT OF CASKS.

=Casque=, or =Cask=. A piece of defensive armor, to cover and protect
the head and neck in battle; a helmet.

=Cassano.= A town of Lombardy, 16 miles from Milan, on the river Adda.
In 1259, Eccelino Romana, chief of the Ghibelines, was here defeated and
killed. In 1705 the French under the Duke of Vendôme gained a victory
over the Imperialists, commanded by Prince Eugène; and in 1799, Suwarrow
inflicted a defeat on the French under Moreau.

=Cassel.= A city of Germany, 90 miles northeast from
Frankfort-on-the-Main. It was the capital of Westphalia under Napoleon
I.; besieged by the allies in 1761; taken by the allies November 1,
1762; captured by the Russians in September, 1813.

=Cassel.= A town of France, department of the North. On April 11, 1677,
the Marshal de Luxemburg near here defeated the Prince of Orange, who
lost 4000 dead and 3000 prisoners. The French occupied Cassel, June 19,
1707.

=Casse-tête= (_Fr._). A mace or war-club, made of very hard wood, used
formerly in savage warfare.

=Cassine.= A small house, especially in the open country; applied also
to a house standing alone, where soldiers may lie hid, or may take a
position.

=Cas, St.= A village on the coast of France, in the department Côte du
Nord. Here, in 1758, a landing of the British under Lord Cavendish was
repulsed, and 100 years afterwards a column was inaugurated to
commemorate the event.

=Castalla.= A town of Spain, 24 miles northwest of Alicante. The
Spaniards under O’Donnell were here defeated by the French under Delort,
August 21, 1812.

=Casteggio.= A town of Northern Italy, in the division of Alessandria.
On June 9, 1800, the battle of Montebello was gained by the French under
Lannes over the Austrians in the neighborhood of this place. On May 20,
1859, another engagement was fought here between the Austrians under
Count Stadion and the French and Sardinian troops, in which the latter
were victorious.

=Castel-a-Mare.= A seaport town of Sicily. Richelieu defeated the
Spanish fleet here in 1648; and in 1799 a battle was fought between the
French under Marshal Macdonald and the allied English and Neapolitans.

=Castel Fidardo.= Near Ancona, Central Italy. Near here Gen. Lamoricière
and the papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by the Sardinian
general Cialdini, September 18, 1860. Lamoricière with a few horsemen
fled to Ancona, then besieged; on September 29 he and the garrison
surrendered.

=Castellan.= A governor or constable of a castle.

=Castellated.= Adorned with turrets and battlements, like a castle.

=Castellation.= The act of fortifying a house and rendering it a castle.
Now obsolete.

=Castelnaudary.= A town of France, department of Aude. It suffered
greatly in the wars of the Middle Ages, and under its walls the Duke of
Montmorency was made prisoner by the royal troops in 1632.

=Castiglione.= A fortified town of Lombardy, 22 miles northwest from
Mantua. Here, in 1796, the French under Augereau gained a decisive
victory over the Austrians. The French commander was afterwards made, on
account of this battle, Duc de Castiglione. In 1859 the battle of
Solferino also occurred in its neighborhood.

=Castillejos.= In Northern Africa; here, in January, 1860, was fought
the first decisive action of the war between Spain and Morocco. Gen.
Prim, after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors under Muley Abbas,
and advanced towards Tetuan.

=Castillon.= A town of France, in the department of Gironde. It is
celebrated as the scene of the battle between the forces of Henry VI. of
England and Charles VII. of France, in July, 1453, in which the English
met with a signal defeat, their leader, the Earl of Shrewsbury, and his
son being slain.

=Casting.= The rejection of horses deemed unfit for further cavalry use.

=Casting Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Cast Iron.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Castle.= A name given to a building constructed as a dwelling, as well
as for the purpose of repelling attack. The name is especially given to
buildings of this kind constructed in Europe in the Middle Ages, and
which were generally surrounded by a moat, foss, or ditch.

=Castlebar.= A town of Ireland. French troops under Humbert landed at
Killala, and, assisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king’s
troops under Lake to retreat, August 27, 1798; but were compelled to
surrender at Ballinamuck.

=Castlecomer.= A town of Ireland; in the rebellion of 1798 this town was
attacked by the rebels, and nearly destroyed by fire.

=Castle-guard.= The guard which defends a castle.

=Castles.= In heraldry, castles are often given as charges in the
shields of persons who have reduced them, or been the first to mount
their walls in an assault.

=Cast-metal Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CAST-METAL CANNON.

=Castrametation.= Is the art of laying out camps, and of placing the
troops so that the different arms of the service shall afford support to
each other in the best manner.

=Cast Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Casualties.= In the military service, is a word which includes all
losses in numerical strength of officers by death, dismissal, or
resignation, and of enlisted men by death, desertion, or discharge; also
all losses in fighting strength caused by wounds.

=Casus Belli.= A Latin phrase used with reference to any event, or
complication between sovereign powers, which gives rise to a declaration
of war.

=Catafalco.= In ancient military architecture, a scaffold of timber,
decorated with sculpture, paintings, etc., for supporting the coffin of
a deceased hero during the funeral solemnity.

=Catalans.= The inhabitants of Catalonia, Spain. Their language,
costume, and habits are quite distinct from those of the rest of their
countrymen. In energy, industry, and intelligence they greatly surpass
the rest of the Spaniards. They were considered brave warriors.

=Catalaunian Plain.= The ancient name of the wide plain surrounding
Châlons-sur-Marne, in the old province of Campagne, France, celebrated
as the field of battle where the West Goths, and the forces under the
Roman general Aetius, gained a great victory over Attila in 451. A wild
tradition tells that three days after the great fight, the ghosts of the
fallen myriads appeared on the plain, and renewed the conflict.

=Catalonia.= An old province of Western Spain, was settled by the Goths
and Alani about 409; conquered by the Saracens, 712; recovered by Pepin
and Charlemagne; united with Aragon in 1137. It formed part of the
Spanish marches and the territory of the Count of Barcelona.

=Catania= (anc. _Catana_). A town near Mount Etna, Sicily. The ancient
city was founded by the Phœnicians or Greeks, and was nearly as old as
Rome. It was taken by the Athenian general Nicias about 413 B.C., and
was an important city under the Romans. In August, 1802, the town was
held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian
government. He was captured on August 29.

=Cataphract.= The old Roman term for a horseman in complete armor.

=Cataphracta.= In the ancient military art, a piece of heavy defensive
armor, formed of cloth or leather, fortified with iron scales or links,
wherewith sometimes only the breast, sometimes the whole body, and
sometimes the horse too, was covered.

=Catapult= (Lat. _catapulta_). An engine of war used by the ancients,
somewhat resembling a cross-bow. In the catapult a string or rope,
suddenly freed from great tension, gave a powerful impulse to an arrow
placed in a groove. There were great catapults, fixed upon a scaffold
with wheels, which were used in sieges, and small ones, carried in the
hand, which were employed in the field.

=Cataract.= A portcullis.

=Catawba Indians.= A tribe of aborigines who formerly inhabited the
Carolinas. A remnant still exists on a reservation on the Catawba River.
See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Cateau Cambresis.= In Northern France, where on April 2 and 3, 1559,
peace was concluded between Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain,
and Elizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200
forts in Italy and the Low Countries to Philip.

=Caterva.= In ancient military writings, a term used in speaking of the
Gaulish or Celtiberian armies, denoting a body of 6000 armed men. The
word is also used to denote a party of soldiers in disarray; in
opposition to _cohort_ or _turma_, which signify in good order.

=Cat-o’-nine-tails.= An instrument of punishment formerly used to flog
offenders in the army, consisting of nine pieces of line or cord
fastened to a piece of thick rope, and having three knots at intervals.

=Cattaro.= A fortified town of Dalmatia, Austria, at the bottom of the
Gulf of Cattaro. This town was captured by the British in 1813, and till
1814 belonged successively to Austria and France.

=Catti.= An ancient German tribe, attacked but not subdued by the
Romans; absorbed by the Franks in the 3d century.

=Caudine Forks.= Two narrow mountain-gorges or defiles near the town of
Caudium, in ancient Samnium. They are celebrated in connection with a
humiliating disaster which the Roman army suffered in 321 B.C.

=Caution.= An explanation given previous to the word of command, by
which soldiers are called to attention, that they may execute any given
movement with unanimity and correctness.

=Cavalcade.= In military history, implies a pompous procession of
horsemen, equipages, etc., by way of parade, to grace a triumph, public
entry, or the like.

=Cavalier.= Originally meant any horse-soldier, but in English history
is the name given to the party which adhered to King Charles I., in
opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the Parliament.

=Cavalier.= In fortification, is a defense-work constructed on the
terre-plein, or level ground of a bastion. It rises to a height varying
from 8 to 12 feet above the rampart, and has a parapet about 6 feet
high. Its uses are to command any rising ground held by the enemy within
cannon-shot, and to guard the curtain, or plain wall between two
bastions, from being enfiladed. A cavalier battery--used in siege
operations--is a battery of which the terre-plein, or platform of earth
on which the gun stands, is above the ordinary level of the ground.

=Cavalot.= An obsolete cannon carrying a ball weighing one pound.

=Cavalry.= That part of a military force which consists of troops that
serve on horseback. In European armies cavalry are generally classed as
heavy, medium, and light,--cuirassiers and dragoons, lancers, hussars,
etc. In the U. S. service all mounted soldiers are simply called
cavalry.

=Caveating.= In fencing, implies a motion whereby a person in an instant
brings his sword, which was presented to one side of his adversary, to
the opposite side.

=Cavesson.= A sort of nose-band of leather or iron, which is put on the
nose of a horse, to assist in breaking or training him.

=Cavin.= In military affairs, implies a natural hollow, sufficiently
capacious to lodge a body of troops, and facilitate their approach to a
place. If it be within musket-shot, it is a place of arms ready made,
and serves for opening the trenches, free from the enemy’s shot.

=Cavriana.= A village of Northern Italy. The tower of this place formed
one of the principal positions of the centre of the Austrian army, from
which it was driven by the Franco-Sardinian forces, under Napoleon III.
and Victor Emmanuel, at the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859.

=Cawnpoor=, or =Cawnpore=. A town of Hindostan, on the right bank of the
Ganges. It is an important British military station. It was garrisoned
during the mutiny in June, 1857, by native troops under Sir Hugh
Wheeler; these troops broke out into revolt. Nana Sahib, who had long
lived on friendly terms with the British, joined the rebels; he took
Cawnpoor, June 26, after a three weeks’ siege, and in spite of a treaty,
massacred great numbers of the British, without respect to age or sex,
in the most cruel manner. Gen. Havelock defeated Nana Sahib July 16, at
Futtehpore, and retook Cawnpoor, July 17. Sir Colin Campbell defeated
the rebels here on December 6, following.

=Cayenne.= French Guiana, South America; settled by the French, 1604-35.
It afterwards came successively into the hands of the English (1654),
French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne
was taken by the British, January 12, 1809, but was restored to the
French in 1814.

=Cedar Creek.= In Northern Virginia. While encamped on this creek on the
morning of October 19, 1864, the army of Gen. Sheridan was suddenly
attacked before daylight by the Confederate troops under Gen. Early, its
left flank turned, and the whole line driven back in confusion about 4
miles, with the loss of 24 pieces of artillery. Gen. Sheridan, who was
at Winchester on his return from Washington, on hearing of this
disaster, hastened to the scene of action, reformed his corps, and
awaited the attack of the enemy, which was made and handsomely repulsed
about 1 P.M. About 3 P.M. Sheridan attacked the enemy and completely
routed him, recovering his own artillery and capturing 30 pieces
besides, thus converting into a brilliant victory what threatened to be
a great disaster. About 2000 prisoners and 300 wagons and ambulances
fell into Sheridan’s hands, and many of his own men who had been taken
prisoners in the morning were recovered.

=Cedar Mountain.= A sugar-loaf eminence about 2 miles west of Mitchell’s
Station, Culpeper Co., Va. On August 9, 1862, a sanguinary conflict took
place here between the Confederate forces under Gens. Jackson and Ewell,
and part of Gen. Pope’s army under Gen. Banks, night putting an end to
the contest. The Federals being largely outnumbered, suffered severely,
and fell back about a mile, but without disorder. Their loss was about
1500, 300 of whom were taken prisoners. A considerable quantity of
ammunition, stores, etc., also fell into the hands of the Confederates.

=Celeres.= The life-guards which attended Romulus in the infancy of
Rome, were so called. They were laid aside by Numa Pompilius. Celeres
were properly distinguished from other troops, by being lightly armed
and acting always on foot.

=Cells.= Places of solitary confinement in which soldiers are placed, as
punishment for serious crimes.

=Celtiberi=, or =Celtiberians=. An ancient and warlike people of Spain,
who are renowned in history for their long and obstinate resistance to
the Romans. In the second Punic war, after giving important aid to the
Carthaginians, they were induced by the generosity of Scipio to accept
the alliance of Rome. They revolted against Rome in 181 B.C., but were
appeased by Gracchus in 179. War was renewed in 153, and continued with
varying success until after the capture of Numantia, 134 B.C. In spite
of this great blow the Celtiberi again renewed the war under Sertorius,
and it was only after his fall that they began to adopt the Roman
language, dress, and manners.

=Cement.= Hydraulic cements are much used in building permanent
fortifications. The cement used by the Romans in their great sea-walls,
aqueducts, etc., which are still standing as monuments of their civil
engineering, was _pozzuolana_, a volcanic earth from near _Baiæ_, Italy.
It is still an article of export from Italy. The most noted modern
cement is Portland, made artificially in England by burning a mixture of
the chalk and clay from the valley of the Medway.

=Cementation.= In metallurgy, is the process of converting metals by
absorption under great heat. Specially applied to the conversion of iron
into steel by causing it to absorb carbon. The iron bars are imbedded in
charcoal and exposed to prolonged heat in a closed furnace. The
qualities of the resulting steel vary with the degree and duration of
the heating. The bars, when removed, are called _blistered steel_ from
their appearance. See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, BLISTERED STEEL.

=Cenotaph.= The empty tomb of a hero, or monument erected in honor of a
person, without the body of the deceased being interred in or near it.

=Centesimation.= In ancient military history, a mild kind of military
punishment, in cases of desertion, mutiny, and the like, when only every
one hundredth man was executed.

=Central America.= Includes the republics of Guatemala, San Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (which see). They declared their
independence September 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican
Confederation July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between
themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy
and bloodshed.

=Centre.= A point equally distant from the extremities of a line,
figure, or body; the middle point or place of anything.

=Centre of an Army.= The body of troops occupying the place in the line
between the wings. See TARGET.

=Centre of Gravity.= The point of a body about which all its parts are
balanced. This is a matter of great importance in cannon, both for
mechanical manœuvres and for ordinary handling. In all large guns in the
United States, and in many in Europe, the axis of the trunnions passes
through the centre of gravity of the gun. Such guns have no
preponderance, and need no support in firing except the trunnions. This
innovation was introduced by the genius of Rodman, and brought many
advantages in the handling of heavy guns. In projectiles, the _centre of
gravity_, or _inertia_, is also a thing of moment. Spherical projectiles
in which this point does not coincide with the _centre of figure_ are
said to be eccentric, and are subject to certain deviations (see
PROJECTILES); _deviation_ of the relative position of these points
influences the flight also of rifle projectiles.

=Centre of the Bastion.= In fortification, is the intersection made by
the two demi-gorges.

=Centrifugal Gun.= A form of machine gun in which balls are thrown from
a chambered disk rotating with great speed.

=Centrobaric Method.= The method ordinarily used to determine by
calculation the centre of gravity of a projected gun. The principle used
is that the volume generated by any surface in revolving about a fixed
axis is measured by the product of the surface into the path described
by its centre of gravity. The moments of the weights of the several
parts are referred to an axis usually taken tangent to the knob of the
cascabel. The sum of these moments, divided by the weight of the piece,
gives the distance of the centre of gravity from the assumed axis. In
homogeneous guns, the volumes of the several parts can be used instead
of the weights.

=Centurion.= A military officer among the ancient Romans, who commanded
a (_centum_) hundred men.

=Century.= In an ancient military sense, meant a hundred soldiers, who
were employed in working the battering-ram.

=Cephalonia.= One of the Ionian Islands; was taken from the Ætolians by
the Romans 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian in 135. It
was conquered by the Normans in 1146, afterwards passed into the
possession of the Venetians, and was taken by the English in 1819.

=Cephisus.= A river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of
Athens, was defeated and slain by the Catalans in 1311.

=Cercelée=, or =Recercelée=. In heraldry, is a cross circling or curling
at the ends, like a ram’s horn.

=Cercle= (_Grand-cercle_), Fr. A form observed under the old government
of France, by which it was directed that every evening at a specific
hour the sergeants and corporals of brigade should assemble to receive
orders, the former standing in front of the latter. Subsequent to the
grand cercle, a smaller one was made in each regiment, when general or
regimental orders were again repeated to the sergeants of each regiment,
and from them communicated to the officers of the several companies.

=Ceremonies, Stated Military.= Exercises, such as parades, reviews,
inspections, escorts of the color, escorts of honor, funeral honors,
guard-mounting, etc.

=Cerignola.= A town of South Italy, in the province of Capitanata. Here,
in 1503, the French were defeated by the Spaniards, and the Duke of
Nemours, who commanded the former, was slain.

=Cerro Gordo.= A celebrated mountain-pass in Mexico, about 60 miles
northwest of Vera Cruz. Here an army of about 12,000 Mexicans under
Santa Anna was totally defeated by about 8000 U. S. troops under Gen.
Scott, April 18, 1847. The Mexicans lost about 1000 killed and wounded,
besides 3000 prisoners; the American loss was 431 killed and wounded.

=Certificate of Disability.= See DISABILITY.

=Certificate of Merit.= See MERIT, CERTIFICATE OF.

=Cessation of Arms.= An armistice or truce, agreed to by the commanders
of armies, to give them time for a capitulation, or for other purposes.

=Ceuta.= A fortified seaport of Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. The castle
stands on the highest point of the ancient _Abyla_, one of the pillars
of Hercules, terminating a peninsula. This was a Mauritanian town under
the Romans, and in 1415 was taken from the Moors by the Portuguese. In
1580 it passed into the possession of the Spanish, in whose hands it
afterwards remained.

=Ceylon= (anc. _Taprobane_). An island in the Indian Ocean. It was
invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505, but it was known to the Romans
in the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602; they
captured the capital, Colombo, in 1503. Intercourse with the British
began in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken by them in 1782,
but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements were seized by the
British, 1795. Ceylon was ceded to the British by the peace of Amiens in
1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred or imprisoned by
the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sovereignty
of the island was assumed by England in 1815.

=Chæronea= (_Bœotia_). Here Greece was ruined by Philip, 32,000
Macedonians defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, etc., August 6 or 7,
338 B.C. Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was defeated by
Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C.

=Chain.= A chain made of a kind of wire, divided into links of an equal
length, is made use of by military engineers for setting out works on
the ground, because cord lines are apt to shrink and give way.

=Chain-ball.= See PROJECTILE.

=Chain-mail.= A kind of armor made of interlaced rings, both flexible
and strong; much used in the 12th and 13th centuries.

=Chain-shot.= See PROJECTILE.

=Chair.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY
CARRIAGE.

=Chalcedon.= In Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonized by Magarians
about 684 B.C. It was taken by Darius, 505 B.C.; by the Romans, 74;
plundered by the Goths, 259 A.D.; taken by Chosroes the Persian, 609; by
Orchan the Turk in 1338.

=Chalcis.= An ancient Greek city, of great antiquity, the capital of the
island of Eubœa. It rose to great eminence, but finally became a
tributary of Athens, from whose sway it revolted several times, being as
often, however, subdued, and held until the downfall of the Athenian
empire at the close of the Peloponnesian war. In later times it was
successively occupied by the Macedonians, Antiochus, Mithridates, and
the Romans. It joined the Achæans in the last war against the Romans,
and the town was in consequence destroyed by Mummius. The modern city of
Egripo, or Negropont, built on its site, for a time in possession of the
Venetians, was taken by the Turks in 1470.

=Chalgrove.= In Oxfordshire, England. At a skirmish here with Prince
Rupert, June 18, 1643, John Hampden, of the Parliament party, was
mortally wounded. A column was erected to his memory, June 18, 1843.

=Challenge.= The act of a sentinel in questioning or demanding the
countersign from those who appear at his post.

=Challenge.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 26, 27, and 28.

=Challenge of Members of Courts-martial.= When a member shall be
challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which
the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy or
validity, and decide accordingly; and no challenge to more than one
member at a time shall be received by the court.

=Châlons-sur-Marne.= A town of France, in the department of Marne. Here
the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the last of the pretenders to
the throne termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius
defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia.

=Chamade.= A signal made for parley by beat of drum.

=Chamber.= Of a mine, that place where the powder is deposited.

=Chamber.= In howitzers, and mortars of the old model, was the smallest
part of the bore, and contained the charge of powder. In the howitzers
the chamber was cylindrical, and was united with the large cylinder of
the bore by a conical surface; the angles of intersection of the conical
surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber were rounded (in
profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch howitzer, the chamber was
united with the cylinder of the bore by spherical surface, in order that
the shell might, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot. The
chamber is omitted in _all_ cannon of the late models, the cylinder of
the bore terminating at the bottom in a semi-ellipsoid. The old chambers
were subcaliber. The first use of a chamber _larger_ than the bore
occurred, it is believed, in a gun invented by an American named Ferris.
The gun had a great range. One of the most important improvements in
recent ordnance consists in the use of this chamber. The English, who
deserve the credit of first appreciating it, now use it in all their
largest guns. See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Chambersburg.= The capital of Franklin Co., Pa. This place was the
scene of several exciting incidents during the civil war. It was
occupied by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen. Stuart in 1862, by
a part of Gen. Ewell’s forces in June, 1863, and next month almost
totally destroyed by fire by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen.
McCausland.

=Chamfron=, or =Chamfrain=. The frontlet of a barbed or armed horse,
usually having a spike between the eyes.

=Champ de Mars.= An open square in front of the Military School, Paris,
which was used for the great meetings of the French people, reviews,
etc.

=Champigny.= A town of France, department of the Seine, 8 miles
east-southeast of Paris. On November 30, 1870, a force of 120,000 French
under Gens. Trochu and Ducrot, who made a sortie from Paris, were met
near here by the Germans, and some severe fighting ensued, with great
loss on both sides, the French holding the taken possessions until the
contest was renewed, December 2, when the French were compelled to
retreat.

=Champion Hills.= In Hinds Co., Miss., west of Jackson. Here the
Confederate forces under Gen. Pemberton were defeated by the Union
troops under Gen. Grant, May 16, 1863.

=Champlain, Lake.= An extensive body of water forming part of the
boundary between the States of Vermont and New York, and extending
northward a few miles beyond the Canada line. It was the scene of
engagements between the Americans and British during the war of
independence. On its waters also, in 1814, Commodore Macdonough gained a
victory over the British fleet.

=Chancellorsville.= A small village of Spottsylvania Co., Va., near the
Rappahannock River, about 65 miles north by west from Richmond. This
place was the scene of several sanguinary conflicts between the Federal
army of the Potomac under Gen. Hooker and the Confederates under Gen.
Lee. On April 28, 1863, the Federal army crossed the Rappahannock; on
May 2, Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right
wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by
mistake. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on
May 3 and 4, with great loss to both parties, the Federals were
compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The struggle was compared to that
at Hougoumont during the battle of Waterloo.

=Chandelier.= In military engineering, a wooden frame, which was filled
with fascines, to form a traverse in sapping.

=Chanderee=, or =Chandhaire=. A town of India in the province of Malwa.
Its fortress, formerly deemed impregnable, consists of a strong rampart
of sandstone flanked by circular towers, and is situated on a high hill.
During the native wars, being a place of importance, it was frequently
besieged.

=Chandernagore.= The principal settlement of the French in Bengal, which
is encompassed by the British district of Hooghly. In 1757 this
settlement was taken by the British, but restored in 1763. In 1793 it
was again taken by the British, but restored to the French a second time
in 1816.

=Chandore.= A fortified town of British India, 130 miles northwest from
Bombay. In 1804 and 1818 this place capitulated to the British.

=Chantier= (_Fr._). A square piece of wood, which is used for the
purpose of raising anything. It serves to place barrels of gunpowder in
a proper manner, and frequently to try pieces of ordnance instead of
frames.

=Chantilly.= A post-village of Fairfax Co., Va. Here, on September 1,
1862, the Confederate troops of Gen. Lee attacked a part of Gen. Pope’s
army, under Gens. Reno, Stevens, and Kearney, and a severe conflict
ensued, lasting into the night, and resulting in the death of Gens.
Stevens and Kearney.

=Chape.= The metallic part put on the end of a scabbard, to prevent the
point of the sword or bayonet from piercing through it.

=Chapeau.= In a military sense, a hat, cap, or other head-covering.

=Chapeau Bras.= A military hat which can be flattened and put under the
arm.

=Chaperon.= A hood or cape worn by Knights of the Garter.

=Chaplain.= A clergyman with a military commission, giving him the
spiritual charge of soldiers. There are 30 post and 4 regimental
chaplains in the U. S. army.

=Chaplain-General.= In the British service, the officer at the head of
the chaplain’s department.

=Chaplet.= In heraldry, is always composed of four roses, the other
parts being leaves.

=Chappe= (_Fr._). A barrel containing another barrel, which holds
gunpowder. It likewise means a composition of earth, horse-dung, and
wad, that covers the mouth of a cannon or mortar.

=Chapultepec.= A strong fortress of Mexico, situated about 2 miles
southwest of the metropolis. It consists of an eminence rising to the
height of about 150 feet, with a strong castle on top. During the
Mexican war it was deemed necessary by Gen. Scott, for strategic
reasons, to capture this last outward defense of the capital prior to
the attack on the city itself. This was gallantly effected on September
13, 1847, and next day the city was entered by the American forces, thus
virtually ending the war. Preparations for the assault were commenced on
the night of September 11, and before the evening of the 12th, owing to
the skillful arrangement of Gen. Scott’s artillery, the exterior
defenses began to give way. Next day was determined on for the attack.
The American forces were so placed that the assault could be made
simultaneously from different sides at a preconcerted signal, which
would be the temporary cessation of the cannonade from their batteries.
It was given, and the attacking forces advanced, Gen. Quitman’s division
from the south, and Gen. Pillow from the wooded slope on the west, Gen.
Smith’s brigade supporting Quitman, Pillow supported by the division of
Gen. Worth, and the batteries throwing shells into the fort over the
heads of their friends. Under a heavy fire of musketry the attacking
forces advance, and step by step they gain every disputed point,
scaling-ladders are brought into requisition, an entrance effected, and
the defeated Mexicans, dislodged and retreating, are pursued to the very
gates of their capital. The American loss during the three days was 833
killed and wounded.

=Charcoal.= One of the ingredients of gunpowder. It is made by
distilling small sticks of wood in closed retorts. Willow, alder,
poplar, and dogwood are some of the woods used. In distilling the heat
should be kept below redness. Charcoal should be light in weight, and
have a velvety fracture. It inflames at about 460° Fahr. Its
composition and properties vary with the nature of the wood and mode of
distillation employed.

Charcoal obtained from light wood is the best for gunpowder, as it is
more combustible and easy to pulverize, and contains less earthy
matters. Willow and poplar are used for this purpose in the United
States and black elder in Europe. The wood must be sound and should not
be more than 3 or 4 years old, and about 1 inch in diameter; branches
larger than this should be split up. It is cut in the spring when the
sap runs freely, and is immediately stripped of its bark. The smaller
branches are used for fine sporting powder.

The operation of charring may be performed in pits, but the method now
almost universally used in making charcoal for gunpowder is that of
_distillation_. For this purpose the wood is placed in an iron vessel,
generally of a cylindrical form, to which a cover is luted; an opening
with a pipe is made to conduct off the gaseous products, and the wood is
thus exposed to the heat of a furnace. The progress of distillation is
judged of by the color of the flame and smoke, and sometimes by
_test-sticks_, which are introduced through tubes prepared for the
purpose.

_Properties._--The charcoal thus obtained should retain a certain degree
of elasticity, and should have a brown color, the wood not being
entirely decomposed. As it readily absorbs one-twentieth of its weight
of moisture, which diminishes its inflammability, it should be made only
in proportion as it is required for use. Wood generally contains 52 per
cent. of carbon, but distillation furnishes not more than 30 to 40 per
cent. of charcoal.

As it is desirable to have charcoal for gunpowder very combustible, it
must be prepared at a low temperature, and must be light.

_Accidents._--When recently prepared charcoal is pulverized and laid in
heaps, it is liable to absorb oxygen with such rapidity as to cause
spontaneous combustion. This has been the cause of serious accidents at
powder-mills, and hence it is important not to pulverize charcoal until
it has been exposed to the air for several days. When charcoal has not
absorbed moisture, and is mixed with oxidizing substances, it may be
inflamed by violent shocks or by friction. This is the principal cause
of the accidents which occur in the preparation of explosive mixtures
which contain charcoal. See GUNPOWDER.

=Chard.= A town of England, in Somersetshire. Here the royalists were
defeated in the civil wars between Charles I. and the Parliament.

=Charenton.= A town of France, in the department of the Seine. It stands
on the Marne, over which there is a bridge, which was frequently the
scene of bloody conflicts between the citizens and the soldiers during
the French revolutions. It now forms a portion of the fortifications of
Paris.

=Charge.= The act of rushing on the enemy with a view to come to close
fighting. It is also sometimes applied to the temporary command of a
detachment, troop, company, or battery. A charge likewise means the
statement of the crime for which an officer or soldier is brought before
a court-martial.

=Charge.= The quantity of powder with which a piece of artillery is
loaded. The charge corresponding to the maximum velocity in the
projectile is called the _maximum charge_. The longer the gun the
greater the maximum charge. In the early days of artillery, when powder
was used in the form of _dust_, a very large charge was necessary. After
the introduction of grained powder it was reduced gradually to about
one-fourth the weight of the shot. At the time of the recent departures
in ordnance, the charge for smooth-bore guns was from one-fifth to
one-eighth the weight of the projectile; for howitzers, from one-eighth
to one-twentieth; for mortars the charge varied with the range, the
largest being about one-ninth. For rifle guns the disproportion was
greater than for smooth-bores, the average being about one-tenth. In
small-arms, the charge for the old smooth-bore musket was about
one-third the weight of the ball. When the rifle was introduced, this
proportion was retained till the oblong bullet began to be used, when
the charge was relatively much diminished, till it fell to about
one-tenth. The tendency lately has been to increase it. In some of the
best-known rifles of the present day the charge is about one-fifth,--a
majority use more than one-sixth. The same tendency is still more
observable in heavy ordnance. The largest _Krupp_, _Woolwich_, and
_Armstrong_ guns use a charge greater than _one-fourth_ the weight of
the projectile.

=Charge.= The position of a weapon fitted for attack; as, to bring a
weapon to the charge.

=Charge.= In heraldry, the figures represented on a shield are called
charges, and a shield with figures upon it is said to be charged. The
charges in a shield ought to be few in number, and strongly marked, both
as regards their character and the mode of their representation. The
family shield belonging to the head of the house almost always is
simpler,--_i.e._, has fewer charges than the shields of collaterals, or
even of junior members.

=Charger= (Fr. _cheval de bataille_). A horse kept by an officer for
military purposes.

=Chariot.= In antiquity, a war car or vehicle.

=Charleroi.= A strongly fortified town of Belgium, in Hainaut. This
place was fortified by Vauban. Several great battles have been fought
near this town, especially in 1690 and 1794. Charleroi was besieged by
the Prince of Orange, 1672 and 1677; but he was soon obliged to retire.
Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prussian line, making it fall
back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815.

=Charleston.= A port of entry and the chief city of South Carolina,
founded in 1672. On Sullivan’s Island, about 7 miles below,
communicating with the harbor, a garrison of about 400 Americans under
Col. Moultrie sustained an assault from 9 British ships of war, and
gallantly repulsed them, on June 28, 1776. The city was afterwards
besieged, and after a gallant resistance of nearly six weeks surrendered
to the British, May 12, 1780, being held by them till 1782. In the civil
war (1861-65) it was here the first gun was fired, which resulted in the
reduction of the famous Fort Sumter. In the latter part of the war it
was bombarded and besieged by the Federal troops. Its evacuation by the
Confederates and its occupation by the Federals followed, February 18,
1865.

=Chase.= In gunnery, is the conical part of the gun in front of the
reinforce.

=Chase-ring.= In gunnery, is a band at the front end of the chase.

=Chassepot.= A species of rifle. See SMALL-ARMS.

=Chasseurs.= A French word signifying “hunters,” applied in various
forms to light troops in the French service, organized at different
times, either as infantry or cavalry, as _chasseurs à pied_, _de
Montague_, _de Vincennes_, for infantry, and _chasseurs à cheval_,
_d’Afrique_, _Algeriens_, etc., for cavalry. They have organizations in
other armies also corresponding to these, such as the _jägers_ in the
Austrian army, and the _cacciatore dei Alpi_ of the Garibaldian troops
in the Italian war of 1859-60.

=Chassis.= A traversing frame or movable railway, along which the
carriage of a heavy gun in barbette, or casemate, moves backward and
forward in action. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Chastleton.= A parish of England, in Oxfordshire, 5 miles from Chipping
Norton. Here, in 1016, Canute defeated Edmund Ironside.

=Châteaudun.= An old city in Northwest France, the residence of the
heroic Dunois, who died in 1468. Here were massacred July 20, 1183,
about 7000 Brabançons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired to
exterminate the Albigenses by the Cardinal Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in
1181. They had become the scourge of the country, and the “Capuchons”
were organized for their destruction. Châteaudun was captured by the
Germans after a severe conflict of about 9 hours, October 18, 1870.
Barracks had been erected in the town, and the Garde Mobile fought
bravely. The town was re-occupied by the French, November 6.

=Château Thierry.= A town of France, in the department of Aisne. It is
built on the slope of a hill, capped by the ruins of a castle, which is
said to have been erected by Charles Martel in 730. In 1814 this place
was the scene of several conflicts between the allied army and the
French troops.

=Chatham.= A town of England, in the county of Kent, on the Medway. It
is a principal station of the royal navy. There is a fine station and
military arsenal close to Chatham, containing vast magazines and
warehouses, in which there are all kinds of stores, and where all the
operations necessary for building and fitting out ships of war are
carried on. There are also extensive barracks for infantry, royal
marines, artillery, and engineers. Chatham is defended by forts on the
heights, by which it is partly surrounded. There are also very extensive
fortifications about Chatham, called the Lines, which are defended by
ramparts, palisades, and a broad, deep ditch. On June 10, 1667, the
Dutch fleet under Admiral Ruyter sailed up to Chatham and burnt several
men-of-war. The entrance into the Medway is now defended by Sheerness
and other forts.

=Chatillon-sur-Seine.= A town of France, department of Côte-d’Or, 43
miles north-northwest of Dijon, on the Seine. Here a congress was held
by the four great powers allied against France, at which Caulaincourt
attended for Napoleon, February 5, 1814; the negotiations for peace were
broken off on March 19, following.

=Chattanooga.= A village of Hamilton Co., Tenn. During the civil war it
was the scene of many exciting incidents between the contending forces.
It was attacked by Gen. Negley in June, 1862; occupied by Gen.
Rosecrans, July, 1863, and in the same year were fought in its vicinity
a succession of the most momentous battles of that eventful epoch,
commencing September 23, 1863, with Gen. Grant’s attack on Gen. Bragg.
The movements were under direction of Gens. Sherman and Thomas, and
resulted, after three days’ severe fighting around Chattanooga,
Missionary Ridge, and Lookout Mountain, in the total defeat of the
Confederates, and their pursuit back into Georgia.

=Chaumont, Treaty of.= Entered into between Great Britain, Austria,
Russia, and Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively March 1,
1814. This treaty was succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, April
11, following, by which Napoleon renounced his sovereignty over France.

=Chausses.= In the armor of the Middle Ages, were defense-pieces for the
legs. Some were made of padded and quilted cloth, with metal studs; some
of chain-metal, some of riveted plates, and some of banded mail. It was
not unusual to fasten them by lacing behind the leg.

=Chauvinisme= (_Fr._). An exaggerated idea of the qualities of a leader,
as Chauvin, a character in a French play (from whom the name is
derived), is represented to have had of his leader, Bonaparte.

=Checky.= In heraldry, when the field of any charge is composed of small
squares of different tinctures, it is said to be _checky_.

=Cheeks.= In the construction of artillery-carriages, are the parts
between which the piece is placed and upon which the trunnions are
supported. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY
CARRIAGE.

=Chelone=, or =Tortoise=. In military antiquity, the form of battle
adopted by the Greeks in besieging fortified towns. It served to protect
the besiegers in their approach to the walls. This invention was formed
by the soldiers placing their shields over their heads, in a sloping
position, similar to the tiles of a house. The first rank stood erect,
the second stooped a little, the third still more, and the last rank
knelt. They were thus protected from the missile weapons of the foe, as
they advanced or stood under the walls of an enemy. The chelone was
similar to the _testudo_ of the Romans. See TESTUDO.

=Chelsea.= A parish of England, in Middlesex, on the Thames. Chelsea
Hospital is the great national asylum for decayed and maimed soldiers,
and one of the noblest institutions of the kind in Europe. The
institution was founded by Charles II. in 1682. Connected with the
hospital is the Military Asylum, a noble establishment, founded in 1801,
for the education and maintenance of the children of soldiers. See
ASYLUM.

=Chemin-des-Rondes= (_Fr._). A beam from 4 to 12 feet wide, at the foot
of the exterior slope in a permanent fortification. It is sometimes
covered in front by a hedge, or low wall, or small parapet of earth.

=Chemise.= In mediæval fortification, an additional escarp or
counter-guard wall, covering the lower part of the escarp.

=Cherasco.= A town of Piedmont, situated on the Tanaro. A peace was
concluded here between Louis XIII. of France and the Duke of Savoy, in
1631. On April 26, 1796, the place was taken by the French, and here,
three days after, the “Armistice of Cherasco” was concluded between the
Sardinian commissioners and Napoleon, by which the latter obtained the
right of free passage for his troops through the Sardinian states; and
the treaty that followed gave to the French republic Savoy, Nice, and
the possessions of Piedmont to the westward of the highest ridge of the
Alps.

=Cheraw.= A village of Chesterfield Co., S. C. It was a Confederate
depot of supplies during the civil war, and was captured with all its
stores by Gen. Sherman, March 3, 1865.

=Cherbourg.= A fortified seaport town and important naval station of
France, department of Manche, on the English Channel. Edward III. of
England unsuccessfully laid siege to Cherbourg in 1346, but in 1418 it
was given up to the British. The French regained it in 1450, but the
English again took it in 1758.

=Cheriton Down.= In the county of Hants, England. Here Sir William
Waller defeated the royalists under Lord Hopton, May 29, 1644.

=Cherokee Indians.= A tribe of aborigines who formerly occupied the
southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, and a large tract of
country on both sides of the range. In 1838 they were removed by the
U. S. government to the west of the Mississippi, into what is now Indian
Territory, and the portion of the tribe that now remains have a
civilized government and a written language. For numbers, etc., see
INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Cherusci.= One of the most celebrated of all the German tribes at the
time of Cæsar. Being excited to hostilities by the tyranny and rapacity
of the Romans, they entered into a confederation with the neighboring
tribes, and, under their leader Arminius, defeated a Roman army at
Teutoburg Forest, in A.D. 9. Germanicus, a Roman general, afterwards
tried to avenge this disgrace to their honor by subduing them, but was
unsuccessful. Owing to their own internal dissensions they were
subsequently subdued by the Chatti, another German tribe.

=Chesses.= Are the platforms which form the flooring of military
bridges. They consist of two or more planks, ledged together at the
edges by dowels or pegs.

=Chest, Ammunition-.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Chest, Military.= Is a technical name for money and negotiable
securities carried by an army, and intended to defray its current
expenses. In the British military system this department is managed by
the commissariat; in the United States, by the paymaster-general and
commissary-general.

=Chester.= A city of England, in the county of Cheshire. The British
_Caerleon_ and the Roman _Deva_, the station of the Twentieth Legion,
_Valeria Victrix_, quitted by them about 477. The city was first built
by Edelfleda about 908. Chester was ravaged by the Danes in 980; taken
after three months’ siege for the Parliament in 1645. A projected attack
of Fenians on Chester Castle was defeated by the vigilance of the
authorities and the arrival of the military, February 11-12, 1867.

=Cheval-de-frise.= A piece of timber traversed with wooden spikes,
pointed with iron, 5 or 6 feet long, used to defend a passage, stop a
breach, or make a retrenchment to stop cavalry.

=Chevalet= (_Fr._). A sort of bell-tent, formerly used in the French
service, when an army encamped. It resembled in some degrees the wigwam
of an Indian.

=Chevalier= (_Fr._). A horseman; a knight. A member of certain orders of
knighthood. In heraldry, a horseman armed at all points.

=Chevet= (_Fr._). A small wedge which is used in raising a mortar. It is
placed between the frame and swell of the mortar.

=Cheviot Hills.= A mountain-range extending along the border between
Scotland and England; the scene of many conflicts between the Scotch and
English.

=Chevrette.= An engine for raising guns or mortars into their
carriages.

=Chevron.= The arrow-headed stripes on the arm, by which the rank of a
non-commissioned officer is indicated.

=Chevron.= In heraldry, is an ordinary representing the rafters of a
house, and supposed to betoken the accomplishment of some memorable
work, or the completion of some business of importance, generally the
foundation of his own family by the bearer.

=Cheyenne Indians.= A tribe of aborigines dwelling east of the Rocky
Mountains, and divided into three bands. For numbers, etc., see INDIANS
AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Chiari.= A town of Northern Italy, near the Oglio. In 1701, Marshal
Villeroi was near this town defeated by Prince Eugène.

=Chicane.= To dispute every foot of ground, by taking advantage of
natural inequalities, etc.

=Chickahominy.= A river in Eastern Virginia, which, rising about 16
miles northwest of Richmond, flows southeastwardly into the James. Along
the margins of the river was the scene of Gen. McClellan’s operations in
1862.

=Chickamauga.= A village of Hamilton Co., Tenn. During the civil war a
continuous series of combats were fought here, between the forces of
Gens. Rosecrans and Bragg, but without decisive results, September
19-20, 1863.

=Chickasaw Indians.= A warlike tribe of aborigines which formerly
occupied Alabama and a portion of Mississippi. They removed into the
Indian Territory in 1837. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Chief.= The head or leader of any band or community; a commander.

=Chief.= In heraldry, an ordinary formed by a horizontal line occupying
the upper part of the escutcheon. Any object borne in the upper or chief
part of the shield is said to be _in chief_, though the chief be not
divided off from the rest of the field as a separate portion.

=Chief of Staff.= In the U. S. service a chief of staff with the rank of
brigadier-general was provided by law for the lieutenant-general
commanding the army. The senior staff-officer of a general is sometimes
designated as the chief of staff. See OFFICERS, STAFF-, and STAFF.

=Chieftain.= A captain, leader, or commander; a chief; the head of a
troop, army, or clan.

=Chieftaincy.= Chieftainship. The rank, office, or quality of a
chieftain.

=Chili.= An independent republic of South America, bordering on the
Pacific Ocean. It was invaded by Almagro in 1535, he being sent by
Pizarro to subdue the country. In the 16th and 17th centuries violent
contests raged between the Spaniards and Indians, both parties suffering
severely. The country continued a vice-royalty of Spain till 1810, when
a revolution commenced which terminated in its independence in 1817.

=Chilled Iron.= Cast iron hardened by pouring it into iron molds. Much
used in manufacturing armor-piercing projectiles. The celebrated
Palliser shot is of this kind.

=Chilled Shot.= See PROJECTILES.

=Chillianwallah, Battle of.= In India, between the Sikh forces in
considerable strength and the British commanded by Lord (afterwards
Viscount) Gough, fought January 13, 1849. The Sikhs were completely
routed, but the loss of the British was very severe. On February 21,
Lord Gough attacked the Sikh army under Shere Singh in its position at
Goujerat, with complete success, and the whole of the enemy’s camp fell
into the hands of the British.

=China.= The “Celestial Empire,” in Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese
annals claim an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is
allowed to have commenced about 2500 B.C.; by others to have been
founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 B.C. We are
told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357
B.C. Towards the close of the 7th century B.C. the history of China
becomes more distinct. Thirty-two dynasties have reigned, including the
present. See important cities of China throughout this work.

=China, Great Wall of.= One of the most remarkable structures known in
history, supposed to have been erected about 220 B.C. by the first
emperor of the Tsin dynasty as a protection against the invasions of the
Tartars. It traverses the northern boundary of China, and extends about
1250 miles. Including a parapet of 5 feet, the total height is 20 feet,
thickness of base 25 feet, and at the top 15 feet. Towers or bastions
occur at intervals of about 100 yards. Earth inclosed in brick-work
forms the mass of the wall, but for more than one-half its length it is
little else than a heap of gravel and rubbish.

=Chinese Fire.= A pyrotechnic composition, consisting of 16 parts of
gunpowder, 8 of nitre, 3 of charcoal, 3 of sulphur, and 3 of
iron-borings.

=Ching-Hai.= A fortified seaport town of China. At this place, in
October, 1841, the Chinese were signally defeated by the British.

=Ching-Kiang-Foo.= A fortified city of China, on the Yang-tse-Kiang
River. It was taken by the British, after a determined resistance on the
part of the Mantchoo garrison, July 21, 1842.

=Chinook.= An artificial language or jargon originated by the Hudson Bay
Company for communicating with different tribes of Indians. It consists
of about a hundred words, some coined, some French, and some of Indian
origin. It is still extensively used as a sort of court language by the
different tribes along the Pacific coast, from California to Behrings
Strait.

=Chinook Indians.= A collection of races of Indian tribes inhabiting the
Lower Columbia in Washington Territory and Oregon.

=Chippewa.= A village of Canada West, memorable for the victory gained
by the Americans, 1900 strong, under Gen. Brown, over 2100 British
troops under Gens. Rial and Drummond, July 4, 1814.

=Chippewa Indians=, or =Ojibways=. A tribe of aborigines who inhabit
portions of Michigan, Wisconsin, and the basin of Lake Superior. In the
early settlement of the country they were allies of the French, and
waged inveterate warfare against the Sioux. In 1855 they ceded their
lands to the United States, and are now placed on reservations. See
INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Chivalry= (Fr. _Chevalerie_, from chevalier, “knight,” or “horseman”).
The system of knighthood, together with the privileges, duties, and
manners of knights. The qualifications or character of knights, as
valor, dexterity in arms, courtesy, etc.

=Chlorate of Potassa.= Chlorate of potassa is formed by passing a
current of chlorine, in excess, through lime-water, and then treating
the mixture with the chloride of potassium or by the carbonate or
sulphate of potassa. The chlorate of potassa and chloride of calcium are
formed,--the former crystallizes, the latter remains in solution. It is
soluble in water, but not sensibly so in alcohol. It is a more powerful
oxidizing agent than nitre, and, when mixed with a combustible body,
easily explodes by shock or friction. It is inflamed by simple contact
with sulphuric acid, and thus affords a simple means of exploding mines.

=Chlorates.= Oxidizing agents used in _explosives_ (which see). Chlorate
of potassa is the salt ordinarily used.

=Chocks.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Choctaw Indians.= A tribe of aborigines which formerly lived in
Mississippi, along the Yazoo River. They are now settled in Indian
Territory, and are partially civilized. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Choczim=, or =Chotyn=. A fortified town of Bessarabia, Southern Russia,
on the Dniester. Here the Turks were defeated by the Poles in 1621, and
again in 1673; the Turks were again defeated at this place by the
Russians in 1739.

=Choke.= The tied end of a cartridge; also the constriction of a
rocket-case, etc.

=Choker.= An implement used by engineers to compress and test the
circumference of a fascine. It consists of two strong pieces of wood
about 4 feet long joined by a chain. Two rings inserted in the chain
mark the length of the circumference required.

=Chokey.= An East Indian guard-house and prison.

=Cholet.= A town of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire. Here,
during the Vendean war, two actions were fought in 1793, in both of
which the royalists were defeated. In the first they lost their brave
general, Bonchamps; and the second drove them across the Loire, thus
virtually deciding the war against them.

=Chosroes.= See KHOSROO.

=Chotyn.= See CHOCZIM.

=Chouans.= The name which a band of peasants received who fought for the
monarchy against the convention in Maine and Normandy in 1793. They
received their name from their leader, Jean Cattereau, nicknamed
“Chouan,” and were with great difficulty subdued, their final submission
not taking place till 1803.

=Christian Charity, Knights of the Order of.= Was the name of an order
instituted by King Henry III. of France for the support of maimed
officers and soldiers who had done good service in the wars. Henry IV.
placed it under the charge of the marshals and colonels of France, and
by means of it many of those who had served their country faithfully
were enabled to spend the latter portion of their lives in peace and
above want. The order formed the germ of that noble hospital, the
_Invalides_, which was founded by Louis XIV., and which served as a
model for the English hospitals of Greenwich and Chelsea. On the
founding of the hospital the order was superseded.

=Christiansand.= A fortified seaport of Norway, and capital of a
government of the same name. This place was founded in 1641 by Christian
IV., and was taken by the British in 1807.

=Christ, Order of.= When the Templars were expelled from France, and
their property confiscated by Philippe le Bel, they were received into
Portugal, and their order revived there in 1317 under this title. Noble
descent and three years’ military service against the infidel were
required for admission.

=Chrome Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Chronograph.= See CHRONOSCOPE.

=Chronoscope.= An instrument for measuring minute intervals of time. The
term is specially applied by military men to instruments for obtaining
initial velocities. The _gun-pendulum_ and _ballistic-pendulum_ were
formerly used for this purpose, but are now nearly obsolete. All modern
chronoscopes use electricity as a transmitting agent. The general method
of applying it is to have the current-bearing wires pass through two
targets placed in the path of the projectile. These wires are cut by the
projectile, and the interval between the successive ruptures is recorded
by a delicate time-keeper. Knowing the distance between the targets, the
velocity is obtained by dividing this space, expressed in feet, by the
number of seconds in the interval. Chronoscopes differ in the kind of
time-keeper employed. One of the largest classes of chronoscopes use the
pendulum.

The _electro-ballistic machine_ of Col. Benton (U. S. Ordnance
Department) may be taken as a type of this class. It consists of two
pendulums having equal times of vibration suspended from the same
horizontal axis. When the pendulums are deflected, one to the right the
other to the left, through angles of 90°, pieces of soft iron attached
to them come in contact with electro-magnets, which serve to hold them
up. Each of these magnets is excited by a current passing through one of
the targets. When the targets are ruptured the pendulums fall, and in
passing each other record the point of meeting by operating a delicate
bent lever attached to one of them, which leaves a dot of ink on the arc
in front of which the pendulums vibrate. The _interval of time_ between
the rupture of the two targets is obtained from a table of arcs and
corresponding times. Col. Benton has also invented an instrument called
_velocimeter_, in which he uses threads instead of electro-magnets to
hold up the pendulums. The threads pass through the targets, and when
they are cut the pendulums fall as before. This method has found
considerable favor where great accuracy is not required.

_Schultz’s chronoscope_ uses as a time-keeper a tuning-fork, which, in
its vibrations, traces a waved line upon a revolving cylinder. The
rupture of each of the targets is recorded by an electric spark
deposited on the cylinder near the waved line. The number of waves
between the spark spots gives the _interval of time_ when the _period of
vibration_ or _tarage_ of the fork is known. The vibration of the fork
is sustained by electro-magnets, which alternately attract and release
the branches, an interrupter being placed in the circuit. When the
current passing through the targets is broken an induced current is
generated, which deposits the spark on the cylinder in leaping a short
break in the circuit. When the first target is broken, by an ingenious
contrivance the current is made through the second target before the
shot reaches it. The _tarage_ of the fork is obtained by placing a
second’s pendulum in the target current, which ruptures the current in
each vibration, and produces a series of spark spots on the cylinder.
The number of waves between successive spots gives the number of
vibrations to the second.

_Boulanger’s chronograph_ is the simplest of all chronoscopes. It uses a
rod held up vertically by a magnet, which is excited by a current
through the first target. The current through the second target, when
broken, releases a spring knife-blade, which, moving sideways, marks the
rod in its fall. The _interval of time_ is obtained from the distance
through which the rod has fallen, as shown by the position of the mark.
The end of the scale is marked when both currents are simultaneously
broken.

=Chrystler’s=, or =Chrysler’s Field, Battle of=. The name of an
engagement which took place at Chrystler’s farm, on the St. Lawrence
River, November 11, 1813, between the American forces under Gen. Boyd
and the British troops under Lieut.-Col. Morrison, in which neither
party gained a victory, but the advantage was with the British.

=Chunar, Treaty of.= Concluded between the nabob of Oude and Governor
Hastings, by which the nabob was relieved of his debts to the East
India Company, on condition of his seizing the property of the begums,
his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to the English,
September 19, 1781.

=Churubusco.= A village or hamlet of Mexico, on the Rio de Churubusco,
about 6 miles south of the city of Mexico. This place was the scene of a
battle between the American forces under Gen. Winfield Scott, marching
on the city of Mexico, and the Mexicans, defending the approaches to
their capital, under President Santa Anna. The battle of Contreras was
fought on the same day. The Americans were victorious in both battles,
taking 3000 prisoners, and capturing 37 pieces of ordnance. The entire
Mexican army was dispersed, their ancient capital captured, and an
honorable peace ensued.

=Chusan.= One of a group of islands off the east coast of China. This
island, called the “key of China,” was taken by the British in 1840 and
1841, and held by them until the terms of their treaty with China were
fulfilled by the latter power.

=Cimbres.= A chain of mountains in Mexico. On April 28, 1862, the
advance-guard of the French, commanded by Gen. Count de Lorencez,
encountered and defeated in a defile of this chain a Mexican force 6000
strong under Gen. Saragosa, who had fortified themselves and placed 18
pieces of artillery in position.

=Cimbri.= A warlike tribe of ancient Europe, which, in conjunction with
the Teutones and others, invaded the south of Europe, and successively
defeated six Roman armies, until in the end they were conquered by Caius
Marius, 101 B.C. They had previously devastated Gaul and Spain, and are
said to have lost from 100,000 to 140,000 men in the battle with Marius.

=Cimeter.= A short sword with a convex edge or recurvated point, used by
the Persians and Turks.

=Cimier= (_Fr._). A heavy ornament which the ancient knights or
chevaliers in France and in other countries were accustomed to wear upon
their helmets; small figures were afterwards substituted in their stead.

=Cincinnati, Order of.= A society which was founded in the United States
by officers of the Revolutionary army in 1783. Its object was to keep
alive the feelings of friendship and patriotism engendered by common
toils and perils, and to assist those who were in need through the
vicissitudes of the war. In 1787, Washington was elected president of
the order.

=Cinquain.= In ancient military history, was an order of battle, to draw
up 5 battalions, so that they might make 3 lines, that is, a van, main
body, and reserve.

=Cintra.= In Portugal. Here was signed an agreement on August 22, 1808,
between the French and English, the day after the battle of Vimeira. As
it contained the basis of the convention signed on August 30, following,
it has been termed the convention of Cintra. By it Junot and his army
were permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British ships. The
convention was publicly condemned, and in consequence a court of inquiry
was held at Chelsea, which exonerated the British commanders. Wellington
and Napoleon both justified Sir Hew Dalrymple.

=Cipher.= A preconcerted enigmatical system of communication. Much used
in war when dispatches are liable to interception by the enemy,--both
for written communication and for signaling.

=Circassia.= A country in Asia on the north side of the Caucasus. The
Circassians are said to be descended from the Albanians. They were
unsubdued, even by Timour. Circassia was surrendered to Russia by Turkey
by the treaty of Adrianople, 1830. The Circassians under their great
leader Schamyl resisted the authority of Russia. They were defeated by
Orbelliani in June, November, and December, 1857. Orbelliani subdued
much of the country, and expelled the inhabitants, April, 1858. Schamyl,
their leader, was captured and treated with much respect, September 7,
1859. The last of the Circassian strongholds captured and the war
declared at an end, June 8, 1864.

=Circitores.= So were named, in the Roman armies, the men who inspected
the sentinels.

=Circuit-closer.= A device for closing an electrical circuit. In torpedo
warfare the term is applied to an apparatus used to explode submarine
mines.

=Circumferenter.= An instrument used by engineers for measuring angles.

=Circumvallation.= Works made by besiegers around a besieged place
facing outwards, to protect their camp against attacks from a hostile
army operating in the rear. It usually consists of a chain of redoubts,
either isolated or connected by a parapet.

=Cisalpine.= This--that is, the south--side of the Alps.

=Citadel.= A fort of 4 or 5 bastions in or near a town. It serves two
purposes, enabling the garrison of a town to keep the inhabitants in
subjection, and in case of siege forming a place of retreat for the
defenders, thus enabling them to hold out after the rest of the town has
been captured. It must fully command the fortifications of the city, and
have a large space around it clear of buildings.

=Citate.= A place close to the Danube, where the Russian general
Gortschakoff, intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts, which were
stormed by the Turks under Omar Pasha, January 6, 1854. The fighting
continued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, when the Russians were compelled to
retire to their former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 killed and
2000 wounded.

=City Point.= A village of Prince George Co., Va., on the James River,
at the mouth of the Appomattox. During the civil war, Gen. Grant fixed
his headquarters at this point in 1864, and during his subsequent
operations against Richmond it was the base of supplies for his army.

=Ciudad Real.= A town of Spain, capital of a province of the same name,
about 100 miles south of Madrid. The French under Sebastian here
defeated the Spaniards in March, 1809.

=Ciudad Rodrigo.= A fortified town of Spain, in the province of
Salamanca. It was occupied by the Portuguese in 1706, and during the
Peninsular war was the object of frequent contention between the French
and the allies. In June, 1810, the French under Masséna invested the
town, and, after a gallant defense by the Spaniards, it was forced to
surrender, July 10. In January, 1812, after a siege of 11 days, the
place was assaulted, and after a bloody struggle the British succeeded
in capturing the town. This storming was one of the most brilliant
events in English military annals.

=Civic Crown.= Among the ancient Romans, was a crown given to any
soldier who had saved the life of a citizen. It was composed only of
oaken boughs, but accounted more honorable than any other.

=Civière= (_Fr._). A small hand-barrow, which is carried by two men, and
is much used by the artillery.

=Civil Authority.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 59.

=Civil War.= See WAR, CIVIL.

=Civilized Warfare.= See WAR, also HONORS OF WAR.

=Civita Castellana.= A town of Italy, 24 miles north from Rome. In its
neighborhood an engagement took place between the Neapolitans under Mack
and the French under Macdonald, on December 4, 1798.

=Civita Vecchia.= The principal seaport of the Papal States, in Italy,
built on a bay of the Mediterranean. It was frequently sacked in the
different wars. In April, 1849, a French force of 6000 men, under Gen.
Oudinot, landed here on its way to Rome, where the republic had been
proclaimed, and a triumvirate appointed. The French troops overthrew the
republic and restored the pope to Rome, from which he had fled in 1848.

=Civitella del Tronto.= A fortified town of Italy, in the province of
Abruzzo Ultra. Here the Neapolitan garrison surrendered to the
Piedmontese general Mezzacapo on March 20, 1861.

=Clarigation.= In Roman antiquity, a ceremony which always preceded a
formal declaration of war. The chief of the heralds went to the
territory of the enemy, where, after some solemn prefatory indication,
he, with a loud voice, intimated that he declared war against them for
certain reasons specified, such as injury done to the Roman allies, or
the like.

=Claymore= (_Gaelic_, signifying great glaive, or sword). Properly a
great two-handed sword, used by the Highlanders only.

=Clayonages= (_Fr._). A species of hurdle, with which the timber-work of
a gallery is covered. It is likewise used in saps.

=Clermont.= A town of France, department of Oise, 16 miles by rail
south-southeast of Beauvais. It was burned by the English in 1359;
besieged by Marshal de Boussac in 1430; captured by the English in 1434;
taken by Henry IV. in 1595, and occupied by the Prince de Condé in 1615.

=Clermont-Ferrand.= A city of France, capital of the department
Puy-de-Dôme. It was captured by the Vandals in 408; besieged without
success by the Visigoths in 473. It was taken by Thierry in 506; sacked
by Pepin in 761; captured by the Normans in 853. The great council in
which the crusades originated was held here in 1095.

=Clice= (_Fr._). A long and curved Turkish sabre.

=Clide= (_Fr._). A machine of war, used during the Middle Ages to throw
rocks on besieging parties.

=Clifton Moor= (England). Here the Scotch insurgents were defeated by
the royal troops in 1745.

=Clipeus.= A large shield worn by the ancient Greeks and Romans, which
was originally of a circular form, made of wicker-work or wood covered
over with ox-hides several folds deep, and bound round the edge with
metal.

=Clontarf.= A place near Dublin, Ireland, the site of a battle fought on
Good Friday, April 23, 1014, between the Irish and Danes, the former
headed by Brian Boroihme, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the invaders,
after a long and bloody engagement. Brian was wounded, and soon
afterwards died. His son Murchard also fell, with many of the nobility;
11,000 Danes are said to have perished in the battle.

=Close Column.= A column of troops in which the subdivisions are at less
than full distance,--that is, less than the length of one of the
subdivisions.

=Clostercamp.= A village of Rhenish Prussia. Here the French gained a
victory on October 15-16, 1760.

=Closterseven= (Hanover), =Convention of=. Was entered into September 8,
1757, between the Duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., and the
Duke of Richelieu, commander of the French armies. By its humiliating
stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their arms, and were
dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his military
commands, and the convention was soon broken by both parties.

=Clothing.= The President of the United States is authorized to
prescribe the kind and quality of clothing to be issued annually to the
troops of the United States. The manner of issuing and accounting for
clothing shall be established by general regulations of the War
Department. The clothing of the British army is determined by a
permanent board, composed of the commander-in-chief and a certain number
of general officers, who act under the authority of the sovereign.

=Club, To.= To throw into confusion, to deform through ignorance or
inadvertence. To _club a battalion_, to throw it into confusion. This
happens through a temporary inability in the commanding officer to
restore any given body of men to their natural front in line or column,
after some manœuvre has been performed.

=Coa.= A river in Portugal, province of Beira. The spur which separates
the Coa from the Agueda incloses the plateau of Fuentes d’Onore, famous
for the battle of 1811, which was fought by Masséna with the English.
See FUENTES D’ONORE.

=Coat-armor.= Coats of arms; armorial ensigns.

=Coat of Arms.= A habit formerly worn by knights over their armor. It
was a short-sleeved coat or tunic reaching to the waist, and embroidered
with their armorial ensigns and various devices. Any representation of
the armorial devices upon such a habit; an armorial device.

=Coat of Mail.= A piece of armor covering the upper portion of the body,
consisting of a net-work of iron rings.

=Coblentz.= A fortified town of Rhenish Prussia, situated at the conflux
of the Rhine and Moselle, opposite the great Prussian fortress of
Ehrenbreitstein. In 1794 this place was taken by Napoleon I., and made
the capital of the department of the Rhine and Moselle.

=Cocherel.= Near Evreux, Northwest France. Here Bertrand and Du Guesclin
defeated the king of Navarre, and took prisoner the Captal de Buch, May
16, 1364.

=Cochin.= A city of Hindostan, presidency of Madras. It was held by the
Portuguese in 1503; by the Dutch in 1663; was taken by the British in
1796, and ceded to them in 1814.

=Cockade= (Fr. _cocarde_). The word signified originally a cocked-hat,
or a hat with the broad flap looped up on one side, and then applied to
the knot of ribbon with which the loop is ornamented. The word is now,
however, restricted to signify an appendage worn on the hat of military
and naval officers.

=Cock-feather.= In archery, the feather which stood up on the arrow,
when it was rightly placed upon the string, perpendicularly upon the
cock or notch.

=Code.= A compilation or collection of laws made by public authority, as
the _Code Napoléon_.

=Code.= A list of signal symbols. See SIGNALING.

=Codogno.= A town of Italy, in the province of Milan, between the Adda
and the Po. Here the Austrians were defeated by the Spaniards in 1746,
and by the French in 1796.

=Coehorn.= So named from the military engineer, Baron Van Coehorn, who
invented it. It is a small howitzer, or mortar, generally 4³⁄₅ inches
caliber. These implements of war, being easily moved and adjusted, and
taking little powder, are found very useful in sieges, if grouped in
great numbers.

=Coehorn Beds.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, MORTAR BEDS.

=Coeverden=, =Coevorden=, or =Koevorde=. A fortified town of Holland; it
was captured by the French in 1795.

=Coffer.= In fortification, a hollow lodgment, sunk in the bottom of a
dry ditch, from 6 to 7 feet deep, and from 16 to 18 feet broad. Its
length corresponds with the whole breadth of the said ditch, from side
to side. The besieged generally make use of these coffers to repulse the
besiegers when they attempt to pass the ditch; they are distinguished
only by their length from _caponnières_. They are covered with joists,
hurdles, and earth, raised 2 feet above the bottom of the ditch, so as
to serve the purposes of a loop-holed parapet.

=Cohort.= A division of the ancient Roman armies, consisting of about
600 men, divided into centuries. It was the tenth part of a legion, and
its number, consequently, was under the same fluctuation as that of the
legions. In the time of the empire the cohort often amounted to 1000
men.

=Coif.= Was originally an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their
helmets; it was introduced before 1259. It is now especially applied in
Great Britain to a cap worn by sergeants-at-law.

=Coimbra.= An ancient city of Portugal, capital of the province of
Beira. It appears to have been originally built by the Goths; from them
it passed to the Moors, from whom it was finally conquered in 1064 by
Fernando the Great, aided by the gallant Cid. It was taken by the troops
under the British colonel Kent, October 7, 1810.

=Coin= (Fr. _coin d’artilleur_). In gunnery, a kind of wedge to lay
under the breech of a gun, in order to raise or depress the metal.
Written also _quoin_.

=Colberg=, or =Kolberg=. A strongly fortified seaport of Prussian
Pomerania. It stands on a hill, surrounded with swamps which can be laid
under water, and is chiefly remarkable for the protracted sieges it has
undergone. In 1102, Duke Boleslaus, of Poland, besieged it in vain. It
endured long sieges in the Thirty Years’ War and in the Seven Years’
War, and again in 1807, when it was most gallantly defended against the
French.

=Colchester.= The chief town in the county of Essex, England. It was
taken from the Danes in 921 by Edward the Elder, who founded the castle.
It was ravaged by the plague in 1348, in 1360, and again in 1665. In
1648 it was taken by Lord Goring for Charles I., but was retaken by
Fairfax after a siege of 11 weeks, when the castle was dismantled.

=Cold Harbor.= A village of Hanover Co., Va., about 10 miles northeast
of Richmond. During the civil war a series of desperate struggles took
place in and around this place (May 28-June 3, 1864) between the forces
of Gens. Grant and Lee, resulting in a loss of probably 13,000 men on
the Federal side.

=Coldstream.= A border-town of Scotland, in Berwickshire, on the left
bank of the Tweed. Near this place is the famous ford where the English
and Scottish armies formerly crossed the Tweed. Here Gen. Monk raised
the regiment still known as the Coldstream Guards.

=Coldstream Guards.= A regiment in the Foot Guards, or Household
Brigade, is the oldest corps in the British army except the First Foot.
It was raised at Coldstream in 1660, by Gen. Monk, and was first called
Monk’s regiment, but when Parliament consented to give a brigade of
guards to Charles II., this corps, under its present name, was included
in it.

=College of Arms.= See HERALD’S COLLEGE.

=Collet= (_Fr._). In gunnery, that part of a cannon which is between the
astragal and the muzzle.

=Colmar.= A city of France, capital of the department of Haut-Rhin. This
city had an active share in the civil wars under Rodolph of Hapsburg and
Adolphe of Nassau; it was captured by the Swedes in 1632; by the French
in 1635 and 1673. It was ceded to France by the peace of Ryswick in
1697. Occupied by the Bavarians on January 3, 1814.

=Colocotroni.= See KOLOCOTRONI.

=Cologne.= A fortified city of Prussia, the capital of the province of
Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is a fortress of the
first rank. It was taken by the French in 1795, and assigned to Prussia
in 1814.

=Colombia, United States of.= A republic of South America, known by this
name since 1861, but formerly called New Granada. It united with
Venezuela in 1819, and established one central government for the
purpose of resisting Spain, but in 1829 was separated from it, and soon
after another republic--that of Ecuador--was formed from it, three
republics being thus formed out of what was formerly but one.

=Colombo.= A fortified seaport town and capital of Ceylon; it was
fortified in 1638 by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in
1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, February 15, 1796. The
British troops were murdered here in cold blood by the Adigar of Candy,
June 6, 1803.

=Colonel.= The title of the highest officer of a regiment, ranking next
below a brigadier-general, and above a lieutenant-colonel. The rank of
captain in the navy corresponds with this title.

=Colonel, Lieutenant-.= The rank next below that of colonel.

=Colonia do Santissimo Sacramento= (_i.e._, Colony of the Most Holy
Sacrament). A fortified maritime town of South America, in Uruguay,
opposite Buenos Ayres. On August 31, 1845, it was taken by the English
and French fleets.

=Colonial Corps.= Are certain regiments forming part of the regular army
of the British empire, and paid for out of the imperial revenues. The
native troops of India are paid from the Indian revenues.

=Colorado.= One of the United States, bounded on the north by Dakota and
Nebraska, on the east by Nebraska and Kansas, on the south by New
Mexico, and on the west by Utah. In 1857 an exploring party started
through its territory, but were driven back by hostile Indians. The
country is now, however, being rapidly settled, owing to its great
fertility and the presence of auriferous deposits.

=Color-bearer.= The bearer of the colors.

=Color-Guard, The.= In the U. S. infantry, consists of the color-bearer
and a guard of 7 corporals in each regiment. They must all be good
soldiers. The color-guard is attached to the right centre company in the
line, and its post on the field is one of honor as well as danger.

=Colorno.= A fortified castle in Italy, on the banks of the Po; it was
captured by the Marquis de Maillebois, from the Austrians under the
Prince of Würtemberg, in 1734.

=Colors.= A military term applied to banners or flags carried by each
regiment of infantry. The banners of the cavalry are called standards.
Each U. S. regiment has two colors, one national and one regimental.

=Colors.= In heraldry, the colors generally used are red, blue, black,
green, and purple, which are called gules, azure, sable, vert or
sinople, and purpure. Colors and metals, when engraved, are generally
indicated by dots and lines: _or_, gold, by dots; _argent_, silver, is
left plain; _gules_, red, is indicated by perpendicular lines from top
to bottom; _azure_, blue, by horizontal lines from side to side;
_sable_, black, by horizontal and perpendicular lines crossing each
other; _vert_, green, by diagonal lines from right to left; and
_purpure_, purple, by diagonal lines from left to right.

=Color-Sergeant.= Is the sergeant detailed to carry the regimental
colors. He is usually selected for military deportment and soldierly
bearing, and when carrying the colors is escorted by a guard of 7
corporals. In the British service he has a distinct rank, but in the
U. S. service he ranks no higher than other sergeants.

=Colt’s Pistol.= The most celebrated of modern revolvers. Invented by an
American, Col. Samuel Colt; first patented in 1835, and perfected about
1845. It has kept pace with the times, and is still one of the first of
its kind.

=Columbia.= The capital of South Carolina, situated on the left bank of
the Congaree River. It was taken by Gen. Sherman’s army, February 17,
1865, and was then much injured by fire.

=Columbiad Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Column.= Signifies, in military evolutions, a mass of soldiers several
ranks in depth as opposed to _line_. There may be columns of brigades,
of regiments, of divisions, or of companies, presenting a front of
limited width, but a depth depending on the number of elements in the
column. In a battalion the formation is called _open column_ when the
distance between the elements of the column is such as to admit of their
wheeling into line; when the distance is only a few yards it is termed
_close column_; when intermediate between these two, it is “column at
half distance.” Battalions are drawn up in column with either the right
or left in front, or the battalions may be doubled upon their centres.
To pass from column into line is to “deploy”; to pass from line to
column is to “ploy.” Sometimes the name column is given to a small army,
especially when engaged in active operations. In drawing up troops for
action, as a general rule, the French prefer the column, the Americans
and English the formation in line.

=Column, Military.= Among the Romans, a column on which was engraven a
list of the forces in the Roman army, ranged by legions in their proper
order. They had another kind of _military column_ called _columna
bellica_, standing before the temple of Janus, at the foot of which the
consul declared war by throwing a javelin towards the enemy’s country.

=Column, Triumphal.= A column erected among the ancients in honor of a
hero, and decorated with various kinds of crowns, corresponding to the
number of his achievements in battle. Each crown had its particular
name, as _vallaris_, which was filled with spikes, in memory of his
having faced a palisade; _muralis_, adorned with little turrets or
battlements, for having mounted an assault; _navalis_, of prows and
beaks of vessels, for having vanquished at sea; _obsidionalis_, or
_graminalis_, of grass, for having raised a siege; _ovans_, of myrtle,
which expressed an ovation, or minor triumph; and _triumphalis_, of
laurel, for a grand triumph.

=Comanche Indians=, or =Comanches=. An extremely warlike and predatory
tribe of Mexico and Texas. They have a reservation in Indian Territory
with some Kiowas and Apaches. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Combat.= An engagement of no great magnitude, or one in which the
parties engaged are not armies.

=Combustion.= The phenomena attending intense chemical actions which are
accompanied by heat and light. Usually restricted to the burning of
bodies by their union with oxygen. It is difficult to draw the line
where combustion ends and _explosion_ begins.

=Combustion, Velocity of.= Is the space passed over by the surface of
combustion in a second of time, measured in a direction perpendicular to
its surface. It has been determined that the velocity of combustion of
dry French war-powder is 0.48 inch, and of English powder, which
American powder closely resembles, is 0.4 inch.

=Comes.= Was with the Romans an officer with territorial jurisdiction in
the provinces, and especially on the frontiers.

=Comigne= (_Fr._). A shell of extreme magnitude, which takes its name
from the person who originally invented it.

=Comines=, or =Commines=. A town of France, situated on the Lys,
opposite the Belgian town of the same name. Near here Oliver de Clisson
defeated the Flemings in 1382.

=Command.= In fortification, the height of the top of a parapet above
the ground or another work.

=Command.= A body of troops, or any naval or military force or post,
under the command of a particular officer. The word command, when
applied to ground is synonymous with overlook; and any place thus
commanded by heights within range of cannon is difficult to defend, if
the enemy have been able to seize the heights.

=Command.= The 62d Article of War (new, 122) states who shall command
when different corps of the army happen to join or do duty together, but
as the wording of this article has been interpreted differently by
different officers, it is thought best to give a decision rendered by
President Fillmore on October 25, 1851, in General Orders from the War
Department. The 62d Article of War provides that “If upon marches,
guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to
join, or to do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the _line_
of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or
in quarters, shall command the whole and give orders for what is needful
to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of
the United States, according to the nature of the case.” The
interpretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The
difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words
“line of the army,” which neither in the English service nor in our own
have a well-defined and invariable meaning. By some they are understood
to designate the regular army as distinguished from the militia; by
others as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions
and those by brevet; and finally, by others, to designate an officer not
belonging to the staff.

The President states that “He has maturely considered the question, and
finds himself compelled to differ from some for whose opinions he
entertains a very high respect. His opinion is, that although these
words may sometimes be used in a different sense (to be determined by
the context and subject-matter), in the 62d Article of War they are used
to designate those officers of the army who do not belong to the staff,
in contradistinction to those who do, and that the article intended, in
the case contemplated by it, to confer the command exclusively on the
former.” In the discussion which took place in 1828 relating to ordinary
rank and rank by brevet, the then Secretary of War (Gen. Porter) says,
“Rank in the line of the army or lineal rank, as understood by the
President, is applicable to the existing organization of that portion
only of the army which is intended for field operations or the exertion
of physical force against an enemy. It is commonly used in
contradistinction to the staff,” etc. He then goes on to show that in
the 62d Article it has another meaning,--House Document 58, 20th
Congress, 2d session, page 13. In the same discussion, Mr. Drayton, as
chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs of the House of
Representatives, expresses the same opinion. He says, “Rank in the
_line_ of the army is conceived to be rank in a military body specially
organized for the exertion of physical force, or in other words, for
combating an enemy; and an officer in such a body has a direct and
paramount command over the troops which compose it. The expressions
‘rank in the line of the army,’ ‘rank in the line,’ ‘lineal rank,’ _are
generally used in contradistinction to staff appointments_.” He adds,
“and to rank which confers upon officers only an occasional right to
command, including brevet officers,” etc. Thus we see that these
gentlemen admit that these words, in their proper and usual
signification, are employed to distinguish the combatant from the staff
or non-combatant portions of the army.

If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons of
expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and ordinary import
of the terms; on the contrary, we may suppose strong reasons why it may
have been deemed proper, in the case referred to by the article, to
exclude officers of the staff from command. In the first place, the
command of troops might frequently interfere with their appropriate
duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the service. In
the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not
qualified by their habits of education for the command of troops, and
although others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that (by laws
passed long subsequently to the article in question) the officers of the
corps to which they belong are required to be appointed from the “line
of the army.” Lastly, officers of the staff corps seldom have troops of
their own corps serving under their command, and if the words “officers
of the line” are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be
to give them command over the officers and men of all the other corps
when not a man of their own was present, an anomaly always to be
avoided, where it is possible to do so. Whatever doubts may be
entertained on this subject in regard to the officers of other staff
corps, none can exist in regard to those of the Medical Department and
the Pay Department. The law of 1847 expressly excludes them from
command. Now the officers of these corps are not a distinct and
independent body, but are a part of the army, and as they cannot
command, it follows that when on duty they must be commanded.

=Commandant.= An officer who has the command of a garrison, fort,
castle, regiment, company, etc.; called also commander.

=Commander-in-Chief.= The title given to the officer who has supreme
command of the land or naval forces of a nation. The President is _ex
officio_ commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.

=Commands.= In the military service there are two kinds, the
_preparatory command_, such as _forward_, which indicates the movement
that is to be executed, and the _command of execution_, such as MARCH,
or HALT, or in the manual of arms, the part of the command which causes
the execution. The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a
loudness proportioned to the number of men under instruction.

Each _preparatory command_ is pronounced in an ascending tone of voice,
but always in such a manner that the _command of execution_ may be more
energetic and elevated.

The _command of execution_ is pronounced in a tone firm and brief. The
trumpet ought to be used for giving commands whenever it can be done to
advantage.

=Commilitones.= This word had with the Romans the same significance as
the English words _comrade soldiers_.

=Commissariat.= A name given to the organized system whereby armies are
provided with food and daily necessaries. In the old Roman armies the
duty of supplying troops was performed by the _quæstors_, who filled the
place of the commissary officers of our own times. In the U. S. service
this department is under charge of an officer of the rank of
brigadier-general, called the commissary-general of subsistence.

=Commissary.= In general means any one to whom the power or authority of
another is committed; used in military affairs in relation to officers
who have charge of the subsistence of troops, musters, etc.

=Commissary of Muster.= See MUSTER.

=Commissary Sergeants.= In the U. S. service, are sergeants who are
selected from the line of the army, by the Secretary of War; they must
be steady and reliable men, and their duties are to assist the
commissary officer in receiving, storing, preserving, issuing, selling,
and accounting for the subsistence supplies at their posts, according to
the regulations for the subsistence departments.

=Commission.= A writing, generally in the form of a warrant or
letters-patent, authorizing the performance of duties, or exercise of
powers belonging to another. Instruments bearing this title are issued
by the Executive to officers in the army or navy, who, on confirmation
of their appointment, are known as _commissioned_ officers. The practice
of buying and selling all commissions under the rank of colonel, which
formerly prevailed in the British army, was abolished in 1871.

=Commissioned.= One having a commission; furnished with a commission;
empowered or authorized to act; as, a commissioned officer.

=Common Time.= In marching, the length of the direct step in common time
is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute.

=Communication, Line of.= A fantastical name applied by Belidor to mines
with immense charges, which he proposed to use for the destruction of
countermines, and which were used successfully in the attack of
Schweidnitz, under Frederick II.

=Commutation.= Is the conversion of allowances, such as fuel, forage,
and quarters, into their money value.

=Comorn.= A royal free town of Hungary, 48 miles from Buda. Its citadel
is considered one of the strongest in Europe. Its works and
intrenchments extend about 7 miles along the banks of the rivers (Waag
and Danube), and it requires for its defense at least 15,000 men and 400
pieces of artillery. It has the reputation of being impregnable, and
justified it in the Hungarian war, for the Austrians besieged it from
October, 1848, to September, 1849, and only became masters of it at last
in virtue of a capitulation.

=Compagnies de Discipline= (_Fr._). “Companies of discipline.” These
companies were created by Napoleon I. in 1802; the basis of their actual
organization was laid by a royal order, dated April 1, 1818. This order
fixes the number of companies at 10, 6 of fusileers and 4 of pioneers,
the former to be composed of soldiers of the army who were guilty of
indiscipline, and the latter to be formed of men of the former who were
deemed incorrigible. The number of companies is now reduced to 7, who
are stationed in Algeria. There are also 4 companies similarly organized
which are stationed in the French colonies.

=Compagnies d’Ordonnance= (_Fr._). The name of a corps of cavalry, which
was organized in France by Charles VII. in 1439; it numbered 16
companies, and the entire strength was 9600 men. This was the first
regular cavalry organized in France.

=Company= (Fr. _compagnie_). In military organization, is a body of men
commanded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part of a regiment or
battalion. In the British service a full company consists of about 100
men, and a regiment of infantry generally comprises 10 or 12 companies,
or if there is more than 1 battalion, each has this number of companies.
The captain of each company is assisted by 2 subalterns. In the U. S.
army each regiment of infantry is divided into 10 companies, and each
company has a captain and 2 lieutenants. The artillery and cavalry
regiments are divided into 12 companies each, and the former has a
captain and 4 lieutenants to each company. See ORGANIZATION.

=Company Column.= The successive improvements that have been made in
fire-arms during the last hundred years have been followed by a gradual
diminution of the depth of tactical formations, until to-day the “open
order,” or the formation as skirmishers, is the only one adopted under
the fire of the enemy. In the most recent development of the “open
order” the company, composed of 250 men, is recognized as the “fighting
unit,” while the battalion, composed of 4 companies, is regarded as the
“tactical unit,”--that is, the smallest body of men that can be safely
employed independently.

The adoption of breech-loaders has not changed the principles of
strategy and grand tactics, nor has it diminished the number of lines in
which armies are drawn up to give and receive battle. It has simply
demonstrated the impossibility of attacking positions in battalion
columns, and, as a consequence, has necessitated a division of the
troops into smaller fractions, which, under fire, can be moved with the
greatest rapidity and least exposure, thereby insuring the least loss of
life. Hence the formation of troops in “company column” in the German
and other European armies.

In the German army, the company is formed in three ranks; the tallest
men are in the front rank; the most adroit and best shots are selected
for the third rank, because the special duties of this rank require
these qualities; the distance between ranks is 2 feet. The company is
divided into divisions (or platoons). If the divisions consist of 20 or
more files, they are divided into subdivisions (or half platoons); the
subdivisions are again divided into sections of not less than 4, nor
more than 6 files. If the company be of full strength, it will have a
front of 72 files; each division will contain 36 files; each subdivision
18 files; and each section 6 files. The battalion consists of 4
companies.

The “company column” is formed in the following manner: The battalion
being in line, at the command to “form company column,” the third rank
of each even division of the right wing faces about, marches 12 paces to
the rear, halts, and faces to the front; the first and second ranks of
the uneven divisions face to the left, and place themselves 6 paces in
rear of the first and second ranks of the even divisions; the third rank
of the uneven subdivisions faces to the left, and, filing in front of
the third rank of the even division, forms with it a third division in
double rank. The movement is executed in the uncadenced step. The column
when formed consists practically of 3 platoons in double rank. In the
left wing the movement is similarly executed; the even subdivisions
ploying in rear of the uneven subdivisions. The third division of each
column is called the “shooting division.”

In the French army the company is formed in 2 ranks, and is normally
divided into 4 sections, the first two of which constitute the first
platoon, the last two the second platoon. The “company column” is always
formed on the second section from the right, which stands fast; the
distance between sections is 6 paces.

The “company column” in Italy, Austria, and Russia, as in France, varies
very slightly from the German.

With a battalion of 8 or 10 companies, subdivisions may be dispensed
with, and, so long as this organization is retained in England and
America, the “company column” will not therefore become a necessity.
Should the regimental system of 3 battalions, of 4 companies each, be
adopted, all of the advantages claimed for the “company column”
can be secured by adopting the double column of fours for each
company.--_Armies of Asia and Europe_, UPTON.

=Compass, Prismatic.= A pocket instrument for measuring horizontal
angles by means of the magnetic meridian. It is much employed in the
military service for sketching the general features of a country, and in
reconnoissances. It consists of a small glass-covered box containing a
magnetized needle attached to a graduated card. A sight-vane with a fine
wire stretched longitudinally in the slot is hinged to one side of the
box. On the opposite side is a prism. To use it the sight-vane is turned
up to the perpendicular. The eye is applied to the prism, and the wire
directed on the object. The division in the card coinciding with the
reflection of the wire gives the angle with the meridian.

=Compassionate Allowances.= In the British service, are grants of
allowances which are made to the legitimate children of deceased
officers of the land forces in all cases in which the widow of the
officer would be entitled to be placed on the pension-list, provided it
be shown that they are deserving objects of the sovereign’s bounty, and
are in distressed circumstances.

=Compiègne.= A town of France, department of Oise. It was besieged by
the English in 1430, who failed to capture it owing to the brave defense
made by its governor, Flavia. Joan of Arc, who came to the assistance of
this town, was taken prisoner by the English besiegers. The emperor
Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on October 6, 1861.

=Complement of the Curtain.= That part in the interior side of a
fortification which makes the demi-gorge.

=Complement of the Line of Defense.= The remainder of the line of
defense after the angle of the flank is taken away.

=Compliment.= The military mark of respect shown by a body of troops to
official personages, to an officer, or to another body of troops.

=Compositions, Pyrotechnic.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Compound Armor.= See ARMOR PLATES.

=Compression Strain.= See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

=Compulsion=, or =Inevitable Necessity=. Is a constraint upon the will
whereby an officer is urged to that which his judgment disapproves, and
which, it is to be presumed, his will (if left to itself) would reject.
As punishments are, therefore, only inflicted for the abuse of that free
will which God has given to man, it is highly just and equitable that an
officer should be excused for those acts which are done through
unavoidable force and compulsion.

=Comrade.= A soldier who acts as the friend of another soldier,
rendering him friendly services, etc. Each soldier generally has one
special friend who is recognized as his comrade. The term comrade is
also extended so as to include all the members of a particular corps,
branch of the service, or the army generally.

=Concarneau.= A maritime town of France, department of Finistère; it was
taken by Du Guesclin in 1373, and by the Leaguers in 1576. The town is
defended by a fort and surrounded by ancient walls.

=Concave Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, CONCAVE.

=Concepcion.= A port of Chili, capital of a province of the same name.
In 1554, 1555, and 1603, it was taken and burnt by the Araucanians. A
portion of it was again devastated by the Araucanians in 1823.

=Concord.= A town of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles from Boston. Here,
on April 19, 1775, one of the first conflicts took place between the
Americans and the British troops. A monument is erected at this place to
commemorate the event.

=Concrete.= A coarse building mortar, containing broken stone, gravel,
etc., used much in fortifications.

=Condé.= A town of France, in the department of the North. It is
strongly fortified and has a military arsenal. In 1793 this town was
taken by the Austrians.

=Condemned Property.= In the military service, property must be
condemned by an inspector before it can rightfully be destroyed.

=Condottieri.= A name given in the 14th century to the leaders of
certain bands of military adventurers in Italy, who, for booty, offered
their services to any party in any contest, and often practiced warfare
on their own account purely for the sake of plunder. The _Compagnies
Grandes_ in France at about the same period were somewhat similar to the
condottieri, and were so powerful at one time that in 1361 they routed
the king’s forces at Brignais, and slew Jacques de Bourbon, constable of
France.

=Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman.= See UNGENTLEMANLIKE OR
UNOFFICERLIKE, and APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60 and 61.

=Confederate Projectiles.= See PROJECTILE.

=Confederate States of America=, or =Southern Confederacy=. The efforts
of the Southern States for the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the
Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political
dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-61. On November 4, 1860,
Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected President of the
United States. Hitherto, a President in the interest of the South had
been elected. On December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union; and
Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia
(except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina seceded
early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern
Confederacy at Montgomery, Ala., February 18, 1861. For important events
of the civil war which ensued, see the different States of America
throughout this work, and the names of battles, etc., which were fought
during this war. On the 20th day of August, 1866, the President (Andrew
Johnson) proclaimed the insurrection at an end, and that peace, order,
tranquillity, and civil authority existed throughout the whole of the
United States.

=Confederation of the Rhine.= The league of the German states, formed by
Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman
Empire, and the emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. In
December it consisted of France, Bavaria, Würtemberg, Saxony, and
Westphalia; 7 grand duchies, 6 duchies, and 20 principalities. The
princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of
war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This league terminated with
the career of Bonaparte in 1814. It was replaced by the _Germanic
Confederation_, and it, in its turn, was replaced by the _North German
Confederation_.

=Confiscation.= The appropriation to the public use of private property.
A right which is conferred under certain circumstances by the laws of
war. See CONTRABAND OF WAR.

=Conflans= (near Paris), =Treaty of=. Between Louis XI. of France and
the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, October 5, 1465. By its
provisions Normandy was ceded to the Duke of Berry, and an end was put
to the “War of the Public Good.” It was confirmed by the treaty of
Peronne, 1468.

=Congreve Rocket.= See ROCKET.

=Coni=, or =Cuneo=. The capital of a province of the same name in
Piedmont. It was once a fortified place, and had to undergo several
sieges. After being taken and retaken, the victory of Marengo gave it
into the hands of the French, who demolished the fortifications and
turned them into promenades.

=Connecticut.= One of the original States of the American Confederation,
and the most southwestern of the New England States. The country was
early explored by the Dutch, but the first permanent settlements were
made by English emigrants in 1634. In 1637 the settlers were much
annoyed by Indians, who were shortly afterwards subdued, however, in
engagements at Mystic and Fairfield, and never after gave any serious
trouble. The State took an active part in the cause of American
independence, and also in the late war for the Union, and throughout
both these eventful contests she sustained eminent distinction as well
for the wisdom of her statesmen as for the bravery and patriotism of her
soldiers.

=Conquer.= To gain or acquire by force; to take possession of by violent
means; to gain dominion over; to subdue; to reduce, etc. To gain the
victory; to overcome.

=Conqueror.= One who conquers; one who subdues and brings into
subjection or possession by force or by influence.

=Conquest.= The act of conquering or acquiring by force; the act of
overcoming or subduing opposition by force; subjugation; victory.

=Conquisitores.= So were called the recruiting officers of the Romans.

=Consarbruck.= A village of Rhenish Prussia where the French were
defeated by the Duc de Lorraine, August 11, 1675.

=Conscription.= A system of enrolling men for military service, which is
in vogue in France and some other foreign countries. Voluntary
enlistments being so very few, the compulsory system of keeping up the
armies is deemed indispensable. An account is kept of all the youths who
reach the age of 20 in one year, and out of these the number required
for the army is drawn by lot.

=Consigne= (_Fr._). Parole or countersign.

=Constable.= The title in the Middle Ages of the highest military
officer in France under the king. The term comes from the low Latin
phrase _comes stabuli_, count of the stables.

=Constable of the Tower.= In England, is a general officer who has the
chief superintendence of the Tower, and is lord-lieutenant of the Tower
Hamlets. He holds his appointment by letters-patent from the sovereign,
and is not removable at pleasure.

=Constantine=, or =Constantina=. A fortified city of Algeria, capital of
a province of its own name. It stands on the site of the ancient Cirta,
celebrated as the bulwark of Numidia. It is built upon a high rock,
formed into a species of peninsula by the Rummel. It was besieged by the
French in 1836, but held out till October, 1837, when it was taken by
assault.

=Constantinople.= A celebrated city of Turkey in Europe, the capital of
the Ottoman empire. It was formerly called _Byzantium_, but having been
rebuilt by the emperor Constantine in 328, it received his name. No
city in the world has been subjected to as many numerous and celebrated
sieges, yet it was only taken twice,--by the Crusaders in 1204 (held by
them till 1261), and by the Turks under Mohammed II., May 29, 1453,--an
event which completed the extinction of the Roman empire in the East.

=Contest.= In a military sense, to struggle to defend; as, the troops
contested every inch of ground. Earnest struggle for superiority,
defense, or the like; strife in arms.

=Continental.= A term adopted by the Americans in the Revolutionary war
in contradistinction to British.

=Contingent.= This term is applied to the quota of troops furnished to
the common army by each member of a confederation of states; the
proportion of troops or money furnished by each party to an alliance.

=Contingent.= In the British service, the sum paid monthly to each
captain of a troop, company, or battery, to defray the expense of
stationery, the care of arms, and other minor demands. A contingent
account is also the account, sent in by a staff-officer, of money
expended for miscellaneous purposes.

=Contours.= Are the lines in which a site or ground surface is cut by
horizontal planes, usually taken at equidistances.

=Contraband of War.= Are such articles as a belligerent has by the law
of nations the right of preventing a neutral from furnishing to his
enemy. Articles contraband of war are, in general, arms and munitions of
war and those out of which munitions of war are made. Contraband
articles are subject to confiscation; but very arbitrary interpretations
have been affixed to the term by powerful states, when able to enforce
them by arms. Thus, provisions are held contraband of war when it is the
object to reduce the enemy by famine. But with respect to these and
other articles not in their nature contraband, it seems to be the
practice that the belligerent should purchase them from the neutral for
a reasonable equivalent, instead of confiscating.

=Contramure.= In fortification, is a wall built before another
partition-wall to strengthen it, so that it may receive no damage from
the adjacent buildings.

=Contravallation.= In fortification, is an intrenchment formed in the
same manner as the line of circumvallation, to defend the besiegers
against the enterprises of the garrison. An army forming a siege lies
between the line of circumvallation and contravallation. The trench of
this line is towards the town, at the foot of the parapet, and is never
made but when the garrison is numerous enough to harass and interrupt
the besiegers by sallies. This line is constructed in the rear of the
camp, and by the same rule as the line of circumvallation, with this
difference, that, as it is only intended to resist a body of troops much
inferior to a force which might attack the circumvallation, its parapet
is not made so thick, nor the ditch so wide and deep.

=Contre-forts= (_Fr._). Brick-work which is added to the revetment of a
rampart on the side of the terre-plein, and which is equal to its
height. Contre forts are used to support the body of earth with which
the rampart is formed. They are likewise used in the revetments of
counterscarps, in gorges and demi-gorges, etc. Contre-forts likewise
form a part of the construction of powder-magazines, which are
bomb-proof.

=Contreras.= A celebrated battle-field of Mexico, about 14 miles south
of the capital. Here, on August 19 and 20, 1847, the American forces
under Gen. Scott defeated and totally routed, with loss of all his
artillery, the Mexican general Valencia.

=Contribution.= In a military sense, is an imposition or tax levied on
the people of a conquered town or country.

=Control Department.= In the British service, is the department which
performs all the administrative duties of the army, in fact, all duties
neither combatant, educational, nor scientific. It has a sub-department
which performs all work connected with supply and transport, and to
which is attached the “Army Service Corps,” a body of men officered by
the control department, and employed as butchers, bakers, military
train, dispensers, hospital attendants, and those engaged in
non-combatant duties generally.

=Controller.= In the British service, the highest grade in the control
department. The officers holding it--three in number--rank with
major-generals. A _deputy controller_ belongs to the second grade in the
control department. Officers holding it rank with lieutenant-colonels.

=Convalescent.= A soldier who though discharged from hospital is not
sufficiently recovered to do duty.

=Convention.= In a military sense, is an agreement made between hostile
armies for some well-defined purpose, such as the evacuation of a fort,
territory, etc. One of the most celebrated conventions of modern times
was that of Cintra (1808), between the French and the English generals.

=Conversion.= A change of front, as of a body of troops attacked in the
flank.

=Conversion, Bridge by.= See PONTONS.

=Converted Guns.= A term applied to cast-iron guns lined with wrought
iron or steel tube. See ORDNANCE, PALLISER and PARSONS GUNS.

=Convex Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, CONVEX.

=Convoy.= In the military service, is a train of wagons laden with
provisions or warlike stores, or a detachment of troops appointed to
guard such a train.

=Cooling of Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Coptic Legion.= In 1799 the French army in Egypt not receiving any
reinforcements, grew weaker every day through loss in combat and
disease, when Gen. Kleber, who commanded after the departure of
Napoleon, formed a corps of Copts, or native Christians, about 600
strong, which was known by this name. They were armed the same as the
French troops.

=Cordon.= In military operations, is a line of sentries inclosing or
guarding any particular space of ground, to prevent the passage of
persons other than those belonging to the army. The word also applies in
fortifications to a row of stones made round on the outside, and placed
between the termination of the slope of the wall, so as not to be
offensive to the eye.

=Córdova.= A city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name,
founded about 152 B.C.; taken by the Goths in 572, and made the capital
of an Arab kingdom in 756. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand
III. of Castile in 1236; was taken by the French under Dupont and
disgracefully ravaged, June 8, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte,
January, 1810, and abandoned by the French in 1813.

=Corduroy Road.= A roadway formed of logs laid side by side across it,
as in marshy places; so called from its rough or ribbed surface,
resembling corduroy. See CORDWAY.

=Cordway.= This way or road is made over extensive marsh tracks, and is
constructed as follows, from the description of material usually
abounding in such places: Trees and poles of almost any description will
be found to answer. Cut as many as is thought requisite. Divide them
into three classes,--_ground-poles_, _cross-poles_, and _stringers_. The
ground-poles should be the largest and heaviest. The cross-poles are
comparatively short lengths, and lie across the ground-poles with their
ends projecting some distance beyond. They are laid closely together,
and then secured and bound down by the stringers which lie on them. A
tree-nail driven in here and there serves to keep all in place by
nipping the cross-poles tightly. The ends of the ground-poles and
stringers may be either scarfed and tree-nailed, or laid side by side
and tied with withers or strips of suitable bark. This road is quickly
made and found very useful in transporting the supplies of an army over
a wet, marshy country.

=Core.= When cannon are cast hollow, after the plan of Rodman, a core is
used to make the bore. It consists of a hollow cast-iron pipe, fluted on
the outside, called the _core-barrel_. This is wrapped with rope and the
molding sand is plastered over the rope. A water-pipe entering the
core-barrel and reaching nearly to the bottom, and another leaving it
near the top, are used to maintain a circulation of water through it,
thus cooling the casting from the interior.

=Corea=, or =Korea=. Is an extensive peninsular country in Northeastern
Asia, whose limits are not accurately known. It is bounded east by the
Sea of Japan, south by the Strait of Corea, and west by the Whang-hai,
or Yellow Sea. Corea was first subjected by the Tartars, but in about
1120 B.C. the Chinese appear to have gained possession of the country
The Japanese conquered and held it between the years 1692 and 1698, when
it again fell under the sway of China, and still pays a small annual
tribute to the emperor.

=Corfu.= The capital and principal town of the Ionian Islands. It was
first occupied by the Phæcians, and then by the Liburnians; but the
accounts of it are somewhat mythical until its settlement by the
Corinthians about 734 B.C., and through its commerce it soon after
acquired a considerable importance. It soon quarreled with the
mother-country, and after many vicissitudes of fortune passed under the
dominion of the Romans about 229 B.C. The town is defended by two
fortresses, and garrisoned by British troops since 1864, though
belonging to the kingdom of Greece.

=Corinth.= An ancient and celebrated city of Greece, the capital of a
department of the same name, situated on the Isthmus of Corinth. It was
totally destroyed by L. Mummius, the Roman consul, and burnt to the
ground, 146 B.C. It remained in ruins for a century, and was rebuilt in
the year 46 by Julius Cæsar, after which it again arose to be a populous
and prosperous city. After the taking of Constantinople it fell into the
hands of the Turks, from whom it was retaken in 1687 by its former
possessors, the Venetians. In 1715 it was again possessed by the Turks,
who held it till 1823, when it was taken by the Greeks.

=Corinth.= A village in the northeast of Mississippi, about 90 miles
east of Memphis. It was evacuated by the Confederates under Beauregard,
May 29, 1862, and next day occupied by the Federal forces under Gen.
Halleck. The Confederates, under Gens. Van Dorn, Price, and others,
attempted to take this place, but they were thoroughly defeated after
several desperate struggles by Gen. Rosecrans, October 3-5, 1862. The
Confederate loss in prisoners alone was nearly 3000.

=Corinthian War.= Began 395 B.C.; received this name because it was
carried on mostly in the neighborhood of Corinth; waged by a confederacy
of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives against the
Lacedæmonians. It was closed by the peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C.

=Corium.= Leather body-armor, formed of overlapping leaves or scales,
worn by Roman soldiers, and those of other nations. Its use was
continued in England till the reign of Edward I.

=Cork.= A city of Ireland, capital of the county of the same name; built
in the 6th century, it was garrisoned by Henry II., 1172; taken by
Cromwell in 1649. The Earl of Marlborough besieged and took this city
from King James’s army, 1690.

=Cornet= (Ital. _cornetta_, a “small flag”). Is the lowest grade of
commissioned officers in the cavalry, equivalent to ensign in the
infantry, his duty being to bear the standard. In the U. S. army there
are no cornets.

=Cornet.= In the military history of the ancients, an instrument much in
the nature of a trumpet: when the cornet only sounded, the ensigns were
to march alone without the soldiers; whereas, when the trumpet only
sounded, the soldiers were to move forward without the ensigns. A troop
of horse was so called.

=Cornette-blanche= (_Fr._). An ornament which in ancient times served to
distinguish French officers who were high in command. It was worn by
them on the top of their helmets. It likewise meant a royal standard,
and was substituted in the room of the royal pennon. The
cornette-blanche was only unfurled when the king joined the army; and
the persons who served under it were princes, noblemen, marshals of
France, and old captains, whose orders came direct from the king.

=Coroneia.= An ancient town of Bœotia. The Athenians were here defeated
by the Bœotians, and their leader, Tolmides, slain, 447 B.C. The
Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a
league, offensive and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after
diffusing the terror of his arms from his many victories, even into
Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coroneia and achieved a great victory
over them, 394 B.C.

=Corporal.= In the military service, is a non-commissioned officer next
in rank below a sergeant. He is distinguished by two chevrons worn on
the arm.

=Corporal, Lance.= A private soldier who acts as corporal. He wears one
chevron, but has no increase of pay.

=Corporal-Major.= In the British service, a troop corporal-major is the
non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in a troop of the Household
Cavalry; his position and authority are the same as those of a
color-sergeant of infantry. A regimental corporal-major is the
non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in each of the three
regiments of Household Cavalry, and corresponds to a sergeant-major of
infantry.

=Corporal’s Guard.= Used to indicate a detachment of several men under
arms. May be applied to a squad equal to that usually placed under the
charge of a corporal for drill, police, guard duty, etc. Generally made
use of in a derisive manner.

=Corps.= A body of men; especially a body of troops; an organized part
or division of an army.

=Corps d’Armée.= In the military organization of large armies two or
more divisions form a _corps d’armée_, or army corps, which is complete
in itself as an army, with everything needed for service. In European
states, where large standing armies are kept, this custom of dividing
them into corps, each under an officer of very high rank, and quartering
them in different provinces, is followed even in times of peace.

=Correspondence, Official.= Is correspondence carried on officially
between military officers and various departments of the service, such
as orders, reports, letters, indorsements, etc. All official
correspondence between the heads of the different departments of the
staff of any command and its commander must pass through the
adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant of the
command, as the case may be. Communications to or from a commander and
those under his command must pass through the adjutant-general,
assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant on duty with it; excepting only
such communications between a disbursing officer and the chief of his
particular branch of the staff as relate exclusively to the ordinary
routine of business in their own department. All communications, whether
from an inferior to a superior, or _vice versa_, are, as a general rule,
to be passed through the intermediate commanders. The same rule governs
in verbal applications: for example, a lieutenant seeking an indulgence
must apply through his captain, the captain through the adjutant, and so
on. All correspondence relating to or involving the _personnel_ of the
army when forwarded to the Secretary of War for his orders, must be
forwarded through the adjutant-general for the consideration of the
general of the army.

=Corridor.= The covered way lying round the whole compass of the
fortifications of a place.

=Corselet.= A little cuirass, or piece of armor to cover the front of
the body, worn formerly by pikemen.

=Corsica.= An island in the Mediterranean, held by the French. This
island has been successively occupied by the Carthaginians, Romans,
Goths, Saracens, Franks, the popes, and Genoese; and lastly by the
French, in whose possession it now remains, and to whom it was ceded by
the Genoese in 1768. This island was held by the British from June,
1794, to Oct. 22, 1796.

=Cortege.= The official staff, civil or military.

=Corus=, =Corupedion=, or =Cyropedium=. A plain in Phrygia, Asia Minor,
where the aged Lysimachus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 B.C.
These two were the only survivors of Alexander the Great’s generals.

=Corygaum.= An insignificant village in the presidency of Bombay;
historically interesting in connection with the final subjugation of the
Peishwa of the Mahrattas. On Jan. 1, 1818, it was defended for nine
hours by a mere handful of men under Capt. Staunton, against a native
force numbering at least 3000 infantry and about 20,000 cavalry, the
struggle terminating in the repulse of the assailants after terrible
slaughter.

=Cossacks= (Russ., _Kasacks_). A military organization of irregulars in
the Russian service. They contribute much to the military strength of
Russia; but several insurrections, of which the most alarming was that
of 1773, have taken place since they became subjects to the Russian
government.

=Cossova.= A plain in Servia. Here Amurath I. totally defeated the
Christian army (Servians, Hungarians, etc.), September, 1389; but was
himself killed by an expiring soldier. At this place, in 1448, John
Huniades was defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than his own.

=Costa Rica.= The most southern state of Central America; bounded north
by Nicaragua, northeast by the Caribbean Sea, south by New Granada, and
south and west by the Pacific. The government of Costa Rica was
established in 1832, and is accounted as the best and most liberal in
Central America.

=Coston’s Lights.= Colored pyrotechnical compositions used for night
signaling. Sometimes used in the form of a pistol cartridge.

=Cotice=, or =Cost=. In heraldry, one of the diminutives of the bend. It
is a fourth part of the bend, and is usually borne in couples, with a
head between.

=Couchant.= In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head up, is
_couchant_. If the head is down, he is _dormant_.

=Coulmiers.= A village 10 miles west of Orleans, Central France. Here
the Bavarians under Gen. Von der Tann were defeated by the French army
of the Loire under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines, who took about 2000
prisoners, Nov. 9, 1870, and regained Orleans.

=Council of War.= A conference of officers in military or naval warfare,
on some matter in which the commander wishes to fortify his judgment by
an appeal to that of others. The commandant of a garrison generally
solicits the opinion of a council of war before surrendering to
besiegers.

=Counter-approach.= A trench by which the besieged proceeds to meet the
approaches of the besiegers. It is generally zigzag.

=Counter-arch.= A vertical arch connecting the top of the counter-forts.

=Counter-battery.= A battery which returns the fire of an opposing
battery.

=Counter-changed.= In heraldry, when several metals and colors are
intermixed, one being set against the other, they are said to be
counter-changed.

=Counter-forts.= Interior buttresses constructed for the purpose of
strengthening masonry revetments.

=Counter-guards.= Sometimes called couvre-faces, are works constructed
in permanent fortifications to cover a bastion or demi-lune. They
consist of two faces forming a salient angle.

=Counterhurters.= In gunnery, are pieces of iron bolted to the rails on
which the gun-carriage moves to check it in front and rear. See
ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Countermand.= To revoke, as a former command; to direct or order in
opposition to an order previously given, thereby annulling it, or
prohibiting its execution.

=Countermarch.= A change of direction of a company or battalion in
column from front to rear, by a flank movement, retaining the same
ground.

=Countermine.= A gallery underground so constructed as to facilitate the
formation of mines, by means of which those of the enemy may be reached
and destroyed.

=Countermine.= To oppose by means of a countermine; to frustrate the
designs of, by sinking a well and gallery in the earth, in search of an
enemy’s mine.

=Counter-parole.= A word given in any time of alarm, as a signal.

=Counterpoise Carriage.= A gun-carriage which, applied to a gun mounted
in _barbette_, allows it to recoil behind the parapet or other shelter,
and by means of a counterpoise brings it, or assists in bringing it,
again into _battery_ after it has been loaded. Among the best known of
these carriages are _Moncrieff’s_ and _King’s_,--the former invented by
Capt. Moncrieff, of the British army, and the latter by Capt. W. R.
King, of the U. S. Engineers. In Moncrieff’s carriage the counterpoise
is a heavy weight between the cheeks of the top carriage. In King’s the
weight is in a well under the pintle-block, and is attached to the
carriage by a wire cable.

=Counter-round.= A body of officers, whose duty it is to visit and
inspect the rounds and sentinels.

=Counterscarp.= In fortification, is the vertical or nearly vertical
side of the ditch nearest to the besiegers, and opposite to the scarp or
escarp. It is generally faced or _revetted_ in permanent works, to
render the descent into the ditch difficult.

=Counterscarp Galleries.= Galleries under the counterscarp at the
salients, for the purpose of flanking the ditch.

=Countersign.= In military discipline or manœuvres, is a watch-word
given by the commanding officer of an army or garrison daily, in order
that a friend may be distinguished from an enemy. The countersign is
given to sentinels, and others who are immediately concerned. It is
given in garrison to prevent unauthorized persons from passing the
guards. The countersign is usually the name of a battle.

=Counter-swallowtail.= In fortification, is a kind of an outwork very
much resembling a single tenaille.

=Counter-trenches.= Are trenches made against the besiegers, which
consequently have their parapets turned against the enemy’s approaches,
and are enfiladed from several parts of the place on purpose to render
them useless to the enemy, if they should chance to become masters of
them; but they should not be enfiladed or commanded by any height in the
enemy’s possession.

=Counter-vair.= A heraldic fur. It differs from _vair_ by having its
cups or bells of the same tinctures placed base against base, and point
against point. The tinctures are _or_ and _azure_.

=Coup de Grace.= A finishing or decisive stroke.

=Coup de Main.= A sudden and vigorous attack, for the purpose of
instantaneously capturing a position.

=Coup d’Œil.= The gift of rapidly grasping and turning to the best
account the contingencies of war, and the features of the country which
is its scene.

=Couped= (Fr. _coupé_). A term in heraldry, used to describe the head or
any limb of an animal cut off from the trunk, and smooth. When crosses,
bends, bars, etc., are cut so as not to touch the sides of the
escutcheon, they are also said to be couped.

=Coupe-gorge= (_Fr._). Literally means cut-throat. It is used in a
military sense to signify any spot or position which affords an enemy so
many advantages that the troops who occupy it must either surrender or
be cut to pieces.

=Coupures.= In fortification, are passages cut through the glacis, of
about 12 or 15 feet broad, in the re-entering angle of the covert way,
to facilitate the sallies of the besieged. They are sometimes made
through the lower curtain, to let boats into a little haven built in the
_re-entrant_ angle of the counterscarp of the outworks.

=Courçon= (_Fr._). A long piece of iron which is used in the artillery
and serves to constrain or tighten cannon.

=Courier.= In a military sense, means a messenger sent post or express
to carry dispatches of battles gained, lost, etc., or any other
occurrences that happened in war.

=Courland.= A duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered
by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his son,
Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795.

=Couronement=, or =Couronnement=. In fortification, implies the most
exterior part of a work when besieged.

=Courtel.= A military implement which served both for a knife and a
dagger.

=Court-martial.= In the army, a tribunal for the examination and
punishment of offenders against martial law or against good order and
discipline. Under the present construction of law, members of
courts-martial become judges and jurors. In ancient feudal times the
lords had arbitrary power over vassals who held their lands by tenure of
military service, and punished them as they saw fit, and courts of
chivalry took cognizance of offenses committed by the nobles. With the
decline of feudalism the system of military despotism became obnoxious
to the English people, and although the necessity for a standing army
was admitted in time of peace, it could only exist with the consent of
Parliament. The first military act passed after the accession of William
to the throne of England is believed to have laid the foundation of the
present system of courts-martial, which has also been adopted to a
certain extent in the American service. Parliament having been notified
that a body of English and Scotch troops who were ordered to Holland had
mutinied, that body passed, on April 3, 1689, an act for punishing
mutiny, desertion, etc., which has been renewed annually by Parliament
to the present day. It authorized the king to grant commissions to
certain officers to hold courts-martial for the trial of crimes
committed by officers and soldiers. Similar acts were at different times
passed in relation to offenses committed in the navy. A court-martial is
a court of limited and special jurisdiction called into existence by
force of express statute for a special purpose, and to perform a
particular duty; and when the object of its creation is accomplished it
ceases to exist. The law presumes nothing in its favor. He who seeks to
enforce its sentences, or to justify its conduct under them, must set
forth affirmatively and clearly all the facts which are necessary to
show that it was legally constituted, and that the subject was within
its jurisdiction. And if in its proceedings or sentence it transcends
the limits of its jurisdiction, the members of the court and its officer
who executes its sentence are trespassers, and as such are answerable to
the party injured in damages in the courts of common law. Courts are
classed into general, garrison, summary, regimental, and
field-officers’, according as the authority convening, the nature of the
offenses to be inquired into, the punishment to be awarded, or other
circumstances may determine. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 72 to 114;
also TRIAL.

=Court of Honor.= Is a military court authorized by the regulations of
the Prussian service, convened for the purpose of sustaining the honor
of the service and of individuals, and of punishing officers who may be
found guilty of conduct deviating even in the least from the principles
which actuate military men as men of honor. The court of honor of a
regiment consists of all commissioned officers in it, except the
prosecutor, the defendant, near relations, officers appearing as
witnesses in the case, officers on leave, detached service, under
arrest, or awaiting trial before any court; and has for its regular
business management a council of honor, consisting of the senior
captain, senior first lieutenant, and senior second lieutenant. The
court has jurisdiction over all acts or omissions (not provided for by
any fixed laws) which are unofficerlike or ungentlemanly in their
nature, particularly such as contracting debts, improper choice of
society, excessive use of intoxicating liquors, gambling, quarrels,
carelessness or neglect of duty, and scandal. With the exception of
general officers, all officers of the standing army, the reserve, the
landwehr, and those of the retired list are subject to the laws of the
court of honor. The court to investigate the conduct of a field-officer
is made up of the field-officers of the division to which the officer
belongs.

=Court of Inquiry.= In the military service of the United States, is a
legally constituted court which may be ordered by the President or by
any commanding officer to examine into the nature of any transaction of,
or accusation or imputation against, any officer or soldier upon a
demand by the officer or soldier whose conduct is to be inquired into.
It may consist of one, two, or three officers, and a judge-advocate or
other suitable person as recorder, all of whom are sworn. It has the
same powers as a court-martial to summon witnesses and to examine them
on oath. Courts of inquiry cannot award punishment, but must report to
the officer by whose order they were assembled. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES
OF WAR, 115 to 121; also INQUIRY, BOARD OF.) In the British service
courts of inquiry are not regulated by any statute or standing
regulation, but depend on the will of the sovereign, or of the superior
officer convoking the court, both as to the officers who may compose it,
and as to every particular of its constitution. It is not a judicial
body, but is rather a council, having no power to compel the attendance
of witnesses not of the army or navy, nor to administer oaths.

=Courtrai.= A fortified town of Belgium, on the river Lys. Here Robert,
count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, was defeated and
slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named the “Battle of the
Spurs,” from the number of gilt spurs collected.

=Coussinet à Mousquetaire= (_Fr._). A bag formerly worn by a French
soldier on his left side beneath the cross-belt. It hung on a hook near
the butt of his musket. It likewise signifies a wedge used to support
the mortar in its frame.

=Coutere.= A piece of armor which covered the elbow.

=Coutras.= In Southwestern France. Here Henry of Navarre totally
defeated the Duc de Joyeuse and the Royalists, October 20, 1587.

=Cover.= Natural or artificial protection from the fire of the enemy,
the former being afforded by hills, woods, banks, walls, etc., the
latter by fortifications constructed for the purpose. To cover is, in
military language, to stand exactly behind another man.

=Covering.= Standing exactly in front or in rear of another man or an
object.

=Covering-fascines.= Are those made of stout picket stuff, not less than
1 inch thick, without any mixture of small brush-wood. They may be used
in place of planks for the superstructure of wooden bridges; and may
also be used, if no stout planks or spars are to be had, for the roofs
of field powder-magazines. They may be made of the usual diameter of 9
inches. Their length will depend upon the special purpose for which they
are intended. The withes should be particularly good.

=Covert Way=, or =Covered Way=. Is a road or broad path outside the
fosse or moat of a fortified place, between the counterscarp and the
glacis. It is usually about 30 feet wide, and sunk so far below the
crest of the glacis that soldiers standing upon it cannot be seen by the
besiegers; hence the name. The covert way is broad enough to allow
troops to form on it, either to act defensively or make sorties; and to
increase this accommodation enlarged portions, called _places of arms_,
are made at certain spots.

=Covinarii.= The soldiers who fought on the _covinus_ were so called.

=Covinus.= A kind of war-chariot used by the ancient Britons and
Belgians.

=Cowardice.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 42.

=Cow-boys.= A band of marauders in the time of the American Revolution,
consisting mostly of refugees who adhered to the British side, and who
infested the so-called “neutral ground” lying between the American and
British lines, plundering all those who had taken the oath of allegiance
to the Continental Congress. See SKINNERS.

=Cowpens.= A village in Spartanburg Co., N. C. At this place Gen. Morgan
defeated Col. Tarleton, January 17, 1781; it is said that Tarleton lost
300 men in killed and wounded, and about 500 prisoners. The American
loss was also considerable.

=Cracow.= A city in Austrian Poland, on the left bank of the Vistula. It
was taken by Charles XII. in 1702; taken and retaken several times by
the Russians and other confederates. The Russians were expelled from the
city March 24, 1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians June 15, the
same year, and in 1795 was awarded to Austria. It was occupied by 10,000
Russians, who followed the defeated Poles, September, 1831. It was
finally incorporated with the Austrian empire, November 16, 1846.

=Cradle.= A narrow frame-work of heavy timbers upon which heavy guns are
sometimes placed, to be moved upon rollers.

=Crakers.= Choice soldiers were so called in the time of Henry VIII.

=Crakys.= An old term for great guns.

=Crampets.= The cramp rings of a sword scabbard.

=Crampton’s Gap.= A pass in the South Mountains, Frederick Co., Md. A
stubborn fight of four or five hours took place here September 14, 1862,
between part of Gen. McClellan’s army under command of Gen. W. B.
Franklin and a portion of the Confederate army under Gen. Cobb, which
was defending the pass. The Confederates were forced to retire, having
suffered severe loss in killed and wounded.

=Cranon.= In Thessaly, Northern Greece. The Macedonians under Antipater
and Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by
land, near Cranon.

=Craonne.= A town of France, in the department of Aisne. Here Victor and
Ney defeated the Prussians under Blücher, after a severe contest, March
7, 1814.

=Crater.= The pit left by the explosion of a military mine.

=Cravant.= See CREVANT-SUR-YONNE.

=Crécy=, or =Cressy=. A village in France, department of the Somme,
famous for a great victory obtained over the French, under Philip of
Valois, by Edward III. of England, August 26, 1346. In this battle fell
the king of Bohemia, the Count of Flanders, 8 other sovereign princes,
80 bannerets, 1200 knights, 1500 gentlemen, 4000 men-at-arms, with the
Duke of Alençon and the flower of the French nobility. The English army
was drawn up in three lines; of which the first was commanded by Edward,
prince of Wales, assisted by the Earls of Warwick and Oxford; the second
led by the Earls of Arundel and Northampton; while the third, or body
reserve, was posted along the summit of a hill, under the command of the
king in person, attended by the Lords Mowbray, Mortimer, and others. The
English loss in this battle was very small.

=Crécy-sur-Serre.= A town of France, department of Aisne. Its castle was
taken and razed by Louis le Gros in 1115. The English took the town in
1339, 1358, and 1373; it was taken by the forces of the League in 1589;
and it was burned by the Spaniards in 1662.

=Creedmoor.= About 10 miles east of New York, noted for its splendid
rifle range, which was established in 1871.

=Creek Indians.= Formerly a numerous and powerful tribe dwelling in
Georgia and Alabama. Their number was much reduced by the war of 1814,
in which year they waged war against the United States, but were subdued
by Gen. Jackson. Of the survivors most removed beyond the Mississippi,
and are now settled in Indian Territory, where they are rapidly
advancing in the art of civilization. For numbers, etc., see INDIANS AND
THEIR AGENCIES.

=Creil.= A town of France, department of the Oise. It was ravaged
several times by the Normans; taken by the king of Navarre in 1358; by
the English in 1434; by Charles VII. in 1441; pillaged by the Calvinists
in 1567, and occupied by forces of the League in 1588.

=Cremaille.= In field fortification, is when the inside line of the
parapet is broken in such a manner as to resemble the teeth of a saw.
This advantage is gained by the measure, that a greater fire can be
brought to hear upon the defile than if only a simple face was opposed
to it; and consequently the passage is rendered more difficult.

=Crémaillère= (_Fr._). An indented or zigzag line of intrenchment.

=Cremona.= A fortified city of Northern Italy, the capital of the
province of the same name. It was besieged by the Gauls in 200 B.C.; by
Primus, a general of Vespasian, in 69; by Frederick Barbarossa in 1160.
Prince Eugène took possession of it in 1702; it was taken by the French
in 1796 and 1800.

=Crenaux= (_Fr._). In fortification, small openings or loop-holes, made
through the walls of a fortified town or place. They are extremely
narrow towards the enemy, and wide within; so that the balls from the
besiegers can scarcely ever enter, whereas two or three soldiers may
fire from within.

=Crenelle=, or =Crenel=. A term used sometimes to denote a battlement,
but more frequently an embrasure in a battlement. The adjective
crenellated is employed to signify that a building is supplied with
crenelles.

=Crépy.= A town of France, department of the Oise; it was captured and
sacked by the English in 1339; by the Duke of Lancaster in 1373;
occupied by the Burgundians in 1418; by Pothon and Xaintrailles in 1419;
it was besieged by the Duke of Burgundy in 1420; taken by the English
and their allies in 1431; by Charles VII. in 1433; by the Duc de Mayenne
in 1588.

=Crépy en Laonois.= A town of France, department of Aisne. It was sacked
by the English in 1339 and 1373, and taken by the Burgundians in 1418
and 1420. A treaty of peace was concluded here between Spain and France,
September 18, 1544.

=Crescent.= The figure or likeness of the new moon borne in the Turkish
flag or national standard; also the standard itself.

=Crescent.= The name of three orders of knighthood; the first instituted
by Charles I., king of Naples and Sicily, in 1268; the second by René of
Anjou, in 1448; and the third by the sultan Selim, in 1801. Of these the
last is still in existence, and is remarkable for the fact that none but
Christians are eligible. See CRESCENT, TURKISH ORDER OF.

=Crescent.= In heraldry, is used both as a bearing or charge, and as a
difference or mark of cadency. In the latter case it designates the
second son, and those that descend from him.

=Crescent, Turkish Order of the.= In 1799, after the battle of Aboukir,
the sultan Selim III. testified his gratitude to Nelson by sending him a
crescent richly adorned with diamonds. Selim was flattered by the value
which the English admiral seemed to attach to this gift, and it was this
circumstance which determined him, in 1801, to found the order of the
Crescent, which is only conferred on Christians who have done service to
the state. The second person on whom it was conferred was Gen.
Sebastiani, for his defense of Constantinople against the English fleet
in 1807.

=Cressit.= A small crease or dagger.

=Crest.= Signifies the line which marks the top of a parapet. It is
sometimes called the interior crest. The exterior, or sub-crest, is the
line marking the meeting of the exterior and superior slopes.

=Crest.= In feudal times was the distinctive ornament of the helmet;
hence the term is frequently applied to the helmet itself. In heraldry
the crest is shown as an appendage to the shield, placed over it, and
usually borne upon a wreath. It is generally either some portion of the
coat-armor, or a device commemorative of some incident in the history
of a family, and often contains an allusion to the office of the bearer.

=Crete.= In fortification, implies the earth thrown out of the ditch in
a fortification, trench, etc. The most elevated part of a parapet or
glacis.

=Crete.= See CANDIA.

=Crevant-sur-Yonne.= In Northern France; besieged by John Stuart, earl
of Buchan, with a French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the Earl of
Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians; after a severe
contest the French were totally defeated.

=Creveldt.= Near Cleves, Western Prussia. Here, on June 23, 1758, Prince
Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the French under the Count of Clermont.

=Crimea.= A peninsula of Southern Russia, formed by the Sea of Azof and
the Black Sea. It was the _Taurica Chersonesus_ of the ancient Greeks,
by whom it was colonized about 550 B.C. Here was founded the kingdom of
_Bosporus_, which formed part of the dominions of Mithridates, king of
Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman
protection until the irruption of the Goths, Huns, etc., 258 A.D. It
fell into the hands of the Mongols in the 13th century, was subjected to
the Ottoman yoke in 1475, and was ceded to Russia in 1783. War having
been declared against Russia by England and France, March 28, 1854, an
expedition against the Crimea was determined on. Accordingly, the allied
British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men, commanded
by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna September 3,
and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th without opposition at Old Fort,
near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they
attacked the Russians (40,000 to 50,000 strong), who were intrenched on
the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest
the Russians were totally routed. It was the scene of several other
engagements during the continuance of the war, until the proclamation of
peace in April, 1856. The allies quitted the Crimea July 12, following.

=Crimes, Capital.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 21, 22, 23, 39, 42,
43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 56, 57, 105, and Section 1343.

=Crimes, Military.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Crimisus.= A river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the
Carthaginians, 339 B.C.

=Crimping-houses.= Houses in which persons were entrapped into the army;
hence the name of “crimp sergeant.” In a riot in London some of these
receptacles were destroyed by the populace, in consequence of a young
man who had been enticed into one being killed in endeavoring to escape,
September 16, 1794.

=Criques= (_Fr._). Small ditches which are made in different parts of a
ground for the purpose of inundating a country, in order to obstruct the
approaches of an enemy.

=Croatia.= A province of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. This region was
anciently inhabited by the Pannonians, who were conquered by the Romans
in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary,
in 1102, and was with that country united to Austria in 1526.

=Croats.= In military history, light irregular troops were so called;
generally people of Croatia. They were ordered upon all desperate
services, and their method of fighting was the same as the Pandours.

=Crochert.= A hagbut or hand-cannon, anciently in use.

=Cronstadt.= A seaport and fortress of Russia, about 20 miles west from
St. Petersburg. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1710, the island
having been taken from the Swedes by him in 1703. A Swedish fleet was
defeated here by the Russians in 1790, and in 1855 an English fleet,
commanded by Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic, with the view
of taking this place or destroying its fortifications; but either from
the inadequacy of the means placed at his disposal, or from the great
strength of the forts, no attempt was made upon them.

=Cropedy Bridge.= Near Banbury, Oxfordshire, England. Here the royalists
defeated Sir William Waller and the army of Parliament, June 29, 1644.

=Cross-belts.= Belts worn over both shoulders, and crossing the breast.

=Cross-bow.= A weapon formerly used in discharging arrows, formed by
placing a bow crosswise on a stock.

=Crossen.= A town of the Prussian province of Brandenburg. In 1758 this
place was taken by the Russians.

=Cross-fire.= The crossing of lines of fire from two or more points or
places.

=Cross, Victoria.= See VICTORIA CROSS.

=Crotchet.= In fortification, an indentation in the glacis of the
covered way at a point where a traverse is placed.

=Crotchet.= The arrangement of a body of troops, either forward or
rearward, so as to form a line nearly perpendicular to the general line
of battle.

=Croton=, or =Crotona=. One of the most celebrated of the Greek colonies
in Southern Italy, founded about 710 B.C. About 510 a Crotoniat army of
100,000 men, under Milo, defeated a greatly superior force of Sybarites
on the banks of the Tracis, took the city of Sybaris, and utterly
destroyed it. (See SYBARIS.) In the second Punic war the Bruttians, with
the assistance of the Carthaginian general Hanno, succeeded in making
themselves masters of the city of Crotona, with the exception of the
citadel, which held out until induced to surrender on terms. The ravages
of this war completed the decay of the city, and it sunk into the
condition of an obscure provincial town.

=Crown.= The emblem of sovereignty in modern Europe. It was originally
an Oriental decoration, and was adopted by Alexander the Great from the
kings of Persia. In modern states crowns were of various forms, till
heralds devised a regular series of them to mark the various gradations
of sovereignty, from that of the emperor down to what are called the
coronets of counts and barons. In England, so entirely has the crown
been regarded as the symbol of sovereignty, that the word is frequently
used as synonymous with the monarchy.

=Crown, Civic.= See CIVIC CROWN.

=Crown, Mural.= See MURAL CROWN.

=Crown, Obsidional.= See OBSIDIONAL CROWN.

=Crown, Triumphal.= See TRIUMPHAL CROWN.

=Crown, Vallary.= See VALLARY CROWN.

=Crowning.= A term in fortifications generally applied to the operation,
by the besieged, of establishing works on the crest of the glacis or
summit of the breach. It is sometimes used when describing the movements
of troops, to signify that they have reached the top of a hill or
parapet, which they are said to have crowned.

=Crown-work.= A term used in fortification to signify a work consisting
of two or more fronts of fortification, joined by two long branches to
the ditch of another work, a river, a village, etc. It is generally used
to defend a bridge or suburb.

=Crows=, or =Absorokas=. A tribe of Indians inhabiting the northern part
of Wyoming Territory and the southern part of Montana. They are divided
into two bands, and belong to the Dakota family. See INDIANS AND THEIR
AGENCIES.

=Crows-foot.= An implement of metal with four points, so formed that, in
whatever way it falls, there is one point upward; intended to injure the
feet of horses; a caltrop.

=Crucible, Steel.= Steel melted in crucibles; cast steel. See ORDNANCE,
METALS FOR.

=Crusader.= A knight engaged in the Crusades.

=Crusades.= From the Latin _crux_, a “cross.” A term applied to the
military expeditions undertaken by Christian powers in the 11th, 12th,
and 13th centuries for the recovery of Palestine, or the “Holy Land,”
from the Mohammedans. They were originated by Peter the Hermit, an
enthusiastic French officer of Amiens, who turned pilgrim. There were in
all eight crusades, from 1096 to 1270. The last one ended in the
Christians being driven out of Syria.

=Ctesiphon= (afterwards _Al Madayn_). On the Tigris, the splendid
capital of Parthia, was taken by Trajan in 116, and by Alexander Severus
(who made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defenses deterred Julian from the
siege, 363. Through the cowardice or treachery of the defenders, it was
taken by Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed. He built
Cufa near it with the remains.

=Cuba.= An island in the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Gulf of
Mexico. It is the largest of the West Indian group, belongs to Spain,
and is the most important of the Spanish colonial possessions. It was
discovered by Columbus, October 28, 1492, and the Spaniards formed their
first settlement on it in 1511, and have remained in possession ever
since. Havana, a city of Cuba, was taken by the British in 1762, but was
restored to Spain the following year. In May, 1850, and August, 1851,
unsuccessful attempts to revolutionize the island were made by bands of
adventurers under a Spaniard named Narcisso Lopez. In the latter
expedition, the whole 450 who landed were either slain in fight or taken
prisoners. In 1868 the inhabitants revolted against Spain, and declared
a republic. Spain at once proceeded to crush them into submission, but
the patriots held out until, in 1878, abandoning all hope of assistance
or recognition from abroad, they were obliged to succumb, and the
Spaniards resumed full control of the country.

=Cubical Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Cuddalore= (India). On the coast of the Carnatic, was acquired by the
English in 1681. It was reduced by the French in 1758, but recaptured in
1760 by Sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive
siege by the British under Gen. Stuart, in 1783, which was continued
until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784.

=Cuenca.= A city of Spain, in New Castile, about 84 miles from Madrid.
It was captured from the Moors by the kings of Castile and Aragon in
1176.

=Cuirass= (Fr. _cuir_, leather). Originally a jerkin, or garment of
leather for soldiers, so thick and strong as to be pistol-proof, and
even musket-proof. The name was afterwards applied to a portion of armor
made of metal, consisting of a back-plate and breastplate hooked or
buckled together. The cuirass is worn in the British army by the Life
Guards and the Horse Guards.

=Cuish.= Defensive armor for the thighs, written also _cuisse_.

=Cul-de-sac= (_Fr._). The “bottom of a bag.” A passage with only one
outlet; a position in which an army finds itself, with no way of exit
but to the front.

=Cullen Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Cullen’s-wood.= In Ireland. A horrible slaughter of the English by the
Irish took place at a village near Dublin on Easter or _Black_ Monday,
so called from this massacre, March 30, 1209. The English were a colony
from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to divert themselves at
Cullen’s-wood, when the O’Byrnes and O’Tooles fell upon them, and
destroyed 500 men, besides women and children.

=Culloden=, or =Drummossie Moor=. A wide heath in Scotland, 3 miles east
of Inverness, on which the Duke of Cumberland gained a decisive victory
over the Highland army in their attempt to restore the Stuart dynasty to
the throne, in 1746.

=Culpeper Court-house.= See FAIRFAX.

=Culverin.= A long cannon used from the 14th to the 16th century;
generally carried a shot of 18 pounds. The gun at Dover Castle, called
Queen Elizabeth’s pocket-pistol, is a specimen of a large culverin. A
_demi-culverin_ was a similar piece, carrying a 9-pound shot.

=Cumæ.= An ancient and celebrated Greek city on the coast of Campania,
about 6 miles north of Cape Misenum. The Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians
attacked it by sea, and were defeated by Hieron, 474 B.C. In 420 the
Samnites laid siege to the city, and after repeated attacks succeeded in
carrying it by assault. It was given up to pillage and its inhabitants
put to the sword. In the second Punic war Hannibal made an attempt upon
the city, but was repulsed by Sempronius Gracchus. It was chosen by the
Gothic kings as the depository of their regalia and valuables, and was
the last place in Italy that held out against Narses.

=Cumberland Gap.= Is a natural gap in the Cumberland Mountains, about 80
miles in length, and about 150 miles south by east from Lexington, Ky.
During the civil war it was an important strategic point, and was held
at different times by each of the contending forces. It was held by the
Confederates without any serious interference until Chattanooga was
occupied by the forces of Gen. Mitchell, when it was evacuated about
June 18, 1862, and occupied on the same day by the Union general Geo. W.
Morgan. It was held by him until September 17, when he was compelled to
evacuate it. It was again occupied by the Confederates, who to the
number of 2000 under Gen. Frazer surrendered to Gen. Burnside, September
9, 1863. A large quantity of stores and 10 pieces of artillery were
captured.

=Cunaxa.= In Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cyrus the Younger
was defeated and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he
had conspired, 401 B.C.

=Cunette=, or =Cuvette=. A trench in the bottom of a dry ditch; an
obstacle in the passage of an enemy (especially if filled with water),
and also acting as a drain.

=Cunnersdorf=, or =Kunnersdorf=. A village in Bohemia, 12 miles
north-northwest of Buntzlau. On August 12, 1759, Frederick the Great
with 50,000 men attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 90,000 in
their camp near this place, and at first gained considerable advantages;
but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and
gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and
30,000 men in killed and wounded.

=Curaçoa.= An island in the Caribbean Sea, settled by the Spaniards
about 1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 the French settled
on part of this island, quarreled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to
a British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802; taken from them
by the British in 1807, and again restored in 1814.

=Curiet.= A breastplate made of leather.

=Current Series.= In military administration, orders issued from
established commands, such as divisions, departments, etc., being
numbered in regular order for each year; this term is frequently used
when referring to orders issued in the year passing or current, when the
expression is employed.

=Currier.= A small musketoon with a swivel mounting.

=Currytown.= A village in Montgomery Co., N. Y., noted for the attack on
and murder of its settlers by nearly 500 Indians and a few loyalists,
commanded by a Tory named Doxstader, July 9, 1781. The settlers were
unsuspicious of danger, and were generally at work in the fields when
the enemy fell upon them. After killing and capturing all they could,
the Indians set fire to the buildings, and drove away most of the cattle
and horses in the neighborhood. Next day Col. Willett, who was at Fort
Plain when the attack was made, pursued the enemy with about 150 men,
attacked and killed about 40 of them, and recovered all their plunder.

=Curtain.= In fortification, is that part of the rampart or wall between
two bastions or two gates.

=Curtail=, or =Curtald=. An ancient piece of ordnance, apparently a
short one.

=Curtatone.= Near Mantua, Northern Italy. Here the Austrians under
Radetzky crossed the Minco, and defeated the Italians after a severe
conflict, May 29, 1848.

=Customs of the Service.= Sometimes called common law of the army.
Signifies generally a right or law not written, but established by long
usage. To render a custom valid it has been said that the following
qualities are requisite: 1, habitual or long established practice; 2,
continuance without interruption; 3, without dispute; 4, it must be
reasonable; 5, certain; 6, compulsory; 7, customs must be consistent
with each other. It may be said that the common law of the army derives
its force from the tacit consent of those in the service. Gen. Kautz
states that officers of the army have certain duties to perform that are
governed by certain laws, rules, and regulations, which are interpreted
and executed in a certain way, called “Customs of the Service.” A
knowledge of these rules of the service, and their application,
constitutes the military profession, and is the true art of war. To this
extent it is an exact science, and may be acquired by application and
experience.

=Custozza.= Near Verona, Northern Italy. Here the Italians were
defeated by Marshal Radetzky, July 23, 1848; and here they were again
defeated June 24, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the
Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, Victor
Emmanuel, and the Austrians by the Archduke Albrecht.

=Cut Off, To.= To intercept, to hinder from union or return. In a
military sense this phrase is variously applicable, and extremely
familiar.

TO CUT OFF AN ENEMY’S RETREAT is to manœuvre in such a manner as to
prevent an opposing army or body of men from retiring, when closely
pressed, either to their intrenchments or into a fortified town from
which they had marched or sallied.

=Cut up, To.= To destroy promiscuously. When the cavalry are sent in
pursuit of a flying enemy, the latter are generally cut up.

=Cuttack= (anc. _Catac_). A province in the East Indies, ceded to the
East India Company in 1803. Cuttack, the capital, was taken by Col.
Harcourt, October 14, 1803. This province was captured by the Mahrattas
in 1750.

=Cuzco.= A city of Peru, capital of a department, and the ancient
capital of the Peruvian empire, in South America. This city was entered
by Pizarro in November, 1533, and taken by him in August, 1536, after a
five months’ siege.

=Cylinder-gauge.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Cylinder-staff.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Cyprus.= The most eastern island in the Mediterranean, near the mouth
of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. It was divided among several petty kings
till the time of Cyrus of Persia, who subdued them. It was taken by the
Greeks in 477 B.C., and ranked among the proconsular provinces in the
reign of Augustus. It was conquered by the Saracens, 648 A.D., but
recovered by the Greeks in 957. It was reduced by Richard I. of England
in 1191, and given by him to Guy de Lusignan, who became king in 1192,
and whose descendants governed it until 1489, when it was sold to the
Venetians. It was taken by the Turks in August, 1571, and held by them
until June, 1878, when it was awarded to England by the “Peace Congress
of Berlin.”

=Czaslau.= A town of Bohemia, 45 miles east-southeast of Prague. Here
Frederick the Great gained a victory over the Austrians, May 17, 1742.



D.


=Dacia.= The land of the Daci or Getæ. It comprised the various
countries now known as Eastern Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, and
Moldavia. The Getæ came originally from Thrace, and were divided into
various tribes, and seem to have been the most valiant of the Thracian
barbarians. Curio, the first Roman general who ever penetrated as far
north as the Danube, did not venture to assail them. Julius Cæsar,
however, is said to have intended their subjugation. In 10 B.C.,
Augustus sent an army up the valley of the Maros. From this time a
continual war was waged by the Dacians against the Romans, who actually
compelled the latter, in the reign of Domitian, to pay a tribute. In 101
A.D. the Emperor Trajan crossed the Theiss, and marched into
Transylvania, where he fought a great battle near Thorda. The Daci, who
were commanded by their famous chief Decebalus, were defeated. A second
expedition of the emperor’s (104 A.D.) resulted in the destruction of
their capital, the death of Decebalus, and the loss of their freedom. In
270 and 275 A.D. the Romans abandoned the country to the Goths, and the
colonists were transferred to Mœsia. After a series of vicissitudes,
Dacia fell into the possession of the Magyars in the 9th century.

=Dacota.= See DAKOTA.

=Dadur.= A town of Beloochistan, 5 miles to the east of the Bolan Pass.
It is said to be one of the hottest places in the world, and is
celebrated as the place where, in November, 1840, the British troops
routed a Kelat force.

=Dag.= A thick, clumsy pistol, used in the 15th and 16th centuries.

=Dagen.= A peculiar kind of poniard.

=Dagger.= A weapon resembling a sword, but considerably smaller, being
used for stabbing at close quarters. Daggers are generally two-edged,
and very sharp towards the point.

=Daghestan.= A province of Russia, on the west coast of the Caspian Sea.
It was conquered by the czar Peter in 1723; restored to Persia, 1735;
but re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I. in 1813.

=Dague= (_Fr._). Dagger, a short thick poniard which was formerly used
when individuals engaged in single combat.

=Dahlgren Gun.= So named from Admiral Dahlgren, its inventor. An
improved form of ordnance used for howitzers, heavy artillery, and
especially in naval gunnery. It having been demonstrated that in
ordinary cast guns the weight of the metal forward is greater than is
needed, and that by far the greatest strain in firing is at the breech,
Dahlgren greatly increased the relative size and weight of the breech,
with the best results. These guns are chiefly used by the U. S. forces.
See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Dahme.= A town of Prussia, on the river of the same name. It is
defended by a strong citadel, and inclosed by walls. Here, in 1713, the
French were defeated by the Prussians.

=Dahomey.= An independent state of Guinea, Western Africa, extending
along the coast from Fort Badagry on the east, to the river Volta, which
separates it from Ashantee on the west. The Dahomans, who came into
possession of this tract of country about the beginning of the 18th
century, are for the most part tall, well formed, and intelligent, and,
for an African race, singularly honest and far advanced in agriculture.
With the exception of a few Mohammedans, whose religious belief is in no
way interfered with, they are all pagans, and practice fetish-worship.
The king is the most absolute of despots, having entire control over the
lives and property of his subjects. Wholesale murder is one of the chief
features in religious and state ceremonies, and the most valued
ornaments of the royal residence are human skulls. As many as 2000 human
victims are sometimes sacrificed at one “grand custom.” Of the regular
army of 12,000, about one-half are Amazons (devoted to celibacy), who
are described as much more effective soldiers than their male companions
in arms; but at the same time as blood-thirsty and ferocious as
tigresses.

=Dahra.= In Algeria; on June 18, 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the
French, were suffocated in a cave by smoke, the fire having been kindled
by order of Gen. Pelissier, afterwards Duke of Malakoff. They had fired
on a messenger bearing an offer of truce. The massacre was condemned by
Soult, the minister of war, but justified by Marshal Bugeaud.

=Dakota.= A Territory in the north central part of the United States. It
was organized under a territorial form of government March 2, 1861, but
very extensive alterations have since been made in its boundaries. The
Territory has been greatly disturbed by marauding bands of Sioux
Indians, or Dakotas, who were in 1862 and 1863 especially daring and
aggressive, and though they have frequently been defeated by U. S.
troops, notably under Gens. Sully and Sibley in 1863, they are still
very troublesome, necessitating the frequent intervention of troops for
the protection of the settlers.

=Dakota Indians.= A numerous and powerful tribe or collection of tribes
of Indians of common stock, often called Sioux, who formerly roamed over
the territory between the Missouri and Mississippi, but have moved
farther west since 1851, and are settled on agencies in Dakota, Montana,
Nebraska, etc. A great proportion of them still preserve their nomadic
habits and are still frequently troublesome. See INDIANS AND THEIR
AGENCIES.

=Dalecarlians.= Natives of Dalecarlia, Sweden, who revolted against
Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne of
Sweden.

=Dalmatia.= A narrow strip of territory extending along the Adriatic
Sea; bounded north by Istria and Croatia, and east by Bosnia and
Herzegovina. In ancient times Dalmatia was a considerable kingdom, and,
after many unsuccessful attempts, was first subjugated by the Romans in
the time of Augustus. After the fall of the Western empire, Dalmatia,
which had formed the most southern part of the province of Illyricum,
was captured by the Goths, from whom it was taken by the Avari (490),
who in their turn yielded it to the Slavonians about 620. It continued
under the rule of the Slavonians until the beginning of the 11th
century, when King Ladislaus of Hungary incorporated a part of it with
Croatia, while the other part, with the title of duchy, placed itself
under the protection of the Venetian republic. The Turks afterwards made
themselves masters of a small portion, and by the peace of Campo-Formio
(1797), the Venetian part, with Venice itself, became subject to
Austrian rule, and when Austria, in 1805, had ceded this part to
Napoleon, it was annexed to the kingdom of Italy; afterwards (1810) to
Illyria. Since 1814, excepting the Turkish portion, it has been reunited
with Austria.

=Damages, Barrack.= In the British service, is the term applied to the
injuries done to barracks, barrack furniture, etc., by soldiers, when
the actual perpetrator cannot be discovered. The term is also applied to
the sum levied from the company or regiment generally, to make good the
injury. Damages to arms, clothing, etc. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR,
17.

=Damascus.= A city of Syria, in Asiatic Turkey. During the time of the
Hebrew monarchy, it was the capital of Syria, but afterwards passed
successively under the rule of the Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians,
Romans, and Saracens; and finally, in 1516, it was captured by the Turks
(under Sultan Selim I.), in whose hands it has remained ever since.
Damascus was at one time celebrated for the manufacture of sword-blades
of the finest temper and most exquisite workmanship, but the process by
which such unequaled specimens of art were perfected appears no longer
to exist.

=Damaskin.= A certain kind of sabre; so called from the manufacture of
Damascus.

=Dame= (_Fr._). Among miners any portion of earth which may remain after
the explosion of a mine has taken place. It likewise means a piece of
wood with two handles used to press down turf or dirt in a mortar.

=Damietta.= A city of Lower Egypt, on the east branch of the Nile. It
was taken by the Crusaders, 1219; lost, 1229; retaken by Louis IX., June
5, 1249; surrendered as his ransom when a prisoner, May 6, 1250.

=Damnonii=, =Dumnonii=, or =Dumnunii=. A powerful people who inhabited
the southwest of Britain, comprising Cornwall, Devonshire, and the
western part of Somersetshire, from whom was called the promontory
Damnonium (now Cape Lizard), in Cornwall.

=Danai.= An ancient name of the Greeks, derived from Danaus, king of
Argos, 1474 B.C.

=Danala.= A city in the territory of the Trocmi, in the northeast of
Galatia, notable in the history of the Mithridatic war as the place
where Lucullus resigned the command to Pompey.

=Dancetté.= One of the lines of partition in heraldry, differing from
indented only in the greater size of the notches. See INDENTED.

=Danes=, or =Northmen=. Natives of Denmark; during their attacks upon
Britain and Ireland they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under
Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned
and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They
attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to
Rollo and his Normans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 911. The Danes
invaded England, Scotland, and Ireland with varying successes from 783
to 1084.

=Dangerous Space.= That zone, partly before and partly beyond the object
fired at (the sights having been correctly elevated), which is _covered_
by the trajectory; the object may be displaced to the front or rear of
its correct range-point, a distance equal, in the aggregate, to the
depth of this zone, and still be struck by the projectile. “Dangerous
space” is calculated under the assumption that the gun when fired is 56
inches from the ground, that it is aimed at a point 34 inches from the
ground, and that the stature of a man is 68 inches; and that the head of
a man on horseback is 8 feet above the ground. The “dangerous space”
will, of course, be increased by the firer lying down and aiming at his
adversary’s feet. A part of the “dangerous space” is near the muzzle of
the gun in the rising branch of the trajectory; the rest of it is in the
falling branch; these two parts being continuous up to and including the
“battle-range” (which see). The “dangerous space” varies with the weapon
used and the object fired at; and for the same arm diminishes as the
range increases beyond “battle-range”; up to this point it increases
with the range. A perfect understanding of this subject is essential to
effective infantry fire upon the field of battle. Valuable tables will
be found upon it in Laidley’s “Rifle Firing.”

=Dannebrog.= The ancient battle-standard of Denmark, bearing the figures
of a cross and crown. It was fabled to have fallen from heaven at the
battle of Volmar, in Esthonia (1219), during a crusade against the
heathens. It was twice taken in battle and twice recaptured. In 1500 a
mere fragment remained.

=Dannebrog, Order of the.= Is the second of the Danish orders of
knighthood. It is said to have been founded in 1219, but fell into
decay, and was restored in 1671.

=Dannevirke=, or =Dannewerke=. A series of earthworks considered almost
impregnable, stretching across the long narrow peninsula of Sleswick,
Holstein, and Jutland,--said to have been built during the “stone age.”
It was rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she
was named _Dannabod_, “the pride of the Danes.” It was again repaired
between 995 and 1000. Near here the Prussians, aiding the duchies,
defeated the Danes, April 23, 1848.

=Dantzic=, or =Danzig=. A city of Prussia; is surrounded with ramparts,
mounted with cannon, and the town may be considered as being one of the
strongest fortresses in Prussia. In the 10th century it was known as the
capital of Pomerali; it passed with that province, in 1295, under the
authority of Poland; but in 1308, Ladislaus IV. ceded the whole to the
Teutonic knights, who held it till 1454. In that year it was again
seized by the Poles; and in 1575, having refused to acknowledge Stephen
Bathory, it had to sustain a siege by that monarch, and was taken in
1577. From 1360 to 1641 it was one of the principal towns in the
Hanseatic League. When this league was dissolved, Dantzic joined Lubeck,
Hamburg, and Bremen; and these four cities, down to a very late period,
retained their name of Hanse Towns. In 1734 it was forced to surrender
to the Russians and Saxons, who were then besieging Stanislaus of
Poland. In 1793 it was occupied by the Prussians. It was taken by the
French in May, 1807, after a long siege, by Marshal Lefevre, who thence
acquired his title of duke of Dantzic. After Bonaparte’s disastrous
campaign in Russia, it was blockaded and obliged to surrender, after a
long and able defense by Gen. Rapp. At the peace of Paris, in 1814, it
reverted to Prussia.

=Dardanelles=, or =Hellespont= (anc. _Hellespontus_). A narrow strait
between Europe and Asiatic Turkey, connecting the Sea of Marmora and the
Ægean Sea. As it is the key to Constantinople, there are on both shores
of this narrow channel numerous forts and batteries, there being 8 on
the European and 7 on the Asiatic side. It was here the invading armies
of Xerxes crossed on a bridge of boats to enter Europe. The passage of
the strait was achieved by the British under Sir John Duckworth,
February 9, 1807; but he repassed with great loss, March 2, two castles
occupying the sites of the ancient Sestos and Abydos, hurling down
stones of many tons weight upon the British. The allied English and
French passed the Dardanelles at the sultan’s request, October, 1853.

=Dart.= A pointed, missile weapon, intended to be thrown by the hand; a
short lance; a javelin; hence, any missile weapon.

=Dartmouth.= A seaport town of England, in Devonshire; it was burnt by
the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. In a third attempt
(1404) the invaders were defeated by the inhabitants, assisted by the
valor of the women. In the war of the Parliament, Dartmouth was taken,
after a siege of four weeks, by Prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place
for the king (1643); but it was retaken by Gen. Fairfax by storm in
1646.

=Dauphin= (_Dolphin_), _Fr._ An ornamental handle on brass guns over the
trunnions, so called from its resemblance to that fish.

=Dauphiné.= An old province of Southeast France, successively held by
the Allobroges, Burgundians, and Lombards; was, about 723-24, delivered
from the invading Saracens by Charles Martel. Its counts were called
dauphins; and when it was ceded to Philip of Valois, in 1349, the title
of dauphin was given to the eldest son of the king of France, to whom it
continued to be applied till the revolution of 1830.

=David’s Day, St.= The 1st day of March is annually commemorated by the
Welsh, in honor of St. David. Tradition states that on St. David’s
birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained by the Welsh over their
Saxon invaders, and that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order
of St. David by a leek in their caps.

=Dax.= A well-built town of France, department of Landes. It is
surrounded by an old wall, flanked with towers, and is also protected by
a castle. Dax was taken by the English in the 12th century, and remained
in their possession till the middle of the 15th century.

=Day-book.= In the British service, is a sort of private
memorandum-book, in which the pay-sergeant enters all details of
expenditure other than pay under each man’s head. These entries are made
at the moment, and afterwards transferred to the ledger.

=Day’s March.= See MARCH.

=Dead Angle.= In fortification, is any angle or piece of ground which
cannot be seen, and which therefore cannot be defended from behind the
parapet of the fortification.

=Dead-head.= In casting a cannon, is the surplus metal in the top of the
mold; called also the _sprue_.

=Dead March.= A piece of solemn music intended to be played as an
accompaniment to a funeral procession.

=Dead Pay.= Was the pay formerly drawn for soldiers really dead, whose
names were kept on the rolls; and whose pay was appropriated by
dishonest officers.

=Dead-shot.= An unerring marksman.

=Debark.= To leave a ship or boat and pass to the land; to go on shore;
as, the troops debarked at 4 o’clock; disembark.

=Deblai.= The hollow space or excavation formed by removing earth for
the construction of parapets in fortification. Thus the ditch or fosse
whence the earth has been taken represents the _deblai_, while the earth
itself, so removed, constitutes the _remblai_.

=Deblayer un Camp= (_Fr._). To evacuate a camp for the purpose of
cleaning and purifying the ground.

=Debouch.= A military term, signifying to march out from a wood, defile,
or other confined place into open ground; also an outlet or available
issue by which an army can march out.

=Débris= (_Fr._). Remains, ruins of a building or town which has been
sacked; broken remains of an army after defeat.

=Debruised.= A term in English heraldry used to indicate the restrained
position of an animal in a coat of arms, by having any of the ordinaries
laid over it.

=Decagon.= In fortification, is a polygon figure, having 10 sides, and
as many angles; and if all the sides and angles be equal, it is called a
regular decagon, and may be inscribed in a circle. The sides of a
regular decagon are in power and length equal to the greatest segment of
a hexagon, inscribed in the same circle and cut in extreme and mean
proportion.

=Decamp, To.= To march an army or body of men from the ground where it
before lay encamped. It also signifies to quit any place or position in
an unexpected manner.

=Decanus.= In Roman military history, a petty officer who presided over
the 10 soldiers of his contubernium, or those living in the same ten.

=Deccan.= An extensive region of India; invaded by the Mohammedans in
1294. About 1686-90, Aurungzebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost
great part of it to the Mahrattas. A large part of the Deccan was ceded
to the English in 1818.

=Deceased Officers and Soldiers.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 125,
126.

=Dechargeurs= (_Fr._). Are men appointed to attend the park of
artillery, and to assist the non-commissioned officers, etc., who are
employed on that service. It is the duty of the former to keep a
specific account of articles received and consumed, in order to enable
the latter to furnish their officers with accurate statements.

=Decimation.= A military punishment inflicted among the Romans on
cowardly or mutinous troops. It consisted in selecting by lot one-tenth
of the whole body of troops who misbehaved, and putting them to death.
There have been a few instances of this species of punishment in modern
times. In 1642 the Archduke Leopold employed it against a regiment of
cavalry; Marshal Créqui also had recourse to it against the mutinous
garrison of Trèves, and before the battle of Waterloo Blücher is said to
have punished in this manner a body of mutinous troops.

=Decisions.= In courts-martial, the majority of votes decides all
questions as to the admission or rejection of evidence, and on other
points involving law or custom. If equally divided, the doubt is in
favor of the prisoner.

=Declaration of Independence.= This celebrated document by which the
thirteen United Colonies of America announced their intention of taking
their affairs into their own hands, renouncing their allegiance to Great
Britain, and asserting their freedom, was drawn up by Thomas Jefferson,
and received the unanimous approval of the delegates in the Congress of
the Colonies, July 4, 1776.

=Declaration of War.= The formal announcement by a government of its
intention to wage war against another, is a proceeding which is observed
among all civilized nations. In the United States the declaration of war
is a power exercised by Congress alone. During the age of chivalry, a
herald made declaration of war at the enemy’s court, his tabard on his
arm.

=Decompte= (_Fr._). Signifies a liquidation or balance, which from time
to time was made in the old French service, between the captain of a
company and each private soldier for money advanced or in hand.

=Decoration Day.= The anniversary, in the United States, on which
flowers are placed on soldiers’ graves, and which is observed on May 30.
This day was set apart for the purpose mentioned soon after the war of
the Rebellion, 1861-65.

=Decoration, Military.= A medal, cross of honor, etc., bestowed for
distinguished services.

=Decorations.= In pyrotechny, are the compositions which are placed in
the heads of rockets, in paper shells, etc., to make a brilliant display
when the receptacle is burst.

=Decouplé.= In heraldry, signifies severed or disjoined, so that the
ends stand at a distance from one another, as a _chevron decouplé_.

=Decoy.= To lead or to entice into a snare; to lead into danger by
artifice; to entrap. An enemy is said to be decoyed when a small body of
troops draws them in to action, whilst the main body lies in ambush
ready to act with the greatest effect.

=Decrement.= Is a heraldic term by which the wane of the moon is
indicated. _Decrescent_ and _decours_ are also used in the same sense. A
moon _decrescent_ is a half-moon with her horns turned to the sinister.

=Decurion.= An officer in the Roman cavalry, who commanded a decuria,
which was a body consisting of 10 men.

=Deeg.= A strong fortress of Hindostan, in the province of Agra, which
was captured by the British arms under Gen. Lake in 1804.

=Deep.= A term used in the disposition or arrangements of soldiers
placed in ranks before each other; hence, two deep, three deep, etc.
_Deep line of operations_, a long line.

=Default.= A military offense, in the British service, is so called.

=Defaulter.= A soldier who has been guilty of a military offense. It is
generally applied to men sentenced to confinement to barracks, and
attaches to them until the completion of their punishment.

=Defaulter Book.= The book in which the defaulter sheets are contained.
The regimental defaulter book containing regimental, and the company
defaulter book company, defaults.

=Defaulters’ Sheet.= For every soldier there are two sheets of foolscap
paper, in one of which, called his company defaulter sheet, are entered
all offenses and the punishments awarded. The other, called the
regimental defaulter sheet, contains only offenses for which a man has
been punished by more than seven days confined to barracks, or other
awards considered of equal gravity.

=Defeat.= This word expresses the complete want of success of an army; a
repulse signifying less, and a rout more, than defeat.

=Defeat.= To resist with success; as, to defeat an assault.

=Defection.= The act of abandoning a person or cause to which one is
bound by allegiance or duty, or to which one has attached himself.

=Defend.= To secure against attack; to maintain; as, to defend a town;
to defend a cause.

=Defender.= One who defends; one who maintains, supports, protects, etc.

=Defense.= In military law, is the defendant’s answer to the plea; an
opposing or denial of the truth or validity of the plaintiff’s case; the
method of proceeding adopted by the defendant to protect himself against
the plaintiff’s action.

=Defense.= In fortification, consists of all sorts of works that cover
and defend the opposite posts; as flanks, parapets, casements, etc.

=Defense, Active.= Comprehends every species of offensive operation
which is resorted to by the besieged to annoy the besiegers.

=Defense, Distant.= Consists in being able to interrupt the enemy’s
movements by circuitous inundations; to inundate, for instance, a
bridge, when a convoy is passing, or to insulate batteries, the heads of
saps or lodgments which have been made in the covert way. By this
species of defense an enemy’s communications may be perpetually
intercepted, and his approaches so obstructed as to force him to leave
dangerous intervals.

=Defense, Line of.= Represents the flight of a rifle-ball from the place
where the soldiers stand, to scour the face of the bastion. The line of
defense should never exceed the range of a rifle. It is either _fichant_
or _rayant_. The first is when it is drawn from the angle; the last,
when it is drawn from a point in the curtain, ranging the face of the
bastion in fortification.

=Defense, Lines of.= Are the distances between the salient angle of the
bastion and the opposite flank; that is, the faces produced to the
flanks.

=Defense, Passing.= Is chiefly confined to inundations, and is effected
by letting out water in such a manner that the level ground which lies
round a fortified town or place may be entirely overflowed, and become
an inert stagnant pool.

=Defensive.= A force is said to be on the defensive, or to assume a
defensive attitude, when it takes up a position to receive an attack.

=Defensive War.= See WAR, DEFENSIVE.

=Defilading=, or =Defilement=. The art of arranging the plan and profile
of works, so that their lines shall not be liable to enfilade, nor their
interior to plunging or reverse fire.

=Defile.= A narrow passage, or road, through which troops cannot march
otherwise than by making a small front and filing off.

=Defile, To.= To reduce a body of troops into a small front, in order to
march through a defile; also, to defilade.

=Deformer= (_Fr._). In a military sense, signifies to break; as,
_deformer une colonne_, to break a column.

=Dégat= (_Fr._). The laying waste an enemy’s country, particularly in
the neighborhood of a town which an army attempts to reduce by famine,
or which refuses to pay military exactions.

=Degorgeoir= (_Fr._). A sort of steel pricker used in examining the vent
of a cannon; a priming wire.

=Degradation.= In military life, the act of depriving an officer forever
of his commission, rank, dignity, or degree of honor, and taking away at
the same time every title, badge, or privilege he may possess.

=Degraded.= In heraldry, means placed upon steps or degrees.

=Degsestan, Battle of.= See SCOTLAND.

=Dehors.= In the military art, all sorts of outworks in general, placed
at some distance from the walls of a fortification, the better to secure
the main places, and to protect the siege, etc.

=Delaware.= One of the Middle States of the United States, and one of
the original thirteen. It derives its name (as do the Delaware River and
Bay and Delaware Indians) from Thomas West, lord de la Warr, who visited
the bay in 1610, and died on his vessel at its mouth. It was first
settled by the Swedes and Dutch, but came into possession of the English
in 1664, and formed part of the grant to William Penn in 1682. In 1701
it was separated from Pennsylvania, though subject to the same governor
down to the period of the Revolution, to the success of which it
contributed its full share, and for the maintenance of the results of
which it has ever been a zealous advocate.

=Delaware Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, called by themselves
_Lenni-Lenape_, who formerly lived on the Delaware River, but are now
settled in Indian Territory, on the Wichita Agency, with the Caddos. See
INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Delf.= A heraldic charge representing a square sod or turf, the term
being probably derived from the word _delve_, to dig. A _delf tenné_ is
the appropriate abatement for him who revokes his challenge, or
otherwise goes from his word.

=Delhi.= A celebrated city of Northern India, situated on an offset of
the river Jumna. The city was taken by a British army under Lord Lake,
September 8, 1803, and has ever since continued under British rule. In
1857 it was held by the Sepoys, who murdered several English subjects,
but was retaken, after a successful assault, September, 1857.

=Deliver Battle.= A term taken from the French _livrer bataille_,
meaning to enter practically upon a contest; the opposing armies being
in sight of each other.

=Dellamcotta.= A fortress of Northern Hindostan, in the province of
Bootan, commanding the principal pass into that province. It was stormed
by the British troops in 1773, which so alarmed the Booteans that they
petitioned for peace. The fortress was then restored to them.

=Dellis.= Were Bosnian and Albanian horsemen, who served without pay in
the Turkish armies.

=Delphi= (now _Castri_). An ancient town of Phocis, Greece, celebrated
on account of its oracle of Apollo. Its temple was burnt by the
Pisistratidæ, 548 B.C. A new temple was raised by the Alcmæonidæ. The
Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were deterred from
plundering the temple by awful portents. It was, however, robbed and
seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C., which led to the Sacred War, and Nero
carried from it 300 costly statues in 67 A.D.

=Demembré=, or =Dismembered=. A heraldic term signifying that the
members of an animal are cut from its body.

=Demerara and Essequibo.= Colonies in Guiana, South America, founded by
the Dutch in 1580, were taken by the British, under Maj.-Gen. Whyte,
April 22, 1796, but were restored at the peace of Amiens, 1802. They
again surrendered to the British under Gen. Grinfield and Commodore
Hood, September, 1803, and became English colonies in 1814.

=Demi=, or =Demy=. In heraldry, an animal is said to be demi when only
the upper or fore half of it is represented.

=Demi-bastion.= A piece in fortification, which generally terminates
the branches of crown-works or horn-works towards their head.

=Demi-brigade.= A half brigade.

=Demi-cannon.= A kind of ordnance, anciently used, carrying a ball of
from 30 to 36 pounds in weight.

=Demi-culverin.= A kind of ordnance anciently used, carrying a ball of 9
or 10 pounds in weight.

=Demi-distances= (_Fr._). Half distances; as, _serrez la colonne à
demi-distances_, close to the column at half distances.

=Demi-file= (_Fr._). Is that rank in a French battalion which
immediately succeeds to the _serre-demi-file_, and is at the head of the
remaining half of its depth.

=Demi-gorge.= In fortification, is half the gorge or entrance into the
bastion, not taken directly from angle to angle, where the bastion joins
the curtain, but from the angle of the flank to the centre of the
bastion, or the angle which the two curtains would make by their
prolongation.

=Demihag.= A long pistol, much used in the 16th century.

=Demi-lance.= A light lance; half-pike. Also a light horseman who
carried a lance.

=Demi-lune.= In fortification, is a work constructed beyond the main
ditch of a fortress, and in front of the curtain between two bastions,
intended to defend the curtain; a ravelin.

=Demi-parallel.= In fortification, is a place of arms formed between the
second and third parallels to protect the head of the sap.

=Demi-pike.= A kind of spontoon, 7 feet long, used by infantry or for
boarding.

=Demi-place d’Armes.= In fortification, a circular trench constructed
upon the prolongation of the lines of the covered way, to the right and
left of the zigzags, to cover the troops employed in their defense.

=Demi-revetment.= A revetment of the scarf only to the height protected
by the glacis.

=Demmin.= A town of Prussia, on the river Peene, on the borders of
Pomerania and Mecklenburg. It is a town of considerable antiquity,
having been a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne, and is
noted for the number of sieges it has sustained. Its fortifications were
destroyed in 1759. In 1807 several engagements took place here between
the French and Russians.

=Demonstration.= In military operations, is an apparent movement, the
chief object of which is to deceive the enemy, and induce him to divide
his force, as if to meet dangers from various quarters. When thus
divided and weakened, he may be attacked with greater chance of success.

=Denain.= A village of France, department of the North. It is celebrated
in history as the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by
Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugène.

=Denbigh.= The capital town of the county of the same name, North Wales.
In ancient times it was a place of great military importance. The
castle was gallantly held by Col. William Salisbury for the king during
the civil wars of the revolution, but finally surrendered to the
Parliamentary forces under Gen. Mytton.

=Dendermonde.= A town of Belgium, in the province of East Flanders. It
is fortified, and has a citadel dating from 1584, and possessing the
means of laying the surrounding country under water in case of an
attack. Louis XIV. besieged it in vain in 1667, but Marlborough, aided
by a long drought, succeeded in taking it in 1706.

=Denmark.= A kingdom of Northern Europe, which, with Sweden and Norway,
was originally called Scandinavia. In ancient times it was occupied by a
fierce and warlike people, whose principal occupation was piracy. In 832
the Danes landed in England, and there established two kingdoms, and two
centuries afterwards the conquest of England was completed by Canute,
king of Denmark. In the 15th century Christian I. connected Norway,
Sleswick, and Holstein with the crown of Denmark, but in consequence of
siding with Napoleon, Denmark was obliged to cede Norway to Sweden in
1814. In 1848 Sleswick and Holstein revolted, the duchies being aided by
Prussia and other powers of the Germanic Confederation, who, however,
concluded a peace on their own account, July 2, 1850. The duchies
continued the war, were defeated at Idstet, July 25, 1850, and peace was
restored by the intervention of the powers in January, 1851. Hostilities
again commenced in 1863, and were terminated by the peace of Vienna in
1864, Denmark renouncing all claim on Sleswick-Holstein.

=Dennewitz.= A small village in the province of Brandenburg, Prussia.
Here was fought, on the 6th of September, 1813, a battle between 70,000
French, Saxons, and Poles, commanded by Marshal Ney, and 45,000
Prussians, under Gen. Tauentzien. Both armies more than once drove each
other from their positions, but the Prussians finally prevailed, and Ney
gave orders to retreat. At this moment Bernadotte, crown-prince of
Sweden, appeared at the head of a large army, and turned the retreat of
the French army into a complete rout.

=Denonciateur= (_Fr._). In a general sense, may not improperly be called
a military informer. So rigid indeed were the regulations (even in the
most corrupt state of the French government) against every species of
misapplication and embezzlement, that if a private dragoon gave
information to the commissary of musters of a troop horse that had
passed muster, having been used in the private service of an officer, he
was not only entitled to his discharge, but received, moreover, 100
livres in cash, and became master of the horse and equipage, with which
he retired unmolested. The officer was summarily dealt with.

=Densimeter.= An apparatus for obtaining the specific gravity of
gunpowder by immersing it in mercury. It consists of an open vessel
containing mercury, a frame supporting a glass globe communicating by a
tube with the mercury in the open vessel, and joined at top to a
graduated glass tube, which communicates by a flexible tube with an
ordinary air-pump. Stop-cocks are inserted in the tubes above and below
the glass globe, and a diaphragm of chamois-skin is placed over the
bottom orifice and one of wire cloth over the top orifice of the globe.
The arrangement allows the globe to be filled with mercury to any mark
on the graduated tube, or with gunpowder and mercury. The globe can be
taken off and weighed in both cases. The specific gravity is obtained
from the relation between the weights in the two cases.

=Density.= The density or specific gravity of gunpowder is one of its
most important properties. In the form of dust, the velocity of
combustion increases rapidly with the density up to about 1.60, when it
decreases. In grained powder the velocity of combustion decreases as the
density increases. For English or American powder this velocity is about
four-tenths of an inch per second. For French and most of the
continental powders, which are less dense than the English, it is about
forty-eight-hundredths of an inch. The excellent preservative qualities
of English and American powders are largely due to their high
densities,--the standard being about 1.75. A certain degree of density
is absolutely essential to grain powder to prevent the inflamed gases
from penetrating the pores of the powder and flashing off the whole mass
to the destruction of the gun. In the manufacture of powder the density
depends, first, upon the amount of trituration to which the ingredients
are subjected in the incorporating mill; second, upon the pressure
employed to form the cake; and, third, upon the degree of moisture it
contains when subjected to these operations, particularly the last. The
pressure-gauge is not a reliable measure of the _density_ given to a
powder, though a good indication of the _hardness_, with which density
must not be confounded. Dry powder meal offers a great resistance to
compression, but becomes very hard,--the work being consumed in
consolidating the surface particles. To obtain uniform density a certain
amount of moisture is necessary to assist the particles in their
movement. As much as 6 per cent. of moisture is used in making prismatic
powder.

=Department Commander.= See GEOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT, COMMANDER OF.

=Department, Military.= A military subdivision of a country. The whole
territory of the United States is divided into military departments,
each under a general officer. See GEOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT, COMMANDER OF.

=Department of War.= That department of a government which takes charge
of all matters relating to war. See SECRETARY OF WAR.

=Depenses= (_Fr._). In a military sense, implies secret service money.

=Deploy.= Signifies a military movement, in which a body of troops is
spread out in such a way that they shall display a wider front and a
smaller depth than before deploying. To _ploy_ is to execute the reverse
of this movement.

=Deployment.= The act of unfolding or expanding any given body of men,
in order to extend their front.

=Deposits, Soldiers’.= Soldiers in the U. S. service may deposit with
the paymaster any portion of their savings, in sums not less than $5,
the same to remain so deposited until final payment on discharge.
Interest on deposits at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum will be paid
on final settlement upon each deposit from the date thereof to date of
discharge. No interest is payable, however, upon any deposit of less
than $50, or upon any sum, whatever its amount, which has been on
deposit for a less period than six months prior to date of discharge.
Deposits are forfeited by desertion.

=Depot.= Any place at which military stores are deposited for the use of
an army. It also signifies a fort or other suitable place appropriated
for the reception of recruits, or detached parties belonging to
different regiments. In fortification, the term is likewise used to
denote a particular place at the trail of the trenches out of the reach
of the cannon of a besieged place. It is here that besiegers generally
assemble when ordered to attack the outworks, or support the troops in
the trenches when there is reason to imagine the besieged intend making
a sally.

=Depredate.= To take plunder or prey; to commit waste; as, the troops
depredated on the country; also, in an active sense, to plunder or
pillage; to spoil; to lay waste.

=Depressed Gun.= Any piece of ordnance having its mouth depressed below
the horizontal line.

=Depression.= The pointing of any piece of ordnance so that its shot may
be projected short of the point-blank.

=Depth.= A technical word, peculiarly applicable to bodies of men drawn
up in line or column. The depth of a battalion or squadron is the number
of men in rank and file from front to rear.

=Deputy-Marshal.= In the British service, is the senior sergeant-major
of each regiment of Foot Guards, who sees after and makes out the routes
of deserters, and receives an allowance for so doing.

=Deraser= (_Fr._). To cut off the superfluous clay from a gun-mold
previous to its being placed in the pit.

=Derayeh, El.= A town of Arabia, nearly in the centre of the district
called El Nedjed. It is tolerably well fortified, but after a siege of
seven months, in 1819, it was nearly destroyed by the troops of Ibrahim
Pasha.

=Derbend=, or =Derbent=. A town of Russia, the capital of the province
of Daghestan. It is surrounded by strong walls and flanked and
strengthened by massive bastions. It was taken from Persia by Russia in
1722, restored to the former power in 1735, and retaken by the
Muscovites in 1795.

=Derivation= (_Fr._). Drift of rifle projectiles. See PROJECTILES.

=Descend.= In a military sense, means to make an attack or incursion as
if from a vantage-ground.

=Descents.= In fortification, are the holes, vaults, and hollow places
made by undermining the ground.

=Descents into the Ditch.= Cuts and excavations made by means of saps in
the counterscarp, beneath the covert way. They are covered with thick
boards and hurdles; and a certain quantity of earth is thrown upon the
top in order to obviate the bad effects which might arise from shells,
etc.

=Descriptive Book.= A book in which descriptive lists of the soldiers
belonging to a company are kept.

=Descriptive List of Soldier.= A paper giving a short history of the
soldier, a description of his person, and the statement of his account.
It accompanies him wherever he goes, being intrusted to his detachment
or company commander.

=Descriptive Memoir.= This memoir, which should always accompany a
sketch of a topographical reconnoissance, is intended to convey that
information relating to the natural features of the ground not expressed
upon the sketch; to express that information for which there are no
conventional signs, and to present those facts relative to the ground
which become important by being considered in connection with the
probable military operations to be undertaken.

=Desenzano.= A town of Lombardy, in the province of Brescia. Garibaldi,
in command of the Italian volunteers, defeated an Austrian force near
this place in 1859.

=Desert.= To quit a service without permission; to run away; as, to
desert from the army; to forsake in violation of duty; as, to desert
one’s colors.

=Deserter.= A soldier who absconds, during the period for which he is
enlisted, from the service of the army or navy. In England this crime
was by certain old statutes made punishable with death, but now the
punishment is left to the discretion of a court-martial. In the United
States, deserters in the time of war may be sentenced to death, but in
time of peace the penalty for this offense is lighter.

=Desertion.= The act of absence from duty without intention to return.
See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 47.

=Despatch=, or =Dispatch=. An official military letter sent by the
commander of an army in the field to the authorities at home. The term
is also applied to the military letters giving an account of military
operations sent by subordinate officers holding detached commands to the
general of an army in the field. See DISPATCHES.

=Detach.= To separate for a special object or use; as, to send out a
body of men on some particular service, separate from that of the main
body.

=Detached Bastion.= In fortification, is that basis which is separated
from the enceinte by a ditch.

=Detached Works.= In fortification, are such outworks as are detached,
or at a distance from the body of the place; such as half-moons,
ravelins, bastions, etc.

=Detachment.= In military affairs, an uncertain number of men drawn out
from several regiments or camps equally, to march or be employed as the
general may think proper, whether on an attack, at a siege, or in
parties to scour the country. A detachment of 2000 or 3000 men is a
command for a general officer, 800 for a colonel, 500 for
lieutenant-colonel, 200 or 300 for a major, 80 or 100 for a captain, 40
for a lieutenant, 12 for a sergeant, and 6 for a corporal.

=Detachment, Gun.= The men required for the service of a piece of
artillery.

=Detachment, Manœuvring.= The men required for mechanical manœuvres of a
siege or sea-coast gun.

=Detail for Duty.= Is a roster, or table, for the regular performance of
duty either in camp or garrison. The general detail is regulated by the
adjutant-general, according to the strength of the several corps. The
adjutant of each regiment superintends the detail of officers and
non-commissioned officers for duty, and orderly sergeants detail the
privates.

=Detmold.= A town of Northwestern Germany, capital of the principality
of Lippe-Detmold, on the Werra. In the vicinity is the battle-field on
which the army of Varus was destroyed by the Germans under Arminius, in
9 A.D.

=Detonating Powder.= A term applied in chemistry to fulminating mercury
and silver, and to other compounds which suddenly explode when struck or
heated. Some of these compounds have been much used for the ignition of
gunpowder in percussion locks.

=Detonation.= The instantaneous conversion of an explosive into gas; a
term applied to the phenomena attending the explosion of certain
substances, such as _nitro-glycerine_, _chloride of nitrogen_, _iodide
of nitrogen_, _gun-cotton_, the _picrates_, etc. Detonation, or
explosion of the first order, is distinguished from ordinary explosion,
or explosion of the second order, by the different way in which the
explosion is propagated. Ordinary explosion proceeds by inflammation,
being nothing more than a rapid combustion. Detonation is propagated by
vibration. A detonating agent is a substance used to produce the
_initial vibration_, or “impulse of explosion.” The exploder, or cap,
used for this purpose is usually primed with fulminate of mercury, a
substance having a wide range in bringing about detonation in the high
explosives.

=Dettingen.= A village of Bavaria, on the Maine. It is noted for a
victory gained by the English, under George II., over the French,
commanded by Marshal Noailles, in 1743.

=Devastation.= In warfare, is the act of destroying, laying waste,
demolishing, or unpeopling towns, etc.

=Deviation of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES.

=Device.= The emblem on a shield or standard.

=Devicotta.= A fort and seaport town in the south of India, and district
of Tanjore. It was taken in 1749 from the rajah of Tanjore.

=Devonshire.= A maritime county in the southwest peninsula of England,
between the Bristol and English Channels. The Saxons failed to conquer
Devonshire till the 9th century. It was ravaged by the Danes in the 9th
and 10th centuries, and by the Irish in the 11th century. In 1688 the
Prince of Orange landed at Tor Bay, in this county.

=Deyrah=, or =Dehra=. A town of Northern Hindostan, and the principal
place of the British province designated the Deyrah Doon. During the
Nepaul war in 1815, the Deyrah Doon became the scene of military
operations, and acquired a mournful celebrity by the obstinate defense
made by the Goorkhas at Kalunga, or Nalapani, in the siege of which the
British lost a considerable number of men, including their gallant
commander, Gen. Gillespie.

=Diable= (_Devil-carriage_), _Fr._ A truck-carriage on four trucks, for
carrying mortars, etc., to short distances; it is provided with
draught-hooks at each end, so as to be drawn to front or rear.

=Diameter.= In both a military and geometrical sense, implies a right
line passing through the centre of a circle, and terminated at each end
by the circumference thereof.

=Diaphragm Shell.= An obsolete spherical shell formerly used in the
English service, so named from the arrangement of the interior.

=Diapré.= A term applied in heraldry to fields and charges relieved by
arabesque and geometrical patterns. This ornamentation, not affecting
the heraldic value of the objects to which it was applied, was generally
left to the fancy of the painter.

=Diarbekir.= A city of Asiatic Turkey, and capital of the pashalic of
Diarbekir. This place was successively taken, retaken, and destroyed, in
the ancient wars between the Persians and Romans. It was pillaged by
Tamerlane in the year 1393; and was successively taken and retaken by
the Persian kings, until it was conquered by Selim, the first sultan of
the Osmanli Turks, in the year 1515. In 1605 it again fell into the
power of Persia; but it was afterwards retaken by the Turks, under whose
dominion it has since continued.

=Dictator.= In the earliest times, was the name of the highest
magistrate of the Latin Confederation, and in some of the Latin towns
the title was continued long after these towns were subjected to the
dominion of Rome. In the Roman republic the dictator was an
extraordinary magistrate, irresponsible and endowed with absolute
authority. The dictatorship could not lawfully be held longer than six
months. Dictators were only appointed so long as the Romans had to carry
on wars in and out of Italy, or when any vigorous measure had to be
acted upon. The limits of his power were as follows: he could not touch
the treasury; he could not leave Italy; and he could not ride through
Rome on horseback without previously obtaining the permission of the
people.

=Dideon’s Formulas.= Certain equations relating to the trajectory of a
projectile in the air, obtained by Capt. Dideon of Metz by integrating
the differential equations of the trajectory under certain assumptions
as to the law of the resistance, etc. See PROJECTILES, TRAJECTORY, IN
AIR.

=Diego.= A very strong and heavy sword.

=Diest.= A town of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the Demer. This town
was taken by the Duke of Marlborough in 1705, but retaken by the French,
and dismantled, in the same year. Since 1830 it has been surrounded with
fortifications and made a place of great strength.

=Dietary, Military.= See SUBSISTENCE OF ARMIES and FOOD.

=Dieu et Mon Droit= (_Fr._). “God and my Right.” The motto of the royal
arms of England, first assumed by Richard I., to intimate that he did
not hold his empire in vassalage of any mortal. It was afterwards
assumed by Edward III., and was continued without interruption to the
time of William, who used the motto _Je maintiendray_, though the former
was still retained upon the great seal. After him Anne used the motto
_Semper eadem_; but ever since her time _Dieu et mon droit_ has
continued to be the royal motto.

=Differences.= In heraldry, are marks introduced into a coat of arms to
distinguish brothers and their descendants from the father or head of
the house, while he is alive; marks of cadency being used for a similar
purpose after his death.

=Differential Pulley.= A hoisting apparatus consisting of an endless
chain and two pulleys of slightly different diameters. The chain winds
upon one while unwinding from the other. It is attached to a crane, and
used to hoist heavy shot to the muzzle of large cannon.

=Dijon.= An ancient walled city of France, chief town of the department
of Côte-d’Or. It has been several times captured in war. It was attacked
by the Germans under Gen. Beyer, October 30, 1870. The heights and
suburbs were taken by Prince William of Baden, and the town surrendered
October 31.

=Dike=, or =Dyke=. A channel to receive water; also a dam or mound, to
prevent inundation. Dikes differ from sluices; the former being intended
only to oppose the flowing of other water into a river, or to confine
the stream by means of strong walls, pieces of timber, or a double row
of hurdles, the intervals of which are filled with earth, stones, or
pebbles.

=Dimachæ.= In ancient military affairs, were a kind of horsemen,
answering to the dragoons of the moderns.

=Dimidiation.= In heraldry, a mode of marshaling arms, adopted chiefly
before quartering and impaling according to the modern practice came
into use, and subsequently retained to some extent in continental,
though not in English heraldry. It consists in cutting two coats of arms
in halves by a vertical line, and uniting the dexter half of one to the
sinister half of the other. Coats of husband and wife were often so
marshaled in England in the 13th and 14th centuries.

=Diminish.= In a military sense, means to decrease the front of a
battalion; to adopt the columns of march, or manœuvre according to the
obstructions and difficulties which it meets in advancing.

=Diminished Angle.= Is that formed by the exterior side and line of
defense in fortification.

=Diminutions.= A word sometimes used in heraldry for differences, marks
of cadency, and brisures, indifferently.

=Dinan.= A town of France, in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, situated
on the Rance. This place was often besieged during the Middle Ages; in
1373 was taken by Du Guesclin, and in 1379 by De Clisson.

=Dinant.= A town of Belgium, on the Meuse, 14 miles south from Namur. It
was taken by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1466, when 800 of its
inhabitants were taken by twos, tied back to back, and thrown into the
Meuse. The town was also razed to the ground; but in 1493 it was
rebuilt. In 1554 and 1675 it was again taken by the French.

=Dinapore=, or =Dinapoor=. A town of British India, in the presidency of
Bengal, on the Ganges. It is an important military station, containing
extensive barracks and cantonments for English and native troops.

=Dindigul.= Capital of a district in the south of India, in the
presidency of Madras. It was captured by the British troops, under Col.
Stuart, in 1790.

=Dipping of the Muzzle.= A piece of artillery when fired has been
explained by the action of the vent in bringing increased pressure on
the elevating screw or quoin, the reaction from which throws down the
muzzle.

=Direct Fire.= See FIRE, DIRECT.

=Directing Sergeant.= When a company is being drilled in marching, a
sergeant distinguished for precision in marching is selected, who is
called a directing sergeant, and placed in front of the guide on the
line established. This sergeant is charged with the direction and step,
and marches on points selected by himself directly in front of him. The
right guide of the company marches straight in the trace of the
directing sergeant.

=Direction.= In military mechanics, signifies the line or path of a body
in motion, along which it endeavors to force its way, according to the
propelling power that is given to it.

=Direction.= In gunnery, is that element of pointing which relates to
the movement of the piece around an imaginary vertical axis. The
direction is given when the plane of sight passes through the object.
Elevation is a movement about a horizontal axis.

=Directory.= In the history of France, the name given by the
constitution of 1795, to an executive body composed of five members of
the French republic. They assumed authority in a moment of immense
peril. France was environed with gigantic adversaries, while distrust,
discontent, and the malice of rival factions made her internal
administration almost hopeless. The frantic heroism of her soldiers
saved her from spoliation by the foreigner; but, on the contrary, the
home policy of the Directory was deplorable. In 1799 the Directory was
overthrown by the _coup d’état_ of the 18th Brumaire, November 9, 1799,
and was succeeded by the Consulate.

=Dirk.= Is a short dagger which at various times and in various
countries has been much used as a weapon of defense. It is still worn by
Highland regiments in the British service.

=Dirk-knife.= A clasp-knife, having a large, dirk-like blade.

=Disability.= State of being disabled; want of competent physical or
intellectual power. When a soldier becomes disabled from exposure,
accidents, or other causes, he is discharged from the service on a
surgeon’s certificate of disability, which enables him to draw a
pension.

=Disarm.= To deprive of arms; to take away the weapons of; to deprive of
the means of attack or defense.

=Disarmament.= The act of disarming.

=Disarmed.= Soldiers divested of their arms, either by conquest, or in
consequence of some defection.

=Disarmer.= One who disarms.

=Disarray.= To throw into disorder; to break the array of.

=Disarray.= Want of array or regular order; disorder.

=Disbanding.= Is the breaking up of a military organization and the
discharge of soldiers from military duty.

=Disbursing Officer.= An officer whose special function is to make
disbursements of money.

=Discharge.= From military service, is obtained by non-commissioned
officers and privates by expiration of term of service, which varies in
different countries; on surgeon’s certificate of disability, and by
special authority for various reasons, when recommended by the
commanding officer. Soldiers are also discharged with ignominy for great
offenses, being in some cases stripped of their decorations and drummed
out of the service.

=Disciplinarian.= An officer who pays particular regard to the
discipline or the soldiers under his command.

=Discipline.= In military and naval affairs, is a general name for the
rules and regulations prescribed and enforced for the proper conduct and
subordination of the soldiers, etc. This is the technical meaning. In a
higher sense discipline is the _habit of obedience_. The soldier
acquires the habit of subordinating his own will, pleasure, and
inclinations to those of his superior. When the habit has become so
strong that it is second nature, the soldier is disciplined.

=Discomfit.= Defeat, rout, overthrow.

=Discretion.= _Se rendre à discrétion_, surrendering unconditionally to
a victorious enemy.

=Disembarkation.= The act of landing troops from a boat or ship. The
term has lately been applied to the act of quitting a railway train.

=Disembody.= To disarm a military body, and to dispense with its
services.

=Disengage.= To separate the wings of a battalion or regiment, which is
necessary when the battalion countermarches from its centre and on its
centre by files. It likewise means to clear a column or line which may
have lost its proper front by the overlapping of any particular
division. It also signifies to extricate oneself and the troops
commanded from a critical situation. It likewise means to break suddenly
from any particular order in line or column, and to repair to some
rallying-point.

=Disengage.= In fencing, means to quit that side of an adversary’s blade
on which one is opposed by his guard, in order to effect a cut or thrust
where an opportunity may present.

=Disgarnish.= To take guns from a fortress.

=Disgarrison.= To deprive of a garrison.

=Dishelm.= To deprive of the helmet; to take the helmet from.

=Dish of a Wheel.= Is the inclination outward of the spokes when
fastened in the nave.

=Dislodge.= To drive an enemy from a position.

=Dismantle.= To render fortifications incapable of defense, or cannon
unserviceable.

=Dismiss.= To discard, or deprive an officer of his commission or
warrant. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OR WAR.

=Dismount.= To dismount the cavalry is to use them as infantry. Guards,
when relieved, are said to dismount. They are to be marched with the
utmost regularity to the parade-ground where they were formed, and from
thence to their regimental or company parades, previously to being
dismissed to their quarters. To dismount cannon, is to break their
carriages, wheels, etc., so as to render them unfit for service. It also
implies dismounting by the gin, etc.

=Disobedience of Orders.= Any infraction, by neglect or willful
omission, of orders. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 21.

=Dispart.= In gunnery, half the difference between the diameter of the
base-ring at the breech of a gun and that of the swell of the muzzle. In
guns which have no front sights, it is therefore the tangent of the
natural angle of sight to a radius equal to the distance from the rear
of the base-ring, or base-line, to the highest point of the swell of the
muzzle, measured parallel to the axis. For convenience the muzzle sight
is usually made equal in height to the dispart in modern guns,--giving a
natural line of sight parallel to the axis of the piece.

=Dispatches.= Official messages. In war, important dispatches which have
to pass through the enemy’s country, or in the vicinity of his forces,
are only intrusted to officers to whom their contents can be confided.
Dispatches are frequently in cipher, especially when telegraphed or
signaled with a liability to interception. See DESPATCH.

=Disperse.= To scatter any body of men, armed or unarmed, who may have
assembled in an illegal or hostile manner. The cavalry are generally
employed on these occasions.

=Displaced.= Officers in the British service are sometimes displaced
from a particular regiment in consequence of misconduct, but they are at
liberty to serve in any other corps.

=Display, To.= In a military sense, is to extend the front of a column,
and thereby bring it into line.

=Displayed.= In heraldic usage, means expanded; as, an eagle displaced,
or what is commonly known as a spread eagle.

=Displume.= To deprive of decoration or ornament; to degrade.

=Dispose.= To dispose cannon, is to place it in such a manner that its
discharge may do the greatest mischief.

=Disposition.= In a general sense, is the just placing of an army or
body of men upon the most advantageous ground, and in the strongest
situation, for a vigorous attack or defense.

=Disposition de Guerre= (_Fr._). Warlike arrangement or disposition.
Under this head may be considered the mode of establishing, combining,
conducting, and finally terminating a war, so as to produce success and
victory.

=Disrespect to a Commanding Officer.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 20.

=Disrespectful Words.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 19.

=Distance.= In military formation, signifies the relative space which is
left between men standing under arms in rank, or the interval which
appears between those ranks.

=Distance of the Bastion.= In fortification, is the term applied to the
exterior polygon.

=Distances of Objects.= See POINTING.

=Distribution.= Means, generally, any division or allotment made for the
purposes of war; also minor arrangements made for the supply of corps.

=District, Military.= One of those portions into which a country is
divided, for the convenience of command, and to insure a co-operation
between distant bodies of troops.

=Disvelloped=, or =Developed=. Are heraldic terms applied to the colors
of a regiment, or army, when they are flying.

=Ditch.= In fortification, is an excavation made round the works, from
which the earth required for the construction of the rampart and parapet
is obtained. Ditches are of two kinds, wet and dry; but in modern
fortification the dry ditch is considered preferable to the wet one.
When the excavation is on the side farthest from the enemy it is called
a trench.

=Diu.= A once celebrated island and fortress of Hindostan, in the
peninsula of Kattywar. In 1515 the Portuguese gained possession of it;
they fortified it, and in ten years rendered it impregnable against all
the powers of India. With the decline of Portuguese power it fell into
decay, and was plundered by the Arabs of Muscat in 1670.

=Diversion.= An attack upon an enemy in a place where he is weak and
unprovided, in order to draw off his forces from making an irruption
elsewhere; or a manœuvre, where an enemy is strong, which obliges him to
detach part of his forces to resist any feint or menacing attempt of his
opponent.

=Divest.= To strip of clothes, arms, or equipage.

=Divine Service.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 52.

=Division.= In military matters, is one section of an army, comprising 2
or more brigades, commanded by a general officer. In regimental
formation, 2 companies of a regiment or battalion constitute a division,
when in column.

=Dizier, St.= A town of France, on the Marne. The emperor Charles V.
besieged and took this place in 1544; and in its neighborhood Napoleon
defeated the allies in two battles fought January 27 and March 26, 1814.

=Djokjokarta.= A Dutch residency of Java, near the middle of the south
coast of that island. The town of the same name is the seat of a Dutch
resident and a native sultan, who has a body-guard of young females,
completely armed and equipped, some of whom do duty on horseback. It was
taken by the British in 1812.

=Dobrudscha= (anc. _Scythia Minor_). A name used to denote the
northeastern portion of Bulgaria. The Dobrudscha has long been a famous
battle-ground. Some of the earliest incidents of the Russian war of
1854-56 took place here.

=Dolabra.= A rude ancient hatchet. They are represented on the columns
of Trajan and Antoninus, and abound in all museums. When made of flint,
which was their earliest and rudest form, they are usually called
_celts_.

=Dôle.= A town of France, in the department of Jura, on the right bank
of the Doubs. In 1479 it was taken by Louis XI., when the greater part
of the town was destroyed, and many of its inhabitants were put to the
sword. It subsequently came into the hands of the Spaniards, and was
fortified by Charles V. in 1530. In 1636 it was ineffectually besieged
by the Prince of Condé. In 1668 it was taken by the French; and again in
1674, when its fortifications were destroyed.

=Dolphins.= Two handles placed upon a piece of ordnance with their
centres over the centre of gravity, by which it was mounted or
dismounted. They are no longer in use in the U. S. service.

=Domingo, San.= The capital of the Spanish part of the island of Hayti,
in the West Indies. About the year 1586 the city was sacked by Sir
Francis Drake.

=Dominica.= An island in the West Indies, belonging to the Leeward
group, lying about 20 miles to the north of Martinique. This island was
discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was claimed alternately by England,
France, and Spain: it was finally ceded to Great Britain in 1763.

=Dommage= (_Fr._). In a general acceptation of the term, signified in
the old French service, the compensation which every captain of a troop,
or company, was obliged to make in consequence of any damage that their
men might have done in a town, or on a march.

=Donabue.= A town in India, in the British province of Pegu. In 1825,
during the Burmese war, it maintained a successful resistance against
the assault of a British force under the command of Brigadier Cotton;
and here in 1853, during the last war with the same nation, the British
troops suffered a repulse in an encounter with a Burmese force, losing
several officers.

=Donauwörth.= A town of Bavaria, situated at the confluence of the
Wernitz and the Danube. Here Marlborough stormed and carried the
intrenched camp of the Bavarians in 1704, and on October 6, 1805, the
French under Soult obtained a victory over the Austrians under Mack.

=Donelson, Fort.= A position on a slight bend of the Cumberland River,
in Tennessee, which was strongly fortified by the Confederates during
the civil war. On the afternoon of February 14, 1862, Commodore Foote
commenced with his gunboats an attack on this place, but met with a
decided reverse. Meantime, Gen. Grant’s army, advancing from the capture
of Fort Henry, gradually approached, and surrounded the fort, with
occasional skirmishing on the line. Next day the Confederates attacked
them, but were repulsed with loss, and finding all hope of
reinforcements unavailing, they surrendered the fort on the 16th. About
10,000 prisoners, 40 pieces of artillery, and a large quantity of stores
of all kinds fell into Gen. Grant’s hands.

=Dongola, New=, or =Maraka=. A town on the Nile, and capital of a
province of the same name, in Nubia. Ibrahim Pasha took it from the
Mamelukes in 1820.

=Donjon=, or =Dungeon=. The principal tower or keep of a castle or
fortress. It was so called either from being placed on a _dun_ or
elevation, natural or artificial, or because, from its position, it
dominated or commanded the other parts of the fortress. From the
circumstance that the lower or under-ground story of the donjon was used
as a prison, has come the modern meaning of the word dungeon.

=Doolee.= A palanquin litter, used in Indian armies, to carry sick and
wounded men.

=Dormans.= In Northeast France. The Huguenots and their allies under
Montmorency were here defeated by the Duke of Guise, October 10, 1575.

=Dormant.= (_Fr._). Sleeping. In heraldic representation, an animal
_dormant_ has its head resting on its fore-paws, whereas an animal
_couchant_ has its head erect.

=Dornach.= A village of Switzerland, 20 miles northeast from Soleure,
remarkable for the victory obtained by the Swiss over the Austrians,
July 22, 1499, and which gave Switzerland her independence.

=Dorogoboozh=, =Dorogobush=, or =Dorogobouge=. A town of Russia, in the
government of Smolensk. At this place the French were defeated by the
Russians, October 12, 1812.

=Dosser.= In military matters, is a sort of basket, carried on the
shoulders of men, used in carrying the earth from one part of a
fortification to another, where it is required.

=Dossière= (_Fr._). Back-piece of a cuirass.

=Douai=, or =Douay=. A fortified town of France, on the small river
Scarpe, 18 miles south from Lille. This place was taken from the
Flemings by Philip the Fair in 1297; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It
reverted to Spain, from whom it was taken by Louis XIV. in 1667. It was
captured by the allies, under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugène,
in 1710, but was retaken by the French, September 8, 1712.

=Double.= To unite, as ranks or files, so as to form one. _To double
upon_, to inclose between two fires.

=Double-quick.= Performed in the time called double-quick; as, a
double-quick step or march.

=Double-quick.= To move, or cause to move, in double-quick time.

=Double-rank.= A line formed of double files.

=Double-shell.= A shell used in the 7-inch English rifles. It is 27
inches long, and has a large cavity. To strengthen it against outside
pressure it has three internal longitudinal ribs projecting about an
inch into the cavity.

=Double-shotting.= Is an increase of the destructive power of ordnance
by doubling the shot fired off at one time from a gun. Sometimes three
shots are fired at once, in which case the piece is said to be
_treble-shotted_.

=Double-time.= The fastest time or step in marching, next to the run,
requiring 165 steps, each 33 inches in length, to be taken in one
minute. The degree of swiftness may vary in urgent cases, and the number
of steps be thus increased up to 180 per minute.

=Doubling.= The putting of two ranks of soldiers into one.

=Doublings.= The heraldic term for the linings of robes or mantles, or
of the mantlings of achievements.

=Doullens.= A town of France, 15 miles northeast of Amiens. This place
was taken by the allies in 1814.

=Doune.= A village of Perthshire, Scotland. The ruins of Doune Castle, a
large and massive fortress built about the 14th century, are situated on
the point of a steep and narrow elevation. Doune was held for Prince
Charles in 1745, and here he confined his prisoners taken at Falkirk,
among the rest the author of the tragedy of “Douglas.”

=Douro.= A large river in Spain and Portugal, which was crossed in 1809
by the British army under the Duke of Wellington, when he surprised the
French under Marshal Soult, and won the battle of Oporto.

=Dover= (anc. _Dubris_). A city and seaport of England, in the county of
Kent, on Dover Strait. The city is defended by Dover Castle, which is
built on chalk-cliffs 320 feet high, and is a fortress of great strength
and extent. The castle is said to have been founded by the ancient
Romans. Near here Julius Cæsar is said to have first landed in England,
August 26, 55 B.C., and here King John resigned his kingdom to Pandolf,
the pope’s legate, May 13, 1213.

=Dowletabad.= A celebrated city and fortress of Hindostan, province of
Hyderabad, deemed impregnable by the natives; but notwithstanding its
strength, it has been frequently taken.

=Drabants.= A company of 200 picked men, of which Charles IX. of Sweden
was captain.

=Draft.= A selecting or detaching of soldiers from an army, or any part
of it, or from a military post; also from any company or collection of
persons, or from the people at large for military service.

=Draft.= See DRAUGHT.

=Draft, To.= To draw from a military band or post, or from any company,
collection, society, or from the people at large; to detach; to select.
Written also _draught_.

=Dragon.= An old name for a musketoon.

=Dragon et Dragon Volant= (_Fr._). Some old pieces of artillery were
anciently so called. The Dragon was a 40-pounder; the Dragon Volant a
32-pounder. But neither the name nor the size of the caliber of either
piece is now in use.

=Dragonner= (_Fr._). According to the French acceptation of the term, is
to attack any person in a rude and violent manner; to take anything by
force; to adopt prompt and vigorous means; and to bring those people to
reason by hard blows, who could not be persuaded by fair words.

=Dragoon.= From the old fable that the dragon spouts fire, the head of
the monster was worked upon the muzzle of a peculiar kind of short
muskets which were first carried by the horsemen raised by Marshal
Brissac in 1600. This circumstance led to their being called dragoons;
and from the general adoption of the same weapon, though without the
emblem in question, the term gradually extended itself till it became
almost synonymous with horse-soldier. Dragoons were at one time a kind
of mounted infantry, drilled to perform the services both of horse and
foot. At present, dragoon is simply one among many designations for
cavalry, not very precise in its application. This term is not now used
in the U. S. service.

=Dragoon, To.= Is to persecute by abandoning a place to the rage of the
soldiers.

=Dragoon Guards.= In the British service, seven regiments of heavy
cavalry bear this title.

=Drag-rope.= This is a 4-inch hemp rope, 28 feet long, with a thimble
worked into each end, one of the thimbles carrying a hook. Six handles,
made of oak or ash, are put in between the strands of the rope, and
lashed with a marline. It is used to assist in extricating carriages
from different positions by the men, for dragging pieces, etc.

=Drag-rope Men.= The men attached to light or heavy ordnance, for the
purpose of expediting movements in action. The French _servans à la
prolonge_ are of this description.

=Drain=, or =Drein=. In the military art, is a trench made to draw water
out of a ditch, which is afterwards filled with hurdles and earth, or
with fascines or bundles of rushes, and planks, to facilitate the
passage over the mud.

=Drake.= A small piece of artillery, no longer used.

=Draught.= The act of drawing men from a military band, army, or post,
or from any company or society; draft; detachment; also, formerly, a
sudden attack or drawing upon an enemy.

=Draughted.= The soldiers of any regiment allotted to complete other
regiments are said to be draughted, or drafted.

=Draught-hook.= Either of two large hooks of iron fixed on the cheeks of
a gun-carriage, two on each side, used in drawing the gun backward and
forward.

=Drawbridge.= A bridge of which the whole or part is made to be let
down, or drawn or turned aside, to admit or hinder communication at
pleasure, as before the gate of a town or castle. It is called
_bascule_, _swivel_, or _rolling_ bridge according as it turns on a
hinge vertically, on a pivot horizontally, or is pushed lengthwise on
rollers.

=Drawing.= In a military sense, is the art of representing the
appearances of all kinds of military objects by imitation or copying,
both with and without the assistance of mathematical rules.

=Drawn Battle.= A fight from which the combatants withdraw without
either side claiming the victory.

=Draw off, To.= In a military sense, means to retire; also to abstract
or take away; as, to draw off your forces. To _draw on_ is to advance;
also to occasion; as, to draw on an enemy’s fire. To _draw over_ is to
persuade to revolt; to entice from a party. To _draw out_ is to call the
soldiers forth in array for action. To _draw up_ is to form in battle
array. To _draw out a party_ is to assemble any particular number of
armed men for military duty. The French say, _faire un detachement_.

=Drayton-in-Hales=, or =Market Drayton=. A town of England, in
Shropshire. Here the partisans of the house of York defeated the
Lancastrians in 1459.

=Dresden.= The capital of the kingdom of Saxony, and one of the best
built towns of Europe. Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756; by the
Austrians in 1759; bombarded in vain by Frederick, July, 1760. On August
26-27, 1813, the allies were defeated in a terrible battle by the French
under the walls of this city; and about a mile from it is a granite
block, surmounted by a helmet, marking the spot where Moreau fell in the
conflict, while conversing with the emperor Alexander.

=Dress.= A word of command for alignment of troops; also of the
alignment itself.

=Dressers.= See GUIDES.

=Dress, Full.= Dress uniform. The French is _grande tenue_, or _grande
uniforme_.

=Dress Parade.= Parade in full uniform; one of the ceremonies prescribed
in tactics.

=Dress, To.= To cause a company or battalion to take such a position or
order as will preserve an exact continuity of line in the whole front,
or in whatever shape the command is to be formed. Soldiers dress by one
another in ranks, and the body collectively by some given object. To
_dress the line_ is to arrange any given number of soldiers, so as to
stand perfectly correct with regard to the several points of an
alignment that have been taken up.

=Dress Uniform.= The dress prescribed for occasions of ceremony.

=Dreux.= An old town of France, in the department of the Eure and Loire,
on the Blaise. In 1188 this town was burned by the English; and in 1562
the Prince of Condé was taken prisoner in a severe action fought between
the Huguenots and Roman Catholics in its neighborhood.

=Drift.= A tool used in driving down compactly the composition contained
in a rocket, or like firework.

=Drift.= A deviation peculiar to oblong rifle projectiles. See
PROJECTILES.

=Drill.= Is a general name for the exercises through which soldiers and
sailors are passed, to qualify them for their duties. There are many
varieties of drill,--that of the cavalry, infantry, and artillery,--all
have different drills conformable to their different organizations.

=Drill-Sergeant.= A non-commissioned officer, whose office it is to
instruct soldiers as to their duties, and to train them to military
evolutions.

=Drogheda.= A seaport town of Ireland, in the counties of Meath and
Louth, built on both sides of the Boyne. From the 14th to the 17th
century, Drogheda was the chief military station in Ulster. In 1641 the
town was besieged by O’Neal and the northern Irish forces, but was
gallantly defended by Sir Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade
relieved by the Marquis of Ormond, who also relieved it a second time
when invested by the Parliamentary army under Col. Jones. In 1649,
Cromwell was twice repulsed in besieging this town; but in the third
attempt he was successful, when most of the garrison were slaughtered.
This place surrendered to William III. the day after the battle of the
Boyne, which was fought in 1690 at Oldbridge, 4 miles west of Drogheda.

=Drum.= A musical instrument of percussion, formed by stretching a piece
of parchment over each end of a cylinder formed of thin wood, or over
the top of a caldron-shaped vessel of brass; the latter is hence called
a kettle-drum. The large drums which are beaten at each end are called
_double drums_, or _bass drums_, and are used chiefly in military bands.
Kettle-drums are always used in pairs; one of which is tuned to the
key-note, the other to the fifth of the key. The drum is principally
used for military purposes, especially for inspiring the soldiers under
the fatigue of march or in battle. It is supposed to be an Eastern
invention, and to have been brought into Europe by the Arabians, or
perhaps the Moors. In the French army the drum is now, to some extent,
abolished.

=Drum.= To execute on a drum, as a tune;--with _out_, to expel with beat
of drum; as, to drum out a deserter, etc.; with _up_, to assemble by
beat of drum; to gather; to collect; as, to drum up recruits, etc.

=Drumclog.= In Western Scotland; here the Covenanters defeated Graham of
Claverhouse, June 1, 1679. An account of the conflict is given by Walter
Scott, in “Old Mortality.”

=Drum-head.= The head or upper part of a drum.

=Drum-head Court-martial.= A court-martial called suddenly by the
commanding officer to try offenses committed on the line of march, and
which demand an immediate example. This method is not resorted to in
time of peace.

=Drum-Major.= Is that person in a regiment of infantry who has command
of the drummers and teaches them their duty. He also directs the
movements of the regimental band, while on parade.

=Drummer.= The soldier who plays a drum. The majority of drummers are
boys, generally the sons of soldiers. In former times it was the part of
a drummer’s duty to flog men sentenced to corporal punishment.

=Drumming Out.= The ceremony of ignominiously discharging a soldier from
the service. The culprit is marched out of the garrison at the point of
the bayonet, the drummers or musicians playing the “Rogue’s March.”

=Drum-stick.= A stick with which a drum is beaten, or shaped for the
purpose of beating a drum.

=Drunk on Duty.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 38.

=Druses.= A warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon,
derive their origin from a fanatical Mohammedan sect which arose in
Egypt about 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. They now
retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors. In 1860, in
consequence of disputes, the Druses attacked their neighbors, the
Maronites, whom they massacred, it was said, without regard to age or
sex. This led to a general massacre of Christians soon after. But the
Turkish troops, with French auxiliaries, interfering on behalf of the
Christians, invaded Lebanon in August and September, when the Druses
surrendered, giving up their chiefs, January, 1861.

=Dry Camp, To Make a.= Troops on the march are said _to make a dry camp_
when they are compelled by exhaustion, or other causes, to camp at a
place where there is no water. For such camps water is usually
transported with the troops.

=Dualin.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Dubicza=, or =Dubitza=. A town and fort of European Turkey, in Bosnia,
on the Unna. The Austrians took this town in 1738.

=Dublin.= The capital city of Ireland, on the Liffey, close to its
entrance into Dublin Bay. It is alleged that this city has been in
existence since the time of Ptolemy. In the earlier part of the 9th
century, Dublin was taken by the Danes, who infested it for several
centuries thereafter. In 1169 it was taken by storm by the English under
Strongbow. From about this period the history of Dublin is that of
Ireland.

=Ducenarius.= An officer in the Roman armies who commanded two
centuries.

=Dudgeon.= A small dagger (rare).

=Duel.= Was the old form of a combat between two persons, at a time and
place indicated in the challenge, cartel, or defiance borne by one party
to the other. A duel generally takes place in the presence of witnesses,
called seconds, who regulate the mode of fighting, place the weapons in
the hands of the combatants, and enforce compliance with the rules
which they have laid down. In the United States the practice of fighting
duels, being declared illegal by statutes, is very seldom resorted to.

=Dueling.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 26, 27.

=Duffadar.= A rank in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with
that of sergeant.

=Duffadar, Kot.= A non-commissioned officer in the East Indian Native
Cavalry, corresponding with a troop sergeant-major.

=Duffadar Major.= A rank in the East Indian Native Cavalry,
corresponding with that of regimental sergeant-major.

=Duke.= From the Latin _dux_, a “leader,” a title that first came into
use when Constantine separated the civil and military commands in the
provinces. This title was successively borrowed by the Goths and Franks,
and since the time of the Black Prince, who was created first duke in
England (Duke of Cornwall) in 1335, it has been a title of the nobility,
ranking next below the blood royal.

=Dukigi-Bachi.= Second officer in the Turkish artillery, who commands
the Topelas, or gunners and founders.

=Duledge.= A peg of wood which joins the ends of the felloes, forming
the circle of the wheel of a gun-carriage; and the joint is strengthened
on the outside of the wheel by a strong plate of iron, called the
_duledge plate_.

=Dumdum.= The name of a town and of a valley in India, well known in the
military history of the country; it is 8 miles to the northeast of
Calcutta, having extensive accommodations for troops, and a
cannon-foundry. The place is famous in connection with the mutiny of
1857, as the scene of the first open manifestation on the part of the
Sepoys against the greased cartridges.

=Dumfries.= A royal burgh and parish of Scotland, the capital of
Dumfriesshire, on the Nith. This town was exposed to repeated calamities
from the invasions of the English during the border wars. In this town
John Comyn, the competitor for the Scottish throne, was stabbed by
Robert Bruce in 1305.

=Dünaburg.= A strongly fortified town of Western Russia, on the Düna. It
is of great military importance, owing to the strength of its
fortifications. It was founded by the Knights of the Sword in 1277.

=Dunbar.= A seaport town of Scotland, in Haddingtonshire, at the mouth
of the Frith of Forth. On the high rocks at the entrance to the new
harbor are a few fragments of the ruins of an old castle, which was once
very strong, and an important security against English invasions. Edward
I. took it, and Edward II. fled thither after the battle of Bannockburn;
it was demolished in 1333, and rebuilt in 1336; it was successfully
defended in a siege of six weeks against the Earl of Salisbury by Black
Agnes, countess of Dunbar, in 1338; it sheltered Queen Mary and
Bothwell in 1567; and in the same year it was destroyed by the regent
Murray. In 1650, Cromwell, at the “Race of Dunbar,” defeated the
Scottish army under Leslie.

=Dunblane=, or =Dumblane=. A town and parish of Scotland, in Perthshire,
on the Allan. Not far from this place is Sheriffmuir, where, in 1715, a
battle was fought between the royal troops and the followers of the
Pretender.

=Dungan Hill= (Ireland). Here the English army, commanded by Col. Jones,
signally defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain,
August 8, 1647.

=Dungeon= (originally _Donjon_, which see). A prison; a dark and
subterraneous cell or place of confinement.

=Dunkirk.= A fortified seaport town in the extreme northern part of
France, in the department of the North. In 1558 the English, who had for
some time held possession of the town, were expelled from it by the
French, who, in the ensuing year, surrendered it to the Spaniards. In
the middle of the 17th century it once more passed into the hands of the
French, who, after a few years’ occupation of it, again restored it to
Spain. In 1658 it was retaken by the French and made over to the
English. It was sold to the French king by Charles II. in 1662. In 1793
it was attacked by the English under the Duke of York, who, however, was
compelled to retire from before its walls with severe loss.

=Dunnottar.= A parish of Scotland, in Kincardineshire. It contains the
castle of Dunnottar, now in ruins. In the time of the civil wars, this
was the fortress in which the Scottish regalia were deposited. After
being besieged by Cromwell’s forces for six months, it capitulated; but,
before this, the regalia were secretly conveyed from it.

=Dunsinane.= In Perthshire, Scotland. On the hill was fought the battle
between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of
Northumberland, July 27, 1054. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said
pursued to Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 1057.

=Durazzo= (anc. _Epidamnus_). A town of Albania, European Turkey. It is
fortified, and is a place of considerable antiquity. Durazzo was founded
about 627 B.C. by a conjoined band of Corcyræans and Corinthians under
one Phaleus, a Heracleidan. It became a great and populous city, but was
much harassed by the internal strifes of party, which ultimately led to
the Peloponnesian war. Under the Romans it was called _Dyrrachium_
(whence its modern name). Here Pompey was for some time beleaguered by
Cæsar. In the 5th century it was besieged by Theodoric, the Ostro-Goth;
in the 10th and 11th centuries by the Bulgarians; and in 1081 it was
captured, after a severe battle, by the Norman, Robert Guiseard of
Apulia.

=Düren.= A town of Prussia, on the Roer. This was a Roman town, and is
mentioned by Tacitus by the name of _Marcodurum_. Charlemagne held two
diets here in 775 and 779, when on his way to attack the Saxons. It was
taken by assault and burned by Charles V., after an obstinate
resistance, in 1543. In 1794 it fell into the hands of the French, but
was ceded to Prussia in 1814.

=Dürkeim.= A town of Rhenish Bavaria, 20 miles north from Landau. The
summit of a height near this town is crowned by a rampart of loose
stones 6 to 10 feet high, 60 to 70 feet wide at the base, and inclosing
a space of about two square miles called the _Heidenmauer_ (“heathens’
wall”), which the Romans are said to have built to keep the barbarians
in check, and where Attila is said to have passed a winter, after having
wrested the fortress from the Romans, when passing on his way to Rome.

=Durrenstein.= A town of Austria, on the Danube. In the neighborhood, on
a rock, are the ruins of the castle in which Richard Cœur de Lion was
imprisoned in 1192. In 1805 the Russian and Austrian armies were
defeated here by the French.

=Duties.= This word is used in military parlance to express the men
paraded for any particular duty, such as guards, etc.

=Duty.= There is no word oftener used in military parlance than this. In
the technical sense it refers to the various services necessary for the
maintenance, discipline, and regulation of armies,--as _signal duty_,
_staff duty_, _the duties of a sentinel_, etc. To be _on duty_ is to be
in the active exercise of military functions; to be _off duty_ is to
have these functions temporarily suspended; to be _put on duty_ is to be
assigned to duty by order of a superior. Military duties are variously
classed as _duties of detail_, which are recurring and governed by a
roster, such as guard, fatigue, etc.; _special duties_ which are
determined by appointment, selection, or order; _extra duty_, continuous
special duty of enlisted men, entitling them to pay; _daily duty_, short
terms of special service for enlisted men. In a higher and broader sense
_duty_ is that which is due one’s country. It covers all the soldier’s
obligations, and forms his simplest and sublimest rule of action.

=Dyer Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Dynamite=, called in the United States “giant powder,” is formed by
mixing nitro-glycerine with certain porous substances, and especially
with certain varieties of silica or alumina, these substances absorbing
the nitro-glycerine. It was invented in 1867 by the Swedish engineer
Nobel, who proposed to prevent the frequent and unexpected explosions of
nitro-glycerine, at the same time without sacrificing any of its power.
This he effected by the use of certain silicious earths as a base for
the absorption of the nitro-glycerine, the experiment resulting in the
new compound which he called dynamite, its transportation and handling
being no more dangerous than that of ordinary gunpowder. It is not
liable to spontaneous explosion like pure nitro-glycerine, nor can it
be exploded by moderate concussion; when unconfined, if set fire to, it
will burn without explosion; it may be safely kept at any moderate
temperature; is inexplosive when frozen, and acts effectively under
water. Its effects are proportional to the quantity of nitro-glycerine
held in absorption; but under circumstances where a sustained bursting
pressure is required, not being as instantaneous in its action as
nitro-glycerine, its effects are more powerful than those of an equal
weight of the pure material. The best absorbent of nitro-glycerine for
the formation of dynamite is a silicious earth found at Oberlohe,
Hanover. During the siege of Paris, a scientific committee of
investigation, engaged in experimenting on different substances as a
substitute for this earth, selected as the best silica, alumina, and
boghead cinders. Any of these, they declared, when combined with
nitro-glycerine, formed a substance which possessed all the remarkable
qualities attributed to the dynamite of Nobel. During the siege of Paris
dynamite was used successfully by the French engineers to free a
flotilla of gunboats caught in the ice on the Seine, below Charenton, by
simply placing a quantity of it on the surface of the ice. The explosion
dislodged the ice for a great distance, and the masses thus loosened,
being directed into the current by the aid of a small steamer, floated
down the stream, and left the river open. There are various other
compounds of nitro-glycerine, such as dualin, glyoxiline, etc., all
differing in the matter used as a base, they being generally some
explosive substances; but none of them appears to have come into such
general use or to be as reliable as dynamite. Many preparations of
chlorate and picrate of potassium have also been used from time to time
as explosive agents; but their great sensibility to friction or
percussion renders them extremely dangerous; they are, therefore, not
liable to come into general use. A preparation of potassium chlorate and
sulphur, not liable to explode by concussion, but very sensitive to
friction, is used with great effect as a charge for explosive bullets.

=Dynamometer.= An instrument for measuring the force of recoil in a
small-arm, consisting usually of a spiral spring so arranged as to be
compressed by the butt of the gun in firing. An index shows the number
of pounds required to produce a similar compression. The instruments now
used by the U. S. Ordnance Department are graduated to show the effect
of the recoil in _foot-pounds_ or _units of work_. This sensible change
was made at the suggestion of Lieut. Henry Metcalfe of that department.



E.


=Eagle.= In heraldry, is used as an emblem of magnanimity and fortitude.
In the Roman armies the eagle was used as a military standard, and even
previous to that time the Persians under Cyrus the Younger used the same
military emblem. In modern times, France, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and
the United States have adopted the eagle as a national military symbol.
The Austrian eagle is represented as double-headed.

=Eagle, Black.= A Prussian order of knighthood, founded in 1701; united
with the order of the Red Eagle, or order of Sincerity, instituted by
the margraves of Bayreuth.

=Earl Marshal.= Of England, is one of the officers of state; is the head
of the college of arms, which has jurisdiction in descents and
pedigrees; determines all rival claims to arms; and he grants
armorial-bearings, through the medium of the kings-of-arms, to parties
not possessed of hereditary arms.

=Early Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Earth-bag.= See BAGS.

=Earth-house=, or =Eird-house=. The name generally given throughout
Ireland and Scotland to the underground buildings (which in some places
are called also “Picts’ houses”) which served to hide a few
people and their goods in time of war. The earth-house is a single
irregularly-shaped chamber, from 4 to 10 feet in width, from 20 to 60
feet in length, and from 4 to 7 feet in height, built of unhewn and
uncemented stones roofed by unhewn flags, and entered from near the top
by a rude doorway, so low and narrow that only one man can slide down
through it at a time. Implements of various kinds have been found in
them,--such as bronze swords, gold rings, etc.

=Earthworks.= In fortification, is a general name for all military
constructions, whether for attack or defense, in which the material
employed is chiefly earth.

=East Indian Army.= In 1861 the British Secretary of State for India
brought forward a measure for reorganizing the Indian army, which has
been passed into a law. The British portion of the Indian army is to
form part of the queen’s army generally, with certain honorary
distinctions, and is to take its turn at home and in the colonies like
the rest; but the expenses are to be paid out of Indian, not Imperial
revenues. The native portion is to be wholly in India; in its
reconstruction many improvements are made to lessen the chances of
future revolt.

=Ebersberg=, or =Ebelsberg=. A town of Upper Austria, on the Traun, 8
miles northwest from Ens, remarkable for being the scene of the defeat
of the Austrians by the French in 1809.

=Eboulement= (_Fr._). The crumbling or falling of the walls of a
fortification.

=Ebro.= A river in Spain, the scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards
by the French under Lannes, near Tudela, November 23, 1808; and also of
several important movements of the allied British and Spanish armies
during the Peninsular war (1809-13).

=Eccentric.= A device applied to the truck wheels of top carriages and
beds of mortars in sea-coast artillery to give either rolling or sliding
friction at will. The wheels turn on axle-arms which project
eccentrically from the ends of an axle passing through both cheeks; when
the axle is turned the axle-arms carry the wheels up or down; when at
the lowest point the weight of the carriage is borne by the wheels, and
the system moves on rolling friction; the wheels are then said to be _in
gear_; when _out of gear_, or at their highest points, the wheels do not
touch the rails or platform plates, but the cheeks rest on them, and the
carriage moves upon sliding friction. A similar device is attached to
the chassis near the pintle to enable it to be readily traversed when
_in gear_, and give it stability when _out of gear_.

=Eccentric Projectiles.= A spherical projectile in which the centre of
inertia does not coincide with the centre of figure. Such projectiles
are subject to great deviations, which can be predicted as to direction
by knowing the position of the centre of inertia of the shot in the bore
of the gun. (See PROJECTILES, DEVIATION OF.) The side of the ball upon
which the centre of inertia lies can be found by floating it in a bath
of mercury, and marking the highest point where it comes to a state of
rest; the centre of inertia lies nearest the opposite side; its exact
position is determined by a kind of balance called the _eccentrometer_;
the ball is placed in the balance with the marked point nearest the
fulcrum; the distance of the centre of inertia or gravity from the
fulcrum is obtained by dividing the product of the counterbalancing
weight and its distance from the fulcrum by the weight of the
projectile.

=Echarge, Feu=, or =Feu d’Echarge=. Is employed to signify that a column
of troops is struck at a very oblique angle.

=Echaugette.= In military history, signifies a watch-tower, or kind of
sentry-box.

=Echelon.= A military term applied to a certain arrangement of troops
when several divisions are drawn up in parallel lines, each to the right
or the left of the one preceding it, like “steps,” or the rounds of a
ladder, so that no two are on the same alignment. Each division by
marching directly forward can form a line with that which is in advance
of it. There are two sorts of echelon, _direct_ and _oblique_, the
former of which is used in an attack or retreat.

=Eckmühl=, or =Eggmühl=. A small village of Bavaria, on the Great Laber.
This place is celebrated for the important victory gained by the French
over the Austrians on April 22, 1809, and which obtained for Davoust the
title of Prince of Eckmühl.

=Eclaireurs= (_Fr._). A corps of grenadiers raised by Bonaparte in
France, who from their celerity of movements were compared to lightning.

=Eclopes= (_Fr._). A military term to express those soldiers who, though
invalids, are well enough to follow the army. Among these may be classed
dragoons or horsemen whose horses become lame and cannot keep up with
the troop or squadron. They always march in the rear of a column.

=Ecole Polytechnique.= A celebrated military school in Paris,
established in 1794, chiefly for the artillery service. The examinations
for the schools are public to all France. It not only furnishes officers
of artillery, but also civil and military engineers of every
description. The pupils of this school defended Paris in 1814 and 1830.

=Economy.= In a military sense, implies the minutiæ or interior
regulations of a regiment, troop, or company. Hence regimental economy.

=Ecorcheurs= (_Flayers_). A name given to bands of armed adventurers who
desolated France and Belgium during the 15th century, beginning about
1435, and they at one time numbered 100,000. They are said to have
stripped their victims to their shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were
favored by the English invasion and the civil wars.

=Ecoutes.= Small galleries made at equal distances in front of the
glacis of the fortifications of a place. They serve to annoy the enemy’s
miners, and to interrupt them in their work.

=Ecreter= (_Fr._). To batter or fire at the top of a wall, redoubt,
epaulement, etc., so as to dislodge or drive away the men that may be
stationed behind it, in order to render the approach more easy. _Ecreter
les pointes des palissades_ is to blunt the sharp ends of the palisades.
This ought always to be done before you attack the covert way, which is
generally fenced by them.

=Ecu= (_Fr._). A large shield which was used by the ancients, and
carried on their left arm, to ward off the blows of sword or sabre. This
instrument of defense was originally invented by the Samnites. The Moors
had _ecus_, or shields, sufficiently large to cover the whole of their
bodies. The _clipei_ of the Romans only differed from the _ecu_ in
shape; the former being entirely round, and the latter oval.

=Ecuador=, or =Equator=. A South American republic, founded in 1831,
when the Colombian republic was divided into three; the other two being
Venezuela and New Granada. Gen. Franco was here defeated in battle by
Gen. Flores, August, 1860. Several insurrections have taken place in
Ecuador since 1860.

=Edessa=, or =Callinhoe=. An ancient city of Mesopotamia. In 1144 the
Edessenes were defeated by the Saracen chief Nur-ed-deen, and all who
were not massacred were sold as slaves. After many vicissitudes, it fell
successively into the hands of the sultans of Egypt, the Byzantines, the
Mongols, Turkomans, and Persians; the city was finally conquered by the
Turks, and has ever since formed a portion of the Turkish dominion. Its
modern name is Oorfa.

=Edge.= The thin or cutting part of a sword or sabre.

=Edgehill.= An elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England, 7 miles
northeast from Banbury. Here was fought, on Sunday, October 23, 1642,
the first great battle of the civil war, between the royalist forces
under Charles I. and the Parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex.
Prince Rupert, who led the right wing, charged with his cavalry the left
wing of the Parliamentarians, broke it, and pursued it madly to Keinton.
Essex with his force defeated the right wing of the royalists.

=Edinburgh.= The metropolis of Scotland, situated about 1¹⁄₂ miles from
the Firth of Forth. It was taken by the Anglo-Saxons in 482; retaken by
the Picts in 695; city fortified and castle rebuilt, 1074; besieged by
Donald Bane, 1093. The city was taken by the English in 1296;
surrendered to Edward III. in 1356. It was burnt by Richard II., 1385,
and by Henry IV., 1401. A British force landed from a fleet of 200
ships, in 1544, and burned Edinburgh. The castle surrendered to Cromwell
in 1650. The young Pretender occupied Holyrood September 17, 1745, and
the battle of Preston Pans took place September 21, 1745.

=Effective.= Fit for service; as, an army of 30,000 effective (fighting)
men.

=Efficient.= A thoroughly trained and capable soldier. It is also a term
used in connection with the volunteers. A volunteer is said to be
efficient when he has performed the appointed number of drills and fired
the regular number of rounds at the target, in the course of the year.

=Egham.= A village in the northwest of Surrey, 18 miles west of London.
In the vicinity is Runnymede, a meadow on the Thames, where King John
conferred with his barons before signing the Magna Charta in 1215.

=Egypt.= A country in Northeast Africa. On the division of the Roman
empire (395 A.D.) Egypt became a part of the dominions of Arcadius,
ruler of the Eastern empire. But, owing to religious feuds of the
Jacobites and Melchites, it became a province of Persia (616) for twelve
years. In 640 the governor, Makaukas, endeavored to make himself
independent, and invited the arms of the Arabs, and Amrou easily
conquered Egypt. Although Alexandria was retaken by Constantine III.,
the Arabs drove him out and maintained their conquest, and Egypt
remained an appendage of the caliphate. It afterwards passed into the
dynasty of the Turks, and was administered by pashas. Constant
rebellions of the Mamelukes, and the violence of contending factions,
distracted the country for more than two centuries. The most remarkable
event of this period was the French invasion by Bonaparte in 1798,
which, by the conquest of Alexandria and the battle of the Pyramids
against the Mamelukes, led to the entire subjection of the country, from
which the French were finally expelled by the Turks and British in 1801,
and the country restored to the Ottoman Porte. The rise of Mohammed Ali
in 1806 imparted a galvanic prosperity to Egypt by the destruction of
the Mamelukes, the formation of a regular army, and the introduction of
European civilization. He considerably extended its boundaries, even
into Asia; but in 1840 he was dispossessed of his Asiatic conquests. The
treaty of London, however, in 1841, confirmed the viceroyalty of Egypt
as a fief of the Ottoman empire to him and his descendants.

=Ehrenbreitstein.= A town and fortress of Rhenish Prussia, situated on
the right bank of the Rhine, directly opposite Coblentz, with which it
is connected by a bridge of boats. The fortress of Ehrenbreitstein
occupies the summit of a precipitous rock 490 feet high, and has been
called the Gibraltar of the Rhine, on account of its great natural
strength and its superior works. It is capable of accommodating a
garrison of 14,000 men, and provisions for 8000 men for ten years can be
stowed in its vast magazines. Ehrenbreitstein was besieged in vain by
the French in 1688, but fell into their hands in 1799, after a siege of
fourteen months. Two years after, the French, on leaving, at the peace
of Lunéville, blew up the works. It was assigned, however, to Prussia by
the Congress of Vienna in 1814, and under that country was restored and
thoroughly fortified. It is now one of the strongest forts in Europe.

=Eighty-ton Gun.= A large Woolwich gun designed as an armament for the
“Inflexible.” Its construction was authorized in March, 1874, and the
gun was ready for proof in October, 1875. When first made it weighed 81
tons, having a caliber of 14¹⁄₂ inches. It was bored during the progress
of the experiments to 16 inches, and was given an enlarged chamber. The
experiments were conducted by the celebrated “Committee on Explosion.”
See ORDNANCE, RECENT HISTORY OF.

=Eilau-Preussisch.= A town of Prussia, government of Königsberg. It is
chiefly celebrated for the victory gained there by the French over the
united Prussian and Russian armies, February 8, 1807.

=Einsiedeln.= A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Schwytz. It
contains a fine abbey, which was rifled by the French in 1798.

=Ejector.= The device used in breech-loading small-arms to throw out the
metallic cartridge-case after it is fired.

=Ejector Spring.= The spring which operates an ejector.

=El Arish.= A village of Lower Egypt on the Mediterranean, on the route
from Egypt to Syria. It is but little more than a fort and a few houses,
and was taken by the French in 1799; and here the French general Kleber
signed, in 1800, a convention with Sir Sydney Smith, engaging to leave
Egypt with his troops.

=Elath=, or =Eloth=. A seaport situated at the head of that gulf of the
Red Sea, to which it gave its name. It was a fortified port in the time
of Solomon; revolted against Joram; was retaken by Azariah; and was
eventually conquered by Rezui, and held by the Syrians till it became a
Roman frontier town. Under the Mohammedan rule it rose for a while to
some importance, but has now sunk into insignificance.

=Elba.= An island belonging to the kingdom of Italy, in the
Mediterranean Sea, between Corsica and the coast of Tuscany, from the
latter of which it is separated by a channel 5 miles in breadth. Elba
has been rendered famous in history from having been Napoleon’s place of
exile from May, 1814, till February, 1815.

=El Boden.= A mountain-range, near Ciudad Rodrigo, in Spain, where the
British troops distinguished themselves against an overwhelming French
force in 1811.

=Elbow-gauntlet.= An ancient piece of armor, a gauntlet of plate
reaching to the elbow, adopted from the Asiatics in the 16th century.

=Elbow-piece.= An ancient piece of armor, a metal plate used to cover
the junction of the rere-brace and rant-brace, by which the upper and
lower half of the arm were covered.

=Elchingen.= A village of Bavaria, on the Danube, 7 miles northeast from
Ulm. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French in 1805. For this
victory Marshal Ney received the title of Duke of Elchingen.

=Electric light.= An intense light produced by passing an electric
current between points of carbon forming electrodes of the circuit.
There are many forms of the apparatus. It will be extensively used in
future wars for lighting harbor channels, approaches to forts, etc.

=Elements.= In a military sense, signify the first principles of
tactics, fortification, and gunnery.

=Elephant.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Elevate, To.= Is to raise the muzzle of the cannon or rifle so that the
latter shall be directed at a point above that which it is intended
shall be struck.

=Elevating Arc.= In gunnery, is an arc attached to the base of the
breech parallel to the ratchets and graduated into degrees and parts of
a degree. A pointer attached to the _fulcrum_ points to the zero of the
scale when the axis of the piece is horizontal. Elevations and
depressions are indicated by the scale. Besides the graduations on the
arc, the ranges (in yards) and charges for shot and shell are given.

=Elevating Bar.= An iron bar used in elevating guns or mortars having
ratchets at the breech.

=Elevating Screw.= The screw by means of which the breech of a cannon is
raised, the result being to depress the muzzle.

=Elevating Sight.= See SIGHT, ELEVATING.

=Elevation.= In gunnery, is one of the elements of pointing, being the
movement of the axis of a piece in a vertical plane as distinguished
from _direction_ or its movement horizontally. The elevation is usually
positive,--that is, the gun is pointed above the horizontal. When it is
pointed below, it is said to be depressed. The word is also used to
express degree, or as a synonym for _angle of elevation_. The sights or
elevating apparatus of guns are graduated on the theory that the object
is in the horizontal plane of the piece, or that the line of sight is
horizontal, which is not always the case in practice. When the elevation
is determined by sights the angle of elevation is the angle between the
line of sight and the axis of the piece, when these lines are in the
same vertical plane,--or the angle between the line of sight and a plane
containing the axis of the piece and a horizontal line intersecting it
at right angles, when they are not. The graduations of tangent scales
and fixed breech-sights give this angle in degrees. The graduation of
the pendulum hausse gives the angle correctly only when the line of
sight is horizontal. When the elevation is given by elevating arcs or
gunner’s quadrant, the angle of elevation becomes the angle of fire, or
the angle which the axis of the piece makes with the horizontal.
Elevation is necessary to overcome the effect of gravity on the
projectile. The degree of elevation increases with the range. _In vacuo_
the elevation corresponding to the maximum range is 45°. In the air the
angle of maximum range diminishes with the velocity and increases with
diameter and density of the ball. It is greater in mortars than in
howitzers, and greater in howitzers than in guns. In mortars it
approximates to 42°; in guns it is about 37°.

=Ellisburgh.= A village of Jefferson Co., N. Y. In 1814 an engagement
took place here between the Americans and British, in which the latter
were defeated.

=Elmina.= A fortified town and seaport of West Africa, founded by the
Portuguese in 1481; was the first European settlement planted on the
coast of Guinea. It was taken by the Dutch in 1637, and was ceded by
them to Portugal. It was burned by the British troops in 1873.

=Elsass= (Fr. _Alsace_). One of the old German provinces, having the
Rhine on the east and the Vosges Mountains on the west. It was ceded to
France in 1648; but after the Franco-German war was annexed by Prussia,
under treaty of May 10, 1871.

=Elswick Compressor.= An arrangement for compressing friction plates
used in the English navy to take up the recoil of gun-carriages upon
their slides. The 7 friction plates arranged longitudinally under the
carriage and attached to its lower part, have alternating between them 6
long flat bars attached at their ends to the slide by bolts passing
through them, but allowing them a side motion. The plates and bars are
tightly clamped by short rocking levers, the lower ends of which act on
the outside plates. The levers are worked by collars on a threaded
shaft, which catch their upper ends. The shaft is called the compressor
shaft, and has a handle or crank on the outside of each cheek or
bracket,--one is called the _adjusting lever_, the other the _compressor
lever_. The first is used to give an initial compression to suit the
charge, the other is operated by the recoil being forced down by a
tripper on the slide. Two forms of the compressor are used,--one for the
_single plate_, the other for the _double-plate carriage_. In the
double-plate carriage the adjusting lever can be set to any degree of
compression without causing any motion in the compressor shaft or lever.

=Elswick Gun.= Armstrong gun (which see).

=Elvas.= A strong frontier town of Portugal, in the province of
Alemtejo, situated on a rocky hill, 10 miles northwest from Badajos. It
is one of the most important strongholds in Europe. The arsenal and
bomb-proof barracks are capable of containing 6000 or 7000 men. In 1808
it was taken and held for five months by the French.

=Emaum Ghaur.= In Scinde, was a strong fortress in the Thur or Great
Sandy Desert, separating that province from the rajpoot state of
Jessulmere. It was captured by Sir Charles Napier in January, 1843.

=Embark.= To put or cause to go on board a vessel or boat; as, to embark
troops. To go on board of a ship, boat, or vessel; as, the troops
embarked for Egypt.

=Embarkation.= The act of putting or going on board of a vessel.

=Embaterion.= A war-song of the Spartans, accompanied by flutes, which
they sung marching in time, and rushing on the enemy. The origin of the
embaterion is lost in antiquity.

=Embattle.= To arrange in order of battle; to draw up in array, as
troops for battle; also, to prepare or arm for battle.

=Embattle.= To furnish with battlements. “_Embattled_” house.

=Embattlement.= An indented parapet; battlement.

=Embezzlement.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60.

=Emblazonry.= See BLAZONRY.

=Emblee= (_Fr._). A prompt, sudden, and vigorous attack, which is made
against the covert way and outworks of a fortified place.

=Embody.= To form or collect into a body or united mass; as, to embody
troops.

=Embrasseur= (_Fr._). A piece of iron, which grasps the trunnions of a
piece of ordnance, when it is raised upon the boring machine, to widen
its caliber.

=Embrasure.= In fortification, is an opening in the parapet, or a hole
in the mask wall of a casemate through which the guns are pointed. The
_sole_ or bottom of the embrasure is from 2¹⁄₂ to 4 feet (according to
the size of the gun) above the platform upon which the gun stands.
Parapet embrasures are smallest at the interior opening, which is called
the mouth, and is from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 feet wide. The widening of the
embrasure is what is called the _splay_. The sole slopes downward about
one in six. Its exterior line, or its intersection with the exterior
slope, is usually made half the length of the sole. The line which
bisects the sole is called the _directrix_. The sides are called cheeks.
The masses of earth between embrasures are called _merlons_. When the
directrix makes an angle with the direction of the parapet, the
embrasure is _oblique_. The embrasures of casemates have in horizontal
section a shape something like an hour-glass. The nearest part is called
the throat. This is sometimes closed with iron shutters.

=Embrocher.= A vulgar term used among French soldiers to signify the act
of running a man through the body; literally to _spit him_.

=Emery.= A powder made by grinding a mineral,--corundum,--used by
soldiers for cleaning their arms.

=Eminence.= A high or rising ground, which overlooks and commands the
low places about it. Such places, within cannon-shot of any fortified
place, are a great disadvantage, if the besiegers become masters of
them.

=Emir=, or =Emeer=. An Arabic word, equivalent to “ruler,” is a title
given to all independent chieftains, and also to all the actual or
supposed descendants of Mohammed through his daughter Fatima. In former
times, the title of Emir was borne by the leaders in the religious wars
of the Mohammedans, and by several ruling families.

=Emissary.= A person sent by any power that is at war with another, for
the purpose of creating disaffection among the people of the latter.

=Emousser= (_Fr._). To blunt, to dull. In a military sense, it signifies
to take off the four corners of a battalion, which has formed a square,
and to give it, by those means, an octagon figure; from the different
obtuse angles of which it may fire in all directions.

=Emperor= (_Imperator_). Among the ancient Romans, signified the
general of an army, who, for some extraordinary success, had been
complimented with this appellation. Subsequently it came to denominate
an absolute monarch or supreme commander of an empire. In Europe, the
first who bore the title was Charlemagne.

=Empilement= (_Fr._). From _empiler_, to pile up. The act of disposing
shot and shell in the most secure and convenient manner. This generally
occurs in arsenals and citadels.

=Emprise.= A hazardous attempt upon the enemy.

=Encamp.= To form and occupy a camp; to halt on a march, spread tents,
and remain for a night or for a longer time; as, an army or company.

=Encampment.= The pitching of a camp. The act of pitching huts or tents,
as by an army, for temporary lodging, or rest; the place where an army
or company is encamped. There are _intrenched_ camps, where an army is
intended to be kept some time, protected against the enemy; _flying_
camps, for brief occupation; camps of _position_, bearing relation to
the strategy of the commander; and camps of _instruction_, to habituate
the troops to the duties and fatigues of war.

=Enceinte.= In fortification, denotes generally the whole area of a
fortified place. Properly, however, it means a cincture or girdle, and
in this sense the _enceinte_ signifies the principal wall or rampart
encircling the place, comprising the curtain and bastions, and having
the main ditch immediately outside it.

=Encircle.= To pass around, as in a circle; to go or come round; as, the
army encircled the city.


=Encombrer= (_Fr._). In fortification, to fill up any hollow place, such
as a stagnant lake, etc., with rubbish.

=Encompass.= To describe a circle about; to go around; to encircle; to
inclose; to environ; as, an army encompasses a city; a ship’s voyage
encompasses the world.

=Encounter.= A meeting with hostile purpose; hence, a combat; a battle.

=Encounter.= To come against face to face; to engage in conflict with;
to oppose; as, two armies encounter each other.

=Encounters.= In military affairs, are combats or fights between two
persons only. Figuratively, battles or attacks by small or large armies.

=Encroachments.= The advancement of the troops of one nation on the
rights or limits of another.

=Enemy.= In military language, the opposing force; as, “We have met the
enemy, and they are ours.”

=Enfans Perdus.= Forlorn hope, in military history, are soldiers
detached from several regiments, or otherwise appointed to give the
first onset in battle, or in an attack upon the counterscarp, or the
breach of a place besieged; so called (by the French) because of the
imminent danger to which they are exposed.

=Enfield Rifle-musket.= The service arm of Great Britain prior to the
adoption of breech-loaders; manufactured at Enfield, England, at the
royal small-arms factories. It was first extensively introduced in 1853,
and was used during the Crimean war. It had three grooves, with a twist
of about one turn in 6 feet. Before the adoption of the Martini-Henry,
large numbers of those guns were utilized by converting them into
breech-loaders on the Snider principle. The Enfield rifles, though very
serviceable weapons, much better than the Belgian and Austrian arms
imported to the United States during the civil war, were in almost every
respect inferior to the old Springfield (U. S.) rifle-musket, nearly of
the same caliber (.58), the Enfield being .577. All those weapons have
now given place to various breech-loading arms.

=Enfilade.= Is to fire in the direction of the length of a line of
parapet or troops; to “rake it,” as the sailors say. In the siege of a
fortress, the trenches of approach are cut in a zigzag, to prevent the
defenders enfilading them from the walls.

=Enfilading Batteries.= In siege operations are one of the classes of
batteries employed, the other classes being _counter_ and _breaching_
batteries. Enfilading batteries are located on the prolongation of the
faces and flanks of the works besieged, to secure a raking fire along
the terre-pleins.

=Engage.= To gain for service; to enlist.

=Engage.= To enter into conflict; to join battle; as, the armies engaged
in a general battle.

=Engagement.= A general action or battle, whether by land or sea.

=Engarrison.= To protect any place by a garrison.

=Engen.= In Baden; here Moreau defeated the Austrians, May 3, 1800.

=Enghien=, or =Steenkirk=. In Southwestern Belgium. Here the British
under William III. were defeated by the French under Marshal Luxemburg,
July 24, 1692.

=Engineer, Military.= An officer in the service of a government, whose
duties are principally to construct fortifications, to make surveys for
warlike purposes, to facilitate the passage of an army by the
construction of roads and bridges; in short, to execute all engineering
works of a military nature. He is also called upon to undertake many
works which more properly belong to the business of a civil engineer,
such as the survey of the country, the inspection of public works, and,
in short, all the duties of a government engineer.

=Engineering.= The business of the engineer; the art of designing and
superintending the execution of railways, bridges, canals, harbors,
docks, the defense of fortresses, etc.

=Engineer Corps.= In modern nations, the necessity for a corps of
staff-officers, trained to arrange for and overcome the embarrassments
of the movements of an army in the field, has been thoroughly
demonstrated, and hence, in European armies, a trained staff of officers
is organized for this purpose. In the United States a force of about 300
officers and enlisted men are engaged in these duties. See SAPPERS AND
MINERS.

=Engineers, Topographical.= See TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS.

=England.= The southern and larger division of the island of Great
Britain, and the principal member of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland. It was so named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the
English, in a general council held at Winchester, 829. It was united
with Wales, 1283; with Scotland in 1603; and Ireland was incorporated
with them, January 1, 1801. For previous history, see BRITAIN; and for
further details of battles, etc., see separate articles.

=Enlargement.= The act of going or being allowed to go beyond the
prescribed limits; as the extending the boundaries of an arrest, when
the officer is said to be enlarged, or under arrest at large.

=Enlargement.= Enlargements of the bore and vent are injuries suffered
by all cannon that are much used. The term is technically applied to
certain injuries to brass cannon. See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Enlistment.= The voluntary enrollment of men in the military or naval
service.

=Enniscorthy.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Wexford, on the river
Slaney. It arose in the Norman castle, still entire, founded by Raymond
le Gros, one of the early Anglo-Norman invaders. Cromwell took this
place in 1649; and the Irish rebels stormed and burned it in 1798.

=Enniskillen.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Fermanagh. This place
is famous for the victory, in 1689, won by the troops of William III.,
under Lord Hamilton, over a superior force of James II., under Lord
Gilmoy. The banners taken in the battle of the Boyne hang in the
town-hall of Enniskillen.

=Enniskillen Dragoons.= A British regiment of horse; it was first
instituted from the brave defenders of Enniskillen, in 1689.

=Enrank.= To place in ranks or in order.

=Enroll.= To place a man’s name on the roll or nominal list of a body of
soldiers.

=Ensconce.= To cover as with a fort.

=Enseigne= (_Fr._). The colors. The French designate all warlike symbols
under the term _enseigne_; but they again distinguish that word by the
appellations of _drapeaux_, colors, and _etendards_, standards.
_Drapeaux_ or colors are particularly characteristic of the infantry;
_etendards_ or standards belong to the cavalry.

=Ensemble.= Together; the exact execution of the same movements,
performed in the same manner, and by the same motions. It is the union
of all the men who compose a battalion, or several battalions or
companies of infantry and cavalry, who are to act as if put in motion by
the same spring.

=Enshield.= To cover from the enemy.

=Ensiform.= Having the shape of a sword.

=Ensign-bearer.= One who carries a flag; an ensign.

=Ensigncy.= The rank or office of an ensign.

=Ensisheim.= In Eastern France; here Turenne defeated the imperial army,
and expelled it from Alsace, October 4, 1674.

=Entanglement.= Abatis, so called, when made by cutting only partly
through the trunks, and pulling the upper parts to the ground, where
they are picketed.

=Entanglement, Wire.= Formed by twisting wire round stout stakes or
trees 7 feet apart. The wires are placed about a foot or 18 inches above
the ground. The trees-pickets or trees are in two or three rows,
arranged checkerwise, the wires crossing diagonally.

=Enter, To.= To engage in; to enlist in; as, to enter an army.

=Enterprise.= An undertaking attended with some hazard and danger.

=Enterpriser.= An officer who undertakes or engages in any important and
hazardous design.

=Entire=, or =Rank Entire=. A line of men in one continued row by the
side of each other. When behind each other, they are said to be in file.

=Entonnoir= (_Fr._). The cavity or hole which remains after the
explosion of a mine. It likewise meant the tin case or port-feu which is
used to convey the priming powder into the vent of a cannon.

=Entrench, To.= Is to construct hastily thrown-up field-works for the
purpose of strengthening a force in position. See INTRENCH.

=Entrepôts.= Magazines and places appropriated in garrison towns for the
reception of stores, etc.

=Envelope.= In fortification, a work of earth, sometimes in the form of
a single parapet, and at others like a small rampart; it is raised
sometimes in the ditch, and sometimes beyond it. Envelopes are
occasionally _en zigzag_, to inclose a weak ground, where that is
practicable, with single lines. Envelopes, in a ditch, are sometimes
called sillons, contregardes, conserves, lunettes, etc.

=Environ, To.= To surround in a hostile manner; to hem in; to besiege.

=Enzersdorf.= A fortified town of Austria, 8 miles east from Vienna.

=Epaule.= In fortification, denotes the shoulder of a bastion, or the
place where its face and flank meet and form the angle, called the angle
of the shoulder.

=Epaulement= (Fr. _epaule_). In siege works, is a portion of a battery
or earthwork. The siege batteries are generally shielded at one end at
least by epaulements, forming an obtuse angle with the main line of the
battery. The name is often given erroneously to the parapet of the
battery itself, but it applies properly to the flanking return only.
Sometimes the whole of a small or secondary earthwork, including the
battery and its flanks, is called an epaulement; and sometimes the same
name is given to an isolated breastwork intended to shield the cavalry
employed in defending a body of besiegers.

=Epaulette.= A shoulder-knot worn by commissioned officers of the army
and navy, as a mark of distinction. The insignia of their rank are
usually marked on officers’ epaulettes.

=Epauletted.= Furnished with epaulettes.

=Ephebi.= In Grecian antiquity, the name given to the Attic youth from
the age of 18, till they entered upon their 20th year. During this
period they served a sort of apprenticeship in arms, and were frequently
sent, under the name of _peripoli_, to some of the frontier towns of
Attica to keep watch against foreign invasion.

=Epibatæ.= In Grecian antiquity, the name given to soldiers whose duty
it was to fight on board ship. They corresponded almost exactly to the
marines of modern naval warfare. The term is sometimes found in Roman
authors to denote the same class of soldiers, but the general phrase
adopted by them is _milites classiarii_, or _socii navales_.

=Epignare= (_Fr._). A small piece of ordnance which does not exceed one
pound in caliber.

=Epigoni.= A term which signifies “heirs” or “descendants.” It was
applied to the sons of the seven chiefs who conducted an expedition
against Thebes to restore Polynices, and who were all killed except
Adrastus. Ten years later the Epigoni--namely, Alcmæon, Thersander,
Diomedes, Ægialeus, Promachus, Sthenelus, and Euryalus--renewed the
enterprise and took Thebes. The war of the Epigoni was celebrated by
several ancient epic and dramatic poets.

=Epinglette= (_Fr._). An iron needle with which the cartridge of any
large piece of ordnance is pierced before it is primed.

=Epinikian.= Pertaining to, or celebrating, victory; as an epinikian
ode.

=Epirus.= A celebrated country of ancient Greece, lying between the
Ionian Sea and the chain of Pindus.

=E Pluribus Unum.= “One out of many.” A motto adopted by the United
States since their declaration of independence, in 1776.

=Epouvante= (_Fr._). A sudden panic with which troops are seized, and
under which they retreat without any actual necessity for so doing.

=Eprouvette= (_Fr._). A small mortar to prove the strength of gunpowder.
There are different sorts of eprouvettes, according to the fancy of
different nations who use them. Some raise a weight, and others throw a
shot, to certain heights and distances. As a test of gunpowder the
eprouvette is comparatively worthless, and it has been generally
superseded by instruments for measuring the initial velocity obtained by
firing the powder in the particular gun for which it is intended. A
short mortar is, however, still used, to a certain extent, for testing
the power of modern blasting powders, such as the mixtures of
nitro-glycerine. A very small charge and a heavy shot of chilled iron
which enters two or three inches only into the mortar are used. The
square roots of the ranges (other things being equal) give the relative
powers of the different powders, nearly.

=Equalize.= To render the distribution of any number of men equal as to
the component parts. To _equalize a battalion_, to tell off a certain
number of companies in such a manner that the several component parts
shall consist of the same number of men.

=Equation of Time.= See TIME, MEAN SOLAR TIME.

=Equerry.= Any person who is appointed to attend the sovereign, or
prince of the royal blood, upon out-door excursions, and who has the
care and management of their horses.

=Eques Auratus.= A heraldic term for a knight.

=Equestrian.= A man who rides on horseback; a horseman; a rider.

=Equestrian Order.= Among the Romans, signified their knights or
equites; as, also, their troopers or horsemen in the field.

=Equip, To.= To furnish an individual, a corps, or an army with
everything that is requisite for military service, such as arms,
accoutrements, uniforms, etc.

=Equipage.= In military matters, is the name given to the necessaries of
the soldier. The equipment of a private is often used as a name for the
whole of his clothes, arms, and accoutrements, collectively. The
equipage of the camp is of two kinds, _camp_ and _field_ equipage.

=Equipments, Cannoneers’.= Include the _hausse pouch_, _cartridge
pouches_, _primer pouches_, and _thumb-stall_, used in the field
service. The equipments for a field-piece are the _tampion_ and _strap_,
_vent cover_ and _tarpaulin_. Other things used in service of cannon are
called _implements_, which see.

=Equipments, Horse.= In the mounted service, comprise the _bridle_,
_halter_, _watering bridle_, _saddle_, _saddle-bags_, _saddle blanket_,
_nose-bag_, _lariat_, _curry-comb_, _brush_, etc.

=Equipments, Infantry.= Comprise the personal outfit of the soldier,
excluding arms proper and clothing. A set of equipments is called a
_kit_ (which see). The standard equipments for infantry include the
_knapsack_, _belts_, and _plates_, _cartridge-box_, _bayonet-scabbard_,
_haversack_, and _canteen_. The knapsack, haversack, and canteen are
only used in marching. In the United States there is a strong tendency
towards discarding the knapsack; a roll made of the blanket, piece of
shelter-tent, or overcoat, being frequently used instead. A clothing-bag
is also sometimes used to take its place. The best manner of arranging
and slinging the various articles carried, for the comfort and health of
the soldier, is still an open question. In future wars it is probable
that an intrenching tool will be added to the soldier’s equipment. The
equipments for a cavalry soldier in the United States are very much the
same as for infantry.

=Equipments, Signal.= The _flags_, _staffs_, _flying torches_, _fort
torches_, _flame shades_, _haversacks_, _telescopes_, etc., used in
signaling. A set of equipments for one man is called a _signal kit_.

=Equites.= An order of equestrian knights introduced among the Romans by
Romulus.

=Eretria.= One of the most celebrated of ancient cities, and, next to
Chalcis, one of the most powerful in Eubœa. After the Peloponnesian war,
the city was governed by tyrants.

=Erfurt.= A town of Prussian Saxony, on the river Gera; it was founded
in 476. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat,
when 14,000 troops surrendered, October 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon
and Alexander met, and offered peace to England, September 27, 1808. The
French retreated from Leipsic to Erfurt, October 18, 1813. This place
was restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna.

=Ericius.= In Roman antiquity, a military engine, so named from its
resemblance to a hedge-hog. It was a kind of chevaux-de-frise, placed as
a defense at the gate of the camp.

=Erie, Fort.= A strong fortification in Upper Canada, on the northern
shore of Lake Erie. Here the British were defeated by the Americans,
August 15, 1814.

=Erlau.= A fortified town of Hungary, the old castle of which was
frequently besieged during the Turkish wars, both by Moslem and
Christian.

=Eryx.= A city and mountain in the west of Sicily, 6 miles from Drepana,
and a short distance from the sea-shore. The possession of the town of
Eryx was contested by the Syracusans and Carthaginians. A great battle
was fought off the town between the fleets of the two nations, in which
the Syracusans were victorious. The town subsequently changed hands more
than once, but it seems to have owned the Carthaginian supremacy at the
time of the expedition of Pyrrhus, 278 B.C. Though taken by that
monarch, it once more fell into the hands of its original conquerors,
who retained it till the close of the first Punic war.

=Erzroom=, =Erzroum=, or =Erzrum=. A fortified town of Armenia (Asiatic
Turkey), on the river Kara-Soo, a branch of the Euphrates. Its position
renders it an important military post. In 1210 it was taken by the
Seljooks, who are said to have destroyed here 100 churches; taken by the
Ottoman Turks in 1517. It was taken by the Russians in 1829, but was
restored to Turkey in the following year.

=Escadron= (_Fr._). Squadron. Froissart was the first French writer who
made use of the word escadron to signify a troop of horse drawn out in
order of battle. The term escadron is more ancient than the word
battalion.

=Escalade.= From the Latin _scala_, a ladder. In siege operations, a
mode of gaining admission within the enemy’s works. It consists in
advancing over the glacis and the covert way, descending, if necessary,
into the ditch by means of ladders, and ascending to the parapet of the
curtain and bastions, and are either procured on the spot, or are sent
out with the siege army. The leaders constitute a forlorn hope.

=Escale= (_Fr._). A machine used to ply the petard.

=Escape of Gas.= See GAS-CHECK and BREECH MECHANISM.

=Escarp.= In fortification, the surface of the ditch next the rampart,
the surface next the enemy being termed the counterscarp. Called also
scarp.

=Escarp Galleries.= Galleries constructed in the escarp for the purpose
of flanking the ditch caponnière.

=Escarpment.= Ground cut away nearly vertically about a position, in
order to render it inaccessible to the enemy.

=Escort.= A body of troops attending an individual as a guard. The term
is also applied to a guard placed over prisoners on a march, to prevent
their escape, and to the guard of a convoy of stores.

=Escort, Funeral.= See FUNERAL ESCORT.

=Escort of Honor.= A body of troops attending a personage of rank by way
of military compliment.

=Escort of the Color.= The military ceremony of sending for and
receiving the colors of a battalion.

=Escouade= (_Fr._). In the old French service generally meant the third
part of a company of foot or a detachment. Companies were divided in
this manner for the purpose of more conveniently keeping the tour of
duty among the men. We have corrupted the term, and called it squad.

=Escuage.= An ancient feudal tenure by which the tenant was bound to
follow his lord to war or to defend his castle.

=Espadon.= In old military works, a kind of two-handed sword, having two
edges, of a great length and breadth; formerly used by the Spanish.

=Espauliere= (_Fr._). A defense for the shoulder, composed of flexible,
overlapping plates of metal, used in the 15th century; the origin of the
modern _epaulette_.

=Espiere.= A town of Belgium, 8 miles from Courtrai, where the allied
Austrian and English army defeated the French, May 22, 1794.

=Espingard=, or =Epingare= (_Fr._). An ancient name for a small gun
under a 1-pounder. They were used as early as the 14th century.

=Espingole=, or =Spingole= (_Fr._). A blunderbuss; a kind of blunderbuss
which, in early times, was loaded with several balls; the charges were
separated from each other by tampions in which a hole was made, and thus
the balls were fired in succession.

=Espinosa de la Monteros.= A town of Spain, on the Trueba, 50 miles
from Burgos. The French defeated the Spaniards here in 1808.

=Esplanade.= In fortification, is the open space intentionally left
between the houses of a city and the glacis of its citadel, so that the
enemy may not be able to erect breaching batteries under cover of the
houses. In old works on fortification, the term is often applied to the
glacis of the counterscarp, or the slope of the parapet of the covered
way towards the country.

=Espontoon= (_Fr._). A sort of half pike, about 3 feet in length, used
in the 17th century. The colonels of corps as well as the captains of
companies always used them in action. This weapon was also used by
officers in the British army.

=Espringal.= In the ancient art of war, a machine for throwing large
darts, generally called muchettæ.

=Esprit de Corps= (_Fr._). This term is generally used among all
military men in Europe. It may not improperly be defined a laudable
spirit of ambition which produces a peculiar attachment to any
particular corps, company, or service. Officers without descending to
mean and pitiful sensations of selfish envy, under the influence of a
true _esprit de corps_ rise into an emulous thirst after military glory.
The good are excited to peculiar feats of valor by the sentiments it
engenders, and the bad are deterred from ever hazarding a disgraceful
action by a secret consciousness of the duties it prescribes.

=Esquimaux.= The tribes inhabiting Greenland and Arctic America. Those
inhabiting the continent are found in sparse settlements from Behring
Strait to Labrador. They are generally peaceable. Some of these in
Greenland have been civilized by the influence of the Danes.

=Esquire.= In chivalry, was the shield-bearer or armor-bearer to the
knight. He was a candidate for the honor of knighthood, and thus stood
to the knight in the relation of a novice or apprentice. When fully
equipped each knight was attended by two esquires.

=Essedarii.= In Roman antiquity, gladiators who fought in a heavy kind
of chariot called _esseda_ or _essedum_. The _esseda_ (which derived its
name from the Celtic word _ess_, signifying a carriage) was a ponderous
kind of chariot much used in war by the Gauls, the Belgæ, and the
Britons. It differed from the currus in being open before instead of
behind; and in this way the owner was enabled to run along the pole,
from the extremity of which, or even from the top of the yoke, he
discharged his missiles with surprising dexterity.

=Essek=, or =Eszek=. A town and fortress of the Austrian empire, in
Sclavonia, on the Drave. It contains an arsenal, barracks, and other
military buildings. There were several battles fought here between the
Turks and Germans. It was finally taken from the Turks in 1687, since
which time it has continued in the hands of the house of Austria.

=Essling.= A village of Lower Austria, on the left bank of the Danube, 6
miles east of Vienna. Between this village and that of Aspern the French
were repulsed by the Austrians in a severe engagement in 1809. See
ASPERN.

=Establish.= A technical phrase to express the quartering of any
considerable body of troops in a country. Thus it is common to say, the
army took up a position in the neighborhood of ----, and established the
headquarters at ----.

=Establishment.= The quota of officers and men in an army, regiment,
troop, or company.

=Establishment, Peace.= Is the reduced condition of an army suited to a
time of peace.

=Establishment, War.= Is the augmentation of regiments to a certain
number, by which the whole army of a country is considerably increased,
to meet war exigencies.

=Estacade= (_Fr._). A dike constructed of piles in the sea, a river, or
a morass, to check the approach of an enemy.

=Estafette= (_Fr._). A military courier, sent express from one part of
an army to another.

=Esthonia=, or =Revel=. A Russian province, said to have been conquered
by the Teutonic knights in the 12th century; after various changes it
was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva in 1660, and finally to
Russia by the peace of Nystadt in 1721, having been conquered by Peter
in 1710.

=Estimates.= Army estimates are the computation of expenses to be
incurred in the support of an army for a given time.

=Estimating Distances.= See POINTING.

=Estoc= (_Ital._). A small dagger worn at the girdle, called in
Elizabethan times a _tucke_.

=Estoile.= See ETOILES.

=Estradiots=, or =Stradiots=. Grecian and Albanian horsemen, some of
whom were employed in the Italian wars by Charles VIII.; their favorite
weapon was the zagaye; besides this they had a broadsword, and club
slung on the bow of the saddle, with sleeves and gauntlets of mail.

=Estramacon= (_Fr._). A sort of two-edged sword formerly used. A blow
with the edge of a sword.

=Etat Major= (_Fr._). The staff of an army, including all officers above
the rank of colonel; also, all adjutants, inspectors, quartermasters,
commissaries, engineers, ordnance officers, paymasters, physicians,
signal-officers, judge-advocates; also, the non-commissioned assistants
of the above officers.

=Etoiles= (_Fr._). Small redoubts which are constructed by means of
angles rentrant and angles sortant, and have from 5 to 8 salient points.
This species of fortification has fallen into disuse, and are superseded
by square redoubts, which are sooner built and are applicable to the
same purpose of defense.

=Etoupille= (_Fr._). An inflammable match, composed of three threads of
very fine cotton, which is well steeped in brandy mixed with the best
priming gunpowder.

=Etruria=, or =Tuscia= (hence the modern name _Tuscany_). A province of
Italy, whence the Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws,
customs, and superstitions. The subjugation of this country forms an
important part of early Roman history. A truce between the Romans and
Etrurians for forty years was concluded in 351 B.C. The latter and their
allies were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, 310 B.C.; with the Boii
their allies, 823 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 265
B.C.

=Eubœa.= The largest island in the Ægean Sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis
and Eretria, were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens,
506 B.C., and the latter by the Persians, 490. After the Persian war
Eubœa became wholly subject to Athens. It revolted in 445, but was soon
subdued by Pericles. After the battle of Chæronea, 338, it became
subject to Macedon. It was made independent by the Romans in 194, but
was afterwards incorporated in the province of Achaia. It now forms part
of the kingdom of Greece.

=Eupatoria=, or =Koslov=. A town of Russia, on the west coast of the
Crimea. In September, 1854, the allied English and French armies landed
near here, and the town soon after was occupied by a small detachment.
The Turks subsequently occupied it, and in 1855 it was attacked by the
Russians, who, however, were repulsed by the Turks, and the Anglo-French
ships of war, lying in the neighboring roadstead.

=Eureka Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Europe.= The least extensive, but most civilized of the five great
divisions of the globe. It is bounded by the sea in all directions,
except the east, where it is separated from Asia by a boundary-line,
formed by the river Kara, the Ural Mountains and River, and the Caspian
Sea. For military and naval events which occurred in Europe, see
separate articles.

=Eurymedon= (now _Kapri-Su_). A small river in Pamphylia, celebrated for
the victory which Cimon gained over the Persians on its banks, 469 B.C.

=Eustace, St.= In Lower Canada; the rebels were defeated here, December
14, 1837, and compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled.

=Eustatius, St.= A West India island, which was settled by the Dutch in
1632; taken by the French in 1689; by the English in 1690; again by the
British forces under Rodney and Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was
recovered by the French, November 26, same year. It was again captured
by the British in 1801 and 1810, and restored to the Dutch in 1814.

=Eutaw Springs.= A small affluent of the Santee River, in South
Carolina. On its banks was fought, September 8, 1781, the battle of
this name. Gen. Greene, determining to dispossess the British of their
remaining posts, with about 2000 men attacked their forces under Col.
Stuart. The British were routed and fled; but finding in their flight
some objects affording shelter, rallied and repulsed their assailants,
and Gen. Greene finding it impossible to dislodge them, retreated to his
camp with 500 prisoners. The British loss was about 1000; the American
about 600.

=Euxine Sea.= See BLACK SEA.

=Evacuate.= To withdraw from a town or fortress, in consequence either
of a treaty or a capitulation, or of superior orders.

=Evagination.= An unsheathing or drawing out of a sheath or scabbard.

=Evesham.= A borough and market town of England, in Worcestershire, on
the Avon. Near this place a battle was fought between Prince Edward, son
of Henry III., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, August 4, 1265.

=Evidence.= Is that which makes clear, demonstrates, or ascertains the
truth of the very fact or point in issue. Hearsay evidence, the
declaration of what one has heard from others. This species of evidence
is not admissible in courts-martial.

=Evocati.= Were a class of soldiers among the Romans, who, after having
served their full time in the army, entered as volunteers to accompany
some favorite general. Hence they were likewise called _emereti_ and
_beneficiarii_.

=Evocation.= A religious ceremony which was observed among the Romans at
the commencement of a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods
and goddesses of the place to forsake it and come over to them. When any
place surrendered they always took it for granted that their prayer had
been heard.

=Evolutions.= Are the movements of troops in order to change position.
The object may be to maintain or sustain a post, to occupy a new post,
to improve an attack, or to improve a defense. All such movements as
marching, countermarching, changing front, forming line, facing,
wheeling, making column or line, defiling, deploying, etc., come under
the general heading of evolutions.

=Evreux= (anc. _Mediolanum_). A city of France, capital of the
department of Eure. It has sustained several sieges, and was burned by
Henry I. of England in 1119.

=Examination, Boards of.= See BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.

=Exarchs.= Were appointed by the Byzantine emperors of the East, to
govern Central Italy after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548.
They ruled from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the last, was overcome by
Astolphus the Lombard.

=Exauctoratio.= In the Roman military discipline, differed from the
_missio_, which was a full discharge, and took place after soldiers had
served in the army twenty years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a
partial discharge; they lost their pay, indeed, but still kept under
their colors or vexilla, though not under the aquila or eagle, which was
the standard of the legion; whence instead of _legionarii_, they were
called _subsignani_, and were retained till they had either served their
full time, or had lands assigned them. The exauctoratio took place after
they had served seventeen years.

=Excavation.= The art of cutting or otherwise making hollows in the
earth; also the cavity formed.

=Exchange.= The act of two officers changing regiments, battalions, or
batteries. The mutual giving up of an equal number of prisoners by
hostile states or armies. In this sort of exchange an officer, according
to his rank, is reckoned as equal to a certain number of men or of
officers of a lower grade than his own.

=Excubiæ.= In ancient warfare, the watches and guards kept in the day by
the Roman soldiers. They differed from the _vigiliæ_, which were kept in
the night.

=Execution, Military.= Is the pillaging or plundering of a country by
the enemy’s army. Military execution also means every kind of punishment
inflicted in the army by the sentence of a court-martial; which is of
various kinds, including putting a soldier to death by shooting him,
which is the ordinary punishment of deserters to the enemy, mutineers,
etc. This form of death is considered less disgraceful than hanging by
the neck.

=Exempt.= Not subject, not liable to. Men of certain age are exempt from
serving in the militia. An aide-de-camp and brigade-major are exempt
from all regimental duties while serving in those capacities. Officers
on courts-martial are sometimes exempt from all other duties until the
court is dissolved.

=Exercise.= The practice of all those motions and actions, together with
the whole management of arms, which are essential to the perfection of a
soldier, and the rendering him fit for service.

=Exercise, Artillery.= Is the method of teaching the regiments of
artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war
belonging to that particular arm of the service.

=Exon.= In England, an officer of the Yeomen of the Royal Guard; an
exempt.

=Exostre= (_Fr._). Bridge of the _Helepole_ or movable tower of the
ancients, by which they passed upon a wall during a siege.

=Expanding System of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES, RIFLE.

=Expedient.= A stratagem in warfare.

=Expedition.= Is an enterprise taken by sea or by land against an enemy,
the fortunate termination of which depends on the rapidity and
unexpected nature of its movements. It is usually intrusted to a
commander of acknowledged talents and experience.

=Expense Magazines.= Are small powder-magazines containing ammunition,
etc., made up for present use. There is usually one in each bastion.

=Experiments.= The trials or applications of any kind of military
machines in order to ascertain their practical qualities and uses.

=Expiration of Service.= The termination of a soldier’s contract of
enlistment.

=Explode.= To burst with a loud report; to detonate, as gunpowder, or a
shell filled with powder or the like material.

=Explosion.= The sudden enlargement of the volume of a body by its
conversion into gas or vapor. (See EXPLOSIVES.) The explosion of powder
may be divided into three distinct parts, viz.: ignition, inflammation,
and combustion, all of which see under their proper headings.

=Explosives.= Substances the elements of which under certain conditions
suddenly undergo a chemical rearrangement into gases, giving rise to
great pressures on surrounding bodies. Modern writers recognize two
different kinds of explosions,--_explosions of the 1st order_, or
_detonations_, and _explosions of the 2d order_, or _rapid combustions_.
Detonating explosions are practically instantaneous. The explosion is
supposed to be propagated by a vibration throughout the mass. Ordinary
explosions are propagated by inflammation. _Gunpowder_, which may be
taken as a type of explosives of the 2d order, burns at a certain rate,
depending upon the density. When a charge is fired the inflammation
spreads from the point of ignition to all parts of the charge,--each
grain is successively enveloped and burned from surface to centre. The
_velocity of inflammation_ is the greater in proportion to the degree of
confinement from the increased tension of the gases. The _velocity of
combustion_ is the rate at which the solid grains are burned. It is
measured by the distance passed over by the burning surface (the line
being taken perpendicular to the surface) in the unit of time. Time thus
enters into the explosion of gunpowder and gives it its peculiar value
as a ballistic agent.

In the _detonating explosives_, the case is very different. These bodies
may be supposed to be made up of molecules containing so many atoms of
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc., so placed as to be held in a state of
equilibrium by their mutual attractions and repulsions, but this
equilibrium is unstable; that is to say, each atom has only a very small
arc of vibration in which the molecule is stable. If by any cause an
atom is forced beyond this limit the equilibrium of the whole mass is
destroyed, and the elements instantly rearrange themselves under the
influence of the chemical affinities which obtain under the particular
conditions of the explosion. This kind of explosion is brought about in
various ways,--by percussion, concussion, heat, etc.,--some bodies being
susceptible to one mode of firing more than another. The theory which
offers the best explanation of the various phenomena is that the
molecular balance is peculiarly susceptible to overturn by certain
vibrations. The vibrations given out by the explosion of the fulminates
seem to have the widest range in bringing about the detonation of
different substances. For this reason the fulminate of mercury is the
universal _detonating agent_. Its own susceptibility to explosion by
heat, percussion, and the electric spark especially fits it for this
work. Wet gun-cotton requires in addition to the fulminate a “primer” of
dry gun-cotton.

=Explosives, Composition of.= _Ordinary explosives_ of which gunpowder
is the type are _mechanical mixtures_ of two essential ingredients,--one
a combustible, the other an oxidizing agent. The combustible is usually
carbon,--sometimes associated with hydrogen. It may be sulphur or any
substance having a great affinity for oxygen. Organic substances
containing carbon and hydrogen are frequently used. In the chemical
reaction the carbon is oxidized to carbonic acid and the hydrogen to
water with the evolution of great heat.

The oxidizing substances ordinarily used are the nitrates and chlorates.
Mixtures containing nitrates are the most stable, since the nitrate is
comparatively slow to give up its oxygen. The chlorate mixtures are
sensitive to friction and percussion, and explode with great quickness.
Many of them are unsafe to handle. A new mode of preparing chlorate
mixtures has been suggested which avoids this danger. A _combustible
liquid_ is used, being absorbed in cakes or lumps of potassium or other
chlorate.

_Detonating explosives_ are _chemical compounds_. Among them are
_chloride_ and _iodide of nitrogen_. Both are dangerous, violent
explosives of which no practical use has been made.

The _fulminates_ are salts of fulminic acid. The _fulminate of mercury_
is the one in common use. See FULMINATES.

The _nitro-substitution_ compounds form a large class, comprising the
most important of the higher explosives. They are all formed by the
action of nitric acid on organic substances containing oxygen, carbon,
and hydrogen. This action is to replace hydrogen (H) in the organic
substance by hyponitric acid (NO₂) (in the acid), equivalent for
equivalent. Sulphuric acid is generally mixed with the nitric, though it
plays no direct part in the reaction, being used to absorb the water
formed and prevent the dilution of the nitric acid.

_Nitro-glycerine_, the most powerful explosive in common use, is formed
by the action of the acids on glycerine. See NITRO-GLYCERINE.

_Nitro-starch_ and _nitro-mannite_ are analogous substances, formed by
the action of the acids on starch and sugar.

_Gun-cotton_ is produced by the action of the acids on cotton-wool--a
form of cellulose. See GUN-COTTON.

There are varieties of all these compounds produced, by the
substitution of different numbers of equivalents of hyponitric acid, but
the names are specially given to the most highly nitrated forms.

_Picric acid_, the salts of which form the well-known _picrates_, is
made by the action of the acids on carbolic acid.

To heighten the effect of the lower forms of nitro-substitution
compounds they are usually mixed with an oxidizing agent, such as
_nitrate_ or _chlorate_, which supplies the deficient oxygen. This is
exemplified in Schultz’s wood powder (which see), and Reeve’s gun felt.

The picrates are similarly treated. Ammonium picrate mixed with nitre
forms Abel’s _picric_ powder (Burgess’s powder). This has been used as a
bursting charge for shells.

Mixtures of two high explosives have also been used, as in glyoxiline,
invented by Prof. Abel, which is gun-cotton saturated with
nitro-glycerine.

Explosive effect depends upon three elements,--1st, the volume of the
gases produced taken at a standard temperature; 2d, the heat evolved in
the chemical reaction; 3d, the time consumed in the development of the
gases. Explosive effect is directly proportional to the first two of
these elements, and inversely proportional to the third. According to
Bertholet, nitro-glycerine gives out twice as much heat and three and a
half times as much gas as an equal weight of gunpowder, but this gives
no idea of their relative explosive effects, as the element of time in
the detonating explosives is so short that it cannot be calculated. So
nearly is this element absent that we may consider these explosions as
almost perfect Impulsive Forces. To secure _ballistic effect_ requires
the gradual application of force. When motion is imparted to a body the
inertia developed is inversely proportional to the time consumed in
imparting it. This resistance to motion becomes enormously great when
the detonating explosives are used. For this reason their ballistic
effect is small. The force which should give the projectile motion is
expended in producing molecular changes in both projectile and gun. The
same quality, however, fits them especially for blasting and torpedoes,
where shattering effect is desirable.

=Express Rifle.= A modern sporting rifle of great killing power, used in
hunting large or dangerous animals. They were first introduced in
England, and have become celebrated in the hands of African travelers
and explorers. The principle consists in using large charges of powder
and a light bullet, which gives a very high initial velocity and a
trajectory practically a right line for 150 or 200 yards, hence the term
“Express.” To increase the killing power of the bullet it is made of
pure lead and has a hollow point. Upon striking game the bullet spreads
outwardly, giving a fearful death-wound. Moreover, for specially ugly
game a small explosive cartridge can be dropped into the cavity in the
point, making it an explosive bullet. (See BULLETS, EXPRESS.) In England
a caliber as large as .57 is used for some Express rifles. In the United
States a caliber of .45 or .50 is considered sufficient.

=Expugn.= To conquer; to take by assault.

=Expugnable.= Capable of being expugned, forced or conquered.

=Expugnation.= The act of taking by assault; conquest.

=Expugner.= One who expugns or conquers.

=Extend.= A term peculiarly applicable to light infantry movements, when
the files are frequently loosened, and the front of the line extended
for the purpose of skirmishing. When the divisions of a column are made
to occupy a greater space of ground, they are said to extend their
front.

=Exterior Crest.= The crest of the exterior slope of a parapet.

=Exterior Form of Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, EXTERIOR FORM.

=Exterior Side.= In fortification, is the side of the polygon, upon
which a front of fortification is formed.

=Exterior Slope.= In fortification, is the slope given to the outside of
a parapet. It is found by experience that earth of common quality will
naturally acquire a slope of 45°, even when battered by cannon. This
inclination is therefore given to the slope.

=External Injuries to Cannon.= See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Extortion.= Under the modern laws of war, honorable men no longer
permit the use of any violence against prisoners in order to extort
information or to punish them for having given false information.

=Extrados= (_Fr._). The exterior surface of a regular arch, used in the
construction of powder-magazines.

=Extraordinaries of the Army.= In the English service, the allowances to
troops beyond the gross pay in the pay office, come under this head.
Such are the expenses for barracks, marches, encampments, staff, etc.

=Extraordinarii.= In the ancient Roman army, a select body of men
consisting of the third part of the foreign cavalry and a fifth of the
infantry. These were carefully separated from the other forces borrowed
from the confederate states, in order to prevent any treacherous
coalition between them. From among the extraordinarii a more choice body
of men were drawn, under the name of _ablecti_. See ABLECTI.

=Eylau=, or =Eilau=. Usually called Prussian Eylau, a town in the
government of Königsberg, celebrated for the battle fought here between
Napoleon and the allies--Russians and Prussians--under Bennigsen,
February 8, 1807. The French force amounted to about 80,000, and the
allies numbered 58,000, but were superior in artillery. The French
claimed the victory, chiefly because the allied forces, unable to
recruit their strength, were ordered to retreat from the field on the
night of the battle, and to retire upon Königsberg. The loss of the
allies is estimated at about 20,000, while that of the French must have
been considerably greater.



F.


=Face.= A term of varied application. In fortification, it is an
appellation given to several parts of a fortress, as the _face of the
bastion_, which is the two sides, reaching from the flanks to the
salient angles. The _prolonged or extended face_ is that part of the
line of defense which is terminated by the curtain and the angle of the
shoulder. Strictly taken, it is the line of defense _rayant_, diminished
by the face of the bastion.

=Face.= In tactics, is the turning of a soldier on his heels as a “right
face”; also the word of command for the movement. _To face_ is to turn
on the heels.

=Face of a Piece.= In gunnery, is the terminating plane perpendicular to
the axis of the bore.

=Face of a Place.= In fortification, is the front comprehended between
the flanked angles of two neighboring bastions, composed of a curtain,
two flanks, and two faces; and is sometimes called the _tenaille of the
place_.

=Faces of a Square.= The sides of a battalion when formed in square.

=Fachon.= An Anglo-Norman term for a sword or falchion.

=Facing.= A covering, a plating.

=Facings.= The movements of soldiers by turning on their heels to the
right, left, right-about, left-about, etc. _To put one through one’s
facings_, is to examine into his elementary knowledge, to test his
pretensions.

=Facings.= Are also the cuffs and collars of a military coat, and are
generally of a different color from that of the coat.

=Faction.= In ancient history, one of the troops or bodies of combatants
in the games of the circus, especially of the horse-races.

=Faction.= A term applied in an ill sense to any party in a state that
offers uncompromising opposition to the measures of the government, or
that endeavors to excite public discontent upon unreasonable grounds.

=Faction= (_Fr._). The duty done by a private soldier when he patrols,
goes the round, etc., but most especially when he does duty as a
sentinel. The French usually say, _entrer en faction_, to come upon
duty; _etre en faction_, to be upon duty; _sortir de faction_, to come
off duty.

=Factionnaire= (_Fr._). _Soldat factionnaire_, a soldier that does every
species of detail duty. The term _factionnaire_ was likewise applicable
to the duty done by officers in the old French service.

=Faenza= (anc. _Faventia_). A town in Central Italy, 19 miles southwest
of Ravenna. Faventia is noted in history as the place where Carbo and
Norbanus were defeated with great loss by Metillus, the general of
Sulla, in 82 B.C.

=Fæsulæ.= See FIESOLE.

=Fag-end.= Is the end of any rope. This term is also applied to the end
of a rope when it has become untwisted. _To fag out_, to wear out the
end of a rope or a piece of canvas.

=Fagnano.= A village of Italy, 12 miles from Verona. In 1799 a battle
was fought here between the Austrians and French.

=Fagots.= See FASCINES.

=Fagots.= In military history, were men hired to muster by officers
whose companies were not complete; by which means they cheated the
public of the men’s pay, and deprived the country of its regular
establishment.

=Failure.= An unsuccessful attempt; as, the failure of an expedition.

=Faint.= To lose courage or spirit; to become depressed or despondent.

=Faint-hearted.= Wanting in courage; depressed by fear, easily
discouraged or frightened; cowardly, timorous.

=Fairfax=, or =Culpeper Court-house=. A village, the capital of Culpeper
Co., Va., on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. This place was an
important strategic point during the civil war (1861-65).

=Fairfield.= A village of Fairfield Co., Conn., situated on Long Island
Sound. It was settled in 1659; it was burned in 1779 by order of Gov.
Tryon.

=Fair Haven.= A village of Bristol Co., Mass., on Buzzard’s Bay. The
town was attacked by the British on September 7, 1788, but they were
repulsed without loss.

=Fair Oaks.= A locality in Henrico Co., Va., on the Richmond and York
River Railroad, about 7 miles east of Richmond. Here a severe battle
took place between the Federals under Gen. McClellan and the Confederate
army under Gen. Johnston, May 31-June 1, 1862, in which the latter were
defeated, although the former obtained no decisive results from their
success. The Union loss was estimated at 5500; the Confederate was
somewhat greater.

=Fakir.= A word derived from the Arabic _fakhar_, and designating a
member of an order of mendicants or penitents, chiefly in India and the
neighboring countries. They live either separately as hermits or
solitary mendicants, or unite in large gangs, carrying arms and a
banner, beating drums, and sounding horns, whenever they approach a town
or village.

=Falarique= (_Fr._) Falarica; combustible darts or arrows of various
thicknesses, generally about 3 feet long; close behind the head was
lodged the combustible matter by which shipping, etc., was set on fire;
it was projected from a bow or catapult.

=Falcair= (_Fr._). A soldier who was armed with a falcarius or short
crooked sword.

=Falchion.= A curved sword, or small cimeter.

=Falcon.= An ancient form of cannon, 7 feet in length, carrying a ball
of 4 pounds in weight.

=Falconet.= A small cannon anciently used, a little exceeding 6 feet in
length, and carrying a ball of 2 pounds in weight.

=Falczi, Peace of.= Concluded between Russia and Turkey, July 2, 1711,
the Russians giving up Azof and all their possessions on the Black Sea
to the Turks. The Russians were saved from imminent destruction by the
address of Catharine, the empress. In 1712 the war was renewed, and
terminated by the peace of Constantinople, April 16, 1712.

=Falerii.= A city of ancient Etruria, which was situated west of the
Tiber. The inhabitants, who were called Falisci, joined with those of
Veii in assisting the Fidenates against the Romans, and were among the
most dangerous enemies of Rome. In 241 B.C. the city was destroyed, and
a Roman colony was settled in the time of the triumvirs.

=Falkirk.= A town of Scotland, in Stirlingshire. Sir William Wallace was
defeated in a battle near Falkirk by Edward I., and here, also, the
royal army was defeated by the adherents of the house of Stuart in 1746.

=Falkoping.= A town of Sweden, near which, in 1338, Margaret, queen of
Denmark, defeated Albert, king of Sweden, and took him prisoner.

=Fall.= The surrender or capture of a place after it has been besieged.

=Fall.= The rope rove through blocks, used with gins and shears for
raising weights, and with the crab for moving them.

=Fall.= The descent of a body by the attraction of the earth.

=Fall Foul, To.= To attack; to make an assault.

=Fall In.= A word of command for men to form in ranks, as in parade,
line, or division, etc.

=Falling Bodies, Laws of.= When a body falls freely _in vacuo_ it is
actuated by a force which may be taken as constant, consequently its
velocity will be uniformly accelerated. The constant increment to the
velocity in one second is called the _acceleration_, and is a measure
of the force. (See FORCE OF GRAVITY.) The velocity acquired at the end
of a certain time will be found by multiplying the force of gravity by
the number of seconds. The laws of falling bodies are given by the
following equations:

  _v_ = _gt_

  _v_ = √(2_gh_)

        _v_²
  _h_ = -----
        2_g_

In which _v_ is the velocity acquired, _h_ the height fallen through,
_g_ the force of gravity, and _t_ the time in seconds. These laws are
approximately true for dense or heavy bodies falling for a few seconds
in the atmosphere. For longer periods, _v_ is less than that due to _h_
under the above laws. For full discussion, see FINAL VELOCITY.

=Falling Branch.= That part of the trajectory of a projectile in which
it approaches the earth.

=Fall Out, To.= To quit the rank or file in which you were first posted.
Dirty soldiers on a parade are frequently ordered to fall out, and
remain in the rear of their companies. The phrase is applicable in a
variety of other instances.

=Fall Upon, To.= To attack abruptly.

=Falots= (_Fr._). Small lanterns fixed upon the end of a stick or pole.
Small lamps likewise used, attached in the same manner, for the purpose
of carrying them readily about to light a camp, or besieged towns, as
occasion may require.

=False Alarm.= An alarm or apprehension which is either designedly or
unintentionally created by noise, report, or signals, without being
dangerous.

=False Attack.= An approach which is made as a feint for the purpose of
diverting an enemy from the real object of attack.

=False Fires.= Lights or fires employed for the purpose of deceiving an
enemy. When an army is about to retire from a position during the night
false fires are lighted in different parts of the encampment to impose
upon the enemy’s vigilance.

=False Lights.= In debarkations under cover of the night, may likewise
be used as signals of deception, when it is found expedient to attract
the attention of the invaded country towards one part of the coast or
territory, whilst a real attack is meditated against another.

=False Muster.= An incorrect statement of the number of effective
soldiers and horses. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 14.

=False Return.= A willful report of the actual state of a brigade,
regiment, troop, or company, by which the commander-in-chief of the war
department is deceived as to the effective force of such regiment or
company. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 8.

=Famagosta=, or =Famagusta=. A seaport town of the island of Cyprus, on
the east coast, built on the ruins of the ancient Arsinoe. In 1571
Famagosta was taken by the Turks, and the town was almost entirely
destroyed by an earthquake in 1735.

=Fanfare=. The French name of a short and lively military air or call,
executed on brass instruments.

=Fang, To.= To pour water into a pump in order to fetch it, when
otherwise the boxes do not hold the water left on them.

=Fanion= (_Fr._). A small flag which was sometimes carried at the head
of the baggage of a brigade. It was made of serge, and resembled in
color the uniform livery of the brigadier, or of the commandant of any
particular corps.

=Fantassin= (_Fr._). A foot-soldier. This term is derived from the
Italian _fante_, a _boy_, the light troops in the 14th and 15th
centuries being formed of boys who followed the armies and were formed
into corps with light arms, hence the origin of the word _infantry_.

=Fantee=, or =Fanti=. A maritime country of Guinea, inhabited by a tribe
of the same name, who are now under English protection.

=Farcy.= A horse disease of the absorbents, affecting the skin and its
blood-vessels; is of the nature of mange, and allied to glanders.

=Farrier.= In a general acceptation of the term, any person who shoes
horses, or professes to cure their diseases. In a practical military
sense, a man appointed to do the duty of farriery in a troop of cavalry.
Troop farriers should be under the immediate superintendence and control
of a veterinary surgeon. There is one farrier allowed to each troop of
cavalry in the U. S. army.

=Farrier-Major.= A person who was formerly appointed by the colonel of a
dragoon regiment to superintend the farriers of troops. He has since
been superseded or replaced by a veterinary surgeon.

=Fasces.= Bundles of rods usually made of birch, but sometimes of elm,
with an axe projecting from the middle of them, which were carried
before the chief magistrates of ancient Rome, as symbols of their power
over life and limb. They were borne by the lictors, at first before the
kings; in the time of the republic, before consuls and prætors; and
afterwards before the emperors.

=Fascine.= A long cylindrical fagot of brushwood, used to revet the
interior of batteries and embrasures, and for many other purposes of
military engineering.

=Fascines, Covering.= See COVERING-FASCINES.

=Fastness.= A fast place; a stronghold; a fortress or fort; a place
fortified; a castle, etc.

=Fatigue.= The cause of weariness; labor; toil; as, the fatigues of war.

=Fatigue.= The labors of military men, distinct from the use of arms.

=Fatigue Call.= A particular military call, sounded on the bugle or
drum, by which soldiers are called upon to perform fatigue duties.

=Fatigue Dress.= The working dress of soldiers.

=Fatigue Party.= A party of soldiers on fatigue.

=Faulcon.= A small cannon.

=Faulx= (_Fr._). An instrument nearly resembling a scythe. It was often
used to defend a breach, or to prevent an enemy from scaling the walls
of a fortified place. This weapon was first resorted to with some
success, when Louis XIV. besieged Mons. On the surrender of that town,
large quantities of faulx, or scythes, were found in the garrison.

=Fausse Braye.= In fortification, was a parapet constructed at a lower
elevation than the main parapet, and between the foot of the parapet and
the edge of the ditch. It was used only in permanent fortification, and
has long been obsolete.

=Fayetteville.= A small town, capital of Washington Co., Ark. On April
18, 1863, this place, which was garrisoned by two regiments of Federal
troops under Col. Harrison, was attacked by the Confederate general
Cabell, with about 2000 men; and after six hours’ severe fighting the
Confederates were repulsed.

=Fayetteville.= A town of Cumberland Co., N. C., on the left bank of the
Cape Fear River. On April 22, 1861, the arsenal at this place
surrendered to the Confederates, and about 35,000 stand of arms, besides
some cannon and a considerable quantity of ammunition, fell into their
hands. The town was taken by Gen. Sherman in March, 1865.

=Fecial.= Pertaining to heralds, and the denunciation of war to an
enemy; as, fecial war.

=Federal States.= Are those united by treaty as one state, without
giving up self-government,--as in Switzerland or the United States of
North America. The Federals were the people of the Northern of the
United States of America during the great conflict in 1861-65; their
opponents were styled the Confederates.

=Fehrbellin.= A town of Prussia, 22 miles northwest from Potsdam. The
elector of Brandenburg defeated the Swedish army near this town in 1675.

=Feint.= In military or naval matters, a mock attack or assault, usually
made to throw an enemy off his guard against some real design upon his
position.

=Feint.= In fencing, a seeming aim at one part when another is intended
to be struck.

=Felloes.= In artillery, the parts of the wheel which form its
circumference. There are generally seven in each wheel.

=Feltre= (_Fr._). A Roman cuirass made of strong woolen cloth.

=Fence.= Self-defense by the use of the sword; fencing; the art and
practice of fencing or sword-play.

=Fencer.= One who fences; one who teaches or practices the art of
fencing with sword or foil.

=Fence-roof.= A covering of defense.

=Fencible.= Capable of being defended, or of making or affording
defense.

=Fencible.= A soldier enlisted for the defense of the country, and not
liable to be sent abroad.

=Fencible Light Dragoons.= A body of cavalry raised voluntarily in
various counties of England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the
war in any part of Great Britain. This force was disbanded in 1800.

=Fencibles.= In England, regiments raised for a limited service, and for
a definite period. The officers rank with the militia.

=Fencing.= The art of using skillfully a sword or foil in attack or
defense; the art or practice of self-defense with the sword.

=Fenian.= A name formerly applied among the Celts to bodies of troops
somewhat similar to our modern militia. They derived their name from
Finn McCumhail, a famous Celtic chief. In modern times the name was
assumed by an association formed for the liberation of Ireland, whose
principal headquarters was in the United States, but ramifications of
which extended through Great Britain, Ireland, and the colonies. In 1866
the Fenians attempted to invade Canada, and succeeded in crossing the
frontier; but they were soon dispersed, and their leaders arrested by
the U. S. authorities for violation of the neutrality laws. In 1867
there were several demonstrations made by them in England and Ireland,
but their leaders were promptly arrested, and after some were executed,
and others sentenced to long terms of imprisonment, the movement was
crushed.

=Fer= (_Fr._). Iron. Figuratively, this word is used for a sword or
dagger; as, _manier le fer_, to wear the sword, to follow the profession
of arms.

=Fer à Cheval= (_Fr._). In fortification, a horseshoe, a small round or
oval work, with a parapet, generally made in a ditch or in a marsh. It
further means, according to the French acceptation of the term, a work
constructed for the purpose of covering a gate, by having within it a
guard-house, to prevent the town from being taken by surprise.

=Ferdwit.= In ancient military history, a term formerly used to denote a
freedom from serving upon any military expedition; or, according to
some, the being acquitted of manslaughter committed in the army.

=Fere Champenoise, La.= A town of France, in the department of the
Marne, 20 miles from Epernay. In 1814 the French were defeated here by
the allies.

=Fere, La.= A fortified town of France, in the department of the Aisne,
on an island in the Oise. It has an arsenal and a school of artillery.
This town was taken by the Spaniards in 1530; and by the allies in 1814.

=Ferentarii.= Among the Romans, were auxiliary troops lightly armed;
their weapons being a sword, arrows, and a sling. We have also mention
of another sort of Ferentarii, whose business was to carry arms after
the army, and to be ready to supply the soldiers therewith in battle.

=Ferozeshah.= A village in Hindostan, situated a few miles from the left
bank of the river Sutlej. Here the British, commanded by Sir Hugh Gough,
attacked the intrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first line of
works, December 21, 1845; but night coming on, the operations were
suspended till daybreak next day, when their second line was stormed by
Gen. Gilbert, and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to retake their
guns, but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated toward the
Sutlej, December 22; and recrossed that river unmolested, December 27.
The loss of the British was reckoned at 2415.

=Ferrara.= A city of Italy, and the capital of one of the Æmilian
provinces of the same name. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 8th
century, and taken from them by Pepin, about 752, who gave it to Pope
Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the hands of the house of Este, and
in 1598 Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sovereignty. The French under
Masséna took Ferrara in 1796; but it was restored to the pope in 1814.
An Austrian garrison held it from 1849; it retired in June, 1859, and
the people rose and declared for annexation to Sardinia, which was
accomplished in March, 1860.

=Ferrara.= A sword of excellent temper, made of steel from Ferrara,
Italy. The kind most prized was manufactured by Andrea di Ferrara; hence
such a sword was often called an Andrea-Ferrara.

=Ferries, Rope.= See PONTONS.

=Ferrol.= A seaport town of Spain, province of Corunna, and an important
naval station. This place was unsuccessfully attacked by the British in
August, 1800. Marshal Soult captured Ferrol, January 27, 1809.

=Ferry.= A water conveyance made use of to cross a river, or branch of
the sea.

=Fetter.= To put fetters upon; to shackle or confine the feet with a
chain; to bind; to enchain. Deserters are sometimes fettered while
undergoing punishment for the crime of desertion.

=Feu-de-joie.= A salute fired by musketry on occasions of public
rejoicing, so that it should pass from man to man rapidly and steadily,
down one rank and up the other, giving one long continuous sound.

=Feu Rasant= (_Fr._). A grazing fire, or a discharge of musketry or
cannon, so directed that the balls shall run parallel with the ground
they fly over, within 3 or 4 feet of the surface.

=Feud.= A contention or quarrel; especially an inveterate strife between
families, clans, or parties in a state; deadly hatred; contention
satisfied only by bloodshed.

=Feudal.= Consisting of, or founded upon, feuds or fiefs; embracing
tenures by military system; as, the feudal system.

=Fez.= A red cap without a brim, worn by Turkish soldiers and others.

=Fez.= A city of Morocco, Africa; it was founded by Edris, a descendant
of Mohammed, about 787; was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. After
long-continued struggles it was annexed to Morocco about 1550.

=Fichant.= In fortification, said of flanking fire which impinges on the
face it defends; that is, of a line of defense where the angle of
defense is less than a right angle.

=Fidenæ.= An ancient city of Latium, on the left bank of the Tiber, 5
miles from Rome. The proximity of the two cities brought them early into
collision, and we find that Fidenæ was engaged in successive wars with
the early Roman kings. After the expulsion of the Tarquins Fidenæ
entered into a league with the Sabines and Latins to effect their
restoration, but the attempt proved abortive, and, deserted by their
allies, the Fidenates were compelled to surrender to the Roman arms. The
city afterwards continued its struggles against Rome, but without
success, and, though there is no record of its destruction, it had
dwindled into an insignificant village before the close of the Roman
republic.

=Fidentia= (now _Bargo S. Domingo_). A town in Cisalpine Gaul, on the
Via Æmilia, between Parma and Placentia, memorable for the victory which
Sulla’s generals gained over Carbo, 82 B.C.

=Fief.= An estate held of a superior on condition of military service; a
fee; a feud.

=Field.= A cleared space or plain where a battle is fought; also, the
battle itself. _To take the field_ means to commence active operations
against an enemy.

=Field.= In heraldry, the surface of a shield; hence, any blank space or
ground on which figures are drawn or projected.

=Field Allowance.= In the British service, is an allowance granted to
officers in camp at home, or on a campaign, to enable them to repay
themselves the expense of purchasing camp equipage, bat-horses, etc. It
is divided into ordinary and extraordinary field allowance, the former
being granted in time of peace, the latter in that of war.

=Field Artillery.= That portion of the artillery which is used in the
field. In the U. S. army the 3-and 3¹⁄₂-inch rifle guns, Gatling, and
12-pounder smooth-bore, constitute the field artillery. See ARTILLERY.

=Field-battery.= Is a certain number of pieces of artillery so equipped
as to be available for attack or defense, and capable of accompanying
cavalry or infantry in all their movements in the field. There are
allotted to a field-battery 4 pieces in time of peace and 6 in time of
war, and it is divided into _mounted artillery_, which usually serves
with infantry, and _horse artillery_, which ordinarily serves with
cavalry. The main difference between the two consists in the cannoneers
of the latter being mounted; in rapid evolutions of the former they are
conveyed on the gun-carriages. See ARTILLERY.

=Field-bed.= A folding bed used by officers while on campaigns or in the
field.

=Field-carriage.= Field-gun carriages consist of two short cheeks of
wood, bolted upon a stock and wooden axle-body, in a recess which fits
the iron axle on which the wheels are placed. The stock terminates in a
_trail_ and _trail-plate_ which rests on the ground, and has on the end
a strong ring called the _lunette_, which is placed on the pintle-hook
when the piece is limbered. In the stock is placed an elevating
screw-box of bronze in which the elevating screw fits. They have also
_limbers_ (which see).

=Field-colors.= Small flags of about a foot and a half square, carried
along with troops for marking out the ground for the squadrons and
battalions; camp-colors.

=Field-day.= A term used when a regiment is taken out to the field, for
the purpose of being instructed in the field exercise and evolutions.

=Fielded.= Being in the field of battle; encamped. This term is now
obsolete.

=Field-equipage.= Military apparatus for field service.

=Field Forge.= See FORGE.

=Field-glass.= A binocular telescope, used by officers in field service.

=Field-gun.= A small kind of gun, or cannon, used on the battle-field; a
field-piece.

=Field-Marshal= (_Mareschal_, _Feldmarschall_, _Feldzeugmeister_). The
commander of an army; a military officer of high rank in France,
Germany, and other nations, and the highest military officer in England.
Formerly a captain-general was occasionally appointed, who had rank
higher even than a field-marshal.

=Field-officer.= Is a colonel, lieutenant-colonel, or major of a
battalion or regiment, as distinguished from general officers, who are
superior to field-officers in rank; from line-officers, who are
inferior; and from staff-officers, general or regimental, who may be of
rank superior, equivalent, or inferior to that of field-officers.

=Field-officer’s Court.= In the U. S. service, a court-martial
consisting of one field-officer empowered to try cases, subject to
jurisdiction of garrison and regimental courts, takes the place of the
latter courts in time of war, but cannot be held in time of peace.

=Field of the Cloth of Gold.= A name given to an open plain between
Ardres and Guisnes, where Henry VIII. of England had an interview in
1520 with Francis I. of France. The nobility of both kingdoms embraced
the opportunity to display their magnificence with the utmost emulation
and profusion of expense.

=Field-park.= The spare carriages, reserved supplies of ammunition,
tools, and materials for extensive repairs and for making up ammunition,
for the service of an army in the field, form the field-park, to which
should be attached also the batteries of reserve.

=Field-piece.= A small cannon which is carried along with armies, and
used in the field of battle.

=Field Service.= Service performed by troops in the field.

=Field-staff.= A staff formerly carried by gunners in the field, and
holding lighted matches for discharging cannon. It is no longer used.

=Field Telegraph.= See TELEGRAPH, FIELD.

=Field-train.= In the British service, a department of the Royal
Artillery, consisting of commissaries and conductors of stores,
responsible for the safe custody of the ammunition, for the formation of
proper depots of shot, etc., between the front and the base of
operations, and that a due proportion shall be constantly at the service
of each gun during an engagement.

=Field-works.= Are intrenchments and other temporary fortifications
thrown up by an army in the field, either as a protection from the
onslaught of a hostile force, or to cover an attack upon some
stronghold. All works which do not come under the head of permanent
fortification are called field-works.

=Fiesole= (anc. _Faesulæ_). One of the most ancient Etruscan cities,
situated about 3 miles from Florence. This city was first mentioned in
225 B.C. during the great Gaulish war. Hannibal encamped here after
crossing the Apennines. The city was next destroyed by Sulla in the
Social war (90-89 B.C.), who afterwards dispatched thither a military
colony. About the beginning of the 11th century, it was destroyed by the
Florentines, and many of its inhabitants compelled to remove to the city
of Florence.

=Fife.= A wooden wind instrument, which is used with the snare-drum for
playing military music. The music is produced by blowing through a hole
in a reed or tube, while the escape of air is regulated by the fingers
stopping or opening a number of other holes in different parts of the
pipe.

=Fife-Major.= The chief or superintendent of the fifers of a regiment.

=Fifer.= One who plays a fife; there is one fifer allowed to each
company of infantry in the U. S. army. Fifers are also employed aboard
men-of-war, and in the marine corps.

=Fight.= To strive or contend for victory, in battle or in single
combat; to defeat, subdue, or destroy an enemy, either by blows or
weapons; to contend in arms;--followed by _with_ or _against_.

=Fight.= To carry on, or wage, as a conflict, or battle; to win or gain
by struggle, as one’s way; to sustain by fighting, as a cause. To
contend with in battle; to war against, as, they fought the enemy in two
pitched battles. To cause to fight; manage or manœuvre in a fight.

=Fight.= A battle; an engagement; a contest in arms; a struggle for
victory, either between individuals or between armies, ships, or
navies. A duel is called a single fight or combat.

=Fighter.= One who fights; a combatant; a warrior.

=Fighting.= Qualified for war; fit for battle; as, “A host of fighting
men.” Also, occupied in war; being the scene of war; as, a fighting
field.

=Fight, Running.= That in which the enemy is continually chased.

=Figueras.= A town in the northeast of Spain, province of Gerona. On a
height near the town is the citadel of San Fernando, the strongest
fortress of Spain, and the key of the Pyrenees on their south side. It
has accommodation for 2000 men.

=Figure.= In fortification, the plan of any fortified place, or the
interior polygon. Of this there are two sorts, regular and irregular; a
regular figure is that where the sides and angles are equal; an
irregular one where they are unequal.

=File.= A line of soldiers drawn up behind each other, in
contradistinction to rank, which refers to men standing beside one
another. The general term means two soldiers, consisting of the front
and rear rank men. To _file_ is to advance to or from any given points
by files; as, to file to the front, etc. To _file off_, or to _defile_,
is to wheel off by files from moving in a spacious front, and march in
length. _Flank file_, is the extreme file on the right or left of a
squadron or troop, battalion or company, etc. _Indian files_, a line of
men advancing or retreating from either of the flanks, from the centre
or from any proportion of a line in succession to one another.

=File Firing.= Firing by files.

=File-leader.= Is the soldier placed in front of any file, or the man
who is to cover all those who stand directly in the rear of him, and by
whom they are to be guided in all their movements.

=Filibuster.= A lawless military adventurer, especially one in quest of
plunder; a freebooter; a pirate; applied especially to the followers of
Lopez in his expedition to Cuba in 1851.

=Filings.= Are movements to the front, rear, or flanks by files.

=Fillet.= A molding used on cannon of old pattern.

=Fillibeg=, or =Filibeg=. A little plaid; a kilt or dress reaching
nearly to the knees, worn in the Highlands of Scotland, and by the
soldiers of Highland regiments in the British service.

=Fillibuster.= See FILIBUSTER.

=Final Velocity.= In gunnery, is the technical term for the uniform
velocity which a projectile would acquire in falling through an
indefinite height in the air. A body falling in _vacuo_ is uniformly
accelerated, its velocity being continually increased. In the atmosphere
the case is different. Since the resistance of the air increases with
some power of the velocity greater than the square, it follows that at
some point in the descent the retardation becomes equal to the
acceleration, and the body will move with uniform velocity. This is
called “final velocity,” and is one of the most important elements in
the theory of projectiles. Every projectile has its own “final
velocity.” Other things being equal, that projectile is best which has
the greatest “final velocity.” The “final velocity” of a given
projectile will depend upon its weight on the one hand, and the extent
of surface and the way it is presented to the air on the other. The
extent and form of the surface directly opposed to the action of the air
will largely determine the resistance. The best form, as determined by
the experiments of Borda, is the _ogival_. The resistance, other things
being the same, may be taken as proportional to the area of greatest
cross-section. The weight in spherical projectiles is proportional to
the cube of this dimension. It follows from these general principles
that large projectiles are better than small, dense better than light,
solid better than hollow, in regard to their final velocities; moreover,
that oblong projectiles are better than spherical, ogival-headed oblong
better than flat-headed, and long rifle projectiles better than short,
in the same regard.

=Finding.= Before a court-martial deliberates upon the judgment, the
judge-advocate reads over the whole proceedings of the court; he then
collects the votes of each member, beginning with the youngest. The best
mode of doing so is by slips of paper. The Articles of War require a
majority in all cases, and in cases of sentence of death two-thirds. It
is not necessary to find a _general_ verdict of guilt or acquittal upon
the whole of every charge. The court may find the prisoner guilty of
part of a charge, and acquit him of the remainder, and render sentence
according to their finding. This is a _special_ verdict.

=Finland.= A Russian grand duchy; in the middle of the 12th century was
conquered by the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. It was several
times conquered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored
(1721 and 1743); but in 1809 they retained it by treaty.

=Fire.= In the art of war, a word of command to soldiers of all
denominations to discharge their fire-arms, cannon, etc. It likewise
expresses a general discharge against an enemy. To be “under fire” means
to be exposed to the attack of an enemy by cannonade or fusilade. The
fire in artillery may be either direct, ricochet, rolling, plunging,
horizontal, or vertical, according to the nature of the projectile and
the angle of elevation. A fire is said to be _direct_, when the
projectile hits the object without striking any intermediate one;
_ricochet_, when the projectile strikes the ground or water under a
small angle of fall, penetrates obliquely to a certain distance, and is
then reflected at an angle greater than the angle of fall. This action
may recur frequently, depending, as it does, on the nature of the
surface struck, the initial velocity, shape, size, and density of the
projectile, and on the angle of fall. It is employed in siege-works to
attain the face of a work in flank, or in reverse; and in the field, or
on water, when the object is large, and the distance is not accurately
known. The character of ricochet fire is determined by the angle of
fall. It is _flattened_ when this angle does not exceed 4°, and
_curvated_ when the angle is between 6° and 15°. Against troops the
angle of fall should not exceed 3°. A particular kind of ricochet fire
called _rolling_ is produced by placing the axis of the piece parallel,
or nearly so, with the ground. It was formerly much used when the
conditions were favorable in the field service, where it was very
effective, as the projectile never passes at a greater distance above
the ground than the muzzle of the piece. The projectile was solid round
shot; rifled projectiles are unsuited to this kind of fire. When the
object is situated below the piece, the fire is said to be _plunging_.
This kind of fire is particularly effective against the decks of
vessels. Under low angles of elevation the fire of guns and howitzers is
said to be _horizontal_. The fire of mortars under high angles of
elevation is called _vertical_.

=Fire-alarm.= An alarm given of a fire or conflagration. In military
barracks or camp, it is sounded on drum or bugle, or the discharge of
fire-arms by the guard.

=Fire, Angle of.= See POINTING.

=Fire-arms.= Every description of arms charged with powder and ball. See
special headings.

=Fire-arrow.= A small iron dart, furnished with a match impregnated with
powder and sulphur, used to fire the sails of ships.

=Fire-ball.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Fire-bavin.= A bundle of brushwood used in fire-ships.

=Fire-bucket.= A bucket to convey water for extinguishing fires. To each
set of quarters in a garrison there are allotted a certain number of
fire-buckets.

=Fire-cross.= An ancient token in Scotland for the nation to take up
arms.

=Fire, Curved=, or =Curvated=. See FIRE.

=Fire, Direct.= See FIRE.

=Fire-eater.= One notoriously fond of being in action.

=Fire, Effects of.= See PROJECTILES, EFFECTS OF.

=Fire, Enfilade.= Fire in the direction of the length of a parapet or a
line of troops.

=Fire-engine.= A hydraulic or forcing pump for throwing water to
extinguish fires.

=Fire, Greek.= See GREEK FIRE.

=Fire-hoops.= A combustible invented by the Knights of Malta to throw
among their besiegers, and afterwards used in boarding Turkish galleys.

=Fire, Line of.= See POINTING.

=Firelocks.= Were fire-arms formerly used by foot-soldiers; they were so
called from their producing fire of themselves, by the action of the
flint and steel. They were first made use of in 1690, but it is not
ascertained when they were first invented. About the middle of the last
century a firelock was called, by military writers, _asnapbaan_, which
being a low Dutch word, seems to indicate its being a Dutch invention.

=Fire-master.= In the artillery, was a commissioned officer who gave the
directions and proportions of all ingredients for each composition
required in fireworks, whether for the service of war, or for rejoicings
and recreation.

=Fire-master’s-mate.= In the artillery, a commissioned officer whose
duty was to aid and assist the chief fire-master; and he was required to
be skilled in every kind of laboratory works.

=Fire, Oblique.= That which strikes a parapet or a body of troops in a
slanting direction.

=Fire-pan.= A pan for holding or conveying fire; especially, the
receptacle for the priming in a gun.

=Fire, Plane of.= See POINTING.

=Fire, Plunging.= See FIRE.

=Fire-pot.= A small earthen pot, into which is put a charged grenade,
and over that, powder enough to cover the grenade; the whole covered
with a piece of parchment, and two pieces of quick-match across lighted;
it breaks and fires the powder, as also the powder in the grenade, which
has no fuze, that its operations may be quicker; it burns all that is
near it. These are no longer used.

=Fire Rasant.= Is produced by firing the artillery and small-arms in a
line parallel with those parts of the works you are defending.

=Fire, Reverse.= Is that which strikes the rear of a parapet or body of
troops.

=Fire, Ricochet.= See FIRE.

=Fire, Slant.= Is when the shot strikes the interior slope of the
parapet, forming with it a horizontal angle, not greater than 30°.

=Fire Stone.= A composition placed in a shell with the bursting charge,
to set fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is made by stirring nitre,
sulphur, antimony, and rosin in a mixture of melted tallow and
turpentine. It is cast in molds made of rocket-paper. A priming of fuze
composition is driven in a hole to insure its ignition.

=Fire-swab.= The bunch of rope-yarns sometimes secured to the tampion,
saturated with water to cool the gun in action, and to swab up any
grains of powder.

=Fire, Tables of.= In artillery, are tabulated statements for each
piece, showing the range and time of flight for each elevation, charge
of powder, and kind of projectile. Their purpose is to assist the
artillerist in attaining his object without waste of time and
ammunition, and also to regulate his aim when the effect of shot cannot
be seen on account of the dust and smoke of the battle-field. The first
few shots generally produce a great effect on the enemy, and it is very
important that they should be directed with some knowledge of their
results, which, in the field, can only be attained by experience, or
from the data afforded by a table of fire. Tables of fire for different
kinds of cannon may be found in the Ordnance and Artillery Manuals.

=Fire, Vertical.= See FIRE.

=Fire-workers.= In the British service, were formerly subordinate to the
fire-master and his mate; had afterwards the rank of youngest
lieutenants in the regiment of artillery, but now that rank is
abolished, and they are all second lieutenants. They were supposed to be
well skilled in every kind of laboratory-work, which knowledge is an
essential qualification in every officer of that branch of the service.

=Fireworks.= Are various combustible preparations used in war. See
PYROTECHNY.

=Firing.= The act of discharging fire-arms.

=First Sergeant.= The ranking non-commissioned officer in a company. He
has immediate charge of all enlisted men of the company and company
property; has command of it during formations, and calls the roll. He
also makes all details, keeps the roster, etc. See ORDERLY SERGEANT.

=Fishguard.= A seaport town of South Wales, county of Pembroke. About
2¹⁄₂ miles south of this town a French force of 1400 men, under Gen.
Tate, landed on February 22, 1797, and next day surrendered to a few
militia and volunteers not half their number.

=Fishtail Wind.= A term in target practice with small-arms for a rear
wind which is variable in direction.

=Fish Torpedoes.= See TORPEDOES.

=Fissure.= A narrow chasm where a small breach has been made, as in a
fort, citadel, etc.

=Five Forks.= A name given to a locality in Dinwiddie Co., Va., the
junction of the White Oak and Ford’s road with the one leading to
Dinwiddie Court-house. An important battle was fought here April 1,
1865. The possession of this radiating centre was one of great strategic
importance, inasmuch as by Ford’s road the Southside Railroad could be
reached, and, indeed, the whole country which the intrenched Confederate
lines were intended to cover. The attempt to gain possession of this
position had been made (March 30-31) by Gen. Sheridan, with momentary
success (March 31), during the absence of most of the Confederate force,
engaged in fighting Warren on the White Oak road, but which now being
recalled, regained possession, driving Sheridan back towards Dinwiddie
Court-house. On the morning of April 1 Sheridan renewed the attempt, and
after a day of very severe fighting compelled the surrender of nearly
all the Confederate force, pursuing such as escaped till after dark.
Over 5000 prisoners were captured with 5 guns. The Union loss was not
above 1900 all told. The effect of this decisive battle was to
determine Lee to abandon Petersburg, which he did undercover of night
(April 2), but not before his entire outer line of works had been
carried during the day. One week later Lee surrendered his army at
Appomattox Court-house.

=Fix Bayonets.= A word of command in the manual exercise, whereby the
bayonets are fixed on the rifles.

=Fixed Ammunition.= Consists of a projectile and its cartridge which are
attached to the same block of wood called a _sabot_. See ORDNANCE,
AMMUNITION FOR.

=Flag, Black.= A flag of a black color, displayed as a sign that no
mercy will be shown to the vanquished, or that no quarter will be given.

=Flag, Garrison.= In the U. S. army the garrison flag is the national
flag, and is 36 feet fly and 20 feet hoist. It is furnished only to very
important posts, or those having large garrisons, and is hoisted only on
gala days and great occasions.

=Flag of the Prophet= (_Sanjak-Sheriff_). Is the sacred banner of the
Mohammedans. It was originally of a white color, and was composed of the
turban of the Koreish, captured by Mohammed. A black flag was, however,
soon substituted in its place, consisting of the curtain that hung
before the door of Ayeshah, one of the prophet’s wives. This flag is
regarded by the Mohammedans as their most sacred relic; it was brought
into Europe by Amurath III. It was covered with forty wrappings of silk,
deposited in a costly casket, and preserved in a chapel in the interior
of the seraglio, where it is guarded by several emirs, with constant
prayers. The banner unfolded at the commencement of a war, and likewise
carefully preserved, is not the same, although it is believed by the
people to be so.

=Flag of Truce.= A white flag carried by an officer sent to communicate
with the enemy. The flag signifies his errand, but the enemy are not
bound to receive him, though it would be a violation of the rules of war
to injure the messenger, unless he persisted in his endeavor to
communicate after due warning given. The term is often extended to the
party which accompanies the flag, which consists generally of an
officer, a trumpeter or bugler, who sounds to attract attention, and
sometimes of an additional soldier who carries the flag.

=Flag, Post.= In the U. S. army, is the national flag, and is 20 feet
fly and 10 feet hoist; it is furnished to all posts garrisoned by
troops, and is hoisted only in pleasant weather.

=Flag, Red.= Is frequently used by revolutionists as an emblem of
defiance. It is used in the U. S. service as a danger-signal at target
practice, and on a man-of-war as a signal that the ship is receiving or
discharging her powder.

=Flags.= See COLORS, STANDARDS, etc.

=Flags.= The national flag of the United States consists of 13
horizontal stripes, alternately red and white; the union to consist of
20 stars, white, in a blue field; one star to be added to the union on
the admission of every new State; the addition to be made on the 4th day
of July succeeding such admission. There are flags which are symbols of
individual authority. Among such are royal standards, flag-officers’
flags, etc. An admiral’s flag is usually the flag of the country which
such admiral serves, with the exception of the union. The flag of the
admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admirals of the United States is
rectangular and consists of 13 alternate red and white stripes. The
admiral hoists this at the main; the vice-admiral at the fore; the
rear-admiral at the mizzen. Should there be two rear-admirals present,
the junior hoists a flag at the mizzen similar to the one described,
with the addition of two stars in the upper left-hand corner. The
commodore’s flag differs from that of the admiral’s in form alone, it
being a swallow-tail instead of a rectangular. Should the President go
afloat, the American flag is carried in the bows of his barge or hoisted
at the main of the vessel on board of which he may be. In foreign
countries the royal standard is worn at ceremonies in honor of the
sovereign or at which the sovereign may be present. The highest flag in
the British navy is the anchor and cable, the next is the union, and the
lowest the blue. Flags are said to be at half-mast when they are hoisted
but half the height at which they are ordinarily worn, and in this
position designate mourning. _To strike or lower the flag_, to pull it
down upon the cap, in token of respect, submission, or, in an
engagement, of surrender. _Dipping the flag_ is a salute to a fort or
passing vessel by lowering it slightly and hoisting it again.

=Flag-staff.= The staff on which a flag is fixed.

=Flag, Storm.= In the U. S. army, is the national flag, and is 8 feet
fly and 4 feet 2 inches hoist; it is furnished to all occupied military
posts and national cemeteries, and will be hoisted in stormy or windy
weather. It is also to be used as a recruiting flag.

=Flam.= A peculiar tap upon a drum. This word was formerly made use of
in the British service, signifying a particular tap or beat upon the
drum, according to which each battalion went through its firings or
evolutions.

=Flambeau.= A kind of torch made of thick wicks, covered with wax, and
used in the streets at night, at illuminations and in processions.

=Flanchière= (_Fr._). A part of horse armor which covered the flanks and
croup as far as the houghs.

=Flanconade.= In fencing, a thrust in the side.

=Flanders.= The principal part of the ancient Belgium, which was
conquered by Julius Cæsar, 51 B.C. It became part of the kingdom of
France in 843, and was governed by counts subject to the king, from 862
till 1369. Flanders was subjected successively to Burgundy (1384),
Austria (1477), and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence,
but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house of Austria. In
1792 the French invaded imperial Flanders, and occupied it till 1814. In
1814 a portion of Flanders was given to the king of the Netherlands.
Since the revolution of 1831, it has belonged to Belgium.

=Flank.= A word of very extensive application in military matters. It
literally means sides or ends of any fortification, or encampment, or
body of troops. Thus a writer has described flanks as “certain
proportions of offensive or defensive forces extended to the right and
left of a main body.” In fortification the term means any part of the
work defending another by a fire along the outside of its parapet.

=Flank Casemate Carriage.= Is a gun-carriage which is especially adapted
to the mounting of the 24-pound iron howitzer in the flanks of
casemate-batteries, for defending the ditch.

=Flank Company.= A certain number of men drawn up on the right or left
of a battalion. Thus when there are grenadiers they compose the right,
and the light infantry the left flank company. Grenadiers and light
infantry are generally called flank companies, whether attached or not
to their battalions; rifle corps are always flankers.

=Flank, Concave.= Is that which is made in the arc of a semicircle
bending outwards.

=Flank, Covered.= The platform of the casemate, which lies hid in the
bastion. These retired flanks were a great defense to the opposite
bastion and passage of the ditch; because the besiegers could not see
nor easily dismount their guns.

=Flank Defense Carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST
CARRIAGES.

=Flank, Directing.= In drill, that by which companies march,--_i.e._,
that at which is placed the guide, who directs and regulates the march.

=Flank En Potence.= Is any part of the right or left wing formed at a
projecting angle with the line. See POTENCE.

=Flank Files.= Are the two first men on the right and the two last men
on the left of a battalion, company, etc. When a battalion is drawn up
three deep, its flank files consist of three men, or, as the French call
it, file and demi-file. When four deep, the flank files are termed
double files; so that a column formed from any of these alignments will
have all its relative flank files, be the depth of formation what it
may.

=Flank, Inner.= That which is nearest the point on which a line rests,
or which is farthest from the enemy. In drill, it is that nearest the
point from which the line is dressed.

=Flank, Leading.= When the line breaks into column in order to attack an
enemy, it is the flank which must always preserve the line of _appui_ in
all movements in front. The first battalion, or company of every column
which conducts, is called the head or leading flank of that column.

=Flank, Oblique.= Or second flank, in fortification; that part of the
curtain from whence the face of the opposite bastion may be discovered,
and is the distance between the lines _rasant_ and _fichant_, which are
rejected by some engineers, as being liable to be ruined at the
beginning of a siege, especially when made of sandy earth. This second
flank defends very obliquely the opposite face, and is to be used only
in a place attacked by an army without artillery.

=Flank of a Bastion.= In fortification, that part which joins the face
to the curtain, comprehended between the angle of the curtain and that
of the shoulder, and is the principal defense of a place. Its use is to
defend the curtain, the flank, and the face of the opposite bastion, as
well as the passage of the ditch; and to batter the salient angles of
the counterscarp and glacis, from whence the besiegers generally ruin
the flanks with their artillery.

=Flank, Outward.= Of a line or battalion, the extreme file on the right
or left of a division, subdivision, or section, according to the given
front, when the battalion is at close or open column, and which is the
farthest wheeling point from line into column, or from column into line.
It is likewise called the _reverse_ flank.

=Flank, Prolonged.= In fortification, is the extending of the flank from
the angle of the epaule to the exterior side, when the angle of the
flank is a right one.

=Flank, Second.= See FLANK, OBLIQUE.

=Flank, To.= In fortification, is to erect a battery which may play upon
an enemy’s works on the right or left without being exposed to his line
of fire. In evolutions, to take such a position in action as either to
assist your own troops, or to annoy those of your enemy by attacking
either of his flanks, without exposing yourself to all of his fire. To
_outflank_, a manœuvre by which an army, battalion, troop, or company
outstretches another, and gets upon both or either of his flanks. In an
extensive acceptation of the term, when applied to locality, it means to
possess any range or opposite parts, or territory, whence you might
invade your neighbors.

=Flanker.= A fortification jutting out so as to command the side or
flank of an enemy marching to the assault or attack. Riflemen and all
light troops are also called flankers, from the fact of their acting on
the flanks.

=Flanker, To= (Fr. _flanquer_). In fortification, to fortify the walls
of a city with bulwarks or countermines.

=Flanking.= Is the same in fortification as defending.

=Flanking Angle.= In fortification, that composed of the two lines of
defense, and pointing toward the curtain. See TENAILLE.

=Flanking Party.= Any body of men detached from the main army to act
upon the flanks of an enemy. See FLANKER.

=Flanks of a Frontier.= Are certain salient points in a national
boundary, strong by nature and art, and ordinarily projecting somewhat
beyond the general line. The effect of these flanks is to protect the
whole frontier against an enemy, as he dare not penetrate between, with
the risk of their garrisons, reinforced from their own territories,
attacking his rear, and cutting off communication between him and his
base.

=Flash.= The flame which issues from any fire-arm or piece of ordnance
on its being fired.

=Flash in the Pan.= An explosion of gunpowder without any communication
beyond the vent. When a piece is loaded, and, upon the trigger being
drawn, nothing but the priming takes fire, that piece is said to flash
in the pan.

=Flask, Powder-.= A measure formerly made of horn, used to carry powder
in, with the measure of the charge of the piece on the top of it.

=Flathead Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, so called from the practice
which prevailed among them of binding some solid substance on the
foreheads of their children so as to cause a depression of the skull.
They are located on an agency in Montana. See INDIANS AND THEIR
AGENCIES.

=Flaw.= A crack or small opening in a gun or its carriage is so called.

=Fleau d’Armes= (_Fr._). An ancient offensive weapon; the part used for
striking was armed with sharp iron spikes.

=Flèche.= Literally an arrow; but applied in fortification to a work
resembling a redan, except that it is raised upon the terre-plein
without a ditch. It is in short a field-work, having faces and small
flanks hastily run up to shelter a small number of men, and form an
outwork to some more powerful fortification.

=Fleece, Order of the Golden.= One of the most eminent orders of
knighthood in Europe, was founded in 1430 by Philip III., duke of
Burgundy. By its foundation his successors were declared hereditary
grand-masters; and thus the title passed to the imperial house of
Austria with the Burgundian inheritance, and thence to the Spanish line
of the same house after the death of the emperor Charles V. When the
Spanish Netherlands, however, became Austrian, and the Bourbons became
monarchs of Spain, the grand-mastership was claimed by the archdukes of
Austria. Hence at present the Spanish and Austrian sovereigns alike
confer the order, and at both courts it gives the highest rank.

=Fletch, To.= To feather an arrow.

=Fletcher.= The man who made or repaired the military bows was so
called. Also called _bowyer_.

=Fleur-de-lis= (_Fr._). This celebrated emblem is derived from the white
lily of the garden, or from the flag or iris. The Franks of old had a
custom at the proclamation of their king, to elevate him upon a shield
or target, and place in his hand a reed or flag in blossom, instead of
a sceptre; and from that time the kings of the first and second race in
France are represented with sceptres in their hands like the flag with
its flowers, these flowers subsequently becoming the armorial bearings
of France. In later times their arms were azure, three fleur-de-lis
_or_. Many English and Scotch families bear the fleur-de-lis in some
portion of their arms, and generally with some reference to France.

=Fleurus.= A small town in Belgium, in the province of Hainault. It has
been the scene of several conflicts, the last and most important being
the battle fought June 26, 1794, between the army of the French republic
under Jourdan and the allies under the Prince of Saxe-Coburg. The allied
forces were compelled for a time to evacuate Flanders.

=Flight.= Is used figuratively for the swift retreat of an army or any
party from a victorious enemy. It is likewise applicable to missile
weapons or shot; as, a flight of arrows, a flight of bombs, etc.

=Flight, Time of.= In gunnery, the flight of a shot or shell is the time
during which it is passing through the air from the piece to the first
graze.

=Flight, To Put to.= To force your enemy to quit the field.

=Flint.= In the flint-lock musket, the stone which was fixed to the cock
or gun-lock by which the sparks were elicited that discharged the piece.

=Flint-lock.= A musket lock with a flint fixed in the hammer for
striking on the cap of the pan; also the musket itself.

=Flint Weapons.= Believed to have been used by the primitive
inhabitants, have from time to time, in more or less number, been turned
up with the plow and the spade, and dug out from ancient graves,
fortifications, and dwelling-places. They do not differ in any material
respect from the flint weapons still in use among uncivilized tribes in
Asia, Africa, America, etc. The weapons of most frequent occurrence are
arrow-heads, spear-points, dagger-blades, and axe-heads, or celts.

=Flo.= An arrow was formerly so called.

=Floating Batteries.= These are used in defending harbors, or in attacks
on marine fortresses. The most remarkable instance of their employment
was by the French and Spaniards against Gibraltar, in the memorable
siege which lasted from July, 1779, to February, 1783. During the
Russian war, 1854-55, they rendered good service before Kinburn. Now
they are only used for defensive purposes.

=Floating-bridge.= A kind of double bridge, the upper one projecting
beyond the lower one, and capable of being moved forward by pulleys,
used for carrying troops over narrow moats in attacking the outworks of
a fort. See BRIDGE, FLYING.

=Flodden Field.= The last point of the Cheviots, the place where King
James IV. of Scotland, after crossing the border on August 22, 1513,
with an army of over 30,000 men, took up his position, and where, on
September 9, the bloody battle was fought in which the king was killed,
and the Scottish army destroyed.

=Flogging.= A barbarous punishment formerly inflicted in the British
army and navy. It was generally administered with a whip, or
“cat-of-nine-tails,” on the bare back. This mode of punishment formerly
existed in the American army and navy.

=Flood-gate.= In fortified towns, is composed of 2 or 4 gates, so that
the besieged by opening the gates may inundate the environs so as to
keep the enemy out of gunshot.

=Florent, St.= A fortified seaport town of Corsica, on the gulf of the
same name, 6 miles west from Bastia. This town was taken by the British
in 1793.

=Florida.= One of the United States of America, which was discovered by
Sebastian Cabot, in the year 1497. Its conquest was accomplished by the
Spaniards in 1539. It was plundered by Sir Francis Drake in 1585; and by
Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was invaded by the British in 1702; and
again by Gen. Oglethorpe in 1740. In 1763 it was ceded to Britain, but
in 1781 was recovered by Spain, and confirmed to her by the peace of
1783. In 1821 it was purchased from Spain by the United States. A war
with the Seminole Indians commenced in 1835. After great trouble and
expense they were subdued and emigrated to the Indian Territory in 1842.
In 1839 its constitution was formed, and in 1845 it was admitted into
the Union. Florida seceded from the Union on January 10, 1861, and was
one of the first to return to the Union, October 25, 1865.

=Flourish.= The waving of a weapon or other thing; a brandishing; as,
the flourish of a sword.

=Flourish.= To execute an irregular or fanciful strain of music, by way
of ornament or prelude, as, a flourish of trumpets.

=Flugelman.= The leader of a file; one who stands in front of a body of
soldiers, and whose motions in the manual exercise they all
simultaneously follow; a fugelman.

=Flushed.= A term frequently applied when men have been successful; as,
flushed with victory, etc.

=Flushing.= An important seaport of the Netherlands, in the island of
Walcheren, on the north side of the Scheldt, where that river enters the
North Sea. It was the first town which declared against the Spaniards in
1572. In 1585 the Prince of Orange pledged it to Queen Elizabeth as
security for a loan which she made to the people of the Netherlands in
their struggle against Philip II. of Spain. The English held it till
1616. At the commencement of the 19th century it came into the
possession of the French, and in 1809 was bombarded by the British
composing the Walcheren expedition, under Lord Chatham, when it suffered
severely. Admiral Ruyter was born here in 1607.

=Flute.= A wind instrument which is sometimes used in military bands,
but never in service.

=Fly.= The length of a flag. The dimension at right angles to the staff.
The other dimension is called the _hoist_.

=Flying Army.= A strong body of cavalry and infantry which is always in
motion, both to cover its own garrisons and to keep the enemy in
continual alarm.

=Flying Artillery.= Artillery trained to very rapid evolutions. In
passing from one part of the field to another, the men spring upon their
horses in horse artillery, or on the ammunition-chests in light
artillery.

=Flying Bridges.= See PONTONS.

=Flying Camp.= A camp or body of troops formed for rapid motion from one
place to another.

=Flying Colors.= Colors unfurled and left to wave in the air. Hence to
return or come off with flying colors is to be victorious, to get the
better.

=Flying Party.= A detachment of men employed to hover about an enemy.

=Flying Sap.= See SAP.

=Flying Shot.= A shot fired at something in motion, as a bird on the
wing, a ship under sail, etc.; also, one who fires thus.

=Flying Torch.= The torch used on a staff in signaling.

=Fodder.= See FORAGE.

=Foe.= An enemy in war; a national enemy; a hostile army; an adversary.

=Foeman.= An enemy in war.

=Fogey.= An old-fashioned or singular person; an invalid soldier or
sailor.

=Foil.= A long piece of steel of an elastic temper, mounted somewhat
like a sword, which is used to learn to fence with; it is without a
point, or any sharpness, having a button at the extremity covered with
leather.

=Foil.= To render vain or nugatory as an effort or attempt; to
frustrate; to defeat; to baffle; to balk; as, the enemy attempted to
pass the river, but was _foiled_; he _foiled_ his adversaries.

=Foin.= A thrust with a pike or sword.

=Foissonnement.= A term used in fortification to signify the increase in
bulk of earth after its excavation. This increase varies from one-eighth
to one-twelfth generally.

=Folding Boat.= A boat of a jointed framework covered with canvas, used
in campaigning and by voyageurs.

=Followers, Camp-.= See CAMP-FOLLOWERS.

=Follow Up.= To pursue with additional vigor some advantage which has
already been gained; as, to follow up a victory.

=Fone.= Formerly the plural of Foe. Now obsolete.

=Fontainebleau.= A town and parish of France, in the department of the
Seine and Marne, 37 miles southeast from Paris. There is a celebrated
royal palace here encompassed by parks and gardens, mentioned in
history, ever since the 13th century, as the residence of the monarchs
of France. This place was entered by the Austrians, February 17, 1814.
Here Napoleon resigned his dignity, April 4, and bade farewell to his
army, April 20, 1814.

=Fontenoy.= A village in Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, 5 miles
southwest of Tournay. Here was fought the most famous contest in the War
of the Austrian Succession, on May 11, 1745, between the French under
Marshal Saxe and the allies (English, Dutch, and Austrians) under the
Duke of Cumberland. After a hard-fought battle the allies were forced to
retreat. The loss on both sides was stated at about 7000 men.

=Food.= Food has two functions, building up the body, and supplying it
with force. Substances used as food may be divided into elements which
are oxidizable and those conducive to chemical changes. Milk contains
all the necessary elements in the best form. The nourishing elements of
foods are usually classed under the heads of albuminates, fats,
carbo-hydrates, and salts. In regard to the part played by the
condiments used in flavoring and seasoning, and such things as tea,
coffee, chocolate, alcohol, etc., little is positively known beyond the
fact that some of them are useful in exciting the salivary and
alimentary secretions. The amount of food necessary to health and vigor
varies with the kind and amount of occupation, the character of the
climate, and specifically with the individual. Playfair and Parkes give
the following as the average daily allowance of anhydrous food for an
adult, in avoirdupois ounces:

_In quietude._

  Albuminates        2.5
  Fats               1.
  Carbo-hydrates    12.
  Salts               .5
                    ----
    Total           16.

_Hard labor or campaigning._

  Albuminates        6.  to  7.
  Fats               3.5 to  4.5
  Carbo-hydrates    16.  to 18.
  Salts              1.2 to  1.5
                    ------------
    Total           26.7 to 31.0

_European standard, for moderate work._

  Albuminates        4.587
  Fats               2.964
  Carbo-hydrates    14.257
  Salts              1.058
                    ------
    Total           22.866

From 70 to 90 ounces of water in addition to this are usually consumed
per day.

The ration of the U. S. army resolved into anhydrous elements gives the
following:

_Soft bread, with ²⁄₃ fresh beef, ¹⁄₃ salt pork and beans._

  Albuminates        3.93
  Fats               4.15
  Carbo-hydrates    12.37
  Salts              1.19
                    -----
    Total           21.64 and .26 coffee.

_Same with rice instead of beans._

  Albuminates          3.47
  Fats                 4.11
  Carbo-hydrates      12.50
  Salts                1.14
                      -----
    Total             21.22 and .26 coffee.

_Hard bread, ²⁄₃ fresh beef, ¹⁄₃ salt pork and beans._

  Albuminates          4.99
  Fats                 4.09
  Carbo-hydrates      15.26
  Salts                1.23
                      -----
    Total             25.57 and .26 coffee.

_Hard bread, bacon and beans._

  Albuminates          4.10
  Fats                 9.06
  Carbo-hydrates      15.26
  Salts                1.29
                      -----
    Total             29.71 and .26 coffee.

The following table, compiled from standard authorities, gives an
alimentary analysis of 100 parts of various substances used as food, by
means of which the nutritive value of all ordinary diets may be
calculated:

  --------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------
                                  |Water.|Albumi-|Fats.|Carbo- |Salts.
                                  |      | nates.|     |  Hy-  |
                                  |      |       |     |drates.|
  --------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------
  Meat (best quality), beefsteak  | 74.4 | 20.5  | 3.5 |   ... |  1.6
  Meat (average like soldiers),   |      |       |     |       |
  less ¹⁄₅ for bone               | 75.  | 15.   | 8.4 |   ... |  1.6
  Meat (very fat, stall fed)      | 63.  | 14.   |19.  |   ... |  3.7
  Salt beef (Girardin)            | 49.1 | 29.6  | 0.2 |   ... | 21.1
  Salt pork (Girardin)            | 44.1 | 26.1  | 7.  |   ... | 22.8
  Fat pork (Letheby)              | 39.  |  9.8  |48.9 |   ... |  2.3
  Bacon (salted and smoked)       |      |       |     |       |
  (Letheby)                       | 15.  |  8.8  |73.3 |   ... |  2.9
  Fish (Letheby)                  | 78.  | 18.1  | 2.9 |   ... |  1.
  Poultry, less bone ¹⁄₆ (Letheby)| 74.  | 21.   | 3.8 |   ... |  1.2
  Butter                          |  6.  |   .3  |91.  |   ... |  2.5
  Eggs (less ¹⁄₁₀ for shell)      | 73.5 | 13.5  |11.6 |   ... |  1.
  Cheese                          | 36.8 | 33.5  |24.3 |   ... |  5.4
  Bread (wheat, average quality)  | 40.  |  8.   | 1.5 | 49.2  |  1.3
  Biscuit, hard                   |  8.  | 15.6  | 1.3 | 73.4  |  1.7
  Wheat flour (average)           | 15.  | 11.   | 2.  | 70.3  |  1.7
  Rice                            | 10.  |  5.   | 0.8 | 83.2  |   .5
  Oatmeal                         | 15.  | 12.6  | 5.6 | 63.   |  3.
  Cornmeal                        | 13.5 | 10.   | 6.7 | 64.5  |  1.4
  Peas (dry)                      | 15.  | 22.   | 2.  | 53.   |  2.4
  Beans (dry)                     | 16.  | 22.5  | 2.2 | 49.9  |  4.7
  Potatoes, Irish                 | 74.  |  1.5  | 0.1 | 23.4  |  1.
  Potatoes, sweet                 | 70.2 |  1.5  | 0.3 | 23.5  |  2.9
  Yams                            | 74.  |  2.   | 0.5 | 16.2  |  1.3
  Carrots                         | 85.  |   .6  | 0.25|  8.4  |   .7
  Parsnips                        | 82.4 |  1.125| 0.54|  6.39 |  1.
  Turnips                         | 90.5 |  1.1  | ... |  4.   |   .5
  Cabbage                         | 91.  |   .2  | 0.5 |  5.8  |   .7
  Milk (average)                  | 88.3 |  3.5  | 3.1 |  4.5  |   .5
  Cream                           | 66.  |  2.7  |26.7 |  2.8  |  1.8
  Sugar                           |  3.  |  ...  | ... | 96.5  |   .5
  --------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------

=Foot.= The foot-soldiers; the infantry, usually designated as the foot,
in distinction from the cavalry.

=Foot.= To gain or lose ground foot by foot, is to do it regularly and
resolutely; defending everything to the utmost extremity, or forcing it
by dint of art or labor.

=Foot Artillery.= Artillery troops serving on foot. Heavy artillery.

=Foot-band.= A band of infantry.

=Foot-bank.= See BANQUETTE.

=Foot-boards.= The transverse boards on the front of a limber, on which
the cannoneers rest their feet when mounted.

=Foot-fight.= A conflict by persons on foot; in opposition to a fight on
horseback.

=Foot Guards.= Guards of infantry. The flower of the British infantry,
and the garrison ordinarily of the metropolis, comprise 3 regiments, the
Grenadier, Coldstream, and Scots Fusilier Guards, in all 7 battalions,
and 6307 officers and men of all ranks.

=Footing.= To be on the same footing with another, is to be under the
same circumstances in point of service; to have the same number of men,
and the same pay, etc.

=Footman.= A soldier who marches and fights on foot.

=Foot-pound.= In mechanics, is the unit of work. It is simply a
contraction for “one pound raised through a height of one foot.” See
WORK.

=Foot-soldier.= A soldier that serves on foot.

=Foot-ton.= In England the power of modern ordnance is estimated by the
energy of the shot in foot-tons, divided by the number of inches in the
shot’s circumference. The formula for calculating it is

         _WV_²
  _E_ = -------
        2π_r.g_

in which _W_ is the weight of the shot in tons (English), _V_ is the
velocity, 2π_r_, the circumference of the shot in inches, and _g_ the
force of gravity;

  _WV_²
  -----
   _g_

is the living force of the shot, and is equal to twice the quantity of
work it is capable of doing. This divided by the circumference gives a
very fair estimate of its power in penetrating armor, as the resistance
to penetration increases with the size of the projectile. This unit is
also used to estimate the resisting power of armor-plating against shots
of various sizes.

=Forage.= The hay, corn, fodder, and oats required for the subsistence
of the animals in the army. The allowance of forage in the U. S. army is
fixed by regulations at 14 pounds of hay and 12 of grain to each horse,
and 14 pounds of hay and 9 of grain to each mule in the public service.
Generals, field-officers, staff-officers, and cavalry officers receive
forage for a certain number of private horses while actually kept in
service.

=Forage.= To collect supplies both for man and beast, from an enemy by
force, from friends by impressment, but giving to friends receipts, to
be paid ultimately.

=Forage Cap.= A small low cap worn by soldiers when not in full dress.

=Forage-master.= See WAGON-MASTER.

=Foragers.= A detachment of soldiers who forage or collect stores for an
army.

=Foraging.= Is properly the collection of forage or other supplies
systematically in towns or villages, or going with an escort to cut
nourishment for horses in fields. Such operations frequently lead to
engagements with the enemy. Foraging parties are furnished with
reaping-hooks and cords. The men promptly dismount, make bundles with
which they load their horses, and are prepared for anything that may
follow. The word foraging is sometimes inaccurately used for marauding.

=Forbach.= A small town of France, in the department of the Moselle, now
a part of German Lorraine. It was occupied by the Prussians, January 10,
1814. During the Franco-Prussian war it was taken by the German generals
Von Goeben and Von Steinmetz, after a fierce contest, in which the
French were defeated and compelled to retreat, August 6, 1870.

=Forcat.= A rest for a musket in ancient times.

=Force.= In its military application, signifies an army of all
branches,--artillery, cavalry, and infantry. It is sometimes used in the
plural number, but with the same signification; as, “commander of the
forces;” and occasionally we find the word used in another sense, thus,
“He is in great force.” To force, in broadsword exercise, is to break an
adversary’s sword-guard, and either wound him or expose him to a wound.

=Force.= To obtain or win by strength; to take by violence or struggle;
specifically, to capture by assault; to storm, as a fortress. Also to
impel, drive, wrest, extort, get, etc., by main strength or violence;
with a following adverb, as _along_, _away_, _from_, _into_, _through_,
_out_, etc.

=Force.= To provide with forces; to reinforce; to strengthen by
soldiers; to garrison.

=Force of Gravity.= The force by virtue of which all terrestrial bodies
fall to the earth when unsupported. As a terrestrial force it may be
considered constant for the same place, but as it is practically the
resultant of the earth’s attraction and the centrifugal force arising
from its rotation, and as the earth is neither homogeneous nor a perfect
sphere, it will vary slightly with the latitude, being greatest at the
poles and least on the equator, and it will also vary in an
insignificant degree from place to place in the same latitude. Gravity
is distinguished in dynamics as the only constant force with which we
have to do. It differs also from all others in this, that its measure is
independent of mass. Other forces are measured by the product of the
mass moved into the velocity imparted in the unit of time; but as
gravity impresses the same velocity upon all masses, great or small,
mass is properly omitted in its measure. The velocity impressed by it
during each second of its action, or the _acceleration_, is about
32.1808 feet in latitude 45°, about 32.0977 at the equator, and 32.2629
at the poles. This number in gunnery is indicated by the algebraic
symbol _g_. Its exact value at any place is best determined by the
length of the simple second’s pendulum at that place. The value for _g_
for bodies falling in the air is very nearly true for dense substances
presenting small surfaces, when the fall is limited by a few seconds.
For the ordinary time of flight of projectiles it can be used without
material error.

=Force, To.= To force an enemy to give battle, is to render the
situation of an enemy so hazardous, that whether he attempts to quit his
position, or endeavors to keep it, his capture or destruction must be
equally inevitable. In either of such desperate cases, a bold and
determined general will not wait to be attacked, but resolutely advance
and give battle, especially if circumstances should combine to deprive
him of the means of honorable capitulation. To _force_ a passage, is to
oblige your enemy to retire from his fastnesses, and to open a way into
the country which he had occupied. This may be done either by _coup de
main_, or renewal of assaults. In either case, the advancing body should
be well supported and its flanks be secured with the most jealous
attention.

=Forced.= Exerted to the utmost; urged; hence, strained, urged to
excessive or unnatural action; as, a forced march.

=Forces, Effective.= All the efficient parts of an army that may be
brought into action are called effective, and generally consist of
artillery, cavalry, and infantry, with their necessary appendages, such
as hospital staff, wagon-train, etc. Effective forces of a country; all
the disposable strength, vigor, and activity of any armed proportion of
native or territorial population. The navy of a country must be looked
upon as part of the effective force of the country, to which is added
the marines.

=Forcing.= The operation of making a bullet take the grooves of a rifle.
This was formerly effected in various ways, by flattening the bullet in
its seat with the ramrod, by using a patch, etc. (See PROJECTILES,
BULLETS.) The term is not much used at the present day.

=Ford.= A place in a river or other water where it may be passed by man
or beast on foot, or by wading. A ford should not be deeper than 3 feet
for infantry, 4 feet for cavalry, and 2¹⁄₂ feet for artillery. These
limits must be lessened if the stream be swift. A bottom of large stones
is bad for cavalry and impracticable for carriages; gravel is the best
bottom; a sandy bottom, though good at first, is apt to deepen when many
troops pass.

=Ford.= To pass or cross, as a river or other water, by treading or
walking on the bottom; to pass through by wading; to wade through.

=Fordable.= Capable of being waded or passed through on foot, as water.

=Fording.= The act of passing over a ford.

=Fore.= In advance; at the front; in the part that precedes or goes
first.

=Fore-arm.= To arm or prepare for attack or resistance before the time
of need.

=Fore-fence.= Defense in front. The term is now obsolete.

=Forefront.= The foremost part or place; as, the forefront of the
battle.

=Foreign.= Not of one’s country; not native; alien; from abroad.

=Foreign Enlistment Act.= 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British
subjects to enter the service of a foreign state, without license from
the king or privy council, and also the fitting out or equipping ships
for any foreign power to be employed against any power with which the
British government is at peace. In 1606 Englishmen were forbidden to
enter foreign service without taking an oath not to be reconciled to the
pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of the British Legion.

=Foreign Legion.= Foreigners have frequently been employed as
auxiliaries in the pay of the British government. An act (18 & 19 Vict.
c. 2) for the formation of a Foreign Legion as a contingent in the
Russian war (1855) was passed December 23, 1854. On the peace, in 1856,
many of the Foreign Legion were sent to the Cape of Good Hope.

=Foreign Service.= In a general sense, means every service but home. In
a more confined and native acceptation of the term, it signifies any
service done out of the United States or the depending territories.

=Foreland.= In fortification, a piece of ground between the wall of a
place and the moat.

=Fore Rank.= The first rank; the front.

=Fore-spurrer.= One who rode before. This term is now obsolete.

=Foreward.= The van; the front.

=Forfeit.= To render oneself by misdeeds liable to be deprived of; as, a
soldier forfeits pay by sentence of court-martial for offenses
committed.

=Forge.= Every field-battery is provided with a forge. It consists,
besides the limber, of a frame-work, on which are fixed the bellows,
fire-place, etc. Behind the bellows is placed the coal-box, which has to
be removed before the bellows can be put in position. In the limber-box
are placed the smith’s tools, horseshoes, nails, and spare parts (iron)
of carriages, harness, etc. The weight of the forge equipped for
field-service is 3383 pounds for the battery, and 3370 pounds for the
reserve. A forge for red-hot shot is a place where the balls are made
red-hot before they are fired off. It is built about 5 or 6 feet below
the surface of the ground, of strong brick-work, and an iron grate, upon
which the balls are laid, with a very large fire under them.

=Forlorn Hope.= Officers and soldiers who generally volunteer for
enterprises of great danger, such as leading the attack when storming a
fortress, etc. Formerly it was applied to the advanced guard before the
enemy, even on a march. See ENFANS PERDUS.

=Form.= To form, in a general acceptation of the term, is to assume or
produce any shape or figure, extent or depth of line or column, by means
of prescribed rules in military movements or dispositions. To _form on_
is to advance forward, so as to connect yourself with any given object
of formation, and to lengthen the line.

=Formation of Troops.= The term formation is applied to that particular
arrangement of the troops composing any unit, when this latter is ready
for battle, or is prepared to execute a movement.

That portion of the formation on the side towards the enemy is called
the _front_; the side opposite to the front is termed the _rear_; the
lateral extremities are called _flanks_.

Any row of soldiers placed parallel to the front is called a _rank_; a
row perpendicular to the front is called a _file_; the number of ranks
measures the _depth_ of the formation.

Troops drawn up so as to show an extended front, with slight depth, are
said to be _deployed_; when the depth is considerable and the front
comparatively small, they are said to be in _ployed_ formation. See
ORDER, ORDER OF BATTLE, CONCAVE, ORDER OF BATTLE, CONVEX.

=Formers.= Are round pieces of wood that are fitted to the diameter of
the bore of a gun, round which the cartridge-paper, parchment, lead, or
cotton is rolled before it is served.

=Formigny.= A village of France, in the department of Calvados, 10 miles
northwest from Bayeux, where a battle was fought in 1450, between the
French and English, the latter being defeated, and thereby forced to
abandon Normandy.

=Formosa.= An island in the China Sea belonging to China. The Dutch
became masters of it in 1632, but they were expelled by the pirate
Coxinga, whose successors ruled it till 1683. It was invaded by the
Japanese in 1874, to avenge the murder of some of their people.

=Fornova= (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles VIII. of France defeated the
Italians, July 6, 1495.

=Fort.= Technically applied to an inclosed work of the higher class of
field fortification; but the word is often used in military works much
more loosely.

=Fort Adams.= A fortification situated on Brenton’s Point, 1 mile west
of the town of Newport, R. I., and commanding the entrance to the
harbor. It was first garrisoned in 1841, and is established on the old
fort which formerly occupied the position.

=Fort Adjutant.= In the British service, is an officer holding an
appointment in a fortress,--where the garrison is often composed of
drafts from different corps,--analogous to that of adjutant in a
regiment. He is responsible to the commandant for the internal
discipline, and the assignment of the necessary duties to particular
corps. Fort adjutants are staff-officers, and receive additional pay.

=Fort Ann.= A village of Washington Co., N. Y., on the Champlain Canal.
A fortification, from which the place derives its name, was erected here
during the wars with the French, in 1756. It was captured from the
Americans about 1779.

=Fort Barrancas.= Situated on the north side of the entrance to
Pensacola harbor, and has been occupied since October 24, 1820, when it
was ceded by Spain to the United States. During the civil war it was
captured by the Confederates (1861), and held by them until the
following year.

=Fort Caswell.= An old brick work situated on Oak Island, at the mouth
of Cape Fear River, North Carolina. On the outbreak of civil war it fell
into the hands of the Confederates, who held it until the fall of Fort
Fisher, in 1865.

=Fort Columbus.= See GOVERNOR’S ISLAND.

=Fort Constitution.= Is situated in Portsmouth harbor, N. H. It was
established in 1808, and garrisoned by U. S. troops; but as early as
1806 the post was occupied. It consisted of an earthwork, built by the
English government, and named William and Mary. A new work was commenced
in 1863, having its foundation outside the old one.

=Fort Covington.= A village of Franklin Co., N. Y., on Salmon River,
about 18 miles northwest of Malone. Here the American army suffered
greatly during the winter of 1813-14.

=Fort Delaware.= A casemated fort on Pea Patch Island, in the Delaware
River. It was a military prison during the civil war.

=Fort Donelson.= See DONELSON, FORT.

=Fort Duquesne.= See PITTSBURG.

=Fort Erie.= In Upper Canada; this fort was taken by the American
general Browne, June 3, 1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated
by the Americans, November 5, 1814.

=Fort Fairfield.= A village of Aroostook Co., Me. It contains a barrack,
and is chiefly interesting from its having been a military post during
our trouble with England in 1839.

=Fort Fisher.= A strong earthwork on the east side of Cape Fear River,
about 20 miles south of Wilmington, N. C., and one of the principal
defenses of that port. On December 24-25, 1864, the forces of Gen.
Butler attempted to take it, but unsuccessfully; but on January 15,
1865, it was taken by storm by the Union army and navy, and over 2000
Confederate prisoners and 169 pieces of artillery were captured.

=Fort George.= A fortification in Inverness, Scotland, on the extremity
of a low peninsula, projecting upwards of a mile into the Moray Firth.
It has barracks for about 3000 men, and is the most complete
fortification in Great Britain.

=Fort George.= See FORT WILLIAM HENRY.

=Fort Griswold.= An old Revolutionary fort near New London, Conn. The
traitor Arnold massacred the garrison and burned the town in 1781.

=Fort Hamilton.= A strong fortification on the Narrows, defending the
entrance of New York harbor.

=Fort Independence.= A fortification on Castle Island, in Boston harbor,
Mass., which forms one of the defenses of the harbor. It was commenced
in 1833, and completed in 1851.

=Fort Jackson.= A fort on the right bank of the Mississippi River, about
80 miles below New Orleans. On April 18, 1802, Admiral Farragut, then
captain, commenced the bombardment of this fort and Fort St. Philip on
the opposite bank of the river, and after six days’ and nights’
continuous firing, succeeded in passing with his fleet; and destroying
the Confederate flotilla, the forts surrendered.

=Fort La Fayette.= A fort surrounded by water in the Narrows, at the
entrance of New York harbor, immediately in front of Fort Hamilton. It
was used during the civil war as a prison. This fort was recently
destroyed by fire.

=Fort Lee.= A village of Bergen Co., N. J., on the Hudson River, at the
foot of the Palisades. It was once a noted military post, and was
captured by the British in 1776.

=Fort McAllister.= See MCALLISTER, FORT.

=Fort McHenry.= Is situated on Whetstone Point, a peninsula formed by
the junction of the northwest branch of the Patapsco with the main
river, about 3 miles from Baltimore, Md. The site was first occupied as
a military post by the erection of a water-battery in 1775 for the
defense of the town. In 1794 the fort was repaired, and a star or
pentagon fort of brick-work added, when it was ceded to the United
States and called by its present name.

=Fort Mackinaw.= See MACKINAW.

=Fort Macon.= Situated on the eastern extremity of Bogue Banks, near
Beaufort harbor, N. C. It was surrendered to Gen. Burnside after a siege
of about two weeks, in which he was aided by the blockading gunboats,
April 25, 1862.

=Fort-Major.= A commandant of a fort in the absence of the governor.
Officers employed as fort-majors, if under the rank of captains, take
rank and precedence as the junior captains in the garrisons in which
they are serving. He is a staff-officer.

=Fort Marion.= At St. Augustine, Fla.; was erected by the Spaniards more
than 100 years ago, and formerly called the Castle of St. Mark.

=Fort Mifflin.= Is one of the old Revolutionary fortresses, situated
near the junction of the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers. It is one of
the defenses of the city of Philadelphia.

=Fort Monroe.= A massive work of granite surrounded by a moat, situated
at Old Point Comfort, Elizabeth City Co., Va. It was established in
1818, in which year a reservation of about 250 acres for defensive
purposes was here ceded to the United States by the State of Virginia.
It is the largest military work in the United States, and during the
civil war was an important naval rendezvous. The artillery school of the
army is established at this post.

=Fort Morgan.= Situated at the entrance to anchorage in Mobile Bay, on
the site of the old Fort Bowyer, which bore such an important part in
the war of 1812-15, the Americans under Maj. Lawrence having here
repulsed with great loss a combined land and sea attack of the British
and their Indian allies, September 15, 1814.

=Fort Moultrie.= One of the defenses of Charleston harbor, S. C., on the
west shore of Sullivan’s Island, about 5 miles east-southeast of
Charleston. It received its name in honor of Col. Moultrie, an officer
of the Revolution, who here successfully resisted an attack from 9
British vessels in 1776. It was abandoned by the Federal troops in
December, 1860, and was seized by the Confederates, who fired from it
some of the first shots of the civil war. It has been garrisoned by
U. S. troops since the close of the war.

=Fort Niagara.= On the right bank of the Niagara River, in the county of
the same name, in the State of New York. It was established by La Salle
in 1678; captured by the British under Sir William Johnson in 1759;
surrendered to and occupied by the United States in 1796. In the war of
1812-15 it was but feebly garrisoned, and on December 19, 1813, a force
of 1200 British crossed the river, and took it by surprise, killing 65
of the garrison.

=Fort Ninety-Six.= A stockaded fort which was situated in Abbeville
District, 6 miles from the Saluda River. It received its name from being
96 miles from the frontier fort Prince George, on the Keowee River. This
fort was the scene of many exciting events during the Revolutionary war.
With a garrison of about 350 Tories under Lieut.-Col. John Cruger, it
was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Greene for twenty-seven days,
May-June, 1781; but just as his efforts were about to be crowned with
success, Gen. Greene was obliged to retreat, to avoid falling into the
hands of a vastly superior British force, which was coming to relieve
the beleaguered garrison.

=Fort Ontario.= An inclosed work on the west bank of Oswego River, built
in 1755, on the site of Fort Oswego. Here were the scenes of many
stirring events in the wars between France and England, and of a
skirmish in 1814.

=Fort Pickens.= A fort on Santa Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, Fla.
Lieut. A. J. Slemmer in January, 1861, after evacuating Fort Barrancas,
held this post against the Confederates until reinforced.

=Fort Pillow.= In Lauderdale Co., Tenn., by land about 40 miles north of
Memphis. It was erected by the Confederates during the civil war. It
was bombarded by Federal gunboats, and evacuated by the Confederates,
June 4, 1862. On April 12, 1864, it was captured by the Confederates,
when took place an indiscriminate slaughter of the negro troops
garrisoned there.

=Fort Plain.= A Revolutionary fortress, which was situated near the
junction of Osquaga Creek and the Mohawk, in Montgomery Co., N. Y. For a
while it was an important fortress, affording protection to the people
in the neighborhood, and forming a key to the communication with the
Schoharie, Cherry Valley, and Unadilla settlements. On August 21, 1780,
a party of 500 Tories and Indians marched up within cannon-shot of this
fort, burned 53 dwellings and as many barns, destroyed the crops, and
carried off everything of value. Sixteen of the inhabitants were slain,
and between 50 and 60 persons, chiefly women and children, were taken
prisoners.

=Fort Pulaski.= Located on Cockspur Island, at the head of Tybee Roads,
commanding both channels of the Savannah River. It was named after a
Polish patriot who fought in the American war of the Revolution, and
died in consequence of wounds received in the attack on Savannah,
October, 1779. During the civil war, being in possession of the
Confederates, it surrendered to the Federals under Gen. Hunter, April
10, 1862.

=Fort Schuyler.= An old Revolutionary fort, which occupied the site of
old Fort Stanwix, and was built on the present site of Rome, N. Y. It is
celebrated in early American history as among the strongest forts on the
then northern frontier.

=Fort St. David.= A town of Hindostan, on the sea-coast of the Carnatic,
situated on the river Tripapalore. After the capture of Madras by the
French in 1746, the English were besieged here without success; and from
this period it continued the head of the English settlements till 1758,
when it was taken by Lally, after a short siege, and the fortifications
were destroyed.

=Fort St. Philip.= Situated on the left or north bank of the Mississippi
River, nearly opposite Fort Jackson (which see).

=Fort Sumter.= A fort celebrated in the annals of the civil war. It is
situated on a small island in Charleston harbor, S. C., between 3 and 4
miles from the city. April 12-13, 1861, it was bombarded and captured by
the Confederates, who thus inaugurated the civil war. It was reduced to
a ruinous condition during the siege of Charleston, in the summer of
1863, but was held by the Confederates until February 18, 1865.

=Fort Taylor.= An inclosed casemated pentagonal brick-work in Key West
harbor, Fla., commenced 1845.

=Fort Trumbull.= Situated in the harbor of New London, Conn., on the
west side of the Thames River. It is an inclosed work, and was commenced
in 1839.

=Fort Wadsworth.= A permanent fortification on Staten Island, west of
the Narrows, commanding the entrance on that side of New York harbor,
distant from Fort Hamilton 1 mile.

=Fort Wagner.= See MORRIS ISLAND.

=Fort Washington.= A strong earthwork erected during the Revolutionary
war upon the highest eminence on Manhattan Island, at a point now
between 181st and 186th Streets, New York City. During the Revolutionary
war it fell into the hands of the English, and nearly 3000 Americans
were captured.

=Fort Wayne.= A U. S. fortification in Wayne Co., Mich., just below
Detroit. It is intended to command the navigation of the Detroit River.

=Fort William Henry.= A Revolutionary fort near the head of Lake George,
N. Y. During the wars of the colonies it was captured by the French and
Indians in 1757.

=Fort Winthrop.= One of the defenses of Boston harbor, Mass., on
Governor’s Island, the former site of old Fort Warren. It is a small
inclosed quadrangular work, with exterior open barbette batteries;
commenced 1844.

=Fort Wood.= On Bedloe’s Island, New York harbor, and in the city of New
York, 1¹⁄₂ miles southwest of the Battery. It was erected in 1841, and
mounted 71 guns.

=Fort Wool.= A large unfinished inclosed casemated work or “rip-rap”
foundation, formerly called Fort Calhoun, designed for the defense of
Hampton Roads, Va.

=Fortalice.= A small outwork of a fortification; a fortilage;--called
also _fortelace_.

=Forted.= Furnished with or guarded by forts; strengthened or defended,
as by forts.

=Forth.= The ancient name for ford.

=Forth Mountains.= A range in the county of Wexford, Ireland, celebrated
for being the rendezvous of 15,000 insurgents, who, in 1798, met here
previous to the attack and capture of the town of Wexford.

=Fortifiable.= Capable of being fortified.

=Fortification.= Is the art of fortifying a town, or other place; or of
putting it in such a posture of defense that every one of its parts
defends, and is defended by some other parts, by means of ramparts,
parapets, ditches, and other outworks; to the end that a small number of
men within may be able to defend themselves for a considerable time
against the assaults of a numerous army without; so that the enemy in
attacking them must of necessity suffer great loss. There are various
kinds of fortification, as _defensive_ and _offensive_, _natural_,
_artificial_, and _permanent_. _Defensive fortification_ is the art of
surrounding a place by works so disposed as to render it capable of a
lasting defense against a besieging army. _Offensive fortification_
comprehends the various works employed in conducting a siege. _Natural
fortification_ consists of those obstacles which nature affords to
retard the progress of an enemy; such as woods, deep ravines, rocks,
marshes, etc. _Artificial fortification_ is that which is raised by
human ingenuity to aid the natural advantages of the ground, or supply
its deficiencies. It is divided into _permanent_ and _field
fortification_. _Permanent fortification_ is intended for the defense of
towns, frontiers, and seaports, and is constructed of durable materials
in time of peace; while _field fortification_ being raised only for the
temporary purpose of protecting troops in the field, its materials are
those afforded by local circumstances and a limited time. For the
principal parts of a regular fortress, see BANQUETTE, BASTION,
BATARDEAU, BERM, CAPONNIERE, CAVALIER, CITADEL, CORDON, COUNTERSCARP,
COVERED WAY, CROWN-WORK, CUNETTE, CURTAIN, DITCH, EMBRASURES, ENCEINTE,
ENVELOPE, EPAULEMENT, ESCARP, ESPLANADE, FACES, FLANK, FLÈCHE, or ARROW,
FRAISES, GLACIS, HORNWORK, LINES, LOOP-HOLES, LUNETTES and TENAILLONS,
OUTWORKS, PALISADES, PARALLELS, or PLACES OF ARMS, PARAPET, RAMPS,
RAMPART, RAVELIN, REDAN, REDOUBT, REVETMENT, SALLYPORTS, SLOPE INTERIOR,
STAR FORT, TENAILLE, TERRE-PLEIN, TÊTES DE PONT, TRAVERSES, ZIGZAGS, or
BOYAUX OF COMMUNICATION.

=Fortification, Elementary.= By some likewise called the theory of
fortification, consists in tracing the plans and profiles of a
fortification on paper, with scales and compasses; and examining the
systems proposed by different authors, in order to discover their
advantages and disadvantages.

=Fortification, Front of.= Consists of all the works constructed upon
any one side of a regular polygon, whether placed within or without the
exterior side. Some authors give a more limited sense to the term “front
of fortification,” by confining it to two half bastions joined by a
curtain.

=Fortification, Irregular.= Is that in which, from the nature of the
ground or other causes, the several works have not their due proportions
according to rule; irregularity, however, does not necessarily imply
weakness.

=Fortification, Practical.= Consists in forming a project of a
fortification, according to the nature of the ground, and other
necessary circumstances, to trace it on the ground, and to execute the
project, together with all the military buildings, such as magazines,
storehouses, barracks, bridges, etc.

=Fortification, Regular.= Is that in which the works are constructed on
a regular polygon, and which has its corresponding parts equal to each
other.

=Fortification, Semi-permanent.= During the civil war in America,
1861-65, it became necessary to construct strong fortifications for
large cities in a short time. These circumstances gave rise to a new
kind of fortification combining certain of the arrangements of both
permanent and field works, which were called semi-permanent works.

=Fortified.= Strengthened and secured by forts.

=Fortify.= To strengthen and secure by forts, batteries, and other works
of art; to render defensible against an attack by hostile forces, or
capable of standing a siege.

=Fortilage.= A little fort; a block-house. Now obsolete.

=Fortin.= A little fort; a field fort; a sconce; a fortlet. Now
obsolete.

=Fortlet.= A little fort.

=Fortress.= Is a fortified city or town, or any piece of ground so
strongly fortified as to be capable of resisting an attack carried on
against it, according to rule. Also, as a verb, to furnish with
fortresses; to guard; to fortify.

=Forward.= A word of command given when troops are to resume their march
after a temporary interruption.

=Fosseway.= One of the military Roman roads in England, so called from
the ditches on both sides.

=Fotheringay.= A village of England, in Northamptonshire. Richard III.
was born in the castle of this place, and Mary, queen of Scots, was
imprisoned and executed here. James I. razed it to the ground after his
accession to the throne.

=Foucade=, or =Fougade=. A small mine.

=Fougasses.= A description of small mines, constructed in front of the
weakest parts of a fortification, as the salient angles and faces not
defended by a cross-fire.

=Fougass Shell.= A row of loaded shells in a box divided into two
compartments. The lower compartment is filled with powder. The box is
only just covered by the earth. The fougass is fired by a fuze,
electricity, or a tube which explodes when trodden upon.

=Fougass, Stone.= A sort of natural mortar formed by an excavation in
the ground. At the bottom of the excavation is placed the charge in a
box, over this comes a shield of wood, and over that again is placed
about 5 cubic yards of stones, each of which should weigh not less than
1 pound. The excavation is in the shape of a frustrum of a cone, and
makes an angle of about 40° with the horizon. The charge is about 80
pounds of powder, and the stones will fall over a parallelogram about
110 yards by 120 yards.

=Fougeres.= A town and parish of France, 28 miles northeast from Rennes.
This town was the scene of many engagements between the English and the
French, from the 11th to the 15th centuries.

=Fougette= (_Fr._). An Indian sky-rocket, a species of firework which is
frequently used by the Asiatics. It is made of the hollow tube of the
bamboo, of a very large size, filled with the usual composition of
rockets. The rod is only a part of the same bamboo, the greater part of
which is cut away.

=Foughard.= Near Armagh, Northern Ireland. Here Edward, brother of
Robert Bruce, after invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by Sir John
Bermingham in 1318. Bruce was killed by Roger de Maupis, a burgess of
Dundalk.

=Fouiller= (_Fr._). To search. In a military sense, it signifies to
detach small bodies of infantry round the flanks of a column that is
marching through a wood, for the purpose of discovering an ambuscade,
and of giving timely notice that it may be avoided. The same precaution
is necessary when a body of men advance towards or enter a village.

=Fouling.= The action of gunpowder in dirtying the bore of a gun. Cannon
for this and other reasons are sponged after each round.

=Foundation.= In military architecture, is that part of a building which
is underground, or the mass of stone, brick, etc., which supports a
building, or upon which the walls of a superstructure are raised; or it
is the coffer or bed dug below the level of the ground to raise a
building upon.

=Founder.= A person who casts cannon, etc.

=Foundery.= In military matters, the art of casting all kinds of
ordnance, such as cannon, mortars, etc.

=Foundry.= A place for casting all kinds of ordnance; a foundery.

=Four.= A place of confinement in Paris to which vagabonds and persons
who could not give any satisfactory account of themselves were
committed; and when once shut up had their names registered, and were
enlisted for the old French government. These Fours added annually 2000
men at least to the king’s regular army; by which means the capital was
relieved of a multitude of thieves, pickpockets, etc.

=Fourage= (_Fr._). Forage; in the artillery, it is used figuratively to
signify hay, straw, or anything else of vegetable growth, which is used
to ram into the bore of a cannon for the purpose of cleansing it.

=Fourager= (_Fr._). To forage, or look about for provender and
provisions. It likewise means among the French to ravage, desolate,
pillage, and waste a country for the purpose of throwing the inhabitants
into disorder. The word is derived from _foras agere_, or to seek for
forage in the field.

=Fourier= (_Fr._). A quartermaster belonging to a cavalry or infantry
regiment. In France there were _fouriers-majors_ who composed a part of
the cavalry stall. _Sergeant-fourier_ and _corporal-fourier_ answer to
our quartermaster-sergeant.

=Fourniment= (_Fr._). A horn formerly used, which held about 1 pound of
gunpowder to prime cannon. It was likewise used by cavalry and infantry
soldiers, who slung it across their shoulders. The artillerists kept it
in a belt.

=Fowley.= A decayed seaport town of England, in the county of Cornwall,
at the mouth of a small river of the same name. It became famous in the
old French wars, and in 1347 sent 37 tall ships to the siege of Calais.
It was burned by the French in 1457.

=Fowling-piece.= A term sometimes applied to shot-guns of large caliber
and great power, for shooting ducks, geese, and other large birds.

=Fox.= The old English broadsword.

=Fox Indians.= A tribe of American aborigines of the Algonkin stock,
associated with the Sacs. They formerly dwelt in the southern part of
Iowa, but now occupy lands in Indian Territory. See INDIANS AND THEIR
AGENCIES.

=Fraisers= (_Fr._). To plait, knead, or drill. In a military sense to
fraise or fence; as, _fraiser un battalion_, is to fraise or fence all
the infantrymen with pikes, to oppose the irruption of cavalry, should
it charge them in a plain. At present it means to secure a battalion by
opposing bayonets obliquely forward, or crossways in such a manner as to
render it impossible for horsemen to act against it.

=Fraises.= Rows of palisades planted horizontally, or nearly so, as at
the edge of a ditch, or on the steep exterior of a parapet. Fraises are
generally 7 or 8 feet long, and about 5 inches thick. When an army
intrenches itself, the parapets of the retrenchment are often fraised in
the parts exposed to an attack. To _fraise a battalion_ is to line or
cover it every way with bayonets, that it may withstand the shock of a
body of horse.

=France.= A country of Western Europe, which was known to the Romans by
the name of Gaul (which see). In the decline of their power it was
conquered by the Franks, a people of Germany, then inhabiting Franconia,
where they became known about 240. These invaders gave the name to the
kingdom (_Franken-ric_, Frank’s Kingdom); but the Gauls, being by far
the more numerous, are the real ancestors of the modern French. For
details of important events in France, see separate articles.

=Franches= (_Fr._). _Les compagnies franches_, free companies, were
bodies of men detached and separated from the rest of the army, having
each a chief, or commandant. They consisted chiefly of dragoons,
hussars, etc., and their peculiar duty was to make irruptions into an
enemy’s country. They may not improperly be called land-pirates, as
their chief occupation was to harass and plunder the enemy and his
adherents, in whatever manner they could, without paying any regard to
military forms. The persons who composed these corps were termed
partisans. They always accompanied the main army in time of war, and
were distributed among the different garrison towns in France during
peace. They were common to every power in Europe; the Pandours and
Hulans were of this description. They were the worst afflictions of war;
and generally as fatal to their friends as to their enemies.

=Francisque= (_Fr._). A battle-axe; an ancient weapon formed like an
axe, used principally by the Franks.

=Franco-Prussian War.= The origin of this dreadful series of sanguinary
conflicts is ascribed to the jealousy of the emperor of the French of
the greatly increased power of Prussia, in consequence of the
successful issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and more especially
of that with Austria in 1866. By these events the German Confederation
was annulled, and the North German Confederation established under the
supremacy of the king of Prussia, whose territories were also enlarged
by the annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Casel, Nassau, Frankfort, and other
provinces. This great augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly
due to the policy of Count Bismarck-Schönhausen, prime minister. In
March, 1857, a dispute arose through the emperor’s proposals for the
purchase of Luxemburg of the king of Holland, which was strongly opposed
by Prussia, but the affair was eventually settled, by a conference of
the representatives of the great powers declaring Luxemburg neutral.
Both governments, however, had prepared for the impending struggle, and
the crisis came when Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen
consented to become a candidate for the throne of Spain, about July 3,
1870. This was violently denounced by the French government, and
eventually, after some negotiation and the intervention of Great
Britain, the prince, with the consent of his sovereign, declined the
proffered crown. This submission did not satisfy the French government
and nation, and the demand for a guarantee against the repetition of
such an acceptance irritated the Prussian government, and led to the
termination of the negotiations. War was declared by the emperor July
15, 1870, and actually commenced about July 23. It did not end until
January 27, 1871, and France was overrun by the victorious Prussians and
their auxiliaries. On May 10, 1871, a definitive treaty of peace was
concluded at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and on account of the rapid payment
of the war expenses the last German soldier left French soil in July,
1873. For important battles and engagements during the war, see separate
articles.

=Franconia= (Ger. _Franken_). An old duchy, afterwards a circle of the
Germanic empire, between Upper Saxony, the Upper and Lower Rhine,
Swabia, Bavaria, and Bohemia. Since 1806, it has been divided between
the grand duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the kingdoms of Bavaria and
Saxony.

=Franc-Tireurs.= Literally free-shooters, a name given to French
soldiers during the Crimean war, who were stationed as sharpshooters. In
the republican wars the name was also given to certain corps of light
infantry. During the Franco-German war the name was also applied to a
class of combatants among the French, who carried on a partisan warfare.

=Frankfort-on-the-Main.= A city of Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau, to
which it was annexed in 1866. It is situated on the right bank of the
Main. Said to have been a free city in 1174, and suffered much by the
wars of France. It was entered by the Prussians, who exacted heavy
supplies, July 16, 1866.

=Frankfort-on-the-Oder.= A well-built town of Prussia, capital of the
province of Brandenburg, 48 miles southeast from Berlin. It suffered
much from marauders in the Middle Ages, and in the Thirty Years’ War.
Near Frankfort, on August 12, 1759, Frederick of Prussia was defeated by
the Russians and Austrians. See CUNNERSDORF.

=Franklin.= In the southern part of Tennessee, near the boundary-line of
Alabama. A severe engagement took place here between the Union and
Confederate forces under Gens. Schofield and Hood respectively, November
30, 1864.

=Franks.= A name given to a combination of the Northwestern German
tribes about 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire with
various success.

=Fraser Gun.= See ORDNANCE, WOOLWICH GUN.

=Fraud.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60.

=Fray.= Affray; combat; duel; broil; contest.

=Frazier’s Farm, Battle of.= See GLENDALE.

=Fredericia.= A fortified town of Denmark, in Jutland, on the Little
Belt. It was besieged and taken by Prussia in 1864.

=Fredericksburg.= A city of Spottsylvania Co., Va., on the south bank of
the Rappahannock River. On December 10, 1862, Gen. Burnside and the
Federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river of the
Rappahannock. On December 11, Fredericksburg was bombarded by the
Federals and destroyed. On the 13th commenced a series of most desperate
yet unsuccessful attacks on the Confederate works, defended by Gens.
Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. Gen. Hooker crossed the river with
reserves, and joined in the conflict in vain. The Federal army recrossed
the Rappahannock December 15 and 16. This battle was one of the severest
of the war. Fredericksburg was the scene of several bloody battles
during the civil war.

=Frederickshald.= A town of Norway, at the influx of the Tistedals-elf
into the Idefiord, 55 miles southeast from Christiania. Charles XII. of
Sweden was killed here in the trenches before the fortress of
Fredericksteen, on December 11, 1718.

=Frederickshamm=, or =Hamina=. A fortified town of Finland. The treaty
which ceded Finland to Russia was signed here in 1809.

=Freebooter.= One who wanders about for plunder; a robber; a pillager; a
plunderer.

=Freebootery.= The act, practice, or gains of a freebooter; freebooting.

=Freebooting.= Robbery; plunder; a pillaging. Also acting the
freebooter; practicing the freebooter; robbing.

=Freehold.= A village, the capital of Monmouth Co., N. J. Near here was
fought the battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778.

=Free-lances.= Were roving companies of knights and men-at-arms, who,
after the Crusades had ceased to give them employment, wandered from
state to state, selling their services to any lord who was willing to
purchase their aid in the perpetual feuds of the Middle Ages. They
played their most prominent part in Italy, where they were known as
_Condottieri_ (which see).

=Fregellæ= (_Fregellanus_; now _Ceprano_). An ancient and important town
of the Volsci, on the Liris, in Latium, conquered by the Romans, and
colonized 328 B.C. It took part with the allies in the Social war, and
was destroyed by Opimius.

=Fregosa=, or =Fregose= (in the plural _Fregosi_). A Genoese family,
which in the 14th century gained distinction among the popular party,
and by their rivalry with the Adorni occasioned frequent civil wars.
Fregoso (Domenico), became doge of Genoa in 1370. He conquered the isle
of Cyprus and was deposed in 1378. Pietro was a brother of the
preceding; he commanded the armament which conquered Cyprus in 1373, and
in 1393 was elected doge. Thomas was elected doge in 1415; being
attacked by Alfonso of Aragon and the Duke of Milan, he made a brave
resistance, and was forced to retire from Genoa in 1421. Pietro was
elected in 1450, and for eight years maintained his power against
Alfonso of Aragon and the Adorni; he was killed in an attempt to expel
the French from Genoa in 1459. There were several other doges of this
family in Genoa.

=Fréjus.= A town of France, in the department of the Var, 45 miles
northeast from Toulon. It was here that Bonaparte landed on his return
from Egypt in the autumn of 1799; and here also he disembarked after his
escape from Elba in 1814.

=French Fury, The.= A name given, in history, to the attempt made by the
Duke of Anjou to carry Antwerp by storm, January 17, 1583. The whole of
his force was either killed or taken captive in less than an hour.

=Frenchtown.= In Canada; it was taken from the British by the American
general Winchester, January 22, 1813, during the second war with the
United States. It was retaken by the British forces under Gen. Proctor
January 24, and the American commander and troops were made prisoners.

=French Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Fréteval.= A town of France, in the department of Loir-et-Cher, 9 miles
northeast from Vendôme. In 1194 the army of Philip Augustus was defeated
here by the English.

=Friction Plates.= Plates used to check the recoil of guns. See RECOIL
and ELSWICK COMPRESSOR.

=Friction Primer.= In gunnery, consists of a short tube of metal
inserted into a hole near the top of a larger tube, and soldered in that
position. The short tube is lined with a composition made by mixing
together one part of chlorate of potassa and two of sulphuret of
antimony, formed into a paste with gum-water. A serrated wire passes
through the short tube and hole opposite to it in the side of the long
one, the open end of the short tube being compressed with nippers, and
the wire at the end of the serrated part doubled under to prevent
displacement. The other end of the wire is doubled and twisted by
machinery. The long tube is filled with rifle-powder, its upper end
being covered with shellac-varnish blackened with lamp-black, and its
lower end closed with shoemaker’s wax and dipped into varnish. One great
advantage of the friction tube is that it gives an enemy at night no
clue to the position of a piece as does the lighted port-fire or
slow-match.

=Friedland.= A town of East Prussia, in the circle of Königsberg, on the
Alle. This place is famous for being the scene of the battle gained by
Napoleon I. over the Russians and Prussians on June 14, 1807, and which
led to the peace of Tilsit.

=Frill.= Was an ornamental appendage to the shirt which officers and
soldiers generally wore with regimentals. A small aperture was usually
made at the top to admit the hook and eye of the uniform coat. Enlisted
men generally wore frills detached from the coat.

=Frisians.= Were an ancient Teutonic race, dwelling together with the
_Batavi_, the _Bructeri_, and the _Chauci_, in the extreme northwest of
Germany, between the mouths of the Rhine and Ems. They became
tributaries of Rome under Drusus, and for a time remained faithful to
the Roman alliance; but, in 28, they were driven to hostilities by the
oppression of their protectors, and although partially subdued, they
again rose against the Romans under Civilis. They were defeated and
compelled to embrace Christianity in 689 and 785.

=Frisrutter.= An instrument made of iron, and used for the purpose of
blocking up a haven or a river. The beams through which the upright bars
pass must be 12 feet in length, and the upright bars that go through the
beam must be of that length so that when one of these iron _frisrutters_
is let down into a haven or river, the perpendicular bars of this iron
instrument shall be deep enough to reach at high water within 5 feet of
the surface.

=Friuli.= An old province of Italy, belonging to Venice; made a duchy by
Alboin the Lombard, when he established his kingdom about 570. It was
conquered by Charlemagne; and Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, who was
assassinated in 799. It was conquered by Venice in 1420.

=Frock.= In the British service, the undress regimental coat of the
guards, artillery, and royal marines.

=Frogged.= A term used in regard to uniforms, and applied to stripes or
workings of braid or lace, as ornaments, mostly on the breast, on the
plain cloth of which a coat is made.

=Fronde= (_Fr._). A sling. This weapon was used in France by the
Huguenots at Sancerre, as late as the year 1572, in order to save their
powder. There were two kinds: one which was used in throwing a stone
from the arm, and the other that was fixed to a lever, and was so
contrived that a large quantity of stones might be thrown out of a
machine, either from a camp into a besieged town, or from a town into
the enemy’s camp. This machine has been used since the invention of
cannon. The fronde or sling was used by the Romans on three different
occasions, viz.: when they sent their light-armed men, called _velites_,
forward to skirmish before a general engagement; when they wished to
drive the enemy from under the walls of a town which they were preparing
to storm, and finally to harass and wound the men in the enemy’s works.
This weapon, in fact, together with the bow and arrow, may be numbered
among the primitive arms of mankind.

=Fronde, Civil Wars of the.= These occurred in France in the minority of
Louis XIV. (1648-53), during the government of the queen, Anne of
Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the court and
the nobility, and the Parliament and the citizens. The latter were
called _Frondeurs_ (_slingers_), it is said, from an incident in a
street quarrel.

=Front.= A word of command signifying that the men are to face to their
proper front; also to cast their eyes to the front after dressing.

=Front.= The foremost rank of a battalion, squadron, or any other body
of men. The _front of a gun_ is the direction in which the muzzle
points; but when a field-piece is limbered, its front is the direction
in which the pole points. The _front of a work_ or fortification is the
side it presents to the enemy. The _front of an army_, except in
retreating, is the side towards the enemy. A column is said to be _right
in front_ when it is formed by facing or wheeling to the right.

=Front, Bastioned.= A curtain connecting two half bastions.

=Front of Operations.= See STRATEGY.

=Frontal.= A front piece; something worn on the forehead or face; or the
metal face-guard of a soldier.

=Fronted.= Formed with a front; as, fronted brigades.

=Frontier.= That part of a country which fronts or faces another
country; the marches; the border, confines, or extreme part of a
country, bordering on another country; hence, a fortified or guarded
position. Also, lying on the exterior part; as, a frontier town.
Acquired on a frontier; as, frontier experience.

=Frontiera.= A town of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, 15 miles
from Estremos. The Spaniards were defeated here in 1663 by the
Portuguese under Schomberg.

=Froschweiler.= See WORTH.

=Frumentarius.= A Roman soldier, whose duty was to bring supplies of
provisions to the army, and the earliest notice of all hostile
movements. They were also, under the Roman empire, officers who acted as
spies in the provinces, and reported to the emperor whatever seemed
worthy of note. They appear to have derived this appellation from their
gathering news in the same way that the Frumentarii or purveyors
collected corn.

=Fuel.= The matter or aliment of fire; anything capable of ignition.
There is a certain allowance of fuel made by government to regiments and
companies. Officers in the U. S. army, at the present time, buy their
fuel; in other countries it is furnished.

=Fuente-la-Higuera.= A city of Spain, in the province of Valencia. At
this place Jourdan, Soult, and Suchet, after the rout of Salamanca, met
with their retreating forces, and held a council how best to get back
into France, when Ballesteros, by refusing to obey Wellington’s order,
opened the way for them to Madrid, in October, 1812.

=Fuenterabia.= A very ancient city of Spain, in the province of
Guipuzcoa. The Prince of Condé was repulsed here by the admiral of
Castile, 1638. In 1794 the French completely dismantled the place.

=Fuentes de Onore.= A small town of Spain, 16 miles from Ciudad Rodrigo.
It was the scene of some sharp fighting in May, 1811, between the French
and the British.

=Fugitive.= One who flees from his station or duty; a deserter; one who
flees from danger. One who has fled or deserted and taken refuge under
another power, or one who has fled from punishment.

=Fugleman= (an incorrect method of pronouncing _flugelman_). A
well-drilled intelligent soldier advanced in front of the line, to give
the time in the manual and platoon exercises. The word _flugel_ is
derived from the Germans, and signifies a wing; the man having been
originally posted on the right wing.

=Fulcrum.= A cast-iron post at the breech of large cannon used as a
support for an iron bar in giving elevations; called also _ratchet
post_.

=Full Charges.= The charges of powder required in actual service.

=Full Pay.= The full amount of an officer’s regimental pay. When an
officer receives that he is said to be on full pay.

=Full Pay, Retired.= In the British service, an officer of 30 years’
full pay is permitted to retire on the full pay of his regimental rank,
with a rank one step higher than that which he holds by brevet or
otherwise.

=Full Sap.= See SAP.

=Full Uniform.= See DRESS UNIFORM.

=Fulminate.= A salt of fulminic acid. Fulminate of mercury is the most
useful. It explodes readily by percussion, by a heat of 367° Fahr., when
touched with strong sulphuric or nitric acid, by sparks from flint and
steel and by the electric spark. It is used for percussion-caps,
primers, fuzes, etc. From its peculiar power to produce detonations it
is the detonating agent for modern blasting powders, containing
nitro-glycerine, also, for gun-cotton. _Detonating caps_, or
_exploders_, are copper caps containing from 3 to 25 grains of the
fulminate. In ordinary blasting, where the tube fuze is used, the cap is
placed on the end of the fuze and crimped around it. The cap is then
buried a short distance in the blasting charge, or cartridge. See
EXPLOSIVES.

=Fumigation.= To correct and purify an infectious or confined
atmosphere, such as is often found in transports, fumigations are
necessary. The materials recommended for the purpose are brimstone with
saw-dust; or nitre with vitriolic acid; or common salt with the same
acid.

=Fund.= There are several kinds of funds in the U. S. service, viz.:
post fund, which is constituted by the troops baking their own bread and
thereby saving 33¹⁄₃ per cent., the difference between bread and flour;
the post trader also pays an assessment of 10 cents a month for every
officer and soldier in the garrison, which is carried to the credit of
the fund. This fund is used to defray expenses of the post bakery,
garden, school, library and reading-room, chapel, printing-press, etc.
Fifty per cent. of the post fund, after deducting expenses of the
bakery, is set aside and transferred to the regimental treasurer; this
constitutes a regimental fund, which is appropriated exclusively for the
maintenance of a band, and, when a regiment does not have access to a
post library, for the purchase of books and papers. The savings arising
from an economical use of rations of the company (excepting the savings
of flour) constitute the company fund, which is kept in the hands of the
company commander, and disbursed by him _exclusively for the benefit of
the enlisted men of the company_, as follows: For enlisted men’s mess,
for garden seeds and utensils, for purchase of books, papers, etc., when
the company does not have access to a post library or reading-room, and
for such exercise and amusements as may be, in the judgment of the
commanding officer, for the benefit or comfort of the enlisted men of
the company.

=Funeral Honors.= If an officer dies when on duty with his regiment, or
engaged on staff employ, he is buried with military honors. His hat,
epaulettes, and sword are placed upon the coffin, soldiers support it,
and officers bear the pall; the troops march at a slow and solemn pace,
with arms reversed; the drums are muffled; the band plays the dead
march; and after the body has been lowered into the grave, a party of
infantry, cavalry, or artillery, fire three volleys over it, and then
retire. The strength of the funeral party, as it is called, depends upon
the rank of the deceased. Artillery officers are sometimes honored by
discharges of cannon. When a cavalry officer is buried his horse follows
the _cortege_. When the funeral of an officer entitled, when living, to
a salute, takes place at or near a military post, minute-guns are fired
while the remains are being borne to the place of interment; but the
number of such guns is not to exceed that which the officer was entitled
to as a salute when living. After the remains are deposited in the
grave, a salute corresponding to the rank of the deceased officer will
be fired,--three salvos of artillery, or three volleys of musketry.

In the event of a flag-officer of the navy, whether of the United States
or of a foreign country, dying afloat, and the remains are brought
ashore, minute-guns are fired from the ship while the body is being
conveyed to the shore. If it be in the vicinity of a military post, the
flag of the latter is displayed at half-staff, and minute-guns are fired
from the post while the procession is moving from the landing-place.
These minute-guns are not to exceed in number that which the officer was
entitled to, as a salute, when living. During the funeral of a civil
functionary entitled, when living, to a salute, the flag is displayed at
half-staff, and minute-guns fired as before; but neither salutes nor
salvos are fired after the remains are deposited in the grave. On the
death of an officer at a military post, the flag is displayed at
half-staff, and kept so, between the hours of reveille and retreat,
until the last salvo or volley is fired over the grave, or if the
remains are not interred at the post, until they are removed therefrom.
Funeral honors are likewise accorded to enlisted men. During the funeral
of an enlisted man, the flag is displayed at half-staff, and is hoisted
to the top after the final volley or gun is fired. All military posts in
sight, or within 6 miles of each other, display their flags at
half-staff upon the occasion of either one doing so. The same rule is
observed toward a vessel-of-war.

On all occasions where the flag is displayed at half-staff, it is
_lowered_ to that position from the top of the staff. It is afterwards
_hoisted_ to the top _before_ being finally lowered.

=Furl, To.= In regard to military colors, is opposed to their exposure;
and is used to express the act of folding them so as to be cased.

=Furlough.= The term is usually applied to the absence with leave of
non-commissioned officers and other enlisted men, and may be granted at
the discretion of the commanding officer.

=Furlough.= To furnish with a furlough; to grant leave of absence.

=Furnace.= In mining, signifies a hollow or excavation which is made in
the earth and is charged with gunpowder, for the purpose of blowing up a
rock, wall, or any part of a fortification.

=Furnish.= To provide; to equip; as, to furnish one with arms for
defense.

=Furniture.= In a military sense, applies to certain articles which are
allowed in barracks, to which are added household utensils, etc. Horse
furniture, are ornaments and embellishments which are adopted by
military men when they are mounted for service or parade, consisting
chiefly of housings, saddle-cloth, etc.

=Furruckabad.= A fortified town, and capital of a district of the same
name, in the province of Agra, Hindustan, about a mile from the Ganges.
Lord Lake defeated Holkar at this place in 1804.

=Fürth.= A town of Franconia, situated at the confluence of the Rezat
and Pegnitz, 4 miles northwest from Nuremberg. In 1632 a battle was
fought here between Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein, in which the
latter had the advantage.

=Fuse.= See FUZE.

=Fusil.= A light musket; a steel which strikes fire out of a flint; a
tinder-box; the piece of steel which covers the pan of a fire-arm.

=Fusil à Chevalets.= A species of fusils upon rests, which was
recommended by Marshal Vauban, to be used at the commencement of a
siege, about 50 or 100 toises in front of the glacis, at the entrances
of narrow passages, etc.

=Fusiliers.= In the British service, were formerly soldiers armed with a
lighter fusil or musket than the rest of the army; but at present all
regiments of foot carry the same rifle. Fusilier is therefore simply a
historical title borne by a few regiments. The royal regiment of Scotch
Fusiliers was raised in 1678; the royal regiment of Welsh Fusiliers was
raised in 1685, and another royal regiment of Welsh Fusiliers was raised
in 1688-89. It is always presumed that these corps like the guards
possess an _esprit de corps_, which is peculiar to themselves. The
Fusilier regiments never had any ensigns, their junior officers ranked
as second lieutenants, taking precedence of all ensigns, and the 7th or
Royal Fusiliers have no second lieutenants, so that their junior
officers rank with the rest of the army according to the date of their
several commissions, as lieutenants. Fusilier regiments wear a bear-skin
head-dress. Among the French when pikes were in use, each regiment had
only 4 fusiliers, exclusive of 10 grenadiers, who carried the fusil or
musket. Among the French there was a distinct regiment of fusiliers
under the immediate command of the master of the ordnance.

=Fusillade.= A simultaneous discharge of fire-arms in a military
exercise; as, a grand fusillade. To shoot down by a simultaneous
discharge of fire-arms. “Fusillade them all.”

=Fusils à l’Eppe= (_Fr._). Fusils with long bayonets, shaped like a
cut-and-thrust sword. These weapons were recommended as extremely useful
in the rear rank of a battalion, or in detached bodies that are
stationed for the defense of baggage, etc.

=Fusils, Mousquets= (_Fr._). A sort of fusil which was invented by
Marshal Vauban, and which was so contrived that in case the flint did
not strike fire, the powder might be inflamed by means of a small match
which was fixed to the breech.

=Fustuarium.= In Roman antiquity, a method of inflicting capital
punishment upon any soldier guilty of theft, desertion, or similar
crimes. When the accused had been found guilty he was made to stand in
front of the legion to which he belonged. One of the tribunes then
touched him lightly with a stick, and all the soldiers immediately
rushed upon the criminal and beat him to death with clubs (fustes). If
he escaped--as he was allowed to do if he could, but which was rarely if
ever possible--he was forbidden ever to return to his native country,
and his nearest relatives were not allowed to receive him into their
houses. This method of capital punishment continued to be enforced even
under the empire.

=Futtehghur.= A town of Hindostan, British district of Furruckabad, on
the western bank of the Ganges. In the vicinity is the British military
cantonment. Holkar, the Mahratta chief, appeared before the place in
1804, and was preparing for the assault of the fort, when the arrival of
the British army under Lord Lake drove him into precipitate flight.

=Fuyard= (_Fr._). A runaway; a coward. _Un corps fuyard_, a regiment
that has been in the habit of running away.

=Fuze.= In gunnery, is a contrivance for igniting the bursting charge in
a hollow projectile at any point of its flight. The simplest
classification of fuzes is the _time fuze_, the _percussion fuze_, and
the _concussion fuze_, which are usually defined as follows:

FUZE, CONCUSSION. Is a fuze that is operated by the shock of discharge,
or the shock of impact, excluding direct percussion effects. It is
especially applicable to hollow spherical projectiles. The usual
difference between the concussion and percussion fuze is, that the
former explodes no matter what point of the projectile strikes, whereas
the latter requires the projectile to strike at or near the front end;
but these are exceptions to the rule.

FUZE, PERCUSSION. As shown below, is a fuze that receives no flame from
the charge in the gun, but at the moment of impact a flame is generated
by means of fulminates, which produces the explosion of the charge in
the shell. Most varieties of this fuze consist essentially of a brass or
pewter _fuze-plug_, or case which contains an iron or steel _plunger_
terminating in a nipple which carries a common percussion-cap; the
_plunger_ is held in its place at the lower end of the fuze-plug by a
collar-screw, wire, or other device; when the projectile strikes the
plunger breaks loose, and by its inertia is driven forward with such
force as to explode the cap and ignite the charge. This form of fuze is
used for rifle-shells.

FUZE, TIME. This fuze is composed of a case of paper, wood, or metal,
inclosing a column of burning composition ignited by the charge in the
gun; it burns for a certain time, at the end of which the flame is
communicated to the bursting charge of the projectile. This fuze is used
for both shells and case-shot.

=Fuze, Blasting.= A fuze used to fire charges in mines and quarries. It
consists usually of a flexible tube filled with a slow-burning
composition. The tube is made of various materials, and is usually
waterproof. In Beckford’s fuze the composition is encased in flax, which
is covered with gutta-percha, and wound with varnished tape. This fuze
is used extensively in England.

=Fuze-Composition.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Fuze, Electric.= A fuze ignited by the passage of an electric current.
It is used for firing torpedoes, for the simultaneous discharge of guns
and charges in mining. The principle used is the heating of the wire by
the current at a point of resistance. The point of resistance is called
the _bridge_. Being surrounded by a priming of powder or other
explosive, its sudden heating causes ignition in the fuze. The _bridge_
is made in various ways,--by connecting the current wires by a fine
platinum wire; by passing the current through a chemical mixture
rendered conducting by containing a salt of copper; also by filing the
main wire nearly in two, and rubbing the cut with a lead-pencil.

=Fuze-implements.= Are the fuze-cutter, fuze-setter, fuze-mallet,
fuze-saw, etc. See IMPLEMENTS.

=Fuze, Safety.= A name given to a blasting fuze filled with
quick-burning composition, but sufficiently long to be ignited at a safe
distance from the charge.

=Fuze, Tape.= So called from its shape. May be quick or slow burning.

=Fuzes, Combination.= Are fuzes combining the principles of the simple
fuzes. The term is specially applied to _time-percussion_ fuzes, which
are so arranged as to burst either at the end of a certain time or upon
striking the object. No very exact classification of fuzes has ever been
made. If we consider all the operations necessary to the action of the
fuze, only certain time fuzes can be considered simple. Concussion fuzes
usually depend for their action upon some operation which takes place
between the discharge and the time of impact, which bestows a character
of sensitiveness which would, if existing at the time of loading, make
them too dangerous to handle. Percussion fuzes, also, must have a
similar supplementary operation, but this usually takes place at the
time of discharge, or upon impact. It is by this means that the
safety-pin, screw, or wire holding the plunger is removed or broken. For
these reasons these fuzes are ordinarily _time-concussion_ and
_concussion-percussion_, respectively. A fuze, however, usually takes
its name from the immediate cause of the explosion. If this is due to
the explosion of a fulminate by a direct blow, it is a percussion fuze.
If the shock acts in a different way, it is called concussion. If the
explosion takes place at the end of a given time, we have a time fuze.
There are also fuzes which may be called _centrifugal-percussion_,
_concussion-chemical_, _concussion-friction_, etc., examples of which
will be given. It is readily seen that it is difficult to make a
classification which will cover all the ingenious devices which have
been invented.

The simplest time fuze is one which is ignited by the flame of
discharge. In the U. S. field and siege service the paper fuze is used
for rifle projectiles, both shells and case-shot, and in the field
service the Bormann for spherical. For larger spherical projectiles, the
paper case is inclosed in a hollow plug of wood, as in mortar-shells,
and in a brass plug in the sea-coast service. In the latter the outer
end of the plug is closed with a brass cap having a crooked chaume, to
prevent the burning composition from being extinguished in striking
water. In the U. S. service percussion fuzes are used only for
rifle-shells. The fuze ordinarily employed is, strictly speaking, a
_concussion-percussion_, since the safety wire must be ruptured by the
shock of impact before the cap can be exploded.

The time fuze already described can be used in smooth-bore guns and in
muzzle-loading rifles; but in breech-loading guns or guns without
windage, the fuze composition cannot be ignited directly by the flame of
discharge,--one of the strongest arguments in favor of muzzle-loaders.
The time fuze for breech-loading guns is ignited by an interior
contrivance, usually a plunger and cap; it is, consequently, a
_percussion-time_ fuze. Such is the nature of the _Armstrong time fuze_
and the time fuzes used in Germany and Russia. Time fuzes are absolutely
necessary to the successful use of case-shot or shrapnel, which must be
burst in the air. The latest invention in time fuzes is the substitution
of clock-work for the column of burning composition as a time-keeper,--a
Yankee idea which has not yet received any official recognition, or been
subjected to public test.

The Boxer fuze, used extensively in England, is a time fuze consisting
of a column of composition driven in a wooden plug, which is closed at
the lower end. In some forms of the fuze small longitudinal channels
filled with rifle-powder communicate with the bursting charge. The
time-scale is a row of holes in the side of the plug, one of which is
bored through to the composition in setting the fuze. The flame
communicates with the charge either through the side hole directly, or
by the side channels downwards through the end of the plug. Two kinds of
fuzes are used,--the _simple time fuze_ for muzzle-loaders, and the
_percussion-time_ for breech-loaders.

The Splingard fuze, invented by Captain Splingard, of the Belgian
service, is a good example of a _time-concussion_ fuze. It consists of
a column of pure composition surrounding a hollow spindle of plaster of
Paris. The composition is ignited by the flame of discharge, and burns
away, leaving the spindle unsupported. When the projectile strikes, the
part of the spindle above the unburned composition breaks off, and the
flame fires the bursting charge through the hole in the stump. If the
spindle fails to break, the charge is fired when the entire column has
been consumed. This fuze is specially applicable to spherical
projectiles.

The concussion fuze formerly used in Prussia was a
_time-concussion-chemical_ fuze. The burning of a column of composition
left a glass tube containing sulphuric acid to be broken, by a lead
ball, by the shock of impact. The acid coming in contact with a mixture
of chlorate potash, sulphur, and white sugar, produced a flame which
fired the bursting charge.

The _Beebe concussion fuze_ for spherical projectiles, invented by
Captain Beebe, U. S. Ordnance Corps, was a _concussion-friction_ fuze. A
contrivance equivalent to a friction-primer buried in the
bursting-charge, and offering great resistance to motion in the powder,
was fired by the sudden movement of an attached weight upon impact. The
shock of discharge also played a part in detaching the fuze from the
fuze-plug.

The _German percussion fuze_, now commonly used in Krupp guns, may be
called _centrifugal-percussion_. The safety-pin passes through a hole
from the outside of the shell. This pin is thrown out by the rotation of
the shot, leaving but slight resistances to the motion of the plunger.

In the English _cap-percussion fuze_ the corresponding safety-pin is
pulled out by a tape by hand just before loading.

The _Pettman general service fuze_, used in England, is a _percussion_
fuze of unusual form, equally applicable to spherical or oblong
projectiles. It consists, essentially, of a hollow screw-plug containing
a ball covered with detonating composition, which is freed from its
bearings by the shock of discharge, and explodes the shell upon impact
by striking the walls surrounding it. The detonating ball sometimes
fails in breech-loading guns, the motion of the projectiles being too
steady to shake it out of its seat. For this reason a _plain_ ball, as
it is called, is placed in the upper part of the fuze, and held between
two disks. These separate upon discharge, and the ball is thrown
outwards by the rotation opposite an annular groove in the lower plug or
disk filled with fulminate, which is exploded upon impact, the lower
plug being driven against the ball by its inertia. This fuze is,
properly, a _concussion-percussion_ fuze.

=Fyroz=, or =Feroze= (written also _Ferose_, _Firoz_, _Firouz_,
_Feyrouz_, and _Firuz_). A Persian word signifying “victorious,” and
forming the name of several ruling kings in Persia and Hindostan.



G.


=Gabion.= A kind of basket made of osier twigs, of a cylindrical form,
having different dimensions, according to the purpose for which it is
used. Filled with earth, these gabions serve in sieges to carry on the
approaches under cover, when the assailants come near the fortification.
Batteries are often made of gabions, which likewise serve for revetments
in constructing parapets of loose earth.

=Gabionage.= Gabions when used for fortification.

=Gabionnade.= A work hastily thrown up; especially, one formed chiefly
of gabions. A _parapet en gabionnade_ is a parapet constructed of
gabions.

=Gabions, Corrugated Iron.= Are gabions made of corrugated iron. For
this purpose, the corrugated sheet should be 6 feet long, 33 inches
wide, and of iron weighing three-quarters of a pound to the square foot.

The corrugations running transversely, the sheet is easily bent into a
cylindrical form, in which it is retained by two clamps, the holes for
which are punched near the corners of the sheet. The chief advantage
claimed for the corrugated over the hoop gabion is, the readiness with
which it can be put together in the field. It is also rather more
portable, and stakes are dispensed with; but it is inferior to the hoop
gabion in stiffness.

=Gad.= The point of a spear, or an arrowhead; a steel spike on the
knuckle of a gauntlet.

=Gadaru= (_Fr._). A very broad Turkish sabre.

=Gadling.= A spike or sharp-pointed boss on the knuckle of a gauntlet; a
gad.

=Gaeta.= A strongly fortified maritime town of the Neapolitan province
of Terra di Lavoro, 40 miles northwest from Naples. It is one of the
strongest places in the kingdom, and its harbor is the same as it was in
the time of the Romans. In 1799 and in 1806 it was taken by the French,
and in 1849 Pope Pius IX. sought an asylum here. When Garibaldi took
possession of Naples for Victor Emmanuel in September, 1860, Francis
II., the last Bourbon king of Naples, took refuge in Gaeta, and remained
until the town was taken by Gen. Cialdini, in February, 1861, after a
siege of several weeks’ duration.

=Gætulia.= An ancient country of Africa, situated south of Mauritania
and Numidia, and embracing the western part of the desert of Sahara. Its
inhabitants belonged to the great aboriginal Berber family of North and
Northwestern Africa. They were a savage and warlike race, and their
first collision with the Romans was during the Jugurthine war, when they
served as light horse in the army of the Numidian king. Cornelius Cossus
Lentulus led a force against them, and for his success obtained a
triumph and the surname of _Gætulicus_. The ancient Gætulians are
believed to be represented in modern times by the Tuaricks.

=Gaffles.= The steel lever with which the ancients bent their
cross-bows.

=Gage.= A challenge to combat; that is, a gauntlet, glove, cap, or the
like, cast on the ground by the challenger, and taken up by the acceptor
of the challenge.

=Gages= (_Fr._). Wages. Among the French this term signified the fruits
or compensations which were derived by individuals from appointments
given by the crown, whether of a military, civil, or judicial nature, or
for service done at sea or by land.

=Gain.= To conquer; to get the better; as, we gained the day, etc. To
_gain ground_, implies to take up the ground which a retiring enemy
vacates.

=Gaine de Flamme= (_Fr._). A sort of linen sheath or cover, into which
the staff of a flag or pendant is put.

=Gaine de Pavillon= (_Fr._). A cloth or linen band, which is sewed
across the flag, and through which the different ribbons are interlaced.

=Gaines’s Mill.= In Hanover Co., Va., about 20 miles northeast of
Richmond. Here, on June 27, 1862, was fought one of the “seven days’
contests” between the Confederate forces under Gen. Lee and the Federals
under Gen. McClellan, in which the latter were victorious.

=Gain-pain.= Bread-gainer; a term applied in the Middle Ages to the
sword of a hired soldier.

=Gaiters.= A sort of cover for the leg, usually made of cloth, and are
either long, as reaching to the knee, or short, as only reaching just
above the ankle; the latter are termed half-gaiters, and are worn by
infantry soldiers in Europe.

=Galatia.= An ancient province of Asia Minor; in the 3d century B.C.,
the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and
conquered Troas, 278; were checked by Attalus in a battle about 239; and
then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogræcia and Galatia. The
country was ravaged by Cn. Manlius, 189 B.C., and was finally annexed to
the Roman empire, 25 B.C.

=Galatone.= A very ancient town in the south of Italy, in the province
of Otranto, about 9 miles northeast of Gallipoli. In the struggle
between Joanna, queen of Naples, and Alfonso, Galatone having declared
for the former, was besieged by Alfonso, and its ramparts destroyed.

=Galea.= Among the Romans, a light casque, head-piece, or morion, coming
down to the shoulders, and commonly of brass; though Camillus, according
to Plutarch, ordered those of his army to be of iron, as being the
stronger metal.

=Galeated.= Covered, as with a helmet.

=Galet= (_Fr._). A round stone thrown from a sling or bow.

=Galicia.= A province of Northwest Spain, was conquered by D. Junius
Brutus, 136 B.C., and by the Vandals, 419, and was subdued by successive
invaders.

=Galicia.= A kingdom or province of the Austrian empire, which formerly
constituted a part of Poland. East Galicia was acquired by the emperor
of Germany at the partition in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795.
The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw in 1809; but recovered
by Austria in 1815.

=Gall.= To injure; to harass; to annoy; as, the troops were galled by
the shot of an enemy.

=Gallant.= Noble in bearing or spirit; brave; high-spirited; courageous;
heroic; magnanimous; as, a gallant youth; a gallant officer.

=Gallantly.= In a gallant manner, spirit or bearing; nobly; bravely; as,
to fight gallantly; to defend a place gallantly.

=Gallantry.= Bravery; courageousness; heroism; intrepidity; as, the
troops attacked the fort with great gallantry.

=Gallas.= A warlike race occupying the south and east of Abyssinia. They
first appear in history in the 16th century, when they extended their
conquests from the interior of Africa, laying waste by constant
incursions the countries of Eastern Africa to the mountains of
Abyssinia. Politically they do not form a single nation, but are divided
into numerous tribes, forming separate kingdoms and states, which are
frequently at war with each other.

=Gallery.= An underground passage, whether cut in the soil or built in
masonry; it forms the communication between the inner and exterior works
of a fortified place. When prepared for defense, it is a defensive
gallery. In military mines, galleries are the underground passages
leading to and connecting the mine chambers. _Scarp and counterscarp
galleries_ are covered passages built in the scarp and counterscarp to
give a flanking fire in the ditch.

=Gallery Descent of a Ditch.= Is the term applied when the besiegers
cross the ditch by an underground passage.

=Gallet= (_Fr._). See JALET.

=Galling Fire.= A sustained discharge of cannon or small-arms, which by
its execution greatly annoys the enemy.

=Gallipoli.= An important town and seaport of Turkey in Europe, in the
province of Rumili, is situated on the peninsula of the same name at the
northeast extremity of the Dardanelles, and about 130 miles
west-southwest of Constantinople. It was once fortified, but its only
defense now is a sorry square castle with an old tower. In 1357 the town
was taken by the Turks, and formed the earliest Turkish possessions in
Europe. In 1854 the allied armies of England and France occupied it.

=Gallipoli.= An important commercial seaport of Italy, in the Neapolitan
province of Terra di Otranto. It has a good harbor, and in time of war
is an important position, being strongly protected by fortifications and
a castle. In 450 the town was sacked by the Vandals; in 1284 it was
destroyed and almost depopulated by Charles of Anjou; and during
subsequent centuries suffered severely from the Venetians, French,
Spaniards, and Turks. In 1809 it repulsed an attack from the English
flotilla.

=Gallop.= A mode of running by a quadruped, particularly by a horse, by
lifting alternately the fore feet and the hind feet together, in
successive leaps or bounds. A word of command in the cavalry service.

=Galloper.= A carriage on which very small guns are conveyed, having
shafts on which the gun may be conveyed without a limber. This carriage
is no longer used.

=Gallowglass.= In ancient times, a heavy-armed foot-soldier of Ireland
and the Western Isles.

=Galway.= A seaport town of Ireland, and capital of Galway County. It
was originally surrounded with walls. It was conquered by Richard de
Burgo in 1232; in 1690 the city declared for King James, but was taken
by Gen. Ginckel immediately after the battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691.

=Gamala.= A town and strong fortress in Palestine, frequently mentioned
by Josephus. Its site, though so remarkable and minutely described, had
been forgotten for nearly 18 centuries; but it has latterly been
identified with _El-Hossn_, which lies to the east of the Sea of
Tiberias, nearly opposite the town. In the Jewish rebellion it revolted
against Agrippa, who besieged it for seven months, but without success.
It was afterwards, however, taken by Vespasian after a spirited
resistance, and an indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants took
place, 4000 being put to the sword, and 5000 being said to have thrown
themselves from the walls, and to have been dashed to pieces on the
rocks below.

=Gambado.= A case of leather, formerly used to defend the leg from mud,
and in riding on horseback.

=Gambeson= (_Fr._). A term which the French formerly applied to a coat
of mail that was worn under the cuirass. It was likewise called _cotte
gamboisée_. It was made of two strong cloths interwoven with pointed
worsted.

=Gamelle= (_Fr._). A wooden or earthen bowl formerly used among the
French soldiers for their messes. It generally contained the quantity of
food which was allotted for 3, 5, or 7 men belonging to the same room.
The porridge-pots of the navy were made of wood, and held a certain
allowance. During the monarchy of France, subaltern officers and
volunteers were frequently punished for slight offenses by being sent to
the _gamelle_, and excluded from their regular mess; they were put upon
short allowance according to the nature of their transgression.

=Gantlope= (_Fr._). Corruptly _gauntlet_, from the French _gant_, a
glove. A military punishment, which consisted in passing along the whole
line, and receiving a blow from every man’s iron glove or gauntlet
(_gantelet_). Whips and canes were subsequently used; this mode of
punishment is now obsolete.

=Gaol.= A withe used for binding fascines or securing gabions.

=Gap.= An opening for a passage or entrance; an opening which implies a
breach. _To stand in the gap_, to expose one’s self for the protection
of something; to make defense against any assailing danger. _To stop a
gap_, to secure a weak point; to repair a defect.

=Gap.= A small town of France, capital of the department Hautes Alps. It
was sacked and almost wholly reduced to ashes by Victor Amadeus of Savoy
in 1692.

=Gar.= The general term used by the Saxons for a weapon of war.

=Garamantes.= A Libyan people of the old race called _Amazergh_, who in
ancient times inhabited the largest oasis of the desert of Sahara. When
the Romans became masters of North Africa, they found it necessary to
repress the barbarian tribes, and accordingly Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus
the younger, as pro-consul, was sent against this people. He succeeded
in defeating them, and obtained the honors of a triumph; but, owing to
their nomadic character, he was unable thoroughly to subdue them.

=Garçon-Major= (_Fr._). An officer, so called in the old French service.
He was selected from among the lieutenants of a regiment to assist the
aid-majors in the general details of duty.

=Garda, Lake of.= A lake of Northern Italy, lying between the provinces
of Lombardy and Venice. In 1796 the battle of Rivoli was fought near its
eastern shore, in which Bonaparte defeated Wurmser.

=Gardant.= In heraldry, is said of an animal which is represented
full-faced, and looking forward.

=Garde= (_Fr._). Guard. _Garde de l’armée_, the grand guard of an army.
Guards in the old French service were usually divided into three sorts:
_guards of honor_, _fatigue guard_, and the _general’s guard_. That was
called a _guard of honor_ in which the officers and men were exposed to
danger. A _fatigue guard_ belonging to a garrison or camp. A _general’s
guard_ was mounted before the door or gate of a house in which the
commanding officer resided.

=Garde-General d’Artillerie= (_Fr._). An officer was so called under the
old government of France, who had charge of all the ordnance and stores
belonging to his majesty for the land service. He gave receipts for all
ammunition, etc., and his bills were paid by the treasurer-general of
the army.

=Garde, Imperiale= (_Fr._). See GUARDS, IMPERIAL.

=Garde, Nationale= (_Fr._). See NATIONAL GUARDS.

=Garde Pluie= (_Fr._). Literally means a fence, or cover against rain.
This machine was originally invented by a Frenchman, and submitted to
the Prussians, who adopted it for the use of their infantry. Under the
cover of them, the besieged, or the troops stationed in the posts
attacked, would be able to keep up a brisk and effective discharge of
musketry during the heaviest fall of rain, and thereby silence or
considerably damp the fire of the enemy.

=Gardelegen.= A small town of Prussian Saxony, situated about 30 miles
north-northwest of Magdeburg, on the Milde. It was destroyed by Duke
Dervan in 633, and rebuilt about 924. It remained a free town until
1478.

=Gardens.= In ancient military history, places of resort to practice
military exercises.

=Gardes Blancs= (_Fr._). Were Roman militia, composed of picked men.

=Gardes Costes=, or =Côtes= (_Capitaineries_), Fr. The maritime
divisions, into which France was formerly divided, were so called. Each
division was under the immediate superintendence of a captain, named
_capitaine gardes-costes_, who was assisted by a lieutenant and an
ensign. Their duty was to watch the coast, and to attend minutely to
everything that might affect the safety of the division they had in
charge.

=Gardes de la Porte= (_Fr._). A company so called during the monarchy of
France, and of so ancient a date, indeed, with respect to original
institution, that it appears to have been coeval with it. Mention is
made of the _gardes de la porte_ in the oldest archives or records
belonging to the king’s household, in which service they were employed,
without being responsible to any particular treasurer as other companies
were. This company consisted of 1 captain, 4 lieutenants, and 50 guards.
The captain and officers received their commissions from the king. The
first took an oath of fidelity to the king in person, and received the
bâton from his hands. The duty he did was purely discretionary, and
depended on his own will. The lieutenants served by detachment, and took
their tour of duty every quarter. Their specific service consisted in
guarding the principal gate belonging to the king’s apartments. They
were relieved at night by the body-guards, and delivered the keys to a
brigadier belonging to the Scotch garrison.

=Gardes du Corps= (_Fr._). The body-guards. Under the old French
government, they consisted of a certain number of gentlemen or cavaliers
whose immediate duty was to attend the king’s person. They were divided
into four companies, under as many captains, whose tour of duty came
every quarter. They took rank above the _gens d’armes_ and the king’s
light cavalry. The first and most ancient of the four companies was
called the Scotch company, which was established by Charles VII. of
France in 1423.

=Gardes Françaises= (_Fr._). The French guards. In 1563 Charles IX.,
king of France, raised a regiment for the immediate protection of the
palace. The colonel of the gardes Française was on duty throughout the
year, and was entitled to the _bâton de commandement_ in common with the
four captains of the body-guards. Peculiar privileges were attached to
every officer belonging to this body. No stranger, not even a native of
Strasburg, Savoy, Alsace, or Piedmont, could hold a commission in the
French guards. In the revolution of 1789 they took a very active and
leading part.

=Gardes-magazins= (_Fr._). In the old French service there were two
sorts of magazine guards,--one for the military stores and the other for
the artillery. The first was subject to the grand master, and the second
was appointed by the secretary at war. _Gardes particuliers des magazins
d’artillerie_, officers appointed by the grand master of ordnance for
the specific purpose of attending to the ammunition, etc. Their pay was
in proportion to the quantity of stores with which they were intrusted.

=Gardes Suisses= (_Fr._). A celebrated Swiss corps in the French army,
constituted “Gardes” by royal decree in 1616. They comprised upwards of
2000 men, were always unswerving in their fidelity to the Bourbon kings,
and are chiefly remarkable for their heroic end. On August 10, 1792,
they withstood the Parisian revolutionary mob, and defended the palace
of the Louvre till almost every man was cut down. During the resistance
they offered, the royal family was enabled to escape to such shelter as
the National Assembly afforded. _Gardes Suisses du corps du Roi_, one
hundred Swiss guards who were immediately attached to the king’s person.
They were a select body of men who took an oath of fidelity to the king,
and were formed into a regular troop. But in the last period of the
monarchy of France, the principal duties of the one hundred Swiss guards
consisted in domestic and menial attendance.

=Garigliano.= A river in Southwestern Italy. After long waiting and
refusing to recede a step, the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a
bridge over this river December 27, 1503, and surprised and totally
defeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a few days after.

=Garland.= A sort of chaplet made of flowers, feathers, and sometimes of
precious stones, worn on the head in the manner of a crown. Both in
ancient and modern times it has been customary to present garlands of
flowers to warriors who have distinguished themselves. A beautiful young
woman was generally selected for that purpose.

=Garlasco.= A market-town of Northern Italy, 24 miles from Novara. The
Austrians, when they invaded Italy in 1849, crossed the Po near this
place.

=Garnished.= In heraldry, any charge is said to be garnished with the
ornaments set on it.

=Garnish-nails.= Diamond-headed nails, formerly used to ornament
artillery carriages.

=Garret.= A turret or battlement. Now obsolete.

=Garreted.= Protected by turrets. Now obsolete.

=Garrison.= A body of troops stationed in a fort or fortified town to
defend it against an enemy, or to keep its inhabitants in subjection. A
strong place, in which troops are quartered for its security. _In
garrison_, in the condition of a garrison; doing duty in a fort or as
one of a garrison. _Garrison town_, is a strong place, in which troops
are quartered and do duty for the security thereof, keeping strong
guards at each post, and a main-guard in or near the market-place. As a
verb it means to place troops in, as in a fortress, for its defense; to
furnish with soldiers; as, to garrison a fort or town. To secure or
defend by fortresses manned with troops; as, to garrison a conquered
territory.

=Garrison Court-martial.= Is a legal tribunal for the examination and
punishment of offenders against martial law, or against good order and
military discipline. It is composed of three members and a
judge-advocate. See COURT-MARTIAL, and TRIAL; also JUDGE-ADVOCATE.

=Garrison Gin.= The largest size gin. See GIN.

=Garrison Guns.= Guns used in fortifications. Fortress guns.

=Garrison des Janissaries= (_Fr._). The _élite_ or flower of the
Janissaries of Constantinople was frequently sent into garrison on the
frontiers of Turkey, or to places where the loyalty of the inhabitants
was doubted. The Janissaries did not indeed assist in the immediate
defense of a besieged town or fortress, but they watched the motions of
all suspected persons, and were subject to the orders of their officers,
who usually commanded the garrison.

=Garter, Order of the.= One of the most ancient and illustrious of the
military orders of knighthood. It was instituted by Edward III. of
England, and dates from about the year 1350, though some writers say
1344. Its origin is variously related. In Rastel’s “Chronicles” it is
stated that this order was devised by Richard I. at the siege of Acre,
when he is said to have caused 26 knights to wear thongs of blue leather
about their legs. But the common account is, that the Countess of
Salisbury happened at a ball to drop her garter, and that the king took
it up and presented it to her, at the same time exclaiming, _Honi soit
qui mal y pense_,--“Evil be to him who evil thinks,” in reference to the
smiles which he observed the action had excited among some of the
bystanders; adding “that shortly they should see that garter advanced to
so high an honor and renown, as to account themselves happy to wear it.”
It is founded in honor of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, St. Edward
the Confessor, and St. George; but the last, who had become the tutelary
saint of England, was considered its special patron; and for this reason
it has always borne the title of “The Order of St. George,” as well as
of “The Garter,” and those who wore it were called “Knights of St.
George.” The number of knights companions was originally 26, including
the sovereign, who is chief of the order; but in 1786 a statute was
passed to the effect that this number should be irrespective of princes
of the royal family, and illustrious foreigners on whom the honor might
be conferred. The well-known emblem of the order is a dark-blue ribbon
edged with gold, bearing the motto _Honi soit qui mal y pense_ in golden
letters, with a buckle and pendant of gold richly chased, and is worn on
the left leg below the knee. The mantle is of blue velvet, and on the
left breast a star is embroidered. The hood and surcoat are of crimson
velvet, and lined with white taffeta. The hat is of black velvet, with a
plume of white ostrich feathers, in the centre of which there is a tuft
of black herons’ feathers, all fastened to the hat by a band of
diamonds. The collar is of gold, and consists of 26 pieces, each in the
form of a garter. The “George” is the figure of St. George on horseback
encountering the dragon; it is worn to the collar, and there is a lesser
“George” pendent to a broad, dark-blue ribbon over the left shoulder.

=Garter King-of-Arms.= Is the principal king-of-arms in England. Though
held by the same person, they are distinct offices. The first was
instituted for the service of the order of the Garter (which see), not
on its first foundation, but afterwards by Henry V. as sovereign, with
the advice and consent of the knights-companions. The peculiar duty of
Garter king-of-arms is to attend upon the knights at their solemnities,
to intimate their election to those who are chosen by the order, to call
them to be installed at Windsor, to cause their arms to be hung up over
their stalls, and to marshal their funeral processions, and those of
royal personages, and of members of higher nobility. In the capacity of
principal king-of-arms, he grants and confirms arms, under the authority
of the earl marshal, to whom he is not subject as Garter king-of-arms.
All new grants or patents of arms in England are first signed and sealed
by him, and then by the king (of arms) of the province to which the
applicant belongs.

=Gas-check.= The device used in breech-loading cannon to prevent the gas
from escaping at the breech. (See BROADWELL RING and BREECH-LOADING.)
Also a term applied by the English to the soft metal sabot in the rear
of rifled projectiles.

=Gasconade.= To boast; to brag; to vaunt; to bluster. The term was
originally derived from the Gascons, or people of Gascony, in France,
who it seems have been particularly distinguished for extravagant
stories.

=Gasconader.= A great boaster; a blusterer.

=Gascony.= Formerly a district in the southwest of France, situated
between the Bay of Biscay, the river Garonne, and the Western Pyrenees.
It derived its name from the Basques, or Vasques (Lat. _Vascones_), who,
driven by the Visigoths from their own territory on the southern slope
of the Western Pyrenees, crossed to the northern side, and settled here.
In 602, after an obstinate resistance, the Vasques were forced to submit
to the Franks. They now passed under the sovereignty of the dukes of
Aquitania, who for a time were independent of the crown, but were
afterwards conquered by King Pepin, and later by Charlemagne.
Subsequently it became incorporated with Aquitania, and for a time
became part of the English possessions, but was afterwards reconquered
by the French.

=Gastein=, =Badgastein=, or =Wilbad-Gastein=. A village of Austria, 49
miles south of Salzburg. On August 14, 1865, a convention was concluded
here between Austria and Prussia, to make arrangements relative to the
government of the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which
their combined forces had wrested from Denmark.

=Gate.= A door of strong planks with iron bars to oppose an enemy. Gates
are generally fixed in the middle of the curtain, from whence they are
seen and defended by the two flanks of the bastions. They should be
covered with a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by
the enemy. The palisades and barriers before the gates within the town
are often of great use.

=Gateshead.= A borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At
Gatesheadfell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068.

=Gateway.= The passage or opening in which a gate or large door is hung.
The gateway being a most important point in all fortified places, is
usually protected by various devices. It is flanked by towers with
loop-holes, from which assailants may be attacked, and is frequently
overhung by a machicolated battlement, from which missiles of every
description were poured upon the besiegers.

=Gath.= One of the five chief cities of the Philistines, was situated on
the frontiers of Judah, and was in consequence a place of much
importance in the wars between the Philistines and the Israelites. It
formed in fact the key of both countries, and was strongly fortified.

=Gatling Gun.= Is a machine gun, the 1 inch composed of six and the ¹⁄₂
inch of ten rifled barrels of steel, made to revolve around a central
axis parallel to their bores, by means of a hand crank. As each barrel
comes opposite to the hopper on the left side of the cylinder, a
self-primed metal case cartridge falls into a groove of the
cartridge-carrier, is pressed into the breech by a plunger, and held
there until exploded by the firing-pin. The empty case is withdrawn from
the barrel by an extractor attached to the cylinder containing the
firing-pin. With each revolution of the crank the 1-inch gun fires once,
and the ¹⁄₂-inch gun three times. The ¹⁄₂-inch gun is reduced to caliber
.45 inch, in order to use with it the projectile of the breech-loading
musket.

=Gaucho.= One of the native inhabitants of the pampas of La Plata, of
Spanish-American descent, celebrated for independence, horsemanship, and
rude, uncivilized mode of life.

=Gaugamela= (now _Karmelis_). A village in the district of Aturia, in
Assyria, the scene of the last and decisive battle between Alexander and
Darius Codomannus, 331 B.C., commonly called the battle of Arbela. See
ARBELA.

=Gauges.= In gunnery, are brass rings with handles, to find the diameter
of all kinds of shot with expedition. Also instruments of various kind
for verifying the dimensions of cannon and projectiles and the various
parts of small-arms. Modern small-arms are made on the _interchangeable
principle_, each part being accurately made to gauges. This principle
has revolutionized the manufacture of small-arms. It was first
introduced at the U. S. armory, at Harper’s Ferry, by Maj. Wade, of the
Ordnance Corps.

=Gaul=, or =Gallia=. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The
natives, termed by the Greeks Galatæ, by the Romans Galli or Celtæ, came
originally from Asia, and invading Eastern Europe, were driven westward,
and settled in Spain, North Italy, France and Belgium, and the British
Isles.

=Gauntlet= (Fr. _gantelet_). A large glove of mail; a covering for the
hand with plates of metal on the back, worn as a part of the defensive
armor in ancient times. A long glove, covering the wrist; as, a
riding-gauntlet. _To take up the gauntlet_, to accept a challenge. _To
throw down the gauntlet_, to offer or send a challenge; to defy.

=Gauntlet.= A kind of military punishment; the gantelet used in the
expression _to run the gauntlet_. See GANTLOPE.

=Gauntleted.= Wearing a gauntlet.

=Gawelgur.= A strong fortress of Hindostan, in the dominions of the
Nizam or ruler of Hyderabad. It was taken by Gen. Wellesley, December
14, 1803, after a siege of two days, but was restored to the rajah on
the conclusion of peace.

=Gaza.= A city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the
gates, about 1120 B.C. It was taken by Alexander after a long siege,
332, and near it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was
taken by Saladin, 1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the Egyptians
in 1831.

=Gaze.= In heraldry, when a beast of the chase is represented as
_affronté_, or full-faced, it is said to be at _gaze_.

=Gazette.= To announce or publish in a gazette; to announce officially;
as an appointment either civil or military. All commissions in the
British army, militia, fencible, and volunteer corps must be gazetted.

=Gazons.= In fortification, pieces of fresh earth, or sods, covered with
grass, and cut in the form of a wedge, about a foot long and half a foot
thick, to line the outsides of a work made of earth, as ramparts,
parapets, banquettes, etc. The first bed of gazons is fixed with pegs of
wood, and the second bed is so laid as to bind the former, by being
placed over its joints, and so continued till the works are finished.
Between those it is usual to sow all sorts of binding weeds or herbs, in
order to strengthen the rampart.

=Gear.= Warlike accoutrements; military harness; equipage.

=Geat.= The hole through which the metal is conveyed to the mold in
casting ordnance.

=Gebegis.= Armorers among the Turks were so called.

=Gebelis.= A Turkish corps of picked men.

=Gebelus.= Every Timariot in Turkey, during a campaign, is obliged to
take a certain number of horsemen, who are called gebelus, and to
support them at his own expense. He is directed to take as many as would
annually cost 3000 _aspres_ for subsistence.

=Gela.= In ancient times, a very important city on the southern coast of
Sicily. It was founded by a Rhodian and Cretan colony, in 690 B.C. In
505 B.C., Cleander made himself tyrant, and the colony reached its
highest pitch of power under his brother Hippocrates, who subdued almost
the whole of Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse. Gelon, the
successor of Hippocrates, pursued the same career of conquest, and
Syracuse itself fell into his hands, and was even made his principal
residence, Gela being committed to the government of his brother Hiero.
After many vicissitudes during the Carthaginian war in Sicily, it
ultimately fell into decay. Its ruin was completed by Phintias, tyrant
of Agrigentum, who, a little before 280 B.C., removed the inhabitants to
a town in the neighborhood which he had founded, and to which he gave
his own name. It occupied what is now the site of Terra Nova.

=Gelibach.= A sort of superintendent or chief of the gebegis, or
armorers, among the Turks. He is only subordinate to the _toppi bachi_,
or the grand master of the Turkish artillery.

=Gellia Gens.= A plebeian family; was of Samnite origin and afterwards
settled at Rome. There were two generals of this family in the Samnite
wars, Gellius Status in the second Samnite war, who was defeated and
taken prisoner 305 B.C., and Gellius Egnatius in the third Samnite war.

=Gembloux.= A town of Belgium, on an affluent of the Sambre, 11 miles
northwest from Namur. The French gained a victory over the Austrians
near this town in 1794.

=Genappe.= A village of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the banks of
the Dyle, 18 miles southeast from Brussels. Several military actions
took place here in 1815, both before and after Waterloo, between the
French and the allied forces.

=Gendarmes=, or =Gens d’Armes= (men-at-arms). Originally, and up to the
time of the first French revolution, the most distinguished cavalry
corps in the service of the Bourbon kings, to whom they formed a sort of
body-guard. Under existing arrangements the gendarmes constitute a
military police, and comprise both cavalry and infantry. The force
consists principally of soldiers taken from the army, generally on
account of intelligence and good conduct. The men receive much higher
pay than the rest of the army, of which, however, the corps is a part,
and they are liable in cases of emergency to be sent on active service.

=Gendarmery= (Fr. _gendarmerie_). The body of gendarmes or gens d’armes.

=General.= A term for the roll of the drum which calls the troops
together. To “beat the general” is a phrase drawn from the French drum
instructors, “_Battre la Generale_.”

=General.= The highest military title in the U. S. army, and the highest
military title below that of field-marshal in European armies. A general
ordinarily commands no body of men less than an army or _corps d’armée_.

=General, Adjutant-.= See ADJUTANT-GENERAL.

=General, Brigadier-.= See BRIGADIER-GENERAL.

=General, Colonel.= An honorary title, or military rank, which is
bestowed in foreign services. Thus the Prince of the Peace in Spain was
colonel general of the Swiss guards.

=General Court-Martial.= See COURT-MARTIAL.

=General de Battaile=, or =General Major=. A particular rank or
appointment, whose functions correspond with those of a cidevant marshal
of France. This situation is intrusted to a general officer, and is only
known among the armies of Russia, and some other Northern powers. He
takes precedence in the same manner that our major-generals do
of all brigadier-generals and colonels, and is subordinate to
lieutenant-generals.

=General des Galères= (_Fr._). Commander of the galleys, an officer of
high rank and extensive jurisdiction in France.

=General des Vivres= (_Fr._). Commissary of stores; a sort of chief
commissary or superintendent-general of stores, whose functions were to
provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit, for the army.

=Generalissimo.= The chief officer in command of an army. This word is
used in most foreign languages. It was first used to designate the
absolute authority of Cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the
French army in Italy.

=General, Lieutenant-.= The second rank among general officers, and next
below that of general. The normal command of a lieutenant-general is
that of a division, but he is sometimes intrusted with the command of an
entire army.

=General, Major-.= The rank next below that of lieutenant-general, and
above brigadier-general. He usually commands a division; a general of
division.

=General Officers.= Are all officers whose authority extends beyond the
immediate command of a regiment, and who have either separate districts
or departments at home, or commands on foreign service. A brigade is the
smallest body of men constituting the command of a general officer. In
an army of very large proportions, the normal sequence of command would
be the following: The general commanding-in-chief, generalissimo,
captain-general, or field-marshal would command the whole force; the
generals would have separate _corps d’armée_; the lieutenant-generals,
wings of those _corps d’armée_; the major-generals, divisions in the
wings; and brigadier-generals, brigades in the divisions. In practice,
however, an army is rarely large enough to allow of this exact scheme of
military hierarchy being carried out; and general officers are also
frequently assigned to high commands without regard to seniority. In the
U. S. service there are one general, one lieutenant-general (whose
offices expire with the present incumbents), three major-generals, and
six brigadier-generals. The President is _ex officio_ commander-in-chief
of the army. In the English service the sovereign is captain-general,
and under the sovereign is the commander-in-chief, who takes rank as
field-marshal. In the staff corps the word general is also used, as
surgeon-, quartermaster-, adjutant-general, etc., to denote that the
holder of the office has charge of his special department, and does not
necessarily imply that he is a general officer. The chiefs of staff
departments, however, in the U. S. service are usually of the rank of
brigadier-general. In the German armies, and among the sovereigns of the
North, there are certain generals of cavalry, and others of infantry,
who take rank of all lieutenant-generals. In these armies it is usual
for generals, lieutenant-generals, and major-generals to take their
routine of duty, and rise progressively in the infantry or cavalry corps
to which they were originally appointed, until they arrived at a chief
command: whereas in France and other countries a major-general might be
employed to take charge of either infantry or cavalry, without any
regard being paid to the particular line of service in which he was
bred.

=General Orders.= See ORDERS.

=General’s Guard.= See GARDE.

=Generalship.= The office of general; the exercise of the functions of a
general; the skill and conduct of a general officer; military skill in a
commander.

=Geneva.= A walled town of Switzerland, and the capital of a small
canton, at the western extremity of the lake of the same name. In 1784
and 1794 revolutions took place in the city and state of Geneva; in 1798
it was taken by the French, and, till 1813, it was the capital of the
department Leman, in the French empire, under Napoleon I. In 1814 it
joined the Helvetic Confederation.

=Geneva, Convention of.= In October, 1863, an international convention
was held at Geneva, Switzerland, comprising 14 governments, including
Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Italy, who were
represented by delegates, and propositions were drawn up forming the
“Red Cross Society,” for the succor of the wounded in time of warfare.
It gave aid to the sick and wounded during the Franco-German war, and
its flag is recognized by all powers as neutral.

=Genius.= In a military sense, natural talent or disposition to every
kind of warlike employment, more than any other; or, the aptitude a man
has received from nature to perform well and easily that which others
can do but indifferently and with a great deal of pains.

=Genoa.= A fortified maritime city in Northwestern Italy, once a
celebrated republic, now the capital of a province of Northwestern
Italy. From the 11th to the 18th century Genoa was the capital of a
flourishing republic; it was bombarded by the French in 1684, and
submitted to the Austrians in 1746; but, in consequence of a citizen
having been abused by an Austrian officer, the inhabitants rose and
massacred most of the soldiery, and drove away the remainder. The
republic in 1798 assumed the French form of government, with the title
of Ligurian republic, and in 1805 it was annexed to the French empire.
In 1815 it was ceded to the king of Sardinia, and in 1859 the French
troops landed here on their route to oppose the Austrian army, which had
invaded Sardinia.

=Genouillère.= That part of the parapet of a battery which remains above
the platform and under the gun, after the opening of the embrasure has
been made. The name is derived from the French _genou_, the knee. The
height of the genouillère is regulated by that of the gun-carriage,
generally from 2 to 3 feet.

=Gens.= In Roman antiquity, a clan, embracing several families, whose
bond of alliance was a common name and certain religious rites
performed in common. Persons of the same gens were called _gentiles_,
while those of the same family were designated _agnati_.

=Gens= (_Fr._). A word in much desultory use among the French,
signifying, in the general acceptation of it, people, servants,
soldiers, etc. This word is likewise used to distinguish bodies of men
that are in opposition to each other.

=Gens d’Armes.= See GENDARMES.

=Gentilhommes de la Garde= (_Fr._). Gentlemen of the guard. Commonly
called _Au bec de corbin_, or the battle-axe, from the weapon which they
carried. This company went through many alterations during the monarchy
of France. During the last years of that government it consisted of 200
guards, under the command of a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign. The
captain had the power of giving away the subaltern commissions, and had,
moreover, the entire management of the rest; every vacancy being in his
gift. They marched in file, each holding his battle-axe, before the king
on days of public ceremony. When the company was first raised, its
particular duty was to attend the king’s person, and to be constantly
near him on the day of battle.

=Gentlemen-at-arms= (formerly called the _Gentlemen-Pensioners_). The
body-guard of the British sovereign, and, with the exception of the
yeomen of the guard, the oldest corps in the British service. It was
instituted in 1509 by Henry VIII., and now consists of 1 captain, 1
lieutenant, 1 standard-bearer, 1 clerk of the cheque, and 40 gentlemen,
who must all be retired military officers of service and distinction.
The attendance of gentlemen-at-arms is now rarely required, except on
the occasion of coronations and important state ceremonies.

=Geographical Department, Commander of.= Is assimilated to the commander
of a separate army, with the same powers and duties in similar cases
over all the troops within the limits of the department. In all
countries he derives his authority to command from the highest power of
the government. In the United States he is assigned by order of the
President, who alone can relieve him, and who also fixes the limits or
boundaries of the department. His duties are mainly derived from customs
of service. The only duties defined by statute relate to general
courts-martial, which he can convene, and his action is final on all
cases tried by such courts, except in the case of a general officer, or
where the sentence of the court extends to the loss of life or the
dismissal of a commissioned officer. In time of war he is authorized by
existing laws to execute the death penalty in cases of persons convicted
as spies, mutineers, deserters, or murderers, and in cases of guerrilla
marauders convicted in time of war of robbery, burglary, arson, rape,
assault with intent to commit rape, or violation of the laws of war. See
DEPARTMENT, MILITARY.

=Geographical Division, Military.= In the United States a geographical
military division consists of a number of geographical military
departments, usually under the command of a general officer.

=Geometry.= That branch of mathematics which investigates the relations,
properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines, and angles; the
science which treats of the properties and relations of magnitudes. Its
usefulness extends to almost every art and science. It is by the
assistance of geometry that engineers conduct all their works, take the
situation and plans of towers, the distances of places, and the measure
of such things as are only accessible to the sight. It is not only an
introduction to fortification, but highly necessary to mechanics. On
geometry, likewise, depends the theory of gunnery, mining, mechanics,
hydraulics, pneumatics, etc.

=George, Lake.= A beautiful sheet of water in the State of New York. Its
length is 36 miles; its breadth from 1 to 3 miles. Lake George was the
scene of important military operations during the French and Indian war
of 1755-59. Here stood Fort George, Fort William Henry, and other works.

=George, St.= Patron of England and Russia, is reputed to have been born
in Palestine in the 3d century. According to the legend, he became a
prince in Cappadocia, and was distinguished for his exploit of rescuing
a king’s daughter from a dragon. He was a Christian, and suffered
martyrdom at Nicomedia, April 23, 303, for having torn down the edict of
Diocletian against Christians, the emperor himself being then in the
city.

=George, St., Banner of.= Is white with red cross. According to Sir N.
H. Nicolas, the cross of St. George was worn as a badge over the armor
of every English soldier “in the 14th and subsequent centuries, even if
the custom did not prevail at a much earlier period,” to indicate that
he was in the service of the crown. On the invasion of Scotland by
Richard II. in 1386, it was ordained that every man of the English party
should wear a sign of the arms of St. George both before and behind. A
similar ordinance was adopted by Henry V. for the government of his army
in France. The cross of St. George forms a part of the British standard.

=George, St., Knights of.= See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=George, The.= The badge of the order of the Garter exhibiting the
figure of St. George on horseback piercing the falling dragon, which
lies on a mount. See GARTER.

=Georges Conspiracy.= Took place in France; Gens. Moreau and Pichegru,
and Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and
others were arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the
life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., February,
1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6, and 12 of the
conspirators, including Georges, were executed, and others imprisoned,
June 22. Moreau was exiled and went to America; in 1813 he was killed
before Dresden.

=Georgia.= Called by the Russians Grusia, a considerable country of
Asia, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian, to the north of
Armenia, and forming a government of Russia. The Georgians are skilled
in the bow, and are thought to be the best soldiers in Asia. Georgia was
formerly one kingdom, the inhabitants of which were Christians; but, in
1639, when it was conquered by the Persians, the country was divided
between two native princes, by themselves called kings, but by the
Sophia styled governors. Each of these had a guard of Mohammedan horse
in their pay. In 1802 it was annexed to Russia.

=Georgia.= One of the original States of the United States, bounded on
the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, on the east by South Carolina
and the Atlantic Ocean, south by Florida, and west by Florida and
Alabama. It was named in honor of King George II., who granted a charter
for establishing a colony there in 1732; but a permanent settlement was
not made till the following year, when Oglethorpe established himself at
what is now Savannah. The colony soon became involved in several
contests with the Spaniards of Florida, who claimed the territory. In
1739 Oglethorpe invaded Florida, but without much success. In 1742 the
Spaniards retaliated by invading Georgia; but they also effected
nothing. The next noteworthy event in the history of the colony was a
war with the Cherokees in 1761, which was terminated by their suing for
peace, after their country had been laid waste. They were afterwards
peaceable, and were removed to the Indian Territory in 1838. In the war
of the Revolution Georgia warmly sided with the colonies, and, in
consequence, suffered severely at the hands of the British, who overran
the country, and captured Savannah, December 29, 1778. In the following
year (October, 1779) the Americans and French attempted to retake it,
but were repulsed with severe loss. In the civil war (1861-65), Georgia
took an active part against the Union, and suffered severely in
consequence. Atlanta was captured September 2, 1864, after which Gen.
Sherman marched with his army through the State to the sea over an area
extending from 20 to 60 miles in width, destroying railroad
communication, etc., and ending with the capture of Savannah, December
20, 1864. This magnificent military movement effectually humbled the
State, and in 1866 the President issued a proclamation declaring it no
longer in a state of insurrection.

=Gerasa=, or =Jerash=. An ancient city of Syria, whose site is now
marked by very extensive and magnificent ruins, situated about 35 miles
east of the Jordan, at the eastern extremity of the land of Bashan, and
on the borders of the great desert of Hauran. But little of its early
history is known. In the time of the Antonines it had arrived at the
height of its splendor and prosperity. It was taken by Alexander Jannæus
in 85 B.C.; the Jews burned it at the commencement of their last war
with the Romans; it was taken and plundered by Annius, the general of
Vespasian, and in 1122 its castle was destroyed by Baldwin II. of
Jerusalem.

=Gerbe.= An ornamental firework. See PYROTECHNY.

=Gerberoi.= In Normandy, north of France. Here William the Conqueror was
wounded in battle by his son Robert, who had joined the French king,
Philip I., 1078.

=Gerit= (_Fr._). A Turkish dart 2¹⁄₂ feet long.

=Germany= (Lat. _Germania_). The name given to a large portion of
Central Europe, composed of a number of independent states united
together, and forming the German empire. In the time of Julius Cæsar the
Germans were the most formidable and warlike of all the European
barbarians. They long withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue
them; and, although that people conquered some parts of the country,
they were expelled before the close of the 3d century. In the 5th
century the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater portion of
Germany. In the latter part of the 8th century Charlemagne subdued the
Saxons and other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, December 25,
800. At the extinction of his family the empire became elective, 911,
and was generally obtained by a member of the house of Hapsburg from
1437 to 1806, when the emperor Francis Joseph II. formally renounced the
title of emperor of Germany, having assumed that of emperor of Austria
two years previously. The Confederation of the Rhine was formed July 12,
1806; the Germanic Confederation, June 8, 1815; and the North German
Confederation, August 18, 1866. In consequence of the success of the
Prussian arms in the war with France (1870-71) the new empire of Germany
was founded, and the king of Prussia declared emperor, January 18, 1871.

=Germinal Insurrection.= That of the faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on
12th Germinal, year III. (April 1, 1795).

=Gerona.= A strong town of Spain, in Catalonia, at the confluence of the
Oña and Ter, the latter of which flows through the town. It is built in
the form of a triangle, at the foot of a steep mountain, and is
surrounded by walls flanked with fortifications, and covered by a fort
erected on a hill to the north of the town. It was besieged 28 times,
and taken 5 times. In June, 1808, it successfully resisted the French,
but after suffering much famine surrendered December 12, 1809.

=Gesate=, or =Gessate= (_Fr._). Formerly a Gallic mercenary soldier, who
volunteered his services beyond his native country. These adventurers,
or knights-errant, were called _gesates_, either on account of the gese,
or large dart, which they carried, or, as Polybius imagines, on account
of the subsistence they received, which was called by that name.

=Geserne.= The Anglo-Norman term for battle-axe.

=Geses and Materes.= Were weapons adopted by the Allobroges (a body of
ancient Gauls so called), independently of the broad cut-and-thrust
sword which the Swiss still wear. These instruments were only one cubit
long; half the blade was nearly square; but it terminated in a round
point that was exceedingly sharp. Not only the Romans, but the Greeks
received it into their armies. The former retained the full appellation
and called it _gese_, but the latter corrupted it into _ysse_. This is
the only weapon with which those soldiers were armed that escorted
malefactors, who were condemned to death, to the place of execution. The
term _gese_ was also applied to a sort of a javelin.

=Gestic.= Pertaining to deeds or feats of arms; legendary.

=Gettysburg.= Capital of Adams Co., Pa., situated near the southern
border of the State, 8 miles from “Mason and Dixon’s line.” Here three
days’ severe fighting took place on July 1-3, 1863, between the invading
Confederate army under Gens. Lee, Longstreet, and Ewell, and the
Federals under Gen. George G. Meade.

On the morning of July 1, Maj-Gen. Reynolds, in command of the 1st
Corps, advanced on the Emmittsburg road from Marsh Creek to Gettysburg,
arriving about 10 o’clock A.M., and marched directly through the town,
and soon after encountered a body of the enemy, which were driven back
by Gen. Buford’s cavalry, which allowed the 1st Corps to form up in
order of battle on a ridge northwest of the town, which sloped to the
west into a little open valley. Beyond this valley was a ridge of higher
land thickly wooded. Across this valley the line of Gen. Reynolds
advanced somewhat hastily, almost before it was well formed, and soon
encountered a heavy force of the enemy’s infantry, and was compelled to
fall back, which it did in good order, and by a movement of its left
centre against the enemy while falling back secured a large number of
prisoners. The Confederate line being broken soon after, Gen. Reynolds
again prepared to go forward. His line advanced as before, and drove the
enemy from the valley and over the ridge at the farthest side, with a
severe loss by the heavy fire of the foe. While reconnoitring on this
ridge Gen. Reynolds was killed by a shot from the enemy. The 11th Corps
now arrived and Gen. Howard took command of the whole field, Gen. Schurz
commanding the 11th Corps. At about half-past 2 P.M. the enemy again
advanced in force against the 1st Corps, which slowly fell back to its
original position northwest of the town. The Confederate force advanced
across the open space in line of battle, whilst their batteries shelled
the position of the 1st Corps to cover the advance, but it met a fire so
sharp and well served that it caused it to reel and fall back; the line
was again formed and reinforced and once more advanced, but with no
better success. By this time the line was increased by three more of the
enemy’s divisions, and another charge was made by the whole force of the
enemy. Their superior numbers enabled them to threaten both flanks of
the Federal force, and notwithstanding a brave resistance the 1st Corps
was compelled to fall back to the town. By this movement the 11th Corps
was uncovered, and a heavy advance completely on its right flank
compelled it to retire. The enemy advanced and took possession of the
town, while the two corps of the Union troops fell back and occupied the
west slope of the hill south of the town, held by Gen. Steinwehr. At
dusk the 3d and 12th Corps arrived and next morning the 5th, making in
all six corps, which were placed in position by Gen. Meade, the line
stretching in a semicircle, having its convex centre toward Gettysburg,
with the extreme toward the south and west. The heights on which they
were posted sloped gently down from their front. The key of Gen. Meade’s
position was Cemetery Hill, a little distance south of the town, and on
the northern slope of which the town itself is situated. The enemy
having been largely reinforced during the night were prepared to give
battle on the morning of the 2d, having formed line on a ridge which ran
nearly parallel to the extreme of that on which the Federal forces were
formed, and separated from them by a valley varying in width from 1 to 2
miles.

On the ridge occupied by Gen. Meade 100 guns were in position facing the
enemy, with reserve artillery in the rear about equidistant from the
flanks. The enemy had nearly 150 guns in position. During the forenoon
of the 2d no movement of importance took place, but about noon Gen. Lee
ordered a general attack on the Federal centre and left. His movement
being discovered by the Union commanders they were prepared, and the 3d
Corps, commanded by Gen. Sickles, was advanced more to the left and
front in order to be in a more commanding position to repel the
Confederate attack. He had hardly got into position when the enemy
attacked. Having bravely resisted their furious onslaught for about two
hours, and not receiving the expected reinforcements, the 3d Corps was
compelled to fall back to its previous position, when a most desperate
assault was made upon it by Longstreet’s troops; but this part of the
line being promptly strengthened it repulsed all the efforts of
Longstreet, with great loss, however, on both sides. With the advance of
Longstreet a part of the enemy advanced on the centre of the Union line,
and meeting with stubborn resistance the battle grew fearful. The enemy
pressed forward unrestrained. Gens. Sickles, Hancock, and Gibbon were
wounded. The 1st and 2d Corps wavered and the enemy pressed up to the
very guns of the batteries, which were exposed to capture; but the 6th
Corps, although wearied with marching, hurried up with shouts to the
support, and the enemy staggered and drifted slowly back, and being
pushed on their left flank by a strong force of the Federals, they
retired. At this time a desperate dash was made by the Confederates on
the extreme right, which had been weakened to support the centre and
left. For a short time the attack was furious, but the Federals being
speedily supported the enemy were kept in check, and finally retired
about 9 o’clock P.M., having lost the day in every quarter.

The battle commenced again on the morning of the 3d by an artillery fire
from the Confederate lines, and an aggressive movement of the right of
the Federal forces under Gen. Slocum to drive Gen. Ewell farther back.
This attack met with a prompt response from the latter, but Gen. Slocum
having been reinforced by part of the 3d and 5th Corps, the struggle was
evenly contested for some time, when additional reinforcements having
arrived, the tide of battle was turned in favor of the Union troops,
causing the enemy to retire, and at 11 o’clock A.M. a general quiet
prevailed. The movements of the morning against Gen. Meade thus far had
been made to cover up the designs of the Confederates. The battle of the
previous day had demonstrated that the issue of the struggle turned on
the occupation of Cemetery Hill, the key of Gen. Meade’s position. To
get possession of this spot was therefore the object of the enemy.
Therefore Lee massed about 115 guns so as to subject the artillery on
Cemetery Hill to more than a half circle of cross-fires. At about 1
o’clock P.M. the signal-gun was fired and the cannonading commenced. The
fire of the enemy was concentrated on the position held by the 2d and
11th Corps. It drew a most terrific response from the Federal batteries,
and as has been described by a spectator in the Confederate army, the
almost simultaneous discharge of over 200 guns “made the air hideous
with most discordant noise. The very earth shook, and the hills and
rocks seemed to reel like a drunken man. For one hour and a half this
most terrific fire was continued, during which time the shrieking of
shell, the crash of fallen timbers, the fragments of rocks flying
through the air, shattered from the cliffs by solid shot, the heavy
muttering from the valley between the opposing armies, the splash of
bursting shrapnel, and the fierce neighing of wounded artillery horses,
made a picture terribly grand and sublime.” At the termination of the
firing, the left of the Union line was assaulted twice, which were
handsomely repulsed with severe loss to the Confederates. And thus ended
the memorable battle of Gettysburg. The forenoon of the 4th was devoted
to the burial of the dead, and in the afternoon the Confederate forces
commenced to retreat, leaving the Federal forces in possession of the
hard-fought field, which covered the Union troops with the highest
honor and glory, but at a terrible sacrifice. During the three days the
Confederate losses were 18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,000 missing, a
large part of the latter prisoners; making a total of 31,000. The Union
losses were 16,500 killed and wounded, and 6600 missing, chiefly
prisoners captured on the first and second days, making a total loss of
not less than 23,000--_Extracts from D. Appleton’s “History of the
Rebellion,” by Tenney, “Lippincott’s Gazetteer,” and “Haydn’s Dates_.”

=Ghaut=, or =Ghât=. A term in India signifying a pass through a range of
hills; also a flight of stairs descending to the rivers for the
accommodation of bathers, and as landing-places for boats.

=Ghent= (Fr. _Gand_). An ancient fortified city of Belgium, capital of
East Flanders, situated at the confluence of the Lys and Scheldt. It
commenced to acquire importance in the 12th century, when its
fortifications were completed. In the 14th century, having revolted
against the Duke of Burgundy, it was subdued after seven defeats, in
some of which it suffered a fearful slaughter of its citizens. It again
revolted against Charles V. in the 16th century, was again subdued, made
to pay a heavy fine, and forced to pay for the erection of a citadel to
keep it in subjection. The French became masters of Ghent in 1678, 1708,
1745, 1792, and again in 1795. The city was united to the kingdom of the
Netherlands after the peace of Paris (1814), and is now a rich and
populous city of Belgium. In this city on December 24, 1814, the terms
of the treaty were agreed on, between the United States and British
envoys, which put an end to the war of 1812-15.

=Gheriah.= A town of British India, in the presidency of Bombay. It was
the principal post of Angria, a famous piratical prince, whose fort here
was taken, and his whole fleet destroyed, by Admiral Watson and Col.
Clive, in conjunction with the Mahrattas in 1756.

=Ghizni=, or =Ghuznee=. A fortified city of Afghanistan, built on a hill
7720 feet above the level of the sea, 90 miles from Cabul. It was the
capital of a powerful empire of the same name, and is sometimes called
the second Medina, from the great number of illustrious persons who have
been interred there. The old town of Ghuznee was destroyed in the 12th
century, and the modern one stands on a site about 3 miles from the
ruins of the other. It was stormed and taken by Lord Keane in 1839. In
1842 the garrison surrendered to the Afghans, from whom, however, it was
again taken in the same year by the British forces under Gen. Nott.

=Ghoor=, =Ghore=, or =Ghour=. A large district of Afghanistan. This was
formerly one of the Persian governments; but in the 12th century its
chiefs became independent, overturned the Ghiznian empire, and carried
their arms as far as Benares. One of their slaves founded the
Mohammedan kingdom of Delhi about 1206. This country was overrun in the
13th and 14th centuries by the armies of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. Its
capital is Ghoor, which was taken by the king of Kharezim, and was
subsequently sacked by the armies of Genghis and Tamerlane, from which
it has never recovered, and is now scarcely known.

=Ghorchana.= The irregular Sikh yeomanry who served in the wars in the
Punjab between the Sikhs and the English.

=Ghyretty.= Cantonments 14 miles from Calcutta. It is a palace built by
Mr. Dupleix, which the British took by force in 1797, and imprisoned the
principal French colonists of Chandernagore there.

=Giambeux.= Greaves; armor for the legs, in ancient times. See JAMBEUX.

=Giant Powder=, or =Dynamite=. See DYNAMITE.

=Giants, Battle of the.= See BATTLE OF THE GIANTS.

=Giberne= (_Fr._). A sort of bag in which the grenadiers held their
hand-grenades. It was worn like a powder-flask.

=Gibraltar.= A fortified seaport town and garrison, occupying a
promontory in the south of Spain, at the entrance from the Atlantic into
the Mediterranean, 60 miles southeast from Cadiz. It consists of a high
and rocky mountain running from north to south, about 3 miles in length,
and three-fourths in width, its highest point being 1439 feet above the
level of the sea. The “rock” was first fortified in the modern style in
the reign of Charles V. It was surprised by the English under Sir George
Booke in 1704, soon after the commencement of the War of the Spanish
Succession, and it has been a British dependency ever since. It has been
repeatedly besieged, and always without success,--first in 1720, next in
1727, and lastly in 1779, when it stood a siege of upwards of three
years and a half, the French and Spaniards using their utmost endeavors
to capture it; but every effort was bravely repulsed by the governor,
Gen. Elliott.

=Gibraltar of America.= See QUEBEC.

=Gib-staff.= In England, a staff to gauge water, or to push a boat.

=Gin.= In military mechanics, is a machine for raising great weights: it
is composed of three long legs, one of them being longer than the rest,
and called the _pry-pole_. The other two are kept at a proper distance
by means of two iron bars fixed on one of the legs by a staple passing
through a hole at one end; the other end has a hook which enters into a
staple fixed into the other leg so as to be taken off or put on at
pleasure. At about 3 feet from the bottom is a windlass, upon which the
cable is wound; and the three legs are joined together at the top by an
iron bolt, about which they move; to this bolt is also fixed an iron
clevis to which is hooked the blocks and fall. When the gin stands
upright with legs at a proper distance, one end of the cable is
fastened to a gun, mortar, or other weight; and the other passes through
the pulleys and about the roller, which is turned round by means of
hand-spikes passing through the holes in the end of the roller; whilst a
man holds the cable tight, the gun is raised to the height required, so
that the carriage may be put under it. The modern gin has a windlass
with pawl and ratchet attachments. There are three different kinds of
gins,--the _field and siege_, the _garrison_, and the _casemate_ gins;
and they only differ in their size and weight.

=Gindi.= Turkish horsemen, who perform extraordinary feats.

=Gingals=, =Ginjauls=, or =Gingauls=. Large muskets used in India by the
natives, with a rest, somewhat similar to those invented by Marshal
Vauban for the defense of forts.

=Gingee.= A strong town on the coast of Coromandel, once the capital of
a kingdom of the same name, 85 miles from Madras. Towards the end of the
18th century, the Great Mogul unsuccessfully besieged this place for a
period of three years. In 1750 it was taken by the French, who, in 1761,
ceded it to the British.

=Gionules= (_Fr._). Turkish volunteer cavalry, renowned for their
bravery.

=Girandole= (_Fr._). Any firework turning upon a wheel; a wheel whose
circumference is studded with rockets.

=Girandole= (_Fr._). In fortification, several chambers in mines
connected for the defense of the place of arms of the covered way.

=Girondists.= An important party during the French revolution,
principally composed of deputies from the Gironde. At first they were
ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of August and September,
1792, they labored to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to
which they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and many others
were guillotined October 31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre.

=Gironné=, or =Gyronné=. A term used in heraldry to indicate that the
field is divided into six, eight, or more triangular portions of
different trenches, the points of the triangles all meeting in the
centre of the shield.

=Gisarm.= A scythe-shaped weapon, with a pike projecting from one side,
formerly borne by foot-soldiers on the end of a long staff. It was used
as late as the battle of Flodden. See GUISARME.

=Gisors.= A town of France, in the department of the Eure, 23 miles from
Rouen. Here a battle took place October 10, 1198, between the French and
English, in which the former were completely defeated. Richard I., who
commanded the English, gave as the “parole,” or watch-word of the day,
_Dieu et mon droit_ (God and my right), and ever since the expression
has been the motto to the royal arms of England.

=Gistes.= Pieces of wood which are made use of in the construction of
platforms to batteries, and upon which the madriers or broad planks are
placed.

=Gitschin.= A walled town of Bohemia, about 50 miles northeast of
Prague. It was captured by the Prussians after a severe conflict with
the Austrians, June 29, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, the
crown-prince of Prussia was victor in another engagement.

=Giurgevo.= A town and river-port of Wallachia, opposite Rustchuk, and
about 40 miles southwest from Bucharest, of which it is the port. In
1773 the Turks were defeated here by the Russians, who took it in 1811,
and again in 1829, when its defenses were leveled with the ground. In
1854 the Russians were defeated in its neighborhood by the Turks.

=Givet.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Ardennes, on
the Belgian frontier. This place was fortified by Vauban; the chief
defensive works are Charlemont, the citadel, and the forts Notre Dame
and St. Hilaire.

=Glabrio.= A family name of the _Acilia gens_ at Rome. The Acilii
Glabriones were plebeian, and first appear on the consular annals in 191
B.C., from which time the name frequently occurs to a late period of the
empire. M. Acilius Glabrio, the most distinguished of the family, became
consul in 191 B.C. In that year Rome declared war against Antiochus the
Great, king of Syria. Glabrio was sent against him, and with the aid of
his ally, Philip II., king of Macedonia, he speedily reduced to
obedience the whole district between the Cambunian mountain-chain and
Mount Œta. Antiochus, alarmed at Glabrio’s progress, intrenched himself
strongly at Thermopylæ; but, although his Ætolian allies occupied the
passes of Mount Œta, the Romans broke through his outposts, and cut to
pieces or dispersed his army. Glabrio was engaged in the siege of
Amphissa, when his successor, L. Cornelius Scipio, arrived from Rome and
relieved him from command. He was unanimously granted a triumph on his
return to Rome.

=Glacis.= A slope of earth, usually turfed, which inclines from the
covered way towards the country. Its object is to bring assailants, as
they approach, into a conspicuous line of fire from the parapet of the
fortress, and also to mask the general works of the place.

=Gladiators.= Were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and
other places for the amusement of the Roman people. They are said to
have been first exhibited by the Etruscans, and to have had their origin
from the custom of killing slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of
the deceased. The first exhibition of gladiators at Rome occurred in 264
B.C. They were at first confined to public funerals, but afterwards
fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence. Combats of
gladiators were also exhibited at entertainments. They consisted either
of captives, slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of free-born
citizens who fought voluntarily. But it was in the amphitheatre that
the combats of gladiators most frequently took place. Notice of the
exhibition being given beforehand, thousands flocked to witness the
spectacle. When a gladiator was vanquished by his antagonist, his fate
depended upon the people, who by a sign indicated whether they wished
him to be put to death or saved. Shows of gladiators were abolished by
Constantine, but appear, notwithstanding, to have been generally
exhibited till the time of Honorius, by whom they were finally
suppressed.

=Gladsmuir.= A parish in Scotland, in the county of Haddington, in which
the battle of Gladsmuir, or Prestonpans, was fought.

=Glaire.= A broadsword or a falchion fixed on a pike.

=Glais, Militaire= (_Fr._). A military compliment which was paid to the
remains of a deceased general. It consisted in a discharge of ordnance.
It also signifies the funeral procession of a sovereign.

=Glaive.= Sword; a large blade fixed on the end of a pole, whose edge
was on the outside curve; a light lance with a long sharp-pointed head.
Also a knight, fully armed, with his squire. A kind of sword worn by
peers in France in full dress.

=Glaize.= A kind of halbert, so called by the Saxons.

=Glanders.= A contagious and very destructive disease of the mucous
membrane in horses, characterized by a constant discharge of sticky
matter from the nose and an enlargement and induration of the glands
beneath and within the lower jaw.

=Glarus.= A canton in the northeast of Switzerland. In the earliest
times Glarus was reckoned sometimes as a part of Rhœtia, sometimes as a
part of Swabia, and was peopled by German settlers. After various
changes it passed into the possession of the dukes of Austria, but
ultimately secured its independence by the victories of Nafels in 1352
and 1388, when it joined the Swiss Confederation.

=Glastonbury.= A town of England, in Somersetshire, 25 miles from the
city of Bath. It was anciently called Avalonia, or the Isle of Avalon,
and no person whatever, not even a bishop or prince, was allowed to
enter without leave from the abbot, to whom this power was granted by
Canute the Dane. There were 61 abbots of Glastonbury, who sat among the
barons in Parliament, and governed it successively for nearly 600 years.
Richard Withing, the last, was condemned at Wells for refusing to
surrender his abbey to King Henry VIII., and acknowledge his supremacy,
and carried, with two of his monks, on a hurdle, to Tor Hill, a bleak
hill close to the town, where he was hanged in his robes.

=Glatz.= A town of Prussia, capital of Glatz district; built on both
sides of the Neisse, and is strongly fortified. This place surrendered
to the Prussians in 1742, and was taken by the Austrians in 1759, but
restored at the peace of 1763. It was taken by Würtemberg and Bavarian
troops in 1807. The celebrated Baron Trenek was confined in its
fortress, but made his escape by leaping from the walls.

=Glave.= See GLAIVE.

=Glazing Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Glencoe.= A valley of Scotland, in Argyleshire, noted for the military
execution of its unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, by a party of
English soldiers, in 1692, in consequence of an order signed by William
III. in council for that purpose, and issued contrary to the faith of a
royal proclamation. Many of the inhabitants had been in arms for James
II. during his attempts to recover the crown of England.

=Glendale, Battle of.= Also known as the battle of Frazier’s Farm, and
White Oak Swamp, and Charles City Cross-roads, Virginia, one of the
“seven days’ contests,” was fought June 30, 1862, between the Army of
the Potomac under Gen. McClellan, on its retreat towards the James
River, and the Confederate forces under Gen. Longstreet. The battle
commenced in the afternoon, and continued with fury well into the night,
the Confederate loss being about 2000 men, and the Union loss about
1500. By next morning McClellan had his whole army in position on
Malvern Hill, and communication with the James River was secured.

=Glissade= (_Fr._). A term formerly applied to the forward or backward
movement of the pike.

=Globe Sight.= A form of front sight used specially on target rifles. It
consists of a pin with a small ball on the end of it, or a disk with a
hole in it. For protection it is set in a tube open at both ends.

=Gloire= (_Fr._). An artificial firework which resembles a large sun.

=Glorious Virgin=, or =St. Mary the Glorious, Order of the=. An order of
knighthood in Venice, founded by Bartholomew of Vicenza in 1262. This
institution was ecclesiastical as well as military; its objects were the
protection of widows and orphans, and the furtherance of the peace of
Italy. The badge was a purple cross between certain stars, and the
costume a white surcoat on a russet cloak. An order of knighthood of St.
Mary the Glorious also existed in Rome in the 17th century, whose
purpose was the suppression of the Barbary corsairs who infested the
Mediterranean.

=Glory, Military.= Honor, reputation, and fame acquired by military
achievements. That precarious splendor which plays around the brows of a
warrior, and has been collected by hard service, extraordinary genius,
and unblemished integrity; but which may desert the greatest hero
through one unfortunate failure, occasioned by the fatality of human
imperfection.

=Gloucester.= A city and the capital of a county of the same name in
England. It became a Roman station under the name of _Colonia Glevium_,
and an important town in Mercia under the Saxons, by whom it was called
_Glean-Ceaster_,--whence its present name. Here the celebrated single
combat between Edmund Ironsides and Canute is said to have taken place.
It was repeatedly visited by William I.; afforded a refuge and support
to Queen Matilda in her contest with Stephen; saw Henry III. crowned,
and Parliaments held under Richard II. and Henry IV., and sided
successfully with the Parliament in the civil war against Charles I.

=Gloucestershire.= A county of England, which, previous to the Roman
invasion, was inhabited by a tribe called the Dobuni; and after that
event, the county, or the greater part of it, was included in the
province named _Flavia Cæsarienes_. From the earliest of the Danish
invasions down to the battle of Tewkesbury, in 1471, and to the civil
wars between the crown and Parliament, Gloucestershire has been the
scene of many and disastrous encounters. There are traces of British,
Saxon, and Danish works in the county.

=Glove.= A cover for the hand, or for the hand and wrist, with a
separate sheath for each finger. _To throw the glove_, an old expression
which formerly meant to challenge to single combat.

=Glückstadt.= A town of the German empire, capital of the duchy of
Holstein, on the Elbe, 32 miles below Hamburg. It was founded in 1620 by
Christian IV. of Denmark, and fortified. During the Thirty Years’ War,
it successfully withstood three sieges; its fortifications were
demolished in 1815.

=Glycerine, Nitro-.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Glyoxiline.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Go.= The verb “to go” is variously used in a military sense; as, to
march in a hostile or warlike manner. _To go off_ implies to depart from
any post. _To go on_ is to make an attack. _To go over_ is to revolt.
_To go out_, to go upon any expedition, etc. It was likewise frequently
used to signify the act of fighting a duel; as, he went out with so and
so.

=Goa.= A town of Hindostan, on the Malabar coast. It was formerly the
capital of the Portuguese dominions in India. This place was taken by
the Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1510; and by the English April 2,
1756.

=Gobille= (_Fr._). A small copper ball, a quarter of an inch in
diameter, several of which are put into a revolving cask for the purpose
of more intimately incorporating the ingredients of powder, carcass, and
rocket composition.

=Gobisson=, or =Gambasson= (_Fr._). A quilted and padded dress worn
under the habergeon.

=Godesberg.= A village of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the
Rhine, 4 miles south of Bonn. In 1582, Gebhard, the deposed archbishop,
took refuge here, and intrusted the castle to a Dutch garrison. It was,
however, soon after taken possession of by his successor, on which
occasion it sustained much injury. During the Thirty Years’ War it was
alternately in the possession of the Swedes and the Imperialists, and
was finally almost demolished by the French.

=Godolo.= A market-town in Hungary. It was near here that the combined
armies of Austria under Prince Windischgrätz and Count Jellachich were
defeated in two bloody battles by the Hungarians under Görgei. On the
eve of victory, Governor Kossuth held a conference with the generals
Görgei, Klapka, and Damjanich for laying down the principles of the
famous declaration of independence, issued April 14, 1849. It was this
declaration which served the emperor of Russia as a pretext for the
invasion of Hungary.

=Gohud.= A fortified town of Hindostan, in the territory of Gwalior, or
possessions of the Scindia family. This place was taken from Bheem Singh
by the Mahrattas about 1761. When this nation lost the battle of
Paniput, the rannah of Gohud attempted to shake off their yoke, but was
conquered by Ragoonauth Row in 1766, and compelled to continue
tributary. On a subsequent rupture Gohud was taken by Scindia in 1784.
Relinquished to Scindia by a treaty with Great Britain subsequent to
1804.

=Goito.= A small town in Lombardy, 15 miles northwest from Mantua. In
1630 this place was carried by assault by the Imperialists, who entered
Mantua on the same night, and took it by surprise. During the War of the
Spanish Succession in 1701, it was alternately captured by the allies
and the Imperialists; and in 1796 the French took it, but were expelled,
after a brief tenure, by the Austrians. In 1814, a severe engagement
took place here between the Austrian and Italian troops; and during the
war of independence in 1848, it became the theatre of two other battles
between the same powers, to which it owes its modern celebrity.

=Goladar=, or =Goldar=. An East Indian term signifying a store-keeper,
or store-house keeper.

=Golandaazee=, or =Golandauzee=. The Indian term of an artilleryman.

=Golconda.= A town of Hindostan, strongly fortified by nature and art,
standing on a hill 5 miles northwest from Hyderabad. It was once noted
for its diamonds. Golconda was once the capital of an extensive kingdom
which arose on the dissolution of the Bhamenee dynasty, and was governed
by native Hindoo princes; but being taken by Aurungzebe by treachery in
1687, after a siege of seven months, the whole territory became
incorporated with the empire of Delhi.

=Goldberg.= A town in Prussian Silesia, on an affluent of the Oder, 12
miles southwest from Liegnitz. The French were defeated by the Prussians
near this place in 1813.

=Gold Coast Corps.= A corps in the British service formed of drilled
Africans, and officered from the West India regiments. It is kept up for
the purpose of protecting the possessions of Sierra Leone and Gambia.

=Gold Stick.= A title given to the captain of the gentlemen-at-arms, or
body-guard of the British sovereign, and to colonels of the Life Guards.
When either of the regiments of Life Guards is given to an officer, he
is presented by the sovereign with the gold stick. The colonels of the
two regiments are in attendance on the sovereign alternately month and
month. The one thus on duty is called _gold stick in waiting_; and all
orders relating to the Life Guards are transmitted through him. See
SILVER STICK.

=Golden Fleece.= A celebrated order of knighthood in Austria and Spain,
founded by Philip III., duke of Burgundy and the Netherlands, at Bruges,
January 10, 1429. The order was instituted for the protection of the
Roman Catholic Church, and ranks next after the order of the Garter. The
insignia of the Austrian order are a golden fleece hanging from a gold
and blue enameled flint-stone emitting flame, and borne in its turn by a
ray of fire. On the enameled obverse is inscribed _Pretium laborum non
vile_. The Spanish decoration differs slightly from the Austrian.

=Golden Horde.= A name given to the Mongolian Tartars, who established
an empire in what is now Southeast Russia about 1224, their ruler being
Batou, grandson of Genghis Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander
Newski grand duke in 1252. At the battle of Bielawisch, in 1481, they
were crushed by Ivan III. and the Nogay Tartars.

=Gollette= (_Fr._). A shirt of mail formerly worn by foot-soldiers.

=Gonfalon=, or =Gonfanon=. An ensign or standard; colors.

=Gonfalonier.= A Turkish general and standard-keeper who always precedes
the grand seignor during war.

=Gong.= An Indian and Chinese instrument of percussion, made of a
mixture of metals, which produces a very loud, piercing sound on being
struck by a wooden mallet. It is used by the Chinese as an instrument of
martial music.

=Gong Wallas.= Militia in India; so called from _gong_, a village, and
_wallas_, a man.

=Goniometer.= A general name for angle-measuring instruments.

=Good-conduct Pay.= Given in the British service as a stimulus to
soldiers to conduct themselves with propriety. Soldiers who have not
figured in the defaulters’ book are entitled to extra pay, which goes on
increasing at intervals upon the same condition of “good conduct.” To
mark the soldiers so distinguished, badges are given them in the form of
rings of white lace, worn on the right arm. The receipt of good-conduct
pay uninterruptedly for some years influences the amount of pension.

=Goojerat.= A village in the Punjab, India, the scene of the last stand
made by the Sikh army against the British under Lord Gough, in 1849. In
this action the Sikhs lost 53 guns, and their army of 60,000 men was
entirely broken up and dispersed. The whole of the Punjab then fell
under the British yoke.

=Gordian Knot.= It is said to have been made of the thongs that served
as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of
Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not
discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler of Persia. Alexander
the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of
it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330
B.C.

=Goree.= A town and small island, or rather rock, off the coast of
Africa, a little more than a mile from Cape Verd. This island was first
occupied by the Dutch, and afterwards taken by the French, to whom it
was finally ceded by the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678. It is now the bulwark
of the possessions of the French in Africa. Goree was taken by the
British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804.

=Gorey.= A town in the southeast of Ireland. Near here the king’s troops
under Col. Walpole were defeated, and their leader slain by the Irish
rebels, June 4, 1798.

=Gorge.= The entrance into any piece of a fortification, which consists
of the distance or space between the inner extremities of the two faces;
as, between the faces of a half-moon, redoubt, bastion, redan, lunette,
etc.

=Gorge, Demi-.= See DEMI-GORGE.

=Gorge of a Bastion.= In fortification, is usually an open space between
the extremities of the flanks of the bastion. The larger this gorge is,
the better is the defense; for when the ruined bastion is about to fall
by siege into the hands of the enemy, the defenders can construct
defensive works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the abandoned
bastion. Such resistance sometimes drives the besiegers to the necessity
of battering in breach the curtain.

=Gorge of Mountains.= Is the passage, more or less compressed, between
two mountains, which is used as a passage-way into valleys. Gorges are
important military points. If they lead to an intrenched camp, it is
necessary to fortify them, and there post grand guards; these positions
are the principal theatres for affairs of posts.

=Gorged.= In heraldry, when an animal is represented with a crown round
its neck, it is said to be gorged.

=Gorgerin= (_Fr._). In ancient times, that part of the armor which
covered the neck of a man. Hence our word _gorget_.

=Gorget= (Ital. _gorgietta_, from _gorga_, a throat). That part of
ancient armor which defended the neck. Also a crescent-shaped ornament
formerly worn by military officers on the breast.

=Gorgons.= In military antiquity, a warlike female nation of Lybia, in
Africa, who had frequent quarrels with another nation of the same sex,
called _Amazons_.

=Gothard, St.= The pass of St. Gothard is one of the best and most
frequented routes across the Alps. On the northern slope is the
celebrated Devil’s Bridge across the Ruess. The French and Russians had
several combats here in 1799.

=Gothland.= An island in the Baltic Sea. It was conquered by the
Teutonic knights, 1397-98; given up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645;
conquered by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679.

=Goths.= A warlike nation that inhabited the country between the
Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic Seas. They entered Mœsia, took
Philippopolis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants; defeated and
killed the emperor Decius, 251; but were defeated by Claudius, 320,000
being slain. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272; but they long troubled
the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the
_Ostrogoths_, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of
Italy, where they retained their dominion till 553, when they were
finally conquered by Narses, Justinian’s general. The _Visigoths_
settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the
country was subdued by the Saracens.

=Gotthard, St.= Near the river Raab, Hungary. Here the Turks under the
grand vizier Kupriuli were totally defeated by the Imperialists and
their allies, commanded by Montecuculli, August 1, 1664. Peace followed
this great victory.

=Goudrons= (_Fr._). Small fascines, or fagots, which are well steeped in
wax, pitch, and glue, and then are lighted for the purpose of setting
fire to beams, planks, traverses, galleries, pontons, etc. They are
likewise used in various shapes and ways, to convey light into the
ditches, or upon the ramparts.

=Goujat= (_Fr._). A soldier’s boy. It likewise signifies an ignorant,
good-for-nothing fellow.

=Gourdin= (_Fr._). A flat stick, two fingers in breadth, which was used
by the French to punish galley-slaves.

=Government.= The Constitution of the United States provides that
Congress shall make rules for the government and regulation of armies.
By government is understood not only the body of fundamental laws of a
state, but also the body of persons charged with the management of the
executive power of a country; direction, power or authority which rules
a community; administration; rule; management. Government of the
military is that branch of the code which embraces the creation and
regulation of the military hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of
inferior authority. The power of making rules of government is that of
_supreme command_, and from this living principle proceed the
localization of troops, their organization and distribution; rules for
rewards and punishments; and generally, all rules of government and
_regulation_ whatsoever, which the legislature may judge necessary to
maintain an efficient and well-disciplined army. All authority over the
land forces of the United States must, therefore, be derived from
Congress. For, although the President is the commander-in-chief, yet his
functions, as such, must be regulated by Congress, under the 17th clause
of Sec. 8 of the Constitution, as well as under the general authority of
Congress to make rules for the government and regulation of the land
forces. The President cannot be divested of power which Congress may
assign to any inferior military commander, because the authority of the
greater includes that of the less. But all the authority over the land
and naval forces, save the _appointment_ of the commander-in-chief,
rests with Congress, and no authority can be exercised not delegated by
Congress, except such as may be fairly deduced from powers given for the
effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office.

=Government’s Island.= See ROCK ISLAND.

=Governor.= An officer placed by royal commission in the military
command of a fortress, not only over the garrison but over the
inhabitants. In time of war it is an office of great responsibility, and
at all times requires considerable experience and military information.
Also, in the United States, one who is invested with supreme authority
in a State.

=Governor’s Island.= An island in New York harbor, about a mile and a
half south of the City Hall. It belongs to the United States, and is
strongly fortified by Fort Columbus, Castle Williams, and a battery
commanding the entrance to Buttermilk Channel, the channel which
separates the island from Brooklyn. The ordnance department has a depot
here. It is now the headquarters of the military division of the
Atlantic.

=Gowrie Conspiracy.= One of the most singular events in the history of
Scotland took place in August, 1600. John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and
others entered into a conspiracy to possess themselves of the king’s
(James VI.) person, to convey him to England and to administer the
government in the interest of the Presbyterian leaders at home. They
succeeded in enticing the king to the Gowrie House at Perth, and after
they had held him as a prisoner were almost successful in dismissing his
attendants without exciting suspicion; but the king crying out for
assistance his voice was instantly recognized; his attendants hastened
to the rescue, and quickly dispatched the earl and his brother
Alexander.

=Grade.= Synonymous with rank; peculiarly applicable to the different
ranks among officers, beginning from an ensign to the commander-in-chief
of an army.

=Gradivus.= A surname of Mars (which see).

=Grain.= See FORAGE.

=Grainoir=, or =Grénoir= (_Fr._). A term used in the French artillery to
signify a sort of sieve, in which there are small round holes for moist
powder to be passed through, in order to make the grains perfectly
round.

=Gran.= A town of Hungary, on the right bank of the Danube, 25 miles
northwest of Pesth. It is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, was
formerly fortified, and has undergone assaults and sieges almost without
number.

=Granada.= A city of Southern Spain, founded by the Moors in the 8th
century. It formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236,
Mohammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada,
which was subjugated by the “great captain,” Gonsalvo de Cordova, in
1492. Granada was taken by Marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812.

=Granada, New.= The name formerly given to the republic now known as the
United States of Colombia (which see).

=Grand.= This word is frequently used, both in French and English, to
indicate superiority of position, force, or display; as _grand master_,
_grand army_, _grand march_, _grand parade_, etc.

=Grand Division.= A battalion or regiment being told off by two
companies to each division, is said to be told off in grand divisions;
hence, grand-division firing is when the battalion fires by two
companies at the same time, and is commanded by one officer only.

=Grand Guard.= The main guard of an army; the guard covering the army or
camp from an attack by the enemy; other guards are called _interior
guards_.

=Grand Master.= The title of the head of the military orders, the
Hospitallers, the Templars, and the Teutonic knights.

=Grand Master of Cross-bows.= The _personnel_ of the French artillery
was for a long time prior to 1420 retained, together with the engineers,
under the general direction of an officer who was titled “grand master
of cross-bows.” In 1420 the master-general of artillery was made
independent of this officer.

=Grand Rounds.= See ROUNDS.

=Grand Tactics.= See TACTICS.

=Granicus.= A river in Northwestern Asia Minor, near which, on May 22,
334 B.C., Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The
Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the Granicus in
the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Sardis
capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and other
great towns submitted to the conqueror.

=Granson=, or =Grandson=. A town of Switzerland, canton of Valid, on the
southwest shore of the Lake of Neufchâtel, 20 miles north of Lausanne.
Near it the Burgundians under Charles the Rash were defeated by the
Swiss with great loss, March 8, 1476.

=Granville.= A fortified seaport of France, in the department of La
Manche, on a rocky peninsula 12 miles northwest from Avranches. In 1695
this place was burned by the English, and in 1793 it was besieged by the
Vendeans.

=Grape-shot.= A certain number of iron balls, usually nine, put together
by means of two cast-iron plates, two rings, and one pin and nut. Each
plate has on the inside three beds for the shot, of a depth equal to
half the thickness of the plate and of the form of a spherical segment,
the curvature of which is the same as that of the shot. An iron pin
riveted to the bottom iron plate passes through the centre and also
through the top plate, where the whole is secured by a nut and screw. In
the United States the use of these shot for field-pieces has been
discontinued, canister answering the purpose. (See CANISTER-SHOT.) In
the old pattern, the balls were placed in tiers around an iron pin
attached to an iron tampion at the bottom, put into a canvas bag, and
then quilted around with a strong cord.

=Grapple.= To seize; to contend in close fight; to attach one’s self as
if by a grapple, as in wrestling; hence to _grapple with_, to enter into
contest with, resolutely and courageously.

=Grappling.= A laying fast hold of; also, that by which anything is
seized and held.

=Grasp.= The handle of a sword, and of an oar. Also, the small part of
the stock of a musket.

=Grass-cutters.= Followers of cavalry regiments in India, whose duty it
is to go forth and collect green forage for the horses.

=Grassin= (_Fr._). An ancient name for militia composed of light troops.

=Gratification.= In a general acceptation of the term, this word meant,
among the French, certain rewards which generals gave to the troops,
after a severe engagement, in testimony of their valor and good conduct.
These rewards were distributed according to rank. This custom was
prevalent in the most ancient times. By gratification was likewise meant
the accumulation of a certain sum, which was deposited for the specific
purpose of burying a deceased soldier. This term also meant a certain
allowance in money allotted to prisoners of war.

=Gratuity.= An allowance to officers of the British service in the
Indian army, varying with their rank. This and other allowances, such as
batta, tentage, etc., had been granted for the purpose of augmenting an
officer’s emoluments in India, without giving him a claim to a higher
rate of net paper when on furlough in England. Gratuities are allowed to
officers in the French service at the beginning of a campaign.

=Gravelines.= A small fortified town and seaport of France, in the
department of Nord, 12 miles southwest of Dunkirk. Here Count d’Egmont
obtained a victory over the French army commanded by Marshal de Thermes
in 1558. Ten years later, it was taken by Louis XIV., who had it
fortified by Vauban.

=Gravelotte, Battle of.= Also called the battle of Rézonville, the
bloodiest battle of the Franco-German war, took place August 18, 1870.
It was gained by the German armies, commanded by the king in person,
after twelve hours’ hard fighting. The most desperate struggle took
place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which the Germans gained by
nightfall, after repeated charges, the fortune of the day being long in
suspense. But the right of the French had been outflanked, they fell
back fighting to the last, and retired under cover of Metz. The French
are said to have lost 19,000, including officers and men, besides a
large number of prisoners; and the Germans, 25,000.

=Graveurs= (_Fr._). Persons employed and paid by the founders of cannon
for repairing damaged pieces of artillery. Some individual, however, was
distinguished by the name of _graveur de l’artillerie_ (engraver to the
artillery), and was permitted by the grand master of the ordnance to
exhibit over his shop door the arms of the royal artillery.

=Gravimetric Density of Gunpowder.= Is the weight of a measured
quantity.

=Gravity.= Is the tendency of all bodies towards the centre of the
earth. The force of gravity is in the inverse proportion to the square
of the body’s distance from the centre of the earth. The specific
gravity of a body is the ratio of the weight of a body to that of an
equal volume of some other body assumed as a standard, usually pure
distilled water at a certain temperature for solids and liquids, and air
for gases.

=Graze.= The point at which a shot strikes and rebounds from earth or
water. _Grazing-fire_, that which sweeps close to the surface it
defends.

=Great Britain.= See BRITAIN, GREAT.

=Great-coat.= A soldier’s overcoat is so called.

=Great Fortification.= One of the divisions of the first systems of
Vauban. It consists in a fortification whose exterior side is from 185
to 260 toises, or from 370 to 520 yards, and is seldom adopted but
towards a river or a marsh.

=Great Radius.= In fortification, the whole oblique radius.

=Greaves.= Were a kind of armor for the legs, worn both by the Greek and
Roman soldiers; the latter having adopted them from the former. They
were made of brass, copper, tin, or other metals. The sides were closed
about the ankles with buttons of gold, silver, etc. This kind of
defensive armor was at first peculiar to the Grecians. The Etruscans had
them, apparently of rough hides, fastened behind by a single ligature
near the middle of the calf; these subsequently gave way to buskins.
Servius Tullius introduced the Etruscan greaves among the Romans; but
from the time of the republic the word _ochrea_ applied to the laced-up
boots, which succeeded them.

=Greece=, or =Hellas, Kingdom of=. The ancient Græcia, a maritime
country in the southeast of Europe. In the early ages the Greeks were
governed by monarchs; but the monarchical power gradually decreased, and
the love of liberty led to the establishment of the republican form of
government. No part of Greece, except Macedonia, remained in the hands
of an absolute sovereign. The expedition of the Argonauts first, and, in
the succeeding age, the wars of Thebes and Troy, gave opportunity to
their warriors, who afterwards ranked as heroes and demigods, to display
their valor in the field of battle. The spirit of Greece, however, was
crushed by the Romans; and in 1718 she became a Turkish province. In
1821 the ancient spirit seemed to have revived in the modern Greeks, and
they determined to be free. The struggle was severe and protracted; but,
by the interference of the great European powers, the Turks were forced
to acknowledge Greece an independent state in 1829.

=Greek Fire.= A combustible composition (now unknown, but thought to
have been principally naphtha), thrown from engines said to have been
invented by Callinicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria,
in the 7th century, in order to destroy the Saracens’ ships, which was
effected by the general of the fleet of Constantine, Pogonatus, and
30,000 men were killed. A so-called “Greek fire,” probably a solution of
phosphorus in bisulphide of carbon, was employed at the siege of
Charleston, U. S., in September, 1863. Greek fire, as now understood, is
simply a solid, highly combustible composition, consisting of sulphur
and phosphorus dissolved in the bisulphide of carbon, to which
occasionally some mineral oil is added, with the view of increasing its
incendiary powers. When the liquid is thrown on any surface exposed to
the air the solvent evaporates, leaving a film of the phosphorus or
sulphide of phosphorus, which then inflames spontaneously. The proper
mode of extinguishing such a fire is to throw damp sand, ashes, sawdust,
or lime, wet sacking or carpeting; in short, any material which will
exclude the air from the fire. No attempt should be made to remove the
covering for some time after the flame has been extinguished. The place
should afterwards be thoroughly washed by a powerful jet of water forced
upon it.

=Greener’s Bullet.= One of the first attempts to make a bullet take the
grooves by the expanding action of the powder was by Mr. Greener, an
English gunsmith, in 1836. He used a conical pewter wedge, which was
driven into a cavity in the base of the bullet by the powder and forced
the outer walls of the bullet into the grooves.

=Grenada.= An island in the West Indies belonging to the Windward group.
It was discovered by Columbus in the year 1498. It was originally
settled by the French, but was taken by the British in 1762, to whom it
was confirmed by the peace of Paris in 1763.

=Grenade.= In gunnery, is a shell thrown from the hand, or in barrels
from mortars of large caliber, and ignited as other shells by means of a
fuze. There are hand-grenades and rampart-grenades; old 6-pounder
spherical-case may be used for the former, and shells of any caliber for
the latter. Grenades are useful in the defense of works, the smaller,
thrown by hand into the head of a sap, trenches, covered way, or upon
the besiegers mounting a breach; the larger kinds are rolled over the
parapet in a trough. Hand-grenades are intended to be used against the
enemy when he has reached such parts of the defenses (the bottom of the
ditch for example) as are not covered by the guns, or the muskets of the
infantry posted on the banquettes. After the enemy has passed the abatis
and jumped into the ditch, hand-grenades will be used; and then if he
mounts the parapet, he must be met there with the bayonet. _Ketchum’s
hand-grenade_ is a small oblong percussion shell which explodes on
striking the object.

=Grenadier.= Originally a soldier who was employed in throwing
hand-grenades, but in some modern armies a member of the first company
of every battalion of foot, in which the tallest and finest men of the
regiment are placed.

=Grenadier Guards.= The first regiment of foot guards in the British
Household Brigade of Guards, and generally considered the finest corps
in the army. It comprises 2697 officers and men, divided into three
battalions. The officers of this fashionable corps are usually from the
families of the nobility, or more distinguished landed gentry. The 1st
Foot Guards, under which name the regiment was originally known, was
first raised in 1660. The Grenadier Guards distinguished themselves in
the Peninsula, at Waterloo, and in the Crimea.

=Grenadiers Auxiliaries= (_Fr._). Auxiliary grenadiers. During a siege,
and when a place was closely invested, a certain number of grenadiers
were chosen out of the battalions belonging to the trenches, for the
purpose of making head against the besieged, whenever they might risk a
sally, or assault the works. It was the peculiar duty of these men to
stand forward on every occasion, to set fire to the gabions attached to
the batteries, and to crush every attempt which might be made by the
garrison to annoy the men that were posted in the trenches, etc.

=Grenadiers, Horse.= Called by the French _grenadiers volans_, or flying
grenadiers, are such as are mounted on horseback, but fight both on foot
and on horseback. They were first established in France by Louis XIV. in
1676, and formed in squadrons.

=Grenado.= The ancient term for a live shell.

=Grenoble.= A fortified town of France, in the department of the Isère.
The town is surrounded with fortifications, and the heights which
command the town are also fortified. This was the first place which
openly received Napoleon I. on his escape from Elba, in 1815.

=Gribeauval’s System of Artillery.= About 1765 various improvements were
introduced into European artillery by Gen. Gribeauval. He separated
_field_ from _siege_ artillery, lightened and shortened field-guns and
diminished the charges. He adopted elevating screws and tangent scales,
strengthened the carriages, and introduced neater uniformity in the
dimensions, enabling spare parts to be carried for repairs.

=Grices.= In heraldry, are young wild boars.

=Griffe= (_Fr._). Means literally a claw; but in a military sense, as
accepted by the French, it signifies an iron instrument which is made
like a hook, and is used by miners to pick out the small stones that are
incorporated with cement, etc.

=Griffin.= A fabulous animal, usually represented in heraldry with the
body and hind legs of a lion, and the beak, wings, and claws of an
eagle.

=Griffin Gun.= A name sometimes given to the 3-inch rifle used in the
U. S. field service from its inventor, Mr. Griffin, of the Phœnixville
Iron-Works, Pa., where the gun was made.

=Grip.= The handle of a sword.

=Grisons.= The largest of all the cantons of Switzerland. The country
was anciently inhabited by the Rhætii; it was conquered by the Roman
emperor Constantius in the 4th century, and his camp (_Curia_, _Chur_,
or _Coire_, the name of the present capital) was planted on the Rhine.
In the 10th century the country of the Grisons was added to the German
empire, and remained till 1268 subject to the Swabian dukes. With the
decay of the imperial authority it came to be oppressed by a numerous
nobility, the ruins of whose castles still crown the heights. Against
them the people began, in the end of the 14th century, to form leagues
in the different valleys. In 1472, these separate unions entered into a
general confederation, which then formed an alliance with the Swiss
cantons, but it was not till 1803 that it was admitted into the Swiss
Confederation as the fifteenth canton. Grisons was overrun by the French
in 1798 and 1799.

=Grochow.= Near Prague, a suburb of Warsaw. Here took place a desperate
conflict between the Poles and Russians, February 19-20, 1831, the
former remaining masters of the field of battle. The Russians shortly
after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take Warsaw.
They are said to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000.

=Grognard= (_Fr._). Grumbler; an old soldier of the French empire was so
called.

=Groma= (_Fr._). A Roman measuring-rod, 20 feet long, used for setting
off distances in a camp.

=Grommet.= Consists of a ring of rope-yarn, with two pieces of strong
twine tied across at right angles to each other. Grommets are used as
wads for cannon. The size of the ring is the full diameter of the bore
of the piece, in order that it may fit tight, and stop the windage. They
increase the accuracy of fire, and are to be preferred when the object
of the wad is merely to retain the projectile in its place, as in firing
at a depression. They stop the windage best when placed behind the
projectile.

=Groom.= One of several officers of the English royal household, chiefly
in the lord chamberlain’s department; as the groom of the chamber; groom
of the stole, or robes.

=Groom-porter.= An officer in the household of the king of England, who
succeeded the master of revels, and gave directions as to sports.

=Grooved Ball.= See PROJECTILE.

=Grooved Bullet.= See BULLET.

=Grooves.= Spiral grooves or “rifles” cut into the surface of the bore
of fire-arms, have the effect of communicating a rotary motion to a
projectile around an axis coincident with its flight. This motion
increases the range of the projectile, and also corrects one of the
causes of deviation by distributing it uniformly around the line of
flight. There are two kinds of twist used,--uniform and increasing.
Increasing twists are supposed to give greater accuracy, and are well
adapted to expanding projectiles which have but short bearing in the
grooves. They are also used for stud projectiles. The uniform twist is
generally applicable and has many advantages. In small-arms at the
present time the bullet used has such a long bearing in the grooves that
an increasing twist is not desirable. The ordinary twist is
right-handed, giving a _drift_ to the right. The _gras_, the official
arm of France, has a left-handed twist. In regard to number and form of
grooves authorities differ. The polygroove (or many small grooves)
system has given very accurate results, especially in breech-loading
cannon. It is in great favor on the continent of Europe. The French
system, also used in a modified form in Woolwich and Elswick guns,
consists of a few deep grooves in which the studs of the projectile
move. The objection to this system is the weakening of the gun and the
great strain when fired. For expanding projectiles, experiment shows
that broad and shallow grooves with a moderate twist give range,
endurance, accuracy of fire, and facility in loading and cleaning the
bores. The proper twist to be given to the grooves depends on the
length, diameter, and initial velocity of the projectile used; the most
suitable twist is best determined by experiment. Other things being
equal, the longer the projectile the more rapid the rotation necessary
to steady it; the greater the diameter the less rapid the rotation. As
the initial velocity is increased, the rotation must be increased. The
farther forward the centre of inertia of the projectile, the less the
tendency to tumble. The tendency in modern small-arms is to shorten the
twist on account of large charges and long bullets. Grooved bullets are
best suited to broad shallow grooves; patched bullets to a greater
number of sharp-edged grooves.

=Gros= (_Fr._). A body of soldiers; a detachment. The French frequently
say, _Un gros de cavalerie_, a body of cavalry; _un gros d’infanterie_,
a body of infantry.

=Gros Ventres Indians.= A tribe of aborigines living in Dakota and
Montana. They received their name Gros Ventres, “Big Bellies,” from the
Canadian _voyageurs_ of the Hudson Bay Company. They are peaceably
disposed, and are mostly located at Fort Berthold agency, Dakota, and at
Fort Peck, Montana. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Groton.= A village of New London Co., Conn., on the east side of Thames
River, opposite New London. It is famous as being the scene of the
massacre perpetrated by British troops under Arnold. Old Fort Griswold,
commanded by the brave Ledyard, who was barbarously slain with his own
sword after he had surrendered, is still standing on Groton Heights; and
a granite obelisk has been erected to commemorate the patriotism of
those who perished.

=Ground.= In a military sense, the field or place of action. _To take
ground_; a battalion or company is said to take ground when it extends
in any given direction. This term is likewise used in dueling; as, they
_took their ground_ at eight or ten paces from each other.

=Ground Arms.= An old word of command, on which the soldiers laid down
their arms upon the ground.

=Ground-work.= See FOUNDATION.

=Grynia=, or =Grynium=. A very ancient fortified city on the coast of
the Sinus Elaiticus, in the south of Mysia. Parmenio, the general of
Alexander, destroyed the city and sold the inhabitants as slaves, after
which the place seems to have decayed.

=Guadaloupe.= An island in the West Indies, and one of the largest and
most valuable of the Leeward group. This island was first discovered by
Columbus. It was taken possession of by the French in 1635, who drove
the natives into the mountains. In 1759 it was taken by a British
squadron, and was restored to France at the peace of 1763. It was again
taken by the British in 1794; but was retaken by the French in 1795. In
1810 the British once more took possession of it, and in 1814 restored
it to the French, to whom it now belongs.

=Guad-el-ras.= In Northwestern Africa. Here the Spaniards signally
defeated the Moors, March 23, 1860, after a severe conflict, in which
Gen. Prim manifested great bravery, for which he was ennobled.

=Guanches.= The original inhabitants of the Canary Islands, who were
supposed to have come from the adjoining coast of Africa. In the 15th
century many of these people fell in opposing the Spanish invasion; many
were sold by the conquerors as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman
Catholic faith, and intermarried with the Spaniards; so that all trace
of them as a distinct race is lost. They were celebrated for their tall
stature, and were styled by Humboldt the Patagonians of the Old World.

=Guarantee Association, The British.= An association which, for a small
percentage, undertakes to vouch for the prudence and fidelity of such
public officers (military) as paymasters, ordnance store-keepers,
commissaries, staff-officers of pensions, barrack-masters, etc. The
government accepts the guarantee of this particular office in preference
to that offered by private individuals.

=Guard.= A body of men whose duty it is to secure an army or place from
being surprised by an enemy. In garrison the guards are relieved every
day. _On guard_ is being engaged on guard duty.

=Guard, Advanced.= See ADVANCED GUARD.

=Guard, Baggage.= A guard who has the care of the baggage on a march.

=Guard-chamber.= A guard-room.

=Guard, Counter-.= See COUNTER-GUARDS.

=Guard, Detail.= The men from a company, regiment, or other organization
detailed for guard duty.

=Guard, Dismounting.= The act of coming off guard.

=Guard, Forage.= A detachment sent out to secure foragers. They are
posted at all places where either the enemy’s party may come to disturb
the foragers, or where they may be spread too near the enemy, so as to
be in danger of being taken. This guard consists both of horse and foot,
who must remain on their posts till the foragers are all come off the
ground.

=Guard, Grand.= The main guard of a camp or army. See GRAND GUARD.

=Guard-house.= A building occupied by the guard. The prisoners being
kept in the building, it is frequently used as a synonym for prison-room
or lock-up. _To take one to the guard-house_, is to confine him.

=Guard, Magazine-.= See GARDES-MAGAZINE.

=Guard, Main.= Is that from which all other guards are detached, and
constitutes the chief guard of a garrison.

=Guard Mess.= Is the table which is kept for the officers of the Life
and Foot Guards in St. James’ Palace. The sum of £4000 per annum is
allowed for the mess.

=Guard Mounting.= The act of going on guard. The military ceremony of
marching on guard.

=Guard of Honor.= A guard drawn up to receive eminent personages, as a
mark of respect, or to accompany them.

=Guard, Picket.= An outpost guard for the purpose of preventing a
surprise.

=Guard, Police.= The interior guard of a camp or army in charge of arms,
property, tents, etc. Also a guard in charge of prisoners engaged in
policing a camp or garrison.

=Guard, Provost-.= See PROVOST-GUARD.

=Guard, Quarter.= The guard which is posted in front of a camp.

=Guard, Rear-.= The guard posted in rear of a camp. It also means the
body of troops which, when troops are on the march, bring up the rear,
and hold a pursuing enemy in check.

=Guard Report.= The report which the non-commissioned officer or officer
in charge of the guard sends in on dismounting. It contains a statement
of duties performed, of hours at which the guard was visited by the
officer of the day or field-officer, a list of government property and
its condition, and also of the prisoners handed over to the guard, with
the charge against each, together with the name of the officer by whom
the prisoner was confined.

=Guard Tent.= Tent occupied by the guard.

=Guardable.= Capable of being guarded or protected.

=Guardiagrele.= An old town of Southern Italy, in the province of
Chieti. Belisarius surrounded it with a turreted wall as a defense
against the Goths. It was often besieged during the Middle Ages, and in
1799 was mercilessly sacked and burned by the French.

=Guards.= In the British service constitute in time of peace the
garrison of London, and the guard of the sovereign at Windsor. The
Guards compose what is called the Household Brigade, and include in
cavalry the 1st and 2d Life Guards, and the Royal Horse Guards; and in
infantry the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards, and the Scots
Fusilier Guards. The officers of the regiments of Foot Guards hold
higher army rank than that they bear regimentally,--that is, ensigns
rank with lieutenants of other regiments, lieutenants with captains, and
so on.

=Guards, Imperial.= The name of a body of select troops organized by the
French emperor, Napoleon I., which greatly distinguished themselves at
Austerlitz.

=Guards’ Institute.= An establishment in London; it consists of
reading-, lecture-rooms, etc., for all officers and soldiers in the
metropolis. It was inaugurated by the Duke of Cambridge, July 11, 1867.

=Guards, The Horse Grenadier.= Formerly a body of horse guards in the
British service; the first troop was raised in 1693, and the second in
1702. This corps was reduced in 1783, the officers retiring on full pay.

=Guastadours= (_Fr._). Turkish pioneers. Armenians and Greeks are
generally employed in the Turkish armies to do the fatigue-work that is
necessary for the formation of a camp, or for conducting a siege.

=Guastalla.= A city in Northern Italy, near which the imperial army,
commanded by the king of Sardinia, was defeated by the French, September
19, 1734. The ancient district of that name, long held by the dukes of
Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 1746, and ceded to Parma,
1748. After having been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and
subjected to other changes, it was annexed to Parma, 1815, and to
Modena, 1847.

=Guatemala.= A republic in Central America, declared independent March
21, 1847. A war between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in January,
1863, and on June 16 the troops of the latter were totally defeated.

=Guatuso Indians.= A tribe of aborigines living on the Rio Frio, in
Central America. They are said to be a brave and warlike race.

=Gubbio= (anc. _Iguvium_). A city of Central Italy, 27 miles south of
Urbino, on the southern declivity of the Apennines. It bore a
conspicuous part in the beginning of the civil war between Cæsar and
Pompey, when it was occupied by the prætor Minucius Thermus with five
cohorts; but on the approach of Curio with three cohorts, Thermus, who
was apprehensive of a revolt of the citizens, abandoned the town without
resistance.

=Gudda.= An Indian term for a fool; also a small fort erected upon a
hill or eminence.

=Guelphs and Ghibellines.= Names given to the papal and imperial
factions who destroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of
the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The
origin of the names is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown
between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, lord of Wiblingen (hence
_Ghibelin_), and Henry, nephew of Wolf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in
1138. The former was successful; but the popes and several Italian
cities took the side of his rival. _Hie Guelf_ and _Hie Ghibelin_ are
said to have been used as war-cries in 1140, at the battle before
Weinsberg, in Würtemberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated by the
emperor Conrad IV., who came to help the rival duke, Leopold. The
Ghibellines were almost totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when
Conrad, the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou.
Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England.

=Guelphs, Order of.= An order of knighthood for Hanover, instituted by
George IV., when regent, on August 12, 1815. It is both a military and
civil order, unlimited in number, and consisted originally of three
classes,--Knights Grand Cross, Commanders, and Knights; but in 1841
another class of simple members was added to the order.

=Guerite= (_Fr._). A sentry-box, small turret. In fortified towns there
are several small turrets of this denomination, which are sometimes made
of wood, and sometimes built with stones. They are generally fixed to
the acute points of bastions, and sentinels are posted within them for
the purpose of watching the ditch, and of preventing any surprise in
that quarter.

=Guerre= (_Fr._). War; warfare; art of war; dissension; strife. _En
guerre_, at war; in action; ready for action; a piece of ordnance
unlimbered, trunnions shifted, and everything made ready for firing.

=Guerrillas= (Sp. _guérra_, “war”). The name given to armed bands, who
on occasion of foreign invasion or civil wars, carry on an irregular
warfare on their own account. The name was first applied in Spain to
irregular soldiery. From 1808 to 1814 they were regularly organized
against the French, and being favored by the character of the country
which they fought in, were successful on many occasions. In our late
civil war many bands were organized in the Border States, and were a
great annoyance to both armies. If guerrillas are taken captive in open
warfare, they should be treated according to the usual customs of war,
unless they are known to have been guilty of acts not tolerated in
civilized warfare. In the Franco-German war, however, we find that the
Germans refused to recognize as soldiers, or extend the privileges of
war, to the _francs-tireurs_, a body of French volunteer sharpshooters,
who, to a great extent, adopted this system of guerrilla warfare.

=Guerrillero= (_Sp._). An irregular soldier; a member of a guerrilla
band or party; a partisan.

=Guet= (_Fr._). This term was particularly attached to those persons
belonging to the French body-guard, who did duty during the night. It
also signified rounds, or those duties of a soldier, or patroling party,
which are prescribed for the security of a town, etc., and to prevent
surprises. It is also used in a military sense in conjunction with other
words; as _guet à pied_, foot patrol; _guet à cheval_, horse patrol,
etc.

=Gueux= (_Fr._). “Beggars.” A name applied by the Count of Barlaimont in
1566 to the confederated nobles and others of the Low Countries who
opposed the tyrannies of Philip II. The malcontents at once adopted the
title, and calling themselves _gueux_, for many years opposed the
Spanish king by sea and land with varying success.

=Guichet= (_Fr._). A small door or outlet, which is made in the gates of
fortified towns. It is generally 4 feet high, and 2 broad, so that a man
must stoop to get through. In garrison towns the guichet was left open
for the space of one-quarter of an hour after the retreat, in order to
give the inhabitants time to enter.

=Guides.= Generally the country people in the neighborhood where an army
encamps. They give intelligence concerning the country, and the roads by
which the enemy may approach. In time of war, particularly in the seat
of it, the guides invariably accompany headquarters. Of late years it
has been customary to form them into regular corps with proper officers
at their head.

=Guides.= The name given to the non-commissioned officers, or other
enlisted men, who take positions to mark the pivots, marches,
formations, and alignments in modern discipline; the French call them
_jaloneurs_, from _jalon_, a post.

=Guides, Corps des= (_Fr._). The corps of guides. This body was
originally formed in France in 1756, and consisted of 1 captain, 1
first lieutenant, 2 second lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1
anspessade, and 20 privates, called _fusiliers-guides_. Another corps of
guides was also formed in 1796. This corps now forms part of the
imperial guard.

=Guidon.= A small flag or streamer, as that carried by cavalry, which is
broad at one end, nearly pointed at the other, and usually of silk; or
that used to direct the movements of infantry, or to make signals at
sea. In the U. S. service, each company of cavalry has a guidon.

=Guidon.= One who carries a flag. Also, one of a community of guides
established at Rome by Charlemagne to accompany pilgrims to the Holy
Land.

=Guienne=, or =Guyenne=. An old province in the southwest of France,
lying to the north of Gascony. It was part of the dominions of Henry II.
Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately
held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of
Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to take it from the latter.

=Guilford Court-house= was situated about 5 miles northwest of
Greensboro’, N. C. Here an engagement took place between the British
troops under Cornwallis, and the American forces, chiefly composed of
inexperienced militia, under Gen. Greene, on March 15, 1781. The fight
resulted in a partial victory for the royal troops, owing principally to
the disorganization and flight of the North Carolina militia. Gen.
Greene, not wishing to risk the annihilation of his army, retreated to
Speedwell’s iron-works, 10 miles distant. Cornwallis, however, did not
attempt to pursue him, but fell back himself to Cross Creek
(Fayetteville).

=Guillotine.= The instrument of decapitation introduced during the
French revolution by the Convention, and named after its supposed
inventor, J. I. Guillotin. It is composed of two upright posts, grooved
on the inside, and connected on the top by a cross-beam. In these
grooves a sharp iron blade, placed obliquely, descends by its own weight
on the neck of the victim, who is bound to a board laid below. The
invention of machines of this kind is ascribed to the Persians. In
Italy, from the 13th century, it was the privilege of the nobles to be
put to death by a machine of this kind, which was called _mannaia_.
Machines of similar kind were used in Scotland and Holland for the
purpose of decapitation.

=Guinegate, Battle of.= Or more familiarly, the “Battle of the Spurs,”
was fought at Guinegate, not far from Tournai, in the province of
Hainault, August 16, 1513, between the English under Henry VIII.,
assisted by a considerable body of troops headed by the emperor
Maximilian, and the French under the Duc de Longueville. The latter were
defeated. The battle received its familiar designation from the
circumstance of the French knights having made better use of their
_spurs_ than of their _swords_.

=Guisarme=, or =Gisarme= (_Fr._). An offensive weapon formerly used in
France; it was a two-edged axe mounted upon a long handle, and sometimes
called _voulque_. There were three kinds; the _glaive gisarme_ had a
sabre-blade with a spike, the _bill gisarme_ a blade like a
hedging-bill, and the _hand gisarme_ was a kind of bill with a serrated
back.

=Guisarmiers= (_Fr._). Were French foot-soldiers (_piétons_) of the free
archers, armed with the guisarme.

=Gujerat=, or =Guzerat=. A walled town of the Punjab, on the right side
of the Chenab, about 8 miles from the stream. It is a place of some
military importance, being on the great route between Attock and Lahore.
Here on February 21, 1849, a Sikh army of 60,000 men was utterly
defeated by a British force decidedly inferior in point of numbers.

=Gules.= The term by which the color red is known in heraldry. In
engraving it is marked by perpendicular lines traced from the top of the
shield to the bottom. It is supposed to indicate valor, magnanimity, and
the like, and is regarded as the most honorable heraldic color.

=Gun.= In its most general sense, a gun is a machine, having the general
shape of a hollow cylinder closed at one end, and used for the purpose
of projecting heavy bodies to great distances by means of gunpowder.
Technically, it is a heavy cannon, distinguished by its great weight,
length, and absence of a chamber. It is used for throwing projectiles
with large charges of powder to long distances, with great accuracy and
penetration. Guns came into use in the 14th century, and were first
fired from supports, and in reality were artillery. Shortly after, they
took the form of a clumsy hand-gun, called an arquebuse, which was
portable, but discharged from a forked rest. The next modification,
which came into use about the end of the 14th century, was called the
matchlock. The piece was discharged by a lighted match brought down on
the powder-pan by the action of a trigger. This was superseded in 1517
by the wheel-lock, the fire being produced by the action of a toothed
wheel upon flint or iron pyrites. Almost contemporary with this was the
snaphance gun, in which sparks were generated by the concussion of flint
on the ribbed top of the powder-pan. About the middle of the 17th
century the flint-lock began to be employed. This was a combination of
the two latter weapons, but much superior to either. It continued
universally in use until the early part of the present century, when the
percussion-lock was invented, which by 1840 (the time of its adoption by
the British government), had completely superseded it. As the lock
improved, and the rapidity of firing increased, the weight of the piece
diminished; the old tripod first used as a rest gave way to one stake,
and finally, in the 18th century, was abandoned altogether. The weapon
was then the smooth-bore musket, which continued in use with various
modifications until the middle of the 19th century, when it was
partially superseded by the rifle. (See SMALL-ARMS.) In their earlier
stages cannon went by various names, as bombards, culverins, petronels,
and later on were reduced to the three denominations, technically, of
guns, howitzers, and mortars. For the two latter, see HOWITZER and
MORTAR. Guns are subdivided in the U. S. service according to their use,
into field, siege, and sea-coast guns. The field-guns consist of two
rifle pieces; the 3-inch rifle, adopted in 1861, and the 3¹⁄₂-inch
rifle, adopted in 1870 (see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF), and the Napoleon
gun, a 12-pounder smooth-bore, adopted in 1857. (See NAPOLEON GUN.) The
only siege gun adopted by the United States is a 4¹⁄₂-inch rifle. The
30-pounder Parrott, so extensively employed in our service for siege
purposes, is not a regulation gun. The sea-coast guns consist of 13-,
15-, and 20-inch smooth-bores, and 10- and 12-inch rifles. An 8-inch
rifle has been constructed by converting the 10-inch smooth-bore
according to the Palliser or Parsons method. The 13-inch smooth-bore and
the 10- and 12-inch rifles are regarded as experimental guns. The guns
principally in use for the land and sea forces of the United States are
those known as the Columbiad, or Rodman, Dahlgren, Gatling, Hotchkiss,
Napoleon, Parrott. (For particular descriptions, see appropriate
headings.) In the British service they are the Armstrong, Palliser,
Woolwich, or Fraser, and the Lancaster, Mackay, and Whitworth; the three
latter being now very little used. (See appropriate headings.) The only
breech-loader in general use in Europe is the Krupp, which is largely
employed for all purposes by Germany and Russia. See KRUPP GUN.

=Gun, Curricle.= Is a small piece of ordnance, mounted upon a carriage
of two wheels, and drawn by two horses. The artilleryman is seated on a
box, and the whole can be moved forward into action with astonishing
rapidity. The tumbrils belonging to curricle guns carry 60 rounds of
ball cartridges. This gun is no longer in general use.

=Gun Factories, Royal.= Are government establishments in England, at
Woolwich, and Elswick, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, for the construction of
great guns for the use of the British army and navy.

=Gun-barrel.= The barrel or tube of a gun. Gun-barrels were formerly
made on the coiled principle, and this method is still largely followed
in thin barrels like those of shot-guns. The superior kinds of shot-gun
barrels are known as _stub_, _stub-twist_, _wire-twist_, _laminated_,
etc.

_Stub-iron_ is made from horseshoe nails cleaned by tumbling and mixed
with a small proportion of steel scrap. It is then puddled and put
through various processes, which end in the production of a flat bar
called a _skelp_.

_Twist_ is the term applied to _coiled barrels_. The iron or steel is
made into a ribbon, which is wound spirally around a mandrel and welded.

_Stub-twist_ is stub-iron coiled.

_Wire-twist_ is made by welding iron and steel bars together, or two
qualities of iron, and drawing the compound bar into a ribbon, which is
coiled as before described. The term is specially applied to coiled
barrels made from small ribbons.

_Damascus iron_ is made by twisting compound bars of steel and iron,
welding several of the twisted bars together and forming a ribbon from
the mass.

_Laminated_ is the term applied to barrels made from compound bars.

In twist-barrels, the ribbon is several yards long, about half an inch
wide, and thicker at the breech than at the muzzle end. It is heated to
redness, wound on the mandrel, then removed and heated to the
welding-point slipped over a rod with a shoulder at the lower end. The
rod is then dropped vertically several times on a block of metal, which
welds the spiral edges together. This is called _jumping_. The welding
is completed by hammering.

Rifle-barrels and the cheaper kinds of shot-gun barrels are made
directly from the _skelp_, which is passed between rollers, which first
bend the plate longitudinally and afterwards convert it into a tube. The
tube is then heated to a welding heat, a mandrel is pushed into it, and
it is passed through the welding rolls, which weld the edges and at the
same time taper and lengthen the tube. The boring and turning are done
in lathes.

=Gun-carriage.= See CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Barbette.= See BARBETTE CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Field.= See FIELD-CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Flank Casemate.= See FLANK CASEMATE CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Mountain.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Prairie.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Sea-coast.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Siege.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-cotton=, or =Pyroxyle=. Gun-cotton was discovered by Schönbein in
1846, and was first made by treating ordinary cotton with a mixture of
nitric and sulphuric acids. The product resembles ordinary cotton in
appearance, but in color is slightly tinged with yellow, and is very
much heavier. It explodes with great violence, but is unfit for most
military purposes on account of its liability to spontaneous explosion,
its corroding residue, and the irregular character of its explosion.
Baron von Lenk, of the Austrian service, however, succeeded to some
extent in regulating the suddenness of the explosion by twisting it into
ropes, and weaving it into cloth, but it never came much into favor for
military purposes. As first made, the length of time necessary for its
manufacture was about two or three months, but Mr. Abel, of the British
war office, has by a series of experiments materially decreased the time
necessary for its manufacture, and greatly increased the safety and
certainty of the product. At Favesham the manufacture of a peculiar kind
of gun-cotton, known as _tonite_, is conducted on a large scale. The
process consists in intimately mixing the ordinary gun-cotton with about
an equal weight of nitrate of baryta. This compound is then compressed
into candle-shaped cartridges, formed with a recess at one end for the
reception of a fulminate of mercury detonator. It contrasts favorably
with soft, plastic dynamite from the fact of its being easily fastened
to the safety-fuze. Among its advantages, said to be due to the use of
the nitrate, are that it contains a great amount of oxygen in a very
small volume, and that it is very ready under the detonator, while its
great density makes it slow to the influence of ordinary combustion. It
is 30 per cent. stronger than ordinary gun-cotton, and takes up but
two-thirds of its space, or the same space as dynamite. The cartridges
are generally made water-proof. The projectile force of gun-cotton, when
used with moderate charges, is equal to about twice its weight of the
best gunpowder. Its explosive force is in a high degree greater than
that of gunpowder, and in this respect its nature assimilates much more
to the fulminates than to gunpowder. It evolves little or no smoke, as
the principal residue of its combustion is water and nitrous acid.
Recently, by the mixture of nitre and cane-sugar its quickness in action
has been reduced so as to make it available for use in small-arms. The
nitrous acid, however, will soon corrode the barrel if the piece is not
carefully wiped after firing. Other explosive substances analogous to
gun-cotton may be prepared from many organic bodies of the cellulose
kind, by immersing them in the same bath as for gun-cotton; among these
may be mentioned paper, tow, sawdust, calico, and wood fibre.

=Gundermuk.= A village of Afghanistan, 28 miles west from Jellalabad.
Here the remnant of the British force, consisting of 100 soldiers and
300 camp-followers, were massacred in 1842, while retreating from Cabul
(Cabool), only one man escaping.

=Gun-fire.= The hour at which the morning or evening gun is fired.

=Gun-lift.= The gun-lift recently devised by Col. Laidley, of the U. S.
Ordnance Corps, is a most complete and rapid means for moving and
dismounting heavy guns. In it the hydraulic jack is placed upon a stand
over the gun, whereby the building-up of the crib-work of blocks, which
serves as a base for the jack to stand on, is dispensed with, and the
position of the jack has not to be changed during the operation of
raising or lowering a gun. The ordinary carpenter’s horse or trestle is
taken as the basis of the _hoisting_ apparatus. The cap of the trestle,
having to sustain the weight of the gun suspended at a distance of more
than 2 feet from the points of support, is a large, strong, and heavy
piece of timber, and the legs of the trestle have to be strongly braced.
The bolster, a strong piece of oak on top of the cap of the trestle, has
two mortices cut in it, one for a hoisting-bar _to pass through_, and
the other for the fulcrum-post to _rest in_. The fulcrum-post has a
recess cut on the top to receive the end of a lever and keep it in
place. The lever has a mortice through which the hoisting-bar, already
mentioned, passes; the latter is perforated with a series of holes
through which a pin passes, by which the end of the lever, under which
the hydraulic jack works, can be fastened to the hoisting-bar. The
hoisting-bar has a hook on its lower end to which the weight to be
raised is fastened by means of a sling.

=Gun-metal.= An alloy of nine parts of copper and one part of tin, used
for brass cannon, etc. (See BRONZE). The name is also given to certain
strong mixtures of cast iron.

=Gunner.= A soldier employed to manage and discharge great guns; an
artilleryman. In the U. S. service there is with each piece a gunner,
who gives all the executive commands in action. He is answerable that
the men at the piece perform their duties correctly.

=Gunner’s Calipers.= Are made of sheet-brass, with steel points. The
graduations show diameters of guns, shot, etc.

=Gunner’s Elevating Arc.= See ELEVATING ARC.

=Gunner’s Level=, or =Gunner’s Perpendicular=. Is an instrument made of
sheet-brass; the lower part is cut in the form of a crescent, the points
of which are made of steel; a small spirit-level is fastened to one side
of the plate, parallel to the line joining the points of the crescent,
and a slider is fastened to the same side of the plate, perpendicular to
the axis of the piece. This instrument is used to mark the points of
sight on pieces. By means of the bubble the feet or points of the
crescent are placed on a horizontal line on the base-ring or base-line,
the slider pushed down until the point rests on the base-ring or line,
and its position marked with chalk.

=Gunner’s Pincers.= Are made of iron with steel jaws, which have on the
end of one a claw for drawing nails, etc.

=Gunner’s Plummet.= A simple line and bob for pointing mortars.

=Gunner’s Quadrant.= Is a graduated quarter of a circle of sheet-brass
of 6 inches radius, attached to a brass rule 22 inches long. It has an
arm carrying a spirit-level at its middle and a vernier at its movable
end. To get a required elevation, the vernier is fixed at the indicated
degree, the brass rule is then inserted in the bore parallel to the axis
of the piece; the gun is then elevated or depressed until the level is
horizontal. There is also a graduated quadrant of wood, of 6 inches
radius, attached to a rule 23.5 inches long. It has a plumb-line and
bob, which are carried, when not in use, in a hole in the end of the
rule, covered by a brass plate.

=Gunnery.= The art of using fire-arms; but the term is commonly
understood as being restricted to the use or application to the purposes
of war of the larger pieces of ordnance, as cannon, mortars, and
howitzers. In its practical branch gunnery includes a just knowledge of
the construction of the several pieces of artillery, and of the
strength, tenacity, and resisting power of the materials of which they
are formed; of the method of mounting them upon strong, efficient,
well-proportioned, and conveniently constructed carriages; of the
proportions due to the strength of the powder and projectiles they
should carry; of the force and effect, and also of the manufacture of
gunpowder; and, generally, of all such mechanical arrangements and
appliances as may facilitate the movements and working of the guns,
etc., when prepared for action. But gunnery takes a yet far more
extensive range; for it may be said to be based upon nearly every branch
of the mathematical and physical sciences, and may be itself considered
as a science requiring the most intricate combinations of human
knowledge and mechanical ingenuity fully to comprehend and perfect. It
particularly requires an acquaintance with all experiments which may
have been made to ascertain the impetus of projection, the momentum of
bodies in motion, and the range and time of flight of projectiles with
given charges of gunpowder,--with the effect of the resistance of the
atmosphere upon projectiles propelled with different velocities, and the
laws of gravitation as affecting falling bodies; and with the various
causes, mechanical and otherwise, of the usual deflection of projectiles
in their course, when fired from a gun. See PROJECTILES and VELOCITY.

=Gunning.= The act of hunting or shooting game with a gun.

=Gun-pendulum.= A contrivance for obtaining initial velocities of
projectiles. The gun is suspended from a frame-work with its axis
horizontal. The velocity of the shot is deduced from the arc described
in the recoil. The apparatus is now nearly obsolete.

=Gun-platform.= See PLATFORM.

=Gunpowder.= A well-known explosive mixture, whose principal employment
is in the discharge, for war or sport, of projectiles from fire-arms,
and for mining purposes. The ingredients in gunpowder are saltpetre,
charcoal, and sulphur. Slightly different proportions are employed in
different countries. In the United States the proportions are 75 to 76
saltpetre, 14 to 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. Charcoal is the
combustible ingredient; saltpetre furnishes the oxygen necessary to
support a rapid combustion and to change the whole mass into gas, and
sulphur adds consistency to the mixture and intensity to the flame,
besides rendering the powder less liable to absorb moisture; increases
the volume of gas by preventing the formation of a solid potassium
carbonate, and by increasing the temperature.

In the _manufacture_ of ordinary powder, the operations usually employed
are _pulverizing_ the ingredients, _incorporation_, _compression_,
_granulation_, _glazing_, _drying_, and _dusting_.

The ingredients are _pulverized_ by placing each separately in barrels
which contain bronze or zinc balls, and which are revolved rapidly for
several hours.

_Incorporation_ or thorough mixing is effected partially by the use of a
rolling barrel, and completed in the _rolling-mill_. This consists of
two cast-iron cylinders rolling round a horizontal axis in a circular
trough with a cast-iron bottom. The cylinders are very heavy, and give a
grinding motion, which is very effective in bringing about a thorough
mixture of the three ingredients. A wooden scraper follows the rollers
and keeps the composition in the middle of the trough. The charge in the
trough is moistened with 2 or 3 per cent. of water before the rollers
are started. A little water is added from time to time as required. This
is the most important operation in the manufacture of powder. The time
required is about one hour for each 50 pounds of composition. When
finished the composition is called _mill-cake_.

_Compressing._--This is next taken to the press-house, slightly
moistened and arranged between brass plates, and then subjected to
hydraulic pressure of about 70 tons (English tons) per square foot. Each
layer is thus reduced to a hard cake.

_Granulation._--The cake is broken up into grains by means of toothed
rollers revolving in opposite directions, the cake being passed between
them. The different-sized grains are separated by sieves between the
different sets of rollers.

_Glazing_ is effected by moistening the grains and revolving them in a
rolling barrel.

_Drying_ is done on sheets in a room heated to 140°-160°.

_Dusting._--The dust is removed by revolving the powder in rolling
barrels covered with coarse canvas. The dust is caught by an outside
case.

There are five kinds of grain powder used in the U. S. service,
distinguished as _mammoth_, _cannon_, _mortar_, _musket_, and _rifle_
powder, all made in the same manner, of the same proportion of
materials, and differing only in the size of the grain. Mammoth is
employed for the heaviest sea-coast guns; cannon for smaller sea-coast
guns; mortar for mortars and field- and siege-pieces; musket for
rifle-muskets; and rifle for pistols. In addition to the above we have
the following:

_Meal powder_, a fine dust containing the ingredients of ordinary
gunpowder, but in which the relative proportions of these ingredients
vary, according to the rate of burning desired, and the object for which
the powder is to be used. Used principally in pyrotechny, and in mortar
fire to communicate the flame from the charge to the shell. Also
“_German_” or “_American_” “_White Gunpowder_,” more powerful than
ordinary gunpowder, but more expensive; acts upon iron, and is very
little used in gunnery.

_Pebble powder_, an irregular large-grain powder, very similar to
American “Mammoth,” which preceded it, was made in England, 1865, by
breaking ordinary _press-cake_ with copper hammers.

_Fossano powder_, made in Italy, 1871, granulated by hand, is a
slow-burning powder, used in large guns, notably in the 100-ton guns,
one of which was recently burst, 1880, by a charge of 552 pounds of this
powder. Lately the grains of this powder have been given a regular form.

Among _regular grain_ powders made _without molding_ are _cubical_, an
English powder, extensively used in all their large guns, the largest
being 2 inches on the edge. This is made by passing the cake between
fluted rollers, which cut it into strips, and then these strips endways
between a second set of rollers.

_Schaghticoke_, made at Hart’s Falls, N. Y., is a _cubical_ powder made
very much like the English,--the lines of fracture are, however, simply
scratched on the cake (both sides), which is afterwards broken in the
ordinary way.

_Molded Powder._--The ingredients are the same as those of ordinary
gunpowder, but each grain is separately molded.

Gen. Rodman was the first to propose the manufacture of these powders in
his _perforated cake_, 1860; the object being to cause the powder to
burn on an increasing surface, thus lessening the strain on the gun in
the first moments of combustion. His powder after a few experiments was
allowed to fall into disuse in the United States, but the invention was
carried to Europe and developed with a smaller grain into _prismatic
powder_, used in Europe, and especially in Germany and Russia, and
particularly adapted to breech-loading cannon; the grain is a hexagonal
prism in form and contains six cylindrical orifices passing entirely
through it parallel to the axis, and symmetrically arranged with respect
to it. The cartridge is so made that the cylindrical orifices pass
through the entire length.

_Hexagonal Powder._--This is the powder principally used in the United
States; the grains have the shape which would be given by joining the
larger bases of two frustrums of equal six-sided pyramids, and vary in
size according to the piece in which the powder is to be used. This
powder is believed in the United States to give the best results, and
can be adapted to cannon of any caliber.

_History of Gunpowder._--The origin of gunpowder as an explosive, and
its application to the projection of missiles of war, are lost in the
mists of obscurity. Its use in Europe can be traced only to the middle
or early part of the 14th century. It is believed by many that certain
experiments by Schwartz, a German monk, led to its introduction in war,
but the better theory seems to be that the knowledge was obtained from
the Saracens. It is probable that the invention arose in Central Asia in
the regions where saltpetre occurs as an effervescence of the soil. The
Chinese appropriated the discovery at a very early period, and fireworks
were common in that country when Europe was roamed by the primitive
savage. When Ghengis Khan invaded China, B.C. 1219, fire-arms of a
primitive form appear to have been used. Passages in old writers seem
also to show that when Alexander invaded India, 327 B.C., he encountered
tribes that used similar weapons. The people of India doubtless obtained
their knowledge from China. Wars and migrations of tribes gradually
disseminated a knowledge of gunpowder over Asia and Northern Africa. The
use of gunpowder is mentioned in Arabic writings in the 13th century.
The Moors used it in Spain in 1312. In 1331 the king of Granada employed
it in sieges. It is said to have been used by the English in the battles
of Crécy, 1316. The Venetians employed it in 1380 against the Genoese.
From that time to the present fire-arms have gradually supplanted other
weapons.

For a long time after its introduction gunpowder was used in the form of
dust or “meal powder.” Granulation was attempted to get rid of the
difficulties in handling the dust, but the grained form proved too
strong for the arms used, and “meal powder” continued in general use
till improvements in the weapons about the close of the 16th century
admitted of the other form. The granulation was at first very crude.
This was remedied in time by the introduction of machinery or
_corning-mills_ in the manufacture. Though different-sized grains were
at first used in large and small guns the principles involved were not
studied, and afterwards one uniform size--large musket powder--was
employed in all fire-arms. This step backwards may have been caused by
the impurity of the ingredients and bad manufacture, which made the
large grains too weak. In the early part of the present century a
classification of grains was revived under the two general names of
_musket_ and _cannon powder_. The invention of the _mercury densimeter_
rendered practicable an accurate determination of the specific gravity
of powder and its relation to quickness of burning, but the importance
of size and form of grain was first appreciated by Gen. Rodman, who, in
1859, began experiments which led at once to the introduction of
_mammoth powder_ for large guns, and later to the invention of
_perforated cake_. The introduction of the powerful ordnance now
existing in Europe has been rendered possible by improvements in this
direction based upon the principles first formulated by Rodman. The
latest idea on the subject is “compensating powder” (proposed by Lieut.
C. A. L. Totten, of the 4th U. S. Artillery), a spherical grain of
gunpowder inclosing a smaller sphere of gun-cotton. This powder remains
to be made and experimented with, but it opens a field of research which
must lead to valuable results.

=Gunpowder, Absolute Force of.= See ABSOLUTE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.

=Gunpowder Pile-driver.= A pile-driver operated by the explosive force
of gunpowder. The hammer is arranged as usual to slide in vertical
guides. It has a piston on its lower end, which enters a cylindrical
hole in the pile-cap. In this hole the cartridge is placed, and is
exploded through the compression of the air by the piston of the hammer,
when the latter falls. The explosion drives down the pile and raises the
hammer at the same blow. The powder ordinarily used is a mixture of
chlorate of potash and bituminous coal.

=Gunpowder Plot.= A conspiracy entered into by a few Roman Catholics to
destroy the king, lords, and commons on the meeting of Parliament on
November 5, 1605. On the evening of the 4th, the famous Guy Fawkes, who
was to be the leader and agent of the conspirators, was detected under
the vaults of the House of Lords preparing the train for being fired the
next day; and on the morning of the 5th, a little after midnight, he was
arrested, examined, and tortured. He confessed his own guilt, but would
not discover his associates. However, all of them were either killed on
being captured, or died on the scaffold, except one. The memory of this
plot has survived in England, and the name of Guy Fawkes is detested.

=Gunpowder-mill.= See MILL, GUNPOWDER-.

=Gunreach.= The reach or distance to which a gun will shoot; gunshot.

=Güns.= A town of Hungary, situated on the river of the same name, about
57 miles south-southeast of Vienna. It is famous for its noble defense
of its fortifications for twenty-eight days against the Turks under
Solyman in 1532, thus enabling the emperor Charles V. time to assemble a
force strong enough to oppose them.

=Gunshot.= The distance of the point-blank range of a cannon-shot. The
distance to which shot can be thrown from a gun so as to be effective;
the reach or range of a gun.

=Gunshot.= Made by the shot of a gun; as, a gunshot wound.

=Gun-sling.= See SLING.

=Gunsmith.= A maker of small-arms; one whose occupation is to make or
repair small fire-arms; an armorer.

=Gunsmithery.= The business of a gunsmith; the art of making small
fire-arms.

=Gunster.= A gunner. This term is now rare.

=Gunstick.= A stick to ram down the charge of a musket, etc.; a rammer
or ramrod. This term is now rare.

=Gunstock.= The stock or wood in which the barrel of a gun is fixed.

=Gunstone.= A stone used for the shot of cannon. Before the invention of
iron balls, stones were used for shot, but are now altogether
superseded.

=Gunter’s Chain= (from Edmund Gunter, the inventor). The chain commonly
used by military engineers for measuring land. It is 4 rods, or 66 feet
long, and is divided into 100 links.

=Gunter’s Line.= A logarithmic line on Gunter’s scale, used for
performing the multiplication and division of numbers mechanically by
the dividers;--called also line of lines, and line of numbers; also a
sliding scale corresponding to logarithms, for performing these
operations by inspection, without dividers;--called also Gunter’s
sliding rule. This is used by military engineers.

=Gunter’s Scales.= A wooden rule 2 feet long, on one side of which are
marked scales of equal parts, of chords, sines, tangents, rhombs, etc.,
and on the other side, of logarithms of these various parts, by means of
which many problems in surveying and navigation may be solved
mechanically, by the aid of the dividers alone. This instrument is used
by military engineers.

=Gurges=, or =Gorges=. A charge in heraldry meant to represent a
whirlpool. It takes up the whole field, and when borne proper is azure
and argent.

=Gurries.= Mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are
sometimes surrounded with ditches.

=Gurwal.= A state of Northern Hindostan, under the protection of the
British government, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Gurwal was
subdued by the Nepaulese about the year 1803, when Purdumin Shah, the
rajah, at the head of 12,000 men, was defeated and slain at Gurudwara.
The country was conquered by the British in 1814, and partly restored to
the rajah’s son.

=Gusset.= Was at first a piece of chain, and afterwards of plate-armor,
intended as a protection to the vulnerable point where the defenses of
the arm and breast left a gap. In heraldry it is one of the abatements,
or marks of disgrace for unknightly conduct. It is represented by a
straight line extending diagonally from the dexter or sinister chief
point one-third across the shield, and then descending perpendicularly
to the base.

=Guy.= A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any heavy
body, and prevent it from swinging, while being hoisted or lowered.

=Guzerat.= A state in India, founded by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, about
1020; was conquered by Akbar in 1572; and became subject to the
Mahrattas, 1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, February 21, 1849,
Lord Gough totally defeated the Sikhs, and captured the city of Guzerat.

=Gwalior.= Capital of the state of the same name, in Central India. Its
nucleus is a completely isolated rock of about 300 feet in height,
perpendicular, either naturally or artificially, on all sides; and as it
measures 1¹⁄₂ miles by 800 yards, it can accommodate a garrison of
15,000 men. It is thus virtually impregnable against any native force.
The spot is understood to have been occupied as a stronghold for more
than a thousand years.

=Gyongyos.= A town of Hungary, 43 miles northeast from Pesth. The
Austrians were defeated here by the Hungarians in 1849.

=Gytheum=, or =Gythium= (now _Palæopolis_, near _Marathonisi_). An
ancient town on the east coast of Laconia, founded by the Achæans, near
the head of the Laconian Bay, southwest of the mouth of the river
Eurotas. It served as the harbor of Sparta, and was important in a
military point of view. In the Persian war, the Lacedæmonian fleet was
stationed at Gytheum, and here the Athenians under Tolmides burned the
Lacedæmonian arsenal, 455 B.C. After the battle of Leuctra (370) it was
taken by Epaminondas. In 195 it was taken by Flamininus, and made
independent of Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, whereupon it joined the Achæan
league.

=Gyves.= Fetters; old word for handcuffs.



H.


=Haarlem=, or =Haerlem=. A city of the Netherlands, in the province of
Northern Holland, on the Spaarne. It is an ancient town, and was once
the residence of the counts of Holland; was taken by the Duke of Alva in
July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He violated the capitulation
by butchering half the inhabitants.

=Habeas Corpus.= A writ of habeas corpus is an order in writing, signed
by the judge who grants the same, sealed with the seal of the court of
which he is a judge, and issued in the name of a sovereign power where
it is granted, by such a court or a judge thereof having lawful
authority to issue the same, directed to any one having a person in his
custody or under his restraint, commanding him to produce such person at
a certain time and place, and to state the reason why he is held in
custody or under restraint.

=Habergeon.= A short coat of mail, consisting of a jacket without
sleeves. In early times the habergeon was composed of chain-mail; but in
the 14th century a habergeon of plate-armor was worn over the hauberk.

=Habiliments of War.= In ancient statutes signify armor, harness,
utensils, etc., without which it is supposed there can be no ability to
maintain a war.

=Habsburg=, or =Hapsburg, House of=. An ancient sovereign family of
Austria, which derives its name from the castle of Habsburg, in
Switzerland. The first member of the family who acquired great celebrity
was Rudolph of Habsburg, born in 1218, and elected emperor in 1273. He
obtained Austria and other provinces by conquest, and founded the
dynasty which now reigns over the Austrian empire, and which, since
1736, has been styled the house of Habsburg-Lorraine.

=Hachée= (_Fr._). Ignominious punishment of carrying a saddle or dog, to
which soldiers were formerly subject in France.

=Haches d’Armes= (_Fr._). Pole- or battle-axes. A _hache d’arme_ is an
axe with a narrow handle armed with a sharp blade in the form of a
crescent very much curved, terminating in two points approaching the
handle on one side; the other side terminating in a point or hammer;
when both sides were armed with a blade it was called _besague_.

=Hack.= To cut irregularly, without skill or definite purpose; to notch;
to mangle by repeated strokes of a cutting instrument. “My sword hacked
like a handsaw.”

=Hack-bush.= Formerly a heavy hand-gun.

=Hacquet Wagen.= A four-wheeled wagon used in the Prussian service to
carry pontons. The under-frame of this carriage is built like that of a
chariot, by which means it can turn without difficulty.

=Hacqueton.= A stuffed coat or cloak, generally of leather, mounted with
metal, formerly worn in France by certain knights of the king’s guards
called “_Gardes de la Manche_.” It came into use during the reign of
Charles V., and was discarded during the revolution of 1789.

=Haddington.= A royal burgh of Scotland, and county town of
Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian. It was burnt in 1216 by an invading
army under John, king of England. Having been rebuilt, it was again
burnt to the ground in 1244. In 1355 it was reduced to ashes for the
third time by Edward III. of England. The year after the battle of
Pinkie, 1548, Haddington was seized and strongly fortified by the
English. An allied army of Scotch and French laid siege to it, and,
after a memorable defense, it was evacuated by the English in October,
1549.

=Hadrumetum.= See ADRUMETUM.

=Hagbut=, or =Haguebut= (Fr. _haquebute_). An arquebuse, of which the
butt was bent or hooked, in order that it might be held more readily.

=Hagbutar.= The bearer of a fire-arm formerly used.

=Hagg.= An arquebuse with a bent butt.

=Hague.= A little hand-gun of former times.

=Haguebut=, or =Hague-but=. The same as hagbut (which see).

=Haguenau.= A town of France, in the department of Bas-Rhin, formerly a
free town of Germany and a strong fortress, situated on the Moder, 18
miles north-northeast of Strasburg. It was founded in 1164 by Frederick
Barbarossa. It successfully withstood many sieges, especially during the
Thirty Years’ War; but on its occupation in 1675 by the Imperialists,
its fortifications were destroyed. On October 17 and December 22, 1793,
bloody battles took place here between the French and Austrians, in
which the former were the victors.

=Haik.= A large piece of woolen or cotton cloth worn by the Arabs over
the tunic, being itself covered in foul weather by the burnoose. This
word is also written _hyke_.

=Hail.= To accost; to call; to salute. A sentinel hails any one
approaching his post with, “Who comes there?”

=Hail-shot.= Grape-shot.

=Hainburg.= A town of Austria, on the Danube, 28 miles southeast from
Vienna. The Magyars, or Hungarians, gained a great victory here over the
Germans in 907.

=Hair.= A spring or other contrivance in a rifle or pistol lock, which,
being unlocked by a slight pressure on the trigger, strikes the
tumbler-catch, and unlocks the tumbler.

=Hair-cloth.= A species of cloth made of horse-hair, laid upon the
floors of magazines and laboratories to prevent accidents. It is usually
made up in pieces 14 feet long and 11 feet wide, each weighing 36
pounds.

=Hair-line.= A line made of hair; a very fine line. This line is used in
military engineering.

=Hair-trigger.= A trigger so constructed as to discharge a fire-arm by a
very slight pressure, as by the touch of a hair. It is connected with
the tumbler-catch by a device called a _hair_.

=Hajduk=, =Haiduk=, or =Hayduk=. The Magyar inhabitants of the district
of Hajdu Kerulet, in Eastern Hungary. The Hajduk are direct descendants
of those warriors, who, during the long and bloody contest between the
house of Hapsburg and the Protestant insurgents of Hungary, formed the
nucleus of Prince Stephen Bocskay’s valiant armies. They formerly
enjoyed the privileges of the nobility, and were free from taxation.

=Hake.= An old term for a hand-gun.

=Halberd=, or =Halbert=. A weapon borne up to the close of the 18th
century by all sergeants of foot, artillery, and marines, and by
companies of halberdiers in the various regiments of the English army.
It consisted of a strong wooden shaft about 6 feet in length, surmounted
by an instrument much resembling a bill-hook, constructed alike for
cutting and thrusting, with a cross-piece of steel, less sharp, for the
purpose of pushing; one end of this cross-piece was turned down as a
hook for use in tearing down works against which an attack was made.

_Old Halberd_ is a familiar term formerly used in the British army, to
signify a person who had gone through the different gradations, and
risen to the rank of a commissioned officer.

=Halberdier.= One who is armed with a halberd.

=Hale’s Rocket.= See ROCKET.

=Half Bastion.= A demi-bastion. That half of a bastion cut off by the
capital, consisting of one base and one front.

=Half Caponniere.= A communication in a dry ditch with one side prepared
for defense.

=Half Merlens.= The merlens at the ends of a parapet.

=Half-batta.= An extra allowance which was granted to the whole of the
officers belonging to the British East Indian army, except Bengal, when
out of the company’s district in the province of Oude. In the upper
provinces double batta was allowed. All above full was paid by the
native princes, as the troops stationed in that quarter were considered
as auxiliaries. Batta is equal to full pay. See BATTA.

=Half-brigade.= A demi-brigade.

=Half-cock.= The position of the cock of a gun when retained by the
first notch. Also, to set the cock at the first notch.

=Half-companies.= The same as subdivisions, and equal to a platoon.

=Half-distance.= Is half the regular interval or space between troops
drawn up in ranks or standing column.

=Half-face.= Is to take half the usual distance between the right or
left face, in order to give an oblique direction to the line, or to fill
up a gap at the corner of a square.

=Half-file Leader= (Fr. _chef de demi-file_). The foremost man of a rank
entire.

=Half-files.= Is half the given number of any body of men drawn up two
deep. They are so called in cavalry when the men rank off singly.

=Half-full Sap.= When the sappers have only a flank fire (coming in a
direction nearly perpendicular to that of the sap) to fear, the
sap-roller may be dispensed with. The first sapper then covers himself
with the last-filled gabion whilst placing and filling the new one. This
species of sap is called the half-full sap.

=Half-hitch.= Pass the end of a rope round its standing part, and bring
it up through the bight.

=Half-moon= (Fr. _demi-lune_). In fortification, is an outwork that has
two faces which form a salient angle, the gorge of which resembles a
crescent. It owes its original invention to the Dutch, who used it to
cover the points of their bastions. This kind of fortification is,
however, defective, because it is weak on its flanks. Half-moons are now
called ravelins, which species of work is constructed in front of the
curtain.

=Half-pay.= An allowance given in the British army and navy to
commissioned officers not actively employed. It was first granted by
William III. in 1698. In the U. S. service officers receive half-pay
only when on leave of absence for a longer period than that for which
full pay on leave is allowed, namely, thirty days in each year. See
ABSENCE, LEAVE OF.

=Half-pike.= A short pike, which was formerly carried by officers.

=Half-sunken Battery.= See BATTERY.

=Half-sword.= A fight within half the length of a sword; a close fight.

=Haliartus= (now _Mazi_). An ancient town in Bœtia, on the south of the
Lake Copais. It was destroyed by Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, 480
B.C., but was rebuilt, and appears as an important place in the
Peloponnesian war. Under its walls Lysander lost his life, 395; it was
destroyed by the Romans (171) because it supported Perseus, king of
Macedonia, and its territory was given to the Athenians.

=Halicarnassus= (now _Boudroum_). A Greek city of Asia Minor, situated
on the Ceramian Gulf. It was founded by a colony from Trœzene, and was
one of the cities of the so-called Doric Hexapolis. During the Persian
conquests it readily yielded to the dominion of the conquerors, and
remained faithful to Persian interests. Alexander the Great, provoked by
the obstinacy with which the city held out against him, commanded that
it should be destroyed by fire; but the inhabitants took refuge in the
citadel, which successfully resisted his arms.

=Halidon Hill.= Is situated about a mile to the northwest of the town of
Berwick, England, in the fork formed by the Whitadder and the Tweed. It
was the scene of a bloody conflict between the English and Scots, July
19, 1333, when the latter were defeated, and lost upwards of 14,000
slain, among whom were the regent Douglas and a large number of the
nobility, while a comparatively small number of the English suffered.

=Hallecret.= See ALLECRETE.

=Halluc.= A small river in Northern France, which empties into the Somme
above Amiens. Near here, at Pont à Noyelles, a seven hours’ battle took
place December 23, 1870, between the German army under Gen. Manteuffel
and the French Army of the North under Gen. Faidherbe. Both parties
claimed the victory. Next day the French general retreated.

=Halt= (Fr. _halte_). The discontinuance of the march of any body of
men, armed or unarmed, under military direction. Frequent halts are
necessary for the purpose of resting troops during their progress
through a country, or to render them fresh and active previous to any
warlike undertaking. It is likewise a word of command in familiar use.
See MARCH.

=Halting Days.= Are the days in the week usually allotted for repose,
when troops are upon the march, and there is not any particular
necessity for exertion or dispatch.

=Halyard.= The rope for hoisting and lowering a flag. Written also
_halliard_.

=Halys.= A river in Asia Minor, near which a battle was fought between
the Lydians and Medes. It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of
the sun, which led to peace May 28, 585 B.C. Others give the date 584,
603, and 610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted many years
before by Thales of Miletus.

=Ham.= A town and fortress of France, in the department of Somme,
situated on the river of that name, 36 miles east-southeast from Amiens.
It is of ancient origin, and was erected in 1407 into a duchy, which was
held by the families of Courcy, Orleans, Luxemburg, and Vendôme. Its old
fortress was built by Constable de St. Pol in 1470, and is now used as a
state prison. Its walls are 39 feet thick, and its principal tower is
108 feet in height, and the same in diameter. Louis Napoleon, late
emperor of the French, was confined here from 1840 till 1846.

=Hamburg.= A famous free city of Germany, and one of the most important
commercial ports in Europe, is situated on the right bank of the Elbe,
about 70 miles from its mouth. It is said to have been founded in the
8th century by Charlemagne. In the 13th century it joined Lubeck in the
formation of the Hanseatic League. It was occupied by the French from
1806 to 1809, and was annexed to France in 1810. The Russians became
masters of it in 1813, but the French regained possession of it in the
same year, and Marshal Davoust sustained a memorable siege here in
1813-14. In 1871 Hamburg became a member of the German empire.

=Hames.= The wooden or iron curved pieces fitting the collar of draught
harness to which the traces are attached.

=Hamlets, Tower.= A district in the county of Middlesex, England, under
the command of the constable of the Tower, or lieutenant of the Tower
Hamlets, for the service and preservation of the Tower of London.

=Hammer.= An instrument with an iron head, for driving nails, etc. The
term is also applicable to that part of a gun-lock which strikes the
percussion-cap or firing-pin.

=Hammering.= A heavy cannonade at close quarters.

=Hammer-spring.= The spring on which the hammer of a gun-lock works.

=Hammer-wrench.= A combination hammer and wrench; called also
_monkey-wrench_.

=Hampton.= A small village on the Chesapeake Bay, in Virginia, giving
its name to Hampton Roads, a southerly branch of Chesapeake Bay, and
mouth of James River, defended by Forts Monroe and Calhoun. These roads
were the scene of important events in the American Revolution, the war
of 1812, and the late civil war, especially the first naval battle
between ironclad vessels, the “Merrimac” and the “Monitor.”

=Hanapier=, or =Hanepier= (_Fr._). The front part of a cuirass, or iron
breastplate worn by light-armed soldiers.

=Hanau.= A town of Germany, the capital of a province of the same name,
in Hesse-Cassel, on the Kinzig, 12 miles from Frankfort-on-the-Main. In
1792, Hanau was attacked by the French, and occupied by them in 1796,
1797, and 1805.

=Hand.= A measure 4 inches in length. The height of a horse is computed
by so many hands and inches.

=Hand-barrow.= A frame which is carried around by two men, instead of
being rolled forward like a wheel-barrow. Those employed in the ordnance
department are very useful in the erection of fortifications, as well as
carrying shells and shot along the trenches. They generally weigh about
19 pounds.

=Hand-cart.= It consists of a light body with shafts, mounted on two
wheels. The shafts are joined together at the ends, and supported
immediately in front of the body by iron legs. It weighs 181 pounds, and
is used for the transportation of light stores in siege and garrison
service.

=Handcuff.= A fastening consisting of an iron ring around the wrist,
usually connected by a chain with one on the other wrist; a manacle. Men
who have deserted the service are usually manacled in this manner when
removed from place to place.

=Handful.= Used figuratively, in a military sense, to denote a
comparatively small number; as, “a handful of men.”

=Hand-gallop.= A slow and easy gallop, in which the hand presses the
bridle to hinder increase of speed.

=Hand-grenades.= Are small iron shells, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter,
filled with powder, which being lighted by means of a fuze, were
formerly thrown by the grenadiers among the enemy, in storming a
fortress. See GRENADES.

=Hand-gun.= An old term for a small-arm in the times of Henry VII. and
VIII.

=Handle Arms.= Formerly a word of command (when the men were at _ordered
arms_), by which the soldier was directed to bring his right hand
briskly up to the muzzle of his firelock, with his finger bent upwards.

=Handles.= Bronze guns were formerly furnished with handles placed over
the centre of gravity; from their shape they were called _dolphins_.

=Hand-mallet.= A wooden hammer with a handle, to drive fuzes, or
pickets, etc., in making fascines or gabion batteries.

=Hand Sling-cart.= Is a two-wheeled carriage made entirely of iron,
except the pole, which is of oak. The axle-tree is arched to make it
stronger, and connected with the pole by strong wrought-iron straps and
braces. In the rear of the axle a projection is welded, to receive the
end of a strong hook. The end of the pole terminates in a ferule and an
eye. The eye is for the purpose of attaching to the cart, when
necessary, a limber or a horse. The diameter of the wheel is 6 feet. The
_hand sling-cart_ is used in siege and garrison service for transporting
artillery short distances. It should not be used _habitually_ for
heavier weights than about 4000 pounds, but in case of necessity, a 24-
or 32-pounder gun may be transported on it. For heavier guns or
material, the large _sling-cart_ drawn by horses or oxen should be used.
_This_ cart is wooden throughout, and the diameter of the wheels 8 feet.

=Hand-spike.= Is a wooden or iron lever, flattened at one end and
tapering towards the other, used in raising heavy weights, or in moving
guns to their places after being reloaded.

_Manœuvring hand-spike_, for garrison and sea-coast carriages and for
gins, is 66 inches; for siege and other heavy work, it is made 84 inches
long and 12 pounds weight.

_Roller hand-spike_, for casemate carriages. The latter is made of iron
1 inch round, the point conical; whole length 34 inches.

_Shod hand-spike_ is particularly useful in the service of mortars, and
of casemate and barbette carriages.

_Trail hand-spike_, for field-carriages, is 53 inches in length.

_Truck hand-spike_, for casemate carriages (wrought iron).

=Hand-staff.= A javelin.

=Hand-to-hand.= A close fight; the situation of two persons closely
opposed to each other.

=Handy-fight.= A fight with the hands; boxing.

=Hang Fire.= Fire-arms and trains are said to hang fire when there is an
unwonted pause between the application of fire to the gunpowder and its
ignition.

=Hang Upon, To.= To hover; to impend. Thus, _to hang upon_ the flanks of
a retreating enemy, is to follow the movements of any body of men so
closely as to be a perpetual annoyance to them; to harass and perplex
him in a more desultory manner than what is generally practiced when
pressing upon his rear.

=Hanged, Drawn and Quartered.= In Great Britain, the description of the
capital sentence on a traitor, which consisted of drawing him on a
hurdle to the place of execution, and after hanging him, dividing the
body into quarters. This punishment was substituted by the stat. 54 Geo.
III. c. 146, for the ancient and more barbarous sentence of
disemboweling alive; but the crown has power to reduce the sentence to
simple hanging.

=Hanger.= That which hangs or is suspended; specifically, a short
broadsword, incurvated towards the point.

=Hangier.= A Turkish poniard, formerly worn by the Janissaries.

=Hango Head.= A promontory on the north coast of the Gulf of Finland. It
was at this place, during the war with Russia, in 1855, that the unarmed
crew of an English man-of-war’s boat, with a flag of truce flying, was
treacherously fired upon by Russian grenadiers, when all the British
sailors in the boat were either killed or wounded.

=Hanover.= A kingdom in the north of Germany, and since 1866 a province
of Prussia. It was originally peopled by the Cherusci, the Chauci, and
the Langobardi, afterwards known as Lombards. In the time of Charlemagne
it was occupied by Saxon tribes, and continued, even after its conquest
by that monarch, to be governed by Saxon dukes. From 1714 till 1837,
Hanover was governed by the kings of England, without, however, forming
part of that kingdom. The French occupied it in 1803; but, two years
afterwards, ceded it to Prussia. In 1807, however, they took possession
of it, and held it till 1813.

=Hanover Court-house.= A town in East Virginia. Here on May 27, 1862, a
severe action took place between the armies of the North and South,
which resulted in a victory for the former. The loss on the Northern
side was 54 killed and 194 wounded and missing; and on the Southern
side, between 200 and 300 killed and wounded, and about 500 taken
prisoners.

=Hanse Towns.= The Hanseatic League (from _hansa_, association), formed
by port towns in Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes,
began about 1140, and was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of
towns situated on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but in 1370 it was
composed of 66 cities and 44 confederates. They proclaimed war against
Waldemar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in
1428, with 40 ships and 12,000 regular troops, besides seamen. The
Thirty Years’ War in Germany (1618-48) broke up the strength of this
association. In 1630 the only towns retaining the name were Lubeck,
Hamburg, and Bremen.

=Hansy.= A town of Hindustan, in the British district of Hurreeana,
under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the northwest
provinces. It is a very ancient town; was taken by the Mohammedans early
in 1035, and has experienced many revolutions.

=Hante= (_Fr._). An ornamental pike, having a banner attached.

=Haquebut.= See HAGBUT.

=Har.= A syllable used in composition usually as a prefix, and
signifying _army_;--occurring in various forms, as _hare_, _her_, and
_here_; as, harisvalt, leader of an army.

=Haranes= (_Fr._). Hungarian militia are so called.

=Harangue.= A speech addressed to a large public assembly; a popular
oration; aloud address to a multitude; as, a general makes a harangue to
his troops on the eve of a battle.

=Harass.= To annoy; to perplex, and incessantly turmoil any body of men;
to hang upon the rear and flunks of a retreating army, or to interrupt
operations at a siege by repeated attacks upon the besiegers.

=Harboring an Enemy.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 45.

=Harcarrah.= In India, a messenger employed to carry letters, and
otherwise intrusted with matters of consequence that require secrecy and
punctuality. They are very often Brahmins, well acquainted with the
neighboring countries; they are sent to gain intelligence, and are used
as guides in the field.

=Hard-fought.= Vigorously contested; as, a hard-fought battle.

=Hardihood.= Boldness, united with firmness and constancy of mind;
dauntless bravery; intrepidity; audaciousness.

=Hardiment.= Hardihood; courage; bold or energetic action; contest;
struggle.

=Hard-labor.= A military punishment frequently awarded by
courts-martial.

=Hard-tack.= Sea-bread. Hard-tack is also used by U. S. troops while
campaigning; large crackers.

=Harfleur.= A town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine,
situated at the confluence of the Seine and the Lezarde, a mile from the
sea, and 3 miles northeast from Havre. Harfleur was formerly fortified,
and an important place. It was besieged by the English under Henry V. in
1415, and this monarch succeeded in taking it, after being before it
forty days. It was again taken by the English in 1440.

=Harlaw.= A township of Scotland, in Aberdeenshire, situated 4 miles
southwest from old Meldrum, near the confluence of the Ury and Don,
memorable for a sanguinary battle fought in 1411 between the Highlanders
under Donald, the Lord of the Isles, and the royal forces under the Earl
of Mar.

=Harmostes.= A city governor or prefect appointed by the Spartans in the
cities subjugated by them.

=Harness.= The iron covering or dress which a soldier formerly wore, and
which was fastened to the body by straps and buckles; coat of mail;
also, the whole accoutrements, offensive and defensive; armor of a
knight or soldier; the armor of a horse. Also the equipments of a
draught-horse.

=Harness.= To dress in armor; to equip with armor for war, as a
horseman. To equip or furnish for defense.

=Harol.= An Indian term signifying the officer who commands the van of
an army. It sometimes means the van-guard itself.

=Harpe.= A species of drawbridge used among the ancients, and deriving
its name from its resemblance to the musical instrument. This bridge,
which consisted of a wooden frame, and hung in a perpendicular
direction against the turrets that were used in those times to carry on
the siege of a place, had a variety of ropes attached to it, and was let
down upon the wall of a town by means of pulleys. The instant it fell,
the soldiers left the turret, and rushed across the temporary platform
upon the rampart.

=Harper’s Ferry.= A town of Jefferson Co., W. Va., situated at the
junction of the Shenandoah and Potomac Rivers, about 107 miles north
from Richmond. In October, 1859, John Brown, the leader of the
anti-slavery party, and his followers entered the town, and seized and
held for a short time the armory and arsenal located here. In April,
1861, the Federal troops evacuated the public buildings here, and they
were immediately taken possession of by the Confederates, who destroyed
them and evacuated the place in June, following. The town was again
taken by the Confederates in September, 1862, but was soon after
recaptured by the Federal forces, who from that time retained possession
of it.

=Harponully.= A district in the south of India. The rajah of this
district was tributary to the kings of Benjanagur and Bejapore, to the
Moguls, and the Mahrattas; in 1774 he became tributary to Hyder, and in
1786 he was completely subdued by Tippoo, and sent prisoner to
Seringapatam. On the capture of that city, Harponully was assigned to
the nizam as a portion of his division of Tippoo’s territory, and by him
assigned to the British in 1800.

=Harpy.= A fabulous creature in Greek mythology, considered as a
minister of the vengeance of the gods. In heraldry it is represented as
a vulture, with the head and breast of a woman.

=Harquebuse.= See ARQUEBUSE.

=Harquebusier.= See ARQUEBUSIER.

=Hartlepool.= A seaport of England, in the county Durham, a few miles
north of the mouth of the river Tees. It is mentioned as a harbor of
some consequence as early as 1171. In the 13th century it belonged to
the Bruces of Annandale, in Scotland. Hartlepool suffered severely from
the Scots in 1312, and again in 1315, a year after the battle of
Bannockburn. It was seized by the insurgents in the northern rebellion
under the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, in the time of
Elizabeth. During the civil war it was taken by the Scottish army in
1644, and retained by them till 1647.

=Hastaire= (_Fr._). Pikeman; spearman.

=Hastati.= From the Latin word _hasta_, a spear, so that they may
literally be called spearmen. A body of Roman soldiers who were more
advanced in age, and had acquired a greater reputation in arms than the
_velites_ possessed, were distinguished by this appellation. They wore a
complete set of armor, and always carried a buckler, made convex,
measuring 2¹⁄₂ feet in breadth and 4 feet in length. The longest
measured about 4 feet 9 inches, or a Roman palm. The buckler was made
of two boards glued together. These were covered in the first instance
with a broad piece of linen, which was again covered over with
sheep-skin. The edges, both at top and bottom, were fenced with iron, to
enable them to meet the broadsword and sabre, and to prevent them from
rotting when planted on the ground. The convex part was further covered
over with iron plates, to resist the impression of hard blows, and to
withstand the violent concussion of stones, etc. The _hastati_ commonly
formed the first line in the order of battle; the _principes_ were
placed in the second line; whilst the oldest and best legionaries,
classed under the name of _triarii_, constituted a reserve or third
line.

=Hastings.= A town of England, in the county of Surrey, 33 miles
northeast from Brighton, and one of the Cinque Ports. Near this place,
in 1066, was fought the decisive battle of Hastings, which wrested the
crown of England from Harold, and gave it to William the Conqueror.

=Hatchet.= A small, light sort of axe, with a bazil edge on the left
side, and a short handle. It is used by soldiers for cutting wood to
make fascines, gabions, pickets, etc. _To take up the hatchet_, among
the Indians, to declare war, to commence hostilities, etc. _To bury the
hatchet_, to make peace.

=Hatchment.= An ornament on the hilt of a sword. In heraldry, a
hatchment is the funeral escutcheon, usually placed in front of the
house of a deceased person, setting forth his rank and circumstances. It
is in the form of a lozenge, and in its centre are depicted the arms of
the deceased, single or quartered.

=Hatras.= A town of Hindostan, in the northwest provinces, 33 miles to
the north of Agra. As a place of some strength, it was at one time
prominent in the wars of the Doab; but on falling, in 1817, into the
possession of the British, it was immediately dismantled.

=Hattrass.= A fortress of India, taken by siege and storm by the troops
under the Marquis of Hastings during the Mahratta war.

=Haubergier= (_Fr._). An individual who held a tenure by knight’s
service, and was subject to the feudal system which formerly existed in
France, and by which he was obliged to accompany the lord of the manor
in that capacity whenever the latter went to war. He was called _fief de
haubert_, and had the privilege of carrying a halbert. All vassals in
ancient times served their lords-paramount as squires, haubergiers,
lance-men, bow-men, etc.

=Hauberk.= A twisted coat of mail, sometimes extending only as high as
the neck, but more generally continued so as to form a coif, leaving
only the face of the knight who bore it exposed. In early times the
sleeve of the hauberk sometimes terminated at the elbow, but in the 13th
and 14th centuries it came down to the wrist, and very generally
descended over the hand in the form of a glove, either one-fingered or
divided. In the 11th century the hauberk was worn under plate-armor.

=Haul.= To pull or draw with force or violence; to transport by drawing;
to drag; to compel to move or go.

=Hausse, Pendulum.= Is a scale of sheet-brass, the graduations of which
are the sines of each quarter of a degree to a radius equal to the
distance between the muzzle-sight of the piece, and the axis of
vibration of the hausse, which is one inch in rear of the base-ring. At
the lower end of the scale is a brass bulb filled with lead. The
_slider_ which marks the divisions on the scale is of thin brass, and is
clamped at any desired division on the scale by means of a screw. The
scale passes through a slit in a piece of steel, with which it is
connected by a screw, forming a pivot on which the scale can vibrate
laterally. This piece of steel terminates in pivots, by means of which
the pendulum is supported on the _seat_ attached to the gun, and is at
liberty to vibrate in the direction of the axis of the piece. The _seat_
is of metal, and is fastened to the base of the breech by screws, so
that the centres of the steel pivots of vibration shall be at a distance
from the axis of the piece equal to the radius of the base-ring.

=Hausse-col= (_Fr._). An ornamental plate similar to the gorget. It was
formerly worn by infantry officers.

=Hautes-payes= (_Fr._). Were soldiers selected by the captains of
companies to attend them personally, for which service they received
something more than the common pay. Haute-paye became afterwards a term
to signify the subsistence which any body of men superior to, or
distinguished from the private soldier were allowed to receive.

=Haut-le-pied= (_Fr._). A term used to distinguish such persons as were
formerly employed in the French armies without having any permanent
appointment. _Commissaires hauts-le-pied_ were known in the artillery
during the monarchy of France. They were usually under the
quartermaster-general.

=Havana= (Sp. _Habana_). The capital of the island of Cuba, on its north
coast, at the mouth of the river Lagida. The harbor is one of the best
in the world, being capable of holding 1000 ships with ease; but it has
so narrow a channel that only one vessel can enter at a time. This
channel is strongly fortified; the city is also surrounded with
defensive works, all furnished with heavy artillery. Havana has been
frequently attacked; it was captured in 1536 by a French pirate, and
partially destroyed; it was subsequently taken, at different times, by
the English, by the French, and by the buccaneers. In 1762 the British
took possession of it, but restored it in 1763.

=Havelock.= A light cloth covering for the head and neck, used by
soldiers as a protection from sunstroke. This covering derived its name
from Havelock, a distinguished English general.

=Haverfordwest= (Welsh, _Hwlfford_). A seaport of Wales, in
Pembrokeshire, and the capital of that county. It was at one time
strongly fortified, and was possessed of a strong castle, which was
built by Gilbert de Clare, first earl of Pembroke. In the insurrection
of Owen Glendower, it was successfully defended against the French
troops in the Welsh service. In the civil war of the 17th century it was
held by the royalists.

=Haversack.= A strong, coarse, linen bag, in which, on a march, a
soldier carries his rations. It is borne on the left side, suspended by
a strap passing over the right shoulder. The name is also given to the
leather bag used in artillery to carry cartridges from the
ammunition-chest to the piece in loading.

=Havildar.= A non-commissioned officer or sergeant among the Sepoys. He
ranks next to the jemadar, or native lieutenant.

=Havildar-major.= The native sergeant-major in a native infantry
regiment.

=Havoc.= Wide and general destruction; devastation; waste. Also, to
waste; to destroy; to lay waste.

=Havock.= A cry originally used in hunting, but afterward in war as the
signal for indiscriminate slaughter.

=Havre Le=, or =Havre de Grace=. An important and strongly fortified
commercial town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine, at the
entrance of the Seine into the English Channel. Havre was taken by the
British in 1562, and bombarded by them in 1759, 1794, and 1795.

=Hawaii.= See OWYHEE.

=Haxo-casemate.= A vault of masonry thrown over a gun, but not over its
embrasure. It is open at the rear, and acts as a traverse.

=Hayti=, =Haiti=, =St. Domingo=, or =Hispaniola=. The largest island in
the West Indies, with the exception of Cuba. It was discovered by
Christopher Columbus in 1495. Until 1665 Spain kept possession of the
island; but in that year the French obtained a footing, and retained
their position for upwards of a century and a quarter. In 1800 the
independence of Hayti was proclaimed by the negro population, and the
French finally quitted the island in 1803. Since that time various
revolutions have occurred, and a kind of military elective government
has prevailed under different leaders. In 1849 the former French portion
of the island was proclaimed an empire under its president, Solouque,
who took the title of Faustin I. The sable emperor was, however, deposed
in 1858, and a republic was again proclaimed.

=Hazaree.= An Indian term signifying the commander of gun-men. It is
derived from _hazar_, which, in its literal interpretation, signifies a
thousand.

=Haze, To.= To punish a man by making him do unnecessary work.

=Head.= In gunnery, the fore part of the cheeks of a gun or howitzer
carriage. _To head_, is to lead on, or be the leader of a party. _Head
of a work_, in fortification, is the front next to the enemy, and
farthest from the place; as the front of a horn-work is the distance
between the flanked angles of the demi-bastions. The head of a double
tenaille is the salient angle in the centre and the two other sides
which form the re-entering angles. _Head of an army_, or body of men, is
the front, whether drawn up in lines or on a march, in column, etc.
_Head of a camp_, is the ground before which an army is drawn up.

=Head, Bridge.= Is the end of a bridge,--also the work defending it.

=Header.= In a revetment, is a brick, stone, or sod laid with its end
outwards.

=Headless.= Destitute of a chief or leader.

=Head-man.= A chief; a leader.

=Head-piece.= Armor for the head; a helmet; a morion.

=Headquarters.= The place where the officer commanding any army or
independent body of troops takes up his residence. The quarters or place
of residence of the chief officer; hence, the centre of authority or
order.

=Headstall.= That part of a bridle which encompasses the head.

=Heaume= (_Fr._). A word derived from the German, which formerly
signified _casque_, or helmet. The heaume has been sometimes called
among the French _salade_, _armet_, and _celate_ from the Latin word
which means engraved, on account of the different figures which were
represented upon it. The heaume covered the whole of the face, except
the eyes, which were protected by small iron bars laid crosswise. It
serves as an ornament or helmet in coats of arms and armorial bearings;
it is still preserved in heraldry, and is a distinguishing mark of
nobility.

=Heaver.= A bar used as a lever.

=Heavy.= Strong; violent; forcible; as, a heavy cannonade.

=Heavy Artillery.= Troops who serve heavy guns. The term is specially
applied to troops in charge of siege guns or guns of position. Also
large guns themselves.

=Heavy Cavalry.= European cavalry is divided into light and heavy
cavalry, according to the size of the men and horses and the character
of the equipment.

=Heavy Fire.= A continuous cannonading; a continuous discharge of
musketry.

=Heavy Marching Order.= An expression applied to troops equipped for
permanent field service with arms, accoutrements, knapsacks, canteens,
and haversacks.

=Heavy Metal.= Large guns carrying balls of a large size; also, large
balls for such guns.

=Heavy Ordnance.= Ordnance of great weight and caliber. In the United
States the term is restricted in the land service to sea-coast ordnance.
See ORDNANCE.

=Hebrides=, or =Western Islands=. A series of islands off the west coast
of Scotland, consisting of two principal groups. In ancient times they
were subject to the kings of Norway, but were annexed to the crown of
Scotland in 1264. From that time they were held by various native
chieftains in vassalage to the Scottish monarch, until they came under
the sway of one powerful chief, who assumed the title of “Lord of the
Isles” in 1346, and effected entire independence of Scotland. In 1748
all hereditary jurisdictions were abolished, and for the first time,
under a just and powerful government, the peace of the islands was
secured.

=Hebron.= A place in Palestine, about 20 miles a little west of south
from Jerusalem, and one of the oldest existing cities in the world. The
Maccabees recovered it from the Edomites, who had taken it after the
Captivity. It was burned by an officer of Vespasian just before the
destruction of Jerusalem. It was taken by the Arabs in 637, and by the
Crusaders about 1100; and ever since 1187 has been in the hands of its
present masters, the Mohammedans.

=Hedge.= To surround for defense; to fortify; to guard; to protect; to
hem. To surround so as to prevent escape.

=Hedjrah.= See HEGIRA.

=Heel.= That part of a thing corresponding in position to the human
heel; the lower back part, or part on which a thing rests. In a
small-arm it is the corner of the butt which is upwards in the firing
position.

=Heel-piece.= Armor for the heels.

=Hegemony.= Leadership; preponderant influence or authority; usually
applied to the relations of a government or state to its neighbors or
confederates.

=Hegira=, or =Hedjrah= (from the Arabic _hajara_, to desert). A
Mohammedan epoch, dating from the expulsion or flight of Mohammed from
Mecca to Medina, July 16, 622. This flight was fixed as the great Moslem
epoch by the caliph Omar, seventeen years later.

=Heidelberg.= A city of Germany, in Baden, situated on the Neckar, which
is possessed of a celebrated university. This town has been besieged
several times; it was taken by Tilly in 1622, and by Turenne in 1674.

=Helder.= A town of Northern Holland, on the North Sea, at the mouth of
the Marsdiep, which separates it from the island of Texel. Near this
place a naval battle was fought between the English and the Dutch in
1653, in which Van Tromp was killed. It was taken by the English under
Sir Ralph Abercrombie in 1799; was afterwards retaken by Brewe, and
subsequently rendered a first-class fortress by Napoleon I. It is
connected with Amsterdam by the famous Helder Canal.

=Helena, Saint.= An island in the Atlantic Ocean, which presents to the
sea, throughout its whole circuit, an immense wall of perpendicular
rock, from 600 to 1200 feet high. This island was discovered by the
Portuguese in 1502, and belonged to the Dutch from 1610 to 1650, when it
fell into the hands of the British. It is chiefly famous for having been
the place in which Napoleon I. was confined by the allied powers after
his final overthrow at the battle of Waterloo. Here he lived at
Longwood, from November, 1815, till his death in 1821. His remains also
lay here till 1840, when, by the permission of the English government,
they were conveyed to France.

=Helepolis.= In the ancient art of war, a machine for battering down the
walls of a place besieged. The invention of it is ascribed to Demetrius
Poliorcetes. Diodorus Siculus says that each side of the helepolis was
450 cubits broad, and 90 in height; that it had nine stages, or floors,
and was carried on four strong solid wheels, 8 cubits in diameter; that
it was armed with huge battering-rams, and had two roofs capable of
supporting them; that in the lower stages there were different sorts of
engines for casting stones, and in the middle they had large catapults
for launching arrows.

=Heligoland.= A small island in the North Sea, situated about 46 miles
northwest from the mouths of the Elbe and Weser. It was taken from the
Danes by the British in 1807, and became a depot for merchandise
intended to be smuggled into the continent during Napoleon’s continental
blockade. At the peace of 1814 it was retained by England, and is of
importance as an outpost in time of war.

=Heliography.= See LOOKING-GLASS SIGNALING.

=Hellespont.= See DARDANELLES.

=Hellin= (anc. ILUNUM). A royal town of Spain, in the province of
Murcia. This town was sacked by the French under Montbrun, and was the
point where Joseph and Soult united with Suchet after Marmont’s rout at
Salamanca.

=Helmet.= A piece of defensive armor or covering for the head. Among the
early nations of antiquity the helmet forms a prominent feature in all
military costume, and is often of very great utility in distinguishing
the age or country of the wearer. The Egyptian kings had them of brass,
while the soldiers wore linen ones thickly padded. The crests of the
royal Egyptian helmet were the heads of the lion, bull, or dragon. The
Milyans had helmets of skins; those of a fox formed the early Thracian
helmet; and this ancient fashion of the heroic ages appears in the
_galerus_ of the Roman light troops. The Phrygian bonnet was a
skull-cap, with a bent peak projecting in front, like the bust of a
bird, with an arched neck and head. It is certainly the most ancient
form of helmet. Strabo says the ancient Persians, and probably their
oriental neighbors, wore modern turbans; in war, a cap cut in the form
of a cylinder or tower. This Asiatic fashion extended itself widely. The
helmet of the Grecian soldier was usually made of brass, and sometimes
of the skins of beasts, with the hair still on; and to render them more
terrible, the teeth were often placed in a grinning manner. The crest
was made of horse-hair or feathers, and was curiously ornamented. In the
early period of the Greeks, helmets had been composed of the skins of
quadrupeds, of which none were more common than the dog. After the time
of Alexander the Great, common soldiers had only small crests;
chieftains, plumes or two crests. The helmet of the Romans was a
head-piece of brass or iron, which left the face uncovered, and
descended behind as far as the shoulders. Upon the top was the crest, in
adorning which the soldiers took great pride. The usual ornament was
horse-hair or feathers of divers colors; but the helmets of the officers
were sometimes very splendid, and adorned with gold and silver. Helmets
occur with cheek-pieces and movable visors. Singular helmets, with
aigrettes, plumes, wings, horns, double crests, double-cheek pieces
(some of which are seen on the Hamilton vases), and others, with
fantastical additions and overloaded crests, are either barbarian, or
subsequent to the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople. The
Gauls wore helmets of brass, with monstrous appendages for ostentation,
as the shapes of birds, beasts, etc. In the Middle Ages the knights of
Europe were distinguished by helmets adorned with the figure of a crown,
or of some animal. The king wore a helmet of gold, or gilt; his
attendants of silver; the nobility of steel; and the lower orders of
iron. In European armies helmets are worn by the horse-guards and heavy
cavalry. In the United States, helmets made of felt and adorned with
horse-hair plumes are worn by light artillery and cavalry troops.

=Helmet-shaped.= Shaped like a helmet; galeate.

=Helmless.= Destitute of a helmet; without a helm.

=Helos.= In ancient geography, the name of several towns, so called from
their position among or near _fens_. The most important town of this
name was in Laconia, at the mouth of the Eurotas, in a plain close to
the sea. In the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus Helos was taken, and
its inhabitants carried off to Sparta and reduced to slavery. Their name
is said to have been applied by their masters generally to all the
bondsmen or helots that fell into their power.

=Helots.= The lowest class of the population of ancient Sparta, which
was formed of serfs or slaves. They are supposed to have formed the
original population of the country, and to have been reduced to bondage
by their Dorian conquerors. In war, they served as light troops, each
free-born Spartan who bore heavy armor being accompanied to battle by a
number of them, sometimes as many as seven. In order to keep their
numbers within bounds the Spartans organized secret companies, who went
abroad over the country armed with daggers, and both by night and day
assassinated the unfortunate Helots, selecting as their special victims
the strongest and most vigorous of the oppressed race.

=Helsingfors.= A fortified town, and seaport in Finland, on a peninsula
in the Gulf of Finland. It has a good harbor, and is defended by the
almost impregnable citadel and fortifications of Sweaborg, which stand
on a number of rocky islands at the entrance of the harbor. This town
was burnt in 1741, during the war between Sweden and Russia. In 1855,
Sweaborg was bombarded for two days by the allied English and French
fleet, when some damage was done to the interior defenses of the place.

=Helvetian Republic.= Switzerland having been conquered by the French in
1797, a republic was established in 1798 with this title.

=Helvetii.= A Celtic people inhabiting, according to Cæsar, the region
between the mountains of Jura on the west, the Rhone on the south, and
the Rhine on the east and north, the region corresponding pretty closely
with modern Switzerland. The great and fatal event in their history is
their attempted irruption into and conquest of Southern Gaul, in which
they were repulsed by Cæsar with frightful slaughter in 58 B.C., and
compelled to return to their own country, where they became subjects to
the Romans. In the commotions which followed the death of Nero, the
Helvetians met with another terrible catastrophe. Remaining faithful to
Galba, they were fallen upon by Cacina, a general of Vitellius, who gave
them up to the rapacity of his legions, and from this time they scarcely
appear in history as a distinct people.

=Helvoetsluys.= A fortified town of Holland, on the south shore of the
island of Voorn, 17 miles southwest from Rotterdam. At this place the
Prince of Orange, afterwards William III., embarked for England in 1688.
It was taken by the French in 1798, and evacuated by them in 1813.

=Hem In.= To surround an enemy, whether on land or sea.

=Hemerodromi.= In Grecian antiquity, were, as the name imports, runners
or couriers, who could keep running all day. In a country like Greece,
where the roads were few and bad, the hemerodromi were indispensable for
the rapid diffusion of important news. Every Greek state made a point of
training a number of these men who could travel great distances in an
incredibly short space of time, and at every dangerous crisis they were
stationed on commanding points to observe and report at headquarters
what it was necessary for the authorities to know. In the service of the
Persian kings, these men were called _angoroi_, and the service
_angereion_. Among the Romans these couriers were known as _cursores_;
they traveled sometimes on foot, sometimes on horseback. It is a
well-known fact that running footmen attended the Duke of Marlborough
in his wars in the Low Countries and in Germany. In the Byzantine
empire they were employed as sentinels at the gates of towns. When the
gates were opened they were obliged to patrol round the outskirts of the
town during the whole day. Frequently, indeed, they advanced
considerably into the country, in order to discover whether any hostile
body of men was approaching in order to surprise the garrison.

=Henery Isle.= A small island lying due south from Bombay. In 1790 it
belonged to Ragojee Angria, and was a principal rendezvous of pirate
vessels, though within sight of Bombay. Near it is another small island
named Kenery, which is also fortified, and of considerable strength. It
was taken possession of and fortified by Sevajee in 1679. In 1790 it
belonged to the Peshwa, and was also the haunt of pirates.

=Heneti.= An ancient people in Paphlagonia, dwelling on the river
Parthenius; fought on the side of Priam against the Greeks, but had
disappeared before the historical times. They were regarded by many
ancient writers as the ancestors of the Veneti in Italy.

=Hengestdown.= In Cornwall, England. Here Egbert is said to have
defeated the Danes and West Britons in 835.

=Hennebon.= A town of France, in the department of Morbihan, on the
Blavet. It was formerly a very strong place, and was successfully
defended by the Countess of Montfort, when it was besieged by Charles de
Blois, in 1342.

=Henry Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Hephestion=, or =Hephæstion=. A Macedonian courtier and commander, the
son of Amyntor of Pella; became a favorite of Alexander the Great, whom
he followed in the invasion of Persia and India. In the return of this
expedition, Hephestion and Craterus commanded a separate part of the
army. He died in 325 B.C.

=Hep-pah=, or =Hippa=. A New Zealand fort, or space surrounded with
stout palisades.

=Heptarchy.= A government of seven; said to have been established by the
Anglo-Saxons in England before the reign of Egbert (800-836 A.D.). Under
Egbert, Wessex rose to be supreme, and virtually swallowed up the
others. The common idea is that these seven kingdoms were
contemporaneous; but all that can be safely asserted is, that England in
this time was peopled by various tribes, whose leading occupation was
war; and that sometimes one was conquered, sometimes another. At no time
was there a counterpoise of power among seven of them, so that they
could be said to have a separate, much less an independent existence.
Still, seven names do survive, so as to use the term Heptarchy.

=Heraclea.= In ancient geography, a large and important city of Magna
Græcia. It was situated in Lucania, between the small streams Siris and
Aciris, a little way inland from the shore of the Tarentine Gulf. It
seems to have been colonized about 432 B.C. In the wars with Pyrrhus it
sided with Tarentum against Rome; but it afterwards abandoned its parent
state and became an ally of the Roman people. It suffered severely
during the Social war, but still retained a considerable measure of
importance and prosperity. It afterwards fell into decay.

=Heraclea.= Surnamed Minoa; in ancient geography, a Greek city of
Sicily, at the mouth of the Halycus (now the _Platani_), 20 miles
northwest from Agrigentum. The surname seems to have been originally the
name of the town, which is first mentioned in history as a colony of
Selinus. About the end of the 6th century it was recolonized by the
Spartans, and had attained to great prosperity and power, when it was
destroyed by the jealousy of the Carthaginians. After remaining in their
power for about 200 years it fell into the hands of Agathocles, and then
of Pyrrhus. It was next recovered by the Carthaginians, who retained it
to the end of the first Punic war, when the whole of Sicily was made
over to the Romans. In the second Punic war it reverted to the
Carthaginian sway, but was finally attached to the Roman empire by
Marcellus, shortly after the fall of Syracuse. After the servile war,
Heraclea was repeopled by the Romans, and continued to flourish till the
time of Cicero. It afterwards sunk into decay, and at this day its very
ruins can hardly be traced.

=Heracleidæ.= This term means, in its widest sense, all the descendants
of Heracles (Hercules), of whatever time, and in whatever district of
Greece; but is specially applied to those adventurers who, founding
their claims on their supposed descent from the great hero (to whom Zeus
had promised a portion of the land), joined the Dorians in the conquest
of the Peloponnesus. There were five different expeditions, the last and
greatest occurring eighty years after the Trojan war. The story of the
return of the Heracleidæ touches on the historical period, and though
there is much of fable and tradition, yet there seems to be also a large
substratum of truth in the records of the Greek historians.

=Heracleum.= A place near Gindarus, in the Syrian province of
Cyrrhestice, where Ventidius, the legate of M. Antony, gained his great
victory over the Parthians under Pacorus in 38 B.C.

=Herald.= An officer in the European courts, whose duty consists in the
regulation of armorial bearings, the marshaling of processions, and the
superintendence of pubic ceremonies. In the Middle Ages heralds were
highly honored, and enjoyed important privileges; their functions also
included the bearing of messages between royal personages, and
registering all chivalric exercises; the computation of the slain after
battle; and the recording of the valiant acts of the falling or
surviving combatants. The office of herald is probably as old as the
origin of coat-armor. In England the principal heraldic officers are
designated kings-of-arms, or kings-at-arms, and the novitiates or
learners are styled pursuivants. There are in England three
kings-at-arms, named by their offices Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy;
six heralds,--Somerset, Chester, Windsor, Richmond, Lancaster, and York;
and four pursuivants, called Rouge Dragon, Portcullis, Blue Mantle, and
Rouge Croix. In Scotland the principal heraldic officer is the Lyon
king-at-arms; and there are six heralds,--Snowdoun, Albany, Ross,
Rothesay, Marchmont, and Ilay; and five pursuivants,--Unicorn, Carrick,
Kintyre, Ormond, and Bute. Ireland has one king-at-arms, Ulster; two
heralds, Cork and Dublin; and two pursuivants, of whom the senior bears
the title of Athlone, and the other is called the pursuivant of St.
Patrick.

=Heraldry.= The science of armorial bearings. The practice of wearing
devices on the shields of knights was originated in the middle of the
12th century, and ever since families bear on their shield the arms of
their progenitors, which at first had been adopted either arbitrarily or
suggested by some striking episode in the life of the bearer.

=Herald’s College=, or =College of Arms=. A collegiate body, founded by
Richard III. in 1483, consisting of the heraldic officers of England,
who were assigned a habitation in the parish of Allhallows-the-Less, in
London. Various charters confirmed the privileges of the College of
Arms, and it was re-incorporated by Philip and Mary in 1554. The
presidency of the college is vested in the earl marshal, an office
hereditary in the family of Howard, duke of Norfolk. He nominates the
three kings-of-arms, six heralds, and four pursuivants, who are the
members of the collegiate chapter. The members of the college have
salaries, but derive their principal income from fees charged for
assistance in tracing pedigrees and titles, and for the granting and
registration of arms. In Scotland the corresponding functions belong to
the Lyon court. See LYON KING-AT-ARMS.

=Herat.= A city of Afghanistan, the capital of an independent state,
situated in a plain near the Hury River, 360 miles west from Cabul. This
place has often been ravaged by various conquerors, who have claimed and
won the empire of Asia. In 1220 it was taken by Genghis Khan, and in
1398 by Tamerlane. It was subsequently united to Persia; but the Afghans
took possession of it in 1715. Nadir Shah retook it in 1737, and Ahmed
Khan, an Afghan, and one of Nadir’s generals, added it to Afghanistan,
after the assassination of Nadir Shah, in 1747. Mohammed Shah marched
against Herat in 1836, and, after a long siege, the Persians were forced
to withdraw. In 1855 the Persians again made an attempt to get
possession of Herat; but, after a short war with England, desisted.

=Hercotectonique= (_Fr._). A term in fortification signifying that
branch of military architecture which specifically points out the best
means of defense and the surest method of providing stores. This word is
derived from the Greek.

=Herculean.= Very great, difficult, or dangerous; such as it would
require the strength or courage of Hercules to encounter or accomplish.

=Hercules, Pillars of.= The name given by the ancients to the two rocks
forming the entrance to the Mediterranean at the Strait of Gibraltar.
Their erection was ascribed by the Greeks to Hercules, on the occasion
of his journey to the kingdom of Geryon.

=Herefare.= An old term from the Saxon, signifying the same as warfare.

=Hereford.= The chief town of Herefordshire, England, on the Wye. During
the Saxon era, the Welsh inflicted considerable damage on this city; it
also suffered greatly in the wars of the barons, and under the
Plantagenets. During the civil war it held loyally to the cause of the
king, and was one of the last places that yielded to the Parliament.

=Heregeld.= A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a tax which was
formerly levied for maintaining an army.

=Herera.= In Aragon. Here Don Carlos of Spain, in his struggle for his
hereditary right to the throne, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered
and defeated (August 24, 1837) Gen. Buerens, who had not much above half
that number of royal troops.

=Hereslita=, or =Heresilia=. A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a
soldier who abandons his colors, or deserts the service.

=Heretoch=, or =Heretog=. The leader or commander of an army; also, a
constable; a marshal.

=Heretum.= A court in which the guards or military retinue that usually
attended the old British nobility and bishops were accustomed to parade
or draw up.

=Hergate.= A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a tribute which was
paid in ancient times to the lord of the soil, to enable him to carry on
a war.

=Herisson.= A formidable hedge or chevaux-de-frise; made of one stout
beam fenced by a number of iron spikes, and which, being fixed upon a
pivot, revolves in every direction upon being touched, always presenting
a front of pikes.

=Hermandad= (_Sp._). “Brotherhood.” An association of the principal
cities of Castile and Aragon, bound together by a solemn league and
covenant for the defense of their liberties in seasons of trouble. The
most noteworthy (called _Santa Hermandad_, or Holy Brotherhood) was
established in the middle of the 13th century in Aragon, and in Castile
about thirty years later; while in 1295, 35 cities of Castile and Leon
formed a joint confederacy, and entered into a compact, by which they
pledged themselves to take summary vengeance on every noble who had
either robbed or injured a member of their association, and refused to
make just atonement for the wrong; or upon any one who should attempt,
even by the order of the king, to levy an unjust tax. Isabella of
Castile, seeing the beneficial effects which an extension of the
institution was capable of producing, obtained the sanction of the
Cortes for its thorough reorganization and extension over the whole
kingdom in 1496. In 1498, the objects of the Hermandad having been
obtained, and public order established on a firm basis, the brotherhood
was disorganized and reduced to an ordinary police, such as it has
existed, with various modifications of form, to the present century.

=Herminia Gens.= A very ancient patrician house at Rome, which appears
in the first Etruscan war with the republic, 506 B.C.; vanishes from
history in 448.

=Hermunduri.= One of the most powerful nations of Germany; belonged to
the Suevic race. They were for a long time the allies of the Romans; but
along with the other German tribes they assisted the Marcomanni in the
great war against the Romans in the reign of M. Aurelius. After this
time they are rarely mentioned as a separate people, but are included
under the general name of Suevi.

=Hernici.= A people in Latium; belonged to the Sabine race. They
inhabited the mountains of the Apennines between the Lake Fucinus and
the river Trerus. They were a brave and warlike people, and long offered
a formidable resistance to the Romans. They were finally subdued by the
Romans in 306 B.C.

=Hero.= A man of distinguished valor, intrepidity, or enterprise in
danger; a prominent or central personage in any remarkable action or
event; hence, a great, illustrious, or extraordinary person.

=Hero.= In mythology, an illustrious man, supposed by the populace to
partake of immortality, and after his death to be placed among the gods.

=Heroic.= Pertaining to, or like, a hero or heroes; as, heroic valor.
Becoming a hero; bold; daring; illustrious; as, heroic action; heroic
enterprises.

=Heroic Age.= The age when the heroes, or those called the children of
the gods, are supposed to have lived.

=Heroically.= In the manner of a hero; with valor; bravely;
courageously; intrepidly; as, the town was heroically defended.

=Heroine.= A female hero; a woman of a brave spirit. The principal
female person who figures in a remarkable action.

=Heroism.= The qualities of a hero; bravery; courage; intrepidity.

=Heroship.= The character of a hero.

=Herrings, Battle of the.= Fought on February 12, 1429, when the English
were besieging Orleans. It obtained its name from the Duc de Bourbon
attempting to intercept a convoy of salt fish on the road to the English
camp before Orleans, and in which he was defeated.

=Herse= (from the Fr. _herise_). In fortification, a grated door,
formed by strong pieces of wood joined crosswise, and stuck full of iron
spikes. It is usually hung by a rope, and fastened to a moulinet, which
is cut in case of a surprise, or when the first gate is forced by a
petard, so that it may fall like a portcullis and stop the passage of a
gate or other entrance of a fortress.

=Hersillon.= A strong beam, whose sides are stuck full of spikes, which
is thrown across the breach made by an enemy to render it impassable.

=Hertford.= The capital of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lee. It is a
very ancient town: the castle was founded in 909. In the reign of John
it was seized by the French dauphin, and under Edward III. the kings of
France and Scotland were secured in it.

=Heruli.= An ancient German tribe, first mentioned among the Gothic
nations when these latter had established themselves on the north coast
of the Euxine, in the reigns of Gallienus and Claudius. In the reign of
Valentinian they are mentioned as being in the service of Rome, fighting
against the Alemanni. In the 5th century they allied themselves with the
other German tribes, and under Odoacer, in 476, they overthrew the
Western empire.

=Hesse.= A territory in Western Germany, the seat of the Catti; formed
part of the empire of Charlemagne; from the rulers of it in his time the
present are descended. It was joined to Thuringia till about 1263, when
Henry I. became landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable of his
successors was Philip, who signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, and
the League of Smalcald in 1531. At his death Hesse was divided in
Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, and in 1803 the former became an
electorate, and the latter a grand duchy. Hesse-Cassel was incorporated
with Prussia in 1866, and Hesse-Darmstadt became a part of the North
German Confederation in 1867, and as such it took part in the
Franco-Prussian war in 1870.

=Hessians.= Troops belonging to Hesse-Cassel, Prussia. They have been
frequently hired by Great Britain, particularly in the war of American
independence, when they were sold at £40 sterling a head, £9 of which
was to be repaid if they returned alive.

=Hetman=, or =Ataman=. A word derived from the German, which signifies
the chief of a troop. The chief general of the old Polish armies was
called _Hetman Wielki_, and the second general _Hetman Polny_. The chief
or general of the Cossacks is likewise invested with this title by the
czar of Russia.

=Heurtequins= (_Fr._). Two pieces of iron resembling a knocker, which
are placed over the trunnions, or axis of a cannon.

=Heuse= (_Fr._). An iron shoe, sometimes called _pedieux_, attached to
the greaves of ancient armor, having an iron sole, and the upper
composed of mail.

=Hexagonal Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Hexham.= A town of England, in Northumberland, situated a little below
the confluence of the north and south Tyne, 21 miles west from
Newcastle. This town is chiefly remarkable for the antiquities with
which it is surrounded, and the historical events connected with it. The
neighborhood abounds with ruined castles, monuments of battles and
heroes; with Roman relics, altars, inscriptions, etc. The cathedral, or
priory church of Hexham, was founded in 674, and was destroyed by the
Danes. In 1463, a battle was fought in the neighborhood between the
houses of York and Lancaster, in which the Yorkists gained the victory.
As an interesting historical event, it may be remarked that it was in
flying from this field that Queen Margaret threw herself on the
protection of a robber, and the cave in which she concealed herself and
the Prince of Wales is still pointed out.

=Hibernia=, =Ibernia=, =Ivernia=, and =Ierne=. The names by which
Ireland is designated in the classical writers. See IRELAND.

=Hibernian Royal School.= A school established in Great Britain for the
maintenance of 350 children of military officers who are supported and
educated at this school, at an expense of £7000 per annum to the
country.

=Hierarchy, Military.= The essential element for the government and
service of an army is a military hierarchy, or the creation of different
grades of rank, to which different functions and powers are assigned,
the lower in regular subordination to the next higher in the ascending
scale. It should be founded on the principle that every one acts in an
army under the orders of a superior, who exercises his authority only
within the limits established by law. This authority of the superior
should be greater or less according to rank and position, and be
proportioned to his responsibilities. Orders should be executed without
hesitation; but responsibilities should be confined to him who gives
orders in virtue of the superior authority with which he is invested; to
him who takes the initiative in an order; to him who does not execute an
order that he has received; and to him who usurps a command, or
continues illegally to exercise its functions. The military hierarchy is
determined and consecrated within its sphere of action by grades of rank
created by military laws, by other laws regulating the exercise of rank,
by military insignia, by military honors, and by the military oath.

=High Treason.= Treason against the state, being the highest civil
offense. See TREASON.

=Highlanders.= Properly speaking, are the Celtic inhabitants of the
Highlands of Scotland. In the army of Great Britain, it denotes the
eight regiments who are uniformed in the Highland dress, including a
distinctive tartan, and are as follows: 42d (see BLACK WATCH), 71st,
72d, 74th, 78th, 79th, 92d, and 93d. These regiments are recruited in
the Highlands.

=Hilt.= The handle of anything, especially of a cutting instrument, as a
knife or sword.

=Hilted.= Having a hilt. Also a term used in heraldry to indicate the
tincture of the handle of a sword.

=Hilton Head.= A village on an island of the same name, forming part of
Beaufort District, S. C., at the mouth of Broad River. It was taken from
the Confederates by the U. S. forces after a severe naval engagement in
November, 1861.

=Himera.= A celebrated city on the north coast of Sicily. Here the
Carthaginians were defeated with great slaughter by the united forces of
Theron and Gelon of Syracuse, 480 B.C. It assisted Syracuse against the
Athenians in 415 B.C. In 409 B.C. it was taken by Hannibal, the son of
Gisco, who, to revenge the great defeat which the Carthaginians had
suffered before the town, leveled it to the ground, and destroyed almost
all the inhabitants.

=Hindostan.= See INDIA.

=Hircarrah=, or =Hircarra=. An Indian term for a messenger, guide,
footman, or spy.

=Hiring of Duty.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 36, 37.

=Hirpini.= An inland people of Italy who inhabited the southern portion
of Samnium. In the early history of Rome the Hirpini are found
identifying themselves with their Samnite neighbors against their common
foes. They seem to have been subdued in the early part of the 3d century
B.C. They appear as an independent people in the second Punic year.
Revolting from their old conquerors, they joined the Carthaginian
invaders, and, though they were unable to recapture their stronghold of
Beneventum, they remained faithful to Hannibal till the defeat at the
Metaurus restored the empire of Italy to his opponents. In the year of
that event the Hirpini made their peace with their old masters by
betraying into their hands the garrisons of their allies. From this time
till the outbreak of the Social war, the Hirpini seem to have continued
steadfast in their allegiance. On that occasion, however, they set the
example of revolt to the allies, and might have become formidable
enemies, had not the rapid successes of Sulla induced them to repair
their error by complete submission. After the close of the war the
Hirpini do not appear in history as an independent people.

=Hispalis.= See SEVILLE.

=Histiæa.= An ancient city of Eubœa. It was taken by the Athenians
during the Persian wars, but they revolted from that people, and was
again subdued, the old inhabitants of the city were expelled, and 2000
Athenian colonists settled in their stead, and its name changed to
_Oreus_. In the war between Philip and the Greeks, Oreus was frequently
contested, and in 200 B.C. it was stormed by the Romans.

=History, Military.= A narrative of military transactions, campaigns,
battles, sieges, marches, etc., of an army. It likewise means a
relation of the heroic actions of great generals, etc.

=Hit.= To reach with a stroke or blow; especially, to reach or touch an
object aimed at, as a mark; to strike or touch, usually with force. Also
a striking against; the collision of one body against another; the
stroke or blow that touches anything.

=Hitch.= A knot or noose in a rope for fastening it to a ring or other
object; as, a clove hitch, a timber hitch.

=Hivites.= A Canaanitish people, who in the time of Jacob are found
occupying the uplands of Ephraim, and later the slopes of Hermon and
region westward towards Tyre. They were conquered by the Hebrews, and
they became menial subjects of Solomon.

=Hobeliers.= In the Middle Ages, a species of light horsemen, chiefly
intended for reconnoitring, carrying intelligence, harassing troops on a
march, intercepting convoys, and pursuing a routed army; the smallness
of their horses rendering them unfit to stand the shock of a charge.
Spelman derives the name from _hobby_, a small horse. Camden used the
word _Hoblers_ for certain light horsemen, who were bound by the tenure
of their lands to maintain a light horse, for giving notice of any
invasion made by enemies, or such like peril towards the sea-side.

=Hobits.= Small mortars of 6 or 8 inches bore mounted on gun-carriages;
they were in use before the howitzer.

=Hochebos= (_Fr._). Certain soldiers among the ancients, who were so
called from their brandishing the pike. This word has likewise been
applied to the pike itself.

=Hochkirch.= A village of Saxony, 7 miles southeast of Bautzen. Here
Frederick the Great was completely defeated by the Austrians under Daun,
October 14, 1758. A conflict between the Russians and Prussians and the
French, in which the latter were victorious, took place here May 22,
1813.

=Hochstadt.= A town of Bavaria, situated on the left bank of the Danube.
It is noted for a battle, generally known as the battle of Blenheim
(which see), in which the French and Bavarians were defeated by the Duke
of Marlborough and Prince Eugène, and which took place between this town
and Blenheim in 1704. In 1800, the French under Moreau totally defeated
the Austrians near here.

=Hohenlinden.= A village of Bavaria. It is noted for the defeat of the
Austrian army in 1800, by the French under Moreau.

=Hohenstaufen.= A celebrated family of German princes, which kept
possession of the imperial throne from 1138 to 1254, and died out in
1268. The first of the line was Friedrich von Büren, who received the
name on account of having removed his dwelling from a valley _auf den
Staufen_ (“up the hill” or “mountain”). His son Friedrich von Staufen,
or Hohenstaufen, served under Henry IV., and distinguished himself
greatly in the battle of Merseburg, for which the king awarded him the
duchy of Swabia. He also fought against the pope in Italy, while
holding the position of regent of Germany. Died in 1105.

=Hohenzollern.= The name of an ancient princely German family, from
which the kings of Prussia are descended. The name is derived from the
castle of Zollern, in Swabia, which is said to have been built by
Tassillon or Thasilio about 800.

=Hoist.= To raise; to lift, or bear upward by means of tackle, as a
flag, etc. The perpendicular height of a flag, as opposed to the _fly_,
or breadth from the staff to the outer edge.

=Hold.= A place of security; a fortified place; a fort; a castle; often
called a _stronghold_.

=Hold.= To keep one’s self in a given position or condition; to remain
fixed; as, not to move; to halt; to stop. Not to give way; not to part
or become separated; to remain unbroken. _To hold one’s own_, to keep
up; not to lose ground or be left behind.

=Hold Out, To.= To maintain any place, ground, etc., resolutely against
an enemy.

=Hold-all.= A portable case for holding small articles required by
soldiers, marines, etc.

=Holland.= A kingdom in Northwest Europe, the chief part of the Northern
Netherlands, composed of land rescued from the sea, and defended by
immense dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time of Cæsar, who
made a league with them. It became part of Gallia Belgica, and
afterwards of the kingdom of Austria. From the 10th to the 15th century
it was governed by counts under the German emperors. It was conquered by
the French in 1795, and subsequently brought into the condition of a
province of France under Napoleon; the emperor’s brother, Louis, being
created king of Holland. It was delivered from the French yoke in 1813.
See NETHERLANDS.

=Hollow Projectile.= Shell, case-shot, etc. See PROJECTILES, etc.

=Hollow Square.= The form in which a body of foot is drawn up with an
empty space in the middle for the colors, drums, baggage, etc. A body of
troops formed into a square to resist the charge of cavalry on critical
occasions.

=Hollow Tower.= A rounding made of the remainder of two brisures, to
join the curtain to the orillon, where the small shot are placed, that
they may not be so much exposed to the view of the enemy.

=Hollow Way.= Any pass or road, both sides of which are commanded by
heights.

=Holstein.= An extensive duchy of Germany, formerly a dependency of
Denmark. The king of Denmark had originally a seat at the German Diet on
account of his Holstein possessions, but in 1806, on the formation of
the Confederation of the Rhine, this privilege was lost; but in 1815 he
was admitted into the Germanic Confederation. In 1848 this duchy, with
Schleswig, attempted to gain its independence; but, after some severe
fighting, it was reduced to obedience in 1850. In 1863 the struggle was
renewed; and, under the pretext of separating this duchy, together with
that of Schleswig, from Denmark, and of annexing it to the Germanic
Confederation, an allied Austrian and Prussian army invaded the country
and drove out the Danes, after a short but desperate struggle. It was
annexed to Prussia after the Prussian-Austrian war (1866), and now forms
a part of the North German Confederation.

=Holsters.= Leathern cases for pistols, affixed to the pommel of the
saddle. They are frequently covered with wool or fur, to prevent injury
to the rider in the event of his being thrown forward upon them. They
are also worn on a belt.

=Holstered.= Bearing holsters; as, a holstered steed.

=Holy Alliance.= A league formed after the fall of Napoleon by the
sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, nominally to regulate the
relations of the states of Christendom by the principles of Christian
charity, but really to preserve the power and influence of the existing
dynasties. Most of the other European rulers acceded to it, and the
treaty was made public February 2, 1816. A special article of the treaty
excluded forever the members of the Bonaparte family from any European
throne. But after the secession of England and France the alliance
became practically obsolete.

=Holy Ghost, Order of the.= A Roman Catholic order consisting of
hospital knights, which was founded in the 12th century, and ceased to
exist as a knightly order in 1700.

=Holy Island=, or =Lindisfarne=. An island off the coast of
Northumberland, 8 miles southeast from Berwick-on-Tweed, and is
connected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus or neck of sand. On the
south of the island lies the town, and near it are the ruins of an old
abbey which the Danes destroyed in 900.

=Holy League.= A name applied to several combinations of sovereigns or
princes of Europe for warlike or defensive purposes. The first was
organized in 1510 by the pope, Venice and Spain against Louis XII. of
France. But the most important of all was _the holy league_, so called
by way of eminence, which was organized at Perrone in 1576, and lasted
till 1593, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France to the
throne.

=Holy Sepulchre, Knights of the.= An order of knighthood instituted
probably by Pope Alexander VI., for the guardianship of the Holy
Sepulchre, and the relief and protection of pilgrims. The pope was
originally the grand master, but he subsequently ceded his rights to the
Guardian Father of the Holy Sepulchre. The knights must, by the rules of
the order, be all of noble descent; they were bound to hear mass daily,
to fight, to live, and to die for the Christian faith, etc. In return
for these duties, the knights had the most unusual and extraordinary
privileges conferred on them; they were exempt from taxation, could
marry, and yet possess church property, legitimize bastards, cut down
and bury the bodies of criminals who had been hanged. On the recapture
of Jerusalem by the Turks, the knights retired to Italy, and settled at
Perugia. After a temporary union with the Hospitallers, the order was
reconstructed in 1814 both in France and in Poland, and is still in
existence within a very small circle of knights elected by the Guardian
Father from the most respectable pilgrims who come to Jerusalem.

=Holy Wars.= See CRUSADE.

=Homelden.= In Northumberland, England, where the Scots, headed by the
Earl of Douglas, were defeated by the Percies (among them Hotspur),
September 14, 1402.

=Home-service.= Consists in military operations and arrangements for the
immediate defense of our own country, should it be threatened by
invasion, or by domestic broils or insurrections.

=Homme d’Armes= (_Fr._). A military phrase among the French, signifying
a gentleman or cavalier who belonged to one of the old companies, was
armed _cap-a-pie_, and always fought on horseback. In ancient times,
every man of this description was accompanied by two horsemen
independent of his servants. One of the mounted attendants was armed
with a cross-bow, and the other with a common bow or battle-axe; so that
100 _hommes d’armes_ composed a body of 300 horse. It was a species of
cavalry which existed from the reign of Louis XI. until the reign of
Henry II.

=Honduras.= A republican state of the confederation of Central America;
being bounded north by the Caribbean Sea and Bay of Honduras, southeast
by the Mosquito Territory and Nicaragua, south by San Salvador and the
Bay of Conchagua, on the Pacific, and west by Guatemala.

=Honeycomb.= A defect in guns resembling the cells of wax in which the
bee stores her honey. These flaws in the metal arise either from
careless or imperfect casting, or from long disuse of a gun and exposure
to damp. A honeycombed gun is liable to burst in firing.

=Hong-Kong.= An island off the coast of China; was taken by Capt.
Elliott, August 23, 1839, and ceded to Great Britain, January 20, 1841.

=Honi Soit Qui Mal y Pense= (_Fr._). See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=Honor.= In a general acceptation may be properly called a consciousness
of worth and virtue in the individual, and a lively desire to preserve
the reputation of virtue. As a term, it is variously used in military
life. As a quality of the mind, it cannot be too much encouraged or too
much cultivated among military men of all ranks and descriptions. The
possession of it is a guarantee for good conduct, a bond of fidelity,
and a certain barrier against military corruption. Men are excited to
deeds of valor and enterprise by a sense of honor, who would otherwise
remain inactive, or only perform the mere drudgery of service. This term
may likewise be considered as esteem, reputation, the glory which is
attached by mankind to talents and virtues.

=Honor, Affair of.= A transaction connected with a duel, or a challenge
to fight a duel; a duel itself.

=Honor, Court of.= Is a species of board of inquiry, which has not only
the power of ascertaining the degree of guilt which may be attached to
misconduct, but of pronouncing an opinion which may or may not entail
ignominy upon the guilty persons. See COURT OF HONOR.

=Honor, Debt of.= An obligation which among honorable men, especially
officers, is more binding than those engagements or contracts that are
guaranteed by law. The reason is manifest.

=Honor, Point of.= A nice discrimination in matters affecting one’s
honor. A delicacy of feeling, which is generally acquired by education,
and strengthened by intercourse with men of strict integrity and good
conduct. It is likewise very frequently the offspring of peculiar
habits, received notions, and established etiquettes; also, a minute
distinction; a punctilio.

=Honor, Signatures upon.= Are instruments, such as declarations of
officers on vouchers for allowances, pay, etc., that are guaranteed by
the names of individuals, without oath.

=Honor, Word of.= A promise or engagement that is made or entered into
by word of mouth, the breach of which entails disgrace upon the
violator. _To die upon the bed of honor_, is a term particularly applied
to military men, who die in battle fighting in their country’s cause.

=Honors of War.= A compliment granted on capitulation to a garrison
which has made a gallant defense. The exact nature of the honors
accorded have varied in different ages and on different occasions.
Ordinarily they are as follows: The garrison marches out through the gap
in the breach, if there is one, with arms and personal baggage. The
drums beat, the colors fly, officers carry their swords drawn, and the
men their bayonets fixed. A certain number of guns--ordinarily
two--accompany the force, and formerly the gunners carried lighted
matches. On reaching the glacis the garrison--unless it is one of the
stipulations that it is to join the main army--forms up and grounds
arms, only the officers retaining their swords, and is marched off under
escort.

=Honvéd.= The name given in Hungary under the earlier kings to the
national champions. With the disappearance of these, the word too
disappeared; but in the summer of 1848 it was revived, and applied first
to those Hungarian volunteers dispatched to the south against the
Servians, and subsequently, when the war with Austria really commenced,
to the whole patriotic army. Still, in common parlance, the term honvéd
is used only with reference to the Hungarian infantry.

=Hood= (Sp. _tapadera_). A leather cover for the stirrup of a saddle.

=Hooghly.= A town of Bengal, and the capital of a district of the same
name, situated on the west hank of the Hooghly River, 27 miles north
from Calcutta. This place is supposed to have been founded by the
Portuguese about 1538, and after their expulsion in 1632 by the Mogul
troops, it became the imperial port of the Mogul empire. In 1757 it was
taken by the British; it was retaken shortly after by Surajah Dowlah,
but ultimately fell, after a few months, into the hands of the British
under Lord Clive.

=Hooks.= Pieces of bent iron fixed to the transom plates of a
field-carriage are so called. They serve to fix the bricoles or ropes
for drawing it occasionally backwards or forwards.

=Hookum.= An Indian word, signifying order or command.

=Hookummaumeh.= In India, signifies a letter of instructions, or the
paper that contains orders.

=Hoplital= (Fr. _hoplites_). Foot-soldiers among the Greeks, who bore
heavy armor, and engaged with broad shields and long spears. These took
precedence of all other foot-soldiers.

=Horde.= A wandering troop or gang; especially a clan or tribe of a
nomadic people possessing no fixed habitations, but migrating from place
to place for the sake of pasturage, plunder, or the like cause.

=Hordearium.= The money which the Romans gave their cavalry for the
sustenance of their horses.

=Horion= (_Fr._). A term which formerly signified a helmet, and which in
the vulgar acceptation of it now, among the French, means a blow upon
the head.

=Horizon= (Gr. _orizo_, I bound or terminate). In astronomy and
geography, is the plane of the great circle of the sphere, dividing the
visible from the invisible hemisphere. The horizon is either _sensible_
or _rational_. The sensible horizon is a plane which is a tangent to the
earth’s surface at the place of the spectator, extended on all sides
till it is bounded by the sky; the rational horizon is a plane parallel
to the former, but passing through the centre of the earth. Both the
sensible and rational horizon are relative terms, and change with every
change of the spectator’s position on the surface of the earth; in all
cases they are perpendicular to the direction of gravity.

=Horizontal Fire.= The fire of guns and howitzers under low angles of
elevation.

=Horizontal Plane.= That which is parallel to the horizon; a plane
tangent to the surface of the earth, at the place.

=Horizontal Range.= In gunnery, is the distance to which a piece of
ordnance will project a ball on a horizontal plane. Supposing no
resistance from the atmosphere, the greatest range would be when the
piece is elevated at an angle of 45°; and in all other positions the
horizontal range would be as the sine of twice the angle of elevation.
In a resisting medium the maximum horizontal range requires the
elevation to be less than 45°. It is found by experience that, with the
ordinary velocity, a cannon-shot ranges the farthest when the elevation
of the piece is about 30°.

=Hornwork.= A kind of work in advance of a fortification, akin to a
crown-work, but consisting of only one curtain and two half-bastions.

=Hors de Combat.= A French military phrase, signifying that an
individual or body of men are so completely beaten as not to be able to
maintain the field of battle. _Mettre hors de combat_, to drive your
opponent before you; to press him so closely that he cannot make a stand
against you; to put him out of the lists of contests. To be wounded or
incapable of individual effort, is also being _hors de combat_.

=Horse.= A military term for a body of cavalry.

=Horse Artillery.= Is that portion of the artillery which usually serves
with cavalry, and in which the cannoneers are mounted on horseback, to
enable them to conform with the rapid movements of that arm of the
service. Possessing, from their lighter construction and mounted
detachments, much greater locomotive powers than other field-batteries,
they are especially adapted for following the rapid evolutions of
cavalry, for sudden attacks upon particular points, and for supporting
the advance, or covering the retreat of an army.

=Horse, Associated.= A body of cavalry so called in the days of
Cromwell. At the famous battle of Naseby (June 14, 1645), which decided
the fate of Charles I., the Associated Horse were posted in the rear of
the right wing of the Republican army, and formed a part of the reserve.
Cromwell commanded the cavalry on the right of the whole, and the
Associated Horse were under his immediate orders.

=Horse, Cavalry and Artillery.= Horses generally make in a minute, at
ordinary pace, 120 steps, and they cover 110 yards; at a trot, 180
steps, covering 220 yards; and at a gallop, 100 steps or strides,
covering 352 yards; from which it would appear that the length of the
stride at the ordinary pace is about 0.917 yard, and that the velocity
corresponds to about 1.74 yards per second; and at a trot the stride is
about 1.28 yards and the speed about 3.68 yards per second; and at a
gallop the stride is about 3.52 yards, with a speed of about 5.87 yards
per second. A good horse carrying a weight of 225 pounds, can travel,
without over-exertion, 25 miles in a day of from seven to eight hours;
his speed in this case would be between 1.75 and 1.53 yards per second.
The weight of an average-sized horse is about from 900 to 1350 pounds.
The age of the horse is determined by the appearance of the teeth, which
vary according to the number of years the animal has attained, and may
be easily understood by a slight attention to the subject; the number,
quality, and size of the teeth indicating the respective ages. The lower
front teeth or nippers are those by which the age of a colt is usually
determined. At two years old these teeth will be complete; that is to
say, the colt will have a full set, six in number, of milch-teeth.
Between two and three years old the two centre teeth are displaced, and
two permanent teeth succeed them, easily distinguished from colt’s teeth
by being broader, larger, and having a dark cavity in the centre of the
upper surface. At three years old the colt will have in the lower jaw
two permanent and four colt’s teeth; between the third and fourth year
the next pair of incisor teeth will be shed, and permanent teeth succeed
them. At four years old there will be four permanent teeth in the
centre, and two colt’s teeth at each corner of the lower jaw. Between
the fourth and fifth year the last remaining colt’s nipper, or corner
tooth, will be cast; and, if a horse or gelding, the tushes, four in
number, will show themselves, two in the upper and two in the lower jaw.
At five years old the horse will have a full or complete set of
permanent teeth in the upper and lower jaws; for the same change that
takes place in the lower is developed in the upper jaw also. The colt at
this age takes the name of horse, and is supposed to be equal to all the
laborious duties expected from him. Although we can no longer judge of
his age by the shifting or shedding of his teeth, we can form a
tolerably correct conclusion from other appearances of them. At six
years old the dark oval-shaped mark in the centre of the two front
nippers, usually called by horsemen “the bean,” will be nearly or quite
worn away; the tushes higher and stronger, and the cavities of the
interior part of the tooth more filled; the two corner nippers level
with the others, and equally developed. At seven years old the marks in
the second pair of nippers are filled up, and the tushes become more
round externally and internally. At eight years old the marks in the
corner nippers are worn out, and the tushes more round and blunt. From
this age the animal is said to be, in horse phraseology, “past
knowledge”; and although a tolerably correct opinion may be formed for
many years to come by the appearance of the upper jaw and other
prognostics, still they cannot be implicitly relied on. It often occurs
at a much earlier period that the best judges of age are deceived by the
untimely structural alteration of the teeth, produced by mechanical or
pathological causes, such as crib-biting, biting the rack or manger,
eating hard food, etc. Horses used for cavalry in the United States are
selected with regard to climate, the American horse east of the Rocky
Mountains, and what is known as the Mexican or _bronco_, west of the
Rocky Mountains; the power of endurance of the latter being much more
than that of the former, they are better adapted to the rugged, arid
country that an American cavalry soldier has to travel over on the
western frontier. For artillery large, strong American horses are used.
A horse occupies a space in the ranks of a front of 40 inches, a depth
of 10 feet; in a stall, from 3¹⁄₂ to 4¹⁄₂ feet front; at picket 3 feet
by 9. Cavalry horses usually charge at the rate of 24 miles per hour, or
one mile in 2¹⁄₂ minutes. See PACK AND DRAUGHT HORSES.

=Horse Guards.= The name was applied to a large public office in
Whitehall, London, appropriated to the departments under the
general-commanding-in-chief, and guarded by a squadron of Horse Guards.
In 1871 the headquarters were removed to Pall Mall.

=Horse Guards, Royal= (Oxford Blues). Is the third heavy cavalry
regiment of the Household Brigade (English). The regiment was raised in
1661 from the remnants of the disbanded army of the late Commonwealth.
It took part in Marlborough’s campaigns; served under the Duke of
Wellington in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, and has always been
considered one of the finest heavy cavalry corps in the world.

=Horseman.= A mounted soldier.

=Horsemanship.= The act or art of riding, and of training and managing
horses; manege.

=Horse-power.= A measure for the quantity of work of which an engine or
motor is capable in a given time. It is 33,000 foot-pounds in one
minute.

=Horse-shoe.= In fortification, is a small round or oval work, with a
parapet; generally made in a ditch, or marsh.

=Horse-tail.= A Turkish standard. Commanders are distinguished by the
number of horse-tails carried before them, or planted in front of their
tents. Thus, the sultan has seven, the grand vizier five, and the pashas
three, two, or one.

=Hospital.= A place appointed for the sick and wounded men, provided
with physicians, surgeons, nurses, servants, medicines, beds, etc.

=Hospital, Field.= Is the staff and apparatus for the surgical treatment
of the wounded in the field, and the locality assigned for the resort of
the latter to obtain it. In the United States there is a hospital at
every military post, under the superintendence of the army medical
department.

=Hospital, Regimental.= In Great Britain, each regiment has a hospital
for the reception of the sick belonging to it. This hospital is under
the immediate care of the regimental surgeon, who is subordinate to the
general medical board.

=Hospital Steward.= In the U. S. service, is a non-commissioned officer
of the general staff, whose duty consists in making up prescriptions,
administering medicines, and in a general supervision of the sick, under
the instructions of an army medical officer.

=Hospital Tent.= A large tent used for hospital purposes. See TENT.

=Hospitallers.= A celebrated brotherhood founded at various times and in
different countries for the care of the sick in hospitals. The vow to
devote themselves to this work of mercy is, in all these brotherhoods,
superadded to the ordinary vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience,
which are common to all the religious orders in the Roman Catholic
Church. One of the earliest recorded instances of a hospital served by
such a brotherhood is that of Constance, in the 13th century. See SAINT
JOHN OF JERUSALEM and TEUTONIC KNIGHTS.

=Hospodar.= A title borne by the governors of Wallachia and Moldavia,
under the Turks. Although nominated by the porte, they possessed
absolute power within their own dominions. By the treaty of Adrianople
in 1829, the principalities were placed under Russian protection, and
from that time till the treaty of Paris in 1856, the hospodars were
virtually the nominees of Russia.

=Host.= An army; any large body of men assembled together in arms.

=Hostages.= Are persons given in pledge for the performance of
conditions. When a town capitulates, victors and vanquished usually give
into the custody, one of the other, several officers, as pledges that
each party will duly carry out the terms stipulated. When the terms are
fulfilled, the hostages are exchanged; but if the terms be evaded, the
opposite side holds the right to put to death, or otherwise punish, the
hostages in its possession; of late years the practice is going out of
use.

=Hostile.= Belonging to an enemy; appropriate to an enemy; showing
ill-will and malevolence, or a desire to thwart and injure; occupied by
an enemy or a hostile people; inimical; unfriendly; as, a hostile force,
hostile country, etc.

=Hostilities.= A rupture between the natives of different countries. The
first hostile act that is committed by either party is considered the
commencement of hostilities. Between nations, the first act of hostility
presupposes a declaration of war.

=Hosting.= An encounter; a battle. A muster or review. This term is now
obsolete.

=Hot Shot.= Shot made red-hot for the purpose of setting fire to
buildings, shipping, etc. The charges for hot shot are from one-fourth
to one-sixth the weight of the shot. With small velocities, the shot
splits and splinters the wood, so as to render it favorable for burning.
With great velocity the ball sinks into the wood, is deprived of air by
the closing of the hole, and chars instead of burning the surrounding
wood. It should not penetrate deeper than 10 or 12 inches. Red-hot
balls do not set fire to the wood until some time after their
penetration. They retain sufficient heat to ignite wood after having
made several ricochets upon water. The wads for hot shot should be made
of clay or hay, the latter to be well soaked in water, and before being
used, the water pressed out of it. With proper precautions in loading,
the ball may be permitted to cool in the gun without igniting the
charge. The piece, however, should be fired with as little delay as
possible, as the vapor would diminish the strength of the powder. They
are heated by means of furnaces erected for the purpose, which hold
sixty or more shot. The shot being placed, and the furnace cold, it
requires one hour and fifteen minutes to heat them to a red heat; but
after the furnace is once heated, a 24-pounder shot is brought to a red
heat in twenty-five minutes. Red-hot shot is not in general use.

=Hotchkiss Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Hotchkiss Revolving Cannon.= Consists of five barrels grouped around a
common axis; they are revolved in front of a solid breech-block, which
has in one part an opening to introduce the cartridges, and another
opening through which to extract the empty shells. The cartridges are
fired after being revolved and while motionless in front of the solid
portion of the breech. In exterior aspect it resembles the Gatling gun,
but is entirely different in its interior mechanism. See MACHINE GUNS.

=Hotchkiss Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Hôtel des Invalides= (_Fr._). A spacious building which was erected by
Louis XIV. in Paris, upon the river Seine, as a public monument of his
charity and munificence. All disabled, infirm, and wounded officers and
soldiers were received, lodged, and subsisted during the remainder of
their lives within its walls.

=Hotte= (_Fr._). A sort of hand-basket, which is often made use of in
the construction of batteries and other works, and serves to carry earth
from one place to another. Hence the word _hod_, a well-known machine
for carrying bricks.

=Hougines= (_Fr._). Parts of ancient armor covering the thighs, legs,
and arms.

=Hounds.= Are pieces of wood used in the construction of limbers for
gun-carriages to connect the splinter-bar with the axle.

=Hours of Sitting= (Courts-martial). See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 94.

=Household Troops.= See GUARDS.

=Housing.= Cover or cloth over or under a horse’s saddle used for
cleanliness, or as an ornamental or military appendage; a saddle-cloth;
a horse-cloth.

=Howitzer= (derived by Grimm and Littré from the Bohemian _haufnice_,
“catapult”). A short, light cannon, having a chamber intended to throw
large projectiles with comparatively small charges. A howitzer is of
larger caliber than a gun of like weight; is mounted in a similar
manner, and is used for shorter ranges. It is said to have been first
introduced by the Dutch in the early part of the 17th century, and soon
afterward came into almost general use. The Russians in 1777 introduced
the _licorne_, an improved howitzer. Howitzers project larger shells
than guns with which they are associated; are well adapted for ricochet
fire, the destruction of field-works, breaking down palisades, and
setting fire to buildings; and the projectiles used are shells,
spherical-case, canister, grape, and carcasses. Howitzers, except for
siege and mountain service, are no longer manufactured in the United
States, as our present guns are equally suitable for shell-firing in
field or garrison service. The ones now in use in the U. S. service are
8-inch and 24-pounder mountain howitzers. The former is used for siege
purposes, and for the defense of ditches in fortifications. The
24-pounder flank defense howitzer, now out of use, was formerly employed
for this purpose. The 8-inch howitzer has, strictly speaking, no
chamber; the bore is, however, terminated by a semi-ellipsoid, the axis
being 6 inches in length. This piece weighs 2600 pounds, and the shell
(not filled) 45 pounds. The mountain howitzer (12-pounder) is a small,
light, bronze piece about 3 feet long, weighing 220 pounds, capable of
being easily removed from its carriage, and transported upon the back of
a mule. The shell weighs, when strapped and charged, 9.35 pounds, and
the maximum range of the piece is about 1000 yards. There are two
distinct kinds of carriage used with it, one similar to the carriage of
the ordinary field-piece, but smaller and lighter, the other having four
wheels and called the prairie carriage. This piece has been extensively
employed in our numerous Indian wars upon the plains and mountains of
the West, and has done good service.

=Hualpais=, or =Hualapais Indians=. A tribe of aborigines who are
located on the Colorado River near the Mojaves.

=Hub.= The hilt of a weapon; as, to drive a dagger into a body up to the
hub.

=Hubbardton.= A village of Rutland Co., Vt., about 46 miles
south-southwest of Montpelier. Here an American force of three regiments
of Warner, Francis, and Hale, numbering about 1300, were defeated by the
British under Col. Fraser, July 7, 1777.

=Hubert, St., Order of.= The highest Bavarian order of knighthood,
founded in 1444.

=Hubertsberg.= A village of Saxony, 24 miles east from Leipsic. The
treaty of peace, by which the Seven Years’ War was ended, was signed in
the royal castle of this place in 1763.

=Hue and Cry.= In Great Britain, an official gazette, which serves to
advertise deserters from her majesty’s service.

=Huguenots.= A term (derived by some from the German _Eidgenossen_,
“confederates,” by others from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to
the Reformed party in France, followers of Calvin. They took up arms
against their persecutors in 1561. After a delusive edict of toleration,
a great number were massacred at Vassy, March 1, 1562, when the civil
wars began, which lasted with some intermission till the edict of Nantes
in 1598 (revoked in 1685). The massacre of St. Bartholomew’s day, August
24, 1572, occurred during a truce.

=Huissier d’Armes= (_Fr._). Tipstaff; an officer formerly so called in
France, who was attached to the royal household. They were at first
distinguished by the name of _sergens d’armes_, or sergeants-at-arms.
Some were directed to bear the mace before the king during the day, and
obtained on that account the appellation of _huissiers d’armes_; in
later times they were called the _huissiers_, or tipstaffs of the king’s
chamber. Others kept watch in the king’s bed-chamber during the night,
and were sworn to expose their lives for the safety of his person,
whence they obtained the name of _archers de la garde_, which term was
changed to _gardes du corps_, or body-guards.

=Hulan.= See UHLAN.

=Hull=, or =Kingston-upon-Hull=. A seaport town of England, in
Yorkshire, situated on the great inlet of the Humber, at the point where
it is entered by the river Hull. It is a very ancient town; during the
civil war it declared for the Parliament, and sustained two severe
sieges by the royalists.

=Humaitá.= A strong post on the river Paraguay, defended by a battery of
300 cannon, and believed to be impregnable by Lopez, the president of
Paraguay; was forced by the Brazilian ironclads February 17, 1868. On
the 19th, Caxias, the Brazilian general, stormed a work to the north of
Humaitá, and captured many stores.

=Hungary.= A portion of the Austrian empire. It was a part of the
ancient Pannonia and Dacia; was subjected to the Romans about 106, and
retained by them till the 3d century, when it was seized by the Goths,
who were expelled about 376 by the Huns, under Attila. After his death
in 453, the Gepidæ, and in 500 the Lombards held the country. It was
acquired by the Avars about 568, and retained by them till their
destruction by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the country was settled by
a Scythian tribe, named Vingours, or Ungri (whence the German name
_Ungarn_), and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The progress of the
Magyars westward was checked by their defeat by the emperor Henry the
Fowler, 934. After various changes of rulers it came permanently under
the dominion of Austria in 1526. A revolution took place in Hungary in
1848 under the leadership of Kossuth.

=Huns.= The name of a considerable nation of antiquity, which from time
to time made incursions on the Roman dominions, and which eventually,
under Attila, the most renowned of its leaders, brought in the 5th
century the Eastern and Western empires to the verge of destruction.
They were originally of Asiatic origin, and probably akin to the
Scythians and Turks. In the latter part of the 4th century they settled
along the Danube, in the territory abandoned by the Goths, and
subsequently they pressed onward towards further conquests. In the 5th
century they had acquired considerable power, but after Attila’s death
it was broken. Many of them afterwards took service with the Romans;
others joined the invaders from the north and east that were attacking
the moribund Roman empire.

=Hunters, Death-.= Followers of an army, who, after an engagement, look
for dead bodies in order to strip them.

=Hurdices.= Ramparts, scaffolds, fortifications, etc.

=Hurdles.= In fortification, twigs of willow or osiers, interwoven close
together, and sustained by long stakes. They are made in the figure of a
parallelogram, in length 5 or 6 feet, in breadth 3 or 3¹⁄₂. The closer
they are wattled together the better. They serve to revet, or render
batteries firm, or to consolidate the passage over muddy ditches; or to
cover traverses and lodgments for the defense of the workmen against the
fireworks. Hurdles are constructed in nearly the same manner as gabions,
excepting that the pickets are placed in a straight line instead of a
circle.

=Hurkaru.= A messenger; one who brings intelligence; a scout.

=Hurl.= To send whirling or whizzing through the air; to throw with
violence; to drive with great force; as, to hurl a lance, etc.

=Huron Indians= (also called _Wyandots_). A tribe of aborigines now
almost extinct, who were settled in Canada and in a part of the United
States. They fought against the United States in the war of 1812-15.

=Hurst.= A charge in heraldry representing a small group of trees,
generally borne upon a mount in base.

=Hurter=, or =Heurtoir=. A square beam placed at the foot of a parapet
where there is an embrasure to prevent the wheels of the gun, when the
latter is run up, from injuring the interior slope. A short fascine or
military fagot is sometimes substituted for a beam. A hurter is placed
on the front part of a siege platform, under the wheels. The motion of
gun-carriages is checked, front and rear, by pieces of wood or iron
bolted to the top rails called _hurters_ and _counter-hurters_.

=Hussar.= A name given to the national cavalry of Hungary and Croatia.
They were first raised in 1458, and received their name either from the
method in which they were called out, or from the Tartar _uswar_, which
signifies cavalry. In the armies of modern Europe hussars are light
horse, and differ from light dragoons only in some peculiarities of
dress and equipments.

=Hussites.= Is the name of the followers of Huss. Immediately after his
martyrdom they arose in Bohemia, and took a frightful revenge on the
priests, monks, and prelates of the Roman Catholic Church. Wenceslaus
succeeded, however, in appeasing the storm by granting them religious
freedom. But when the king died in 1419, and the pope issued an order
for the conversion of the Hussites by force, a civil war began. They
assembled under the leadership of John Ziska, on Mount Tabor, captured
Prague, pillaged and burnt the monasteries, and defeated at Deutchbrod
in 1422, and in several other minor encounters, the troops of Sigismund,
the German emperor and heir of Wenceslaus. Ziska died in 1424, but his
successor, Procopius, a former monk, was still more successful. He
defeated Sigismund at Miess and Tachau, and carried the war into
Austria, Bavaria, Franconia, and Saxony. Meanwhile, the Hussites had
separated into two parties, the Taborites and Calixtines. In the
beginning they acted in perfect concert with each other. But in 1433 the
Council of Basle succeeded in coming to an agreement with the Calixtines
and in drawing them out of the contest; the result of which was that the
Taborites were totally defeated at Bomishbrod in 1434. Toleration was
granted, and Sigismund entered Prague, August 23, 1436. The Hussites
opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, and called Casimir of Poland
to the throne, but were defeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites
existed in the time of Luther, and were called “Bohemian Brethren.”

=Hut.= Is a wooden structure, more or less rough in details, for the
housing of troops. It is substituted very often for the tent, when the
sojourn in a camp or cantonment is likely to be of consideration, as,
for instance, through a winter,--a hut, however rude, which is wind- and
water-tight, being as superior in comfort to a tent as the latter is to
the open air. Huts may be made of almost any size, and are sometimes for
one officer; at others for as many as 100 men. The quarters occupied by
U. S. troops on the American frontiers are very frequently huts made by
the troops.

=Huy.= A town of Belgium, 18 miles southwest from Liege. This town has
withstood several sieges. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1718,
but in 1815 its castle was rebuilt.

=Hyccara= (now _Muro di Carini_). A town of Sicani, on the north coast
of Sicily, west of Panormus. It was taken by the Athenians and
plundered, and its inhabitants sold as slaves, 415 B.C.

=Hydaspes.= A river in India, where Alexander the Great defeated Porus,
after a severely contested engagement, in 327 B.C.

=Hyder.= The Arabic term for lion. This title is frequently given to men
of rank in India.

=Hydraulic Jack.= A powerful portable apparatus for moving heavy weights
through short distances, by an application of the principles of the
hydrostatic press. There are two forms, the _lifting_- and
_pulling_-jack. Those used in the American military service are of 80
tons capacity.

=Hydraulic Loading Apparatus.= The apparatus used in manœuvring heavy
turret-guns in the English navy, invented by Mr. George Rendel (a member
of Sir William Armstrong’s firm), and first tested in the working of a
38-ton gun on the “Thunderer.” It was determined to similarly equip the
“Inflexible,” with her 80-ton armament. The apparatus was thoroughly
tested, in working the 100-ton guns delivered to the Italian government,
in experiments at Spezzia, 1876. The working of the gun, including all
the operations of loading and sponging, is effected by means of
hydraulic pumps, which are all operated by one small steam-engine. The
gun is placed with its trunnions resting on two heavy blocks of metal,
which, being retained by guides, slide on large beams or girders built
in the floor of the turret. In front and rear of the blocks are pistons,
working in cylinders in the direction of the floor-beams. These pistons,
under the influence of water-pressure, move the gun in and out of
battery. The breech is raised and lowered by similar means. When the gun
and trunnion-blocks rush back under the impulse of the recoil from
firing, the water in the rear cylinders is forced out through
escape-valves, which are held down by springs under a tension of 50
atmospheres. The recoil is thus checked in the space of 3 or 4 feet. If
a larger charge is used the tension of the springs can be increased. The
springs only come into play in resisting the desperate force of recoil.
The water pumped into the cylinders (a valve at the rear opening
outwards being raised) is sufficient to run the gun forward without
displacing the recoil-valves, the working-pressure required being less
than 50 atmospheres.

When the gun is to be loaded, it is run forward and the muzzle depressed
till it is in front of an armored hood, which shields an iron door in
the main deck. The door slides back, a sponge appears on the end of a
staff, which enters the bore and lengthens itself like a telescope till
the bottom is reached, when, in obedience to the touch of a valve, a
flood of water is ejected from the sponge to extinguish fire and wash
the bore. The shot and cartridge next appear, lifted from below on a
small truck, which is run out on a trap-door. The cartridge is lifted
in front of the muzzle, the sponge--now converted into a rammer--pushes
it a short distance into the gun, is then withdrawn, and when the shot
rises pushes both to the bottom of the bore. The sponge is then
withdrawn below deck and the trap closes. Each of these movements is
effected entirely by water-pressure, the course of the water and the
corresponding operation being determined by manipulating the proper
valve. The power is supplied by a small steam-engine specially designed
for the purpose. When no manœuvre is to be performed, the engine
occupies itself in pumping water from the tank against the
recoil-valves. When the pressure rises above 50 atmospheres these valves
allow a small quantity to escape, which runs back into the tank. The
engine barely moves in this work. When any manœuvre is to be performed,
such as running the gun forward, a handle is touched, the
cylinder-valves open a passage to the water, and, the enormous
resistance being removed, the engine rattles with energy, and the gun
moves forward as by magic. The valve being closed by the operator, the
engine returns to its sisyphean labor of pumping water against the
loaded valves till some new outlet gives it a specific task.

Every part of this apparatus, notwithstanding its provisional mounting,
worked perfectly in the experiments at Spezzia.

The only defect in the principle was developed by the bursting of one,
the 38-ton gun of the “Thunderer” (January 2, 1879), which was worked by
this apparatus. The disaster has been generally attributed to the
presence in the gun of a double charge of both shot and powder. This
could hardly have occurred in hand-loading. Steps have been taken to
remedy the apparatus in this regard.

=Hygrometer.= An instrument for measuring the degree of moisture of the
atmosphere.

=Hygrometer, Daniell’s.= A form of hygrometer consisting of a bent glass
tube terminating in two bulbs, the one covered with muslin, the other of
black glass, and containing ether and a thermometer. Ether being poured
on the muslin, the black ball, cooled by the evaporation of the ether
within, is soon covered with dew, at which moment the receding of the
inclosed thermometer, compared with that of another in the air, gives
the dew point.



I.


=Iapydes.= A warlike and barbarous people in the north of Illyricum,
between the rivers Arsia and Tedanius; were a mixed race, partly
Illyrian and partly Celtic, who tattooed their bodies. They were subdued
by Augustus. Their country was called Iaiydia.

=Iazyges.= A powerful Sarmatian people, who originally dwelt on the
coast of the Pontus Euxinus and the Palus Mæotis; but in the reign of
Claudius settled near the Quadi in Dacia, in the country bounded by the
Danube, the Theiss, and the Sarmatian Mountains. The Iazyges were in
close alliance with the Quadi, along with whom they frequently attacked
the Roman dominions, especially Mœsia and Pannonia. In the 5th century
they were conquered by the Goths.

=Ice.= In high latitudes, during the winter, rivers are frequently
covered with ice of sufficient thickness to sustain the heaviest loads.
This means of communication should be used with great circumspection. A
change of temperature may not only suddenly destroy this natural bridge,
but render the river impassable by any method for a considerable time in
consequence of the floating ice.

The thickness of ice should be, to allow the passage of infantry in
single file on a line of planks, and 2 yards apart, 2 inches; cavalry or
light guns, with intervals, 4 inches; 12-pounder field-pieces,
unlimbered and on sleds, 5 inches; 12-pounder field-pieces, limbered and
drawn by horses, with intervals between pieces, 6 to 7 inches. Ice when
10 to 12 inches thick bears the heaviest loads. Two tracks of planks
laid on the ice for the carriage-wheels to run on, may be employed when
there is any doubt as to its strength, or the wagon may be transformed
into a sort of sled by fastening two planks under the wheels.

The thickness of the ice may be increased, when the temperature is low
enough, by throwing water on it.

When the river is frozen on each side, but open in the middle in
consequence of the velocity of the current, a boom stretched across the
open space will often check the velocity sufficiently to cause the water
to freeze.

=Iceni.= A British tribe which inhabited chiefly Suffolk and Norfolk. In
61, headed by Boadicea, their queen, they marched southwards and
destroyed Verulam, London, and other places, with great slaughter of the
Romans, but were defeated by Suetonius near London, and their queen
slain.

=Ich Dien.= _I serve_; the motto under the plume of ostrich feathers
found in the helmet of the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the
battle of Crécy, at which he served as a volunteer in the French army,
August 26, 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in veneration of his father,
Edward III., who commanded that day, though the prince won the battle,
adopted this motto, which has since been borne with the feathers by the
heirs to the crown of England; but not as prince of Wales, which many
have erroneously maintained.

=Ichnæ=, or =Ischnæ=. A Greek city in the north of Mesopotamia, founded
by the Macedonians; was the scene of the first battle between Crassus
and the Parthians, in which the former gained the victory. According to
Appian, the Parthians soon after defeated the Romans near the same spot.

=Ichnography.= The plan or representation of the length and breadth of a
fortification, the distinct parts of which are marked out either on the
ground itself, or on paper. A plan upon the correct principles of
ichnography represents a work as it would appear if it were leveled to
its foundations, and shows only the expanse of ground on which it had
been erected. The science does not represent either the elevation or the
different parts belonging to a fortification. This properly comes under
the title “profile,” which does not, however, include length.

=Iconium= (now _Konieh_). A town of Asia Minor, situated on the shores
of the Lake Trogitis, about 120 miles inland from the Mediterranean. In
ancient times it was famous as the capital of Lycaonia, and from 1087 to
1229 it was the seat of a Seljuk sultanate. In December, 1832, a battle
was fought here, in which Ibrahim Pasha completely defeated the Turkish
army.

=Idaho.= A Territory of the United States, bounded on the north by the
British possessions, on the east by Montana and Dakota, and on the south
by Nevada and Utah. It was organized in 1863, and has frequently been
the scene of Indian troubles.

=Idsted.= A village of Selswick. A battle was fought here in 1850,
between the Danes and Schleswig-Holsteiners, in which the latter were
defeated.

=Ignition= (Lat. _ignis_, “fire”). The act of setting fire to, or of
taking fire; as opposed to combustion or burning, which is a consequence
of ignition. By ignition of gunpowder is understood the setting on fire
of a particular point of the charge.

=Ilerda= (now _Lerida_). A town of the Ilergetes, in Hispania
Tarraconensis, situated on a height above the river Sicoris (now
_Segre_). It was afterwards a Roman colony, but in the time of Ausonius
had ceased to be a place of importance. It was here that Africanus and
Petreius, the legates of Pompey, were defeated by Cæsar, 49 B.C.

=Illinois.= One of the Central States of the United States, in the
valley of the Upper Mississippi, and one of the most fertile in the
Union, having scarcely any soil which is uncultivable. It was originally
settled by the French, but fell into the hands of the English in 1763,
becoming the property of the United States at the Revolution. It was
organized as a State December 3, 1818, and during the civil war was a
staunch supporter of the Union.

=Illinois Indians.= A confederacy of Indian tribes, mostly of Algonkin
stock, who formerly inhabited the State now known by their name. Very
few relics of these tribes now exist.

=Illustrious.= Conferring lustre or honor; brilliant; renowned; as,
illustrious deeds or titles.

=Illyricum=, or =Illyria=. Is the Roman name of a country whose limits
in ancient times varied considerably. It was inhabited by a savage
tribe, who were much addicted to piracy and robbery. In 359 B.C. Philip
of Macedon conquered the eastern portion of the country, now Albania,
and it was incorporated with Macedonia. The Illyrians were brought into
a collision with the Romans on account of their piracy, which led to
their subjugation about two centuries before the Christian era. They
made numerous efforts to shake off the Roman yoke, but were always
defeated, and the country became a most important province of the Roman
empire, comprising the territory represented in modern times by Croatia,
Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, nearly all Bosnia, and a part of
Albania. On the division of the Roman empire, it shared in the
vicissitudes that followed that act. A decree of Napoleon, on October
14, 1809, gave the name of Illyrian provinces to Carniola, Dalmatia, and
other countries from the Adriatic Sea to the Save, then belonging to the
French empire. At his fall these provinces were united as a kingdom to
the Austrian empire, and some alterations were made in its boundaries,
especially by the restoration to Hungary of what had formerly belonged
to it, and the annexation of the whole of Carinthia.

=Ilmenau.= A town of Saxe-Weimar, on the Ilm, 18 miles west from Weimar.
A battle was fought by the united forces of the Russians and Saxons
against the Swedes near this town in 1706.

=Imbannered.= Furnished with banners.

=Imbellic.= Not warlike or martial. This term is now obsolete.

=Imbody.= See EMBODY.

=Imbrued=, or =Embrued=. An expression used in heraldry to signify
bloody, or dropping with blood. Weapons thus blazoned are drawn with
drops of blood falling from them.

=Imeritia.= Formerly an independent Transcaucasian territory, now part
of the government of Kutais. Its history as an independent dominion
commenced from about the beginning of the 15th century, and was long
marked by internal dissensions. In 1745, Solomon I. was proclaimed, but
his nobles revolting shortly after, and aided by the Turks, dethroned
him. Solomon applied for help to Russia, and in 1769, Count Todtlen, at
the head of a Russian force, entered Emeritia, restored the king, and
drove back the Turks. The civil dissensions of this province, however,
continued, and at last, in 1810, after having long acknowledged
allegiance to Russia, it was formally incorporated in, and proclaimed a
province of that empire.

=Immailed.= Wearing mail or armor; clad in armor. This term is now
obsolete.

=Immartial.= Not martial; not warlike. This term is now obsolete.

=Immortals.= In antiquity, the name of a body of 10,000 troops,
constituting the guard of the king of Persia; so called because they
were always of the same number; for as soon as any of them died, the
vacancy was immediately filled up. They were distinguished from all the
other troops by the richness of their armor, and still more by their
bravery. The same term was applied to the life-guards of the Roman
emperors.

=Imola.= A fortified town of Ravenna, a province of Italy, on a small
island in the river Santerno; it is defended by a strong castle. This
town was founded by the Lombards on the ruins of Forum Cornelii,
destroyed by Justinian, and was afterwards successively held by
different chiefs who ruled in Central Italy. Julius II. annexed it to
the States of the Church, but it was delivered from the papal yoke when
Ravenna declared for annexation to Sardinia in 1859.

=Impact.= In gunnery, the single instantaneous blow or stroke of a body
in motion against another either in motion or at rest.

=Impale.= In heraldry, to arrange two coats of arms side by side in one
shield divided per pale. It is usual thus to exhibit the conjoined coats
of husband and wife, the husband’s arms occupying the dexter, or right
side, and the wife’s the sinister, or left side, of the escutcheon.

=Impedimenta.= The accompaniments to an army received from the Romans
the name of impedimenta. They consist in transportation of munitions,
equipments, provisions, hospital supplies, tents, engineering tools,
bridge equipage, and boats, baggage, cooking utensils, etc., necessary
for the use of an army moving against an enemy. This requires the use of
large numbers of wagons and of draught animals, or shipping, and
necessarily impedes the movement of an army. See BAGGAGE.

=Impenetrable.= Incapable of being penetrated or pierced, not admitting
the passage of other bodies, not to be entered; as, an impenetrable
shield.

=Imperator.= An old Roman title signifying commander, which was applied
to the rulers of provinces, consuls, pro-consuls, etc., or to anybody
who had an _imperium_ assigned him. After a victory the Roman soldiers
frequently saluted their commander by this title.

=Imperial Guards.= See GUARDS, IMPERIAL.

=Imperialists.= This word was chiefly applied to the subjects of, or
forces employed by the house of Austria, when opposed to the troops of
other German powers.

=Imperil.= To bring into peril, to endanger.

=Impetuous.= Rushing with force and violence, moving with impetus,
furious, forcible; as, the troops went pouring forward with impetuous
speed.

=Impetus.= In gunnery, the altitude through which a heavy body must fall
to acquire a velocity equal to that with which a ball is discharged from
a piece.

=Implement.= Whatever may supply a want, especially an instrument or
utensil as supplying a requisite to an end; as, the implements of war.

=Implements, Equipments, and Machines.= In artillery, the two former are
employed in loading, pointing, and firing cannon, and in the mechanical
manœuvres of artillery carriages, the latter to mount and dismount
cannon from their carriages, and to transport artillery material from
one part of a work to another. The implements for loading cannon are,
(1) The _rammer-head_, a short cylindrical piece of beech or other tough
wood, fixed to the end of a long stick of ash, called a _staff_,
employed to push the charge to its place in the bore or chamber of a
cannon. (2) The _sponge_, a _woolen_ brush attached to the end of a
staff, for the purpose of cleaning the interior of cannon and
extinguishing any burning fragments of the cartridge that may remain
after firing. In the field and mountain services, the rammer-head and
sponge are attached to the opposite ends of the same shaft; in the siege
and sea-coast services, they are attached to separate staves, except for
howitzers, in which they are combined. (3) The _ladle_, a copper scoop
attached to the end of a staff for the purpose of withdrawing the
projectile of a loaded piece. (4) The _worm_, a species of double
cork-screw attached to a staff, used in field and siege cannon to
withdraw a cartridge. (5) The _gunner’s haversack_ (which see). (6) The
_pass-box_, a wooden box closed with a lid and carried by a handle
attached to one end. In siege and sea-coast service, where the cartridge
is large, it takes the place of the haversack. (7) The _tube-pouch_ or
_primer-pouch_, a small leather pouch attached to the cannoneer by a
waistbelt. It contains the friction-tubes, lanyard, priming-wire,
thumb-stall, etc. (8) The _budge-barrel_ (which see). (9) The
_priming-wire_, used to pick a hole in a cartridge for the passage of
the flame from the vent. (10) The _thumb-stall_, a buckskin cushion
attached to the thumb or finger to close the vent in sponging and
loading. (11) The _fuze-setter_, a brass drift for driving a wooden fuze
into a shell. (12) The _fuze-mallet_, made of hard wood, and used in
connection with the setter. (13) The _fuze-saw_, a 10-inch tenon saw for
cutting wooden or paper fuzes to the required length. (14) The
_fuze-gimlet_, sometimes employed in place of the saw to open a
communication with the fuze composition. (15) The _fuze-auger_, an
instrument for regulating the time of burning of a fuze by removing a
certain portion of the composition from the exterior. For this purpose
it has a movable graduated scale, which regulates the depth to which the
auger should penetrate. (16) The _fuze-rasp_, a coarse file employed in
fitting a fuze-plug to a shell. (17) The _fuze-plug reamer_, used to
enlarge the cavity of a fuze-plug after it has been driven into a
projectile, to enable it to receive a paper fuze. (18) The _shell-plug
screw_, a wood screw with a handle, used to extract a plug from a
fuze-hole. (19) The _fuze-extractor_, worked by a screw, and is a more
powerful instrument than the preceding; it is used for extracting wooden
fuzes from loaded shells. (20) The _fuze-wrench_, made in the form of a
cross or T-shaped, to unscrew percussion fuzes. (21) The
_mortar-scraper_, a slender piece of iron with a spoon at one end and a
scraper at the other, for cleaning the chamber of a mortar. (22) The
_gunner’s sleeves_, made of flannel or serge; they are drawn over the
coat-sleeves of the gunner to prevent them from being soiled while
loading a mortar. (23) The _funnel_, made of copper, and used in pouring
the bursting charge into a shell. (24) The _powder-measures_, made of
copper, of cylindrical form, and of various sizes, for the purpose of
determining the charges of shells and cannon by measurement. (25) The
_lanyard_, a cord, one end of which has a small iron hook, and the other
a wooden handle. It is used to explode the friction-tubes with which
cannon for the land service are now fired. (26) The _gunner’s gimlet_
and _vent-punch_, used in boring out the vent when it becomes foul. (27)
_Gunner’s pincers_ (which see). (28) The _shell-hooks_, an instrument
made to fasten into the ears of a shell, for the purpose of lifting it
to the muzzle of the piece. (29) The _tow-hook_, in field service, used
in unpacking ammunition and taking projectiles from the chest. The
implements for pointing are: the _gunner’s level_, _gunner’s quadrant_,
the _breech-sight_, the _pendulum-hausse_, and _elevating arc_. (See
appropriate headings.) The _tangent-scale_, a brass plate, the lower
edge of which is cut to the curve of the base-ring of the piece, and the
upper formed into offsets which correspond to differences of elevation
of a quarter of a degree. It is used in pointing by placing the curved
edge on the base-ring, with the radius of the offset corresponding with
the highest point of the ring, and sighting over the centre of the
offset, and the highest point of the swell of the muzzle. The principal
manœuvring implements are: the _trail handspike_, the _manœuvring
handspike_, the _shod handspike_, the _truck handspike_, the _roller
handspike_ (see HANDSPIKE); the _prolonge_, a stout rope used to connect
the lunette of the carriage and pintle-hook of the limber to move the
piece short distances without limber; the _sponge-bucket_, made of
sheet-iron, for washing the bore of the piece; the _tar-bucket_, also
made of sheet-iron, for carrying grease for the wheels; the _watering
bucket_, made of sole-leather, for watering the horses; the
_water-buckets_, made of wood and bound with iron hoops. These are of
two kinds,--one for the traveling-forge, and the other for the service
of garrison batteries. The _drag-rope_, used when necessary to employ a
number of men in hauling loads, or extricating a carriage from a
difficult part of the road. It has a hook at one end, a loop at the
other, and six wooden handles placed about 4 feet apart. The _men’s
harness_, similar to the drag-rope, except that the rope is stouter, and
the handles are replaced by leather loops which pass over the shoulders
of the men, to enable them to exert their strength to advantage. The
_bill-hook_, or hand-bill, used for cutting twigs. The _screw-jack_, a
lifting-machine composed of a screw worked by a _movable nut_ supported
on a _cast-iron stand_. It is used in greasing carriage-wheels.
Artillery machines comprise the _gin_ (see GIN), the _sling-cart_ (see
HAND-SLING-CART), the _casemate truck_, the _hand-cart_ (see HAND-CART),
the _lifting-jack_, and the _lever-jack_. The casemate truck is composed
of a stout frame of wood mounted on three barbette traverse-wheels, and
is employed to move cannon and carriages through posterns and along
casemate galleries. The lifting-jack is a small but powerful screw,
worked by a geared nut. It is useful when the space for manœuvring is
small, and the number of men limited. If the weight to be raised is
sufficiently high, the lifting power is applied at the top; if it be
low, it is applied at the foot. The lever-jack is another but less
powerful apparatus for lifting. It consists of a _lever_ of wood resting
on a _bolt_, which passes through holes in two _uprights_. The height of
the bolt is varied by passing it through different holes in the uprights
(eight in number), and the power of the lever is regulated by a notched
piece of cast iron screwed to the under side of the lever.

=Implements, Re-loading.= See RE-LOADING IMPLEMENTS.

=Impregnable.= Not to be stormed, or taken by assault; incapable of
being reduced by force; able successfully to resist attack; as, an
impregnable fortress.

=Impregnably.= In an impregnable manner; in a manner to defy force; as,
a place impregnably fortified.

=Impress.= To compel any person to serve.

=Impression.= The effect of an attack upon any place or body of
soldiers.

=Imprisonment.= Officers may be sentenced to imprisonment by a general
court-martial in any case where the court may have discretionary
authority. General, garrison, and regimental courts-martial may sentence
soldiers to imprisonment, solitary or otherwise, with or without hard
labor, for various offenses enumerated in the Articles of War. A
garrison or regimental court-martial, in awarding imprisonment, is
limited to a period not exceeding thirty days. When a court awards
solitary imprisonment as a punishment, it is necessary that the words
“solitary confinement” should be expressed in the sentence. The legal
imprisonment in the United States is confinement, solitary confinement,
and confinement on bread and water; confinement on bread and water shall
not extend over fourteen days at a time, with intervals between the
periods of such confinement not less than such periods, and not
exceeding eighty-four days in any one year.

=Impulse.= The act of impelling, or driving onward with sudden force;
impulsion; the action of a force so as to produce motion suddenly, or
without appreciable loss of time. Also sudden motion exciting to action;
hasty inclination; influence acting unexpectedly, or with momentary
force; impression; instigation; as, the troops moved forward with one
impulse.

=In Battery.= The position of field-guns when unlimbered and prepared
for action. Also applied to heavy guns when in the firing position; also
the command for the movement in both cases. Heavy guns are “from
battery” when in the loading position.

=In Gear.= A command in the service of heavy guns, to cause the
eccentrics of the truck-wheels to be thrown in gear. Also refers to the
position of the eccentrics when the command is executed.

=In Line.= Refers to the formation of troops when posted, or marching,
with extended front.

=Inaccessible.= A general term for any distance or height which cannot
be approached for any military purposes.

=Inactive.= Not disposed to action or effort; not diligent or
industrious; not busy; idle; as, an inactive officer.

=Inca.= A king or prince of Peru, before the conquest of that country by
the Spaniards.

=Incapable.= A term of disgrace, frequently annexed to military
sentences, when an officer has been cashiered by the sentence of a
general court-martial, and rendered incapable of ever serving his
country in either a civil or military capacity.

=Incendiary Compositions.= Used to set fire to buildings, shipping,
etc., have been known and used from the earliest times. Greek fire
(which see) was extensively used in the 7th century. Among modern
incendiary compositions are _fire stone_, sometimes called _rock fire_,
and _Valenciennes composition_ (which see).

=Incendiary Shells.= Are shells containing incendiary compositions. See
CARCASS for modern example.

=Incensed=, or =Animé=. An epithet applied in heraldry to panthers or
other wild beasts borne with flames issuing from their mouth and ears.

=Incidence, Angle of.= In projectiles, the angle which the line of
direction of the projectile makes with the surface of the obstacle on
which it impinges.

=Inclination.= In gunnery, the inclination of a plane is the angle it
makes with the horizon either above or below.

=Inclination of the Grooves.= In a rifle is the angle which the tangent
to the groove at any point makes with the element of the bore passing
through the point. The tangent of the angle, which may be taken as a
measure of the inclination, is equal to the circumference of the bore
divided by the length of bore corresponding to one revolution of the
spiral. See TWIST.

=Incline.= To gain ground to the flank, as well as to the front.
Inclining is of great use in the marching of the line in front, to
correct any irregularities that may happen. It is equivalent to the
quarter facing and to the oblique marching of the infantry. It enables
you to gain the enemy’s flank without exposing your own, or without
wheeling or altering the parallel front of the company.

=Inclose.= To surround; to shut in; to confine on all sides; to include;
to shut up; to encompass; as, to inclose a fort or an army with troops;
to inclose a town with walls.

=Incommoder l’Ennemi= (_Fr._). To get possession of a fort, eminence,
etc., from which the enemy may be harassed, or which is necessary to his
security.

=Incompetent.= Incapable; unfit; unequal. No officer, be his situation
what it may, can be said to be competent to command who is not only
willing and able to follow orders himself, but will likewise see them
strictly adhered to by others; whose mind is not superior to
partialities, and whose judgment is not equal to discern real merit from
ignorant assumption.

=Incorporate, To.= To add a smaller body of forces to a larger, and to
mix them together. Independent companies are said to be incorporated,
when they are distributed among different regiments; regiments among
brigades, etc.

=Incorporation.= In the manufacture of gunpowder, is the thorough mixing
of the three ingredients--nitre, sulphur, and charcoal,--a very
important operation. The process should be so complete that the smallest
particle of the gunpowder should contain each ingredient in proper
proportion.

=Increasing Twist.= A term applied to rifle grooves, the inclination of
which increases from the breech to the muzzle. In many guns the grooves
begin at the front of the chamber, without inclination.

=Incursion.= Invasion without conquest; inroad; ravage.

=Indefensible.= Not defensible; not capable of being defended or
maintained; as, a military post may be indefensible.

=Indefensive.= Having no defense.

=Indella.= A body of Swedish yeomen furnished by certain proprietors of
lands, after the manner of the old Norman feudal system.

=Indemnification.= A regulated allowance for losses sustained by
officers or soldiers on actual service.

=Indemnity.= Indemnification, compensation, or remuneration for loss,
damage, or injury sustained.

=Indent, To.= A word particularly made use of in India for the dispatch
of military business. It is of the same import and meaning as _to draw
upon_. It likewise means an order for military stores, arms, etc.; as,
an indent for new supplies, etc.

=Indented.= In heraldry, one of the partition lines of the shield,
similarly notched to dancetté, but with notches much smaller, and not
limited in number.

=Indented Line.= In fortification, is a serrated line, forming several
angles, so that one side defends another. The faces are longer than the
flanks. Indented lines are used on the banks of rivers, where they enter
a town. The parapet of the covered way is also often indented.

=Independence, Declaration of.= The solemn declaration of the Congress
of the United States of America, on July 4, 1776, by which they formally
renounced their subjection to the government of Great Britain.

=Independent.= In a military sense, is a term which distinguishes from
the rest of the army those companies which have been raised by
individuals for rank, and were afterwards drafted into corps that were
short of their complement of men. _Independent company or troop_, is one
that is not incorporated into any regiment.

=India=, or =Hindostan=. An extensive region of Southern Asia,
celebrated during many ages for its riches and natural productions. The
Hindoo histories ascribe the origin of the people to a period ages
before the ordinary chronologies. A race of kings is mentioned as
reigning 2300 B.C. Several ancient nations, particularly the Tyrians and
Egyptians, carried on commerce with India. It was partially conquered by
Darius Hystaspes, who formed an Indian satrapy, 512 B.C., and by
Alexander, 327 B.C. The authentic history of Hindostan commences with
the conquests of Mahmoud Ghuzni, 1004. For further history of India, see
BENGAL, CALCUTTA, MADRAS, etc.

=Indian File.= Single file; arrangement of persons in a row following
one after another; the usual way among Indians of traversing woods,
etc.

=Indian Fortification.= The entrance into an East Indian fortification
is through a large and complicated pile of buildings, projecting in the
form of a parallelogram from the main rampart; and, if the city has two
walls, it projects beyond them both. This building consists of several
continued terraces, which are of the same height as the main rampart,
and communicate with it; the inward walls of these terraces form the
sides of an intricate passage, about 20 feet broad, which leads by
various short turnings, at right angles, through the whole pile to the
principal gate that stands in the main rampart. This is the general
outline of the old Indian fortifications.

=Indian Military Force.= The East Indian military service, like the
civil service, has been undergoing a thorough reorganization, consequent
on the great mutiny, and the transfer of the government of the country
from the East India Company to the crown. In 1857, at the outbreak of
the mutiny, the Indian army consisted of about 277,000 men, of whom
45,000 were Europeans and 232,000 natives. During the mutiny the native
army of Bengal was almost entirely broken up. Fifteen regiments of
regular native infantry, the local infantry, the Gurka and irregular
line regiments, eight regiments of irregular cavalry, and the sappers
and miners, were all that remained at the close of 1860 of the old
native army of Bengal. The Indian army in 1867 numbered 183,148 men;
61,498 being Europeans, and 121,650 Indian forces. The police, civil and
military, forms an important force, and is to a great extent taking the
place of the regular army. In Bengal, for instance, the military police
includes ten battalions of infantry each 700 strong; three squadrons of
cavalry, and some local levies; in all about 10,000 men, of various
races, with 40 European officers. The whole police force of India has
been reorganized on one uniform system, with a central organization of
its own in each presidency.

=Indian Territory.= A large extent of territory, which originally
belonged to the Louisiana purchase, lying north by west of that State.
It was set apart for the use of Indians, many tribes of whom have from
time to time been removed to it, and have wonderfully improved in the
arts of civilized life.

=Indiana.= One of the Western States, and a portion of the great
Mississippi Valley country. It was settled in the early part of the 18th
century by the French; was subsequently ceded to the English, and after
the Revolution passed into the possession of the United States. The
early settlers were for a long time troubled by the incursions of the
Indians; but after their signal defeat by Gen. Harrison at Tippecanoe,
November 7, 1811, they were soon afterwards subdued, and became
peaceable. Indiana was admitted as a State in 1816, and during the civil
war contributed its full quota of troops to the support of the Union.

=Indians.= The name by which the various tribes of aborigines scattered
over the extensive continent of America are distinguished. They are
divided into numerous tribes and nations, all in a state more or less
savage, and having all the peculiar characteristics of that kind of
life. They generally decline as the civilized population advances into
the country; though reservations of land have always been set apart by
the U. S. government for the support of tribes within its territory.
(See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.) A short description of the most
important tribes will be found under appropriate headings in this work.

=Indians and their Agencies.= The following are the distribution and
population of the Indians in the United States, taken from the Report of
the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1876:

ARIZONA, _Colorado River Agency_: Mojaves, 820; Chemehuevis, 320;
Hualapais (not on reservation), 620; Coahuilas (not on reservation),
150; Cocopas (not on reservation), 180. _Moquis Pueblo Agency_: Moquis
Pueblos, 1700. _Pima and Maricopa Agency_: Papagos, about 5000; Pimas,
4100; Maricopas, 400. _San Carlos Agency_: Pinal and Aribaipa Apaches,
1051; Chiricahua Apaches, 297; Mojave Apaches, 618; Yuma Apaches, 352;
Tonto Apaches, 629; Coyotero Apaches, 1612. Indians in Arizona not under
an agent: Yumas, 930; Mojaves, 700.

CALIFORNIA, _Hoopa Valley Agency_: Hoopas, 511; Redwoods, 12; Siahs, 13;
Klamaths, 44. _Round Valley Agency_ (192 not on reservation): Potter
Valley, 307; Ukie, 197; Pitt River, 60; Red Wood, 94; Wylackie, 172; Con
Cowe, 148; Little Lake, 166. _Tule River Agency_: Tules, Tejons,
Wachamnis, Kweahs, King’s River, and Manaches, 1200. Indians in
California not under an agent: Mission, Coahuila, Temecula, and other
Indians, 4375; Klamaths, 1125.

COLORADO, _Los Pinos Agency_: Tabequache-Muache, Capote, and Weminuche
bands of Utes, 2000. _White River Agency_: Grand River, Yampa, Uintah,
and Pah bands of Utes, 900.

DAKOTA, _Cheyenne River Agency_: Two Kettle Sioux, Sans-Arc Sioux,
Minneconjou Sioux, Blackfeet Sioux, 2280. _Crow Creek Agency_: Lower
Yanctonais Sioux, 1213. _Devil’s Lake Agency_: Sisseton Sioux, 391;
Wahpeton Sioux, 477; Cut-Head Sioux, 203. _Flandreau Agency_: Flandreau
Sioux, 361. _Fort Berthold Agency_: Arickarees, 692; Gros Ventres, 414;
Mandans, 241; Gros Ventres (seceders), 100. _Lower Brulé Agency_: Lower
Brulé Sioux, 1800. _Ponca Agency_: Poncas, 730. _Red Cloud Agency_:
Ogallalla Sioux, Northern Cheyennes, Northern Arapahoes, 6000. _Spotted
Tail Agency_: Upper Brulé and Ogallalla Sioux, Lower Brulé Sioux,
Northern Brulé Sioux, and others, 2315. _Sisseton Agency_: Sisseton and
Wahpeton Sioux, 1745. _Standing Rock Agency_: Upper Yanctonais Sioux,
Lower Yanctonais Sioux, Uncpapa Sioux, Blackfeet Sioux, 2315. _Yankton
Agency_: Yankton Sioux, 1992. Indians in Dakota not under an agent, or
absent from agencies, 15,000.

IDAHO, _Fort Hall Agency_: Bannacks, 648; Shoshones, 964. _Lemhi
Agency_: Sheepeaters, 300; Bannacks, 190; Shoshones, 450. _Nez Percés
Agency_: Nez Percés, 2800. Indians in Idaho not under an agent: Cœur
d’Alenes, Pend d’Oreilles, and Kootenays, 1000.

INDIAN TERRITORY, _Cheyenne and Arapahoe Agency_: Cheyennes, 2029;
Arapahoes, 1703; Apaches, 48; Cheyennes absent from reservation, 180;
held as prisoners by military, 32. _Kiowa and Comanche Agency_: Kiowas,
1090; Comanches, 1570; Apaches, 325. _Osage Agency_: Osage, 2679; Kaws,
443. _Pawnee Agency_: Pawnees, 2026. _Quapaw Agency_: Quapaws, 235;
confederated Kaskaskias, Piankeshaws, Weas, Peorias, and Miamis, 202;
Ottawas, 140; Eastern Shawnees, 97; Wyandottes, 258; Senecas, 240;
Modocs, 117; Straggling Black Bob Shawnees and Pottawatomies, 100. _Sac
and Fox Agency_: Sacs and Foxes of Mississippi, 417; absentee Shawnees,
647; Mexican Kickapoos, 312. _Union Agency_: Cherokees, 18,672; Creeks,
14,000; Choctaws, 16,000; Chickasaws, 5800; Seminoles, 2553. _Wichita
Agency_: Caddos and Delawares, 580; Comanches, 168; Keechies and Wacos,
155; Tawacanies, 100; Wichitas, 217. Indians in Indian Territory not
under an agent: Citizen Pottawatomies, 131.

IOWA, _Sac and Fox Agency_: Sacs and Foxes, 341.

KANSAS, _Kansas Agency_: Pottawatomies (prairie band), 497; Kickapoos,
252. Indians in Kansas without an agency: Chippewas, of Swan Creek, and
Munsees, 61; Mokohoko band of Sacs and Foxes, 200.

MICHIGAN, _Mackinac Agency_: Chippewas of Lake Superior, 1200; Chippewas
of Saginaw, Swan Creek, and Black River, 2000; Chippewas and Ottawas of
Lake Michigan, 7000; Pottawatomies of Huron, 60.

MINNESOTA, _Leech Lake Agency_: Pillager and Lake Winnebagoshish
Chippewas, 1610; Chippewas of Mississippi, 790. _Red Lake Agency_: Red
Lake Chippewas, 1178. _White Earth Agency_: Mississippi Chippewas, 1768;
Pembina Chippewas, 452; Otter-Tail Chippewas, 485.

MONTANA, _Blackfeet Agency_: Blackfeet, Bloods, and Piegans (no tribal
distinctions), 7200. _Crow Agency_: Mountain Crows, 1500; River Crows,
1000. _Flathead Agency_: Flatheads, 381; Pend d’Oreilles, 858;
Kootenays, 390. _Fort Peck Agency_: Assiniboines, 1998; Yanctonais,
Uncpapa, Brulé, Teton Sioux, and Gros Ventres, 6500.

NEBRASKA, _Great Nemaha Agency_: Iowas, 224; Sacs and Foxes of Missouri,
100. _Omaha Agency_: Omahas, 1027. _Otoe Agency_: Otoes and Missouris,
454. _Santee Agency_: Santee Sioux, 793. _Winnebago Agency_:
Winnebagoes, 1500.

NEW MEXICO, _Abiquiu Agency_: Utes, 900; Jicarilla Apaches, 326.
_Cimarron Agency_: Jicarilla Apaches, 420; Muache Utes, 230. _Mescalero
Agency_: Mescalero Apaches, 1400. _Navajo Agency_: Navajoes, 11,868.
_Pueblo Agency_: Pueblos, 8400. _Southern Apache Agency_: Gila Apaches,
Mogollen Apaches, Mimbre Apaches, Chiricahua Apaches, 1600.

NEW YORK, _New York Agency_: Senecas, 3017; Oneidas, 250; Onondagas,
453; Cayugas, 161; Tuscaroras, 412; St. Regis, 741.

NEVADA, _Nevada Agency_: Pah-Utes on Pah-Ute reservation, 400; Pah-Utes
in Northern Arizona (not on reservation), 284; Pah-Utes in Utah (not on
reservation), 528; Pah-Utes in Southern Nevada (not on reservation),
631; Pah-Utes in California (not on reservation), 184; Pah-Utes on
Pyramid Lake reserve, 1500; Shoshones, 500; Pah-Utes on Walker River
reserve, 500. _Western Shoshone Agency_: Goship Utes (not on
reservation), 204; Western Shoshones (not on reservation), 1945; Indians
in Nevada not under an agent: Pah-Utes (not on reservation), 1000.

NORTH CAROLINA, _Eastern Cherokee Agency_: Eastern Cherokees, 1600;
other Eastern Cherokees scattered through Georgia, South Carolina, and
Tennessee, 800.

OREGON, _Grand Ronde Agency_: Molels, Clackamas, Rogue River, and other
bands, 755. _Klamath Agency_: Klamaths, 676; Modocs, 100; Pah-Ute
Snakes, 100; Wollpahpe Snakes, 174. _Malheur Agency_: Pah-Utes, 462;
Snakes, 300. _Siletz Agency_: Rogue River, Shasta Scoton, and thirteen
other bands, 1100; Alseas, Sinselaws, Coosas, and Umpquas, 325.
_Umatilla Agency_: Walla Walla, 128; Cayuse, 385; Umatilla, 169. _Warm
Springs Agency_: Wascoes, 263; Teninoes, 50; Warm Springs, 187; Indians
roaming on Columbia River, renegades and others, 2000.

UTAH, _Uintah Valley Agency_: Uintah Utes, 650; Indians in Utah not
under an agent, Pah Vents, 134; Goship Utes, 256.

WASHINGTON TERRITORY, _Colville Agency_: Colvilles, 650; Spokanes, 685;
Lakes, 242; Calispels, 395; Okinakanes, 330; San Poels and Nespeelums,
500; Methows, 315. _Neah Bay Agency_: Makahs, 538. _Puyallup Agency_:
Muckleshoot, 130; Puyallups, 525; Nisquallies, 205; Squaxons, 50;
Chehalis, 240; Shoal Water Bay, 60; Grape Harbor, 160; Cowlitz, 25.
_Quinaielt Agency_: Quinaielts, 122; Queets, 114; Hohs, 80; Quillehutes,
260. _S’Kokomish Agency_: S’Klallams, 550; Towanas, 275. _Tulalip
Agency_: Snohomish, 900; Lummi, 600; Etakmur, 550; Swinomish, 700;
Muckleshoot, 500. _Yakama Agency_: Yakama, Palouse, Pisquose,
Wenatshepum, Kliktat, Klinquit, Kowwassayee, Siaywas, Skinpah, Wisham,
Shyiks, Ochechole, Kahmiltpah, and Seapcat, 4100.

WISCONSIN, _Green Bay Agency_: Menomonees, 1522; Oneidas, 1387;
Stockbridges, 121. _La Pointe Agency_: Chippewas, Red Cliff Band, 726;
Bad River, 732; Lac Court d’Oreille, 1048; Lac de Flambeau, 665; Fond du
Lac, 404; Grand Portage, 262; Bois Fort, 714. Indians in Wisconsin not
under an agent: Winnebagoes, 823; Pottawatomies (prairie band), 180.

WYOMING, _Shoshone Agency_: Shoshones (eastern band), 1800.

Indians in North Carolina, Indiana, Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, and
Texas: Miamis, Seminoles, Lipans, Tonkawas, 850. Number of Indians in
the United States, exclusive of those in Alaska, 266,151; number of
Indians who are mixed-bloods, 40,639; number of school-teachers for
Indians, 437; amount of money expended for education during the year,
$362,496.03; number of births and deaths about even.

ALASKA. The aboriginal inhabitants of Alaska are divided generally into
two classes, the Ararian, or Coast tribes, and Indian, or Interior
tribes; of the former the Innuit, or Esquimo races, inhabit coast of
Arctic and North Pacific Ocean, and the Aleutians inhabited the chain of
Aleutian Islands and the western ends of Aliaska peninsula.

_Innuit_, or _Esquimo_. _Kopágmuts_; numbered, in 1870, about 200;
inhabit the shore of the Arctic Ocean between Mackenzie’s River and
Manning’s Point; were formerly much more numerous and powerful,
inhabiting valley of Mackenzie’s River for 300 miles until driven out by
Indians.

_Kanmalígmut._ They number about 250; inhabit shore of Arctic Ocean from
Manning’s Point to Cape Barrow; great traders.

_Nuwikmut._ Number about 600, and inhabit coast of Arctic Ocean from
mouth of Colville River to Cape Liskurore; main villages at Cape Smith,
Cape Barrow, Wainwright’s Island, and Icy Cape; make annual trading
voyages in July and August.

_Nunatogmuts._ Number about 350; inhabit the north shore of Kotzebue
Sound; treacherous and thieving; meet white traders annually at Point
Hope, and carry on trade with natives up the inland rivers.

_Konágmuts._ Number about 100, and inhabit the eastern shore of Selanik
River and southeast coast of Kotzebue Sound, carrying on trade with
interior Indians.

_Okeéogmuts._ Number about 350, and inhabit the islands in Behring’s Sea
and Straits north of N. lat. 63°; most agile and hardy of Northern
Indians; are bold, obstinate, and courageous; carry on trade between
Asia and America by means of skin canoes.

_Kikhtogámuts._ Number about 250, and inhabit St. Lawrence Island; the
most immodest and filthy of Esquimos.

_Kariágmuts._ Number 500, and inhabit peninsula between Kotzebue and
Norton Sounds, have large trade with whalers, and travel extensively;
are addicted to theft, incest, and violence.

_Mahlemut._ Number 600; inhabit the neck of the Kariak peninsula.

_Unáligmuts._ Number 150, and inhabit southwestern shore of Norton
Sound.

_Ecógmuts._ Number about 1000; inhabit the delta of the Yukon and 300
miles of its valley. Have heavy beard and hairy bodies, in strong
contrast to other tribes.

_Mágemuts._ Number about 500; inhabiting Muriak Island and coast from
60° to 62° N. lat. Great hunters of mink, as their name indicates. They
excel in ivory carving, but are poor, filthy, and immodest.

_Kusknogmuts._ Number 2500; inhabit shore of Kuskoquine Bay and valley
of Kuskoquine River for 150 miles; do not intermarry with other tribes.

_Nushagágmuts._ Number about 400, and inhabit shore of Bristol Bay and
valleys of lakes between it and coast mountains.

_Ogulmuts._ Number about 500, and inhabit north shore of Aliaska
peninsula and basin of Lliamna Lake.

_Karrigmuts._ Number 3000, and inhabit south shore of Aliaska peninsula
and shore of Cook’s Inlet to Lliamna Peak, and also Kodiack Island; were
formerly much more numerous, and occupied all the shore of Cook’s Inlet
until the interior Indians drove them off and established themselves on
that coast; they are frequently confounded with the _Aleuts_; have been
much altered by over 90 years’ intercourse with Russians; are virtually
Greek Christians.

_Chugachígmuts._ Number about 600, and inhabit southern and eastern
coast of Kenai peninsula.

_Ugálákmuts._ Number about 400, and inhabit coast from Icy Bay to Prince
William’s Sound, except at the mouth of the Atna, on Copper River, where
the interior Indians hold the coast. This tribe is at present the
southern and eastern limit of the Innuit, or Esquimo races, although at
one time they undoubtedly extended to the mouth of the Stickeen River.

_Aleuts._ On the advent of the Russians, about 150 years ago, the twenty
Aleut races numbered about 10,000 people; they had marked peculiarities
and well-defined tribal divisions. The cruelty, oppression, and
persecution of the Russians rapidly decreased their numbers; their
natural and tribal distinctions were lost and forgotten; they were
entirely cowed and subdued; they embraced Greek Christianity, and were
transported by their conquerors all along the coast.

_Khagántagákuhn._ Number 350, and inhabit western end of Aliaska
peninsula and Shumagin Islands.

_Unaláshkuhns._ Number 750; inhabit Unalask, Unmak, and Priboloff
Islands.

_Atkanhun._ Number 470, and inhabit the Western Islands.

_Tinneh._ Interior Indian tribes belonging to the same family; occupy
either flank of the Rocky Mountains, from the mouth of Mackenzie’s River
southward as far as Mexico. In Alaska they extend westward to near the
delta Yukon, but absolutely reach the sea-coast only at two places, the
mouth of the Atna River and the shore at Cook’s Inlet.

_Koyukukhotana._ Number about 600, and inhabit the mountain north of the
Yukon and east of Norton Sound. A fierce and warlike tribe, constantly
at war with the Kaiguhkotima; live in permanent villages, and travel by
dog-sledges. They subsist by hunting deer and mountain-sheep.

_Kaiguhkotima._ Number about 2300; have many settlements between lat.
60° and 65° N. and long. 150° and 160° W., on the lower Yukon and
Kuskoquin Rivers. They live by fishing and trading dried fish with the
tribes of the upper rivers for moose and deer meat, wooden-ware, and
beech-bark canoes, which the latter are very skillful in making; they
travel by dog-sledges.

_Unakhotana._ Number about 500, and live in the valley of the Yukon from
long. 152° to 156° W.; do not build permanent villages, keep only
hunting-dogs, practice polygamy, take and discard wives at pleasure.

_Ahtona._ Number about 1500, and inhabit the basin of the Atna, or
Copper River. This is one of the two tribes that have forced their way
through the Ararians and conduct their annual trading independent of the
middlemen of the coast.

_Tchaninkutchin._ Number about 1000, and inhabit north shore of Kenai
peninsula and basin of Suchinto River. This is the second instance of
interior Indians proper who have forced their way through the Ararians.
Less is known of them than any other coast tribes; they are intelligent
and warlike, and subsist on mountain-sheep, with the skins of which they
clothe themselves.

_Nehannees._ A name given to a number of tribes who inhabit the
head-waters of the Yukon, Mackenzie, and Stickeen Rivers. By the late
George Gibbs, they are of a low grade and little is known of their
peculiarities or numbers. They consist of the _Abbatotena_, who inhabit
the basin of the Pelly and MacMillan Rivers, and are called by the
Hudson Bay people “Gens du Bois.” The _Mauvais Mondi_, inhabiting basin
of Francis Lake. _Architotena_, called Sicannees by the Hudson Bay
people, inhabit the head-waters of the Deas and Laird’s Rivers. The
_Dahotena_, inhabiting the head-waters of the Stickeen, and the
_Iahko-tena_, in the basin of the Lewis River.

_Chilkahtena._ Inhabit head-waters of rivers that rise near the
head-waters of the Chilkuht that flow north into the Yukon. They are
bold and warlike; number about 500; are middlemen traders between the
Chilkhut Ihlinkets, who do not allow them to descend the Chilkhut, and
interior tribes.

_Jnahnkutchin._ Number about 800, and live in basin of Jenanah River,
the principal tributary of the Yukon, are nomadic, live on deer, and
trap fox and sable for trade; are regarded by their neighbors, whom they
visit annually for trading purposes, with fear and terror.

_Kutchkutchin._ Number about 400, and inhabit about 350 miles of the
Yukon valley.

_Natsitkutchin._ The “Gens de Rats” of the Hudson Bay people; occupy
the north side of the Porcupine; number not known.

_Inkuthkutchin._ 250 in number; inhabit south bank of Porcupine.

_Hankutchin._ Number not known; occupy 300 miles of Yukon valley that is
densely wooded.

_Intchuon Kutchin._ Very numerous, “the Gens de Foix” of the Hudson Bay
people; occupy the basin of the White, the Lewis, and the Stewart River;
they are of nomadic habits, amiable and remarkably honest. They trade
with the Atna River Indians.

_Ihlinkets._ A stock of Indians inhabiting the islands of the Alexander
Archipelago from lat. 60° N. to the head or north end of Vancouver
Island. They are essentially maritime and commercial; they travel
entirely by canoes, in which they make voyages hundreds of miles in
length. They live in fixed villages, always built upon the shores of
bays or rivers in the most substantial manner of heavy timber, often
showing great mechanical skill, and frequently arranged with regard for
capacity for defense. They own slaves, cremate their dead, and are
industrious and frugal as well as cruel, warlike, and aggressive in
their nature.

_Yakutats._ Numbering about 350; inhabit the coast from Mount St. Elias
to Mount Crilton, their principal village being at Port Mulgrove,
Behring’s Bay. They cure salmon to live upon, hunt the seal and
sea-otter for trade. They eat the blubber and flesh of the whale, and
often voyage as far south as Fort Simpson, in lat. 54° N.

_Chilkahtknan._ Number about 1500 in the village of Chilkaht and
Iselkort Rivers and head of Lyn Channel; they are fierce and warlike,
often at war with the southern Indians; make annual trading voyages,
carrying peltries obtained from interior Indians as far south as
Victoria, Vancouver Island, receiving in exchange blankets, powder,
ball, hardware, and molasses and sugar.

_Sitkakneen._ Number about 1200 or 1500, and inhabit the shore of Cross
Sound, Checkayoff, Kruyoff, and Buranoff Islands. Their principal
village is Sitka, Buranoff Island. They are called Kolases by Russians,
whom it took many years to subdue to a sufficient extent to make a
foothold in their country. They frequently fought the intruders, and as
late as 1855 perpetrated a bloody massacre, killing a whole congregation
who were worshiping in a church. Before the advent of the Russians they
were often at war with their neighbors, and before being subject to an
epidemic of smallpox and a massacre by the Stickeens were much more
numerous. The Russians employ large numbers of them at ship-building.
They are industrious and have much mechanical skill in working both wood
and metals. Large numbers of them have been baptized into the Greek
Church, but Christianity never made much impression upon them.

_Kootznonknan._ Numbering about 300; inhabit Admiralty Island, their
principal village being at Hood’s Bay. They resemble the Sitkas, with
whom they intermarry. They were the first to distill a kind of liquor
from molasses or sugar and potatoes or beans, which is now a universal
custom in Alaska, and is demoralizing the native population to a great
extent.

_Jahkuknan._ Numbering about 250 in the basin of the Jashku River and
shore of Stephen’s Pass; resemble the Sitkas.

_Kakenan._ Number about 200; inhabit Kow and several other islands in
Stephen’s Pass; warlike and treacherous. They are the only Alaska
Indians with whom the United States has had hostilities. Gen. J. C.
Davis destroyed their principal village in 1858, since which time they
have declined in power and importance.

_Tongasknan._ 200 in number; inhabit Tongas Island.

_Stakhinknan._ Number 1000; inhabit the mouth of Stahkin River and
neighboring islands; principal village at Wrangle Island; resemble the
Sitkas closely; warlike and treacherous; skillful workers in metals and
wood.

_Kygahn._ Called Haidas by Hudson Bay people; numbering in Alaska about
500 and in Prince of Wales Archipelago; are of fine stature, and fierce
and warlike as well as treacherous; ingenious carvers in metal and wood;
they formerly carried on a trade in slaves with more northern Indians,
making for the purpose of capturing them predatory incursions as far
south as Vancouver Island and Puget Sound. They also manufacture and
supply yellow-cedar canoes of immense size to northern Indians.

=Indications, Military.= See MILITARY INDICATIONS.

=Indicator.= An invention of Gen. Wingate, of the New York Militia, for
instructing men in aiming the musket. A steel rod passing through a
brass tompon in the muzzle is projected forwards by the firing-pin. The
rod carries a sharp point in the line of the sights, which punctures a
miniature target a foot or so in front of the muzzle.

=Indisciplinable.= Not disciplinable; incapable of being disciplined, or
subjected to discipline; undisciplinable.

=Indiscipline.= Want of discipline or instruction.

=Indore.= The capital of the principality of the same name in India, on
the left bank of the Kuthi. This place, mean and insignificant enough in
itself, acquired considerable notoriety in connection with the grand
revolt of 1857. Though Holkar, the rajah, remained faithful to the
British government, yet his troops mutinied on July 1, holding their
prince as a prisoner in his palace, and butchering many Europeans, men,
women, and children, in cold blood.

=Inefficient.= Incapable of, or indisposed to, effective action;
effecting nothing; as, an inefficient force.

=Inergetic.= Having no energy; as, an inergetic officer.

=Inescutcheon.= In heraldry, a small escutcheon borne within a shield.

=Inexperienced.= Not having experience; unskilled; as, an inexperienced
general.

=Inexpugnable.= Incapable of being subdued by force; impregnable.

=Infamous Behavior.= In the British service a term peculiarly applicable
to military life when it is affected by dishonorable conduct; on
conviction of which, an officer is ordered to be cashiered. Infamy may
be attached to an officer or soldier in a variety of ways; and some
countries are more tenacious than others on this head. Among European
nations it has always been deemed infamous and disgraceful to abandon
the field of action or to desert the colors. In Germany a mark of infamy
was attached to the character of every man who was found guilty of
misbehavior before the enemy. Among the Romans it was considered as
infamous and disgraceful to be taken prisoner, and a Roman soldier was
impressed with the idea that he must either conquer or die on the field.
There are various occasions in which the conduct of an officer may
render him unworthy of the situation he fills, such as cheating at play,
taking unfair advantages of youth, imposing upon the credulity or
confidence of a tradesman, habitual drunkenness, flagrant breaches of
hospitality, etc.

=Infantry= (Lat. _infans_, “child,” or “servant,” applied to servants
who went on foot, and _infanterie_, to foot-soldiers generally). Is that
portion of a military establishment using small-arms and equipped for
marching and fighting on foot, in contradistinction to artillery and
cavalry. It is the oldest of the “three arms” into which armies are
conventionally divided; was the favorite of the Greeks, the Gauls, the
Germans, and the Franks, and was that mainly with which Rome conquered
the world. Under Grecian and Roman civilization it attained pre-eminence
as the _arm of battle_, but fell into contempt and comparative desuetude
early in the Middle Ages, and did not emerge from that obscurity till
the decline of the feudal system. It was first revived by the Swiss,
who, armed with the pike, withstood the most famous chivalry of Europe.
Afterwards the Spanish infantry, armed with the musket, and led by Alva
and the Duke of Parma, Cortez and Pizarro, became the terror of two
continents. The other states of Europe were not slow in learning the
lesson. Infantry steadily increased in power and importance from the
first years of the 14th century, and is now recognized as constituting
the principal strength of military organizations. This importance
results from the fact that it can be used everywhere, “in mountains or
on plains, in woody or open countries, in cities or in fields, on rivers
or at sea, in the redoubt or in the attack on the breach.” It is the
self-sustaining arm in the field of battle, and is, moreover, less
expensive, man for man, than its auxiliaries.

=Infantry Exercise.= The use of the rifle, and manœuvres for regiments
of infantry, according to the regulations issued by the War Department.

=Infantry, Heavy-armed.= Among the ancients were such as wore a complete
suit of armor, and engaged with broad shields and long spears. They were
the flower and strength of the Grecian armies, and had the highest rank
of military honor.

=Infantry, Light.= Came into use after the year 1656. They had no camp
equipage to carry, and their arms and accoutrements were much lighter
than the common infantry, or battalion men; they were used as
skirmishers, etc.

=Infantry, Light-armed.= Among the ancients, were designed for
skirmishes, and for fighting at a distance. Their weapons were arrows,
darts, or slings.

=Infantry Tactics.= See TACTICS.

=Inferior.= In a military sense means simply junior in rank, having a
lower rank.

=Infest.= To trouble greatly; to disturb; to annoy; to harass; as, the
sea is infested with pirates; parties of the enemy infest the coast.

=Infile.= To arrange in a file or rank; to place in order. This term is
obsolete.

=Inflammation.= When grains of powder are united to form a charge, and
fire is communicated to one of them, the heated and expansive gases
evolved insinuate themselves into the interstices of the charge, envelop
the grains, and ignite them, one after the other. This propagation of
ignition is called _inflammation_, and its velocity the _velocity of
inflammation_. It is much greater than that of combustion, and it should
not be confounded with it. The _velocity of inflammation_ of powder
compressed by pounding is about .64 inch, while that of mealed powder in
the same condition is only .45 inch. Inflammation, in the study of
gunpowder, is the spread of the flame from one grain to another--as
opposed to ignition; the setting on fire of a certain point of the
charge.

=Informant.= In case a civil person is the complainant, he becomes the
principal witness before a court-martial, and after giving his evidence
may remain in court, in order that the judge-advocate may refer to him.

=Informers.= In the British service, were soldiers who gave information
of false musters, or of pay illegally detained; and were, for said
services, entitled to their discharge.

=Ingauni.= A Ligurian tribe who formerly inhabited the sea-coast and
adjoining mountains at the foot of the Maritime Alps, on the west side
of the Gulf of Genoa. They are mentioned as being engaged in hostilities
with a neighboring tribe, the Epanterii, on the occasion of the landing
of Mago, the brother of Hannibal, B.C. 205. They were several times
engaged in wars with the Romans, but were finally defeated by the
pro-consul, Æmilius Paullus, in a decisive engagement (losing 15,000
killed and 2500 prisoners), which resulted in their ultimate submission
to the Roman sway.

=Inglorious.= Shameful; disgraceful; ignominious; as, he charged his
troops with inglorious flight.

=Inimical.= Hostile.

=Initial Velocity.= In England the term _muzzle velocity_ is frequently
used. In gunnery, the initial velocity of a projectile is the velocity
at the muzzle of the piece, and is determined by the use of the
ballistic pendulum, the gun pendulum, the electro-ballistic machines,
the Schultz chronoscope, or the Le Boulengé chronograph; the two last
being now generally used in the U. S. service. The various plans in use
differ only in the manner of recording and keeping the time of flight.
The initial velocity of a shot may be ascertained by firing the gun, the
axis being horizontal, at a target and measuring the _distance_ of the
point struck below the point where the axis of the gun produced would
pierce the target. _This_ is the vertical distance fallen through by the
ball in the time of passage from the muzzle to the target, and the time
in which it falls through this distance is given by the formula

         (2_s_)
  _t_ = √(----)
         ( _g_)

in which _t_ represents the time, _s_ the vertical space fallen through,
and _g_ the force of gravity. The distance to the target divided by this
_time_ gives the initial velocity approximately. Practically, this
method is only applicable to large breech-loading cannon, which have
neither windage nor vibration in the barrel to affect the angle of
departure of the projectile. Smooth-bores or muzzle-loading rifles are
subject to the first cause of error; the first-named guns in a great
degree, and small-arms to vibrations not yet fully investigated, which
cause a sensible difference between the axis of the piece as pointed and
the line of fire. The causes that affect initial velocity are the weight
of the charge, the size and position of the vent, the windage, the
length of the bore, the form of the chamber, the diameter and density of
the projectile, the windage of the cartridge; the form, size, density,
and dryness of the grains of powder; and the barometric, thermometric,
and hygrometric states of the atmosphere. See VELOCITY.

=Injuries to Cannon.= Brass cannon are little subject to external injury
caused by service, except from the bending of the trunnions sometimes,
after long service or heavy charges. Internal injuries are caused by the
action of the elastic fluids developed in the combustion of the powder,
or by the action of the shot in passing out of the bore. These effects
generally increase with the caliber of the piece. The principal injury
of the first kind is the cutting away of the metal of the upper surface
of the bore over the seat of the shot. The injuries of the second kind
are, the _lodgment of the shot_,--a compression of the metal on the
lower side of the bore, at the seat of the shot, which is caused by the
pressure of the gas in escaping over the top of the shot. There is a
corresponding _burr_ in front of the lodgment, and the motion therefore
given to the shot causes it to strike alternately on the top and bottom
of the bore, producing other _enlargements_, generally _three_ in
number, the first on the upper side a little in advance of the
trunnions, the second on the lower side about the astragal, the third in
the upper part of the muzzle. It is chiefly from this cause that brass
guns become unserviceable. _Scratches_, caused by the fragments of a
broken shot, or the roughness of an imperfect one. A piece is said to be
_honeycombed_ when the surface of the bore is full of small holes and
cavities. This is due to the melting and volatilization of a portion of
tin in the alloy, tin being much more fusible than copper. Iron cannon
are subject to the above defects in a less degree than brass, except the
corrosion of the metal, by which the vent is rendered unserviceable from
enlargement. The one cause of injury to iron cannon is the rusting of
the metal, producing a roughness and enlargement of the bore and an
increase of any cavities or honeycombs which may exist in the metal.

Iron cannon, however, are subject to a peculiar erosion by the gases,
which Prof. Horsford explains by supposing that under the enormous
tension and heat the sulphur in the gases unites with the iron,
producing a friable sulphide of iron, which is successively formed and
swept off by the gases. Wrought-iron guns are peculiarly subject to this
erosion, cast-iron and steel less so. The amount of erosion is dependent
upon the velocity with which the gases pass over the surface of the
bore. In rifled wrought-iron guns having windage this action is fully
illustrated, and the gun is soon disabled. The strong preference in many
countries for steel as a bore lining is thus explained. By the use of
expanding projectiles this action is largely prevented, the sabot acting
as a gas-check. This system of projectiles is rapidly gaining favor for
this and other reasons.

=Inkerman.= A small Tartar village in the Crimea, situated near the
eastern extremity of the harbor of Sebastopol. It was once a celebrated
city, and has numerous caverns cut in the rock, supposed to be the work
of the monks in the Middle Ages. Near this place, November 5, 1854, was
fought a battle between the allied English and French forces on the one
side, and the Russians on the other, the former amounting to 25,000 or
30,000, the latter about 60,000. The Russians began the attack at dawn
of day upon the intrenched lines of the English; but after a fierce and
sanguinary contest of many hours, inflicting great loss on both sides,
the Russians were finally driven from the field.

=Inlist.= See ENLISTMENT.

=Inlying Picket.= A body of infantry or cavalry in campaign, detailed to
march, if called upon, and held ready for that purpose in camp or
quarters.

=Inner.= One of the circular rings on the Creedmoor target; a shot
striking in this space counts three.

=Inniskilliners=, or =Enniskilliners=. In the British service, the
officers and soldiers of the 6th Dragoons and the 27th Foot are so
called, from the two regiments having been originally raised at
Enniskillen (or Inniskillen), a town of Ulster, where the inhabitants
distinguished themselves in favor of King William against James II.

=Innuit.= A name given by some ethnologists to the Indian races
inhabiting the northwestern coast of North America. They differ in many
respects from the Indians of the interior and farther south. The Aleuts
and Esquimos are not included in the term.

=Inofficial.= Not official; not proceeding from the proper officer; not
clothed with the usual forms of authority, or not done in an official
character; not required by or appropriate to the duties of any office;
as, inofficial intelligence.

=Inquiry, Board of.= A term used in contradistinction to a
court-martial, to signify the meeting of a certain number of officers
(who are not sworn) for the purpose of ascertaining facts that may
afterwards become a matter of investigation on oath. There are also
courts of inquiry; such courts in the armies of Europe, it would seem,
derived their origin from the prerogative of the sovereign, and became
part of the military judicature by custom and not by express law. From
this fact it has been considered that the exercise of this authority,
instead of being regarded as an assumption of power, is a favor to the
accused, and it is thus stated by Capt. Simmons in his work on
courts-martial. For the army of the United States, courts of inquiry
have been specially authorized by legal enactment. (See APPENDIX,
ARTICLES OF WAR, 115 to 121.) The origin and purposes of such courts
would naturally lead to the conclusion that they are of the essence of
high command; and therefore the right to convoke them, under all the
legal restrictions, is properly confined to the President of the United
States, a general commanding an army, or a colonel commanding a
department; and in the cases of enlisted men, the commanding officer of
the regiment. See COURT OF INQUIRY.

=Inroad.= The entrance of an enemy into a country with purposes of
hostility; a sudden or desultory incursion or invasion; attack;
encroachment.

=Inroll.= See ENROLL.

=Insconced.= In the military art, when any part of an army has fortified
itself with a sconce, or small work, in order to defend some pass, etc.,
it is said to be insconced. See ENSCONCE.

=Inscribe.= To mark with letters, characters, or words, as, to inscribe
the name of the battle on their colors.

=Insecure.= Not effectually guarded or protected; unsafe; exposed to
danger or loss.

=Inspect.= To view and examine officially; as, troops, arms, etc.

=Inspection.= A strict examination; a close survey. It is of various
kinds, and embraces general, regimental, and troop or company duties. A
general inspection is made from time to time by inspectors-general
designated by the commanding generals of military divisions or
departments. Every regiment on this occasion is minutely looked into,
and a faithful account is delivered by each commanding officer of the
actual state of his regiment. The interior economy of the corps is not
only investigated, but the discipline of the men is likewise examined.

=Inspection of Cannon, Instruments for.= These are used to verify the
dimensions of cannon, and to detect the presence and measure the size of
cavities in the metal. The _star-gauge_ is an instrument for measuring
the diameter of the bore at any point. The _cylinder-staff_ is used to
measure the length of the bore. It is supported by a rest of a T-form at
the muzzle, and the extremity inserted in the gun is armed with a
_measuring-point_ and a _guide-plate_. The _cylinder-gauge_ is a
cylinder of cast iron, turned to the exact or true diameter of the bore.
When used it is attached to the end of the cylinder-staff. The
_searcher_ consists of four flat springs turned up at the end, and
attached to a socket which is screwed on to the end of the
cylinder-staff. It is used to feel for cavities in the surface of the
bore. The _trunnion-gauge_ verifies the diameters of the trunnions and
rimbases. The _trunnion-square_ is used to verify the position of the
trunnions with regard to the bore. The _trunnion-rule_ measures the
distance of the trunnions from the rear of the base-ring. _Calipers_,
for measuring exterior diameters. A _standard-rule_, for verifying other
instruments. The _vent-gauges_ are two pointed pieces of steel wire,
0.005 inch greater and less than the true diameter of the vent, to
verify its size. The _vent-searcher_ is a hooked wire, used to detect
cavities in the vent. A _rammer-head_, shaped to the form of the bottom
of the bore, and furnished with a staff, is used to ascertain the
interior position of the vent. A _wooden rule_, to measure exterior
lengths. A _mirror_, a _wax taper_, _beeswax_; _rammer_, _sponge_, and
_priming-wire_. _Figure_ and _letter-stamps_, to affix the required
marks. The objects of inspecting cannon are to verify their dimensions,
particularly those which affect the accuracy of the fire, and the
relation of the piece to its carriage, and to detect any defects of
metal and workmanship that would be likely to impair their strength and
endurance.

=Inspection of Projectiles.= The principal points to be observed in
inspecting shot and shells are, to see that they are of proper size in
all their parts; that they are made of suitable metal; and that they
have no defects, concealed or otherwise, which will endanger their use
or impair the accuracy of their fire.

_Inspection of Shot._--The instruments are one _large_ and one _small_
gauge, and one _cylinder-gauge_; the cylinder-gauge has the same
diameter as the large gauge; it is made of cast iron, and is 5 calibers
long. There are also, one _hammer_ with a conical point, six _steel
punches_, and one _searcher_ made of wire. The shot should be inspected
before they become rusty; after being well cleaned each shot is placed
on a table and examined by the eye, to see that its surface is smooth
and that the metal is sound and free from seams, flaws, and blisters. If
cavities or small holes appear on the surface, strike the point of the
hammer or punch into them, and ascertain their depth with the searcher;
if the depth of the cavity exceeds 0.2 inch, the shot is rejected; and
also if it appears that an attempt has been made to conceal such defects
by filling them up with nails, cement, etc. The shot must pass in every
direction through the large gauge, and not at all through the small one;
the founder should endeavor to bring the shot up as near as possible to
the _large gauge_, or to the true diameter. After having been thus
examined the shot are passed through the _cylinder-gauge_, which is
placed in an inclined position, and turned from time to time to prevent
its being worn into furrows; _shot_ which _slide_ or _stick_ in the
cylinder are rejected. Shot are proved by dropping them from a height of
20 feet on a block of iron, or rolling them down an inclined plane of
that height against another shot at the bottom of the plane. The average
weight of the shot is deduced from that of three parcels of 20 to 50
each, taken indiscriminately from the pile; some of those which appear
to be the smallest should also be weighed, and they are rejected if they
fall short of the weight expressed by their caliber more than
_one-thirty-second_ part. They almost invariably exceed that weight.

_Inspection of Grape- and Canister-shot._--The dimensions are verified
by means of a large and small gauge attached to the same handle. The
surface of the shot should be smooth and free from seams.

_Inspection of Hollow Projectiles._--The inspecting instruments are a
_large_ and _small gauge_ for each caliber, and a _cylinder-gauge_ for
shells of 8 inches and under. _Calipers_ for measuring the thickness of
shells at the sides. _Calipers_ to measure the thickness at the bottom.
_Gauges_ to verify the dimensions of the fuze-hole and the thickness of
the metal at the fuze-hole. A _pair of hand-bellows_; a _wooden plug_ to
fit the fuze-hole, and bored through to fit the nozzle of the bellows. A
_hammer_, a _searcher_, a _cold chisel_, _steel punches_.

_Inspection._--The surface of the shell and its exterior dimensions are
examined as in the case of shot. The shell is next struck with the
hammer, to judge by the sound whether it is free from cracks; the
position and dimensions of the ears are verified; the thickness of the
metal is then measured at several points on the great circle
perpendicular to the axis of the fuze-hole. The diameter of the
fuze-hole, which should be accurately reamed, is then verified, and the
soundness of the metal about the inside of the hole is ascertained by
inserting the finger. The shell is now placed on a trivet, in a tub
containing water deep enough to cover it nearly to the fuze-hole; the
bellows and plug are inserted into the fuze-hole, and the air forced
into the shell; if there be any holes in the shell, the air will rise in
bubbles through the water. This test gives another indication of the
soundness of the metal, as the parts containing cavities will dry more
slowly than other parts. The mean weight of shells is ascertained in the
same manner as that of shot. Shot and shells rejected in the inspection
are marked with an X made with a cold chisel,--on shot near the gate,
and on shells near the fuze-hole.

=Inspector-General.= A staff-officer of an army, whose duties are those
of inspection, and embrace everything relative to organization,
recruiting, discharge, administration, accountability for money and
property, instruction, police, and discipline. In the French army, a
certain number of general officers are annually designated to make
inspections.

=Inspector-General of the Cavalry.= In the British service, a general
officer whose particular duty is to inspect all cavalry regiments, to
report the state of the horses, and to receive specific accounts from
the different corps of their actual state. He communicates directly and
confidentially with the commander-in-chief. Inspector-general of the
recruiting service is an officer of rank, through whom the
field-officers of districts, and colonels of regiments (when they
personally manage the recruiting service of their own corps), transmit
their several returns to the adjutant-general’s office.

=Inspector-General’s Department.= In the United States, the law provides
for one inspector-general, with the rank of brigadier-general; two
inspectors-general, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel; and two with
the rank of major. Also, that the Secretary of War may, in addition,
detail officers of the line, not to exceed four, to act as
inspectors-general.

=Installation.= The act of investing any one with a military order.

=Instruction.= The education or training of soldiers in military duties.
In the U. S. service the colonel has general charge of the instruction
of his regiment.

=Instructions.= Military directions or orders.

=Instruments, Military Musical.= The instruments which are peculiar to
the cavalry of most nations are the trumpet and bugle. In France,
dragoon regiments in general formerly adopted the drum in common with
the infantry; they now use the trumpet for garrison, and the bugle for
field service. A certain number of fifers are likewise allowed in foot
regiments. In the U. S. army, the drum, fife, and bugle are used by
foot, and the trumpet by mounted troops. There is allowed a band of
musicians to each regiment, which usually serve at regimental
headquarters, and is partly maintained by the regimental fund. (See
FUND.) There is also a band employed at the West Point Military Academy,
which is maintained by the government. In the U. S. navy there is a band
allowed to each commander-in-chief of a fleet, which is also maintained
by the general government.

=Instruments, Warlike Musical.= The Turks made use of wind and clashing
instruments of different shapes and sizes; all, except one wind
instrument, are better calculated for pomp and ceremony, than adapted to
military service. The clashing instruments, which the French call
_instrumens à choc_, consist of two sorts of drums, and an instrument
which is made of two plates of metal. Their wind instruments consist of
a winding or crooked trumpet, and of a wooden fife. The big drum which
they call _daul_, stands 3 feet high. It is carried by a mounted
drummer, who makes use of a thick stick, with which he strikes the upper
part, and a small one, with which he plays upon the lower part; these he
applies alternately, with much dexterity of hand and great gravity of
countenance. This is the only instrument which the Turks use in military
exercises or manœuvres, and is constantly beaten when the enemy is near,
and round all the outposts, in order to keep the sentinels on the alert.
On these occasions the drummer exclaims with a loud voice, _Jagda
Allah!_ that is, “God is good!”

=Insubjection.= Want of subjection; state of disobedience to government.

=Insubmission.= Want of submission; disobedience.

=Insubordinate.= Not submissive; not submitting to authority.

=Insubordination.= The quality of being insubordinate; want of
subordination; disorder; disobedience to lawful authority; a serious
military offense.

=Insubres.= A Gallic people, who crossed the Alps, and settled in Gallia
Transpadana, in the north of Italy. Next to the Boii, they were the most
powerful and warlike of the Gallic tribes in Cisalpine Gaul. They were
conquered by the Romans shortly before the commencement of the second
Punic war.

=Insufficiency.= The quality of being insufficient; want of sufficiency;
deficiency; inadequateness; as, the insufficiency of provisions for a
garrison.

=Insult, To.= In a military sense, is to attack boldly and in open day,
without going through the slow operations of trenches, working by mines
and saps, or having recourse to those usual forms of war, by advancing
gradually towards the object in view. An enemy is said to insult a coast
when he suddenly appears upon it, and debarks troops with an immediate
purpose to attack.

=Insurgents.= Soldiers or people generally in a state of insurrection.
The term, however, admits of one exception. Hungarian insurgents
(_Insurgenten die Ungarischen_) mean the Hungarian militia, called out
or summoned by general proclamation, as under the old feudal system.

=Insurrection.= A rising against civil or political authority; the open
and active opposition of a number of persons to the execution of law in
a city or state; a rebellion; a revolt.

=Intenable.= Incapable of being held; untenable; not defensible; as, an
intenable fortress.

=Intendant=, or =Intendant Militaire=. An officer in the French army
charged with the organization and direction of all the civil services
attending a force in the field. The officers acting under his orders are
those in charge of all the finance services, the provisions, stores,
hospitals, artillery train, and transport departments, besides the
interpreters, guides, and such like temporary services. The
_intendant-en-chef_ of an army is the representative of the minister of
war; and, short of superseding the general’s orders, can exercise, in
case of need, all the functions of that high officer of state. The
intendance is divided into intendants, ranking with general officers,
sub-intendants with colonels, and assistant-intendants with majors;
besides these there are cadets, who receive no pay, and constitute a
probationary grade.

=Intercept.= To interrupt communication with, or progress towards; to
cut off; as, to intercept the march of an army.

=Intercombat.= A combat between.

=Interior.= A word of varied application; as, the _interior flanking
angle_ is formed by the curtain and line of defense. _Interior radius_
is that part of an _oblique radius_ extending from the centre of the
polygon to the centre of the bastion. _Interior side_ is the line of the
curtain produced to the two oblique radii of the front, or a line drawn
from the centre of one bastion to that of the next.

=Interior Form of Cannon.= The interior of cannon may be divided into
three distinct parts: 1st, the _vent_, or channel which communicates
fire to the charge; 2d, the _seat of the charge_, or chamber, if its
diameter be different from the rest of the bore; 3d, the _cylinder_, or
that portion of the bore passed over by the projectile. See also GROOVES
FOR RIFLE CANNON.

=Interior Guards.= Are police guards, guards of property, etc., who are
liable to come in contact with the enemy.

=Interior Slope.= Is the inclination towards the inner part of a work
which is given to the earth forming the rampart or parapet. _Interior
crest_ is the crest of the interior slope.

=Interval.= In military dispositions and manœuvres, any given distance
or space. In tactics the term is used to signify taken parallel to the
front, as opposed to distance or space perpendicularly to the front.
_Interval between two battalions_ is the space which separates them when
they are drawn up for action or when they are encamped. This space is
generally wide enough to admit the march of another regiment; that is to
say, it is equal to the extent of its front when in line. _Interval
between the line and the camp_ comprehends the space which lies between
the camp and the line of intrenchments. It is generally from 180 to 200
toises in breadth; so that the different sections of troops which are
necessary for the security of the camp, may have room to move in, while
sufficient ground is left in rear for troops to pass and repass as
occasion may require. The same observation holds good with respect to
contrevallation.

=Intrench.= Is to make secure against the attack of an enemy by digging
a ditch or trench, etc. _To intrench upon_, to invade, to make
encroachments upon the property or territories of another.

=Intrenched Camp.= A large space capable of containing an entire army,
surrounded by works of fortification. Frequently an intrenched camp
joins a fortress, in which case it is protected by permanent works of
considerable strength--detached forts, for instance.

=Intrenching Tool.= An implement used for intrenching. In view of the
deadly fire of modern small-arms it is a matter of great importance that
the soldier should be able to get cover. For this reason it has been
proposed to make an intrenching tool a part of the soldier’s equipment.
In the United States army a combination bayonet and intrenching tool is
used. See TROWEL BAYONET.

=Intrenchment.= Is generally a ditch or trench with a parapet. The earth
removed to form the ditch is used to construct the parapet. Fascines,
with earth thrown over them, gabions, hogsheads, or bags filled with
earth, are often employed to revet or strengthen the work when the earth
is loose or sandy. _Intrenchments of armies_ are the whole works or
obstacles by which an army or large body of troops cover themselves for
their defense.

=Intrepidity.= An unqualified contempt of death; an indifference to
fortune as far as it regards personal safety; a fearlessness of heart,
and a daring enterprise of mind.

=Inundation.= The act of letting water into a country so that it shall
be overflowed, to prevent the approach of an enemy. It is among the most
considerable of the various methods which have been devised for
impeding the approach to a field-work, or indeed, any fortification.

=Invade, To.= To make a forcible or clandestine entry into the territory
of another state; to pass the regular line of frontier of any country,
in order to take possession of the interior.

=Invalid.= A soldier who has been wounded, or has suffered in his
health, and in consequence of his good conduct has been recommended to a
certain provision for life. Chelsea Hospital is the place allotted for
the reception of such objects of public gratitude and benevolence in
England; the Soldiers’ Home, in Washington, D. C., in the United States,
and the Hôtel des Invalides, at Paris, France. In England numbers of
invalids are, however, allowed to reside where they choose, and are then
known as “out-pensioners.”

=Invalides.= Wounded veterans of the French army, maintained at the
expense of the State. See HÔTEL DES INVALIDES.

=Invaliding.= Signifies the return home, or to a more healthy climate,
of soldiers or sailors whom wounds or the severity of foreign service
has rendered incapable of active duty. The man invalided returns to his
duty as soon as his restored health justifies the step.

=Invasion.= In war, is the entrance or attack of an enemy on the
dominions of another.

=Inventory of Effects of Deceased Officers and Soldiers.= See APPENDIX,
ARTICLES OF WAR, 125, 126.

=Inverness.= A royal burgh of Scotland, capital of a county of the same
name, situated on both sides of the river Ness. It was a city of the
Picts up to 843; taken by Edward I.; retaken by Bruce, 1313; burnt by
the Lord of the Isles, 1411; taken by Cromwell, 1649; and by Prince
Charles Edward in 1746. The latter was defeated at Culloden, about 5
miles from Inverness, April 16, 1746.

=Inversion.= A movement in tactics by which the order of companies in
line is inverted, the right being on the left, the left on the right,
and so on.

=Invest.= To invest a place is to seize upon all the avenues leading to
a town or fortress. On the occasion of an investment, the hostile troops
are distributed on the principal commands, to prevent any succor from
being received by the garrison, and to keep the ground until the rest of
the army, with the artillery, can arrive to form a regular siege. To
invest a place is, in fact, to take preparatory measures for a blockade
or close siege.

=Invincible.= Incapable of being conquered or overcome; unconquerable;
insuperable; as, an invincible army, etc.

=Inwall.= To inclose or fortify with a wall.

=Iona=, =Icolmkill=, or =Hii=. The most famous of the Hebrides, in
Argyle Co., Scotland. It is about 3 miles long, and varies in breadth
from a mile to a mile and a half. It was founded by Saint Columba, a
native of Ireland, in the 6th century, and long remained the chief seat
of learning and the centre of missionary enterprises undertaken by the
Culdees. In 795, 802, 806, 825, and 986 the island was ravaged by
Norsemen, by whom its monks were martyred in the three latter dates.

=Ionia.= In Asia Minor. About 1040 B.C., the Iones, a Pelasgic race,
emigrated from Greece, and settled here and on the adjoining islands.
They were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C.; revolted in 504,
but were again subdued. After the victories of Cimon, Ionia became
independent and remained so till 387, when it was once more subjected to
Persia. It formed part of the dominions of Alexander and his successors;
was annexed to the Roman empire, and conquered by the Turks.

=Ionian Islands.= A group of islands running round the west coast of
Epirus, and west and south of Greece. After the division of the Roman
empire these islands were included in the eastern half, and so continued
till 1081, when the Duke of Calabria took possession of them. From this
time they underwent a continual change of masters till the commencement
of the 15th century, when they by degrees came into possession of the
Venetians, who in 1797 ceded them to France. They were seized by Russia
and Turkey in 1800, by France in 1807, by Great Britain in 1809, and
November 15, 1815, they were formed into a republic under the
protectorate of the latter power. In May, 1864, they were formally
annexed to Greece.

=Ionie Indians.= A tribe of aborigines allied to the Caddos, who resided
in Texas, and were generally peaceable and friendly.

=Iowa.= One of the Central States of the United States, lying between
the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. It originally formed a portion of
the Louisiana Territory; and permanent settlements commenced to be
formed in it about 1833; organized as a Territory in 1838, and admitted
as a State in 1846. During the civil war it contributed its full quota
of troops to the cause of the Union.

=Iowa Indians.= A tribe of aborigines of Dakota stock, who inhabited the
State which now bears their name. They were closely allied to the Sacs
and Foxes.

=Ipsara=, or =Psara=. A small island in the Grecian Archipelago, west of
Scio; belongs to Turkey. It was taken by the Turks in 1824.

=Ipsus.= A town of Phrygia, in Asia Minor. Here in 301 B.C., a battle
was fought between Antigonus, king of Asia, and the forces of Cassander,
Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, which resulted in the defeat and
death of Antigonus.

=Ipswich.= The chief town of the county of Suffolk, England, situated on
the Orwell. This town was destroyed by the Danes about 1000.

=Ireland.= Anciently named _Ierne_ and _Hibernia_, is said to have been
first colonized by Phœnicians. Some assert that Partholani landed in
Ireland about 2048 B.C.; that the descent of the Damnonii was made about
1403 B.C.; and that this was followed by the descent of Herber and
Heremon, Milesian princes, from Galicia, Spain, who conquered Ireland,
and gave to the throne 171 kings. The Danes and Normans invaded Ireland
in 795; but were totally defeated by Brian Boriomhe at Clontarf, April
23, 1014. In 1172, King Henry II. of England invaded Ireland with a
formidable armament, and received homage from several of the minor
native chiefs, and from the chief Norman adventurers, granting to the
latter charters authorizing them, as his subjects, to take possession of
the entire island in his name; which they partially succeeded in
accomplishing. Subsequently the authority of the English crown became
limited to a few towns on the coast, and the district termed “the Pale,”
comprising a small circuit about Dublin and Drogheda. Henry II. received
the title of “king of Ireland” in 1541, by an act passed by the
Anglo-Irish Parliament in Dublin; and about the same period, some of the
native princes were induced to acknowledge him as their sovereign, and
to accept peerages. The attempts of the English government to introduce
the reformed faith stirred up dissensions in Ireland. Among the first to
revolt was the Earl of Desmond, after whose death, in 1583, his vast
estates in Munster were parceled out to English settlers. Soon after the
chief clans of Ulster took up arms; and in opposing them, the forces of
Queen Elizabeth, commanded by officers of high military reputation,
encountered many reverses, the most serious of which was that in 1598 at
the battle of the Yellow Ford, where the English army was routed and its
general slain. Philip III. of Spain, at the solicitation of the Irish
chief, dispatched a body of troops to their assistance in 1601, which
landed in the extreme south, instead of in the north, as had been
expected, were unable to effect anything, and were constrained, to
surrender. Although Elizabeth was supported by numbers of native Irish,
the northern chiefs, O’Neill and O’Donnell, held out till the queen’s
government came to terms with them in 1603, recognizing them as earls of
Tyrone and Tirconnell. In 1608 these noblemen having apprehensions for
their personal safety quitted Ireland, and retired to the continent.
Their withdrawal enabled James I. to carry out that project of parceling
out the north of Ireland to Protestant Scotch and English settlers. The
Irish took advantage of the contentions in England to rise in
insurrection (1641) and massacre the Protestants. It is believed that
nearly 40,000 fell victims to their fury. The country continued in a
state of anarchy till 1649. when Cromwell overran it. At the revolution
the native Irish generally took the part of James II., the English and
Scotch “colonists” that of William and Mary; and the war was kept up for
four years (1688-1692). The Irish again rebelled in 1798, and were not
suppressed until 1800. Ireland was incorporated with England and
Scotland in 1801. Several insurrections have taken place since the
latter date but were quickly suppressed. For important military events
in Ireland, see separate articles.

=Irish Brigade.= A body of men who followed the fortunes of James II.,
and were formed into regiments under the monarchy of France.

=Iron Cross.= A Prussian order of knighthood, instituted on March 10,
1813, by Frederick William III., and conferred for distinguished
services in the war which was then being carried on. The decoration is
an iron cross with silver mounting. The grand cross, a cross of double
the size, was presented exclusively for the gaining of a decisive
battle, or the capture or brave defense of a fortress. It was revived by
William I. in the Franco-Prussian war, and awarded by him to his son for
his victory at Weissembourg, August 4, 1870.

=Iron Crown.= The crown of the ancient Lombard kings; is a broad band of
gold set with jewels, within which is a thin plate or fillet of iron,
and is declared by tradition to have been hammered from one of the nails
of the true cross. It has been used at the coronation of 34 different
monarchs, including Charlemagne, Henry VII. of Germany, Charles V., and
Napoleon. After the peace of Vienna in 1866, the crown was presented by
the emperor of Austria to Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy.

=Iron Ores.= _Character of Pig-iron._--Ores suitable for “gun-metal”
should be reduced in the smelting-furnace, with charcoal and the warm
blast, varying from 125° to 300° Fahr., depending upon the ore used.
Iron thus made, or pig-iron, should be soft, yielding easily to the file
and chisel; the appearance of the fracture should be uniform, with a
brilliant aspect, dark gray color, and medium-sized crystals. _Character
of Gun-metal._--When remelted and cast into cannon, it should approach
that degree of hardness which resists the file and chisel, but not so
hard as to be bored and turned with much difficulty. Its color should
be a bright, lively gray; crystals small, with acute angles, and
sharp to the touch; structure uniform, close, and compact.
_Magnetite._--_Octahedral Iron Ore._--Color iron-black. Streak black.
Brittle. The black streak and magnetic properties distinguish this
species from the following: _Specular Iron Ore._--_Hematite._--Often
massive granular; sometimes lamellar or micaceous. Also pulverulent and
earthy. Color, dark steel-gray or iron-black, and often when
crystallized having a highly splendid lustre; streak-powder cherry-red
or reddish-brown. The metallic varieties pass into an earthy ore of a
red color, having none of the external characters of the crystals, but
perfectly corresponding to them when they are pulverized, the powder
they yield being of a deep red color, and earthy or without lustre.
Sometimes slightly attracted by the magnet. _Limonite._--_Brown Iron
Ore._--Usually massive, and often with a smooth botryoidal or
stalactitic surface, having a compact fibrous structure within. Also
earthy. Color, dark brown to ochre-yellow; streak, yellowish-brown to
dull yellow. Lustre, sometimes sub-metallic; often dull and earthy; on a
surface of fracture frequently silky. _Spathic Iron._--_Carbonate of
Iron._--_Chalybite._--Usually massive, with a foliated structure,
somewhat curving. Sometimes in globular concretions or implanted
globules. Color, light grayish to brown; often dark brownish-red, or
nearly black on exposure. Streak, uncolored. Lustre, pearly to vitreous;
translucent to nearly opaque.

=Irons.= Fetters or instruments made of iron, with which a prisoner is
shackled. _To be put in irons_, is to be handcuffed and confined in
fetters.

=Ironsides.= A strong man. A cuirassier;--applied also to Cromwell’s
cavalry.

=Iroquois=, or =Six Nations=. The name given by the French to the Indian
confederacy of the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas, to
which were afterwards added the Tuscaroras, after being driven from
their hunting-grounds in North Carolina. This once formidable
confederacy is now nearly extinguished, but remnants of it are still
found scattered through the State of New York.

=Irregular.= Not regular; not according to common form or rules; as, an
irregular building or fortification. See FORTIFICATION, IRREGULAR.

=Irregular Cavalry.= A term now almost obsolete. It applied a few years
ago to regiments of horsemen raised under certain conditions in the East
Indies. These conditions were that each man should provide his own
horse, arms, accoutrements, and clothing, receiving in return a monthly
sum, which also included his pay. To these regiments only three English
officers were appointed, the other officers being natives. These
regiments are still paid in the same way, but they are clothed, armed,
and equipped in a uniform manner; the number of British officers is
increased, and they are no longer styled irregular cavalry.

=Irregularity.= A violation of the customs of service,--a delinquency
which is subject to censure but not serious enough to be brought before
a court-martial.

=Irun.= A town of Spain, near the left bank of the Bidassoa. It is a
place of great antiquity, having been in existence in the time of the
Romans. The Carlists were defeated by the British Legion, under Gen. Sir
de Lacy Evans, in the battle of Irun, May 16, 1837.

=Isabella the Catholic, Order of.= A Spanish order of knighthood,
founded by Ferdinand VII., March 24, 1815, as a reward of loyalty, for
the defense of the possessions of Spanish America. At present, it is
conferred for all kinds of merit. The sovereign is the head of the
order, which is divided into the three classes of Grand Crosses,
Commanders, and Knights.

=Isauria.= A province in Asia Minor, the inhabitants of which were a
wild and semi-barbarous race, who lived by rapine and plunder. The
Romans surrounded Isauria with a chain of fortresses, but the Isaurians
broke through them and remained as untamable as before. Under the
empire, army after army was sent against Isauria, which stood to Rome,
and afterwards to Constantinople, very much in the relation that
Circassia now does to Russia. In the 8th century their national vanity
was gratified by a countryman of their own being appointed to the
throne. From this date they gradually ceased to be formidable.

=Ischia.= An island in the Gulf of Naples, 6 miles from the coast, and
17 miles west from Naples. In 1807, Ischia was taken by a British and
Sicilian force.

=Isernia.= A place in Southern Italy, on the west slope of the
Apennines, where the Sardinian general Cialdini defeated the
Neapolitans, October 17, 1860.

=Isle of France.= See MAURITIUS.

=Ismail=, or =Ismailov=. A strong town of Turkey in Europe, on the north
side of the Kilia arm of the Danube. This place was long in the
possession of the Turks; it was stormed by the Russians, under Suwarrow,
in 1790. It remained in the possession of Russia until 1856, when it was
restored to Turkey by the removal of the Russian frontier.

=Isolé= (_Fr._). This word is used among the French, to express any body
or thing which is detached from another. It is variously applied in
fortification. Thus a pavilion or a barrack which is not joined to any
other wall or building is called isolé, because it stands alone, and a
person may walk entirely round it. A parapet is also said to be isolé
when there is an interval of 4 or 5 feet existing between the rampart
and its wall; which interval serves as a path for the rounds.

=Ispahan.= A famous city of Persia, capital of the province of
Irak-Ajemi, situated on the Zendarud. In 1722 it was taken by the
Afghans, and in 1729 was retaken by Nadir Shah. It has fallen gradually
into decay.

=Issue.= Event; consequence; the ultimate result of any undertaking; the
termination of any contest. A term also applied to the distribution of
supplies; as, issue of rations, issue of clothing, etc., to troops.

=Issues.= In the British service, are certain sums of money which are,
at stated periods, given to public accountants for public service; and
for the honest distribution of which, every individual so intrusted is
responsible to Parliament. _Regimental issues_ are moneys paid by
regimental agents, acting under the authority of their respective
colonels, for regimental purposes.

=Issus.= An ancient city and seaport in Cilicia, in Asia Minor, close to
the frontier of Syria, on or near the head of the Sinus Issicus, now the
Gulf of Scanderoon. It was in the neighborhood of this city that
Alexander the Great annihilated the Persian army under Darius in 333
B.C. Here too was fought (194 A.D.), the bloody battle between Septimus
Severus and Pescennius Niger, by virtue of which the former became sole
master of the Roman empire. The exact site of Issus has not yet been
discovered.

=Istalif.= A town of Afghanistan, province of Cabul (Cabool). It was
taken and partly destroyed by the British in 1842.

=Italy.= A peninsula in the south of Europe. The invading Pelasgians
from Greece, and the aborigines (Umbrians, Oscans, and Etruscans),
combined, formed the renowned Latin race still possessing the southern
part of Europe. The history of Italy is soon absorbed into that of Rome,
founded 753 B.C. Previous to the 15th century it was desolated by
intestine wars and the interference of the German emperors; since then,
Spain, France, and Germany have struggled for the possession of the
country, which has been divided among them several times. Spain
predominated in Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries; but was
compelled to yield to the house of Austria at the beginning of the 18th
century. The victories of Bonaparte in 1797-98 changed the government of
Italy; but the Austrian rule was re-established at the peace of 1814. In
1848 the Milanese and Venetians revolted and joined Piedmont, but were
subdued by Radetzky. The hostile feeling between Austria and Piedmont
gradually increased till war broke out in April, 1859, in which the
Austrians were defeated, and the kingdom of Italy was re-established in
1861. Another war with Austria was declared in June, 1866, but peace was
signed in October, same year, and Venetia was ceded to Italy. For other
details, see ROME and the various Italian cities throughout this volume.

=Ithome.= A mountain fortress of Messenia, memorable for the defense
there made for many years against the Spartans in the first Messenian
war. It was afterwards the citadel of Messene, when that city was
founded by Epaminondas.

=Itinerairies= (_Fr._). Itinerary movements or days of march. A
technical phrase among the French to denote the order and the
disposition which a body of men or an army is directed to observe in its
march from one camp to another, or to any particular quarter or
destination.

=Itzehoe.= An ancient town in the duchy of Holstein. The original castle
around which Itzehoe was built by Charlemagne in 809. This town was
twice taken by Tilly in the Thirty Years’ War, and in 1657 a great
portion of it was burned down by the Swedes.

=Ivry-la-Bataille.= A town of France, department of Eure, 40 miles west
of Paris. It is celebrated for the decisive victory which was gained by
Henry IV. of Navarre over the forces under the Duke of Mayenne in 1590.

=Ixcaquixtla.= A town in the southern part of the state of Puebla,
Mexico. It is noted in Mexican history as the scene of a sharp battle
fought January 1, 1817, between Mexican insurgents under Gen. Mier of
Teran, and the Spanish troops under La Madrid.

=Izucar.= A city of the state of Puebla, Mexico. Near here Gen.
Matamoros, lighting for the independence of his country, gained a
victory over the Spaniards, February 24, 1812.



J.


=Jaca=, or =Jacca=. A fortified town of Spain, in the province of
Aragon, situated at the foot of the Pyrenees, on the river Aragon. It is
a town of great antiquity, and, from its position, has been the scene of
many sanguinary contests. Its occupation was eagerly coveted by every
invader of the Peninsula, from Cato and Julius Cæsar to the generals of
Napoleon.

=Jack.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Jack= (Fr. _jacque_). A coat of defensive armor, quilted and covered
with leather, worn particularly by horsemen; a buff-jerkin; rarely, a
coat of mail.

=Jack, Hydraulic.= See HYDRAULIC JACK.

=Jack in the Box.= A very handy engine, consisting of a large wooden
male-screw turning in a female one, which forms the upper part of a
strong wooden box, shaped like the frustum of a pyramid. It is used by
means of levers passing through holes in it as a press in packing, and
for other purposes.

=Jack Wambasium.= A sort of coat armor, formerly worn by horsemen, not
of solid iron but of many plates fastened together, which some persons
by tenure were bound to furnish upon any invasion.

=Jack-boots.= Cavalry boots, made of thick, firm leather, hardened in a
peculiar manner. They were sometimes lined with plates of iron.

=Jacket.= A short, close garment, extending downward to the hips; a
short military coat is so called. In the manufacture of ordnance a tube
inclosing and reinforcing another tube is called a jacket.

=Jack-man.= One wearing a jack; a horse-soldier; a retainer.

=Jack-screw.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Jacob, St.= A Swiss hamlet, about a mile south of Basle, on the Bienne
road, and the scene of a great battle fought in 1444, between 1600 Swiss
and a vastly more numerous French force, under the dauphin, afterwards
Louis XI. The Swiss fought for ten hours, slew three times their number
of the enemy, but were themselves cut off to 10 men. This battle is
known as the “Swiss Thermopylæ.”

=Jacobins.= One of those clubs which played so conspicuous a part in the
first French revolution. In 1792 they took the name of “The Society of
the Friends of Liberty and Equality.” Immediately after the fall of the
king, the Jacobins began that struggle against the Girondists which
ended in the destruction of the latter. After the fall of Robespierre
during the Convention they rapidly lost influence, and were at last
suppressed.

=Jacobites.= This name was given to those who, at the English revolution
in 1688, adhered to the cause of the dethroned James II. In Ireland the
adherents of the Stuarts rose in rebellion, but were vanquished by force
of arms. In Scotland attempts were made in 1715 and 1745 by the
descendants and adherents of James II. to expel the house of Hanover.
Both were unsuccessful, and involved the ruin of many noble families.

=Jacob’s-staff.= A mathematical instrument for taking heights and
distances, used by military engineers.

=Jacquerie, Insurrection of the.= The name given to the war of the
French peasantry, which broke out in 1358. The immediate occasion of it
was the enormities perpetrated by Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, and
his adherents; but it was really caused by long-continued oppression on
the part of the nobles. Suddenly rising against their lords, the
peasants laid hundreds of castles in ruins, murdered the nobles, and
violated their wives and daughters, practicing every enormity, and
acting, as they said, on the principle of doing as had been done to
them. For some weeks they were successful; but the magnitude of the
danger induced the nobles to make common cause against them, and on June
9 the peasants were defeated with great slaughter near Meaux by Captal
de Buch and Count of Foix. This put an end to the insurrection.

=Jade= (_Fr._). A very hard stone, of an olive color, from which the
handles of swords and sabres are manufactured in Poland and Turkey.

=Jaen.= Formerly an independent Moorish kingdom; is now a province of
Spain. It was conquered by the Moors on their entrance into Spain. Jaen
maintained its independence as a Moorish state till 1234, when it fell
into the hands of Ferdinand III., and was added to the kingdom of
Castile.

=Jaffa=, =Yafa=, or =Joppa=. A town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province
of Syria, on the Mediterranean. This place attained its greatest
prosperity in the times of the Crusaders, when it became the principal
landing-place of the warriors of Christendom. In 1799 it was stormed by
the French under Bonaparte, and here was perpetrated his shameful
massacre of Turkish prisoners. In 1832, Mohammed Ali made himself master
of it; but the Turks, with the assistance of the British and Austrians,
took it from him again in 1840.

=Jaffna=, or =Jaffnapatam=. The capital of the district of Jaffnapatam,
in Ceylon. The town is fortified, and possesses a good citadel; but it
was taken, after a short resistance, by the British troops in 1795.

=Jaghire.= An Indian term, signifying the assignment of the revenues of
a district to a servant or dependant of government, who is hence called
_Jaghirdar_. Jaghires are frequently given in India to persons as a
reward and compensation for their military services.

=Jaghire Asham.= An Indian term, signifying land granted for the support
of the troops.

=Jahpoor.= A town of Hindostan, in the presidency of Bengal, 15 miles
from Agra. This place has been the scene of two decisive battles; the
first fought in 1688, between Aurungzebe and his brother Darah Sheeoh;
and the second, in 1707, between Alum and Azain Usbaum, all Indian
princes.

=Jalapa.= A city of the Mexican confederation, 60 miles west-northwest
of Vera Cruz. In 1847-48 the American troops occupied it.

=Jalet= (_Fr._). See GALET.

=Jalons= (_Fr._). Long poles with a wisp of straw at the top. They are
fixed at different places and in different roads, to serve as signals of
observation to advancing columns, when the country is inclosed, etc.
They are likewise used as camp colors to mark out the ground on days of
exercise.

=Jamaica.= One of the West India Islands, or Greater Antilles, which
belongs to Great Britain, and forms the most considerable and valuable
of its possessions in that quarter. It was discovered by Columbus in
1494, and colonized by the Spaniards in the early part of the 16th
century. In 1655 it was taken by the English, when 3000 British
soldiers who had served in the Parliamentary army settled there. In
1866 a revolt of a large portion of the negro population took place,
which was promptly suppressed.

=Jamb.= To squeeze tight.

=Jambeaux=, or =Jambes= (_Fr._). Greaves; armor for the legs, made of
waxed leather or metal; much used in the Middle Ages.

=James of the Sword, St.= A military order in Spain, instituted in 1170
under the reign of Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Galicia. Its object
was to put a stop to the incursions of the Moors; these knights obliging
themselves by a vow to secure the roads. The highest dignity in that
order is that of grand master, which has been united to the crown of
Spain. The knights were obliged to give proof of their descent from
families that had been noble for four generations on both sides; they
were also required to make it appear that their ancestors were neither
Jews, Saracens, nor heretics, nor had ever been called into question by
the Inquisition.

=James Island.= One of the sea islands of Charleston Co., S. C., having
Charleston harbor and Ashley River on the north. The battle of
Secessionville (June 11, 1863) and several other spirited engagements
occurred upon this island during the late civil war.

=James Projectile.= See PROJECTILES.

=James Rifle.= An American sporting rifle, which was popular many years
ago.

=James, St.= A town of France, in the department of Manche. William the
Conqueror built a strong fortress here, which remained in possession of
the English till 1448.

=Jamestown.= A former village of James City Co., Va., on the north bank
of the James River. The first English settlement in the United States
was made at this place in 1608, but nothing now remains but a few ruins.
The forces of Wayne and Lord Cornwallis had an engagement near here in
1781.

=Jangar.= A kind of ponton constructed of two boats with a platform laid
across them, which is used by the natives in the East Indies to convey
horses, cattle, etc., across rivers.

=Janissar-Agasi.= Commander-in-chief of the Janissaries.

=Janissaries= (Turk, _ieni tcheri_, “new soldiers”). An order of
infantry in the Turkish army: originally prisoners trained to arms; were
first organized by Orcan, about 1330, and remodeled by his son Amurath
I., 1360; their numbers being increased by following sultans. In later
days they degenerated from their strict discipline, and several times
deposed the sultan. During an insurrection, June 14-15, 1826, when
nearly 3000 of them were killed, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a
firman was issued on June 17 abolishing the Janissaries.

=Januarius, Order of St.= An order of knighthood founded by King Charles
of Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain) on July 6, 1738. It was
abolished after the French invasion of 1806, and re-introduced in 1814.
The badge is a gold octagonal white and red enameled cross, with gold
lilies in the upper and side angles. The obverse represents St.
Januarius in episcopal robes with an open book. The round middle of the
reverse shows a golden open book, and two phials partly filled with
blood. The knights are either _Cavalieri di Giustizia_, who must count
four noble generations, or _Cavalieri di Grazia_.

=Japan.= An Asiatic empire, composed of Japan, or Niphon, and 3850
isles, with nearly 40,000,000 inhabitants. For military events in Japan,
see separate articles in this book.

=Jargeau.= A town of France, in the department Loiret, 10 miles from
Orleans. This place was taken, after a short siege, by the Earl of
Salisbury, in 1428.

=Jarnac.= A town of France, situated on the Charente. The Protestants
under Coligny and the Prince of Condé were defeated near Jarnac in 1659,
when the latter was slain.

=Jassy=, or =Yassy=. The chief town of Moldavia, and the residence of
the hospodar or prince of that country. Jassy has been frequently taken
by the Russians, but it has always been restored at the conclusion of
each war with Turkey. In 1822 it was burned by the Janissaries, from
which disaster it has never recovered.

=Jauts=, or =Jats=. A people of Hindostan, who have at different times
made some figure in its annals. The first historical mention of them
occurs in the beginning of the 11th century, on the invasion of India by
Mahmoud the Gaznevide, when they were completely defeated and driven
into the mountainous districts of the interior of India. We find them
afterwards, under the growing imbecility of Aurungzebe’s successors,
continually extending their conquests. They suffered a reverse, however,
at the hands of Ahmed Shah, the sovereign of Cabul, who invaded Northern
India, and overran a great portion of their territory. The Jaut chief
afterwards became an ally of Ahmed Shah, having treacherously betrayed
his former allies, the Mahrattas, at the battle of Paniput, January 14,
1761. When the British power became predominant, the rajah of the Jauts,
Rungeet Sing, sought security by concluding a treaty by which he agreed
to assist England against all enemies, and by this means he retained the
government of his territories. In 1808, however, on the defeat of Holkar
by the British, he received into Bhurtpore the discomfited army. The
city was besieged, and cost the British an immense number of lives; but
at length, despairing of effectual resistance, the rajah agreed to
compel Holkar to quit the place. For this breach of the terms of the
treaty he was compelled by the English to pay a heavy fine. Disputes
about the succession to the throne afterwards led to the interference
of the British, and the hitherto impregnable fortress of Bhurtpore was
taken by Lord Combermere, January 18, 1826, after a desperate resistance
on the part of the Jauts.

=Java.= A large island in the Eastern Archipelago; is said to have been
reached by the Portuguese in 1511, and by the Dutch in 1595. The latter,
who now possess it, built Batavia, the capital, about 1619. The
atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch,
sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place
in 1740. The island capitulated to the British, September 18, 1811; but
it was restored to Holland in 1814.

=Javelin= (Lat. _pilum_). A short and light spear used for darting
against an enemy. In the ancient Roman legions, the first and second
lines were armed with them, and in those days they were considered
excellent offensive weapons.

=Je Maintiendrai= (“I will maintain”). The motto of the house of Nassau.
When William III. came to the throne of England, he continued this, but
added “the liberties of England and the Protestant religion,” at the
same time ordering that the old motto of the royal arms, “_Dieu et mon
droit_” should be retained on the great seal, 1689.

=Jean de Pied de Port, St.= A town of France, in the department of the
Lower Pyrenees, on the Nive. Near this place is the pass of Roncevaux,
or Roncesvalles, where, in 778, the army of Charlemagne was defeated,
and Rolland, the distinguished Paladin, mortally wounded.

=Jelalabad.= A town of Afghanistan; capital of a province of the same
name, 75 miles southeast from Cabul (Cabool). It is memorable for the
successful resistance made there in 1841-42 by Sir Robert Sale, with a
handful of British troops against a large besieging force of Afghans.
Its fortifications were destroyed by the British in 1842, when they
evacuated the country.

=Jeloudar.= An East Indian term, signifying to belong to the train or
equipage.

=Jemadar.= A native lieutenant in an Indian native infantry or cavalry
regiment.

=Jemappes.= A village and commune of Belgium, in the province of
Hainault, 2 miles west from Mons. In 1792, the French under Dumouriez
gained a great victory over the Austrians near this place.

=Jemaulabad.= A town and fortress in the south of India, province of
Canara, which was originally called Narasingha Augady. The first, which
was built by Tippoo, stands on the summit of an immense rock, which may
be deemed impregnable, as it is wholly inaccessible except by one narrow
way. After the fall of Seringapatam, it sustained a siege of six weeks
from the British, when being bombarded, it was taken, and the commander
having poisoned himself, his principal officers were hanged. It was
afterwards surprised and taken by a band of insurgents or plunderers,
when it was reduced, after a blockade of three months, and all that did
not escape were summarily executed.

=Jena.= A town of Germany, in the grand duchy Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,
situated in a romantic valley at the confluence of the Leutra with the
Saale. In this vicinity was fought the great battle of Jena, October 14,
1806, between the French and Prussian armies, in which the latter was
totally defeated.

=Jenizer-effendi.= An appointment among the Turks, which in some degree
resembles that of provost-marshal in European armies. The only functions
which this officer is permitted to exercise are those of judge to the
company. He sits on particular days for the purpose of hearing the
complaints of the soldiers, and of settling their differences. If a case
of peculiar difficulty should occur, he reports the case to the _Aga_,
whose opinion and determination are final.

=Jericho.= Once one of the most flourishing cities of Palestine,
situated a few miles northeast of Jerusalem. The Israelites captured and
destroyed it on their first entry into Canaan. In the time of Herod it
was rebuilt, but was destroyed in the reign of Vespasian, and again
rebuilt under Hadrian. During the Crusades, it was repeatedly captured,
and at last destroyed. At the present day its place is occupied by a
miserable village called Richa.

=Jersey.= One of the Channel Islands, and the largest and most southerly
of the group, situated about 15 miles west from the coast of France, and
belonging to Great Britain. Various attempts have been made by the
French to possess themselves of this island, but without success. The
most remarkable was in 1781, when they were repulsed by the local
militia.

=Jerusalem.= A celebrated city of Syria, the capital of the ancient
Judæa and the modern Palestine. This city was called Salem in 1913 B.C.;
its king was slain by Joshua, 1451 B.C. It was taken by David, 1048
B.C., who dwelt in the fort, calling it the City of David. Jerusalem was
taken by the Persians in 614; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628; by
the Saracens, 637; and by the Crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put
to the sword; taken by Saladin, 1187; by the Turks, who drove away the
Saracens, 1217 and 1239. It was held by the French under Bonaparte,
February, 1799.

=Jet= (_Fr._). A term signifying the motion of any body that is urged
forward by main force; it likewise means the space which is gone over by
any propelled body; and sometimes the instrument from which anything is
thrown or shot; as, the cross-bow, etc. _Jet des bombes_ is a phrase
adopted instead of _tir_, which formerly expressed the course that a
shell took when it was thrown out of a mortar by the power of gunpowder.

=Jets.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Jiddah=, or =Jeddah=. A trading town of the Hedjaz, Arabia, about 60
miles west from Mecca. On June 15, 1858, the inhabitants rose against
the Christians resident among them, and massacred a considerable number
of them. In August of the same year the town was bombarded by the
British, and satisfaction rendered.

=Jingal=, or =Jingall=. A small, portable piece of ordnance, to be fired
from the ground or on a wall, resting on a long, slender butt-end, and
two legs. This piece was used in India. See GINGALS.

=Joar.= An East Indian term, signifying a general massacre of the women
and children, which is sometimes performed by the Hindoos, when they
find they cannot prevent the enemy from taking the town. When this
dreadful and unnatural ceremony is to take place, a spot is selected
which is filled with wood, straw, oil, etc. The victims are inclosed and
the whole is set on fire.

=John (St.) of Jerusalem, Knights of.= See SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM, THE
ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS HOSPITALLERS OF.

=Join.= A technical word used in the British service, signifying to
effect the junction of one military body with another. In a more limited
sense, it means the accession of an individual, voluntary or otherwise,
to a corps or army. If an officer, on being ordered to join, omits to do
so willfully, he is liable to be tried by a general court-martial, or to
be peremptorily suspended for being absent without leave.

=Jooday Perraput.= An East Indian term, signifying a slave taken in war.

=Jour= (_Fr._). The tour of duty which is done in the course of a day
and night. _Etre de jour_, to be officer of the day, or to command a
body of troops at a siege or otherwise in the capacity of a general
officer, etc.

=Journal= (_Fr._). A public record or general orderly book, kept in the
French service, and in which every transaction that occurred during a
siege is entered by the governor of the town, for the inspection of a
superior authority. The general officer who carried on the siege of a
place likewise kept a document of the same kind, and minuted down
everything that happened under his command. So that the journal which
was kept in this manner was a circumstantial detail of what occurred,
day after day, during the attack and defense of a town.

=Journals of Defense.= In the American service during war, the commander
of a place, and the chiefs of engineers and of artillery, shall keep
journals of defense, in which shall be entered, in order of date,
without blank or interlineation, the orders given or received, the
manner in which they are executed, their results, and every event and
circumstance of importance in the progress of the defense. These
journals shall be sent after the siege to the Department of War.

=Journals of March.= Commanding officers of troops marching through a
country little known will keep journals of their marches according to a
form laid down in Army Regulations. At the end of the march a copy of
the journal will be retained at the station where the troops arrive, and
the original will be forwarded to the headquarters of the department or
_corps d’armée_. Thence, after a copy has been taken, it will be
transmitted, through the headquarters of the army, to the
adjutant-general, for the information of the War Department. The object
of the journal is to furnish data for maps, and information which may
serve for future operations. Every point of practical importance should
therefore be noted.

=Journée= (_Fr._). A term used among the French to express any
particular engagement or battle; as, _la journée de Marengo_, the battle
of Marengo. We frequently adopt the word in the same sense; thus, a
hard-fought _day_ signifies a hard-fought _battle_.

=Joust=, or =Just=. An exercise of arms and horsemanship, performed in
the Middle Ages by knights and nobles. In the joust, the combatants
engaged one another singly, each against his antagonist. The weapon most
in use in the joust was the lance, but sometimes the battle-axe and
sword were employed. To direct the lance anywhere but at the body of the
antagonist was reckoned foul play. In the joust of peace, or _joute de
plaisance_, a foot encounter preceded the mounted combat.

=Joute= (_Fr._). A close fight between two individuals. It likewise
means an engagement at sea.

=Joves= (_Fr._). The two sides in the epaulement of a battery which form
the embrasure are so called.

=Joyeuse= (_Fr._). A name given to the sword of Charlemagne.

=Judge-Advocate.= An individual appointed to officiate as public
prosecutor upon every general court-martial for the trial of officers
and soldiers accused of a breach of the Articles of War, general
regulations, or any conduct prejudicial to good order and discipline. He
is appointed by the officer authorized to assemble a general
court-martial, and must be relieved by the same authority. His duties
are various and important (see De Hart’s “Military Law,” Benét on
“Courts-Martial,” and Scott’s “Analytical Digest of Military Law,” on
duties, etc., of judge-advocate); he must be present at the court for
which he is appointed, not only to record all its proceedings, but also
in order to impart validity to its jurisdiction. He advises the court on
points of law, of custom, and of form, and invites their attention to
any deviation therefrom. If any question of law arises out of the
proceedings, and he is called upon for his opinion, he is bound to give
it. It is his duty to take care that the accused does not suffer from a
want of knowledge of the law, or from a deficiency of experience or
ability to solicit from witnesses, or develop by the testimony on the
trial, a full statement of the facts of the case as hearing on the
defense. If the court, or a member thereof, should deviate from the
letter of the law, or assume a power at variance with it, the
judge-advocate is bound to point out the error, which should become a
part of the record. It is now admitted that the custom of appointing
persons from civil life to officiate as judge-advocate is clearly
objectionable. It creates a ministerial officer without legal
responsibilities, and necessarily commits to his hands high interests of
the government, and to some extent the rights and reputation of
individuals, to be treated and observed without any stronger guaranty of
fidelity than his own sense or impression of moral obligation. In the
important duties of the judge-advocate as recorder, adviser, and
prosecutor, the utmost deference to the dignity of the court should be
apparent; a delicate courtesy and modest demeanor should be
characteristic of his address, while his argument may be replete with
all the vigor and energy which knowledge imparts and which truth
demands.

=Judge-Advocate-General.= Of the British forces is stationed in London,
and is regarded as a civil officer, and is paid from the civil
department. The office is generally held by an experienced barrister, to
whom all proceedings of courts-martial are referred for remarks as to
legality and regularity. In the United States he is a staff-officer with
the rank of brigadier-general, who receives, revises, and causes to be
recorded the proceedings of all courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and
military commissions, and has charge of the records of the bureau of
military justice.

=Judge-Advocates, Corps of.= In the United States, consists of four
general staff-officers with the rank of major, who are usually assigned
to duty at the headquarters of geographical divisions and departments,
and may be detailed as judge-advocates of military courts.

=Judge-Martial=, or =Advocate-General=. In former years was the supreme
judge in martial law, as to the jurisdiction and powers of military
courts in the British system.

=Junior.= One having a lower rank. When the grade is the same, the one
having the more recent commission or warrant.

=Junk-wads.= Are used for proving cannon. _Wad-molds_ for each
caliber--consisting of two cast-iron cylinders of different diameters
set in oak, or of two strong pieces, strapped with iron, and joined by a
hinge--are employed in their manufacture. The junk, after having been
picked, is compressed by being beaten in the smaller mold with a _maul_
and _cylindrical drift_--the latter nearly of the size of the
mold--until it assumes the requisite dimensions; it is then taken out by
raising the upper part of the mold, and closely wrapped with rope-yarn
passed over it in the direction of the axis of the cylinder, and
fastened by a few turns around the middle of the wad. It is then placed
in the large mold, and again beaten with the maul and drift until its
diameter is increased to that of the mold; when it is taken out and its
diameter verified by a wooden gauge corresponding to the large
shot-gauge of the caliber.

=Jupon=, or =Just-au-Corps=. A surcoat. The name jupon is chiefly
applied to the short tight form of that military garment in use in the
14th century. It was a sleeveless jacket or overcoat, composed of
several thicknesses of material sewed through, and faced with silk or
velvet, upon which were embroidered the arms of the wearer. It fitted
closely to the body, and, descending below the hips, terminated in an
enriched border of various patterns.

=Jurisdiction.= Legal authority; extent of power. All sutlers and
retainers to the camp, and all persons whatsoever serving with the
armies of the United States in the field, though not enlisted soldiers,
are to be subject to orders, according to the rules and discipline of
war. To decide exactly where the boundary-line runs between civil and
military jurisdiction as to the civilians attached to an army is
difficult; but it is quite evident that they are within military
jurisdiction, as provided for in the Articles of War, when their
treachery, defection, or insubordination might endanger or embarrass the
army to which they belong in its operations against what is known in
military phrase as “an enemy.” Probably the fact that troops are found
in a region of country chiefly inhabited by Indians, and remote from the
exercise of civil authority, may enter into the description of “an army
in the field.” Persons who attach themselves to an army going upon an
expedition against hostile Indians may be understood as agreeing that
they will submit themselves for the time being to military control. All
officers, conductors, gunners, matrosses, drivers, or other persons
whatsoever receiving pay or hire in the service of the artillery or
corps of engineers of the United States, shall be subject to be tried by
courts-martial. The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia
or others, being mustered and in pay of the United States, shall, at all
times and in all places, when joined, or acting in conjunction with the
regular forces of the United States, be governed by the Rules and
Articles of War, and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial in
like manner with the officers and soldiers in the regular forces; save
only that such courts-martial shall be composed entirely of militia
officers. No officer, non-commissioned officer, soldier, or follower of
the army shall be tried the second time for the same offense. No person
shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-martial for
any offense which shall appear to have been committed more than two
years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person
by reason of having absented himself, or some other manifest impediment,
shall not have been amenable to justice within that period. No garrison
or regimental court-martial shall have the power to try capital cases,
or commissioned officers; neither shall they inflict a fine exceeding
one month’s pay, nor imprison, nor put to hard labor any
non-commissioned officer or soldier, for a longer time than one month.

=Just.= See JOUST.

=Justice, Military.= That species of justice which prevails in the army,
and which is administered by military tribunals in accordance with the
Articles of War. In Prussia justice is frequently obtained through what
is known as the court of honor. See COURT OF HONOR, COURT-MARTIAL; also,
APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 29, 30, and 72 to 105.

=Justice, Military, Bureau of.= In the United States consists of one
judge-advocate-general, with the rank, pay, etc., of brigadier-general.
See JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL.

=Juterbogk.= A small town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg. In
the vicinity is the field of Dennewitz, where the Prussians defeated the
French, September 6, 1813. See DENNEWITZ.

=Jutland.= The only considerable peninsula of Europe that points
directly north, forms a portion of the kingdom of Denmark, and comprises
the province of North Jutland. South Jutland was taken by the allies in
1813, and restored in 1814. In historical times, the Jutes took part in
the expedition of the Saxons to England. As allies of the Saxons, they
waged war with Charlemagne, and under the name of Normans (Northmen),
frequently desolated the coasts of Germany and France.

=Juzail.= A heavy rifle used by the Afghans.



K.


=Kabbade= (_Fr._). Military clothing of the modern Greeks; Roman
_sagum_.

=Kabyles.= An aboriginal African people, inhabiting the mountains of the
Atlas. They are an independent race, who mainly exist by plundering the
people of the plains. They are divided into numerous tribes, each of
which has its distinctive name, with the prefix _Beni_ before it. See
BENI-ABBES, BENI-ACHOUR, etc.

=Kaffa.= See CAFFA.

=Kaffraria.= An extensive country in Southern Africa, extending from the
north of Cape Colony to the south of Guinea. The English war with the
natives of the country began in 1798, and continued with intermissions
until March, 1853. The Kaffirs, headed by Mokanna, a prophet, attacked
Grahamstown, but were repulsed with much slaughter in 1819; again
defeated in 1828, 1831, and 1834. After a series of engagements, they
were attacked by Governor-General Cathcart, and completely defeated,
December 20, 1852, and peace was restored in the following March.

=Kagosima.= A town of Japan, which was bombarded by the English in 1863,
in retaliation for the murder of one of their subjects.

=Kahlenberg.= A hill in Austria, on the Danube, a little northwest of
Vienna. On its side the army of Sobieski arrived to the rescue of
Vienna, when besieged by the Turks in 1683.

=Kaiffa.= A seaport town of Syria, situated on the south side of the Bay
of Acre. It was captured by the French in 1799.

=Kainardji.= In Bulgaria; here a treaty was signed, 1774, between the
Turks and Russians, which opened the Black Sea, and gave Crimea to the
latter.

=Kaiser= (from Lat. _Cæsar_). The German word for emperor, which has
been so extensively known and used in every language since the year
1871, when William, king of Prussia, was crowned at Versailles, France,
as emperor of Germany. Thus was revived the old Teutonic appellation of
kaiser, which applied formerly, and especially in the Middle Ages, to
the German emperors, who inherited this title from the Roman Cæsars,
themselves succeeded by Charlemagne, who is considered by the Germans as
the first emperor of the Vaterland, as William is the latest one.

=Kaiserslautern.= A fortified town of the palatinate of the Rhine, which
belongs to Bavaria, 33 miles west from Spires. It was the scene of much
hard fighting between the French and Germans in 1792 and 1793.

=Kak Towda= (_Ind._). A term applied in the East Indies to the fine mold
used in making butts for archery practice.

=Kalafat.= A town of Wallachia, situated on the left bank of the Danube,
nearly opposite Widdin. It is strongly fortified, and commands the
approach to the Danube. The battle of Citate was fought here on January
6, 1854, and three following days, between the Turks under Omar Pasha
and the Russians under Gortschakoff.

=Kalai= (_Fr._). A Turkish fortress; more particularly applied to
stockades.

=Kalisch=, or =Kalice=. A town of Poland, belonging to Russia, and
situated on the frontier of the Prussian territory. The Swedes were
defeated by the Poles in its vicinity in 1706; another battle was fought
here between the Russians and Saxons in 1813.

=Kalispels=, or =Calispels=. See PEND D’OREILLES.

=Kalmar=, or =Calmar=. A fortified town of Sweden, and the capital of a
province, on the sound or strait of the same name, in the Baltic,
opposite the island of Oland. In 1397, the treaty of Kalmar, by which
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were united, was signed here.

=Kalmucks=, or =Calmucks=. Called by the Tartars _Khalimick_
(“renegades”), the largest of the Mongolian peoples, inhabiting large
regions of the Chinese, and also Russian dominions. They are divided
into four tribes: the Choshots, ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan;
the Soongars, in the 17th and the 18th centuries the masters of the
other races; oppressed by the Chinese, they migrated in great numbers,
in 1758, to Russia, but returned in 1770 to Soongaria; the Derbets, who
dwell in the valleys of the Don and Ili; the Torgots, formerly united
with the Soongars. The Kalmucks are a nomad, predatory, and warlike
race, and pass the greater part of their lives in the saddle.

=Kalsa Cutcherry= (_Ind._). The room of business, where matters
pertaining to the army are transacted, and all matters of litigation on
that branch of service are determined.

=Kaluga.= Chief town of the government of the same name in Russia, on
the right bank of the Oka. From the 14th to the 18th century, its
stronghold was a great protection against the invasions of the
Lithuanians, the Tartars of the Great Horde, and especially against the
Crimean Tartars. It is at present the residence of Schamyl, the
Circassian chief.

=Kalunga Fort.= In the East Indies; it was attacked unsuccessfully by
the company’s forces, and Gen. Gillespie killed, October 31, 1814; and
again unsuccessfully on November 25. It was evacuated by the Nepaulese,
November 30, same year.

=Kaminietz.= A town of Russian Poland, situated on the river Smotriza,
and the capital of the government of Podolia. The fortifications of this
place were razed in 1812, but have since been rebuilt.

=Kamtschatka.= A peninsula on the east coast of Asia; was discovered by
Morosco, a Cossack chief, and was taken possession of by Russia in 1697.

=Kanauts.= A term used in India to designate the walls of a canvas tent.

=Kangiar.= A Turkish sabre, the blade of which is bent contrary to other
swords, generally ornamented with diamonds and other precious stones.

=Kansas.= One of the States of the United States, the thirty-fourth in
order of admission. It lies between 37° and 40° N. lat., and between
25th meridian of long. and the western boundary of the State of
Missouri, and is, geographically, the central State of the Union. It was
organized as a Territory in 1854, and admitted into the Union January
29, 1861; and though it remained loyal during the civil war, yet many of
its inhabitants took the field for the Confederate cause.

=Kapigi-Bachi.= Officer in charge of the gates of the sultan’s palace; a
warrior.

=Kaponier.= See CAPONIERE.

=Karauls.= Military posts; sultan’s body-guards.

=Karki-Mesrac.= A Turkish lance.

=Karmathians.= So called from Abu Said Al-Jenabia, surnamed Al-Karmata,
a Mohammedan sect which sprang up in the 9th century, and was originally
a branch of the Ismailis. The sect was very powerful for a time. They
conquered Arabia, Persia, and Syria, which they ruled with a despotic
power, and their armies gained great victories of those of the caliphs.
In 928 they threatened Bagdad, and in 930, under their leader, Abu
Takir, entered Mecca, which was full of pilgrims, when a massacre of the
most fearful description ensued, desecrated the holy places, and carried
away the supreme palladium, the black stone, which was only restored to
Mecca at an immense ransom after twenty years. From that time their
power declined, and after the 11th century they are not mentioned in
history, although some traces of them still exist at Hasa, their former
stronghold.

=Karrack.= See CARRACK.

=Kars.= A fortified town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Armenia,
situated on a table-land between 6000 and 7000 feet above the level of
the sea. In 1828 it was taken from the Turks by the Russians under
Paskievitsch. In 1855, its fortifications having been strengthened, it
sustained a long siege by the Russians. Their attempt at taking it by
storm (September 29) failed, but it was compelled by famine to
surrender, November 30. Kars again surrendered to the Russians in 1877,
having been captured by storming in a night attack,--one of the most
brilliant feats of arms in the annals of history.

=Kaschau.= A town of Hungary; is situated in the beautiful valley of the
Hernad, 130 miles northeast from Pesth. Two battles were fought near
Kaschau during the Hungarian revolution, both of which the Austrians
gained.

=Kaskaskia Indians.= A tribe which formerly inhabited Illinois, but are
now located with other tribes on the Quapaw agency, Indian Territory.
See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Kastamouni=, or =Costambone=. A town in Anatolia, Asia Minor. It stands
in a dreary hollow, from which rises a solitary rock surmounted by a
fortress in ruins. During the Greek empire, the fortress was in
possession of the Comneni. It was taken by Bajazet, retaken by Timour,
and lastly, conquered by Mohammed I.

=Katan.= A Japanese sword, otherwise _cattan_.

=Katsbach=, or =Katzbach=. A river in Prussia, in the province of
Silesia, near which Gen. Blücher defeated the French under Macdonald and
Ney, August 26, 1813. He received the title of Prince of Wahlstatt, the
name of a neighboring village.

=Kátsena.= A town of Central Africa, in the empire of Sokoto. In 1807
the conquering Fúlbes assailed it, and a war was commenced, which lasted
for upwards of seven years. The capture of the town was achieved only
through its destruction.

=Kavass.= In Turkey, an armed constable; also a government servant or
courier.

=Kazan.= A town of Russia, capital of the government, and ancient
capital of the kingdom of the same name; is situated on the river
Kazanka, 4 miles from the north bank of the Volga. It was founded in
1257 by a Tartar tribe, and after various vicissitudes, was made the
capital of an independent kingdom of the khan of the Golden Horde, which
flourished in the 15th century. In 1552 the Russians, under Ivan the
Terrible, carried the town after a bloody siege, and put an end to the
existence of the kingdom.

=Kecherklechi.= Are guards attached to the person of the king of Persia;
they are armed with a musket of an extraordinary size and caliber. They
were raised and formed into a regular corps about the middle of the 18th
century.

=Keechies.= A small tribe of Indians residing with others on the Wichita
Agency, Indian Territory. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Keen.= Sharp; having a fine cutting edge; as, a keen blade.

=Keep.= To maintain hold upon; not to let go of; not to lose; to retain;
as, if we lose the field, we cannot keep the town.

=Keep.= In ancient military history, a kind of strong tower, which was
built in the centre of a castle or fort, to which the besieged
retreated, and made their last efforts of defense. In the Norman keeps
there appear to have been three stories, the lowest for stores, the
second for a guard-room, and the upper, or _solarium_, for the family.
The keep was similar to what the classical ancients called the citadel,
or inner fort,--a term generally applied to modern fortification on the
continent. _King’s Keep_, a fort built by King Henry II. in the inner
part of Dover Castle is so called.

=Keep Off.= To deter an enemy from approaching close to the lines or
fortifications, by inducing him to suspect a superior force, an
ambuscade, or a mine, or by openly galling his advanced posts in such a
manner as to beat him in detail. Infantry may keep off cavalry by hot
firing, or by a bristling hedge of bayonets, when in square.

=Keep On.= To go forward; to proceed; to continue to advance; as, to
keep on advancing into the enemy’s country.

=Keep Up.= In military movements, is to preserve that regular pace by
which a line or column on a march, or in manœuvring, advances towards
any given point without any chasms or fluctuations. When a regiment
marches by files, it is almost impossible for the rear to keep up. On
this account, divisions, sub-divisions, and even sections, are best
calculated to preserve a regular depth and continuity of march. Keep up
likewise signifies to attend to the interior management and discipline
of a corps, so as to prevent the least deviation from established rules
and regulations. Thus commanding officers are said to keep up good order
and discipline, who, whether present or absent, provide against the
least insubordination, etc. To _keep up a heavy fire_, is to play heavy
ordnance against a fortified place, or body of men, by a calm and
well-directed succession of shot. The term is equally applicable to a
steady fire of musketry.

=Kehl.= A town of Germany, on the Rhine, opposite Strasburg. It is of
great importance in a military sense, and was fortified by the French
engineer Vauban in the year 1688. This place has often been besieged and
taken. It was obstinately defended against the Austrians, who took it in
1797. It was taken by the French the following year, and retained by
them till 1814.

=Kelat.= A town and strong fortress of Afghanistan, 72 miles northeast
from Candahar. It was held by the British till their evacuation of the
country in 1842.

=Kelat.= The capital of Beloochistan, India, standing on a hill 6000
feet above the level of the sea. In 1840 this place was taken by the
English general Nott, but in the following year the British finally
withdrew from it.

=Kelso.= A town in Scotland, in the county of Roxburgh, situated at the
confluence of the Tweed and the Teviot. An old abbey, now in ruins, is
the chief object of interest in Kelso. It was founded by David I. in
1128, and was destroyed in 1560, after having sustained great injury at
the hands of the English in 1522 and 1545. Kelso is often mentioned in
the histories of the border wars.

=Kemmendine.= A post of the Burmese empire, near Rangoon, memorable for
the various contests between the British forces and the natives in 1824.

=Kenaians.= A numerous tribe of Indians residing in Alaska. They derive
their name from the peninsula of Kenai, and are peaceable and
self-supporting.

=Kenilworth.= A small town of Warwickshire, England. The only interest
of the place centres in its ruined castle, which stands on a rocky and
commanding eminence; it was founded by Geoffrey de Clinton, lord
chamberlain to Henry I. It was granted by Henry III. to Simon do
Montfort, earl of Leicester, and became the chief rallying-point of the
insurgents who sided with that noble. After his death it held out for
six months against the royal forces. The castle of Kenilworth was
dismantled by Oliver Cromwell.

=Kent.= A maritime county of England, forming the southeastern angle of
the kingdom, and approaching nearer to the continent than any other part
of the kingdom. It was in this county that the Romans first landed when
they invaded Britain. It was then inhabited by the Cantii. Kent was the
first kingdom of the Heptarchy established by the Saxons in Britain.

=Kentucky.= One of the Central States of the Mississippi Valley, and the
second admitted into the confederacy after the Revolution. It was
formerly included in the territory of Virginia, to which it belonged
till 1792. Its name, signifying “the dark and bloody ground,” is
suggestive of its early history, it being the scene of many bloody
conflicts between the settlers and Indians, and also the grand
battle-ground of the Indians themselves. The most important battle
between the Indians and whites took place near Blue Lick Springs, August
19, 1782, the latter numbering 182, and the former about three times
that number. After a desperate engagement the Kentuckians were totally
routed, with a loss of 60 killed and wounded. The celebrated Col. Boone
bore a part and lost a son in this engagement. In the war of 1812
Kentucky was largely and effectively represented, as also in the Mexican
war. In the civil war the State at first declared a strict neutrality;
but as this condition could not be maintained, after stormy and exciting
discussions in its councils, it declared for the Union in November,
1861. As the population was almost equally divided in its sympathy,
Kentuckians were to be found fighting in the ranks of both contending
armies. The State was the theatre of several hotly contested actions
during the civil war, and suffered considerably during that trying
period.

=Kerana.= A long trumpet, similar in shape and size to the
speaking-trumpet. The Persians use it whenever they wish to make any
extraordinary noise, and they frequently blow it with hautboys,
kettle-drums, and other instruments, at retreat or sunset, and two hours
after midnight.

=Kerman=, or =Sirjan=. The capital of a province of the same name in
Persia, situated about 360 miles southeast from Ispahan. In 1794, after
a brave defense, this city was taken by Aga Mohammed Khan, and given up
to plunder for three successive months. It has never recovered from the
effects of this great disaster.

=Kern= (Ir. _cearn_). A soldier. The Irish infantry were formerly
distinguished by this appellation. The men in those days were armed with
a sword and a dart or javelin, which was tied to a small cord, so that
after they had thrown it at the enemy they could instantly recover it,
and use it in any way they thought proper. The javelin was called
_skene_, which is also the Irish for a _knife_.

=Kertch= (anc. _Panticapœum_). A town of Russia, in the government of
Taurida, on the coast of the Crimea. It was colonized in 500 B.C. by the
Milesians, and about 50 B.C. it became part of the Roman empire; and in
375 A.D. it fell into the hands of the Huns. In 1280 it was occupied by
the Genoese, who were driven out by the Turks in 1473. It was seized by
the Russians in 1771, and formally ceded to them in 1774. In May, 1855,
it was taken by the allied French and English during the Crimean war, on
which occasion it was ruthlessly plundered by the soldiery.

=Ket’s Rebellion.= A revolt which occurred in England in July, 1549,
instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of Norfolk. He demanded the
abolition of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counselors. The
insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were quickly defeated by the Earl
of Warwick, whose troops killed more than 200 of the insurgents.

=Kettle-drum.= A drum formed by stretching vellum over the circular edge
of a hemispherical vessel of brass or copper. This instrument, which
gives forth a sharp, ringing sound, is used in Europe by regiments of
cavalry and horse-artillery in lieu of the ordinary cylindrical drum,
which would, from its shape, be inconvenient on horseback. Kettle-drums
are not used in the U. S. military service.

=Kettle-drum Cart.= A four-wheel carriage drawn by four horses, which
was used exclusively by the British artillery as a pageant. The ordnance
flag was painted on the fore part, and the drummer, with two
kettle-drums, was seated, as in a chair of state, on the back part. This
cart, which is finely engraved and richly gilt, has not been in the
field since 1743, when the king was present. It is at present kept in
the Tower of London.

=Kettle-drummer.= One who plays on a kettle-drum.

=Kettle-hat.= A cap of iron worn by knights in the Middle Ages.

=Key.= In artillery carriages, is a bolt used to secure cap squares and
for analogous purposes.

=Key of a Position or Country.= A point the possession of which gives
the control of that position or country.

=Key-chain.= A chain attached to the key to prevent it from being lost.

=Key-plates.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Keyserlicks=, or =Imperialists=. The Austrian troops are frequently
called so. The term was indeed common among the British soldiers, when
they did duty with the Austrians, and invaded France in 1794.

=Khaibar.= A town of Arabia, the capital of an independent Jewish
territory, 110 miles north from Medina. In 628 it was taken by Mohammed,
who had received from a Jewess of the town the poisoned egg which
ultimately cost him his life.

=Khan.= A title of Mongolian or Tartar sovereigns and lords. A _khanate_
is a principality. _Khagan_ means “khan of khans,” but has seldom been
applied. The word khan is probably of the same origin as king.

=Khedive.= A title, said to signify a position inferior to an absolute
sovereign, but superior to a mere viceroy, which was given to the
viceroy of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, by the sultan of Turkey in 1867.

=Kheet= (_Ind._). A fortified city, which is 4 or more coss, or 8
English miles, in length and breadth, and which does not exceed 8 coss,
or 16 English miles.

=Khelat.= A hill fortress of considerable strength in the territory of
Afghanistan, which was gallantly captured by the British troops in 1839.

=Kherson.= An ancient Dorian colony, which came under the sway of the
great Mithridates about 120 B.C., and afterwards of that of Rome in 30.
It continued important, and its possession was long disputed by the
Russians and Greeks. It was taken by Vladimir, grand duke of Russia, in
988. The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians; and the Turks found it
deserted when they took possession of the Crimea in 1475.

=Khiva= (anc. _Chorasmia_), =Khaurezm=, =Kharasm=, or =Urgunge=. A
khanate of Turkestan, in Central Asia. In ancient times it was nominally
subject to the Selucidæ; subsequently it formed part of the kingdoms of
Bactria, Parthia, Persia, and the Caliphate, and became an independent
monarchy in 1092 under a Seljuk dynasty. The Khivans, or as they were
then called, the Khaurezmians, after conquering the whole of Persia and
Afghanistan, were obliged to succumb to the Moguls, under Genghis Khan,
in 1221. In 1370 it came into the hands of Timur. Timur’s descendants
were subdued in 1511 by Shahy Beg, chief of the Uzbeks, a Turkish tribe,
and his successors still rule over Khiva. In 1717, Peter the Great
attempted to conquer it, but his army was totally defeated; the attempt
was renewed in 1839 by the czar Nicholas, with the same result; the
greater part of the Russian army perished in the desert. From 1873 to
1875, however, it was continually invaded by the armies of Russia, who
in the latter year occupied a portion of the principality, which is now
ruled by the Russian government under the name of the Trans-Caspian
Territory.

=Khodadaud Sircar= (_Ind._). The government or ruler blessed or beloved
of God; it was a title assumed by Tippoo Sahib, the sovereign of the
kingdom of Mysore, who fell in defense of his capital, Seringanatam,
when it was stormed, May 4, 1799, by the British forces under
Lieut.-Gen. Harris.

=Khoi.= A walled town of Persia, province of Azerbijan, on a tributary
of the Khar. In the plain of Khoi, Shah Ismael signally defeated the
Turks under Selim I. in 1514.

=Khurd-Cabul.= A village of Afghanistan, situated 16 miles southeast of
Cabul. Here, in 1841, the British troops retreating from Cabul to
Jelalabad became totally disorganized, and were murdered without
resistance by the Afghans; and here, in 1842, Gen. Pollock encamped
after the decisive defeat of the Afghans at Terzeen.

=Khyber Pass.= The most practicable of all the openings through the
Khyber Mountains, is the only one by which cannon can be conveyed
between the plain of Peshawur, on the right bank of the upper Indus, and
the plain of Jelalabad, in Northern Afghanistan. It is 30 miles in
length, being here and there merely a narrow ravine between almost
perpendicular rocks of at least 600 feet in height. It may be said to
have been the key of the adjacent regions in either direction from the
days of Alexander the Great to the Afghan wars of 1839-42. Here a
British army, on its retreat from Cabul in January, 1842, was absolutely
annihilated.

=Kibee.= A flaw produced in the bore of a gun by a shot striking against
it.

=Kick.= To recoil;--said of a musket, piece of ordnance, and the like.

=Kickapoos.= A tribe of Indians who formerly lived on the Wisconsin
River, and were for a long time hostile to the white settlers, but after
Wayne’s victory over the tribes in Ohio in 1794 submitted, and concluded
a treaty of peace in 1795. In 1811 and 1812, however, they again renewed
hostilities, and attacked Fort Harrison in the latter year. Being
repulsed, they surprised and murdered 20 persons at the mouth of White
River. For this and similar atrocities they were punished by the burning
of some of their villages. After a desultory warfare, treaties of peace
were again concluded with them, and after the treaty of 1819 they sold
their lands and moved beyond the Mississippi River. A few settled down
to agriculture, and their descendants now exhibit considerable
indications of civilization; but the greater number roamed over the
country committing depredations. Some of them are now settled on the
Kansas agency, Kansas, and others on the Sac and Fox agency, in Indian
Territory. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Kidnapper.= Parties were formerly so called, who by improper means
decoyed the unwary into the army.

=Kiel.= Chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a member of the Hanseatic
League in 1300. By a treaty between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark,
signed here January 14, 1814, Norway was ceded to Sweden. An
extraordinary assembly of the revolted provinces, Schleswig and
Holstein, met here September 9, 1850. By the convention of Gastein
between Austria and Prussia, August 14, 1865, the former was to govern
Holstein, but Kiel to be held by Prussia as a German federal port. This
was annulled in 1866 by the issue of the war.

=Kiev=, or =Kief.= The chief town of the government of that name, on
the west bank of the Dnieper; is one of the oldest of the Russian towns,
and was formerly the capital. In 864 it was taken from the Khazars by
two Norman chiefs, companions of Ruric, and conquered from them by Oleg,
Ruric’s successor, who made it his capital. It was nearly destroyed by
Batu, khan of Kiptchak. In the 14th century it was seized by Gedimin,
grand duke of Lithuania, and annexed to Poland in 1569, but in 1686 was
restored to Russia.

=Kilcullen.= In Kildare, Ireland. Here a large body of the insurgent
Irish defeated the British forces commanded by Gen. Dundas, May 23,
1798. The general in a subsequent engagement overthrew the rebels near
Kilcullen bridge, when 300 were slain.

=Kildare.= A county of Ireland, in the province of Leinster. The
insurrection in Ireland which swelled into the rebellion, commenced in
Kildare, May 23, 1798. On that night Lieut. Gifford of Dublin, and a
number of other gentlemen, were murdered by the insurgents. This
rebellion was quelled in 1799.

=Kilkenny.= Capital of a county of the same name in Ireland, on the
Nore. After a siege the town surrendered to Cromwell, March 28, 1650, on
honorable terms.

=Killa= (_Ind._). A castle, fort, or fortress.

=Killadar.= The governor, or commandant of a fort in India.

=Killala.= A small seaport town of Ireland, in the county of Mayo. It
was invaded by a French force landing from three frigates, under Gen.
Humbert, August 22, 1798. The invaders were joined by the Irish
insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar and Colooney followed; and the
French were defeated at Ballinamuck, September 8 of the same year.

=Killaloe.= A town of Ireland, in the county Clare, 12 miles northeast
of Limerick. This town was long the royal seat of the O’Briens; and at
Kincora, about a mile to the north, are pointed out some remains of the
residence. At Killaloe, in 1691, Gen. Sarsfield intercepted the
artillery of William III. on its way to Limerick.

=Killese.= The groove in a cross-bow.

=Killiecrankie.= A famous pass through the Grampian Mountains, in
Perthshire, Scotland, 15 miles northwest of Dunkeld. At the northwest
extremity of this pass a battle was fought in 1689, between the
revolutionary army under Gen. Mackay, and the royalists under J. C.
Graham of Claverhouse, viscount Dundee, in which the former was
defeated.

=Kilmainham Hospital.= An asylum in Dublin, Ireland, for aged and
disabled soldiers. It was founded by Arthur, earl of Granard,
marshal-general of the army in Ireland, 1675. The appointments to this
place are in the gift of the commander-in-chief of the army, who selects
them from the old half-pay officers. The expense of the institution to
the country is £8000 per annum.

=Kilmallock.= A town of Ireland, in the county Limerick. It was
invested by the Irish forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the
Duke of Ormond. There was much fighting done here in 1641 and 1642.
Kilmallock police barrack was attacked by 200 armed Fenians on March 5,
1867; the barrack was defended for three hours by 14 police constables,
who finally drove off the Fenians, with loss, by a sally.

=Kilsyth.= A village of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 13 miles southwest
from Stirling. Montrose gained a victory over the Covenanters, commanded
by Gen. Baillie, near Kilsyth in 1637.

=Kinburn.= A fort at the confluence of the rivers Bug and Dnieper, which
was taken by the English and French, October 17, 1855. Three floating
French batteries, on the principle of horizontal shell-firing, said to
be the invention of the emperor, were very effective. On October 18, the
Russians blew up Oczakoff, a fort opposite.

=Kindle.= In a military sense, to kindle is to excite to arms; to excite
military ardor.

=Kineton.= A town of England, in Warwickshire, 11 miles southeast from
Warwick, in the vicinity of which the famous battle of Edgehill was
fought between the royalist and Parliamentary armies in 1642.

=Kinghorn.= A small burgh of Scotland, in the county of Fife, situated
on the Frith of Forth. In early Scottish history it was a place of
importance. Here Macbeth is said to have routed the Northmen.

=King-of-Arms=, or =King-at-Arms=. The principal herald of England was
at first designated king of the heralds, a title exchanged for
king-of-arms about the reign of Henry IV. There are four kings-of-arms
in England, named respectively Garter, Clarencieux, Norrov, and Bath;
but the first three only are members of the College of Arms. Scotland
has a heraldic officer called Lyon king-of-arms, or Lord Lyon
king-at-arms. Ireland has one king-of-arms, named Ulster. See HERALD.

=King’s Mountain.= A range of mountains in North and South Carolina,
about 16 miles from north to south, with several spurs spreading
laterally. About a mile and a half south of the North Carolina line, in
this range, on October 7, 1780, the British forces about 1100 strong,
under Lieut.-Col. Ferguson, were surprised and attacked by the American
militia under Cols. Cleaveland, Shelby, and Campbell, and, after an
obstinate and bloody contest, their leader being among the slain, the
British were made prisoners.

=Kingsland.= A parish of England, in Herefordshire, 4 miles west from
Leominster. The battle of Mortimer’s Cross, which fixed Edward IV. on
the throne, was fought here in 1461.

=Kingston.= A city in Ulster Co., N. Y., 90 miles north of New York
City. It was burnt by a British force under Sir Henry Clinton, October
7, 1777; it was afterwards rebuilt and incorporated as a village in
1805.

=Kingston.= A village and township of Luzerne Co., Pa. In this township
the massacre of Wyoming took place, on July 3, 1778. See WYOMING VALLEY.

=Kingston-upon-Thames.= A town in Surrey, England, on the Thames, 10
miles southwest of London. The first armed force of the Parliamentary
army assembled in this town, and here the last attempt in favor of
Charles I. was made.

=Kinsale.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Cork. This place was
taken by the Spaniards in 1601, and in 1608 King James II. landed here.

=Kioge.= A seaport of Denmark, near Copenhagen, where the Danes in 1807
were signally defeated by the British.

=Kiowas.= A warlike and powerful tribe of Indians, who formerly roamed
over Kansas, Colorado, and Northern Texas, robbing and murdering
settlers. They are now located, to the number of about 2000, with the
Comanches, on a reservation in Indian Territory. In 1870, in violation
of the terms of their treaty, they made a raid into Texas, where they
killed several people. For this two of their principal chiefs, Satantá
and Big Tree, were sentenced to be hung; but their sentence was commuted
to imprisonment for life, and they were subsequently pardoned. Of late
years they have been peaceable.

=Kiptchak=, or =Kipchak=. A term which, in the Middle Ages, designated
that vast territory stretching north of the Caspian Sea, from the Don to
Turkestan, and occupied by the Kumans and Polovises. This tract formed
one of the four empires into which the huge dominion of Genghis Khan was
divided, and was the portion of his eldest son Jûjy, under whose son and
successor, Batû Khan, it became the terror of Western Europe, and held
Russia in iron subjection from 1236 till 1362. Batû also conquered
Bulgaria, and invaded Hungary, Austria, and Eastern Germany, but made no
permanent conquests in this direction. This extensive empire was
dismembered towards the end of the 15th century, and gave rise to the
khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Crim-Tartary. The Mongols of Kiptchak
were also known as the Golden Horde.

=Kirkee.= A village of Hindostan, near Poona, in the Deccan, memorable
for a battle fought there in 1817 between the Anglo-Indian forces and
the Mahrattas, who, although greatly superior in number, were compelled
to retreat with severe loss.

=Kisselbaches.= Soldiers are so called in India.

=Kissingen.= A town of Bavaria, on the Saale, 30 miles north-northeast
of Würzburg. It was taken by storm on July 10, 1866, after a severe
engagement between the Bavarians and Prussians, in which the latter were
victorious.

=Kit.= A small wooden pail or bucket, wherewith boats are bailed out.

=Kit.= In military language, the equipment in necessaries, such as
shirts, boots, brushes, etc., of a soldier, but not applicable to his
uniform, arms, or accoutrements.

=Kitchen.= The building or room used by soldiers for cooking purposes.

=Klagenfurth=, or =Clagenfurt=. A town of Austria, the capital of the
duchy of Carinthia, on the Glan. In 1809 the French entered this place,
and destroyed the fortifications which surrounded it.

=Klamaths=, or =Clamets=. A tribe of Northern California Indians, who
lived in Southern Oregon and Northern California, near Klamath Lake, and
on Klamath and Rogue Rivers. They are generally peaceable, and number
about 700. They are now located on a reservation, and have an agency in
Southern Oregon known by their name.

=Klicket.= A small gate in a palisade for the purpose of sallying forth.

=Kliketats=, or =Kliktats=. A tribe of Indians who resided in Washington
Territory, in the country between the Cascade Range and the Columbia
River, north of the Dalles. They were reduced to complete subjection in
1855, and are now located with kindred tribes to the number of about
4000, on the Yakima reservation, Washington Territory.

=Klinket.= A term used in fortification, signifying a small postern or
gate in a palisade.

=Knapsack.= A bag of canvas or skin, containing a soldier’s necessaries,
and worn suspended by straps between his shoulders. Those used in the
British army are ordinarily of black painted canvas, but a new sort of
knapsack, called the valise equipment, has been issued to some
regiments. Some other nations, as the Swiss, make them of thick
goat-skin, dressed with the hair on.

=Knight.= From the Saxon _cniht_, a servant or attendant, was originally
a man-at-arms bound to the performance of certain duties, among others
to attend his sovereign or feudal superior on horseback in time of war.
The institution of knighthood, as conferred by investiture, and with
certain oaths and ceremonies, arose gradually throughout Europe as an
adjunct of the feudal system. The character of the knight was at once
military and religious; the defense of the Holy Sepulchre and the
protection of pilgrims being the objects to which, in early times of the
institution, he especially devoted himself The system of knight-service
introduced into England by William the Conqueror empowered the king, or
even a superior lord who was a subject, to compel every holder of a
certain extent of land, called a knight’s fee, to become a member of the
knightly order; his investiture being accounted proof that he possessed
the requisite knightly arms, and was sufficiently trained in their use.
After the long war between France and England, it became the practice
for the sovereign to receive money compensations from subjects who were
unwilling to receive knighthood, a system out of which grew a series of
grievances, leading eventually to the total abolition of knight-service
in the reign of Charles II. Since the abolition of knight-service,
knighthood has been conferred, without any regard to property, as a mark
of the sovereign’s esteem, or a reward for services of any kind, civil
or military. The ceremonies practiced in conferring knighthood have
varied at different periods. In general, some religious ceremonies were
performed, the sword and spurs were bound on the candidate; after which
a blow was dealt him on the cheek or shoulder, as the last affront which
he was to receive unrequited. He then took an oath to protect the
distressed, maintain right against might, and never by word or deed to
stain his character as a knight and a Christian. A knight might be
degraded for the infringement of any part of his oath, in which case his
spurs were chopped off with a hatchet, his sword was broken, his
escutcheon reversed, and some religious observances were added, during
which each piece of armor was taken off in succession, and cast from the
recreant knight. For the different orders of knighthood, see separate
articles, under their appropriate headings, in this work.

=Knight, To.= To dub or create a knight, which in modern times is done
by the sovereign, who gives the person kneeling a blow with a sword, and
says, “Rise, Sir ----.”

=Knight Baronet=, or =Baronet=. A dignity or degree of honor next below
a baron and above a knight, having precedency of all orders of knights
except those of the garter, and being the only knighthood that is
hereditary. The order was founded by James I. in 1611, and is given by
patent. The word, however, in the sense of _lesser_ baron, was in use
long before the time of James I.

=Knightage.= The body of knights taken collectively.

=Knight-bachelor.= One of the lowest order of knights, who were expected
to remain unmarried until they had gained some renown by their
achievements.

=Knight-banneret.= A knight who carried a banner, who possessed fiefs to
a greater amount than the knight-bachelor, and who was obliged to serve
in war with a greater number of attendants. He was created by the
sovereign in person on the field of battle.

=Knight-errant.= A wandering knight; a knight who traveled in search of
adventures, for the purpose of exhibiting military skill, prowess, and
generosity.

=Knight-errantry.= The practice of wandering in quest of adventures; the
manners of wandering knights; a quixotic or romantic adventure or
scheme.

=Knight-erratic.= Pertaining to knight-errantry.

=Knighthood.= Originally a military distinction, came, in the 16th
century, to be occasionally conferred on civilians, as a reward for
valuable services rendered to the crown or community. The first civil
knight in England was Sir William Walworth, lord mayor of London, who
won that distinction by slaying the rebel Wat Tyler in presence of the
king. In recent times, it has been bestowed at least as often on
scholars, lawyers, artists, or citizens, as on soldiers, and in many
cases for no weightier service than carrying a congratulatory address to
court.

=Knighthood.= The character, dignity, or condition of a knight.

=Knightliness.= Duties of a knight.

=Knightly.= Pertaining to a knight; becoming a knight; as, a knightly
combat.

=Knights, Military.= An institution of military knights at Windsor,
England, formerly called “Poor Knights,” which owes its origin to Edward
III., and is a provision for a limited number of old officers. These
officers consist of a governor and 12 knights on the upper foundation,
and 5 on the lower, together 18, and are composed of officers selected
from every grade, from a colonel to a subaltern, chiefly veterans, or on
half-pay. They are allowed three rooms each in Windsor Palace, and 2
shillings per diem for their sustenance, besides other small allowances.

=Knights of St. George.= See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=Knights Templar.= See TEMPLAR, KNIGHTS.

=Knight-service.= A tenure of lands held by knights on condition of
performing military service. It was abolished in the time of Charles II.
of England.

=Knob of a Cascabel.= See CASCABEL.

=Knot.= A twist or loop in a rope or cord, so made that the motion of
one piece of the line over the other shall be stopped. The knot owes its
power of passive resistance to the friction of the rope. The three
elementary knots, which every one should know, are the _timber-hitch_,
the _bow-line_, and the _clove-hitch_.

The virtues of the _timber-hitch_ are, that, so long as the strain upon
it is kept up, it will never give; when the strain is taken off, it is
cast loose immediately.

The _bow-line_ makes a knot difficult to undo; with it the ends of two
strings are tied together, or a loop made at the end of a single piece
of string. For slip nooses, use the bowline to make the draw-loop.

The _clove-hitch_ binds with excessive force, and by it, and it alone,
can a weight be hung to a smooth pole, as to a tent-pole. A kind of
double clove-hitch is generally used, but the simple one suffices, and
is more easily recollected.

There are other knots very useful in the artillery service and
indispensable aboard ship, viz.: _single knot_, _weaver’s knot_,
_figure-eight knot_, _artificer’s knot_, _mooring knots_, _hitches_,
_capstan_, or _prolonge knot_, _square knot_, _loops_, _becker knot_,
and _anchor knot_.

=Knot, Shoulder-=. See SHOULDER-KNOT.

=Knout.= A scourge composed of many thongs of skin, plaited, and
interwoven with wire, which was till lately the favorite instrument of
punishment in Russia for all classes and degrees of criminals. The
offender was tied to two stakes, stripped, and received on the back the
specified number of lashes; 100 or 120 were equivalent to sentence of
death, but in many cases the victim died under the operation long before
this number was completed. This punishment is at present only inflicted
upon ordinary criminals, such as incendiaries or assassins. It is no
longer in use in the army, except when a soldier is dismissed for ill
conduct, in which case 3 to 10 lashes are given, in order to disgrace
the soldier, rather than punish him.

=Kolin.= A town of Bohemia, on the left bank of the Elbe. Here the
Austrians under Daun defeated the Prussians under Frederick the Great,
June 18, 1757.

=Koloshes.= The Russian name for the Indians of the coast of Alaska.

=Komorn.= See COMORN.

=Koniagas=, or =Kadiaks=. The names by which the various tribes of
aborigines living along the coast of Alaska for over 1500 miles, are
known.

=Konieh= (anc. _Iconium_). A town of Asiatic Turkey, the capital of the
province of Karamania, Asia Minor. Here the Turkish army was defeated by
the pasha of Egypt, after a long, sanguinary fight, December 21, 1832.
See ICONIUM.

=Königgrätz.= A town and fortress of Bohemia, on the left bank of the
Elbe. On July 2, 1866, the Austrians under Gen. Benedek were signally
defeated with a loss of 40,000 men by the Prussians under King William,
at Sadowa, near Königgrätz.

=Königsberg.= A fortified city of Prussia, and former capital of the
kingdom, is situated on both banks of the Pregel, and on an island in
that river, 4 miles from its entrance into the Frisch Haff. It was
founded in 1255, and in 1365 became a member of the Hanseatic League; in
1626, it was surrounded with walls; and in 1657, received a strong
additional defense in the citadel of Friedrichsburg. It suffered much
during the Seven Years’ War by the occupation of the Russians from 1758
to 1764; and also from the French, who entered it in 1807, after the
battle of Friedland.

=Königstein.= A town of Germany, in Saxony, 17 miles southeast of
Dresden, on the left bank of the Elbe. It has a fortress, situated on a
rock nearly 450 feet high, which is one of the few in Europe that never
yet were taken. The royal treasures have usually been deposited here
during war.

=Koom=, or =Kum=. A town of Persia, in the province of Irak-Ajemee. It
was destroyed by the Afghans in 1722.

=Kootenais=, =Kontenays=, =Cottonois=, =Coutanies=, or =Flatbows=. A
tribe of Indians who formerly resided wholly in British Columbia, but
some of them are now located in Washington, Idaho, and Montana
Territories. They are generally peaceable and self-supporting, and have
made some progress in civilization. About 400 of them reside at the
Flathead Agency, Montana.

=Koreish.= An Arab tribe which had the charge of the Caaba, or sacred
stone of Mecca, and strenuously opposed the pretensions of Mohammed. It
was defeated by him and his adherents, 623-30.

=Kossacks.= See COSSACKS.

=Kossova.= A town of European Turkey, 8 miles northeast from Pristina. A
battle was fought near this place in 1389 between the Turks and Serbs.
The latter were defeated, and the king slain.

=Koszegh=, or =Guns=. See GUNS.

=Kotah.= The chief town of a protected state of the same name; is
situated in Rajpootana, India, on the right bank of the Chumbul. In
1857, notwithstanding the fidelity of the rajah to the British
government, Kotah fell under the power of the mutineers, remaining in
their possession until March 30, 1858, when it was stormed by Gen.
Roberts.

=Kot-duffadar.= See DUFFADAR, KOT.

=Koul.= A soldier belonging to a noble corps in Persia.

=Kouler-Agasi.= A distinguished military character in Persia, who has
the command of a body of men called _Kouls_. He is usually governor of a
considerable province.

=Kouls.= The third corps of the king of Persia’s household troops. The
Kouls are men of note and rank; no person can arrive at any considerable
post or situation in Persia who has not served among the Kouls.

=Kovno.= Capital of the government of the same name in European Russia,
near the confluence of the Vilia and the Niemen, was founded in the 10th
century, and was the scene of many bloody conflicts between the Teutonic
knights and Poles during the 14th and 15th centuries.

=Kraal= (probably from the language of the Hottentots). In South Africa,
a village; a collection of huts; sometimes a single hut. This term is
applied to the villages and military camps of the Zulus.

=Krasnoe.= A Russian village, 30 miles southwest of Smolensk, near which
the French, in the retreat of 1812, lost, during three successive days,
25,000 men, several thousand prisoners, and 25 pieces of cannon.

=Kreuznach.= A town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Nahe, 40 miles
south-southeast of Coblentz. This place was stormed by Gustavus Adolphus
in 1632.

=Kris=, or =Crease=. A dagger or poniard, the universal weapon of the
inhabitants of the Malayan Archipelago. It is made of many different
forms, short or long, straight or crooked. The hilt and scabbard are
often much ornamented. Men of all ranks wear this weapon; and those of
high rank, when in full dress, sometimes carry three or four. In Java
women sometimes wear it.

=Krupp Gun.= The metal used in these celebrated guns is cast steel, a
composition of puddled steel and wrought iron. The wrought iron is
obtained from the best hematite ores of Europe, the puddled steel from
the spathic ore of Siegen, in the immediate vicinity of the works. The
proportions of each metal, the details of their preparation, as well as
certain ingredients guessed at but not known, remain a secret with the
manufacturers. Manganese in small quantity is supposed to be present and
to exercise an important influence. The result is a metal equal in
elasticity and tensile strength to the best English steel, the excellent
quality of which is largely due to “oil tempering,” a process entirely
omitted in the Krupp gun. The ingots forming the different parts of the
gun are cast in cylindrical iron molds, an operation requiring the
greatest care to prevent the imprisonment of air or other gases in the
casting,--a defect which the tenacious character of the metal renders
fatal. Subsequent hammering only increases the trouble by involving a
larger area. As soon as the ingot is hard enough to permit handling it
is removed from the mold and cooled slowly in ashes. It is next brought
to a working heat in a furnace, placed under a steam-hammer weighing
from 1 to 50 tons, according to the size of the ingot, and drawn out to
the required length and thickness, when it is again buried in ashes and
gradually annealed to remove the tensions induced by hammering. From the
rough ingot thus prepared the tube forming the barrel is made directly
by boring, turning, and rifling. The ingots intended for hoops, trunnion
bands, etc., are cut up into short lengths, which are formed into rings
without weld by being split through the centre within a certain distance
of the ends, after which the slit is gradually widened to a circle by
swaging. The parts when finished are carefully annealed.

The Krupp gun consists of a central tube or barrel, comprising the
greater mass of the gun, and a series of encircling hoops. The tube has
a thickness of about eight-tenths of the caliber from a point over the
front of the charge to the termination of the rings or hoops, whence it
is conical, tapering to a thickness of about half the caliber at the
muzzle. From the seat of the charge breech-wards the tube thickens
rapidly by a series of steps to a cylinder about 1¹⁄₅ calibers thick.
The hoops overlie the tube from the cylinder in rear to the base of the
cone in front, covering about half the total length of the tube. The
hoops are put on in layers, the number of layers being determined by the
size of the gun. The 6-inch gun has one, the 8- and 9-inch two, and the
higher calibers have three layers of hoops. The hoops are shrunk on at
black heat, the different layers being held in place by small key-rings.

The rifling for Krupp guns is polygrooved, the twist uniform, the
grooves being gradually narrowed towards the muzzle for the suppression
of windage. The chamber in which the shot and charge rest is a little
larger than the bore, though they coincide at the bottom. This makes the
passage of the projectile into the bore direct and prevents the abrasion
which would occur if tilted upwards in leaving its seat. Moreover, the
shot is “centred”--that is, has its axis in the axis of the bore--from
its entry into the gun.

The breech-mechanism is essentially that of Broadwell. The breech is
closed on the “sliding block” principle. Through the cylindrical part of
the _barrel_ in rear of the rings, from one side to the other, a slot is
cut in which the breech-block slides horizontally, alternately exposing
and closing the rear of the chamber. The block is run in and out by an
attached screw, which works partly in the upper wall of the slot. The
motion of the block is governed by guides in the upper and lower walls
of the slot slightly inclined from the perpendicular to the axis of the
piece. The rear of the slot is so cut that the block is wedged firmly
against it when it is home. The block is locked in this position by a
large screw, which catches in certain threads cut on the rear wall of
the slot. The block is furnished with an “indurator plate,” a disk of
hardened steel, which is set in its face to receive the direct action of
the powder gases. The vent is in the axis of the gun through the block.
The gas-check used is the _Broadwell ring_ (which see). The powder for
all the large guns is the _prismatic_. (See GUNPOWDER.) Both steel and
cast-iron projectiles are used. The steel projectiles for armor piercing
have their points water-tempered. Rotation being communicated by
compression, the projectiles belong to the soft-jacketed class. The
projectile is turned smooth in a lathe, pickled in dilute acid, and then
put in sal-ammoniac to remove oil. It is next galvanized by immersion in
molten zinc, then immersed in lead, and afterwards a heavy lead jacket
is cast on it, which is turned down, leaving several prominent rings to
facilitate compression into the grooves. In late years Herr Krupp has
adopted for his large guns the American system of projectiles, having
soft metal expanding sabots attached to the base, with a centring ring
in front.

Krupp guns range in size from small field-pieces to a gun weighing 72
tons. The field pieces manufactured number several thousand. They form
the official equipment of the German army, and contributed much to
German success in the Franco-Prussian war. The large guns, comprising
6-, 7-, 8-, 9-, 10-, 11-, and 12-inch guns, have been made in large
numbers, and have found a ready sale in Germany, Russia, and Turkey.

The largest guns are a 14-inch gun weighing 56 tons, and a 15³⁄₄-inch
weighing 72 tons. (See CANNON.) Herr Krupp is also a large manufacturer
of gun-carriages of all kinds. His partiality for steel has led him to
use it almost exclusively in his constructions. He has inherited
likewise the aversion of the great Borsig for _welding_; and a
noticeable feature of his guns is an absence of any _weld_. The “coil”
principle, so well adapted to develop tangential strength, is also
omitted, the character of the metal being relied upon to resist strains
“across the grain.”

Perhaps the most novel piece of ordnance of modern times is Krupp’s
_non-recoiling shield gun_. This gun is made with an enlargement around
the muzzle in the shape of a large ball, which is held in a socket
formed in a heavy armored shield protecting the gun in front, the
arrangement giving a veritable ball-and-socket joint, about which the
gun is elevated and traversed. On shipboard or in a fortification the
shield would form a part of the armor or scarp wall. A narrow slit above
the ball is used in pointing by the gunner, who for this purpose sits
astride of the gun. The problem solved by this unique arrangement is the
entire suppression of recoil, the strain being absorbed by the massive
shield. In the late experiments at Mappen, 1879, the triumphs of Krupp
guns culminated in the performances of this novel piece of ordnance. Its
action was satisfactory in every respect, and so slight was the shock
communicated to the gun that the gunner did not deem it necessary to
dismount, but kept his seat astride of it during the firing.

=Krupp’s Steel Works.= On account of the wide-spread reputation which
the steel produced in the great works of Krupp at Essen, in Rhenish
Prussia, has obtained, it is necessary that these works should receive a
brief notice. They were founded by Friedrich Krupp in 1810, and were
continued by his sons after his death in 1826. For the last fifty years
they have been increasing annually from one-sixth to one-third in size,
until now they cover about 500 acres, and give employment to about
20,000 persons, including those engaged in building, and in the mines
and smelting-houses. For large metallurgical works Essen is favorably
situated, being in the centre of a coal-bearing area, where coal of the
best quality can be procured cheaply, and near mines of manganiferous
iron ore, which has been found excellently adapted for the manufacture
of steel; but it is believed that the admirable organization of every
part of his manufactory has conduced as much as anything to the great
success of Krupp. The articles manufactured consist principally of
rails, tires, crank-axles, shafts, mining pump-rods, gun-carriages and
guns, the proportion of ordnance being about two-fifths of the whole.
Guns have been made at Essen for the Prussians, Austrians, Belgians,
Dutch, Italians, Turks, Japanese, and also for the English, although not
directly ordered by the government. Since 1872 a field-gun invented by
Krupp has been adopted by the Prussian government, and supplied to the
whole army. The establishment possesses 286 steam-engines from 2 to 1000
horse-power, 1100 furnaces of various kinds, 71 steam-hammers, 264
smith’s forges, 275 coke-ovens, and 1056 planing, cutting, and boring
machines. It burns over 1000 tons of coal daily, and has over 11,000
gas-burners, consuming in twenty-four hours 400,000 cubic feet of gas.
It has, besides, a complete telegraph system, 800 cars, 15 locomotives,
33 miles of railway, over 3000 dwelling-houses, hospitals, chemical
laboratory, a photographic and lithographic establishment, over 400
mines, 11 blast-furnaces and several smelting-houses which produce
annually about 20,000 tons of pig-iron. These works have already
produced over 18,000 heavy guns.

=Kshatriya.= The second or military caste in the social system of the
Brahmanical Hindus.

=Ku-Klux-Klan.= A secret organization of ex-Confederate soldiers, who,
for several years after the close of the civil war, by their murders and
other crimes disturbed the tranquillity of the Southern States. Their
victims were chiefly freedmen, and persons suspected of favoring the
policy of the government. Stringent measures were taken against them by
Congress in 1871, and they soon after ceased their disturbances.

=Kul.= The Turkish word for slave to the Prince. The grand vizier, the
bachas, the beiglerbeys, and all persons who receive pay or subsistence
from situations dependent upon the crown, are so called. This title is
in high estimation among the Turkish military, as it authorizes all who
are invested with it to insult, strike, and otherwise ill use the common
people, without being responsible for the most flagrant breach of
humanity.

=Kulm.= A small village of Bohemia, 16 miles north-northwest of
Leitmeritz, was the scene of two bloody conflicts between the French and
allied Russian-Austrian armies on August 29-30, 1813. The French,
numbering 30,000 men, were commanded by Gen. Vandamme; the Russians,
during the first day’s conflict, were 17,000, and were commanded by Gen.
Ostermann-Tolstoi. During the night, the latter were heavily reinforced,
and on the second day Barclay de Tolly assumed the command with 60,000
troops. The result was the complete wreck of the French army, which lost
in these two days little short of 20,000 men, while the allies did not
lose half of that number.

=Kunnersdorf.= See CUNNERSDORF.

=Kunobitza.= In the Balkan, where John Hunniades, the Hungarian,
defeated the Turks, December 24, 1443.

=Kupele.= Straits so called in India, through which the Ganges
disembogues itself into Hindustan. They are distant from Delhi about 30
leagues. It was at these straits that the East Indians made some show of
resistance when the famous Tamerlane (Timur) invaded India. The field of
this victory is the most distant point of that emperor’s conquest in
India, and on the globe.

=Kurrol= (_Ind._). The advanced-guard of a main army.

=Kurtchi.= A militia is so called in Persia. It consists of one body of
cavalry, which is composed of the first nobility of the kingdom, and of
the lineal descendants of the Turkish conquerors, who placed Ismael
Sophi on the throne. They wear a red turban of twelve folds, which is
made of particular stuff. This turban was originally given them by
Ismael, in consideration of their attachment to the religion and family
of Ali. In consequence of their wearing this turban, the Persians are
always called by the Turks _kitilbaschi_, or red-heads. The Kurtchi form
a body of nearly 18,000 men.

=Kurtchi-baschi.= The chief or commanding officer of the Kurtchi. This
was formerly the most distinguished situation in the kingdom, and the
authority annexed to it was equal to what the constable of France
originally possessed. At present his power does not extend beyond the
Kurtchis.

=Kush-bash= (_Ind._). Persons who enjoy lands rent free, upon condition
of serving the government in a military capacity when called upon.

=Kustrin=, or =Custrin=. A fortified town of Prussia, in the province of
Brandenburg, at the union of the Wartha with the Oder, 48 miles east
from Berlin. In 1758 it was bombarded by the Russians, and in 1806 taken
by the French. It has a large powder-magazine.

=Kutchin.= A family of Alaska Indians, which is divided into a number of
petty tribes, who occupy the valley of the Yukon River.

=Kyanizing.= A process for preserving timber from decay,--so named from
the inventor Kyan. The process consists in saturating the wood with a
solution of corrosive sublimate.

=Kythul.= A town of India, and the capital of a district of the same
name. The district fell into the possession of the British in 1843, from
the failure of heirs to the last rajah.



L.


=Labarum.= A military standard of the Roman empire. It consisted of a
long lance crossed at right angles near the top by a staff, from which
hung a small flag or streamer of purple cloth inwrought with gold and
precious stones, and bearing the effigy of the emperor. Constantine the
Great, when he embraced Christianity, substituted for that device a
crown, a cross, and the initial letters of the name of Christ, and made
it the imperial standard.

=Labeates.= A warlike people in Dalmatia, whose chief town was Scodra,
and in whose territory was the Labeatis Palus (now Lake of Scutari),
through which the river Barbana (now Bogana) runs.

=Label=, =Lambel=, or =File=. In heraldry, is the mark of cadency which
distinguishes the eldest son in his father’s lifetime. It consists of a
horizontal stripe or fillet, with three points depending from it. When
the mark of cadency itself is designated a _file_, its points are called
_labels_.

=Labicum=, =Labici=, =Lavicum=, =Lavici= (now _Colonna_). An ancient
town in Latium, on one of the hills of the Alban Mountain, 15 miles
southeast from Rome. It was an ally of the Æqui; taken and colonized by
the Romans, 418 B.C.

=Laboratory.= A department which is intrusted with the manufacture of
combustible and other substances for military purposes, such as blank
and ball cartridges for small-arms, cartridges for every description of
ordnance, rockets, and all stores of similar character. This department
is likewise intrusted with the conservation, packing, restoring, and
supply of all gunpowder to the several military and naval departments,
and in the British service is under the management of officers of the
royal artillery especially appointed to that duty; in the U. S. service
it is under the officers of the ordnance department. In the latter
service officers of artillery, as well as non-commissioned officers and
privates, are instructed at the artillery school, Fort Monroe, Va., in
laboratory duties, and carefully taught the manipulation and manufacture
of laboratory stores. At the West Point Military Academy, the cadets are
thoroughly instructed in the above duties, as are also the naval cadets
at the Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. In the British service officers of
artillery, as well as non-commissioned officers and gunners, are
instructed in laboratory duties. Officers and non-commissioned officers
of artillery in Germany, France, and Austria are required to possess a
knowledge of the manufacture and care of laboratory stores.

=Laboratory, Royal.= An extensive military manufacturing department in
Woolwich Arsenal, England. Although it has existed for many years, it
was only in 1855 that the present very large establishment was
organized. Here are foundries for the casting of shot, shell, grape,
etc.; apparatus for the manufacture of percussion-caps, which are
formed--hundreds at a time--out of the copper sheet; presses where
rifle-bullets are squeezed into shape; fuzes in all stages of
manufacture; and a thousand other instances of combined ingenuity and
power. The British government grants permission to inspect the factory.
There are also laboratories--though on a comparatively small scale--at
Portsmouth and Davenport, England.

=Laboratory Stores.= The following are among the laboratory stores used
in service:

The _time-fuze_, the _percussion-fuze_, and the _concussion-fuze_ (which
see).

The _wooden fuze_ consists of a conical plug of wood of the proper size
for the fuze-hole of the shell with which it is to be fired. The axis of
this plug is bored out cylindrically from the large, down to within a
short distance of the small end, which is left solid. At the large end a
cup is hollowed out, and the outside of the plug is divided into inches
and parts, generally tenths, commencing at the bottom of the cup. The
cylindrical space is filled with composition, pounded hard, and as
regularly as possible, and the cup filled with meal powder moistened
with whisky or alcohol. The rate of burning is determined by experiment,
and marked on a waterproof cap, which is tied over the cup. Knowing the
time any shell is to occupy in its flight, the fuze is cut off with a
saw at the proper division, and firmly set in the fuze-hole with a
fuze-set and mallet. The disadvantage of this fuze is its irregularity,
it being very difficult to pound the composition so that equal lengths
will burn equal times. The shell may either burst too soon, and a great
part of its effect lost, or it may burst after burying itself in the
ground, or it may burst after passing the proper point. This
irregularity of burning is common to all fuzes where the composition is
driven in successive layers in a column which burns in the same
direction. This fuze is used with mortar shells. The composition of
mortar-fuzes is, nitre 2 parts, sulphur 1 part, and meal powder 3 parts;
the quantities of meal powder vary in fuzes for mortars of different
calibers. Generally these fuzes are cut before being inserted in the
shell; but they are sometimes bored through at the proper positions
instead of being sawed. They are also cut obliquely, when the fuze is so
long as to render it likely that it will reach the bottom of the shell;
for by cutting it perpendicular to the axis, the whole base of the wood
might be driven in contact with the bottom of the shell, and prevent the
lighted composition from setting fire to the bursting charge.

The _paper time-fuze_ consists of a cylindrical column of burning
composition packed in a paper case, gradually increasing in thickness
from its lower to its upper or outer extremity; to insure ignition, it
is primed with rifle-powder at the larger end. It is inserted at the
time of loading the piece into a brass or wooden plug previously driven
into the fuze-hole of the shell. The composition has the same
ingredients as gunpowder, the proportions being varied to suit the
required rate of combustion; pure _meal_ powder gives the quickest
composition; by adding certain proportions of sulphur and nitre, the
composition burns more slowly. The rate of burning also depends upon the
density of the composition and the purity and thorough mixture of the
ingredients. These fuzes vary in length, burning from 4 to 40 seconds;
they are graduated in seconds on the outside of the case, and can be cut
to a length corresponding to any intermediate time of flight.

_Belgian_, or _Bormann-fuze_. See BORMANN-FUZE.

The _Wright-fuze_, a modification of the Bormann-fuze, extends the time
of burning to 12 or 14 seconds.

_United States sea-coast fuze._ The paper case fits in a fuze-plug of
bronze instead of wood. It fits the fuze-hole of the shell in the same
way as the wooden plug, and is retained by the force of friction. A
safety-cap and primer combined have been adopted to prevent ricochets,
especially over water, from extinguishing the fuze. A recess in the top,
filled with priming composition, is covered until the fuze is required
for use, with a disk of lead or paper fitting accurately the opening.
The fire is conveyed to the fuze composition through a crooked passage
which is filled with priming, and prevents water from entering in
sufficient quantity to extinguish the fuze. For security a small leaden
plug is placed in the inner end of the fuze-plug, where it remains until
it is driven out by the shock of the explosion. When the shell is placed
in the piece, nothing more is necessary than to remove the disk which
covers the recess in the top. _Paper-fuzes_ are inserted at the moment
of loading the gun, and into wooden or brass _fuze-plugs_ previously
driven into the shell.

_Port-fire_ consists of a small paper case, filled with a highly
inflammable but slow-burning composition, the flame of which is very
intense and penetrating, and cannot be extinguished by water, it is
principally used as an incendiary material in loading shells, and for
communicating fire to the priming of guns when proving them.

_Port-fire composition_ consists of nitre, sulphur, and meal powder, in
different proportions. One kind is composed of nitre, 65 parts; sulphur,
22.5 parts; and meal-powder, 12.5 parts. A port-fire case, 18 inches in
length, filled with this composition, burns 10 minutes.

_Priming-tubes_ are small pipes having a cup on one end, and filled with
a composition for firing cannon. The tube in general use in the U. S.
service is the _friction-primer_ (which see).

_Slow-match_ is a slow-burning match prepared from hemp or flax slightly
twisted, soaked in strong lye, or in water holding in solution sugar of
lead. Cotton rope well twisted forms a good match without any
preparation. Slow-match prepared from hemp or flax burns 4 to 5 inches
to the hour; it is used principally for the purpose of retaining fire in
the shape of a hard-pointed coal, to be used in firing cannon,
fireworks, etc. It was formerly used in field-batteries for lighting the
port-fires with which the pieces were discharged; but both are now
entirely superseded by the friction-primer.

_Quick-match_ is a match made of threads of cotton, or cotton-wick,
steeped in gummed brandy or whisky, then soaked in a paste of meal
powder and gummed spirits, and afterwards strewed over with meal powder;
one yard of it burns in the open air 13 seconds. The quick-match is used
to fire mortars, and sometimes in proving pieces. It is extensively used
in priming all kinds of fireworks, such as fire and light balls,
carcasses, rockets, priming-tubes, etc., and in conveying fire very
rapidly from one portion of a piece of firework to another. When used
for discharging cannon, the quick-match is set fire to by a slow-match,
port-fire, or any other convenient material. When used to prime
carcasses, etc., it is set on fire by the flame from the piece.

The _Valenciennes_ composition is a compound of 50 parts of nitre, 28 of
sulphur, 18 of antimony, and 6 of rosin; it is used as an incendiary
composition, in charging shells for the purpose of increasing their
destructive property, by setting fire to buildings, shipping, etc. For
manufacture of ammunition for small-arms, see “U. S. Ordnance
Memorandum,” No. 21, 1878.

=Laborer= (_Fr._). In a military sense, expresses any direct and
concentrated effort which is made to destroy a fortification. It
likewise applies to the working of a bomb or shell, which excavates,
plows up, and scatters the earth about wherever it bursts. _Laborer un
rampart_, signifies to bring several pieces of ordnance discharged from
two oblique directions to bear upon one centre. Shells are generally
used on these occasions, and the chief design is to second the
operations of the miner in some particular part from which the explosion
is to take place.

=Labuan Pulo.= An island of the Malay Archipelago, lying off the
northwest coast of Borneo. The British took possession of this island in
1846, and it was formally ceded to the British crown by the sultan of
Borneo in 1848.

=Lacandones.= A tribe of Indians in Central America, who for more than
three centuries maintained a hostile attitude to the Spaniards. They are
nominally subject to Guatemala, but are in reality quite independent.

=Lacay=, or =Laquet= (_Fr._). An old French militia was formerly so
called. The name is found among the public documents which were kept by
the treasurers belonging to the dukes of Brittany in the 15th century.

=Lacerne= (_Fr._). The short woolen military cloak of the Romans.

=Lacheté= (_Fr._). An opprobrious term which is frequently used among
the French, and is applied in all instances of cowardice, want of
spirit, or dishonorable conduct. _La trahison est une lacheté_; treason
is infamous in its nature.

=Lachish.= A city of Southern Palestine. It was taken after a two days’
siege by Joshua, and, in later times, is repeatedly mentioned as a place
strongly fortified. After a siege, conducted by Sennacherib in person,
it was taken and plundered, with the customary massacre of its
inhabitants. It was taken by Nebuchadnezzar at the downfall of the
kingdom of Judæa, and was reoccupied by the Jews after the Return.

=Lacker.= A composition made use of for preserving iron cannon,
carriages, shot, etc. The following are the proportional parts of
compositions made use of for preserving iron cannon: (1) Pulverized
black lead, 12; red lead, 12; litharge, 5; lampblack, 5; linseed oil,
66. This composition is to be boiled gently about twenty minutes, during
which time it must be constantly stirred. (2) Ground umber, 3.75;
pulverized gum shellac, 3.75; ivory-black, 3.75; litharge, 3.75; linseed
oil, 78; spirits of turpentine, 7.25. The oil must be first boiled half
an hour; the mixture is then boiled twenty-four hours, poured off from
the sediment, and put in jugs, corked. (3) Coal-tar (of good quality), 2
gallons, and spirits of turpentine, 1 pint. In applying lacker, the
surface of the iron must be first cleaned with a scraper and a wire
brush, if necessary, and the lacker applied hot, in two thin coats, with
a paint-brush. It is better to do it in summer. Old lacker should be
removed with a scraper, or by scouring, and not by heating the guns or
balls, by which the metal is injured. About 5 gallons of lacker are
required for 100 field-guns and 1000 shot; about one quart for a
sea-coast gun. Before the lacker is applied every particle of rust is
removed from the gun, and the vent cleaned out.

=Lacs d’Amour.= In heraldry, a cord of running knots used as an external
decoration to surround the arms of widows and unmarried women; the
_cordélier_, which differs but slightly from it, being used similarly
with the shields of married women.

=Lacunette= (_Fr._). A term in fortification. A small fosse or ditch was
formerly so called. The word _cunette_ (which see) has since been
adopted.

=Ladder Bridge.= Used for crossing streams, etc. It is formed by running
a cart or gun-limber into the stream and securing it there, with the
shafts in a vertical position, by ropes from both sides of the river;
one end of a ladder from each bank resting upon it, and covering the
steps or rungs with planks.

=Ladders, Scaling= (Fr. _eschelles de siege_). Are used in scaling when
a place is to be taken by surprise. They are made several ways;
sometimes of flat staves, so as to move about their pins and shut like a
parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying them. The French make them of
several pieces, so as to be joined together, and to be capable of any
necessary length. Sometimes they are made of single ropes, knotted at
proper distances, with iron hooks at each end, one to fasten them upon
the wall above, and the other in the ground; and sometimes they are made
of two ropes, with staves between them to keep the ropes at a proper
distance, and to tread upon. When they are used in the action of scaling
walls, they ought to be rather too long than too short, and to be given
in charge only to the stoutest of the detachment. The soldiers should
carry these ladders with the left arm passed through the second step,
taking care to hold them upright close to their sides, and very short
below, to prevent any accident in leaping into the ditch.

=Ladle.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Lady of Mercy, Our.= A Spanish order of knighthood, founded in 1218 by
James I. of Aragon, in fulfillment of a vow made to the Virgin during
his captivity in France. The object for which the order was instituted
was the redemption of Christian captives from among the Moors, each
knight at his inauguration vowing that if necessary for their ransom he
would remain himself a captive in their stead. Within the first six
years of the existence of the order no fewer than 400 captives are said
to have been ransomed by its means. On the expulsion of the Moors from
Spain, the labors of the knights were transferred to Africa. The order
was extended to ladies in 1261. Their badge is a shield party per fess
gules and or, in chief a cross pattée argent, in base four pellets gules
for Aragon, the shield crowned with a ducal coronet.

=Lady of Montesa, Our.= An order of knighthood, founded in 1317 by King
James II. of Aragon, who, on the abrogation of the order of Templars,
urged Pope Clement V. to allow him to employ all their estates within
his territory in founding a new knightly order for the protection of the
Christians against the Moors. His request was acceded to by the
following pope, John XXII., who granted him for this purpose all the
estates of the Templars and of the knights of St. John situated in
Valencia. The order is now conferred merely as a mark of royal favor.
The badge is a red cross edged with gold, the costume a long white
woolen mantle, decorated with a cross on the left breast, and tied with
very long white cords.

=Lagos.= A city and seaport of Portugal, in the province of Algarve,
about 23 miles east-northeast from the extremity of Cape St. Vincent. In
the Bay of Lagos, Admiral Boscawen obtained a signal victory over the
French Toulon fleet, August 18, 1759.

=Lagos.= In the Bight of Benin, Africa; this place was assaulted and
taken by the boats of a British squadron, under Commodore Bruce,
December 26-27, 1851. In 1862 the place was ceded to the British
government, and created a settlement.

=Lahore.= The capital of the Punjab, in British India, standing on the
Ravee, 270 miles northwest from Delhi. It was taken by Baber about 1520,
and was long the capital of the Mongol empire. It fell into the power of
the Sikhs in 1798; was occupied by Sir Hugh Gough, February 22, 1846,
who in March concluded a treaty of peace.

=Laibach=, or =Laybach=. A town of Austria, capital of the duchy of
Carniola, 44 miles northeast from Trieste. This place was taken in 1799
by Bernadotte, and in 1809 by Macdonald. It is well known from the
congress which was held in it in 1821, the object of which was the
extinction of constitutional government, as established in Naples after
the insurrection in 1820.

=Laidley’s Practice Musket.= This gun is made out of an old smooth-bore
musket, reamed out for a length of 11 inches, for the reception of a
coil ribbon spring, on one end of which a closely-fitting piston is
placed, having a stem of about 5 inches attached to its centre; a hole
is bored through the breech-screw and a cut made on its under side to
receive a spring; a circular disk with a flaring hole through its centre
is secured in the barrel just in front of the end of the breech-screw; a
short lever crosses the end of the barrel just in front of this disk,
and is held in position by the spring already referred to; the hole in
the cone is enlarged and receives a small spindle with a collar at its
middle, which prevents it from coming out. About 12 inches from the
breech a horizontal cut is made through the top of the barrel, leaving
an opening of 2 inches in length; a cylindrical plug having a hole
through its axis is inserted in the barrel at this place, and a handle
screwed in. An inner barrel, having a bore of .22 inch and a length of
17 inches, its upper end counter-bored, is inserted in the barrel and
secured by a screw; the length of the block is such as to close the
space between the chambered recess and the end of the inner barrel. A
hole is bored through the side of the stock to communicate with the hole
through the breech-screw. A dart is fired from this musket, which when
fired into the target is extracted with a claw-tool. The men in firing
stand at a distance of 15 paces from the target; and two men use the
gun, firing alternately. This is a very useful musket to practice the
soldier in rifle-firing. The soldier can also be practiced at long
ranges with this gun in the following manner: Place a target at 500 or
600 yards distant, or as far off as convenient, so that it can be seen
through the open window; place a target (16 inches square, with a
bull’s-eye of .75 inch) 15 paces from the firing-stand, at such a height
that the distant target may be seen 4 or 5 inches below the middle of
its lower edge; mark on the floor the position for the feet of the man
when firing, raise the longer leaf of the sight, aim at the distant
bull’s-eye, and fire; the shots will strike the near target if correctly
placed, and the accuracy of aim will be shown by the score thus made.
The height of the target may have to be adjusted after the first few
shots.

=Laird.= A leader or captain.

=Laisches= (_Fr._). Were thin metal plates which the ancient Gauls
placed upon the buff-coats of infantry, between the buff and the lining.

=Lake Champlain.= See CHAMPLAIN, LAKE.

=Lake Ontario.= See ONTARIO, LAKE.

=Lake Regillus.= In Italy, where tradition states the Romans defeated
the Latin auxiliaries of the expelled Tarquins about 499 B.C.

=Lama.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Lambrequin.= Leathern strap or flap hanging from a cuirass, often
highly ornamented. Also ribbon of different colors for fastening a
helmet, twisted round its crest, the knot forming an ornament.

=Lamia= (now _Zeitun_, or _Zetuni_). A town in Phthiotis, in Thessaly,
situated on the small river Achelous. It has given its name to the war
which was carried on by the confederate Greeks against Antipater, after
the death of Alexander, 323 B.C. The confederates under the command of
Leosthenes, the Athenian, defeated Antipater, who took refuge in Lamia,
where he was besieged for some months. Leosthenes was killed during the
siege; and the confederates were obliged to raise it in the following
year (322), in consequence of the approach of Leomatus. The confederates
under the command of Antiphilus defeated Leomatus, who was slain in the
action. Soon afterwards Antipater was joined by Craterus; and thus
strengthened, he gained a decisive victory over the confederates at the
battle of Cranon (322), which put an end to the Lamian war.

=Lamian War.= See LAMIA.

=Lampion de Parapet= (_Fr._). A lamp generally used on a parapet or
elsewhere in a besieged place. It was a small iron vessel filled with
pitch and tar, which was lighted by the troops as occasion required.

=Lancaster.= The chief town of Lancashire, England, situated on the
river Lune. It is supposed to have been the _Ad Alaunam_ of the Romans.
It was granted by William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, who erected a
castle upon its hill. It was taken by the Jacobites, November, 1715, and
November, 1745.

=Lancaster Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Lancaster Herald.= One of the six heralds of England, ranking second in
seniority. His office is said to have been instituted by Edward III.,
when he created his son, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. Henry IV.
raised Lancaster to the dignity of king-at-arms. Edward IV., after
reducing him back to the status of a herald, abolished his office, which
was revived by Henry VII.

=Lancaster Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Lancastrians.= See ROSES, WARS OF THE.

=Lance.= A weapon of war, consisting of a long shaft or handle, and
metal point, now usually adorned with a small flag, and generally used
by horsemen to transfix an enemy, but formerly used sometimes as a
javelin. This offensive weapon was much used by the French in former
times, particularly by that class of military gentlemen called
chevaliers, and by the gendarmes. Before the reign of Philip de Valois,
the chevaliers and gendarmes fought on foot, armed with lances only,
both in battles and at sieges. On these occasions they shortened their
lances, which were then said to be _retaillees_, or cut again.

=Lance= (_Fr._). Means likewise an iron rod which is fixed across the
earthen mold of a shell, and which keeps it suspended in the air when it
is cast. As soon as the shell is formed, this rod must be broken, and
carefully taken out with instruments made for that purpose. Shells ought
to be scrupulously examined with respect to this article, as they could
not be charged were the lance or any part of it to remain within. This
is also the name of an instrument which conveys the charge of a piece of
ordnance and forces it home to the bore.

=Lance.= A soldier armed with a spear; a lancer.

=Lance.= To pierce with a lance, or any similar weapon; to throw in the
manner of a lance. See LANCH.

=Lance a Feu= (_Fr._). A squib. A species of artificial firework which
is made in the shape of a fuze, and is used for various purposes. The
composition of the _lance a feu_ consists of 3 parts of the best refined
saltpetre, 2 parts of flour of sulphur, and 2 of antimony; the whole
being pounded and mixed together. The chief use of the _lance a feu_ is
to throw occasional light across the platform, whilst artificial
fireworks are preparing. They likewise serve to set fire to fuzes, as
they can be taken hold of without danger.

=Lance a Feu Puant= (_Fr._). Stink-fire lances prepared in the same
manner that stink-pots are, and particularly useful to miners. When a
sapper or miner has so far penetrated towards the enemy as to hear the
voices of persons in any places contiguous to his own excavation, he
first of all bores a hole with his probe, then fires off several pistols
through the aperture, and lastly forces in a _lance a feu puant_, taking
care to close up the hole on his side to prevent the smoke from
returning towards himself. The exhalation and stinking hot vapor which
issue from the lance, and remain confined on the side of the enemy,
infest the air so much, that it is impossible to approach the quarter
for three or four days. Sometimes, indeed, they have had so
instantaneous an effect, that in order to save their lives, miners, who
would persevere, have been dragged out by the legs in an apparent state
of suffocation.

=Lance de Feu= (_Fr._). A species of squib, which is used by the
garrison of a besieged town against a scaling party.

=Lance, Free.= See FREE LANCE.

=Lance Socket.= A leather socket which supports the butt of the lance
when carried on horseback; called also lance bucket.

=Lance-Corporal.= An assistant to a corporal; a private performing the
duties of a corporal; a lance-pesade. See CORPORAL, LANCE-.

=Lance-gaye= (_Fr._). See ARCH-GAYE.

=Lance-head.= The head of a lance.

=Lance-knight.= A common or foot-soldier; a lansquenet. See LANSQUENET.

=Lance-pesade.= See ANSPESSADE.

=Lance-rest.= A projection like a bracket, on the right side of a
breastplate in armor, to aid in bearing a lance.

=Lancers.= A description of cavalry soldiers in different armies of
Europe, who are armed with lances. The type and perfection of lancers
are the Russian Cossacks, whose long lances enable them to combat with
enemies at a distance from which they themselves take little harm. The
lancers were brought into European notice by Napoleon, who greatly
relied upon some Polish regiments. After the peace of 1815, the arm was
adopted in the English service, but it is thought by many that the
British lancer has a weapon too short to enable him to charge an
infantry square with any chance of success.

=Lances Levées= (_Fr._). Uplifted lances, indicating that the enemy was
beaten, and that the chevaliers or gendarmes should close the day by
giving a final blow to the disordered ranks.

=Lanch.= To throw, as a lance; to dart; to let fly. To pierce with a
lance, or as with a lance; to wound. Written also _launch_.

=Land Batteries.= Batteries used on land, as distinguished from floating
batteries, etc., employed in the defense of harbors.

=Landau.= A strong town of Bavaria, in the Palatinate of the Rhine,
situated on the Queich, 18 miles from Carlsruhe. This place was held
alternately by the French and Austrians from 1680 to 1815, when it was
assigned to the Germanic Confederation, under the protection of Bavaria.

=Landen.= See NEERWINDEN.

=Land-force.= A military force, army, or body of troops serving on land,
as distinguished from a naval force.

=Landgrave.= A German nobleman of a rank corresponding to an English
earl.

=Landgravine.= The wife of a landgrave.

=Landing.= In fortification, is the portion of the floor of the gallery
between the frames that bound the entrance to a return. The landing is
in all cases horizontal.

=Landing of Troops.= See DISEMBARKATION.

=Landshut.= A town of Prussian Silesia. In June, 1760, the Austrians
gained a decisive victory over the Prussians in this place.

=Landsturm.= A local militia of Prussia, formed of men above forty
years of age, which never leaves its own district, and is only called
out in case of actual invasion.

=Landwehr.= The militia of a country. Austria has a landwehr--_bei den
Oestreichern_; and Prussia--_bei den Preussen_. The former are a sort of
a reserve to each regiment of the line; they are under the same colonel,
and are drilled once a year with the line regiment. The Prussian
landwehr is more completely national. Every Prussian subject commences
military service in the standing army, a force composed of the youth of
the nation from twenty to twenty-five years old. After two or three
years of service, the soldier proceeds to his home, but is liable to be
called upon to join his regiment. During this period he is called a
_reservist_. At the expiration of five years from the date of
enlistment, the men are transferred into the first class or levy of the
landwehr, remaining in it until their thirty-second year. In time of war
they are liable to be called upon to serve with the regiment of the line
of a corresponding number,--in fact, they form the reserve of that
regiment whence reinforcements are drawn. From their thirty-second to
their thirty-ninth year the men belong to the second levy, and are only
called out occasionally in time of peace, but in war they garrison
fortresses.

=Lane.= The term applied to a body of soldiers in two ranks standing
face to face, forming, in fact, a street, passage, or lane. The French
call this formation _haie_, or hedge. It is used when troops form a
guard of honor for persons of rank to pass through.

=Langensalza.= A town of Prussian Saxony, on the Salza, 20 miles
northwest of Erfurt. The French and Saxons were here defeated by the
Prussians in 1750; in 1761 the Prussians and English defeated the German
imperial army; in 1813 the Prussians were defeated by the Bavarians; and
in 1866, a bloody contest took place between the Prussians and
Hanoverians, resulting in the capture of the Hanoverian army as
prisoners of war.

=Langrel=, or =Langrage=. A villainous kind of shot, consisting of
various fragments of iron bound together, so as to fit the bore of the
cannon from which it is to be discharged. It is seldom used but by
privateers.

=Languedoc= (anc. _Narbonensis Prima_). An old province of the south of
France, bounded east by the river Rhone, and south by the Mediterranean.
As a Roman province it enjoyed the freedom of Italy. It formed part of
Gallia Narbonensis, but, in the Middle Ages, was known as _Septimania_,
from the seven cathedral churches which it contained. From the hands of
the Romans it passed into the possession of the Goths; and being wrested
from them, it was occupied by the Saracens till 725, when they were
expelled by Charles Martel. It afterwards came under the sway of Philip
the Bold, and became a part of the French Kingdom in 1361.

=Languet=. A small slip of metal on the hilt of a sword, which overhangs
the scabbard; the ear of a sword.

=Lansdown.= In Somersetshire, England. The Parliamentary army under Sir
William Waller was defeated here July 5, 1643.

=Lansquenet.= A German foot-soldier; originally one of the serfs who
followed the camp in the service of the common soldiers; afterward one
of the independent troops who hired themselves to those willing to pay
highest for their services.

=Lanterne= (_Fr._). Sometimes called _cuiller_, or ladle, serves to
convey gunpowder into a piece of ordnance. It is made of copper, and
resembles a round spoon or ladle, which is fixed to a long pole.

=Lanuvium= (now _Civita Lavinia_). An old and important city of Latium,
on the Appian Way, 20 miles south of Rome. Tradition describes it as a
colony from Alba; but it first rose to importance in the 5th century
B.C., when it took part against Rome as one of the thirty cities of the
Latin League. Its name again appears in the long wars between Rome and
the Æqui and Volsci, siding with the former; it changed sides in 383
B.C., but was leniently treated by its old ally at the end of the war.
In the great Latin war, 340 B.C., it again took part against Rome, and
in the general settlement at the close of hostilities, it obtained the
Roman _civitas_.

=Lanyards.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Laodicea ad Mare= (now _Ladikiyeh_). A city on the coast of Syria,
about 50 miles south from Antioch; was built by Seleucus I. on the site
of an earlier city, called Ramitha. It was severely punished by Cassius
for its adherence to Dolabella, and again suffered in the Parthian
invasion of Syria. It was taken and destroyed by the Arabs in 1188.

=Laon.= A town of France, in the department of the Aisne, 75 miles
northeast from Paris. It was besieged by the barbarians in 407; taken
and sacked by Gelimer in 682; unsuccessfully besieged by the Normans in
882; taken by Eudes, count of Paris, in 892, by Charles the Simple in
895, and by Robert of France, who held it till 923. It was taken by the
Duke of Burgundy in 1411; by the royal troops in 1414; surrendered in
1419 by Philip the Good to the English, who were dispossessed in 1429.
It was unsuccessfully besieged by the Calvinists in 1567, and was taken
by Henry IV. in 1594. On March 10, 1814, an indecisive battle was fought
here between the French troops under Napoleon, and the Prussians under
Blücher.

=Lapelle=, or =Lapel=. The facings of uniform coats were formerly so
termed. Until the introduction of epaulettes in 1812, the white lapelle
was synonymous with a lieutenant’s commission in the British service.

=Lapithæ.= A wild race, inhabiting, in ancient times, the mountains of
Thessaly. They derived their name from a mythical ancestor, _Lapithes_,
a son of Apollo, and the brother of Centauros, the equally mythical
ancestor of the Centaurs. A bloody war is said to have been waged
between the kindred races in prehistoric times, which ended in the
defeat of the Centaurs, but the Lapithæ were in their turn defeated by
Hercules.

=Laplander.= An inhabitant of Lapland, a country of Northern Europe.

=Lapse.= To fall in, or belong to. This expression was formerly used in
the British army to signify the reversion of any military property.
Thus, upon the sale or purchase of one commission at the regulated
difference, another (where there are two) is said to lapse to
government. Commissions lapse, or fall into the patronage of government,
when vacancies happen by death, by officers being superseded, or where
officers apply to sell who have only purchased a part of their
commissions, and have not served long enough to be entitled to sell the
whole; in which case they are only permitted to sell what they actually
purchased, and the remainder is in the gift of the government.

=Lap-weld.= A weld in which the welding edges are made thin, lapped one
over the other and welded.

=Laranda= (now _Larenda_, or _Caraman_). A considerable town in the
south of Lycaonia. It was taken by storm by Perdiccas, but afterwards
restored. It was used by the Isaurian robbers as one of their
strongholds.

=Largs.= A seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, 23 miles southwest from
Glasgow. Here, in 1263, Alexander III. of Scotland gained a victory over
Haco, king of Norway.

=Lariat.= The lasso, a long cord or thong of leather with a noose, used
in catching wild horses and other animals. The term is now applied to a
rope 1¹⁄₄ inches in circumference and 30 feet long, made of Italian
hemp, which is used in the U. S. cavalry service to picket horses while
grazing.

=La Roda.= A town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 22 miles
northwest from Albacete. This place is famous for the defense it made
against the Carlists in 1840.

=La Rothière= (France), =Battle of=. Took place between the French,
commanded by Napoleon, and the Prussian and Russian armies, which were
defeated with great loss after a desperate engagement, February 1, 1814.
This was one of Napoleon’s last victories.

=Lascar.= In the East Indies, signifies properly a camp-follower, but is
generally applied to native sailors on board of British ships. The
Lascars make good seamen, but being of an excessively irritable and
revengeful nature, are generally kept in the minority in a ship’s crew.

=Lash.= To tie or bind with a rope or cord; to secure or fasten by a
string.

=Lashes.= Formerly a general court-martial could sentence a soldier to
receive a certain number of lashes. This mode of punishment is
prohibited in the U. S. service. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 98.

=Lashing-rings.= Are fixed on the sides of artillery
traveling-carriages, to lash the tarpaulin, as also to tie the sponge,
rammer, and ladle.

=Lasso.= A rope or cord with a running noose, used by men on horseback
in Spanish America, Texas, and Southern California for catching cattle,
wild horses, grizzly bears, etc. It is said that the lasso was used by
the ancient Sarmatians and Parthians. Certain Patagonians use a lasso
with a stone tied to the end,--instead of a noose.

=Laswarree.= A town of Hindostan, in Delhi, which was the scene of the
defeat of the Mahrattas by Lord Lake, November, 1803.

=Latham House.= In Lancashire, England; it was heroically defended for
three months against the Parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of
Derby. She was relieved by Prince Rupert, May, 1644. The house was,
however, surrendered December 4, 1645, and dismantled.

=Lathe.= In the manufacture of ordnance, lathes are machines for turning
cannon, gun-barrels, etc.

=Latrines.= Conveniences for soldiers in camps and barracks. Much
attention has of late been devoted to their construction; a large
percentage of the army sickness having been traced to their defective
and impure condition.

=Lauenberg.= A duchy of Northern Germany, but formerly united with the
crown of Denmark; was conquered from the Wends by Henry the Lion of
Saxony about 1152; ceded to Hanover, 1689, and seized along with Hanover
by the French in 1803. It was afterwards, with some change of boundary,
made over to Prussia, and by Prussia transferred to Denmark in 1815,
with reservation of rights. In 1870 it was re-annexed to Prussia.

=Laufach.= In Bavaria, Southwestern Germany; it was taken by the
Prussians, under Wrangel, July, 1860, after a sharp action, in which the
Hessians were defeated.

=Launch.= To throw as a spear or dart; to send forth. Written also
_lanch_.

=Laundresses.= Camp-women, usually the wives of soldiers, employed to
wash soldiers’ clothing.

=Laurel.= An evergreen shrub, selected for the brows of heroes and
conquerors, and emblematic of their unfading reputation.

=Lauterburg.= A town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine, 33
miles northeast from Strasburg. In 1793 the French forced the famous
lines of Lauterburg, and took this place.

=Laval.= A town of France, in the department of the Mayenne, situated on
the Mayenne, 42 miles east from Rennes. This place suffered greatly in
the Vendean war, towards the close of the last century.

=La Vendée= (West France). The French royalists of La Vendée took arms
in March, 1793, and were successful in a number of hard-fought battles
with the republicans, between July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when
they experienced a severe reverse. Their leader Henri, comte de
Larochejaquelein, was killed March 4, 1794. A short peace was made at La
Jaunay, February 17, 1795. The war was terminated by Gen. Hoche in 1796.
A treaty of peace was signed at Luçon, January 17, 1800.

=Lavure= (_Fr._). The grains, dust, or detached pieces of metal which
fall in casting cannon.

=Law, Martial.= See MARTIAL LAW.

=Law, Military.= A branch of the general municipal law, consisting of
rules ordained for the government of the military forces of a state or
government, and those voluntarily serving with them, equally in peace
and war, and administered by tribunals of special and limited
jurisdiction. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Law of Arms.= Certain acknowledged rules, regulations, and precepts,
which relate to war; and are observed by all civilized nations. The laws
of arms also show how to proclaim war, to attack the enemy, and to
punish offenders in the camp, etc.

=Law of Nations.= Such general rules as regard the embassies, reception
and entertainment of strangers, intercourse of merchants, exchange of
prisoners, suspension of arms, etc.

=Laws, Execution of.= On all occasions when the troops are employed in
restoring or maintaining public order among their fellow-citizens, the
use of arms, and particularly fire-arms, is obviously attended with loss
of life or limb to private individuals; and for these consequences, a
military man may be called to stand at the bar of a criminal court. A
private soldier also may occasionally be detached on special duty, with
the necessity of exercising discretion as to the use of his arms; and in
such cases he is responsible, like an officer, for the right use or
exercise of such discretion.

Some years ago, the public journals of London recorded the meritorious
behavior of a private sentry, upon the occasion of a riotous mob
assembled at the entrance of Downing-Street with the intention of
attacking the government offices in that quarter of the town. This man
standing alone presented his musket, and threatened to fire upon the
crowd, if the slightest attempt were made to approach the particular
office for the defense of which he was placed on duty, and succeeded by
the terror thus created, though at a great risk of consequences to
himself, in keeping the rioters at bay until a larger force arrived to
assist him. The soldier’s conduct was publicly much approved. It was
also clearly legal according to Macadam’s case (a soldier tried before
the courts of Scotland in 1735); and if after the announcement of his
intentions the mob had pressed forward to execute their purpose, he
would have been held justified at law in firing at the rioters upon his
own responsibility. The Duke of Wellington, as Constable of the Tower,
testified his marked approbation of this man’s conduct, by promoting him
at once to a wardership at that fortress.

The right of officers or soldiers to interfere in quelling a _felonious
riot_, whether with or without superior military orders, or the
direction of a civil magistrate, is quite clear, and beyond the
possibility of mistake. This subject, however, was formerly little
understood; and military men failed in their public duty through excess
of caution.

But notwithstanding the existence of a clear right and duty on the part
of military men voluntarily to aid in the suppression of a riot, it
would be the height of imprudence to intrude with military force, except
upon the requisition of the proper authority, unless in those cases
where the civil power is obviously overcome, or on the point of being
overcome, by the rioters.

When the civil officer may not deem it safe to wait for the orders of
government, he should address his requisition for troops, not to any
subordinate military officer, but to the highest authority, to whom he
should communicate his object in making it, and all the information he
may possess regarding the strength and designs of those by whom the
public peace is menaced or disturbed. His duty is confined to these
points. _He has no authority in directing military operations._ The
officer commanding the troops has alone authority to determine the
number and nature of those to be employed; the time and manner of making
the attack, and every other operation for the reduction of the enemy.

Under no circumstances can U. S. troops be called into service at the
“polls.”

In the United States, regular troops can be ordered only to serve
against rioters, or other lawless bands of citizens, under the orders of
the President to co-operate with the civil authorities.

It should ever be the aim of military men to attain the desired end by
the exercise of passive interposition.

=Laws of War.= The recognized rules for the conduct of civilized
warfare. These rules relate to the treatment of prisoners,
non-combatants, spies, traitors, etc.; the disposition of private
property, the rights of capture, occupation and conquest, the
establishment of blockades, the rights and obligations of neutrals, etc.

=Lay.= To quit; to surrender the use of; as, lay down one’s arms. _To
lay for_, is to attempt something by ambuscade.

=Lay.= To point or aim; as, to lay a gun. See POINTING.

=Lay About, To.= To strike, or throw the arms on all sides; to act with
vigor.

=Layette= (_Fr._). Three-sided tray or box without a cover, used to
carry powder from one mortar to another in powder-mills.

=Lazarus.= A military order instituted at Jerusalem by the Christians of
the West, when they were masters of the Holy Land. They received
pilgrims under their care, and guarded them on the roads from the
insults of the Mohammedans. This order was instituted in the year 1119,
and was confirmed by a bull of Pope Alexander IV. in 1255, who gave it
the rule of St. Augustine.

=Lazzaro, St.= In Northern Italy, where the king of Sardinia and the
Imperialists defeated the French and Spaniards after a long and severe
conflict, June 4, 1746.

=Lead.= To conduct as a chief or commander; as, let the troops follow
where their general leads.

=Lead Balls.= Are now generally made by compression, by means of
machinery, either at arsenals or at private establishments.

=Lead Out.= A command in the mounted service to cause the horses to be
taken from the stable or picket line preparatory to mounting or
harnessing.

=Leader.= A chief, a commander; a captain. Also the directing musician
of a band.

=Leadership.= The state or condition of a leader.

=Leading.= The clogging of the grooves of a rifle with lead from the
bullet,--one of the principal obstacles against continuous accurate
shooting. It is obviated by covering the bullet with a paper patch or by
using a lubricant in the canellures. See BULLETS.

=Leading Column.= The first column that advances from the right, left,
or centre of any army or battalion.

=Leading File.= The first two men of a battalion or company that marches
from right, left, or centre, by files. See FILE-LEADER.

=Leading Guide.= The foremost guide of a column.

=Leading Question.= In the proceedings of military tribunals, is a
question to a witness which suggests the desired answer. Such questions
are objectionable except under certain conditions.

=Leaf Sight.= A form of elevating rear sights, consisting of several
hinged leaves of different heights. See SIGHT.

=League.= A measure of length or distance, equal, in England and the
United States, to three geographical miles.

=League.= See HOLY LEAGUE.

=League, Achæan.= See ACHÆAN LEAGUE.

=League, First Suabian.= See SUABIA.

=League, Great Suabian.= See SUABIA.

=League, Holy.= See HOLY LEAGUE.

=League of Marbach.= See SUABIA.

=Leaguer.= A camp, generally of an investing army.

=Leaguer.= One who unites in a league; a confederate.

=Leaguerer.= One who belongs to or is engaged in a league; a leaguer.

=Leave of Absence.= See ABSENCE, LEAVE OF.

=Lech.= A river in Southern Germany, near which the cruel Gen. Tilly was
defeated by the Swedes, under Gustavus Adolphus, April 18, 1632. Tilly
died of his wounds soon after.

=Leek.= The Welsh emblem, in consequence of a command from Dewi, or
David, afterwards archbishop of St. David’s, in 519. On the day that
King Arthur won a great victory over the Saxons, Dewi is said to have
ordered the soldiers to place a leek in their caps.

=Leesburg.= See BALL’S BLUFF.

=Legatus.= Among the Romans, an ambassador, or lieutenant-general.
Legati were of three kinds: (1) Those sent by foreign nations on an
embassy to Rome. (2) Those sent from Rome on an embassy to foreign
countries or the provinces. (3) Those who served under Roman generals
during war, or under the pro-consuls and prætors in the provinces. The
latter kind was generally a person of high military skill, and was
appointed by the consul, prætor, or dictator, under whom he was intended
to serve. His nomination, however, was not legal until sanctioned by the
senate. His duty was to aid his superior officer, by advising him in all
great emergencies, by acting as his substitute, both in civil and
military affairs, and by assuming his insignia as well as authority
during his absence. In the last case, he was called _legatus pro
prætore_. The number of legati under one superior differed in proportion
to the importance of the war or the extent of the province.

=Leghorn= (It. _Livarno_). A large maritime town in Central Italy, in
the province of Leghorn. It was entered by the French army July 27,
1796; evacuated by the French in 1799, and retaken in 1800. It was
unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Italian forces in December,
1813. The Austrians took the city from the insurgents May 12 and 13,
1849, and quelled a slight insurrection, July, 1857.

=Legion= (Lat. _legio_). A corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, first
formed by Romulus, about 750 B.C., when it consisted of 3000 foot and
300 horse. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion consisted of
5200 soldiers; and under Marius, in 88 B.C., it was 6200 foot besides
700 horse. There were 10, and sometimes as many as 18 legions kept at
Rome. Augustus had a standing army of 45 legions, together with 25,000
horse and 37,000 light-armed troops, about 5 B.C.; and the peace
establishment of Adrian was 30 of these formidable brigades. A legion
was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with a
vexillum, or standard, guarded by 10 men. The peace of Britain was
protected by 3 legions. The French army was divided into legions
subsequent to the reign of Francis I. See THUNDERING LEGIONS.

=Legion of Honor, Order of the.= An order of merit instituted under the
French republic in May, 1802, by the first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte.
The order originally comprised three classes,--grand officers,
commanders, and legionaries. The class of grand officers was, on the
coronation of Napoleon I., divided into Knights of the Grand Eagle and
grand officers. On the restoration of the Bourbons the Legion was
remodeled so as to consist of four classes,--viz., grand officers, grand
crosses, commanders, and knights, but the order lost much of its
original character. The order confers its distinction for civil and
military valor, but especially for the latter. The college of the Legion
is in possession of considerable means, which have been augmented by the
addition of property belonging to Louis Philippe. Out of this fund
pensions are paid to certain members of the order who have been wounded
or who have undergone the amputation of a limb in service. These
pensions have sometimes amounted to as large a sum as 6,000,000 of
francs annually.

=Legionary.= Relating to or consisting of a legion or of legions; as, a
legionary force.

=Legionary.= One of a legion.

=Legnago.= A fortress on the Adige, Northern Italy, one of the
quadrilateral. It was captured by the French in 1796; but reverted to
the Austrians in 1815. It was surrendered to the Italians in October,
1866.

=Legnano.= A town in Northern Italy, in the province of Milan, where the
emperor Barbarossa was defeated by the Milanese and their allies, May
29, 1176, which victory led to the treaty of Constance in 1183.

=Leicester.= A town of England, and the chief town of Leicestershire,
situated on the Soar. During the civil war it was taken by Charles I.,
May 31, and by Fairfax, June 17, 1645.

=Leinster.= A province of Ireland, occupying the southeast part of that
island. It was a kingdom in 1167. The abduction of Devorgilla, wife of
O’Rourke, a lord of Connaught, by Dermot, king of Leinster, in 1152, is
asserted to have led to the landing of the English, and the subsequent
conquest. The province of Leinster gave the title of duke to Schomberg’s
son in 1690. The title became extinct in 1719, and was conferred on the
family of Fitzgerald in 1766.

=Leipsic.= A city of the kingdom of Saxony, situated about 65 miles
west-northwest of Dresden, near the Prussian border, in a large and
fertile plain. The Elster, the Pleisze, and the Parthe flow through or
past the city, and unite about 3 miles below it. The city sprung up at
the junction of the Pleisze and the Parthe, and is first mentioned as a
town in 1015. It gradually increased in prosperity and importance. The
famous _Leipsic Conference_ between Luther, Eck, and Carlstadt, in 1519,
greatly tended to the promotion of the Reformation. It suffered greatly
in the Thirty Years’ War, in which it was five times besieged and taken,
and again in the Seven Years’ War; and although the commercial changes
connected with the French revolution at first affected it very
favorably, yet it suffered not a little amidst the terrible struggle of
the years 1812 and 1813, when it was alternately in possession of the
French and of the allies. The immediate neighborhood of Leipsic has
been the scene of two battles of great importance in the history of
Germany and of Europe,--the battle of Leipsic, or of Breitenfeld (see
BREITENFELD), on September 7, 1631, and the great battle called the
_Battle of the Nations_, which continued for three days, October 16-18,
1813. The latter was one of the most bloody and decisive of those which
effected the deliverance of Europe from French domination. The troops
under Napoleon in this battle amounted to about 180,000 men, and those
of the allies, commanded by Prince Schwarzenberg, Marshal Blücher, and
Bernadotte, crown-prince of Sweden, to almost 300,000. About 2000 pieces
of artillery were brought to the field. The loss of the French was
reckoned at about 38,000 killed and wounded, and 30,000 prisoners; that
of the allies to about 48,000. The victory of the allies was complete;
the French being compelled to evacuate Leipsic, and to retreat.

=Leith.= A town of Scotland, 2 miles northeast from Edinburgh, of which
it is the seaport. It was burned in 1541 by an English fleet, and in
1549 it was occupied by French troops, who came to the assistance of
Mary of Guise.

=Leleges.= An ancient race which inhabited Greece before the Hellenes,
and are mentioned along with the Pelasgians as the most ancient
inhabitants. They were a warlike and migratory race, and piracy was
their chief occupation. The Leleges must be regarded as a branch of the
great Indo-Germanic race, who became incorporated with the Hellenes, and
thus ceased to exist as an independent people.

=Length of Cannon.= Is the distance from the rear of the base-ring to
the face of the piece, and the _extreme length_ is from the rear of the
cascabel to the face.

=Lengthen.= To extend in length; to make longer; to elongate; as, to
lengthen a line of troops. _To lengthen the step_, to take more than the
prescribed pace.

=Lenni-Lenape.= See DELAWARES.

=Lens.= A parish and town of France, in the department Pas-de-Calais, 9
miles from Arras. A battle was fought here in 1648, between the Spanish
forces and those of the Prince of Condé, in which the latter gained the
victory.

=Lentini= (Lat. _Leontini_). A city of Sicily, situated between Syracuse
and Catania. In 427 B.C., the Lentinians applied to the Athenians for
support against Syracuse; they were sent twenty ships, under the command
of Laches and Charœades. In 215 B.C., they raised their standard of open
war against Rome; but Marcellus hastened to attack the city, and made
himself master of it without difficulty. Under the Roman government it
was restored to the position of an independent town.

=Leon.= A province of Spain, subdivided into the smaller provinces of
Salamanca, Zumor, and Leon. The kingdom of Leon was erected in 746, by
Alfonso the Catholic, out of the provinces he had wrested from the
Saracens and the older kingdom of Asturias, and in 1230 it was
permanently united to Castile. During the Peninsular war it suffered
greatly.

=Lepanto= (anc. _Naupactus_). Called by the Greek peasants Epakto, a
seaport town of Greece, 12 miles northeast from Patras. The name
Naupactus is said to have originated with the Heraclidæ, who are
reported to have there built the fleet with which they invaded the
Peloponnesus. After the Persian war it fell into the possession of the
Athenians, who settled it with the expatriated Messenians. The Athenians
made it their chief military station in Western Greece during the
Peloponnesian war. At its close Lepanto was taken by the Locrians, and
afterwards passed in succession through the hands of the Etolians,
Macedonians, Achæans, and Romans. In 1475 it was invested by the Turks,
who, after the loss of 30,000 men in four months, were forced to raise
the siege. Within the Gulf of Lepanto, in 1571, was fought the great
naval engagement between the Ottomans and the Christian powers of the
Mediterranean, under Don John of Austria, in which the former lost about
200 galleys and 20,000 men.

=Lerida.= A town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the Segre, 80 miles
northwest from Barcelona. In 1707 this place was stormed by the French,
and in 1810 it was again taken by French troops under Suchet.

=Lesse= (_Fr._). A machine covered with raw hides, used as a mantelet by
the ancient Greeks for different purposes.

=Let Off, To.= To discharge; to let fly, as an arrow; or fire the charge
of, as a gun.

=Letter Stamp.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Letters Patent.= The written instrument by which a government grants to
an inventor the exclusive right and use of his invention for a term of
years.

=Lettre de Cachet= (_Fr._). An infamous state paper, which existed
before the French revolution, which was sealed, and the person upon whom
it was served carried into confinement without ever seeing the authority
by which he was hurried off in so peremptory a manner, or being tried
afterwards for any specific offense. It was always written by the king,
countersigned by one of his principal secretaries of state, and sealed
with the royal signet.

=Lettre de Passe= (_Fr._). A paper which was formerly signed by the
kings of France, authorizing an officer to exchange from one regiment
into another.

=Leuctra.= A village of Bœotia, situated between Thespia and Platæa, in
the territory of the former, celebrated as the scene of the great battle
between the Spartans, commanded by Cleombrotus, and the Thebans, under
Epaminondas, in which the former were defeated, and the supremacy of
Sparta finally overthrown.

=Leuthen.= A village of Prussia, in Lower Silesia, 9 miles west of
Breslau. It is celebrated for the victory won there December 6, 1757, by
Frederick the Great, with 33,000 men, over the Austrians under Prince
Charles of Lorraine at the head of 92,000.

=Levee en Masse= (_Fr._). A general rising of the people of any country,
either for the purpose of self-defense, or to answer the intention of
its governing powers.

=Level.= In mining, is a horizontal passage or gallery.

=Level, Gunner’s.= Sec GUNNER’S LEVEL.

=Level, Horizontal.= Free from obstructions or declivities.

=Level, James’s.= An instrument to find the highest points of the breech
and muzzle of a cannon, when the carriage-wheels stand on uneven ground.
_Plumb-level_, one in which the horizontal arm is placed in true
position by means of a plummet or plumb-line, to which it is at right
angles. _Spirit-level_, one in which the adjustment to the horizon
depends on the position of a bubble, or small vacant space, in the upper
side of a glass tube, which is slightly curved and nearly filled with
alcohol or ether. _Surveyor’s level_, or _leveling instrument_, a
telescope with a spirit-level attached, and with suitable screws, etc.,
for accurate adjustment, the whole mounted on a tripod for use in
leveling.

=Levellers.= A fanatical party in Germany, headed by Muncer and Storck
in the 16th century, who taught that all distinctions of rank were
usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head of 40,000 men Muncer
commanded the sovereign princes of Germany and the magistrates of cities
to resign their authority; and on his march his followers ravaged the
country. The landgrave of Hesse at last defeated him; 7000 of the
enthusiasts fell in battle, and the rest fled; their leader was taken
and beheaded at Mulhausen in 1525. The English “Levellers,” powerful in
Parliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell in 1649, and their leader,
Lilburn, imprisoned.

=Lever-jack.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Levet.= A blast of a trumpet,--probably that by which soldiers are
called in the morning. This term is obsolete.

=Levy= (Fr. _levée_). Is the compulsory raising of a body of troops from
any specified class in the community for purposes of general defense or
offense. When a country is in danger of instant invasion, a _levée en
masse_ is sometimes made,--_i.e._, every man capable of bearing arms is
required to contribute in person towards the common defense. On less
urgent occasions, the levy may be restricted to a class, as to men
between eighteen and forty years of age. At other times, a levy of so
many thousand men of a certain age is decreed, and the districts
concerned draw them by lot from among their eligible male population. In
armies sustained by volunteering, the levy, which is a remnant of
barbarous times, is unnecessary; but the system was frequently resorted
to in France before the enactment of the conscription laws. In 1862-64
there were great levies in the United States of America; and in any
country where great danger is apparent, and volunteers are not
sufficiently numerous, recourse must at all times be had to a levy of
the people. This term is also applied to the assessment of taxes, tolls,
or contributions.

=Levy.= To raise or collect troops or funds by a levy. The word has also
other meanings; as, to _levy_ war, to make war, to begin hostilities; to
_levy_ a siege, to desist from, to raise the siege. In this latter sense
it is nearly obsolete.

=Lewes.= A town of England, in Sussex, on the Ouse, 7 miles northeast
from Brighton. Near this town, in 1264, Henry III. was defeated by Simon
de Montfort, and imprisoned in the castle.

=Lewis.= A device for lifting stones, consisting of two wedge-shaped
pieces of iron, which are inserted butt foremost into a dovetail mortise
in the stone, and keyed by inserting a piece between them. All three are
then shackled to the lifting-chain by a bolt passing through them.

=Lexington.= A township of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles northwest from
Boston. The first battle in the war between Great Britain and her
revolted colonies in North America was fought here on April 19, 1775,
and ended disastrously for the British.

=Lexington.= A village of Lafayette township, Mo., on the right bank of
the Missouri River. In September, 1861, a body of Federal troops under
Col. Mulligan were here captured by the Confederate general Price. The
town was retaken by the Federals in October following. In October, 1864,
an indecisive engagement took place here between the armies of Gens.
Price and Blunt.

=Leydan= (anc. _Lugdunum Batavorum_). An important city of the
Netherlands, in the province of South Holland, on the Old Rhine, 6 miles
from its outlet in the North Sea. It was once a strong fortress, and the
siege which it sustained from the Spaniards in 1573-74 made it famous.
For seven weeks there was no bread within its walls, but the burghers
still resisted, though the hunger became almost unbearable. At last the
Prince of Orange came to their rescue. The dykes were opened, and the
waters, which drowned a great number of the besiegers, carried a fleet
of 200 boats loaded with provisions to the city. As a reward for the
valor the city evinced during this siege, the Prince of Orange founded a
university here.

=Liburnia.= In ancient times was a portion of Northern Illyricum, in the
neighborhood of the Sinus Flanaticus, now the present Croatia and
Dalmatia. It was inhabited by the Pelasgic race, who were daring seamen
and noted pirates. Their privateers, with large lateen-sails, were for
centuries the terror of the seas, and during the second Macedonian war
the Romans adopted them.

=Libyans.= The name formerly given to the inhabitants of the northern
portion of Africa, with the exception of the delta of the Nile. They
fell under the sway of the Romans, and subsequently relapsed into
barbarism.

=Licorne.= See HOWITZER.

=Lictor.= A Roman officer who bore an axe and fasces as insignia of his
office. His duty was to attend the chief magistrates when they appeared
in public, to clear the way and enforce respect for them. In addition,
he performed constabulary duties.

=Lid=, or =Roof=. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Lide= (_Fr._). A warlike machine which was formerly used to throw large
stones against a fortified place, or upon an enemy.

=Lie.= To be situated; to occupy a fixed place; as, the troops lie
encamped at Washington. _To lie in ambush_, to be posted in such a
manner as to be able to surprise your enemy, should he presume to
advance without having previously cleared the woods, hedges, etc. _To
lie in wait_, to take a position unobserved by the enemy, and to remain
under arms, in the expectation of suddenly falling upon his flanks or
rear. _To lie under cover_, to be under the protection of a battery, or
to be sheltered by a wood, etc. _To lie under arms_, to remain in a
state ready for action.

=Liebenau.= A town of Bohemia. Here was fought the first action of the
Seven Weeks’ War, June 26, 1866, when the Austrians were compelled to
retreat by the Prussians under Gen. von Horne.

=Liegnitz.= A town of Prussian Silesia, at the conflux of the Katzbach,
the Schwarzwasser, and the Neisse, 35 miles northwest from Breslau. The
Austrian army was totally defeated before Liegnitz in 1760 by the
Prussians under the command of Frederick the Great.

=Lieutenancy.= The office or commission of a lieutenant.

=Lieutenant.= From the French, _lieu tenant_, “holding the place,” in a
general sense is an officer performing the duties of his superior. The
rank was abolished by Charles IX. in the French army, and re-established
by Henry IV. In company organizations the lieutenant comes next after
the captain, and supplies his place during temporary absence. There are
two grades of lieutenants, first and second. A lieutenant in the navy is
an officer ranking with a captain in the army, holding rank above a
master and below a lieutenant-commander.

=Lieutenant de la Colonelle= (_Fr._). The second officer, or what was
formerly styled the captain-lieutenant of the colonel’s company of every
infantry regiment in France.

=Lieutenant du Roi= (_Fr._). During the monarchy of France there was a
deputy governor in every fortified place, or strong town, who commanded
in the absence of the governor, and was a check upon his conduct when
present. This person was called _lieutenant du roi_. _Lieutenants des
Gardes Françoises et Suisses_; lieutenants belonging to the French and
Swiss guards. During the existence of the monarchy in France they bore
the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and took precedence of all captains.
_Lieutenants Provinciaux d’Artillerie_ were certain officers belonging
to the old French service, and immediately attached to the artillery,
who bore the title or name of the particular province in which they were
stationed. Several of these lieutenants, who had military employment
under the board of ordnance, received the rank of lieutenant-general in
the army from the king, and could rise to the most exalted stations in
common with other officers.

=Lieutenant-Colonel.= His rank corresponds with that of commanders in
the navy. See COLONEL, LIEUTENANT-.

=Lieutenant-General.= His rank is equivalent to that of a vice-admiral.
See GENERAL, LIEUTENANT-.

=Life-guard.= A guard of the life or person; a guard that attends the
person of a prince, or other high officer or dignitary; a body-guard.
See GUARDS.

=Light Battery.= A mounted battery of field-guns.

=Light Bobs.= In the British service, a familiar term used for the light
infantry.

=Light Horse.= All mounted soldiers that are lightly armed and accoutred
for active and desultory service, may be considered under this term.
Thus light dragoons, hussars, mounted riflemen, etc., are strictly
speaking light horse.

=Light Infantry.= A body of armed men selected and trained for rapid
evolutions; often employed to cover and assist other troops. See
INFANTRY, LIGHT.

=Light Infantry Company.= In the British service, a company of active,
strong men, carefully selected from the rest of the regiment. It always
occupies its place on the left of the battalion until called for. When
the call sounds, the light company orders arms and unfixes bayonets
without word of command, and remains in readiness to move.

=Light Marching Order.= A soldier paraded with arms, ammunition,
canteen, and haversack, is said to be in light marching order.

=Light Troops.= By this term is generally meant all troops which are
lightly accoutred for detached service.

=Light, Velocity of.= It has been proven by astronomers that light
travels through space with the prodigious, though finite, velocity of
192,500, or nearly 200,000 miles in a second of time, and consequently
would pass round the earth in the eighth part of a second. It is also
proved, by the phenomena of aberration, that the light of the sun,
planets, and all the fixed stars, travels with the same velocity.

=Light-armed.= Not heavily armed, or armed with _light_ weapons; as,
light troops; a troop of light horse. See INFANTRY, LIGHT-ARMED.

=Light-ball.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Light-barrel.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Ligny.= A village in Belgium, in the province of Namur, about 10 miles
northeast of Charleroi, famous on account of the battle fought here by
the French under Napoleon, and the Prussians under Blücher, June 16,
1815, in which the latter was defeated.

=Liguria.= In ancient geography, a region of Northern Italy, the land of
the Ligurians It is first mentioned by the early Greek authors as
extending as far westward as the mouths of the Rhone, while according to
Polybius, its eastern boundary was Pisæ, and its northern the country of
the Arretines. The Ligurians, so often praised by ancient authors for
their hardihood and bravery, are generally understood to be those on the
south side of the Apennines exclusively. In the time of Strabo these
eked out the scanty produce of their stony and sterile soil by hunting
and feeding flocks, and thus fostered that vigor of frame and ferocity
of disposition which long rendered them the indomitable foes and
plunderers of the Romans. They were renowned as slingers and light
infantry in the armies of the Carthaginians, and afterwards in those of
the Romans. They were conquered by the Romans in 125 B.C. Liguria formed
the first point of the Roman province of Gaul; in 1797, in consequence
of the conquests of Bonaparte, it was formed into the republic of
Liguria.

=Limber.= To attach to the limbers; as, to limber the gun; to limber up.

=Limber-chest.= The ammunition-chest placed on the limber of
field-pieces.

=Limbers.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Limenarque= (_Fr._). An office of distinction, which existed in the
Roman empire. The persons invested with it were directed to watch the
frontiers of the empire, and they commanded the troops that were
employed upon that service.

=Limerick.= A city of Ireland, chief town of a county of the same name,
situated on the Shannon, about 60 miles from its mouth, and 106 miles
south-southwest of Dublin. It has always been deemed a place of
importance. It was taken by the English in 1174; in 1651 it was taken by
Ireton, the son-in-law of Cromwell; in 1690 it was unsuccessfully
besieged by King William III. in person; in 1691 it surrendered to Gen.
Ginkel, afterwards earl of Athlone. Before the Conquest it was the seat
of the kings of Thomond.

=Limitary.= A guard or superintendent, placed at the confines or
boundaries of any kingdom or state.

=Limitation of Time of Prosecution.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 103.

=Limites Romani.= The name of a continuous series of fortifications,
consisting of castles, walls, earthen ramparts, and the like, which the
Romans erected along the Rhine and the Danube, to protect their
possessions from the attacks of the Germans.

=Limits.= In a military sense, is that which bounds or confines; as, the
limits of a sentinel’s post; the limits of a garrison. An officer in
arrest may have his limits extended.

=Limoges.= A town of France, in the department of the Upper Vienne, on
the Vienne. It was besieged and taken by the English in 1370.

=Limonite.= An iron ore (which see).

=Lincelles.= In Northern France, where the allied English and Dutch
armies defeated the French, August 18, 1793.

=Linch-pin.= A pin through the end of an axle-arm of an artillery
carriage to keep the wheel on. A hook attached to the head of the pin
and embracing the axle-arm prevents the pin from being jolted out.

=Linch-pin Washer.= A ring against which the linch pin rubs.

=Lincoln= (anc. _Lindum Colonia_). A city of England, the capital of
Lincolnshire, on the Witham. It was at the period of the Conquest rich
and populous. It was taken several times by Saxons and Danes. Without
Newport-gate, upon Lincoln plain, was fought the battle between the
partisans of the empress Maud, commanded by the Earl of Gloucester, and
the army of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner,
February 2, 1141. Lincoln was the scene of important operations during
the civil wars in the reign of King John; and here the party of the
Dauphin was completely overthrown by the Earl of Pembroke during the
minority of Henry III. During the great civil war the royalists obtained
possession of the city, but it was stormed by the Parliamentary army
under the Earl of Manchester, May 5, 1644.

=Linden-tree.= The wood used in artificial fireworks, etc.

=Lindisfarne.= See HOLY ISLAND.

=Line.= Various opinions have been given as to what portion of the
military establishment should constitute the _line_ of the army, and in
the absence of legislation, which should settle the question, it will
continue to be a subject of controversy, and some difficulty has arisen
from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words “line of the army,”
which neither in the English service nor in the United States have a
well-defined meaning. The opinion that the words are intended to
distinguish the regular army from the militia, or discriminate between
officers by brevet and those by ordinary commissions, as understood by
some, would seem to be erroneous. Though the words “line of the army”
may sometimes be used in a different sense, the opinion prevails that in
the 122d Article of War they are used to designate those officers of the
army who do not belong to the staff, in contradistinction to those who
do. It is now generally conceded that the law contemplates that the
fighting portion of the army; as cavalry, artillery, infantry, and
engineers, or that part of the service organized or subdivided into
units for command, as well as the commanders thereof, constitutes the
“line of the army.” The four arms of the service above mentioned form
the principal part of a mobilized army, and as they are always formed
into a line of battle to resist the attack of an enemy, or to make an
attack, they are generally known as the “line of the army,” or “troops
of the line,” to distinguish them from other bodies of men who form
parts of an army.

=Line.= In the British service, the regular infantry of an army, as
distinguished from militia, volunteer corps, artillery, cavalry, etc.

=Line.= In tactics, a body of men in either one or two ranks; generally
a body of troops drawn up with an extended front. _To line_, is to place
troops in line (see ALIGN); thus, _to line_ hedges or walls, is to place
troops behind them. _To form the line_, in land tactics, is to arrange
the troops in order of battle, or battle array. _To break the line_, to
change the direction from that of a straight line, in order to obtain a
cross-fire, and for other purposes. _To line a street or road_, is to
draw up any number of men on each side of the street or road, and to
face them inwards. This is frequently practiced on days of ceremony,
when some distinguished person is received with military honors on his
way through places where troops are stationed. This is the usage also in
funerals, when the corps under arms form a line facing inwards.

=Line.= In fencing, an imaginary line opposite to the fencer, wherein
the shoulders, right arm, and the sword should always be found, and
wherein are also to be placed the two feet at the distance of 18 inches
apart. In which sense a man is said to be in his _line_, or to go out of
his line, etc.

=Line.= A cord or rope; as, a picket line, side lines (which see).

=Line, Horizontal.= A line parallel to the plane of the horizon; as, any
line in the level surface of a plane.

=Line, Inclined.= Is a line which is oblique to the plane of the
horizon.

=Line, Magistral.= See MAGISTRAL LINE.

=Line, Oblique.= A straight line which is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to another line; also a line of troops posted or marching
obliquely.

=Line of Battle.= The position of troops drawn up in their usual order
without any determined manœuvre.

=Line of Counter-approach.= A sort of trench which the besieged make,
and push forward from the glacis, for the purpose of counteracting the
enemy’s works.

=Line of Defense.= See DEFENSE, LINE OF.

=Line of Demarcation.= A line which is drawn by consent, to ascertain
the limits of lands or territories belonging to different powers.

=Line of Direction.= In gunnery, was a line formerly marked upon guns,
by a short point upon the muzzle, and a cavity on the base-ring, to
direct the eye in pointing the gun.

=Line of Duty.= An officer or soldier disabled while performing properly
authorized duty is said to be injured in line of duty, and as such is
entitled to the allowances fixed by law.

=Line of Fire.= In gunnery, the axis of the gun produced.

=Line of Fire.= In fortification, this term admits of two distinct
acceptations: first, when it is found necessary to give an idea of the
manner in which a rampart or an intrenchment covers any space of ground
by the discharge of ordnance or musketry, lines must be drawn to express
the distances traversed by the shot, etc. These lines are called lines
of fire, being representations of the actual ranges; second, all that
extent of a rampart or intrenchment from which the projectiles of
ordnance or musketry are discharged, is understood to be the line of
fire.

=Line of Least Resistance.= The shortest distance from the centre of the
charge of a mine to the open air.

=Line of March.= Arrangement for marching. Course or direction taken by
an army.

=Line of Metal.= Or natural line of sight, is a line drawn from the
highest point of the base-ring or base-line to the highest point of the
swell of the muzzle, or to the top of the sight, if there be one. The
line of sight nearest to the axis of the piece is the _natural_ line of
sight, the others are _artificial_ lines of sight. See ARTIFICIAL LINE
OF SIGHT.

=Line of Sight.= See LINE OF METAL and POINTING.

=Line of the Bastion, Capital.= Is a line which bisects the salient
angle of a bastion. See CAPITAL.

=Line, Retiring.= A line of troops in orderly retreat.

=Line, Tangent.= A straight line, which meets a curve at one point and
touches without cutting it.

=Line, Vertical.= A line which is perpendicular to the horizon. Of this
description are all lines that express height or depth.

=Lineal, or Linear.= Pertaining to length; pertaining to the line of an
army.

=Lineal Rank.= Is the rank of a line-officer in his arm of the service.

=Linear Promotion.= Is promotion of line-officers according to seniority
in the arm of service, as opposed to promotion in the regiment.

=Line-firings.= This term is used when troops fire by line.

=Lines.= A series of field-works, either continuous or at intervals. The
former are connected by means of curtains or straight walls. The rule in
constructing the other is, that the works shall be within cannon- or
musket-shot range of each other, according to their armament.

=Lines, Close and Open.= Formerly when troops were drawn up in order of
battle with intervals between the battalions and squadrons, the lines
were said to be close and open.

=Lines, Continued.= A continued line of field-works constructed for the
defense of a position.

=Lines Cremaillere.= Are composed of alternate short and long faces at
right angles to each other.

=Lines, Full or Close.= Are lines of men drawn up without leaving
intervals between them.

=Lines, Inside.= Are a kind of ditches towards the place, to prevent
sallies, etc.

=Lines of Bastion.= As the name indicates, are formed of a succession of
bastion-shaped parapets, each consisting of two faces and two flanks,
connected by a curtain.

=Lines of Circumvallation.= The defensive works by which a besieging
army covers its rear and flanks against a relieving force.

=Lines of Communication.= Are trenches that unite one work to another,
so that men may pass between them without being exposed to the enemy’s
fire; hence, the whole intrenchment round any place is sometimes called
a line of communication, because it leads to all the works.

=Lines of Communication.= This term is applied to all the practicable
routes and roads connecting the different parts of an army occupying the
theatre of war. Therefore, as the army moves from its base, the lines of
operations become lines of communication, and since these “lines of
operations” are generally the longest and most important lines of
communication, it is to them that the simple term “communications”
generally refers. All the routes used by the trains employed in
provisioning an army, form a part of the communications. The most
important, safest, and most convenient of these routes, all other things
being equal, will be the central one, or the one leading from the centre
of the army back to its base. This particular route is sometimes
designated as the “line of supplies.”--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Lines of Contravallation.= See CONTRAVALLATION.

=Lines of Operations.= The roads or routes by which an army moves from
its base towards its objective-point have been designated by the term
“lines of operations.” Lines of operations are classified from their
number into _single_, _double_, or _multiple_ lines; from their
positions with respect to the lines of operations of the enemy into
_interior_ or _exterior_ lines; and from their position with respect to
each other into _convergent_ or _divergent_ lines. Other classifications
are sometimes used descriptive of the nature or other quality of the
line.

_Single Line of Operations._--An army moving in a given direction with
all its parts united, or with those parts so situated that they can be
readily joined when required, is said to use a “single line of
operations.” Sometimes this line is called a _simple_ line. A single
line of operations does not mean a _single road_, but embraces all the
roads or routes taken by the fractions of the army for the purpose of
reaching a common point of concentration; the condition being imposed
that these roads shall not be so far apart, or have intervening such
obstacles, that the different parts of an army will be prevented from
uniting at any given time which may be appointed.

_Double and Multiple Lines of Operations._--When there are obstacles
intervening between the roads or routes passed over by an army, or the
roads are so far apart as to prevent the parts of the army from being
readily united, the army is then said to employ “double” or “multiple”
lines of operations.

_Interior Lines of Operations._--If these lines are within those
employed by the enemy, they are known as “interior” lines.

_Exterior Lines of Operations._--If these lines are outside of the lines
employed by the enemy, they are called “exterior” lines.

_Convergent Lines of Operations._--If these lines of operations start
from points some distance apart, approach each other, and meet at some
point in advance, they are called “convergent.” Sometimes the term
“concentric” is employed to designate them.

_Divergent Lines of Operations._--These lines are the reverse of
convergent lines, as they continue to separate, or the distance between
them to widen, as the army advances. The term “eccentric” is also
applied to them.

_Accidental Lines of Operations._--Lines of operations are sometimes
employed different from those proposed in the original plan of campaign.
To these lines the term “accidental” is applied. It does not follow that
their adoption is a matter of accident, as might be inferred from their
name. They are frequently the result of a change in the original plan,
which probable change was foreseen and provided for.

_Temporary Lines of Operations._--Sometimes an army in making a movement
employs a line which deviates from that adopted in the general plan of
campaign. As soon as the movement is completed the original lines are
resumed. Such line adopted for such movement is termed a “temporary
line.” The term “manœuvre line” is also applied to it.--_Prof. J. B.
Wheeler._

=Lines of Retreat.= The roads passed over as the army advances are
ordinarily the roads taken when the army retires or is driven back. In
the latter case they are known as “lines of retreat,” and are “single,”
“double,” “diverging,” etc., according to their number and
position.--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Lines of Tenailles.= Consist of parapets, forming a series of salient
and re-entering angles.

=Lines of Torres Vedras.= See TORRES VEDRAS.

=Lines Outside.= Are a kind of ditches towards the field, to hinder
relief, etc.

=Lines, Strategical.= The lines followed by an army in making a
strategical movement are called “strategical lines.” Temporary lines of
operations, or manœuvre lines, therefore, are strategical lines. Lines
of operations are important strategical lines. And in general, lines
connecting two or more strategical points, which lines can be used by an
army, and which allow of easy communication between these points, are
“strategical lines.” A base of operations is therefore a strategical
line.--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Lines with Intervals.= One or more rows of field-works with large
intervals between them, through which the offensive may be assumed.

=Linesmen.= In the British service, infantrymen of the regular army are
so called.

=Lingerer.= One who pretends to be indisposed, in order to avoid his
tour of duty,--a skulker. Hence the term malingerer, or a soldier who
avoids duty in a disreputable manner.

=Linlithgow-bridge.= Near Edinburgh, Scotland, near which the forces of
the Earl of Angus, who held James V. in their power, defeated the forces
of the Earl of Lennox, who, after receiving promise of quarter, was
killed by Sir James Hamilton, 1526.

=Linstock.= A short staff of wood, about 3 feet long, having at one end
a piece of iron divided into two branches, each of which has a notch to
hold a lighted match, and a screw to fasten it there, the other end
being shod with iron to stick into the ground.

=Linstock Socket.= A socket attached to the piece in which the linstock
was formerly carried.

=Lipan Indians.= A warlike tribe of aborigines residing in Texas and
Mexico.

=Lippe=, or =Lippe Detmold=. A small principality of Northwest Germany,
the chief part of which is comprised between Prussian Westphalia,
Hanover, and the principality Pyrmont. The surface is hilly, partly
covered by the Teutoburger Wald, where Arminius exterminated the legions
of Varus.

=Lis= (_Fr._). A warlike machine was formerly so called. It consisted of
a piece of wood or a stake, about the size of the human body, which was
made smaller at the top than at the bottom, and resembled a lily not yet
blown. Several of these were tied together with ozier or willow twigs,
and were used for the security of a camp. They were not unlike the
palisades of the present day.

=Lisaine.= A small river in France, rising in the Vosges Mountains, and
flowing west of the fortress of Belfort. On January 15, 16, and 17,
1871, a terrible contest raged here between the French army under
Bourbaki and the Germans under Von Werder, the French being finally
compelled to retreat. The German loss was about 2000; the French about
6000.

=Lisbon.= The capital of Portugal, situated on the north bank of the
Tagus, near its mouth in the Atlantic. In 1807 it was occupied by the
French, and was afterwards the scene of important operations between
the British and French armies, until the latter were finally driven from
Portugal.

=Lisburn.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Antrim, on the Lagan, 8
miles southwest from Belfast. It was founded in 1627, and in 1641 was
laid in ashes by the Irish insurgents. It was again burnt in 1707.

=Lisieux.= A town of France, in the department Calvados, situated near
the confluence of the Orbec and the Tanque. The Normans pillaged it in
the 8th century, and retained it for a considerable time. It has since
been frequently besieged and captured, and was last taken by Henri
Quatre in 1588.

=Lisle=, or =Lille=. A city of France, formerly the capital of French
Flanders, and now of the department of the North. It was founded in 1009
by Baudouin IV., count of Flanders. It fell into the power of Philip the
Fair, after a siege of three months in 1297, and was taken again by Guy,
count of Flanders, in 1302. The Protestants attempted in vain to
surprise it in 1581, and the French besieged it without success in 1645.
Wrested from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in 1667, and retaken by the
allies in 1708, after a long and obstinate siege, it was ceded to France
by the treaty of Utrecht. The Austrians bombarded it from September 29
till October 6, 1792, but the garrison, admirably supported by the
bravery of the inhabitants, compelled them to raise the siege.

=Lissa.= A town of Prussian Poland, near the borders of Silesia. This
place was laid in ruins by the Russian army in the campaign of 1707.

=Lissa.= A mountainous island of Austria, in the Gulf of Venice, near
the coast of Dalmatia, held by the British from 1810 to 1815. Near here
the Italian fleet, commanded by Persano, was defeated with severe loss
by the Austrian fleet, commanded by Tegethoff, July 20, 1866.

=List.= A roll or catalogue; as, the army-list, the pay list, etc.

=List.= A line inclosing or forming the extremity of a piece of ground,
or field of combat; hence, in the plural (lists), the ground or field
inclosed for a race or combat. _To enter the lists_, to accept a
challenge, or engage in a contest.

=List.= To engage in the public service by enrolling one’s name, as
soldiers; to inclose for combat; as, to list a field.

=Litana Silva= (now _Silva di Luge_). A large forest on the Apennines,
in Cisalpine Gaul, southeast of Mutina, in which the Romans were
defeated by the Gauls, 216 B.C.

=Litter= (Lat. _lectica_, from _lectus_, “bed”). According to Rees’s
Cyclopædia, a kind of vehicle borne upon shafts, anciently esteemed the
most easy and genteel way of carriage. It was much in use among the
Romans, among whom it was borne by slaves kept for that purpose, as it
still continues to be in the East, where it is called a _palanquin_. The
invention of litters, according to Cicero, was owing to the kings of
Bithynia. In the time of Tiberius they had become very frequent at
Rome, as appears from Seneca. Horse-litters were much used in Europe
prior to the introduction of coaches. In the military service the litter
is a species of hurdle bed, on which the wounded are sometimes carried
from the field of battle. What is known as the hand-litter or stretcher
is used to carry men from where they fall in battle to field hospitals.
The hand-litter or stretcher is generally constructed with canvas about
6¹⁄₂ feet long by 3 feet wide, the sides securely fastened to two
hard-wood poles about 8 feet in length; the two cross-pieces should be
constructed so that the litter can be rolled up. Small outlying bodies
of troops, especially detachments of cavalry, are not always provided
with them; for these the hand-litter, made with guns and blankets, has
been extemporized; for this purpose the edges of the blanket are rolled
over the guns, and tied firmly with twine, and two stout sticks are also
tied across at the head and foot, serving as handles for the bearers.
This being laid on the ground, the wounded man is placed upon it, with
his knapsack under his head. The Indian litter is made by taking two
stout saplings, and attaching to them three cross-pieces, about 2¹⁄₂ or
3 feet apart, by cords and notches; the sick or wounded man being placed
on his blanket, this frame-work is placed over him, and the blanket
knotted to it. By three bent twigs and an additional blanket, a kind of
top can be made to this in case of a storm. Several kinds of horse or
mule litters for frontier service have been invented, but none seem so
well adapted for all purposes as the one invented by Surgeon J. C.
Baily, U.S.A. Ambulance litters are so constructed as to be drawn from
the ambulance and taken to the wounded man, who is by it conveyed to the
vehicle. It is then slid into place on rollers, and steadied by loops
and guys.

=Little Fortification.= The first division of the first system of
Vauban, and is so called when the exterior side of a fortification does
not exceed 350 yards. It is used in the construction of citadels, small
forts, horn- and crown-works.

=Living Force.= _Vis viva._ That force of a body in motion which
determines the work of which it is capable. Living force is measured by
the product of the mass into the square of the velocity.

=Livonia.= A Russian province on the Baltic Sea, first visited by some
Bremen merchants about 1158. It has belonged successively to Denmark,
Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It was finally ceded to Peter the Great in
1721.

=Liziere.= The berme of a parapet. See BERME.

=Llandeweyer.= In Caermarthenshire, Wales. Here Llewellyn, prince of
Wales, having descended into the plains, was surprised, defeated, and
slain by the lords-marchers, December 11, 1282. This disaster led to the
subjugation of Wales in 1283.

=Llerena.= An ancient town of Spain, in the province of Estremadura, 59
miles north from Seville. Near this place, the English under Combermere
defeated the French under Drouet in 1812.

=Load.= The charge of a fire-arm; as, a load of powder.

=Load.= To place a charge in; to charge, as a gun, with powder, or with
powder and shot, or ball.

=Load.= A word of command given when men are to charge their guns or
rifles.

=Loading.= The process of loading field-shells is as follows: They are
set up on their sabots, the charges measured out in the proper
powder-measure, and poured in through a copper funnel. The fuze-plugs
are then driven in with a mallet, allowing the tops to project about 0.1
inch, care being taken not to split them. The holes in the plugs are
then carefully reamed out, and stopped with tow wads, which are pressed
in firmly with a round stick.

_Process of loading spherical case-shot_: The shot having been cleaned,
the balls are put in. A stick with a less diameter than the fuze-hole,
and having a groove on each side of it, is inserted and pushed to the
bottom of the cavity by working the balls aside. The shot is then placed
in a sand-bath or oven, and brought to a proper temperature to receive
the sulphur, which, in a melted state, is poured in to fill up the
interstices between the balls; the shot is allowed to cool and the
sulphur to harden, when the stick is withdrawn, and the sulphur adhering
to the sides of the eye and the surface of the shot is removed. If a
fuze-plug and paper fuze are to be used, the charge is poured in, and
the plug inserted exactly as in case of a shell; but, if the
Bormann-fuze is to be used, the charge is inserted, and the stopper and
fuze screwed into their places, care being taken before placing the fuze
in position to puncture the covering of the magazine, so that the fire
can communicate with the charge. Spherical-case are now usually loaded
by putting in the bullets and pouring melted sulphur or rosin in until
the case is full. After the sulphur has cooled, the space for the powder
is bored out by a cutter, which removes both the sulphur and portions of
the bullets from the space. This is a quicker method, and gives a more
compact projectile. Case-shot for rifle guns are filled in a similar
manner. The object of the sulphur or rosin is to solidify the mass of
bullets, and preventing them from striking by their inertia against the
sides of the case, and cracking it, when the piece is fired. Coal-dust
is sometimes used instead of sulphur or rosin. Round, leaden balls,
seventeen to the pound, are used.

_Process of filling mortar-shells_: Having been inspected to see that
they are clean, dry, and in good order, place them on a block made for
the purpose, or on rings of rope, or in indentations in the floor of
the magazine, or on the ground with the fuze-holes up. The charge
measured out in a powder-measure is poured in through a funnel, and any
incendiary composition, such as pieces of port-fire, rock-fire, etc., is
inserted. In the mean time the fuze is cut to the proper length
according to the range, by resting it in a groove made in the block, or
inserting it in a hole made in a block or in a post, and sawing it
across with the fuze-saw; or the fuze may be bored through with a gimlet
perpendicularly to the axis at the proper point. The fuze is then tried
in the fuze-hole, and should enter three-fourths of its length. If it
does not, it may be reduced by rasping. The head of it is covered with
tow to prevent the breaking of the composition, the fuze-setter placed
on, and the fuze driven with the mallet until the head projects not more
than 0.2 inch to 0.4 inch above the surface of the shell. These shells
are generally filled and the fuzes driven in the battery magazines, as
they are required. Shells for heavy guns are loaded in the same way as
mortar-shells; but as paper fuzes inserted in wooden or bronze
fuze-plugs are used instead of wooden fuzes, the plug only is driven
into its place, and stopped with tow after the bursting charge has been
poured through it into the shell.

=Loading-bar.= A bar used to carry shot. It is passed through the ring
of the shell-hooks; also called _carrying-bar_.

=Loading-tongs.= A pair of tongs used with siege howitzers to set the
shell home.

=Loano.= A town of Italy, in the province of Genoa, situated on the Gulf
of Genoa. Here the Austrians and Sardinians were defeated by the French,
under Masséna, November 23, 1795.

=Lobau.= An island of Lower Austria, in the Danube, 5 miles
east-southeast of Vienna. Here the French, in 1809, remained intrenched
for six weeks, between the battles of Gross-Aspern and Wagram.

=Lobbes.= A town of Belgium, 10 miles southwest from Charleroi, on the
Sambre. This was the scene of an engagement between the Austrian and
French troops in 1794.

=Local Rank=, or =Temporary Rank=. An officer who receives increased
rank, for a limited period or during the performance of some specific
duty, is said to have local rank. Also sometimes applied to the rank
held by an officer who is assigned to duty by his brevet rank to a
locality fixed by geographical limits, such as a military department or
district. See BREVET RANK.

=Lochaber-axe.= A formidable weapon of war, consisting of a pole bearing
an axe at its upper end, formerly used by the Scotch Highlanders.

=Lochage.= In Greek antiquity, an officer who commanded a cohort.

=Lochleven Castle.= In Scotland, built on an isle in Loch Leven, it is
said by the Picts. It was besieged by the English in 1301 and in 1334.
The Earl of Northumberland was confined in it, 1569. It was the place of
Queen Mary’s imprisonment in 1667.

=Lock.= That part of a fire-arm by which fire is produced for the
discharge of a piece. The first form of the apparatus was the
_match-lock_, which consisted of a lever holding a lighted match, which
by a simple mechanism was brought in contact with the priming. This was
superseded by the _wheel-lock_, invented in Nuremburg, or Italy,
according to different authorities, which made its appearance early in
the 16th century. This consisted of a wheel wound up against a spring
and released by a trigger. In its revolution it evolved sparks by
friction against an alloy of iron and antimony, which fell upon and
ignited the priming. This was replaced about 1680 by the _flint-lock_,
consisting of a hammer, or cock, holding a flint, which in its descent
struck a steel plate. This device gave way in its turn, about 1840, to
the _percussion-lock_, which, in one or another of its many forms,
promises to endure indefinitely. The terms _matchlock_, _flintlock_,
_firelock_, etc., have also been used to designate the weapon itself.

=Lock.= In fencing, to seize, as the sword-arm of an antagonist, by
turning the left arm around it, in order to disarm him.

=Lock-chain Bridles.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, THE CAISSON.

=Lock-chain Hooks.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, THE CAISSON.

=Lock-chains.= Are chains used to lock the wheels of field- and
siege-carriages, or to prevent them from turning. For siege-carriages
the chain has a shoe at the end, which goes under the wheel and lifts it
from the ground. In field-carriages the chain is passed around one of
the felloes and secured to itself by a key. In both carriages the chain
is secured to the stock by an assembling-bolt.

=Lock-chains.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, THE CAISSON.

=Locket.= The chape of a sword-scabbard.

=Locking-plates.= Are thin, flat pieces of iron on the sides of a
field-carriage, where the wheels touch it in turning, to prevent the
wearing of the wood in those places. These plates are commonly called
wheel-guard plates.

=Lock-plate.= The plate in a small-arm which covers the lock and to
which the mechanism is attached.

=Lockspit.= In field fortification, a small cut or trench made with a
spade, about a foot wide, to mark out the first lines of a work.

=Lock-step.= A mode of marching by a body of men going one after another
as closely as possible, in which the leg of each moves at the same time
with and closely follows the corresponding leg of the person directly
before him.

=Locri=, or =Locri Epizephyrii= (now _Motta di Burzano_). A town of the
Greek Locrians in Italy, on the southeast coast of the Bruttian
peninsula. An important event in its history is the battle at the river
Sagras, in which 10,000 Locrians and a few Rhegian auxiliaries defeated,
with great carnage, an army of 130,000 Crotoniats. They were allies of
the Romans against Pyrrhus; but after the battle of Cannæ, 210 B.C.,
revolted to the Carthaginians, and did not resume the yoke of Rome until
205 B.C. From this period Locri seems to have gradually declined in
importance.

=Lodge Arms.= An old word of command, which was used on guards and
pickets for the men to place their arms in front of the guard-house or
quarter-guard.

=Lodge, Indian.= See WIGWAM.

=Lodge-pole.= Is a pole used by Indians in the construction of their
teepes. It is generally of mountain pine or ash, about 30 feet long; 2
to 2¹⁄₂ inches at the butt, and 1¹⁄₂ inches at the other extremity.
Lodge-poles are also used by the Indians to construct their _travaux_,
to convey their wounded, camp equipments, etc. See TRAVOIS.

=Lodging Allowance.= In the British army, a money allowance given under
certain circumstances to officers and men for whom there is no
accommodation in barracks to provide lodgings for themselves. Married
sergeants and private soldiers, who are married “with permission,” are
entitled to lodging-money at various rates up to 8 shillings a week,
when separate rooms in barracks cannot be spared for the accommodation
of each couple.

=Lodgment.= Is a work made by the besiegers in some part of a
fortification, after the besieged have been driven out, for the purpose
of maintaining it, and to be covered from the enemy’s fire. It also
means a footing obtained inside of an enemy’s works.

=Lodgment.= See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Lodi.= A town of Italy, in the province of Lombardy, stands on the
right bank of the Adda, 19 miles south of Milan. Lodi is celebrated for
the victory of the French under Bonaparte over the Austrians, on May 10,
1796, when the long and narrow bridge was carried by the French column,
notwithstanding a tremendous fire from the Austrian batteries.

=Logement= (_Fr._). Means generally any place occupied by military men,
for the time being, whether they are quartered upon the inhabitants of a
town, or are distributed in barracks. When applied to soldiers that have
taken the field, it is comprehended under the several heads of huts,
tents, etc.

=Logistics.= Is properly that branch of the military art embracing all
details for moving and supplying armies. It includes the operations of
the ordnance, quartermaster’s, subsistence, medical, and pay
departments. It also embraces the preparation and regulation of
magazines for opening a campaign, and all orders of march and other
orders from the general-in-chief relative to moving and supplying
armies. Some writers have, however, extended its signification to
embrace strategy.

=Logrono.= A town of Spain, the capital of a province of the same name,
in Old Castile, situated on the Ebro. In 1808 and 1823 it was occupied
by the French, being of importance as a military post.

=Loigny.= A village in France, department of Loiret, about 9 miles from
Orleans. During the Franco-German war, the army of the Loire under Gen.
Chanzy was defeated near here by the Germans under the Grand Duke of
Mecklenburg, December 2, 1870.

=Lombard.= A form or size of cannon formerly in use.

=Lombards= or =Longobards=. A German people of the Suevic family, not
very numerous, but of distinguished valor, who played an important part
in the early history of Europe. About the 4th century they seem to have
begun to leave their original seats (on the Lower Elbe, where the Romans
seem to have come first in contact with them about the beginning of the
Christian era), and to have fought their way southward and eastward,
till they came into close contact with the eastern Roman empire on the
Danube, adopted an Arian form of Christianity, and after having been
some time tributary to the Heruli, raised themselves upon the ruins of
their power, and of that of the Gepidæ, shortly after the middle of the
6th century, to the position of masters of Pannonia, and became one of
the most wealthy and powerful nations in that part of the world. Under
their king Alboin they invaded and conquered the north and centre of
Italy (568-569), and founded the kingdom of Lombardy. The nobles ravaged
the greater part of Italy subsequent to 573, but in 584 they appointed
Autharis their king, who greatly extended the empire, and formed a
powerful kingdom. In the autumn of 773, Charlemagne invaded Italy; and
in May of the following year Pavia was conquered and the Lombard
kingdom, after an existence of 206 years, was overthrown. In 776, an
insurrection of some of the Lombard nobles brought Charlemagne again
into Italy, and their dukedoms were broken down into counties, and the
Lombard system, as far as possible, supplanted by that of the Franks. In
803, a treaty between Charlemagne, the Western, and Nicephorus the
Eastern emperor, confirmed the right of the former to the Lombard
territory.

=Lombardy.= The name given to that part of Upper Italy which formed the
nucleus of the kingdom of the Lombards (which see). It consisted of the
whole of Italy north of the peninsula, with the exceptions of Savoy and
Venice, and after the fall of the Lombard kingdom, in 774, was
incorporated in the Carlovingian empire. In 843 it was created a
separate kingdom, but was not entirely severed from the Frankish
monarchy till 888. From this time it was ruled by its own kings till
961, when it was annexed to the German empire. Out of the wrecks of the
old independent kingdom now arose a number of independent duchies, as
Friuli, Mantua, Susa, Piedmont, etc., and soon afterwards the republics
of Venice, Genoa, Milan, and Pavia, etc. The Lombard cities declared
themselves independent towards the commencement of the 12th century, and
in 1167 were joined by their less powerful neighbors in the “first
Lombard league,” for the maintenance of their liberties against Frederic
Barbarossa, whom they severely defeated in 1176. In 1225 they were
compelled to form the “second Lombard league” against Frederick II., and
with similar success. After this, petty tyrants rose in most of the
cities, and foreign influence quickly followed. The Guelph and
Ghibelline factions greatly distracted Lombardy; and from the 15th
century to the present time it has been contended for by the German and
French sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it in 1748, and held it
till 1797, when it was conquered by the French, who incorporated it into
the Cisalpine republic, and in 1805 into the kingdom of Italy. On the
breaking up of the French empire in 1815, the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom
was established by the allied sovereigns and given to Austria, who had
lost her Flemish possessions. In 1859 this union was dissolved by the
Italian war; and also by the treaty of Villa Franca, ceded to the king
of Sardinia.

=Lomond, Loch.= The largest and most celebrated of the Scottish lakes,
separating the counties of Dumbarton and Stirling. In 1263 the Norsemen,
under Angus, king of Man, after having ravaged the shores of the
adjoining Loch Long, drew their boats over the neck of land which
separates the two waters at Tarbet, massacred the inhabitants, and set
fire to the numerous villages they found on the shores of the lake.
After this expedition, the loch came into the hands of some of the chief
Highland clans, who long carried on their feuds here.

=Lomza.= A district town in the government of Augustovo, in Poland, on
the left of the Narev, a tributary of the Vistula. It played a prominent
part in the history of Poland, but has never recovered from its
sufferings during the Swedish wars.

=Lonato.= A town of Northern Italy, province of Brescia; it is
surrounded by walls, and further defended by a citadel. It suffered
greatly during the Middle Ages by pestilence. Here Bonaparte gained a
victory over the Austrians in 1796.

=London.= The capital and chief city of the British empire, stands on
both banks of the Thames, about 60 miles from the sea. It appears first
in history under the reign of Claudius, and it was fortified under
Constantine the Great. Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, reduced London to
ashes, and put 70,000 Romans and strangers to the sword in 61; it was
rebuilt and walled in by the Romans in 306; pillaged by the Danes in
839. In 1875 its population was 3,445,160.

=London, New.= A city of New London Co., Conn., situated 42 miles
southeast from Hartford, on the Thames. This place was burned by the
British in 1781.

=Londonderry.= The capital of a county of the same name in Ireland, on
the Foyle. This town is of great antiquity, and has often suffered from
the effects of war. It was besieged by James II., from December, 1688,
till August, 1689, when the siege was raised.

=Long Island.= An island about 115 miles long, which is separated from
New York by the East River, a strait about half a mile wide. Its capital
is Brooklyn (which see), where was fought in 1776 the first pitched
battle of the Revolutionary war, the result being the defeat of the
Americans. The island suffered considerably at the hands of the English
during this war. During the civil war (1861-65) Long Island took an
active part in aid of the cause of the Union.

=Long Roll.= See ROLL, LONG.

=Long-bow.= A bow of the height of the archer, formerly used in England
for war and sport.

=Long-jawed.= The state of a rope when its strands are straightened by
being much strained and untwisted, and from its pliability will coil
both ways.

=Longitudinal Strain.= The strain on a cannon or fire-arm which tends to
part it with a ring fracture. See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

=Longwy.= A strongly fortified town of France, in the department of the
Moselle, 33 miles northwest from Metz. This is called the “iron gate of
France,” and was in 1792 taken by the Prussians, and again by the allies
in 1815.

=Looking-glass Signaling.= A method of signaling invented and
extensively used by the North American Indians, both on the Plains and
in the regions west of the Rocky Mountains. The reflection of the sun is
flashed from a small piece of a mirror held in the hand. Indians have
been known to communicate over a distance of several miles by this
means. It is also extensively used in their drills,--the chief often
directing the movements of his warriors with the greatest ease and
certainty from a distant point overlooking the field. This method of
signaling, modified by the resources of science, has been lately
introduced into the English service, and used both in India and Southern
Africa. A concave mirror is used, and an artificial light replaces the
sun when he is absent. The method has been called heliography.

=Loop-holed Galleries.= Are vaulted passages or casemates, usually
placed behind the counterscarp revetment, and behind the gorges of
detached works, having holes pierced through the walls, to enable the
defenders to bring a musketry fire from unseen positions upon the
assailants in the ditch. Loop-holes, however, are not confined to
galleries. In modern fortifications, the revetments, both scarp and
counterscarp, are very generally pierced for musketry fire.

=Loop-holes.= Apertures in a wall or stockade, through which a fire of
musketry may be directed on the exterior ground.

=Loose.= Not close or compact. “With horse and chariots ranked in loose
array.”

=Loosen, To.= To open ranks or files from close order. To loosen is, in
fact, to lose that firm continuity of line or perpendicular adherence,
which constitutes the true basis of military operations. The lock-step
was introduced for the purpose of counteracting the mischievous effects
of loose marching, but it produced a greater inconvenience, and has
therefore been laid aside; the equal pace and marked time correct both.

=Loot.= An East Indian term for plunder or pillage.

=Looties=, or =Lootees=. An East Indian term for a body of irregular
horsemen, who plunder and lay waste the country, and harass the enemy in
their march.

=Lootywallow.= An East Indian term of the same import as _looties_.

=Lorarii.= Among the Romans, officers whose business it was, with whips
and scourges, to compel the gladiators to engage. The lorarii also
punished slaves who disobeyed their masters.

=Lorca.= A town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, on the Cornera.
This town is remarkable in history as having been the key of Murcia
during the Moorish wars; being situated on the frontiers of Granada, it
was often taken and retaken. It suffered greatly from military violence
during the French occupation in 1810.

=Lord-Lieutenant.= In Great Britain the lord-lieutenant of a county is a
permanent provincial governor appointed by the sovereign by patent under
the great seal. He is the permanent local representative of the crown,
who, on the occasion of an invasion or rebellion, has power to raise the
militia, form regiments, troops, and companies, and give commissions to
officers. He is also the head of the magistracy, the militia, and the
yeomanry; he nominates officers of militia and volunteers, and is the
chief executive authority.

=Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland.= The viceroy or deputy of the sovereign, to
whom the government of Ireland is committed. The office has existed from
a remote period, the appointment having been made under different
designations. The lord-lieutenant is appointed under the great seal of
the United Kingdom, and bears the sword of state as the symbol of his
viceregal office. He has the control of the police, and may issue orders
to the general commanding the troops for the support of the civil
authority, the protection of the public, the defense of the kingdom, and
the suppression of insurrection. He also has the power to confer
knighthood.

=Loreto=, or =Loretto=. A fortified city of Italy, in the province of
Macerate, situated 14 miles southeast from Ancona. This place was taken
by the French in 1797.

=Lorica.= A cuirass, or coat of mail worn by the Roman soldiers, was
made of various materials. The ordinary kind consisted of a skin, or a
piece of strong linen covered with small plates of iron, which resembled
both in their shape and in their manner of overlapping each other the
scales of a serpent or fish. Sometimes cuirasses or hauberks, composed
entirely of iron rings linked together, were worn by the Roman
_hastati_. A less flexible but more impervious defense was the cuirass
made of hard leather or of metal, and consisting of two parts (the one
covering the breast and abdomen, and the other the back), united by
hinges and leathern thongs.

=Lorraine= (Ger. _Lothringen_). A former extensive province of France,
included in the departments of Vosges, Meurthe, Moselle, and Meuse.
Under the Romans it formed part of the Belgic division of Gaul, and was
afterwards united to the empire of Charlemagne. It subsequently became a
duchy, and passed into possession of the dukes of the house of Austria.
In 1836 it was ceded to Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, and after his
death passed to the crown of France, from which it was wrested by the
Germans at the close of the Franco-German war, May 10, 1871.

=Los Angeles.= A city, the capital of a county of the same name, in
Southern California, about 350 miles southeast of San Francisco. It was
captured from the Mexicans by the combined forces of Gen. Kearney and
Commodore Stockton in 1846.

=Loss.= Killed, wounded, and captured persons, or captured property.

=Losses.= In the British army there is a regular provision made for
indemnification for losses by fire, by shipwreck, in action with the
enemy, by capture at sea, by destruction or capture of a public
store-house, by the destruction of articles or horses, to prevent their
falling into the hands of the enemy, etc. In the United States, it would
seem just that Congress should establish some general rule regulating
such matters. The principle of settling all such claims by special
legislation cannot but bear hardly on a number of individuals, and also
probably in the end imposes greater burdens upon the treasury.

=Loudon.= A parish of Ayrshire, Scotland, 4 miles east from Kilmarnock.
In the neighborhood, at Loudon Hall, Bruce, with his forces, encountered
the troops of the Earl of Pembroke in 1307.

=Loudon-hill.= See DRUMCLOG.

=Louis=, or =Knights of St. Louis=. The name of a military order in
France, instituted by Louis XIV. in 1693. Their collars were of a flame
color, and passed from left to right. The king was always grand master.

=Louisburg.= A famous fortress built by the French soon after the peace
of Utrecht (1713) upon the eastern coast of Cape Breton Island. Since
the existence of so strong a place threatened the colonial and English
fisheries, it was determined in 1745 by the Legislature of Massachusetts
Bay (France and Great Britain being then at war) to strike a blow at the
town. Accordingly, a force of colonists consisting of 3250 Massachusetts
militia, aided by 516 men from Connecticut and 304 from New Hampshire,
set sail in 100 vessels, and landed near the town, April 30, 1745. An
active but irregular siege (though the men were without tents and the
proper means of conducting such operations) was terminated June 17,
1745, by the capitulation of the French under Duchambon. But the peace
of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) gave back all Cape Breton to France. The town
was invested in 1758 by Gen. Amherst with 14,000 British troops, 20 line
ships, 18 frigates and other vessels. After a tremendous bombardment,
which quite destroyed the town, and breached the walls badly, the
garrison and French fleet surrendered July 26, 1758. The English
overthrew the fortifications at an expense of $50,000. The first cost
was one hundred times that sum.

=Louisiana.= One of the Southern or Gulf States of the United States,
lying between Arkansas and Mississippi on the north and east, the Gulf
of Mexico on the south, and Texas on the west. The country was visited
by La Salle, and the mouth of the Mississippi discovered in 1691, and
though Iberville attempted to found a colony in 1699, his efforts were
not successful. The country was transferred to Spain by France in 1762;
restored to France in 1800; and purchased by the United States in 1803.
That part of the Territory now known as the State of that name was
admitted into the Union in 1812, and was within three years afterwards
the scene of the great battle of New Orleans, fought January 8, 1815,
between the British troops under Gen. Pakenham, and the Americans under
Gen. Jackson, in which the former were defeated with great loss. The
State seceded, and was the theatre of many important events during the
civil war (1861-65).

=Loup des Anciens= (_Fr._). Was an iron instrument, made in the shape of
a tenaille, by means of which they grappled the battering-rams, and
broke them in the middle.

=Louviers.= A town of France, in the department of the Eure, situated on
the Eure. It was sacked both by Edward III. and Henry V. of England.

=Lover’s War.= In French history, a name given to a civil war in the
year 1580, during the reign of Henry IV. It was so called because it
arose from the jealousies and rivalries of the leaders, who were invited
to meet at the palace of the queen-mother.

=Loyalist.= A person who adheres to his sovereign, or to the constituted
authority; especially one who maintains his allegiance to his prince or
government, and defends his cause in times of revolt.

=Lozenge.= In heraldry, a charge generally enumerated among the
sub-ordinaries, in the shape of a rhombus placed with the acute angles
at top and bottom. The horizontal diameter must be at least equal to the
sides, otherwise it is not a lozenge, but a _fusil_. The term _lozengy_
is applied to a field divided by diagonal lines crossing one another at
regular intervals, so as to form a diamond pattern, the compartments
being of alternate tinctures.

=Lubeck.= One of the three cities of the German empire, situated on the
river Trave, about 14 miles from the Baltic. Lubeck has existed since
the 11th century, and received important privileges from the German
emperors in the 12th century, which were confirmed by the Danes, into
whose power it fell in 1201. It was declared a free city of the empire
in 1226, and thereafter maintained its independence against the Danes,
and joined the other towns in the great Hanseatic League (which see).
With the decline of the Hanseatic League, it lost its historic
importance, but continued to flourish as an independent city, till it
was taken and plundered by the French, November 6, 1806. In 1810 it was
incorporated with the French empire, and in 1813 the Russians compelled
the French to deliver it to its rightful owners; but the French again
occupied it, until it was liberated by Sweden. In 1871 it was annexed to
the German empire.

=Lubny=, or =Lubnu=. A town of European Russia, government of Poltava,
or Pultowa, on the Sulla. Charles XII. of Sweden besieged this place for
a considerable time, but he did not succeed in taking it.

=Lubricant.= A greasy substance or mixture of substances placed on the
surface or in the cannelures of bullets to lessen friction in the bore.
Bayberry tallow, beeswax, Japan wax, stearine, graphite, soapstone,
etc., are some of the substances used.

=Lucanians.= A warlike people of Southern Italy; defeated Alexander of
Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C.; were subdued by the Romans, 227; revolted
after the battle of Cannæ, 216; were reduced by Scipio, 201; again
revolted, 90; admitted as Roman citizens in 88.

=Luceria= (now _Lucera_). Sometimes called Nuceria, a town in Apulia, on
the borders of Samnium. In the war between Rome and Samnium, it was
taken by the Samnites, 321 B.C., and next by the Romans, 319; but having
revolted to the Samnites in 314, all the inhabitants were massacred by
the Romans, and their place supplied by Roman colonists.

=Lucknow= (Hind. _Laksmanavate_). A city of British India, capital of
Oude, situated on the right bank of the Goomty, 610 miles from Calcutta.
In 1857, during the Indian mutiny, this place was besieged by the
rebels, but was bravely defended by the troops under Sir Henry Lawrence,
and afterwards by Gens. Outram and Havelock. The long-suffering troops
and English residents were finally relieved by Sir Colin Campbell, who
then effected one of the most masterly retreats on record in the annals
of Indian warfare. The British regained possession of it in 1858.

=Lucon.= A town of France, in the department of Vendée, situated on the
edge of a marshy plain. The Republicans sustained a defeat under the
walls of Lucon in 1703, and the insurgent Vendeans besieged the place
some months afterwards, but without success.

=Ludlow.= A municipal and Parliamentary borough of England, in the
county of Salop, at the confluence of the Corve and Teme. The castle,
now a magnificent ruin, was at one time one of the most important
strongholds against the Welsh.

=Lugo.= A town of Italy, in the province of Ravenna. It was sacked and
nearly destroyed by the French in 1796.

=Lugs.= The ears of a bombshell, to which the hooks are applied in
lifting it.

=Luncarty.= A village of Scotland, 4 miles north from Perth, where the
Danes were defeated in 990 by Kenneth III.

=Lundy’s Lane, Battle of.= Called also the battle of Niagara, and of
Bridgewater, was fought on the Canadian frontier within sight and
hearing of the Falls, July 25, 1814. In this contest the American
troops, numbering about 4500, commanded by Gen. Brown, succeeded, after
a display of desperate valor and perseverance, in repulsing about
midnight a body of 7000 British, and capturing one of their generals,
Riall, and 7 pieces of cannon. The losses on both sides were nearly
equal (about 850 killed, wounded, and missing). During the night the
Americans fell back to Chippewa, being unable to convey their trophies
with them for want of means of transportation, and in the morning when
they advanced to Bridgewater Mills they found the enemy again occupying
the battle-ground, in possession of their captured cannon, and having
been reinforced too strong to be again dislodged. The Americans thus
lost all the substantial fruits of the victory.

=Lunge= (a corruption of _allonge_). A pass or thrust with a sword; a
shove with a boarding-pike.

=Lunette.= A field-work consisting of two faces forming a salient angle,
or one projecting towards the enemy, and two flanks parallel, or nearly
so, to the capital or imaginary line bisecting the salient angle. In
shape it is like the gable end of a house. It is intended for the
defense of avenues, farm-houses, bridges, and the curtains of
field-works.

=Lunette.= An iron ring at the end of the trail of a field-piece, which
is placed over the pintle-hook of the limber in limbering up the gun.
The term is also applied to the hole through an iron plate on the under
side of the stock of a siege-piece, into which the pintle of the limber
passes when the piece is limbered.

=Lunettons.= A smaller sort of lunettes.

=Lunéville.= A well-built town of France, in the department of the
Meurthe. The palace was for many years the residence of Stanislas, king
of Poland. The first treaty of Austria and the French republic was
signed in this town in 1801.

=Lunge.= In fencing and bayonet exercise, an extended thrust.

=Lunt.= The match-cord used for firing cannon.

=Lusitania.= A district of ancient Hispania, considered in its original
meaning as the country of the Lusitani. It now comprises Portugal south
of the river Douro, and a large number of provinces in Spain. The
Lusitanians, especially those that inhabited the mountains, were much
addicted to plunder, were the bravest of all the Iberians, and offered
most resistance to the Romans.

=Lustration= (Lat. _lustratio_). Sacrifices or ceremonies by which the
ancients purified their cities, fields, armies, or people, defiled by
any crime or impurity. There were several ways of performing lustration,
viz., by fire, by sulphur, by water, and by air. The Roman people
underwent a lustration in the Campus Martius, after the census, which
was taken every five years (_lustrum_), had been completed. In the
armies, some chosen soldiers, crowned with laurel, led the victims--a
cow, a sheep, and a bull--thrice round the army ranged in battle-array
in the field of Mars, to which deity the victims were subsequently
sacrificed, after many imprecations had been invoked upon the enemies of
the Romans. The Gothic kings abolished these ceremonies when they became
masters of Rome.

=Lutter.= A town of Germany, 23 miles southwest from Brunswick, in the
Hartz district. Christian IV., king of Denmark, was defeated near this
town by Tilly in 1626.

=Lutzen.= A small town of Prussia, province of Saxony, famous for two
great battles fought in its vicinity. The first took place on November
16, 1632, between the Swedish army under Gustavus Adolphus and the
Imperialists under Wallenstein; Gustavus Adolphus was killed, but the
victory was gained by the Swedes. The second great battle was fought on
May 2, 1813, somewhat farther to the south, at the village of
Groszgörschen. It was the first great conflict of the united Russian and
Prussian armies with the army of Napoleon in that decisive campaign. The
allies gained at first great successes; but the French were left in
possession of the field at the close of the day.

=Luxemburg.= The capital of the grand duchy of Luxemburg, situated on
the Else, or Alzette. The Spaniards, Austrians, French, and Dutch, who
successively held possession of the town, so increased and strengthened
its fortifications that in the beginning of the 19th century it was
considered to be, with the exception of Gibraltar, the strongest
fortress in Europe. In 1867 it was declared neutral ground.

=Lycaniens= (_Fr._). Hungarian light infantry are so called.

=Lydda.= An ancient town of Palestine, which stood in the fertile plain
of Sharon, about 9 miles from Joppa. It was rebuilt by Hadrian, and its
name changed to _Diosopolis_, “the city of Zeus.” It was destroyed by a
Mongol tribe in 1271. The modern village of Ludd occupies its site.

=Lyers, Out-=. See OUT-LYERS.

=Lying.= To be actually stationed or quartered in a given place.
_In-lying_ and _out-lying pickets_. See PICKET.

=Lying Out of Quarters.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 31.

=Lyman Gun.= See MULTI-CHARGE GUNS.

=Lyon=, or =Lord Lyon King-at-Arms=. The chief heraldic officer for
Scotland, whose title is derived from the lion rampant in the royal
escutcheon. The Scottish king-at-arms has, unlike his brother-kings of
England, from an early period exercised jurisdiction independently of
the constable and marshal, holding office directly from the sovereign by
commission under the Great Seal. In early times he was occasionally
designated the _Lord_ Lyon; but the now prevalent custom of so calling
him seems to have arisen from the circumstance that, since 1796, the
office has been held by a peer. According to Nesbet, the Lyon has
precedence of all knights and gentlemen not being officers of state, or
senators of the College of Justice. Since the Union, he has ranked next
to Garter; Clarencieux and Norroy follow; then Ulster; but it has
sometimes been maintained that within Ireland, Ulster has place next
after Lyon. The Lyon is king-at-arms to the order of the Thistle.

=Lyons=, or =Lyon= (anc. _Lugdunum_). A city of France, capital of the
department of the Rhône, situated at the confluence of the Rhône and
Saône. A Roman colony is said to have been established here in 43 B.C.
The city was destroyed by fire in the time of Seneca, but was shortly
after restored by Nero to its former splendor. It was plundered and
again burnt by the soldiers of Septimius Severus, after the defeat of
Albinus near it in 197 A.D. In 1793, the city having refused to submit
to the Convention, sustained a memorable siege from August 8 to October
9, on which date it was taken, and suffered severely at the hands of the
republicans.



M.


=McAllister, Fort.= A formidable casemated earthwork, with bombproofs,
mounting 9 guns, on Genesis Point, about 6 miles above the mouth of
Great Ogeechee River, Georgia, which was erected by the Confederates
during the civil war. On January 27, 1863, it was attacked by the
ironclad “Montauk,” under the command of Capt. John L. Worden, three
gunboats, and a mortar-schooner; but after a bombardment of many hours’
duration, they failed to reduce it. Another attack was made with like
results on February 1, the “Montauk” again participating in it. A third
attack was made on March 3, and after a bombardment of eight hours by a
fleet of ironclad monitors and mortar-schooners, under the command of
Capt. Drayton, they again failed to reduce it. After the naval attacks
the fort received additions in armament and garrison, and in 1864
comprised three half-bastions and two curtains, mounted 21 guns, several
of which were 8-inch and 10-inch pieces, and was garrisoned by 250 men.
On December 13, 1864, it was taken by assault by a division of Gen.
Sherman’s army under Gen. Hazen, and its entire garrison and stores
captured. Communication by water being thus opened, the capture of
Savannah followed on December 21.

=Macadamized.= A term applied to roads covered with broken stone,--from
McAdam, a Scotch engineer, who first introduced this method of
road-making.

=Macana.= The war-club of the South American Indians.

=Macassar=, or =Mankasser=. The chief settlement of the Dutch in the
island of Celebes, and is defended by Fort Rotterdam. In 1810 it
surrendered to the British, but was restored to the Dutch in 1814.

=Maccabees.= A family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career
during the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 B.C., when
Mattathias, a priest, resisted the tyranny of the governor. His son,
Judas Maccabæus, defeated the Syrians in three battles, 166 and 165
B.C., but fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jonathan made a league
with the Romans and Lacedæmonians, and after an able administration was
treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 143 B.C. His brother and
successor, Simon, was also murdered. The history of the Maccabees is
contained in five books bearing that name.

=Mace.= A strong, short, wooden staff, with a spiked metal ball for a
head. It was a favorite weapon with knights, with the cavalry
immediately succeeding them, and at all times with fighting priests,
whom a canon of the church forbade to wield the sword. No armor could
resist the force of a well-delivered blow from the mace. The mace is now
borne before magistrates as an ensign of authority.

=Macedonia.= Anciently the name of a country lying north of Thessaly,
which was originally of small extent. The history of Macedonia is
involved in much obscurity till about 490 B.C., when the Persians
subdued it, so that the Macedonian king, Alexander I., was compelled to
take part with Xerxes in his invasion of Greece. It again regained its
independence upon the retreat of the Persians after the battle of Platæa
in 479 B.C. After a period of civil wars Philip II. ascended the throne
in 359 B.C., and his son Alexander III., surnamed Alexander the Great,
brought half the then known world under his empire; but after his death
the Macedonian empire was broken up, and, at the end of a period of
twenty-two years of incessant wars, formed into four principal kingdoms
under his greatest generals. Macedonia itself fell to the lot of
Antipater, after whose death ensued another period of civil wars and
contests for the throne. The Macedonians were defeated by the Romans in
the great battle of Cynocephalæ, 197 B.C., and their country became
subject to the Roman power. After the time of Constantine the country
was ravaged by Slavic tribes, and by the 7th century the old semi-Greek
Macedonians were extinct, and in the latter ages of the Byzantine empire
their place was supplied by colonies from Asia, many of them of Turkish
descent.

=Macedonian Pike=, or =Sarissa=. A spear or lance of great length used
in warfare by the Greeks.

=Macerata.= A town of Central Italy, in a province (formerly a
delegation) of the same name, situated on an eminence between the rivers
Potenza and Chienti, 21 miles southwest of Ancona. The place was taken
by assault and sacked by the French, in 1799.

=Machete= (_Sp._). A large, heavy knife resembling a broadsword, often 2
or 3 feet in length, used by the inhabitants of Spanish America as a
hatchet, to cut their way through thickets, and for various other
purposes.

=Machicolation.= The act of hurling missiles or pouring various burning
or melted substances upon assailants through machicolations.

=Machicolations.= The apertures between the corbels or brackets
supporting a projecting parapet; the term is applied also to the
parapets. The apertures are for the purpose of allowing projectiles to
be hurled at an enemy when he approaches near the wall, as in scaling,
undermining, etc. Such defenses are very common in castellated
architecture, especially over gateways, towers, etc.

=Machicoulis.= The same as machicolation.

=Machine Guns.= See BATTERY GUNS.

=Machine, Infernal.= This term has been applied to various deadly
contrivances, for instance, to the battery gun with which the attempt to
assassinate Louis Philippe was made, as well as to the devices used on
similar historical occasions; also to the fire-ship used by the English
at St. Malo. This was a three-decker charged with powder on the first
deck; shells, carcasses, etc., on the second; and with barrels filled
with combustibles on the third; the gun-deck was covered with old guns
overloaded. It was intended to destroy ships, bridges, etc.

=Machines, Artillery.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Machines of War, Ancient.= Under this head is comprehended every kind
of machine or engine made use of before the invention of gunpowder, for
overthrowing, destroying, and burning the defenses of an enemy. They
were of three kinds,--the first for projecting arrows, darts, stones,
javelins, and fire-arrows; the second for battering and breaching walls,
etc.; and the third for covering the troops thus engaged. They are as
follows:

_Muscule_, _arbalest_, _ballista_, _belfry_, _belier_. (See appropriate
headings.)

_Bricole_, machine for projecting quarrels or darts.

_Carreau_, _catapulta_ (which see).

_Chat_, or cat, a covered shed, occasionally fixed on wheels, for
protecting soldiers employed in filling up the ditch, preparing the way
for the helepole, or wooden tower, or for mining the wall.

_Chat echine_, prickly cat, beam bristling with oaken teeth, for the
defense of a town, by being let down on the besiegers.

_Corbeau_, long pole armed with a strong iron harpoon or scythe at one
end, suspended in a frame placed on a cart; by manœuvring the other end
they tore away the machines with which the besieged endeavored to seize
the head of the battering-ram.

_Corbeau à griffe_, pole with strong nippers or pincers, with which any
object was seized and lifted up, and afterwards broken, if possible.

_Couillard_, _clide_, _jauclide_, machine for throwing stones.

_Cranequin_, large stirruped cross-bow or latch. (See ARBALEST.)

_Espringal_, _falarique_, _harpe_ (which see).

_Frondibale_, long beam moving in a vertical plane between two uprights
on an axle (not in the middle); the longer arm was provided with a bag
or case containing stones, and sometimes a sling; the other was heavily
loaded, the beam being placed horizontally, and suddenly disengaged; the
weight on the shorter limb forced up the other, and projected the stones
forward.

_Helepole._ (See HELEPOLIS.)

_Herse._ (See HERSE.)

_Hourdeis_, hurdles employed by the besieged to protect their walls from
the machines of the enemy.

_Lyonnois_, machine for defending a breach, with a head like a treble
_fleur-de-lis_ on wheels.

_Mangona_, machine similar to the ballista, generic term signifying all
kinds of machines.

_Mangonel_, diminutive of the above, applied to small machines.

For the following machines of war, see appropriate headings: MANTELET,
MANUBALLISTE, MATAFUNDA, MATE-GRIFFON, MUCHETTÆ, ONAGRE, PLUTEUS,
POLIBOLE, RIBAUDEQUIN, SAMBUQUE, SCORPION, TARIÈRE, TESTUDE, TOLENON,
TREBUCHET, TREPIED, VIGNE, VIRETON.

=Maciejovice.= Near Warsaw, Poland. Here the Poles were totally
defeated, and their general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, October 10,
1794, after a murderous action. Kosciusko strenuously endeavored to
prevent the junction of the Russian and the Austrian armies.

=Mackay Gun.= This gun is made of wrought iron, and distinguished from
the Whitworth and Lancaster guns by the following characteristics: The
Whitworth has a hexagonal bore in a tube of homogeneous iron,
strengthened with hoops forced on by hydraulic pressure; the Lancaster
is without grooves, but the bore is oval; the Mackay has numerous
grooves, but the projectile does not, as in other guns, fit into them,
its rotation being imparted by the rush of gases through the spiral
grooves around it. In every case the groove or oval takes one turn, or
portion of a turn, within the gun.

=Mackinaw=, or =Mackinac=. Formerly called Michilimackinac, “the great
turtle.” A town and fort on an island of the same name in Lake Huron,
about 320 miles by water north-northwest of Detroit, Mich. It fell into
the hands of the English on the conquest of Canada from the French; but
the Indians in its neighborhood remained hostile to their new masters.
The fort was captured by a ruse, and the inhabitants massacred by the
Chippewas under Pontiac, June 4, 1763. It was again garrisoned by the
British in the following year. The island came into possession of the
United States in 1796, and was captured by the British and Indians July
17, 1812. The Americans attempted its recapture, August 14, 1814, but
without success.

=Macrones=. A powerful and warlike Caucasian people on the northeastern
shore of the Pontus Euxinus.

=Madagascar.= An island of the Indian Ocean, situated at some distance
from the east coast of Africa, being separated from that continent by
the channel of Mozambique. The French formed several settlements in
different parts of the island in 1665, but they were repeatedly driven
out by the natives. The English were also driven out of the island in
1836, and the old system of Fetichism was restored. Madagascar is at
present governed by Ranavalona, a Christian.

=Made.= A professional term for having obtained a commission, or being
promoted.

=Madras.= Called by the natives Chennapatam, a maritime city and
fortress of British India, and capital of the presidency of the same
name. It was taken by the French in 1744; restored to the English at the
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1749, and was vainly besieged by the French
under Lally, December, 1758-59. It is now considered one of the
strongest fortresses in India.

=Madrid.= The capital of Spain, in New Castile, on the left bank of the
river Manzanares. It is mentioned in history as _Majerit_, a Moorish
castle. Madrid was sacked by the Moors in 1109; retaken and fortified by
Henry III. about 1400; taken by Lord Galway in 1706; and by the French
in March, 1808. The citizens of Madrid attempted to expel the French,
and were defeated with much slaughter, May 2, 1808; the French were
compelled to retire, but the place was retaken by them December 2, 1808,
and retained until Wellington and his army entered it, August 12, 1812.

=Madriers.= Are long planks of broad wood, used for supporting the earth
in mining, carrying on a sap, making coffers, caponiers, galleries, and
for various other purposes at a siege; also to cover the mouth of
petards after they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the
gates or other places designed to be forced open. When the planks are
not strong enough they are doubled with plates of iron.

=Madura.= An island of the Malay Archipelago, situated off the northeast
coast of the island of Java, from which it is separated by a narrow
channel. The Dutch invaded this island about the year 1747, and made
slaves of a great number of the inhabitants.

=Maestricht.= A town of Holland, and capital of the province of Limburg,
on the Maas, 110 miles southeast from Amsterdam. This town was taken by
the French in 1794; and from 1795 till 1814 it was the capital of the
French department of the Lower Meuse.

=Magazine.= A word derived from the Arabic, _makhzan_, “store-house,”
means any place where stores are kept; but as a military expression, it
always means a store-house for powder, although arms may at times be
kept in it. In military structures the magazines must be bomb-proof, and
therefore necessitate very thick walls; they must be quite free from
damp, and should admit sufficient daylight to render the use of lanterns
within generally unnecessary. The entrance is protected by shot-proof
traverses, lest an opening should be forced by ricochet shots.

=Magazine Guns.= Are breech-loading small-arms having a magazine
capable of holding several cartridges which may be fired in quick
succession,--the empty shell being ejected and another cartridge
conveyed into the breech from the magazine by working the mechanism of
the piece. Among American magazine guns, the _Spencer_ was one of the
first that proved successful, and was extensively used during the war of
the Rebellion, 1861-65. The magazine was a tube in the stock. The
_Spencer_ is no longer made. The _Henry_ was a contemporary, and used a
tube under the barrel,--this gun as now improved is known as the
_Winchester_, and is sold in every part of the globe. The _Ward-Burton_
and _Hotchkiss_ have tubes, the first under the barrel, the second in
the stock like the _Spencer_; they are both _bolt_ guns _as to_ breech
mechanism. The _Lee_ uses as a magazine a kind of pocket between the
stock and barrel. This is readily detached. A gun carrying a
great number of cartridges is the _Evans_, which has a spiral
cartridge-carrier in the stock. Other guns, the _Meigs_ and _Cullen_,
have been made carrying a still greater number, as many as forty or
fifty, but these systems have not met with any considerable success. See
SMALL-ARMS.

=Magdala.= A strong mountain fortress in Abyssinia, which King Theodore
held against the expedition sent out in 1867 by the British government
for the rescue of their subjects. In April, 1867, this stronghold was
taken by Gen. Napier, for which he was created Baron of Magdala. See
ABYSSINIA.

=Magdeburg.= A fortified city of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, on
the Elbe. It was founded by Otto the Great in the 10th century, and is
considered one of the strongest fortresses in Germany. It suffered
greatly during the Thirty Years’ War, when it was sacked, and its
inhabitants massacred, under the direction of Tilly. In 1806 it was
taken by the French, and annexed by them to the kingdom of Westphalia;
but finally restored to Prussia in consequence of the downfall of
Napoleon in 1814.

=Magdolum= (in the Old Testament _Migdol_). A city of Lower Egypt, near
the northeastern frontier, about 12 miles southwest of Pelusium, where
Pharaoh Necho defeated the Syrians, according to Herodotus.

=Magenta.= A town of Italy, in Lombardy, 15 miles west from Milan. A
great battle was fought here in June, 1859, between the French and
Austrians, in which the latter were defeated. The French were commanded
by Gen. MacMahon, who received the title of Duke of Magenta.

=Magetobria= (now _Moigte de Broie_, on the Saône). A town on the
western frontiers of the Sequani, near which the Gauls were defeated by
the Germans shortly before Cæsar’s arrival in Gaul.

=Magistral Line.= The tracing or guiding line in fortification,--the
first laid down on the work or on paper,--and from which the position of
all the other works is determined. In field fortification the crest
line of the parapet is the _magistral_; in permanent fortification the
_cordon_ or coping of the escarp wall is the guide.

=Magna Charta.= The great charter, so called, obtained by the English
barons from King John in 1215, at Runny Meade. This name is also given
to the charter which was granted to the people of England in the ninth
year of Henry III., and confirmed by Edward I.

=Magnate.= A person of rank or dignity; a grandee or nobleman; one of
influence or distinction in any sphere.

=Magnesia= (now _Manissa_). A town of Lydia, usually mentioned with the
addition of _ad Sypilum_ (“at or near Sypilus”) to distinguish it from
Magnesia on the Mæander, in Ionia, situated on the northwestern slope of
Mount Sypilus. It is chiefly celebrated in history for the victory
gained under its walls in 190 B.C. by the two Scipios over Antiochus the
Great, whereby that monarch was forever driven from Western Asia. The
town after the victory of the Scipios surrendered to the Romans.

=Magnetic.= Pertaining to the magnet; possessing the properties of the
magnet, or corresponding properties; as, a magnetic needle. _Magnetic
needle_, a slender bar of steel magnetized and suspended at its centre
on a sharp-pointed pivot, so that it may take freely the direction of
the magnetic meridian. It constitutes the essential part of a mariner’s
compass.

=Maharajpoor.= A small town in Hindostan, India. This place was the key
of the position of the Mahratta army on December 29, 1843, when the
battle took place between them and the British army under Sir Hugh
Gough. The Mahrattas were totally defeated.

=Mahe.= A seaport in Hindostan, India; is a French settlement on the
coast of Malabar, and was taken possession of by them in 1722; retaken
by the British in 1761; restored at the peace of Paris in 1763, but was
again taken in 1793. It was restored to the French in 1815.

=Mahrattas.= A people of Hindoo (Hindu) race, inhabiting Central India,
south of the Ganges, from Gwalior to Goa, and supposed by many to be the
descendants of a Persian or North Indian people. They are first
mentioned in history about the middle of the 17th century. Under the
leadership of Sevaji, a freebooter or adventurer, they overran and
subdued a large portion of the emperor of Delhi’s territory. They
subsequently were divided into tribes under powerful leaders, and
endeavored to overcome the Mogul; but they sustained a frightful defeat
in January, 1761, at the hands of Ahmed Shah Abdalli, the ruler of
Afghanistan, on the field of Paniput, where they lost 50,000 men, and
all their chiefs except Holkar. They still, however, continued to be the
hired mercenaries of the Delhi emperor, till the growing influence of
the British compelled them to look to their own safety. After many long
and bloody contests with the British and their allies, in which
sometimes the whole, but more frequently a portion of the Mahrattas
joined, they were one by one, with the exception of Scindiah, reduced to
a state of dependence. This last-mentioned chief having raised a
powerful army, officered by Frenchmen and disciplined after the European
method, continued the contest for a number of years, till his power was
finally broken in 1843. The Mahratta chiefs still possess extensive
dominions under British protection.

=Maida.= A town of Naples, in Calabria Ulta, 9 miles south from
Nicastra. It is noted for the defeat of the French under Regnier by the
British under Sir John Stuart, in an action that took place in the
plains near the town in 1806.

=Maiden.= An instrument resembling the guillotine, formerly used in
Scotland for beheading criminals. Also, a fortress which has never been
taken.

=Maidstone.= A town of England, in Kent, 29 miles southeast from London,
on the Medway. In 1648 this town was stormed by the Parliamentary
troops.

=Mail= (Fr. _maille_, It. _maglia_; from the Lat. _macula_, a “spot,
hole, or mesh of a net”). Signifies a metal net-work, and is ordinarily
applied to such net-work when used as body defensive armor. Well-made
mail formed an admirable defense against all weapons except fire-arms,
and its pliability and comparative lightness gave it favor over the more
cumbrous plate-armor.

=Mail.= To put a coat of mail or armor upon; to arm defensively.

=Maillet= (_Fr._). A mallet. The French formerly made use of this
instrument as an offensive weapon in their engagements. In 1351 the
mallet was used at the famous battle “des Trente” (of thirty), which
derived its name from the number of combatants that fought on each side.
This extraordinary combat holds a distinguished place in the history of
Brittany, and was entered into by the partisans of Charles of Blois and
the king of France on one side, and by the Count Montfort and the king
of England on the other. Under the reign of Charles VI. a Parisian mob
forced the arsenal, and took out a large quantity of mallets, with which
they armed themselves for the purpose of murdering the custom-house
officers. The persons who assembled on this occasion were afterwards
called _Maillotins_. In the days of Louis XII. the English archers
carried mallets as offensive weapons.

=Maillotin= (_Fr._). An old French term which signified an ancient
weapon that was used to attack men who wore helmets and cuirasses. A
faction in France was also distinguished by this appellation. See
MAILLET.

=Mainade= (_Fr._). A body of marauders commanded by a chief.

=Main Body.= The line or corps of an army which marches between the
advance- and rear-guard; in camp, the body which lies between the two
wings.

=Main Guard.= See GUARD, MAIN.

=Main Work.= In fortification, is the principal work as distinguished
from the outworks.

=Maine.= The largest of the New England States, and the most easterly of
the United States. The first settlement was made in it at Phippsburg, in
1607, but was subsequently abandoned. Settlements from New Hampshire
gradually extended themselves into it, and it was afterwards annexed to
Massachusetts, as far as the Kennebec River. In the latter part of the
17th century it suffered much from the incursions of the savages and the
French, many of the towns being laid waste and the inhabitants
slaughtered. This state of affairs was terminated by the treaty of
Utrecht in 1712. During the Revolutionary war Portland was bombarded by
the British in 1775, and much property destroyed. Maine was admitted
into the Union as a State in 1820. Its northern boundary formed a
subject of controversy with Great Britain, which threatened a war, but
was settled by compromise in 1842. During the civil war, Maine was one
of the most active of the Northern States in the cause of the Union.

=Mainotes.= The inhabitants of the mountainous district of Maina, a
peninsula between the bays of the Kolokythia and Koron, forming part of
the province of Laconia, in Greece. They number about 60,000, and are a
wild and brave race, but addicted to robbery. While the Turks held
possession of Greece, the Mainotes were almost completely independent,
and when not engaged in a common struggle against the Turks their chiefs
were at war with each other. The Mainotes, under their principal chief
or bey, took a prominent part in the war for the liberation of Greece;
but subsequently their independence was destroyed.

=Maintain.= When any body of men defend a place or post against the
attacks of an adverse party, they are said to maintain it.

=Maintenance, Cap of.= Sometimes called Cap of Dignity, a cap of crimson
velvet lined with ermine, with two points turned to the back, originally
only worn by dukes, but afterwards assigned to various families of
distinction. According to Sir John Fearne, “the wearing of the cap had a
beginning from the duke or general of an army, who, having gotten
victory, caused the chiefest of the subdued enemies whom he led to
follow him in his triumph, bearing his hat or cap after him, in token of
subjection and captivity.” Most of the reigning dukes of Germany, and
various families belonging to the peerage both of England and Scotland,
bear their crests on a cap of maintenance.

=Maison-du-Roi= (_Fr._). The king’s household. Certain select bodies of
troops were so called during the monarchy of France, and consisted of
the _gardes-du-corps_, or body-guards, the _gendarmes_,
_chevaux-legèrs_, or light-horse, _mousquetaires_, or musketeers, _la
gendarmerie_, _grenadiers à cheval_, or horse-grenadiers, the regiments
belonging to the French and Swiss guards, and the _cent Suisses_, or
hundred Swiss guards. The _maison-du-roi_, or king’s household, was not
considered a separate establishment from the rest of the army until the
reign of Louis IV. This establishment was successively formed by
different kings out of militia companies, which they took into their
body-guard.

=Maitre d’Armes= (_Fr._). A term in general use among the French,
signifying a fencing-master. Every regiment has a _maitre d’armes_
attached to it.

=Majesty.= A title applied to sovereigns; as, Her Britannic Majesty.

=Major.= An officer next in rank above a captain and below a
lieutenant-colonel; the lowest field-officer.

=Major, Aid-= (_Fr._). See AID-MAJOR.

=Major, Brigade-.= See BRIGADE-MAJOR.

=Major, Drum-.= See DRUM-MAJOR.

=Major, Etat-= (_Fr._). See ÉTAT-MAJOR.

=Major, Farrier-.= See FARRIER-MAJOR.

=Major, Fife-.= See FIFE-MAJOR.

=Major, Sergeant-.= See SERGEANT-MAJOR.

=Major, Town-.= See TOWN-MAJOR.

=Major, Trumpet-.= See TRUMPET-MAJOR.

=Majorate.= The office or rank of major.

=Majorca.= The principal of the Balearic Isles, in the Mediterranean,
lying about 120 miles to the east of Spain. Majorca rebelled against
Philip V. of Spain in 1714; but submitted July 14, 1715.

=Major-General.= See GENERAL, MAJOR-, and GENERAL OFFICER.

=Majority.= High rank; specifically, the military rank of a major.

=Make Good.= A phrase used sometimes in the wording of sentences in
proceedings of courts-martial in the case of deserters; as, he will make
good the time lost by desertion.

=Make Ready.= See READY.

=Malabar.= An extensive province of Hindostan, in the presidency of
Madras. It is supposed that Malabar was, at a very early period,
conquered by a king from above the Ghauts. It was invaded by Hyder Ali
in 1760, and subdued by him in 1761. On the downfall of Tippoo Sahib,
this country was annexed to the British dominions.

=Malabar Guns.= Heavy pieces of ordnance, which were made in the Malabar
country, and were formed by means of iron bars joined together with
hoops. They were very long, and extremely unwieldy.

=Malacca.= A British settlement situated on the west coast of the Malay
Peninsula, about 100 miles northwest from the settlement of Singapore.
This district was annexed to the Portuguese dominions about 1511, taken
by the Dutch in 1640, and given by the Dutch to the English in 1825.

=Malacca.= The capital of the above country, is situated on the coast,
upon the strait which bears its name. In 1507 this town was visited by
the Portuguese, and afterwards stormed by them. It was subsequently
taken by the Dutch, who retained possession of it till 1795, when it was
occupied by a British force.

=Malaga.= A city of Spain, in Granada, on the coast of the
Mediterranean, 66 miles northeast from Gibraltar. It fell into the hands
of the Moors in 714, and was not wrested from them until 1487, when it
was taken by Ferdinand the Catholic. In 1810 it was occupied by the
French, and remained in their possession till 1812.

=Malakoff.= A hill near Sebastopol, on which was situated an old tower
strongly fortified by the Russians during the siege of 1854-55. The
allied French and English attacked it on June 17-18, 1855, and after a
conflict of forty-eight hours were repulsed with severe loss. On
September 8, the French again attacked the Malakoff; at 8 o’clock the
first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the
conquered redoubt. In the Malakoff and Redan were found 3000 pieces of
cannon of every caliber, and 120,000 pounds of gunpowder.

=Malandrins=, or =Tard-venus= (_Fr._). Companies of banditti, who chose
their own chief, and overran France and Italy in the 14th century.

=Malatesta.= A noble Italian family, which acquired the lordship of
Rimini in the 13th century, and furnished several leaders of the Guelph
party. Malatesta II. and Galeotto Malatesta, sons of Pandolfo I., began
to reign over Rimini in 1355. They had a great military reputation, and
next to the Visconti were perhaps the most powerful princes of Italy.
The former died in 1364, and Galeotto in 1385, leaving two sons, Carlo
and Pandolfo III. These two became able generals, and commanded the army
of Visconti, duke of Milan, from 1393 to 1408. Carlo, who was lord of
Rimini, died without issue in 1429. The descendants of Pandolfo III.
possessed Rimini until 1528, when it was added to the papal dominions.

=Malavilly.= A town of Hindostan, in the province of Mysore, where the
English troops under Gen. Harris defeated Tippoo Sahib’s army in 1799.

=Maldon.= A town of England, in the county of Essex, which was built in
28 B.C. It is supposed to have been the first Roman colony in Britain;
was burnt by Queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the Romans. It was burnt by
the Danes in 991, and rebuilt by the Saxons.

=Malignant.= In English history, one of the adherents of the house of
Stuart; a cavalier; so called by the opposite party.

=Malinger.= To feign illness, or to protract disease in order to avoid
duty.

=Malingerer.= A soldier who feigns himself sick. Any soldier convicted
of malingering, feigning or producing disease, or of intentionally
protracting his cure or aggravating his disease, is liable to be tried
by a court-martial for “conduct prejudicial to good order and military
discipline,” and to suffer the punishment attached to that offense.

=Malingery.= A feigning of illness, or protracting of disease in order
to escape duty.

=Malkin.= A sponge with a jointed staff for cannon.

=Malleable Iron.= Iron which can be worked under the hammer. The term is
specifically applied to cast iron which has had a part of its carbon
extracted by cementation with an oxide.

=Mallet.= A wooden hammer, to drive into the ground the pegs by which a
tent is fastened; it is likewise used on various other occasions,
especially in fortification and artillery.

=Malmesbury.= A town of England, in Wiltshire. This town was taken from
the royalists by Sir William Walter in 1643, but it was soon recovered,
and again taken a short time after.

=Malo, St.= A seaport of France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine,
on the small island of Aron. This port sustained a tremendous
bombardment by the English under Admiral Benbow in 1693, and under Lord
Berkely in July, 1695. In 1758 the British landed in considerable force
in Cancalle Bay, and went up to the harbor, where they burnt upwards of
a hundred ships, and did great damage to the town, making a number of
prisoners.

=Maloi-Jaroslavitz.= A town of Russia, in the government of Kaluga. It
is noted for being the scene of a most sanguinary action between the
French and Russians, in October, 1812, in which the former were
defeated.

=Malplaquet.= A village of France, in the department of the North. It
was the scene of a sanguinary battle in 1709, between the French under
Marshal Villars, and the allies commanded by the Duke of Marlborough and
the Prince Eugène, in which the latter were victorious.

=Malta.= An island belonging to Great Britain, situated in the
Mediterranean, 54 miles from the Sicilian coast, and about 200 from Cape
Bon, on the African coast. It is strongly fortified around the capital,
Valetta, which was built by the Knights of St. John. Malta was colonized
by the Carthaginians about 500 B.C., and as early as the first Punic war
it was plundered by the Romans, but did not come finally into their
possession until 242 B.C. During the 5th century it fell successively
under the sway of the Vandals and Goths. The Romans, however, regained
it under Belisarius in 533 A.D., and kept possession of it till it was
conquered by the Arabs in 870. In 1090, Count Roger of Sicily drove out
the Arabs, and established a popular council for the government of the
island. Charles of Anjou, after overrunning Sicily, made himself master
of it; but after a time, the houses of Aragon and Castile successively
held the island. Subsequently, the emperor Charles V. took possession of
Malta, and in 1530 granted it to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem,
from whom the Turks had recently captured their great stronghold at
Rhodes. The knights raised by degrees the stupendous fortifications,
and, moreover, spent their large income in beautifying the island in
every way. Meanwhile they rendered incessant services to Christendom in
the chastisement of the ferocious Barbary pirates. To revenge these
acts, the Turks brought immense forces against Malta in 1557, and again
in 1565. The siege in the latter year was carried on by the sultan
Solyman himself, with the flower of the Ottoman army; but the grand
master, La Valette, opposed a heroic resistance, and he was forced to
re-embark, with the loss of more than 25,000 of his best troops. The
defenders lost 260 knights and 7000 Maltese soldiers; and their
gallantry was the theme of admiration throughout the world. After this
siege the knights built Valetta. In 1571, they, with the Maltese,
behaved most courageously at the battle of Lepanto, where the Turks lost
30,000 men. Though waging perpetual war with the Turks, the knights
continued in possession of Malta until 1798, when it surrendered to
Napoleon, and received a French garrison. In 1800 it was blockaded by a
British squadron, and was forced to surrender to the English, in whose
possession it has remained as a dependency.

=Malta, Knights of.= See ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF.

=Maltese Cross.= A cross of eight points, of the form worn as a
decoration by the Hospitallers and other orders of knighthood.

=Malvern Hill.= Near the James River, in Virginia. Here, on the night of
June 30, 1862, all the divisions of the Army of the Potomac, under Gen.
McClellan, were united in a strong position, after five days of
incessant marching and fighting. About 4 A.M. on July 1 the Confederate
forces advanced to storm this position, but were mowed down by a
destructive fire of grape from the land batteries, and were obliged to
seek shelter in the woods. The gunboats, also, which were within range,
opened a destructive fire of shells on the enemy. The attack was a
complete failure, the loss of the Confederates being considerable, while
that of the Federals was insignificant. After this repulse, the
Confederates retired to Richmond, and McClellan pursued his way to the
James, arriving at Harrison’s Landing on July 3.

=Mameliere= (_Fr._). Armor for the breast, from which depended two
chains, one attached to the pommel, and the other to the scabbard of the
sword.

=Mamelukes= (Arabic, _mamluk_, a “slave”). The name given to the slaves
of the beys, brought from the Caucasus, and who formed their armed
forces. When Genghis Khan desolated a great part of Asia in the 13th
century, and carried away a multitude of the inhabitants for slaves, the
sultan of Egypt bought 12,000 of them, partly Mingrelians and Tartars,
but mostly Turks, and formed them into a body of troops. But they soon
found their own power so great that, in 1254, they made one of their own
number sultan of Egypt, founding the dynasty of the Baharites, which
gave place to another Mameluke dynasty in 1382. The Caucasian element
predominated in the first dynasty, the Tartar element in the second.
Selim I., who overthrew the Mameluke kingdom in 1517, was compelled to
permit the continuance of the 24 Mameluke beys as governors of the
provinces; but in the middle of the 18th century they regained such a
preponderance of power in Egypt that the pasha named by the Porte was
reduced to a nominal ruler. The number of them scattered throughout all
Egypt was between 10,000 and 12,000 men. Their number was kept up
chiefly by slaves brought from the Caucasus, from among whom the beys
and other officers of state were exclusively chosen. Their last
brilliant achievements were on the occasion of the French invasion of
Egypt, and during the time immediately following the retirement of the
French. At this time Murad Bey stood at their head. But in 1811 they
were foully massacred by Mehemet Ali.

=Mamertini.= Sons of Mamers, or Mars, were Campanian soldiers of
Agathocles. They seized Messina, in Sicily, in 281 B.C., and when
closely besieged by the Carthaginians and Hiero of Syracuse in 264, they
implored the help of the Romans, which led to the first Punic war.

=Mammoth Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Man.= To supply with men; to furnish with a sufficient force or
complement of men, as for management, service, defense, or the like.
Also, to supply with strength for action; to prepare for efficiency; to
fortify.

=Man, Isle of.= An island of Great Britain, in the Irish Sea, nearly
equidistant from the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. It was
subdued by the king of Northumberland, 621; by Magnus of Norway, 1092;
ceded to the Scots, 1266, and taken from them in 1314 by Montacute,
afterwards earl of Salisbury; it subsequently fell to the Earl of Derby.
The brave Countess of Derby held this island against the troops of the
Parliament in 1651, after her husband had been beheaded at Bolton,
England, in the same year for his devotion to the royal cause.

=Manassas.= A town in Prince William Co., Va., which was an important
military position during the civil war, and where the Alexandria and
Manassas Gap Railways meet, near a creek called Bull Run; it was held by
the Confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by the Federal general
Irvin McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and
gained some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought
the _first_ battle of Bull Run. The Federals, who began the fight, had
the advantage till about 3 o’clock P.M., when the Confederate general
Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first the Federals took for
their own troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with
sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled
in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition,
and baggage. The Confederate generals, Johnston and Beauregard, did not
think it prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt till they
reached Washington. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed,
1011 wounded, and 1216 missing. The loss of the Confederates was stated
to be about 1500. In March, 1862, when the Army of the Potomac under
Gen. McClellan marched into Virginia, they found that the Confederates
had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On August 30, 1862,
this place was the site of another great battle between the Northern and
Southern armies. In August, Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson, after compelling
the Federal general Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar Mountain on
the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas repulsed
his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th, Gen. R. E. Lee (who had defeated
Gen. McClellan and the invading Northern army before Richmond, June 26
to July 1) joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received
reinforcements from Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which ended
in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, compelling the Federals
to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were once more routed,
September 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of
Washington on September 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan
resumed the command to march against the Confederates, who had crossed
the Potomac and entered Maryland.

=Manch=, or =Maunch=. A charge frequently used in heraldry to represent
a sleeve with long pendent ends, of the form worn by ladies in the reign
of Henry I.

=Manchester.= A city of England, in Lancashire, on the Irwell. In the
time of the Druids, it was one of their principal stations. It was one
of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a castle or stronghold called
_Mancenion_; and was, about 79, selected by the Romans as a station, and
called _Mancunium_. Called by the Saxons _Manceastre_. Taken from the
Britons, 488; captured by Edwin of Northumbria, 620; taken by the Danes,
877; retaken, 923.

=Mandans.= A tribe of Indians of the Dakota family, who are located with
the Arickarees and Gros Ventres on a reservation near Fort Berthold,
Dakota. They were hostile to the Sioux, and more friendly to the whites
than the neighboring tribes. They number about 250.

=Mandarin.= A general term applied to Chinese officers of every grade by
foreigners. It is derived from the Portuguese _mandar_, “to command”;
the Chinese equivalent is _kwan_. There are nine ranks, each
distinguished by a different-colored ball or button placed on the apex
of the cap, by a peculiar emblazonry on the breast, and a different
clasp of the girdle. The military mandarins are selected by the emperor
of China to superintend and command the militia of the country.

=Mandilion.= A soldier’s loose coat; an outer garment without sleeves.

=Mandrel.= In forging, is a rod used to preserve the interior form of
hollow-work. Also, the spindle upon which an article is placed in
shaping it in a lathe.

=Manduria= (now _Casal Nova_). A town in Calabria, on the road from
Tarentum to Hydruntum, and near a small lake. Here Archidamus III., king
of Sparta, was defeated and slain in battle by the Messapians and
Lucanians, 338 B.C.

=Manège.= The art of horsemanship or of training horses. Also, a school
for teaching horsemanship, and for training horses; a riding-school.

=Mangalore.= A seaport town and fortress of Hindostan, on the eastern
shore of the Indian Ocean, in the province of Canara. The Portuguese had
a factory here, which was destroyed by the Arabians. In 1793 the town
was taken by Hyder Ali, then the Mysore general; in 1768 it was captured
by a detachment from Bombay; but was shortly afterwards retaken by
Hyder. In 1783 Mangalore again surrendered to a force from Bombay; and
after the destruction of Gen. Matthews’s army, sustained a long siege
from Tippoo Sahib, and was gallantly defended by Col. Campbell. Upon the
conclusion of peace in 1784, it was restored, and the fortifications
were dismantled. In 1799, on the overthrow of Tippoo, it was finally
taken possession of by the British.

=Mangan= (_Fr._). This word is sometimes written _mangon_, a warlike
machine formerly used. The term itself was generally adopted to signify
any species of warlike machine. But it more particularly meant the
largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike
purposes; whether it was practiced to throw enormous stones against
besieged places, or to cast javelins, etc. It was likewise called
_ballista_, from the Greek, _tormentum_, from the Latin, _torquendo_,
and sometimes _petraria_, because stones weighing upwards of 360 pounds
were thrown from it. This machine answered the double purpose of
defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at
sea.

=Mangonel= (Fr. _mangonel_, _mangoneau_). A very strong and powerful
cross-bow, from 15 to 20 feet long, for throwing arrows, darts, or
stones. The _trebuchet_, _ribaudequin_, etc., were only a variety of the
above.

=Manheim=, or =Mannheim=. A town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden, at the confluence of the Neckar and the Rhine. It surrendered to
the French, under command of Pichegru, September 20, 1795. On October
31, the Austrians under Wurmser defeated the French near the city.
Several battles were fought with various success in the neighborhood
during the late wars.

=Manifesto=, or =Manifest=. A public declaration, usually of a prince or
sovereign, showing his intentions, or proclaiming his opinions and
motives in reference to some act done or contemplated by him; as, a
manifesto declaring the purpose of a prince to begin war, and explaining
his motives.

=Maniglions.= The two handles on the back of a piece of ordnance.

=Manilla=, or =Manila=. A town of the island of Luzon, and the capital
of the Spanish settlements in the Philippine Islands. It was taken by
the English in 1757; and again in October, 1762, by storm.

=Manipularis= (Fr. _manipulaire_). The chief officer in a part of the
Roman infantry called _manipulus_, was so called. This officer was
likewise ordinary (Fr. _ordinaire_).

=Manipulus.= So called from its standard or flag, which was made of
cloth, and hung suspended on a staff with a hand. The manipulus was
distinguished in this manner from the chief standard of each legion,
which was an eagle of massive metal.

=Manipulus= (Fr. _manipule_). A small body of infantry originally, so
called among the Romans during the reign of Romulus. Their ensign was a
hand on the end of a staff. The manipulus consisted of 100 men, and in
the days of the consuls and first Cæsars, of 200. Three manipuli
constituted a Roman cohort. Each manipulus was commanded by two officers
called _centurions_, one of whom acted as lieutenant to the other. Every
manipulus made two centuries, or _ordines_. This, however, cannot be
said to have been the uniform establishment or formation of the
manipulus; for according to Varro and Vegetius, it was the smallest body
of men employed in the Roman armies, and composed the tenth part of a
century. Spartian says, “it consisted of only ten soldiers.” Some
authorities assert that it takes its name from _manipulus_, “a handful
of straw,” the latter having been fixed to a long pole to serve as a
rallying signal, before the eagles were adopted. This circumstance has
given rise to the modern expression, a handful of men, _une poignée de
gens_. Vegetius, on the other hand, says it comes from _manus_, which
signified a small body or handful of men collected together, and
following the same standard; and Modestus as well as Varro state it to
have been so called because, when they went into action, they took each
other by the hand, or fought all together. A French writer conceives
that the manipulus may be considered as one of those parts of a modern
battalion which are distributed in different rooms, etc., and which is
called _une chambree_, or a company that messes together.

=Manly.= Having qualities becoming a man; firm; brave; undaunted; noble,
etc.

=Mannite, Nitro-.= A high explosive resembling nitro-glycerine in its
properties, and made in an analogous manner by the action of nitric and
sulphuric acids upon mannite, a form of sugar.

=Manœuvre=, or =Maneuver=. Management; dexterous movement; specifically,
an evolution, movement, or change of position among military or naval
bodies. To perform a movement in military or naval tactics; to make an
evolution. Also, to change the positions of, as troops or ships.

=Manœuvring-wheels.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Manresa.= A town of Spain, in Catalonia, 30 miles northwest from
Barcelona. It suffered much in the war of independence; and in March,
1811, it was almost completely burnt to the ground by Marshal Macdonald.

=Mans, Le.= A city of France, formerly capital of the province of Maine,
now of the department of Sarthe. The final struggle between the Vendean
troops and the French republicans took place here in 1793, in which the
latter were victorious; and in 1871, another battle took place between
the Germans and French, in which the former were victorious.

=Mansoura=, or =Mansourah=. A town of Lower Egypt, 34 miles southwest
from Dalmietta. Here Louis IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken
prisoner, April 5, 1250. Some French troops which occupied the garrison
were massacred here in 1798.

=Manteau= (_Fr._). This word, which literally signifies a cloak, is
frequently used among the French to express the covering that hussars or
light infantry troops carry for the double purpose of shielding their
bodies from the inclemencies of the weather in outposts, etc., and for
spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when they occasionally
halt, and take a position.

=Mantelet= (_Fr._). A large osier buckler which was used in ancient
times; it was held upright, under cover of which archers shot their
arrows. Also a circular frame upon wheels covered with osier or
horse-hair, used for the same purpose.

=Mantes.= A town of France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 30 miles
west-northwest of Paris. It was taken and reduced to ashes by William
the Conqueror in 1087.

=Mantillis.= A kind of shield, anciently fixed upon the tops of ships as
a cover for archers.

=Mantinea=, or =Mantinœa=. Anciently a city of the Morea, 9 miles north
from Tripolitza. It is now the modern Greek village of Palespoli. It was
famous as being the scene of several battles, of which the most
important was that fought between the Spartans and the Thebans under
Epaminondas (362 B.C.), in which the former were defeated.

=Mantle.= A long flowing robe, worn in the Middle Ages over the armor,
and fastened by a fibula in front, or at the right shoulder. The mantle
is an important part of the official insignia of the various orders of
knighthood.

=Mantlet.= A sort of temporary fortification intended to protect the men
working guns in embrasures, casemates, or port-holes from the bullets of
sharpshooters. The mantlet is usually made to be hoisted up while the
gunner takes aim, and then lowered to cover the whole opening except a
circular aperture for the muzzle of the cannon. With every increase in
the range and precision of small-arms, mantlets become more essential
for the safety of gunners. Mantlets are made of thick fir, of solid oak
planks, or of iron plates, the last being preferable, as the lightest.
At Sebastopol, the Russians effectively blocked their embrasures by
thick mantlets of plaited rope suspended freely. A mantlet of planks or
iron plates, about 5 feet high, and occasionally mounted on small
wheels, is also used to protect sappers working at the end of a sap,
although a rolling gabion is preferred for this purpose by many
engineers.

=Mantling=, or =Lambrequin=. A heraldic ornament depicted as hanging
down from the helmet, and behind the escutcheon. It is considered to
represent either the cointise (an ornamental scarf which passed round
the body and over the shoulder) or the military mantle or robe of
estate. When intended for the cointise, it is cut into irregular strips
and curls of the most capricious forms, whose contortions are supposed
to indicate that it has been torn into that ragged condition in the
field of battle. When the mantling is treated as a robe of estate, the
bearings of the shield are sometimes embroidered on it. A mantling
adjusted so as to form a background for the shield and its accessories
constitutes an _Achievement of Arms_. In British heraldry, the mantling
of the sovereign is of gold lined with ermine; that of peers, of crimson
velvet lined with ermine. Knights and gentlemen have generally crimson
velvet lined with white satin; but sometimes the livery colors are
adopted instead, as is generally the practice in continental heraldry.

=Mantonet= (_Fr._). A small piece of wood or iron, which is notched, for
the purpose of hanging anything upon it. The pegs in soldiers’ rooms are
sometimes so called.

=Mantua.= A fortified city of Northern Italy, 22 miles southwest from
Verona. Mantua is both by nature and art one of the strongest places in
Europe. It can boast of an antiquity almost equal to that of Rome, and
experienced all the vicissitudes of the Middle Ages, and, like other
Italian cities, emerged from them into liberty and independence. It
surrendered to the French, February 2, 1797, after a siege of eight
months; was retaken by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799,
after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French
again obtained possession of it. It was included in the kingdom of Italy
till 1814, when it was restored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to
the Italians, October 11, 1866, after the peace.

=Manual.= Book of reference; as, ordnance manual, etc.

=Manual.= A prescribed exercise by means of which soldiers are taught to
handle and use their weapons. The _manual of arms_ is the exercise with
the musket; the _manual of the piece_, the exercise with the field-gun.
There are also _manuals for the sabre, pistol_, etc.

=Manuballiste= (_Fr._). A cross-bow. There were two kinds in the reign
of Henry VII., viz., the _latch_ which was used for quarrels, and the
_prodd_ for bullets.

=Manufacture of Ordnance.= See ORDNANCE, MANUFACTURE OF.

=Manufacture of Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Manx.= Pertaining to the Isle of Man.

=Maoris.= A New Zealand word signifying _native_, is the name given to
themselves by the inhabitants of New Zealand, and that by which they are
now usually designated. In 1861 war broke out between them and the
British, terminating in favor of the latter in 1862; but in 1863 the
Maoris recommenced hostilities, and a formidable conspiracy was formed
to expel the British troops. In 1868 they massacred many settlers and
offered a desperate resistance, and were not subdued until the following
year. They numbered at that time about 40,000. They are now
comparatively peaceable.

=Map.= In a military and geographical sense, is a plane figure,
representing the surface of the earth, or a part thereof, according to
the law of the particular kind of projection used; distinguishing the
situation of cities, mountains, rivers, roads, etc.

=Marathon.= A village on the east shore of Attica, 20 miles northeast
from Athens. Here on September 28 and 29, 490 B.C., the Greeks, only
10,000 strong, defeated the Persian army amounting to 200,000, who had
6400 killed. The Greek loss was 192 Athenians killed, besides some
Platæans and slaves. The Greeks were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides,
and Themistocles. Among the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the
war. The Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia.

=Marathus.= An important city on the coast of Phœnicia, opposite to
Aradus. It was destroyed by the people of Aradus in the time of the
Syrian king, Alexander Balas, a little before 150 B.C.

=Maraud.= To rove in quest of plunder; to make an excursion for booty;
to plunder.

=Marauder.= A rover in quest of booty or plunder; a plunderer.

=Marauding.= Is irregular plunder or violence offered to the inhabitants
of a country by the individuals of an army. In all armies where
discipline is maintained, marauding is, at least professedly, punished
by death; the provost-marshal having power to inflict that penalty
summarily on all offenders taken in the act. Marauding is also applied
to plundering at sea; as, the Barbary corsairs are systematic
marauders.

=Marburg.= A town of Germany, in Hesse-Cassel, situated on the Lahn. It
suffered much during the Seven Years’ War, 1753-60.

=March.= The movement of a body of men from one place to another. In
marching it cannot be too strongly inculcated that every just movement
and manœuvre depends upon the correct equality of march established and
practiced by all the troops of the same army, and that when this is not
attended to confusion must follow on the junction of several battalions.
Also, the distance marched over; as, a march of 20 miles.

=March.= To cause to move in military array; to push forward, as troops;
to cause to advance in a steady, regular, or stately manner.

=March.= The military signal for soldiers to move; a piece of music,
designed or fitted to accompany and guide the movement of troops; or a
piece of music composed after the measure of a march. Also, the command
for soldiers to move.

=March.= The length of a day’s march for troops of any arm depends, to a
great extent, upon the condition of the roads, the supply of water,
forage, etc.; also upon the advantages to be gained over an enemy.

Infantry marches at the rate in common time of 90 steps = 70 yards in
one minute, or 2 miles 680 yards in an hour; in quick time, 110 steps =
86 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour; in double
time, 165 steps = 151¹⁄₄ yards in one minute, or 5 miles 275 yards in an
hour. Under ordinary circumstances infantry should march from 15 to 20
miles a day, halting about ten minutes every hour.

Cavalry should march about 20 miles a day, and be kept at a walk,
halting several times during the day, when the men should dismount and
permit the horses to refresh themselves by giving them a few mouthfuls
of grass and water. On a forced march the horses should not be halted,
but they should be relieved fifteen minutes every hour by dismounting
the men and requiring them to march. For selection of cavalry horses,
rate of speed at a trot, gallop, etc., see HORSE.

The march of artillery should be governed by the movements of the arms
of the service to which it is assigned for duty. The care of men and
horses is a combination of what has been laid down for cavalry and
infantry. For the rates of march of, and loads carried by, artillery
horses, see PACK AND DRAUGHT HORSES.

=Marchands= (_Fr._). Slop-sellers, petty sutlers. Men of this
description always flock round and follow an army on its march. As they
generally deal in articles which are required by the officers and
soldiers, it is the business of every general to see them properly
treated, to insure their safety, and to permit them, under certain
regulations, to have access to the camp.

=Marcher.= One who marches. In ancient times the lord or officer who
defended the marches or borders of a territory.

=Marches.= A frontier, a border. In English history, the boundary
between England and Wales, also between England and Scotland.

=Marches, Combined.= When the movements of the divisions or corps are
made independent of each other, but having the same object in common,
they are known as combined marches. They are arranged with the intention
of having the several columns arrive at a given position but coming from
different directions.--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Marches, Flank.= Are marches made parallel or obliquely to the enemy’s
position. They are used when it is desired to turn the enemy’s position
or attack him on the flank.--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Marches, Manœuvre.= Marches are sometimes made by which an army gains a
position, the possession of which compels the enemy to leave the
position he is occupying. If these marches are under the observation of
the enemy, they are termed “manœuvres”; but if made out of his sight,
they are called _manœuvre marches_.--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Marches of Concentration.= The marches which are made by several bodies
of troops, starting from points separated from each other, for the
purpose of bringing these troops together at some stated place, are
termed _marches of concentration_. Forced marches are much used in
concentrating troops, especially before a battle. Many examples are
given in military history.

Friant’s division of Davoust’s corps marched over 80 miles in
forty-eight hours in 1805, to join Napoleon in the battle of Austerlitz.
Craufurd’s brigade marched, so Napier says, 62 miles in twenty-six
hours, to join Wellington at Talavera, in 1809. Napoleon marched an army
to the relief of Dresden, in 1813, by forced marches of over 30 miles a
day for three consecutive days. The marches of the different corps of
the Army of the Potomac on the 30th of June and the 1st of July, 1863,
by means of which the army was concentrated at Gettysburg, are good
examples of _marches of concentration_. The 6th Corps under Gen.
Sedgwick made on this occasion a march over 30 miles.--_Prof. J. B.
Wheeler._

=Marches, Route.= Route marches are used by troops both during war and
in peace. They are used in peace to conduct a body of troops from one
station or post to another. They are used in war for the purpose of
assembling the fractions of an army on its base of operations; of
conducting troops through a district or country where there is no enemy,
etc.

There are three kinds of _route marches_, according to the manner in
which they are made, viz.: _ordinary_, _forced_, and _marches by rail_.

_Ordinary route marches_ are those made along ordinary roads and where
the length of the march in any one day is not greater than 20 miles.
Twenty miles is a long march, especially if the body of troops is
large, and this distance is taken as the limit for an ordinary march. If
the distance marched in any one day is greater than 20 miles, the march
is _forced_.

_Forced marches_ are extremely exhausting upon the troops and should not
exceed 30 miles per day, although greater distances have been overcome
by good troops. The number of forced marches made in succession must be
few, only two or three, even for the best of troops. They are used but
rarely in time of peace, and then only under pressing circumstances.
They are much used in war, when a rapid concentration of troops is to be
made; when a strategical combination is to be effected, etc.

_Route marches by rail_ are employed both in peace and war. This kind of
march includes all those in which the troops do not actually march, but
are transported bodily to their destination. Railroads have become in
recent years the great factor in rapid and cheap means of moving troops,
and the term “rail” is therefore applied to this method of conducting
troops from one place to another.

This method is of especial service when the time given to the troops to
reach their destination is short, and the distance is great. It is
especially used in the case of assembling armies and forwarding the
reserves and recruits to the theatre of war. The late war in the United
States, the war in 1859 in Italy, the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, etc.,
all furnish examples.--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Marches, Strategical.= Marches which made in the theatre of war, near
an enemy whose position is not exactly known, having in general for
their object the completion of some strategical combination, are
designated _strategical marches_. They are used to conduct an army to a
position from which an attack can be made on the enemy, or to a position
in which the army can remain and receive an attack; in other words, to a
position immediately in the presence of the enemy.

_Strategical marches_ are either _ordinary_ or _forced_ marches, and are
used principally to mass troops at some stated point on the theatre of
operations before the enemy can make arrangements to prevent it or can
prepare counter-movements to weaken or nullify the effect of the
movement. Secrecy, celerity, and good order are therefore indispensable
requisites for success in marches of this kind.--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Marches, Tactical.= Marches made in the immediate vicinity of the
enemy, and so near that they may be observed by him, are called
_tactical marches_. Since these marches are made very near the enemy,
greater precautions are required to guard against an attack than are
necessary in _strategical marches_.

_Tactical marches_ differ from _route_ and _strategical_ marches in one
material particular, and that is in the number and sizes of the
wagon-trains accompanying the troops on the march. Both in _route_ and
_strategical_ marches the troops are cumbered with long and unwieldy
wagon-trains carrying the baggage and supplies of the army, whereas in a
_tactical_ march there are none, or the trains are reduced to a minimum.
Since the enemy may attack the moving columns at any minute, everything
is sacrificed to the important one of being ready to fight at a minute’s
notice, and the army carries with it only supplies enough for two or
three days, and little or no baggage. Everything not essential for
feeding the troops and not necessary for fighting is therefore left
behind the army while it is making a _tactical march_.--_Prof. J. B.
Wheeler._

=Marchfeld.= In Austria, where Ottocar II. of Bohemia was defeated and
slain by his rival, the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, August 26, 1278.

=Marching.= One of the first necessities to distinguish a body of
disciplined troops from a mere crowd of men is a regular cadenced step,
taken by every individual at the same time, and with the same foot. When
troops are to march a long distance the _route_ step is employed, the
men keeping the same distance and their places in the ranks as when
marching on drills, parades, reviews, musters, etc., where the cadenced
step in common, quick, or double time is employed. In the U. S. service
the length of the step in common and quick time is 28 inches, and the
cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute for common time and 110
for quick time; in double time the length of the step is 33 inches and
the cadence at the rate of 165 steps per minute, but it may be increased
to 180. In the feudal ages, when infantry fell into disrepute, cadenced
marching was unattended to, and seems only to have been thoroughly
revived by Marshal Saxe.

=Marching Money.= The additional pay which officers and soldiers receive
for the purpose of covering the expense necessarily incurred when
marching from one place to another.

=Marching Order.= In the British service a soldier is said to be in
marching order when he is fully equipped with arms, ammunition, and a
portion of his kit, which weighs from 30 to 35 pounds. In _service
marching_ order, by the addition of provisions and some campaigning
necessaries, he carries nearly 50 pounds. But _heavy marching order_,
which was yet heavier, is now happily abolished. See HEAVY MARCHING
ORDER, and LIGHT MARCHING ORDER.

=Marching Orders.= The orders issued preparatory to troops marching; and
in the British service signifies six days’ journey at least.

=Marching Regiments.= A term given in England to those who had not any
permanent quarters, but were liable to be sent not only from one end of
Great Britain to another, but to the most distant of her possessions
abroad. Although the word _marching_ is insensibly confounded with those
of _line_ and _regulars_, it was originally meant to convey something
more than a mere liability to be ordered upon any service; for by
marching the regular troops from one town to another, the inhabitants,
who from time immemorial have been jealous of a standing army, lost
their antipathy to real soldiers, by the occasional absence of regular
troops. At present the English guards, infantry, etc., may be considered
more or less as marching regiments. The marines and volunteers have
stationary quarters.

=Marcomanni.= A powerful confederacy of ancient Germans, who were
resident, as their name imports, on the borders. They are first
mentioned in history by Cæsar, and seem at that time to have dwelt upon
the banks of the Rhine. From Tacitus and several others we learn that
they soon afterwards moved westward, under their king Maroboduus, drove
the Boii out of Bohemia, and settled in that country. After organizing a
government, Maroboduus formed a league with the neighboring tribes, for
the purpose of defending Germany against the Romans. He was thus enabled
to muster 70,000 disciplined soldiers, and to conclude an honorable
treaty with the emperor Tiberius in 6 A.D. In 17 he was defeated by the
Cherusci, and in two years afterwards he was expelled from his throne by
the Goth Catualda, and forced to seek refuge in Italy. The same fate
soon afterwards befell his dethroner and successor, and the Marcomanni
once more came under the sway of native kings. After this they gradually
extended their dominions, until they had reached the Danube, and had
provoked the jealousy of the Romans in the time of Domitian. Then began
hostilities between the Romans and the Marcomanni, which led to the
protracted struggle of the Marcomannic war, during the reign of Marcus
Aurelius, but was finally quelled by the peace of Commodus, in 180.
Favored, however, by the feeble rule of Commodus, they continued their
predatory inroads into the Roman provinces of Noricum and Rhætia, and
ventured sometimes as far as the defiles of the Alps. In 270, in the
reign of Aurelian, they pushed forward into Italy, and penetrated even
to Ancona, spreading consternation around them. After this period they
disappear gradually, and are mentioned for the last time among the
hordes of Attila.

=Marcouf, St.= Two small islands of France, in the department Manche,
and which protect the roadstead off Cape La Hogue. They were taken by
the British in 1795, but restored to France at the peace of Amiens.

=Maréchal= (_Fr._). Major-general.

=Maréchal de Bataille= (_Fr._). A military rank which once existed in
France, but was suppressed before the revolution, or rather confined to
the body-guards. An officer belonging to that corps received it as an
honorary title. Its original functions, etc., with respect to general
service, sunk in the appointments of _maréchal de camp_ and
major-general. It was first created by Louis XIII. _Maréchal-général
des logis de la cavalerie_, this appointment took place under Charles
IX. in 1594. He had the chief direction of everything which related to
the French cavalry. _Maréchal des logis pour les vivres_, a person
belonging to the quartermaster-general’s department was so called in the
old French service.

=Maréchal de Camp= (_Fr._). A military rank which existed during the
French monarchy. The person invested with it was a general officer, and
ranked next to a lieutenant-general. It was his duty to see the army
properly disposed of in camp or quarters, to be present at all the
movements that were made; to be the first to mount his charger, and the
last to quit him. He commanded the left in all attacks. The appointment
under this distinction was first created by Henry IV. in 1598.

=Maréchal-Général des Camps et Armées du Roi= (_Fr._). A post of high
dignity and trust, which during the French monarchy was annexed to the
rank of _maréchal de France_. Military writers differ with respect to
the privileges, etc., which belonged to this appointment; it is,
however, generally acknowledged that the general officer who held it was
intrusted with the whole management of a siege, being subordinate only
to the constable, or to any other _maréchal de France_, who was his
senior in appointment.

=Maréchal-Général des Logis de l’Armée= (_Fr._). This appointment,
which existed during the old French government, and has since been
replaced by the _chef de l’état-major_, corresponds with that of
quartermaster-general in the British service.

=Maréchaussées de France= (_Fr._). A species of military police which
formerly existed in France. During the French monarchy there were 31
companies of _maréchaussées à cheval_, or mounted policemen. These
companies first formed for the purpose of preserving public
tranquillity, and were distributed in the different provinces of the
kingdom. This useful body of men was first formed under Philip I. in
1060; they were afterwards suppressed, and again re-established in 1720,
as constituting a part of the gendarmerie of France. There were other
companies of _maréchaussées_, who were particularly distinguished from
the 31 above mentioned; such, for instance, as that of the constables,
called the gendarmerie.

=Marengo.= A village of Italy, in Piedmont, near the Bormida, 2 miles
southeast from Alessandria. Here the French army, commanded by
Bonaparte, attacked the Austrians, June 14, 1800; his army was
retreating, when the arrival of Gen. Dessaix turned the fortunes of the
day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By this victory Bonaparte
gained 12 strong fortresses, and became master of Italy.

=Margarita.= An island in the Caribbean Sea lies off the coast of
Venezuela, of which republic it forms a province. This island was first
visited by Columbus in 1498, and has in more recent times (1816) been
the scene of a bloody warfare between the revolutionists and the Spanish
troops under Gen. Murillo, in which the latter were defeated.

=Margrave.= A German nobleman corresponding in rank to the English
marquis. _Margravine_ is the wife of a margrave.

=Margum=, or =Margus=. A fortified place in Mœsia Superior, west of
Viminacium, situated on the river Margus (now _Morava_), at its
confluence with the Danube. Here Diocletian gained a decisive victory
over Carinus.

=Maricopa Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, numbering about 400, who are
located with the Pimas on a reservation on the Gila River, Arizona,
about 180 miles above its mouth. They are peaceable, and follow
agricultural pursuits.

=Marienbourg.= A fortified town of Belgium, situated in the province of
Namur. This place was occupied by the French from 1659 till 1815.

=Marignano= (now _Malegnano_). A village of Northern Italy, near Milan.
Three battles have been fought near here: (1) Francis I. of France
defeated the Duke of Milan and the Swiss, September 13-14, 1515; above
20,000 men were slain; this conflict has been called the “battle of the
giants.” (2) Near here was fought the battle of Pavia. (See PAVIA.) (3)
After the battle of Magenta, June 4, 1859, the Austrians intrenched
themselves at Malegnano. Marshal Baraguay d’Hilliers with 16,000 men was
sent to dislodge them, which he did, on June 8, with a loss of about 850
killed and wounded. The Austrians suffered severely.

=Marine.= A soldier serving on ship-board; a sea-soldier; one of a body
of troops trained to do duty on vessels of war.

=Marine Fortification.= This kind of fortification differs from land
fortification in that the approaches of the enemy which are to be
resisted take place on the level of the sea, so that he can come near
without having to overcome the dangerous slope of the glacis. The combat
is simply one between two powerful batteries, and the question to be
decided is, whether the ship or the fort will first be placed _hors de
combat_; the ship having ordinarily the largest number of guns, while
the fort has more solid battlements, and its fewer guns of great caliber
can be fired with a steadiness unattainable on so shifting a base as the
ocean. Under these circumstances, the less relief a sea-fortress has the
better, the less likely is it to be hit from shipping. Its walls are
usually built perpendicular, or nearly so. The magazines and quarters
for the men are bomb-proof, as also are the casemates, from which the
guns are usually fired, although sometimes, as in the martello tower,
the gun is worked on top of the structure. Sea fortifications may be of
various importance, the simplest being the battery consisting of a mere
parapet formed in a cliff or on a hill, and mounted with guns to command
the sea; these are generally built in such concealed situations, that
it is hoped the hostile ship will not perceive them until they actually
open fire. These are numerous all around the British coast. Next greater
in importance is the martello tower (which see). More powerful still are
the breach-forts, such as those which on either shore defend the
entrance to Portsmouth harbor, England. These are constructed of the
most solid masonry, and armed with guns of the heaviest caliber,
sweeping the very surface of the sea so as to strike an approaching ship
between wind and water. The guns are usually in bomb-proof casemates,
and the fort is often defended on the land side, if the coast be level;
if, however, higher ground be behind, this would be useless, and then
the sea-front alone is defensible. Most terrible of all sea-forts,
however, are the completely isolated forts with perpendicular faces and
two and three tiers of heavy guns. Such are the tremendous batteries
which render Cronstadt almost unapproachable, and by which Spithead and
Plymouth Sound, England, are now being fortified. These forts are
generally large, with all the requisites for a garrison to maintain
itself; against them wooden ships stand no chance, and in the American
civil war, Fort Sumter, at Charleston, has shown itself no mean
antagonist for ironsides. In the new forts, as Spithead, etc., iron is
to be employed as the facing, in plates of such vast thickness and
weight that it is supposed no ship can ever possess any comparable
power; and as they are to be armed with guns the smallest of which will
probably be 300-pounders, it is expected that they will be able to
destroy any fleet that could be sent against them. At the present day,
the value of sea fortifications is disputed, as iron-plated vessels may
pass them with impunity, unless the artillery in the fort be so heavy as
to destroy the armor of the ships. In the long run, however, it is
apparent that the fort can command the greater power; for its armor may
be of any thickness, while that of the ship must be limited by her
floating powers, and on the other hand, the limit to the size of
artillery must be sooner reached in a ship than in a solid and
stationary fortress.

=Marines, Corps of.= In the U. S. service is a body of troops who serve
at the different naval stations, and on board ships of war. The men are
drilled in all respects as infantry, and therefore, when on shore, are
ordinary land forces. On board ship, their ordinary functions are as
sharpshooters in time of action, and at other times to furnish sentries
for guarding the stores, gangways, etc.; and they are useful as
exercising a good control over the less rigidly disciplined sailors.
They are also instructed as guns’ crews, and when not on guard, are
subject to the orders of the naval officers in the same manner as the
seamen. The corps was first established in the United States in 1775,
and was permanently organized by act of Congress in 1798. By this act,
marines were made liable to do duty at the call of the President in any
of the forts or posts of the United States, and were placed on the
footing of infantry soldiers, as far as regards pay and allowances. When
detached for duty with the army, marines are subject to the Articles of
War; at all other times they are subject to the laws and regulations for
the government of the navy. The corps numbers about 2000 men commanded
by a colonel. The corps has undergone many changes in respect of
numbers, equipment, drill, and methods of recruiting since its
organization, and was never in a better state of discipline and
efficiency than now. No man is enlisted who is unable to read and write,
under 5 feet 6 inches high, or over thirty-five years of age. It is
organized into battalions for duty on shore, and into “guards,” or
companies, for service afloat, each having its proper complement of
officers, non-commissioned officers, musicians, and privates, and is
considered an indispensable auxiliary to the navy. Civilians between
twenty and twenty-five years of age are eligible at present to
appointment as lieutenants in line of promotion, and are stationed at
the head-quarters of the corps in Washington for their preliminary
instruction. In the British service, besides the infantry, there is a
division of marine artillery. In rank, marine officers correspond with
army officers of the same grade, according to seniority; they are
usually appointed from civil life.

=Maritime.= Bordering on, or situated near, the ocean; connected with
the sea by site, interest, or power.

=Mark.= That toward which a missile is directed; a thing aimed at; what
one seeks to hit or reach.

=Mark, St., Knights of.= An order of knighthood which formerly existed
in the republic of Venice, under the protection of St. Mark the
Evangelist.

=Mark Time.= To mark time is to move each leg alternately in quick or
ordinary time, without gaining ground. This is frequently practiced when
a front file or column has opened too much, in order to afford the rear
an opportunity of getting up; and sometimes to let the head of a column
disengage itself, or a body of troops file by, etc.

=Marker.= The soldier who forms the pivot of a wheeling column, or marks
the direction of an alignment. Also, the one who records the number of
hits and misses made by soldiers at target practice.

=Marks, Inspection.= Are certain marks cut on cannon to show the number
of the gun, the name of the founder, name of inspector, weight of the
piece, etc. Condemned shot are also marked. See INSPECTION OF
PROJECTILES.

=Marksman.= One who is skillful to hit a mark; one who shoots well.

=Marksmanship.= The skill of a marksman.

=Marlins.= Are tarred white skeins or long wreaths or lines of untwisted
hemp, dipped in pitch or tar, with which cables and other ropes are
wrapped round, to prevent their fretting and rubbing in the blocks or
pulleys through which they pass. The same serves in artillery upon ropes
used for rigging gins, usually put up in small parcels called skeins.

=Maron= (_Fr._). A piece of brass or copper, about the size of a crown,
on which the hours for going the rounds were marked in the old French
service. Several of these were put into a small bag, and deposited in
the hands of the major of the regiment, out of which they were regularly
drawn by the sergeants of companies, for the officers belonging to them.
The hours and half hours were engraved on each maron. These pieces were
numbered one, two, etc., to correspond with the several periods of the
night; so that the officer, for instance, who was to go to the 10
o’clock rounds, had as many marons marked ten as there were posts or
guard-houses which he was directed to visit. Thus on reaching the first,
after having given the _mot_, or watch-word, to the corporal, he
delivers into his hands the maron marked one. These marons being pierced
in the middle are successively strung by the different corporals upon a
piece of wire, from which they slide into a box called _boite aux
rondes_, or box belonging to the rounds. This box is carried next
morning to the major, who keeps the key; and who on opening it can
easily ascertain whether the rounds have been regularly gone by counting
the different marons, and seeing them successively strung.

=Maroons.= A name given to runaway negroes in Jamaica. When the island
was conquered from the Spaniards a number of their negroes fled to the
hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight
years’ duration ensued, when the Maroons capitulated on being permitted
to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they again took
arms, but they were speedily suppressed.

=Marquee=, or =Markee=. An outer fly, or roof-cloth of a tent; also, a
large field-tent.

=Marquis=, or =Marquess=. The degree of nobility which in the peerage of
England ranks next to a duke. Marquises were originally commanders on
the borders or frontiers of countries, or on the sea-coast, which they
were bound to protect. In England, the title of marquis was used in this
sense as early as the reign of Henry III., when there were marquises or
lords-marchers of the borders of Scotland and Wales; and the foreign
equivalent of _markgraf_ was common on the continent.

=Marrons.= In pyrotechny, are small paper shells filled with grained
powder and primed with short pieces of quick-match. They form part of
the _decorations_ of signal-rockets.

=Marrucini.= A brave and warlike people in Italy of the Sabellian race,
occupying a narrow slip of country along the right bank of the river
Atermus. Along with the Marsi, Peligni, and other Sabellian tribes, they
fought against Rome; and, together with them, they submitted to the
Romans, 304 B.C., and concluded a peace with the republic.

=Marsacii.= A people in Gallia Belgica, on one of the islands formed by
the Rhine, which first became known to the Romans through the war with
Civilis.

=Marsaglia.= Near Turin, in Italy. A battle took place here on September
24, 1693, in which Catinat defeated Prince Eugène and the Duke of Savoy.
This battle and place are memorable for being the first at which
bayonets were used at the ends of muskets, and to this the French owed
the victory.

=Marsala= (Arab. _Marsa Alla_, “the port of God”). A maritime town of
Sicily, in the province of Trapani, about 19 miles south-southwest of
the port of Trapani. Marsala has recently acquired historic interest as
the point where Garibaldi, eluding the vigilance of the Neapolitan
fleet, landed with his heroic _thousand_, and began the romantic
campaign which terminated the kingdom of the two Sicilies so
ignominiously.

=Marseillaise.= The name by which the grand song of the first French
revolution is known. The circumstances which led to its composition are
as follows. In the beginning of 1792, when a column of volunteers was
about to leave Strasburg, the mayor of the city, who gave a banquet on
the occasion, asked an officer of artillery, named Rouget de Lisle, to
compose a song in their honor. His request was complied with, and the
result was the Marseillaise,--both verse and music being the work of one
night. De Lisle entitled the piece “_Chant de Guerre de l’Armée du
Rhin_.” Next day it was sung with that rapturous enthusiasm that only
Frenchmen can exhibit, and instead of 600 volunteers, 1000 marched out
of Strasburg. Soon from the whole army of the North resounded the
thrilling and fiery words, _Aux armes! Aux armes!_ Nevertheless, the
song was still unknown in Paris, and was first introduced there by
Barbaroux, when he summoned the youth of Marseilles to the capital in
July, 1792. It was received with transports by the Parisians,
who--ignorant of its real authorship--named it “_Hymne des
Marseillais_,” which name it has borne ever since.

=Marseilles= (anc. _Massilia_). A city in the south of France, the
capital of the department of the Mouths-of-the-Rhone, situated on the
Mediterranean Sea. It was founded by the Phocæans about 600 B.C.; was an
ally of Rome, 218 B.C.; taken by Julius Cæsar after a long siege, 49
B.C.; by Euric the Visigoth, 470; sacked by the Saracens, 839; united to
the crown of France, 1482. Marseilles opposed the revolutionary
government, and was reduced August 23, 1793.

=Marshal= (Fr. _maréchal_). A term which originally meant a groom or
manager of the horse, though eventually the king’s marshal became one of
the principal officers of state in England. The royal farrier rose in
dignity with the increasing importance of the _chevalerie_, till he
became conjointly with the constable the judge in the _Curiæ Martiales_,
or courts of chivalry. When the king headed his army in feudal times,
the assembled troops were inspected by the constable and marshal, who
fixed the spot for the encampment of each noble, and examined the
number, arms, and condition of his retainers. With these duties was
naturally combined the regulation of all matters connected with armorial
bearing standards, and ensigns. The constable’s functions were virtually
abolished in the time of Henry VIII., and the marshal became thenceforth
the sole judge in questions of honor and arms. (See EARL MARSHAL.) In
France, the highest military officer is called a marshal, a dignity
which originated early in the 13th century. There was at first only one
_maréchal de France_, and there were but two till the time of James I.
Their number afterwards became unlimited. Originally, the marshal was
the esquire of the king, and commanded the vanguard in war; in later
times, the command became supreme, and the rank of the highest military
importance. See FIELD-MARSHAL.

=Marshal.= To dispose in order; to arrange in a suitable manner; as, to
marshal troops or an army.

=Marshal of Scotland, Earl.= An officer who had command of the cavalry
under the constable. This office was held by the family of Keith, but
forfeited by rebellion in 1715.

=Marshal, Provost-.= See PROVOST-MARSHAL.

=Marshaler= (written also _marshaller_). One who marshals.

=Marshaling of Arms.= In heraldry, is the combining of different coats
of arms in one escutcheon, for the purpose of indicating family alliance
or office.

=Marsi.= A brave people of Southern Italy, who, after several contests,
yielded to the Romans about 301 B.C. During the civil wars they and
their allies rebelled, having demanded and been refused the rights of
Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After many successes and reverses, they sued
for and obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. The Marsi
being _Socii_ of the Romans, this was called the Social war.

=Marsilly Carriage.= A naval gun-carriage having but one set of trucks,
one of the transoms resting directly on the deck. It is used in the
U. S. navy for mounting the 9-inch Dahlgren in broadside.

=Marston Moor.= Near the city of York, England. The Scots and
Parliamentary army were besieging York, when Prince Rupert, joined by
the Marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew
up on Marston Moor, July 2, 1644, and the contest was long undecided.
Rupert, commanding the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by
Oliver Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by himself. Cromwell
was victorious; he drove his opponents off the field, followed the
vanquished, returned to a second engagement and a second victory. The
prince’s artillery was taken and the royalists never recovered the blow.

=Marta=, or =Martha Santa=. A town of New Granada, South America,
capital of a province of the same name in the department of Magdalena.
It was repeatedly sacked by pirates during the 16th and 17th centuries;
and in 1672 was completely pillaged by a French and an English vessel.
It suffered much from the attacks of the Indians during the
revolutionary war, and does not appear to have regained its former
importance.

=Marteau d’Armes= (_Fr._). An offensive weapon, so called from its
resemblance to a hammer.

=Martel-de-fer.= A hammer and pick conjoined, used by horse-soldiers in
the Middle Ages to break and destroy armor.

=Martello Towers.= Are round towers for coast defense, about 40 feet
high, built most solidly, and situated on the beach. They occur in
several places round the coast of Great Britain; but principally
opposite to the French coast, along the southern shore of Kent and
Sussex, where, for many miles, they are within easy range of each other.
They were mostly erected during the French war, as a defense against
invasion. Each had walls of 5¹⁄₂ feet thickness and was supposed to be
bomb-proof. The base formed the magazine; above were two rooms for the
garrison, and over the upper of these the flat roof, with a 4¹⁄₂ feet
brick parapet all round. On this roof a heavy swivel-gun was to be
placed to command shipping, while howitzers on each side were to form a
flanking defense in connection with the neighboring towers. Although the
cost of these little forts was very great, they are generally considered
to have been a failure. The name is said to be taken from Italian towers
built near the sea, during the period when piracy was common in the
Mediterranean, for the purpose of keeping watch and giving warning if a
pirate-ship was seen approaching. This warning was given by striking on
a bell with a hammer (Ital. _martello_), and hence these towers were
called _tarri da martello_.

=Martial.= Pertaining to war; suited to war; military, as, martial
music; a martial appearance; given to war; warlike; brave, as, a martial
nation or people; belonging to war, or to an army and navy; opposed to
civil; as, martial law; a court-martial.

=Martial Law.= An arbitrary law, proceeding directly from the military
power, and having no immediate constitutional or legislative sanction.
When it is imposed upon any specified district, all the inhabitants, and
all their actions, are brought within its dominion. It is founded on
paramount necessity, extends to matters of civil as well as of criminal
jurisdiction, and is proclaimed only in times of war, insurrection,
rebellion, or other great emergency. It is so far distinct from military
law, which affects only the troops and forces. Martial law may, in fact,
be termed a subjection to the Articles of War. In a hostile country it
consists in the suspension, by the occupying military authority, of the
civil and criminal law, and of the domestic administration and
government in the occupied place or territory, and in the substitution
of military rule and force for the same, as well as in the dictation of
general laws, as far as military necessity requires this suspension,
substitution, or dictation, and is simply military authority exercised
in accordance with the laws and usages of war. Military oppression is
not martial law, it is the abuse of the power which that law confers. As
martial law is executed by military force, it is incumbent upon those
who administer it to be strictly guided by the principles of justice,
honor, and humanity,--virtues adorning a soldier even more than other
men, for the very reason that he possesses the power or his arms against
the unarmed. Martial law affects chiefly the police and collection of
public revenue and taxes, whether imposed by the expelled government or
by the invader, and refers mainly to the support and efficiency of the
army, its safety, and the safety of its operations.

=Martialize.= To render warlike; as, to martialize a people.

=Martinet= (so called from an officer of that name in the French army
under Louis XIV.). A strict disciplinarian; one who lays stress on the
rigid adherence to the details of discipline, or to forms and fixed
methods.

=Martinetism.= Rigid adherence to discipline.

=Martini-Henry Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Martinique.= An island in the West Indies, the most northern and one of
the largest of the Windward group. It was taken from the French by the
British in February, 1762; restored to France at the peace of the
following year; again taken March 16, 1794; restored at the peace of
Amiens in 1802; and was again captured February 23, 1809. It reverted to
its French masters in 1815.

=Martin’s Shell.= A hollow spherical projectile lined with loam and
filled with molten iron,--used for incendiary purposes.

=Martlet.= In heraldry, a bird resembling a swallow, with long wings,
very short beak and thighs, and no visible legs, borne on the shield as
a mark of cadency by the fourth son.

=Maryland.= One of the thirteen original States of the United States,
and one of the Central Atlantic States. Maryland was first settled in
1631, by a party from Virginia, and in 1632 by a colony of Roman
Catholic gentry from England, under a grant to the second Lord
Baltimore, when it received its present name in honor of the English
queen, Henrietta Maria. From 1642 to 1645 the Virginian and English
colonies were at perpetual warfare, and the governor of the English
colony, Philip Calvert, was obliged to leave, but in 1646 he returned,
the rebellion having ended. Maryland took a prominent part in the two
French wars, the Revolution, and the war of 1812-14, when it was twice
invaded by the British, who were gallantly repulsed from North Point,
near Baltimore, September 13, 1814, although they had gained a temporary
triumph a few weeks before at Bladensburg. In the war of 1861-66, its
sympathies were with the South, and the first blood of the war was shed
in Baltimore, several Massachusetts volunteers having been killed on
their way to Washington. The State was the scene of several battles
during the civil war, and suffered greatly from the contending armies.
Maryland was organized as a State in 1776.

=Masada.= A fortress on the shore of the Dead Sea, built by Jonathan
Maccabæus, and afterwards greatly strengthened by Herod, as a place of
refuge for himself. It fell into the hands of the Romans after the
capture of Jerusalem, the garrison having devoted themselves to
self-destruction.

=Mascara.= A town of Algeria, 48 miles southeast from Oran. The town was
taken and nearly destroyed by the French in 1835, and occupied a second
time by Gen. Bugeaud in 1841, since which time a garrison of French
troops has been constantly maintained there.

=Mascat=, or =Muscat=. A large seaport of Arabia, standing on a
peninsula on the northeast coast of the province of Oman. In 1507 it was
taken by Albuquerque. For nearly 150 years after, it continued in the
possession of the Portuguese. About the year 1648, however, it was
retaken by the natives, who have ever since retained it.

=Mascled Armor.= A kind of armor sometimes worn by the Norman soldiers,
composed of small lozenge-shaped plates of metal fastened on a leathern
or quilted under-coat.

=Mascoutins.= A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly
inhabited the region of the Upper Lakes. They afterwards moved to the
Wisconsin River, and subsequently settled on the Ohio. In 1765 they
fought against Col. Croghan on the Wabash River, and attacked Col.
Clarke in 1777. Their name is now lost among the numerous petty tribes
that reside in Kansas.

=Mask.= A military expression used in several senses. A _masked battery_
is one so constructed with grassy glacis, etc., as to be hidden from the
view of the enemy, until, to his surprise, it suddenly opens fire upon
him,--on his flank, perhaps. The fire of a battery is masked when some
other work, or body of friendly troops, intervenes in the line of fire,
and precludes the use of the guns. A fortress or an army is masked when
a superior force of the enemy holds it in check, while some hostile
evolution is being carried out.

=Mask.= A wire cage to protect the face in fencing.

=Mask Wall.= In permanent fortification, is the scarp wall of casemates.

=Mason and Dixon’s Line.= The line which divides Pennsylvania from
Maryland, running on the parallel of 39° 43′ 26″. The boundary between
the colonial possessions of the lords Baltimore and of the Penn family
had been a subject of almost continual dispute from the first settlement
of the country. At length, in 1760, the contending parties having agreed
upon a compromise, appointed commissioners to settle definitively the
limits between the two territories. Surveyors were employed by both
sides, but their progress appeared rather slow; the proprietors who
resided in England decided to send Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two
distinguished mathematicians and astronomers, to complete the work. They
arrived in Philadelphia in November, 1763, and by the autumn of 1767 had
carefully surveyed and marked a line of nearly 250 miles, extending for
the most part through a dense forest and passing over a number of
mountain ridges. This line, dividing as it does the free State of
Pennsylvania from Maryland, which was formerly a slave State, has been
often referred to, in popular language, as the boundary between freedom
and slavery in the United States.

=Mass.= In _statics_, is the amount of matter contained in a body. In
_dynamics_, is that measure of the matter in a body which determines its
relation to force. The accepted measure is the weight divided by the
force of gravity. See FORCE OF GRAVITY.

=Mass.= A word signifying the concentration of troops; the formation of
troops in column at less than half distance. To _mass troops_, is to
concentrate them by this arrangement on a certain point. A column _is
closed in mass_ when the sub-divisions have less than half distance.

=Massachusetts.= One of the thirteen original States of the American
Union, and oldest of the New England States. It was discovered by the
Cabots in 1497. In 1614 it was visited by Capt. John Smith. In 1620 the
“Mayflower” sailed from Southampton with 102 Puritan settlers, and
landed at Plymouth December 22. One half of them died from cold and
hardship the first year. In 1637, the colony suffered from Indian
massacres; and in King Philip’s war (1675) 12 towns and 600 houses were
burned. The war of the Revolution of 1776 began in Massachusetts with
the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. It adopted the Constitution of
the United States, 1788.

=Massachusetts Indians.= A general name given to all the tribes of
aborigines inhabiting the country in which the colonies of Plymouth and
Massachusetts Bay were founded. The five principal tribes were the
Nausets, Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, Massachusetts, Pennacooks, and
Nipmucks. They were nearly all exterminated in King Philip’s war (1675).
At present about 1500 Indians reside in Massachusetts.

=Massacre.= The killing of human beings by indiscriminate slaughter,
murder of numbers with cruelty or atrocity, or contrary to the usages of
civilized people; cold-blooded destruction of life; butchery; carnage.
The following are among the most remarkable:

_Before Christ._--Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397; 2000 Tyrians
crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not surrendering Tyre to
Alexander, 331; 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211;
dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones near Aix, by Marius, the
Roman general, 200,000 being left dead on the spot, 102; the Romans
throughout Asia, women and children not excepted, massacred in one day,
by order of Mithridates, king of Pontus, 88; great number of Roman
senators massacred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, 87; again, under
Sylla and Catiline, his minister of vengeance, 82; at Perusia,
Octavianus Cæsar ordered 300 Roman senators and other persons of
distinction to be sacrificed to the manes of Julius Cæsar, 40.

_After Christ._--At the destruction of Jerusalem 1,100,000 Jews are said
to have been put to the sword, 70; the Jews, headed by one Andræ, put to
death many Greeks and Romans in and near Cyrene, 115; Cassius, a Roman
general under the emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the
inhabitants of Seleucia, 165; at Alexandria, many thousands of citizens
were massacred by order of Antoninus, 215; the emperor Probus is said to
have put to death 400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277;
massacre of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378; of Thessalonica, when
7000 persons invited into the circus were put to the sword by order of
Theodosius, 390; of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532; massacre
of the Latins at Constantinople by order of Andronicus, 1184; of the
Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at Toulouse, 1208; thousands
perished by the sword and gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282 (see
SICILIAN VESPERS); at Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John,
duke of Burgundy, 1418; of the Swedish nobility at a feast, by order of
Christian II., 1520; of Protestants at Vassy, March 1, 1562; of 70,000
Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France, August 24, 1572 (see
BARTHOLOMEW, ST.); of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when
65,000 were slain, 1592; of the pretender Demetrius and his Polish
adherents, May 27, 1606; of the Protestants in the Valteline, Northern
Italy, July 19, 1620; of the Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a
pretended legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland for being concerned
in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic procession, 1724; all the
Protestant powers in Europe interceded to have this unjust sentence
revoked, but unavailingly; at Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by
the natives, October, 1740, under the pretext of an intended
insurrection; at the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and
young were slain, December, 1790; of French royalists (see
SEPTEMBRIZERS), September 2, 1792; of Poles at Praga, 1794; in St.
Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation for the massacre of all the
whites, March 29, 1804, and many thousands perished; insurrection at
Madrid, and massacre of the French, May 2, 1808; massacre of the
Mamelukes in the citadel of Cairo, March 1, 1811; massacre of
Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the Catholics, May, 1815; massacre
at Scio, April 22, 1822; destruction of the Janissaries at
Constantinople, June 14, 1826; above 500 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in
Algeria, June 18, 1845 (see DAHRA); massacre of Christians at Aleppo,
October 16, 1850; of Maronites by Druses in Lebanon, June, 1860; and of
Christians at Damascus, July 9-11, 1860. See DRUSES and DAMASCUS.

_In British History._--Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain by
Hengist, about 450; of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by
Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612; of the Danes in the southern
counties of England in the night of November 13, 1002, and the 23d, by
Ethelred II. At London it was most bloody, the churches being no
sanctuary. Among the rest was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark,
left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but newly concluded. Of
the Jews in England; some few pressing into Westminster Hall at Richard
I.’s coronation, were put to death by the people, and a false alarm
being given that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, the
people in many parts of England slew all they met. In York, 500 who had
taken shelter in the castle killed themselves rather than fall into the
hands of the multitude, 1189. Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen’s
Wood, Ireland (see CULLEN’S WOOD), 1209; of the English factory at
Amboyna, in order to dispossess its members of the Spice Islands,
February, 1624; massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O’Neill’s
rebellion, October 23, 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British were killed in
the commencement of this rebellion. In the first three or four days of
it, 40,000 or 50,000 of the Protestants were destroyed. Before the
rebellion was entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massacred;
of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see GLENCOE), February 13, 1692; of 184
men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced
to death by pikes, perpetrated by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of
Scullabogue, Ireland, in 1798; of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, etc., by
mutineers of the native Indian army, May and June, 1857; of Europeans at
Kalangan, on the south coast of Borneo, May 1, 1859; of the Europeans at
Morant Bay, Jamaica, by the infuriated negroes, October 11-12, 1865. See
JAMAICA.

_In American History._--Massacre of about 900 French Protestants
(soldiers, women, children, the aged and sick) in Florida, by the
Spaniards under Melendez de Aviles, on September 21, 1565; of about 347
English on March 22, 1622, and of 300 English on April 18, 1644, by
Indians in Virginia; of about 100 Algonkin Indians, in the neighborhood
of Manhattan, by the Dutch, on February 25-26, 1643; of 200 people at La
Chine, Isle of Montreal, by Iroquois, August 25, 1689; of a large number
of the inhabitants at Haverhill, Mass., by the French under Des
Chaillons and Hertel de Rouville, assisted by 100 picked Canadians and a
number of Algonkin Indians, August 29, 1708; of the English at
Pocotaligo, Carolina, by the Yamassees and their confederates, on April
15, 1715; of a colony of French, in the southwest, near the banks of the
Mississippi, by the Natchez Indians, November 28, 1729; of about 30
English soldiers, by Indians, allies of the French, after the
capitulation of Fort William Henry, August 19, 1757; of some 300
settlers, chiefly boys and old men, by British soldiers, Seneca Indians,
and Tories, in Wyoming Valley, Pa., on June 30, 1778 (see WYOMING
VALLEY); of a party of emigrants, by Indians in Mountain Meadows, Utah,
1857; of about 1000 settlers in Western Minnesota, by Sioux Indians in
1862; of the garrison of Fort Pillow, Tenn., by the Confederates, April
13, 1864; of part of the garrison of Fort Phil Kearney (near the fort),
by Indians, December, 1866; of five companies of the 7th U. S. Cavalry
under Gen. Custer, by Sioux Indians, June 25, 1876.

=Massacrer.= One who massacres.

=Massagetæ.= An ancient Scythian people (probably the ancestors of the
Goths), who invaded Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the
Great was killed, 529 B.C.

=Massa-Lubrenze=, or =Massa-de-Sorrento=. A town of Naples, on the gulf
of the same name, 19 miles south of the city of Naples. It was sacked by
the Turks in 1558.

=Masse= (_Fr._). A species of stock-purse, which, during the French
monarchy, was lodged in the hands of the regimental treasurer or
paymaster, for every sergeant, corporal, drummer, and soldier. The
amount retained for each sergeant was _vingt deniers_ per day, and _dix
deniers_ for each of the other ranks, according to the establishment,
not the effective number of each battalion. Out of these stoppages a
settled and regular _masse_, or stock-purse, was made up, and at the end
of every month it was paid into the hands of the major or officer
intrusted with the interior management of the corps, and was then
appropriated to defray the expense of clothing the different regiments,
and lodged in the hands of the directors or inspector-general of
clothing.

=Masse d’Armes= (_Fr._). A warlike weapon, which was formerly used. It
consisted of a long pole with a large iron head.

=Masselotte= (_Fr._). A French term which is used in foundery,
signifying that superfluous metal which remains after a cannon or
mortar has been cast, and which is saved or filed off, to give the piece
its proper form.

=Massie= (_Fr._). A short stick or rod, used by artificers in making
cartridges.

=Master, Baggage-.= An inspector of roads, formerly an appointment in
the British service.

=Master, Barrack-.= See BARRACK-MASTER.

=Master-General.= See ORDNANCE BOARD.

=Master-General, Barrack-.= Formerly an officer with the rank of
major-general, in the British service, who was vested with considerable
powers. His duties consisted in keeping all barracks in repair, and all
supplies of barrack furniture, utensils, and other stores for the
troops, were furnished by him, as also a proper quantity of good and
sufficient firing, candles, and other stores. He also supplied forage to
the cavalry.

=Master-General, Scout-.= See SCOUT-MASTER-GENERAL.

=Master-Gunners.= In the British service are pensioned sergeants of
artillery, who are placed in charge of the stores in small towers or
forts; they are divided into three classes, of which those in the first
class receive 5 shillings, in the second, 3 shillings and 6 pence, and
in the third, 3 shillings per day. They are now borne in the Coast
Brigade of Royal Artillery, but the office has much degenerated in
importance since it was first created, at least as early as the time of
Henry VIII.

=Mastery.= Victory in war.

=Matafunda.= An ancient machine of war, which was used for throwing
stones, probably by means of a sling.

=Matagorda.= A small fort and military post in the south of Spain,
contiguous to Cadiz. On February 22, 1810, Capt. (afterwards Lieut.-Gen.
Sir Archibald) Maclaine was posted here with a force of about 140 men.
The French cannonaded the work with field artillery all the next day;
but the garrison were immovable. On March 21, the fire of 48 guns and
mortars was directed on the little fort for thirty hours; when 64 men
out of the 140 having fallen, Gen. Graham sent boats to carry off the
survivors, and the fort was surrendered.

=Matan.= One of the Philippine Islands, lying to the east of Zebu, where
Magellan was killed in a skirmish with the natives in 1520.

=Matarieh.= A village of Lower Egypt, in the province of Ghizeh, which
stands on the site of the ancient Heliopolis, 5 miles northeast from
Cairo. The Turks were defeated here by the French in 1800.

=Match.= A preparation invented to retain fire for the service of
artillery, mines, fireworks, etc. For different kinds in use and their
composition, see LABORATORY STORES.

=Match.= A bringing together of two parties suited to one another, as
for a trial of skill or force, a contest, or the like; as,
specifically, a contest to try strength or skill; an emulous struggle.

=Matchlock.= The lock of a musket containing a match for firing it;
hence, a musket fired by means of a match.

=Mate-griffon.= An ancient machine, the destroyer and terror of the
Greeks, which projected both stones and darts.

=Matériel.= All cannon, small-arms, carriages, implements, ammunition,
etc., necessary for war purposes, used in contradistinction to
_personnel_. See PERSONNEL.

=Mathematics.= That science, or class of sciences, which treats of the
exact relations existing between the quantities or magnitudes, and of
the methods by which, in accordance with these relations, quantities
sought are deducible from other quantities known or supposed. It is
usually divided into _pure_, which considers magnitude or quantity
abstractly, without relation to matter; and _mixed_, which treats of
magnitude as subsisting in material bodies, and is consequently
interwoven with physical considerations; and to this branch may be
referred astronomy, geography, hydrography, hydrostatics, mechanics,
fortification, gunnery, mining, and engineering. The knowledge of
military mathematics is applicable to all the operations of war, where
everything consists in proportion, measure, and motion, bringing into
play the several important sciences already enumerated, a certain
proficiency in most of which is absolutely requisite to the formation of
a good and skillful officer.

=Matras= (_Fr._). A sort of dart which was anciently used, and which was
not sufficiently pointed to occasion anything more than a bruise.

=Matron.= A woman, generally the wife of some well-behaved and good
soldier, who is employed to assist in the hospital, do the washing,
etc., and is under the direction of the surgeon, by whom she is
originally appointed to the situation.

=Matrosses.= Were soldiers in the royal regiment of artillery in the
British service, who assisted the gunners in loading, firing, and
sponging the great guns. The term is now obsolete in the service, and
the duty is done by the gunners.

=Matter.= That with regard to which anything takes place,--the subject
of action, complaint, discussion, legal action, or the like. A word used
in reference to courts-martial. The specific charges which are brought
against a prisoner, and to which the court must strictly confine itself.
Also applied to the evidence before a legal tribunal. _New matter_ is
new evidence not before considered.

=Mattiaci.= A people in Germany, who dwelt on the eastern bank of the
Rhine, between the Main and the Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti.
They were subdued by the Romans, who, in the reign of Claudius, had
fortresses and silver mines in their country. After the death of Nero
they revolted against the Romans, and took part with the Chatti and
other German tribes in the siege of Moguntiacum. From this time they
disappear from history; and their country was subsequently inhabited by
the Alemanni.

=Mattock.= A pioneer tool, resembling a pickaxe, but having two broad
sharp edges instead of points.

=Mattress.= A quilted bed; a bed stuffed with hair, moss, or other soft
material, and quilted. Mattresses are much used by officers on
campaigns.

=Mattucashlash.= An ancient Scotch weapon sometimes called armpit
dagger, which was worn under the armpit, ready to be used on coming to
close quarters. This, with a broad sword and shield, completely armed
the Highlanders.

=Maubenge.= A town of France, in the department of Nord, situated on the
Sambre, not far from the frontiers of Belgium. The town is well
fortified, the defenses being by the famous Vauban. The town traces its
origin back to the 7th century, and being situated near the frontier,
has been an object of great contention. It has been taken no less than
ten times since the 15th century, and finally by the allies in 1815.

=Maul.= A heavy beater, or hammer, usually shod with iron, used in
driving piles, etc.

=Mauritania=, or =Mauretania=. The ancient name of the northwestern part
of Africa, corresponding in its limits to the present sultanate of
Morocco and the western portion of Algeria. It derived its name from its
inhabitants, the Mauri (Moors). The country was conquered by the Romans,
who founded many colonies in it, and in 49 B.C. Julius Cæsar appointed
Bogudes and Bocchoris joint kings of Mauritania. In 429 the Vandal king
Genseric, at the invitation of Count Boniface, crossed the Straits of
Gades, and Mauritania, with other African provinces, fell into the hands
of the barbarian conquerors. Belisarius destroyed the kingdom of the
Vandals, and Mauritania again became a Roman province under an Eastern
exarch. In 698, when the Arabs made the final conquest of Africa, the
Moors adopted the religion, name, and origin of their conquerors, and
sunk back into their more congenial state of Mohammedan savages.

=Mauritius=, or =The Isle of France=. An island in the Indian Ocean,
lying about 500 miles east from Madagascar, and forming a colony of
Great Britain. This island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, and
in 1598 it was taken by the Dutch. In 1810 it came into the possession
of the English.

=Mauser Gun.= Is the army service breech-loading rifle used since 1874
by the German infantry. It was invented in 1871, and derives its name
from Mauser, a gunsmith of Würtemberg, who modified and greatly improved
it. Its advantages over the needle-gun, the weapon used in the
Franco-German war, are numerous. It is lighter, weighing about two
pounds less, and carrying a heavier charge of powder and a lighter ball,
is of longer range, being effective at 1300 yards; the manner of loading
it is simpler, and it can be fired with greater rapidity.

=Maximum Charge.= See CHARGE.

=Maya.= A gorge in the Pyrenees, between Bidassoa and Nivelle, the scene
of an action in July, 1813, in which the French were worsted by the
English, under Gen. Stewart.

=Mayaguez.= A town and port of the island of Porto Rico. An adventurer
named Ducondray took this town in 1822, and made an attempt to establish
an independent republic.

=Maynard’s Primer.= Consisted of a coil of paper tape containing small
charges of percussion-powder placed at certain intervals. The coil was
placed in a circular cavity on the outside of the lock-plate. The
cocking of the piece, by unwinding the coil, brought successive charges
over the nipple, when they were exploded by the fall of the hammer.

=Maynard’s Rifle.= One of the first, if not the first rifle in which a
metallic cartridge was used. It was described in an official report to
the U. S. Chief of Ordnance in 1856. This, as well as the _primer_
mentioned above, was the invention of Dr. E. Maynard. This rifle in
improved form is still in the market.

=Meal Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Measure.= To compute or ascertain the extent, quantity, dimensions, or
capacity of, by a certain rule or standard.

=Measure of Velocity.= In projectiles and mechanics, is the space passed
over by a moving body in any given time. The space therefore must be
divided into as many equal parts as the time is conceived to be divided
into: the quantity of space answering to such portion of time is the
measure of the velocity.

=Measures.= For powder are cylindrical copper vessels of various sizes
for determining the charges of shells, cannon, etc.

=Meaux.= A town of France, in the department of the Seine-et-Marne, 23
miles northeast from Paris. After a siege of several months, this place
was taken by the English in 1520.

=Mecca.= A city of Arabia, capital of the province of Hejaz, and of the
district Belud-el-Haram. This was the birthplace of Mohammed, and the
cradle of the Mussulman creed. In 1804 and 1807, it was taken by the
Wahabees, and in 1818, by Ibrahim Pasha.

=Mechanical Manœuvres.= The application of the mechanical powers in
mounting, dismounting, shifting, and transporting artillery.

=Mechanical Powers.= Certain simple machines, such us the lever and its
modifications, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane with
its modifications, the screw, and the wedge, which convert a small force
acting through a great space into a great force acting through a small
space, or _vice versa_, and are used separately or in combination.

=Mechanics.= That science, or branch of applied mathematics, which
treats of motion, and develops the effects of powers or moving forces,
so far as they are applied to machines.

=Mechanicsville.= In Henrico Co., Va. Near here, on the left bank of the
Chickahominy, on the east side of Beaver Dam Creek, a battle was fought
on June 26, 1862, between the Confederate forces, under Gen. Lee, and
the Federal troops, under Gen. McClellan, in which the former were
compelled to retreat with great loss. The fight was mainly sustained on
the Federal side by the brigades of Gens. Reynolds and Seymour, and
lasted about seven hours, during the greater part of which time the
Federal artillery kept up a destructive fire on the enemy as they
essayed to charge the lines, each successive attempt only ending in
renewed disaster. Their loss was said to be about 3000, while that of
the Federals did not exceed 300.

=Mechlin=, or =Malines=. A town of Belgium, in the province of Antwerp,
situated on the Dyle. It was founded in the 6th century; destroyed by
the Normans in 884; sacked by the Spaniards, 1572; taken by the Prince
of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; frequently captured in the
17th and 18th centuries, partaking in the evil fortunes of the country.

=Mecklenburg.= Formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now
independent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and
Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The house of Mecklenburg claims to be descended
from Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the Western empire in the 5th
century, and died, 477. During the Thirty Years’ War, Mecklenburg was
conquered by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628; it was restored to
its own duke, 1630. After several changes, the government was settled in
1701 as it now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In
1815 the dukes were made grand dukes, and they joined the new North
German Confederation by treaty, August 21, 1866.

=Medal.= Is a piece of metal in the form of a coin, struck to
commemorate some remarkable event, or in honor of some distinguished
person, but having no place in the currency. Medals belong to two
periods, ancient and modern, separated by a wide interval. To the former
belong those pieces issued in ancient Rome, known as _medallions_, and
made of gold, silver, or copper. They are generally supposed to have
been struck on occasions similar to those on which medals are coined in
modern times, on the accession of an emperor, on the achievement of an
important victory, or as specimens of workmanship. Modern medals date
from the 14th century, but few were struck prior to the 15th. In more
recent times, it has become customary to confer medals as marks of
distinction for eminent worth or noble conduct, but more particularly
for naval or military services. Such medals of honor are seldom of
great intrinsic value, their worth depending on the associations
connected with them. During the Revolutionary war Congress conferred
these marks of honor on several military and naval heroes, who
distinguished themselves by their valor or achievements during that
eventful period. In the U. S. service, at present, bronze medals of
honor are conferred on enlisted men in the army, navy, and marine corps
for gallantry in action, or extraordinary heroism in the line of their
duties. In the English military service, similar medals are granted.
They are generally of silver, and have ribbons attached, with clasps or
small bars, each of which bears the name of a particular engagement.
Good-service medals of silver are also distributed among meritorious
soldiers, sailors, and marines.

=Medals of Honor.= See MEDALS.

=Medeah=, or =Medeyah=. A fortified town of Algeria, 40 miles southwest
from Algiers. This town was taken by the French in 1820.

=Media.= In ancient times, the name of the northwestern part of Iran,
which was bounded by the Caspian Sea on the north, Persia on the south,
Parthia on the east, and Assyria on the west. The Medians were in
language, religion, and manners very nearly allied to the Persians.
After they had shaken off the yoke of the Assyrians, their tribes united
about 708 B.C., chose Dejoces for their chief, and made Ecbatana their
capital. His son Phraortes, or Arphaxad, subdued the Persians. Cyaxares,
the son of Phraortes, in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon,
overthrew the Assyrian empire about 604 B.C., spread the terror of his
arms as far as Egypt and the farthest bounds of Asia Minor, and
vanquished the brigand hordes of Scythia, who had carried their ravages
as far as Syria. He was succeeded by his son Astyage, who was deposed
(560 B.C.) by his own grandson Cyrus, king of Persia; and from this time
the two nations are spoken of as one people. After the death of
Alexander the Great (324 B.C.), the northwest portion of Media became a
separate kingdom, and existed till the time of Augustus; the other
portion, under the name of _Great Media_, forming a part of the Syrian
monarchy. Media was on several occasions separated from Persia. In 152
B.C., Mithridates I. took Great Media from the Syrians, and annexed it
to the Parthian empire, and about 36 B.C., it had a king of its own,
named Artavasdes, against whom Mark Antony made war. Under the Sassanian
dynasty, the whole of Media was united to Persia. It became, during the
14th and 15th centuries, the stronghold of the Turkoman tribes. In early
times the Medes were a warlike race, and were distinguished for their
skill with the bow. They were also celebrated for their horsemanship,
and it was from them that the Persians adopted this and other favorite
exercises and acquirements. In subsequent times, they appear to have
become effeminated by luxury.

=Mediator.= Any state or power which interferes to adjust a quarrel
between any two or more powers, is called a mediator.

=Medical Department.= This department of an army, next to the
commissariat, is the most important of all the non-combatant sections.
The surgical treatment of the wounded in actual fighting, and still more
the combat with disease engendered by crowding, unhealthy stations, and
the reckless habits of the soldiery, necessitate a large medical staff;
for, on an average of the whole army, it is found that the rate of
sickness is at least quadruple that for the civil population. In the
British army every battalion, when at home or in the temperate zone, has
a surgeon and an assistant-surgeon; when in India or the tropics,
another assistant-surgeon is added. The medical department is governed
by a director-general, who is a member of the War Office, and has charge
of the surgical, medical, and sanitary arrangements of the army. In the
United States every military post has at least one medical officer and
sometimes two, as the nature of the climate or the strength of the
command demands, all of whom are under the command of a surgeon-general,
who ranks as brigadier-general, and is permanently established at
Washington, D. C. He has full control over everything that pertains to
the medical department of the army. Officers of the medical department
are assistant-surgeons, with the rank of first lieutenants of cavalry
the first five years of their service thereafter, till promoted to the
grade of surgeon, when they receive the rank, pay, and emoluments of
captain.

=Medical Director.= In the U. S. service, an officer who is placed on
duty at the headquarters of a military geographical division or
department, and who, under the supervision of the surgeon-general, has
control of the medical department within the limits of the command in
which he is serving.

=Medical School.= At Netley, England, an institution is established for
the technical education of medical officers for the British and Indian
military service. Candidates are examined competitively in the ordinary
subjects of professional knowledge; and, passing satisfactorily through
that ordeal, are then required to attend for six months at the Military
Medical School. As the school is attached to the Royal Victoria
Hospital, which is the great invalid depot for the whole army, the
students have ample opportunity of seeing theory exemplified in
practice.

=Medical Staff.= This branch of the British army is under the control of
an experienced officer, stationed at headquarters, under the
denomination of “director-general.” Immediately under his command are a
number of inspectors-general, deputy inspectors-general, and a corps of
staff-surgeons. The locality of all the officers subordinate to the
director-general is determined by the force to which they may be
attached. All the regimental surgeons and assistant-surgeons make their
reports to and consult the staff-officer who is placed in their
district. The director-general is paid from the civil department of the
government. A deputy inspector-general of hospitals must have served
five years at home, or three years abroad in this rank, before he shall
be eligible to the highest rank of inspector-general.

The _medical board_ consists of three or four medical officers, who may
be convened by an order through the Secretary of War, for the inspection
of wounded officers, in order to secure them a provision for life,
according to the regulations regarding pensions, etc.

=Medicine-chest.= Is composed of all sorts of medicines necessary for a
campaign, together with such chirurgical instruments as are useful,
fitted up in chests and portable. The army is supplied with these at the
expense of the government.

=Medina.= Or more fully, Medinat Al Nabi (City of the Prophet), the
holiest city throughout Mohammedanism next to Mecca, and second capital
and stronghold of Hedjaz in Western Arabia. In this city Mohammed was
protected when he fled from Mecca, September 13, 622, others say July
15, 622. (See HEGIRA.) Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1804; retaken
by the pasha of Egypt in 1818.

=Medina de Rio Seco.= A town of Spain, 25 miles northwest of Valladolid,
on the Seguillo, an affluent of the Douro. Here Bessières defeated the
Spaniards, July 15, 1808.

=Medjidie.= A Turkish order, instituted in 1852, and conferred after the
Crimean campaign, to a considerable extent, on British officers. It has
five classes; and the decoration, which differs in size for the
different classes, is a silver sun of seven triple rays, with the device
of the crescent and star alternating with the rays. On a circle of red
enamel, in the centre of the decoration, is the legend in Turkish, whose
signification is “zeal, honor, and loyalty,” and the date 1268, the
Mohammedan year corresponding to 1852; the sultan’s name is inscribed on
a gold field within this circle. The first three classes suspend the
badge round the neck from a red ribbon having green borders, and the
fourth and fifth classes wear it attached to a similar ribbon on the
left breast. A star, in design closely resembling the badge, is worn on
the left breast by the first class, and on the right breast by the
second class.

=Meeanee=, or =Miyani=. A village in Sinde, Hindostan, on the Indus, 6
miles north of Hyderabad, is celebrated as the scene of a great battle
between Sir Charles Napier and the ameers of Sinde, February 17, 1843.
Sir Charles’s force, composed partly of Europeans, and partly of
natives, amounted to only 2800 men; that of his foes to 22,000, yet the
latter were totally routed, losing in killed and wounded 5000, while Sir
Charles’s loss was only 256. The result of this victory was the conquest
and annexation of Sinde.

=Meer Bukshy.= In the East Indies, a chief paymaster.

=Meer Tozuk.= In the East Indies, a marshal whose business is to
preserve order in a procession or line of march, and to report
absentees.

=Meerut=, =Merut=, or =Mirut=. The chief town of a district of the same
name in British India, on the Kali Nuddi, about 42 miles northeast from
Delhi. Here on May 10, 1857, the native troops revolted, shooting their
own European officers, and massacring the European inmates without
respect to age or sex.

=Megalopolis= (now _Sinano_, or _Sinanu_). The most recent, but the most
important of the cities of Arcadia, was founded on the advice of
Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuctra, 371 B.C., and was formed out
of the inhabitants of 38 villages. It was situated near the frontiers of
Messenia, on the river Helisson. It was for a time subject to the
Macedonians, but soon after the death of Alexander the Great, it was
governed by a series of native tyrants, the last of whom united the city
to the Achæan League, 234 B.C. It became, in consequence, opposed to
Sparta, and was taken by Cleomenes, who destroyed a great part of the
city, 222. After the battle of Sellasia in the following year it was
restored by Philopœmen.

=Megara.= An ancient city of Greece, capital of the territory Megaris,
was situated 8 stadia (1 mile) from the sea, opposite the island of
Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31 miles from Corinth. In
461-445 B.C. the Athenians had possession of the country, but it
subsequently became annexed to Attica, and Megaris formed one of the
four ancient divisions of Attica. It was next conquered by the Dorians,
and was for a time subject to Corinth; but it finally asserted its
independence, and rapidly became a wealthy and powerful city. The
government was originally an aristocracy, as in most of the Doric
cities; but Theagenes, one of the common people, put himself at the head
of the popular party, and obtained the supreme power about 620 B.C.
Theagenes was afterward expelled, and a democratical form of government
established. After the Persian wars, Megara was for some time at war
with Corinth, and was thus led to form an alliance with Athens, and to
receive an Athenian garrison in the city, 461; but they were expelled in
441. The city was taken and its walls destroyed by Demetrius
Poliorcetes; it was again taken by the Romans under Q. Metellus; and in
the time of Augustus it had ceased to be a place of importance.

=Meggheteriarque= (_Fr._). The commanding officer of a body of men; who
formerly did duty at Constantinople, and were called _Heteriennes_,
being composed of soldiers who were enlisted in the allied nations.

=Mehadpore=, =Mehidpoor=, =Mahedpore=, or =Maheidpoor=. A town of
Hindostan, Gwalior dominions, 22 miles north of Odjein. Here Sir Thomas
Hislop and Sir John Malcolm defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar,
December 21, 1817.

=Meigs Gun.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Melanippus.= The name of four Trojan warriors, who fought valiantly in
the wars of their native country.

=Melazzo= (West Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20-21, 1860, defeated
the Neapolitans under Gen. Bosco, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi’s
loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and on July 30 a convention
was signed by which it was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to
quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till March 13, 1861.

=Mêlée= (_Fr._). A military term, which is used among the French to
express the hurry and confusion of a battle. Mêlée corresponds with the
English expression “thick of the fight.”

=Melegnano.= See MARIGNANO.

=Melfi.= A town of Naples, province of Basilicata (Potenza), 75 miles
east-northeast of Naples, and 34 south of Foggia. It was formerly the
capital of the Norman possessions in Southern Italy, and was defended by
walls, now in a ruinous condition, and by an ancient Norman castle. The
town was taken, and 18,000 of its inhabitants massacred by the French,
under Lautrec de Foix, in 1528.

=Meloria=, or =Melora=. A small island in the Mediterranean, off the
coast of Tuscany, 4 miles west of Leghorn. Near Meloria the Pisan fleet
defeated the Genoese in 1241, capturing many bishops going with much
treasure to a council. The total destruction of the Pisan fleet on
August 6, 1284, by the Genoese near the same place, after a most
sanguinary conflict, was considered to be the just punishment of
impiety.

=Melos= (now _Milo_). One of the Cyclades in the Ægean Sea, colonized by
the Spartans about 1116 B.C.; it was captured during the Peloponnesian
war, after a seven months’ siege, by the Athenians, who massacred all
the men and sold the women and children as slaves, 416 B.C.

=Melrose.= A village at the foot of the Eildon Hills, on the south bank
of the Tweed. It is famous for the ruins of its noble abbey founded by
King David I. in 1136, its original pile having been destroyed during
the Wars of the Succession. Melrose was burned by Kenneth, king of
Scots, in 839.

=Melton-Mowbray.= A town of England, in Leicestershire, situated at the
confluence of the Wreak and Eye. It is remarkable as the scene of a
defeat of the Parliamentary troops by the royalists in 1644.

=Melun.= An ancient town of France, capital of the department of
Seine-et-Marne, 28 miles southeast from Paris. It was the _Melodunum_ of
the Romans; was taken by Clovis in 494; was stormed five times during
the 9th century by the Northmen, and fell into the hands of the English
after a siege of six months in 1419, and was held by them for ten years.

=Members.= Officers are so called who are detailed by orders to sit on
general or garrison courts-martial.

=Members, Supernumerary.= In case supernumerary members are detailed for
a court-martial, they are sworn, and it is right that they should sit
and be present at all deliberations even when the court is cleared, in
order to be prepared to take the place of any absent member. Until then
they have no voice.

=Memel.= A town and seaport of East Prussia, on the small river Dange,
adjacent to the Cürische Haff, 74 miles northeast from Königsberg. It is
strongly fortified. It was taken by Teutonic knights about 1328.

=Memmingen.= A town of Bavaria, circle of Swabia, situated on a
tributary of the Iller. It is noted as the scene of a victory gained by
the French under Moreau over the Austrians, May 10, 1800.

=Memoir.= Is the title given by military officers to those plans which
they offer to their government or commanders on subjects relating to war
or military economy.

=Memoirs.= In military literature, a species of history, written by
persons who had some share in the transactions they relate, answering in
some measure to what the Romans call _commentarii_, “commentaries.”
Hence Cæsar’s Commentaries, or the memoirs of his campaigns.

=Memorial.= An address to the government on any matter of public
service.

=Memphis.= A celebrated Egyptian city, situated in the Delta, or Lower
Egypt. During the attempts of the native rulers to throw off the Persian
rule, Memphis was an important strategic point. Ochus inflicted severe
injury on this town, having plundered the temples and thrown down the
walls after he had driven out Nectanebus. Ptolemy VIII. destroyed the
city. It fell with the rest of Egypt under the Roman rule, and
afterwards was conquered by Amru Ben Abas (639-40).

=Memphis.= A flourishing city and port of entry of Shelby Co., Tenn.
During the civil war, it fell into the hands of the Union forces, after
a short naval fight, June 6, 1862, and in 1864, Gen. Forrest made a raid
upon it, capturing a great number of prisoners.

=Men, Battalion.= All the soldiers belonging to the different companies
of an infantry regiment were so called, except those of the two flank
companies.

=Men, Camp-color.= Soldiers under the immediate command and direction of
the quartermaster of a regiment. Their business is to assist in marking
out the lines of an encampment, etc.; to carry the camp colors to the
field on days of exercise, and fix them occasionally for the purpose of
enabling the troops to take up correct points in marching, etc. So that
in this respect they frequently, indeed almost always, act as guides, or
what the French call _jalonneurs_. They are likewise employed in the
trenches, and in all fatigue duties.

=Menace.= A hostile threat. Menacing words used in the presence of a
court-martial are punishable in accordance with Article of War 86. See
APPENDIX.

=Menai Strait= (between the Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey).
Suetonius Paulinus, when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops
across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, while the cavalry swam over
on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last retreat. Their
horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and the opposition he met
with so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no quarter,
throwing all that escaped from that battle into fires which they had
prepared for the destruction of himself and his army in 61.

=Menapii.= A powerful people in the north of Gallia Belgica, who
originally dwelt on both banks of the Rhine, but were afterwards driven
out of their possessions on the right bank by the Usipetes and
Tenchteri, and inhabited only the left bank near its mouth, and west of
the Mosa.

=Mendavia.= A town of Spain, province of Navarre, 37 miles southwest
from Pamplona. Cæsar Borgia, the infamous son of Pope Alexander VI., was
killed here in a skirmish in 1507.

=Mende.= A town of France, capital of an arrondissement of the same
name, on the left bank of the Lot. This town was fortified in 1151; it
suffered much in the civil wars of the Reformation, and was taken no
less than seven times.

=Menehould, St.= A town of France, in the department of the Marne,
situated on the Aisne, 26 miles northeast of Chalons; it was taken by
Louis XIV. in 1653.

=Menin.= A fortified town of Belgium, province of West Flanders, on the
Lys, 31 miles southwest of Ghent. It has undergone a great number of
sieges, and in the 17th and 18th centuries was frequently taken by the
French.

=Menomonees.= A tribe of Indians, of Algonkin stock. They number about
1500, are partially civilized, and reside on a reservation near Green
Bay, Wis.

=Men’s-harness.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Mensuration.= That branch of applied geometry which gives rules for
finding the length of lines, the areas of surfaces, or the volumes of
solids, from certain simple data of lines and angles. Every military
officer should be acquainted with mensuration.

=Mentana.= A small village, 13 miles from Rome. Here Garibaldi and his
volunteers, numbering between 3000 and 4000, after having intrenched his
positions at Monterotondo and Mentana on their march towards Tivoli, on
November 3, 1867, were totally defeated by the papal and French troops,
under Gens. Kanzler and Polhès, after a severe conflict, in which Gen.
Failly said “the Chassepot rifles did wonders.” There were about 5000
men on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly armed. The loss
of the papal and French troops was about 200 killed and wounded; that
of Garibaldi about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, and was
arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to Caprera.

=Mentonniere= (_Fr._). Chin-piece; chin-strap; chin-piece of a helmet is
so called.

=Mentz= (Ger. _Mainz_, Fr. _Mayence_, anc. _Moguntiacum_). A city of
Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the
Rhine. Mentz was founded by the Romans in the 2d century, and in 406 was
destroyed by the Vandals; but after lying in ruins for some centuries it
was restored by Charlemagne, and attained great prosperity after the
time of Bonifacius. In the Thirty Years’ War, it was taken by the
Swedes, and in 1688 by the French, but was restored at the subsequent
peace. At the end of 1792, it surrendered to the French. Next year it
was taken by the Austrians. By the peace of Lunéville, concluded in
1801, it was formally ceded to France, and in 1815 it was assigned to
Hesse-Darmstadt. The town is strongly fortified, and is one of the
strongest places in Europe, serving as a defense for Germany on the side
of France. On the other side of the Rhine stands the suburb of Castel,
which is also fortified.

=Mequinenza.= A town and port of Spain, on the Ebro, in the province of
Huesca, Aragon, 64 miles southeast from Huesca. It is defended by a
fortress, which was taken by the French in 1810.

=Mercara.= A town and fortress in the south of India. It was built by
Hyder Ali in 1773, after he had conquered the country. Tippoo Sahib gave
it up to the rajah of Coorg in 1792. It was taken possession of by the
British in 1834.

=Mercenaries.= Soldiers serving for pay in a foreign service.

=Mercia.= One of the largest of the seven kingdoms of the Heptarchy
(which see). It comprised the counties from the Thames to Yorkshire, and
is said to have been founded by Crida in 585. Three-quarters of a
century later, Mercia was conquered for a time by Northumbria; but it
recovered its independence, which it retained until Egbert subdued it,
when it was included in the kingdom of Wessex.

=Merida.= A town of Spain, province of Estremadura, on the Guadiana, 35
miles east from Badajos. It was built by the Romans; taken by the Moors
in 713; taken from them in 1229; taken by the French, January, 1811.
Near this town, at Arroyas Molinos, the British army under Gen.
(afterwards Lord) Hill defeated the French under Gen. Girard, after a
severe engagement, October 28, 1811. The British took Merida from the
French in 1812, Gen. Hill leading the combined forces of English and
Spanish troops.

=Merionethshire.= The most southern county of North Wales, situated at
the middle of the Welsh coast. Here Owen Gwynedd defeated Henry II., and
brave Glyndwr rose in arms at the call of friendship and patriotism to
resist the usurper of the throne of gentle Henry, and the enslaver of
his loved Wales. Tradition and records tell of bloody deeds done here in
those and later days by freebooters, daring and cruel.

=Merit.= To earn by active service, or by any valuable performance; to
have a right to claim as reward; to deserve. Also, the quality or
relation of deserving well or ill.

=Merit, Certificate of.= In the U. S. army a certificate which is given
by the President, upon the recommendation of commanding officers, to
enlisted men who have distinguished themselves in the service. The
holder of each certificate is entitled to $2 per month.

=Merit, Order of.= A military distinction given to officers or soldiers
for some signal service, the badge of which is generally expressive of
the service. Such was the medal, or order of merit, presented by the
Austrian emperor to the officers of the 15th British Light Dragoons for
their bravery in the affair of Villers en Couché in 1794.

=Meritorious.= Possessing merit or desert; deserving of reward or honor.

=Merkin.= A mop to clean a cannon. See MALKIN.

=Merlin.= A handspike.

=Merlon.= The mass of earth of the parapet between two embrasures,
generally from 15 to 18 feet in length. Also, the projection on the top
of a crenellated wall.

=Merovingians.= The first Frankish dynasty in Gaul. The name is derived
from Merwig, or Merovæus, who ruled about the middle of the 5th century,
having united a few tribes under his sway. His grandson, Clovis, or
Clodwig, greatly extended his dominions, and on his death divided his
kingdom among his four sons, one of whom, Chlotar, or Chlotaire I.,
reunited them under his own sway in 558. On his death, in 561, the
kingdom was again divided into four parts,--Aquitaine, Burgundy,
Neustria, and Austrasia. His grandson, Clotaire II., again united them
in 613; but after his death, in 628, two kingdoms, Neustria and
Austrasia, were formed, in both of which the Merovingian kings retained
a merely nominal power, the real power having passed into the hands of
the mayors of the palace. The dynasty of the Merovingians terminated
with the deposition of Childeric IV., in 752, and gave place to that of
the Carlovingians.

=Merseburg.= A town of Prussian Saxony, capital of a circle of the same
name, on the Saale. It was near this town that the emperor Henry the
Fowler gained his famous victory over the Hungarians in 934. Rudolf of
Swabia was here defeated and slain by Henry IV. in 1080.

=Mesolonghi.= See MISSOLONGHI.

=Mess.= The law is silent with regard to messes in the army. Executive
regulations have been made on the subject, but without law it is
impossible to put messes on a proper footing. In England, an allowance
is granted by the sovereign in aid of the expense of officers’ messes;
and every officer on appointment to a corps subscribes one month’s pay
to the mess-fund. All the officers of the corps mess together. (See
GUARD MESS.) In France, the several grades mess separately; lieutenants
and sub-lieutenants forming two tables, captains another, and
field-officers of different grades generally eating separately also.
Generals and colonels of the French service receive an allowance for
table expenses, not sufficient to keep open house, but enough to enable
them to entertain guests. In the British navy there are generally three
messes, namely, the ward-room mess, the gun-room mess, and the
engineers’ mess; in the U. S. navy there are two: the ward-room and
steerage messes. Enlisted soldiers and seamen, in the army and navy
respectively, mess together in tables comprising a certain number,
according to squads or rating; but this has no reference to the
technical meaning of messing as applied to officers, and is merely for
the purpose of economy of fuel and labor in the cooking of their
rations.

=Message.= Word sent; more especially a dispatch signaled or
telegraphed.

=Messenia.= A district in the southwest of the Peloponnesus. At an early
period after the Doric conquest, it rose to power and opulence. It is
chiefly noted for its two wars with Sparta, known as the Messenian Wars,
the first of which lasted from 743 to 724 B.C., and the second from 685
to 668 B.C. In both instances the Athenians were defeated, and in
consequence, a great part of them emigrated to Sicily, where they took
possession of Zancle, which then received the name of Messana, the
present Messina (which see).

=Messina.= A city in the northeast of the island of Sicily, situated on
a strait called the Faro di Messina, which separates Italy from
Calabria. It is 9 miles northwest from Reggio, in Calabria. The town is
entirely surrounded with walls and protected by detached forts and a
citadel, which stands on the neck of the curved promontory that forms
the harbor. It was seized by the Mamertini about 281 B.C. It belonged
for many ages to the Roman empire; was taken by the Saracens about 829.
Roger the Norman took it from them by surprise about 1072. It revolted
against Charles of Anjou, and was succored by Peter of Aragon, 1282;
revolted in favor of Louis XIV of France, 1676; the Spaniards punished
it severely, 1678; headquarters of British forces in Sicily prior to
1814; an insurrection took place here which was subdued September 7,
1848. Garibaldi entered Messina after his victory at Malazzo, July
20-21, 1860; the citadel surrendered to Cialdini, March 13, 1861.

=Mestre de Camp Général= (_Fr._). The next officer in rank, in the old
French cavalry service, to the colonel-general. This appointment was
created under Henry II. in 1552. _Mestre de camp général des dragoons_,
an appointment which first took place under Louis XIV. in 1684.

=Metal.= Broken stone, etc., used as a road cover.

=Metal.= In heraldry, the metals in use are gold and silver, known as
_or_ and _argent_. The field of the escutcheon and the charges which it
bears may be of metal as well as of color. It is a rule of blazon that
metal should not be placed on metal, or color on color.

=Metals for Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Metapontum=, or =Metapontium=. A city of Magna Græcia; was situated on
the Tarentine Gulf, 14 miles from Heraclea, and 24 from Tarentum. The
Metapontines assisted the Athenians in their Sicilian expedition (415
B.C.); they embraced the side of Pyrrhus in his war with the Romans, and
after its conclusion fell under the Roman yoke. When Hannibal invaded
Italy, the Metapontines after the battle of Cannæ were well disposed to
him; but, on account of a garrison of Romans, were unable openly to
desert to him till 212 B.C., when the city was occupied by a
Carthaginian garrison. When Hannibal was compelled to leave Italy he
removed, along with his own troops, the inhabitants of Metapontum; and
from that time the city disappears from history.

=Metaurus= (now _Metauro_). A river in Central Italy, where Hasdrubal,
brother of Hannibal, was defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching
with abundant reinforcements for the latter. The Romans were led by
Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of
Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother’s camp. This victory saved Rome.

=Meter=, or =Metre=. The French standard of linear measure, intended to
be the ten-millionth part of the earth’s quadrant, from the equator to
the pole. It is equal to 39.370 British, or 39.369 American inches.

=Methone= (_Modon_). An ancient city of Messenia; was situated on the
southwest coast. At the close of the second Messenian war it was given
by the victorious Lacedæmonians to the exiled Nauplians, but was
restored to its rightful owners by Epaminondas. An unsuccessful attack
was made upon Methone by the Athenians in 413 B.C. It was made a free
city by the emperor Trajan.

=Métier= (_Fr._). Literally means any calling or business. In a military
sense, it is peculiarly applicable to those nations which keep up large
standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit.
Chevalier Folard gives the following definition relative to the question
which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a
trade or a science. The English call it a profession. Folard, however,
distinguishes it in this manner: _La guerre est une métier pour les
ignorons, et une science pour les habiles gens_, “war in the
apprehension, and under the management of ignorant persons is certainly
a mere trade or business, but among able men it becomes an important
branch of science.”

=Metric System.= The French system of measures, founded upon the metre.
The system is decimal, and includes measures of length, area, volume,
and weight.

=Metulum.= The chief town of the Iapydes in Illyricum; was near the
frontier of Liburnia, and was situated on two peaks of a steep mountain.
Augustus nearly lost his life in reducing this place, the inhabitants of
which fought against him with desperate courage.

=Metz= (anc. _Divodurum_). A city and fortress of Alsace-Lorraine,
situated on the Moselle. It was the Roman _Divodurum_, or _Meti_,
capital of the Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe (whose name it
took at a later date), and of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the
6th century; but in 985, Otho II. made it a free imperial city, and
thereafter it was used by the German emperors as a barrier against
France. It was besieged by Charles VII. in 1444, and could only preserve
its freedom by the payment of 100,000 crowns. At length Henry II.
obtained possession of it in 1552; and although it was besieged by
Charles V. with an army of 100,000 men, his efforts were completely
baffled by the skill and energy of the Duke of Guise, and by the courage
and constancy of the townsmen; so that the French continued in
possession of the town till it, along with Toul and Verdun, was formally
secured to them by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the
Franco-German war (1870-71) the emperor Napoleon III. arrived at Metz,
and assumed the chief command, July 28, 1870. After the disastrous
defeats at Wörth and Forbach, August 6, the whole French army, except
the corps of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay, was concentrated here,
August 10, 11, and by delay was hemmed in by the Germans. Marshal
Bazaine assumed the chief command on August 8, and on August 14 he was
attacked at Courcelles, a little east of Metz. On August 16, Bazaine
advanced from the fortress, but was attacked by the second army, under
command of Prince Frederick Charles, at Vionville, and was compelled to
retreat to Metz. But on August 17, Bazaine massed his troops for a
decisive conflict, and on August 18 he gave battle at Gravelotte (which
see), but was compelled to retreat again, and was shut up in the city.
Prince Frederick Charles now surrounded the city, and then began one of
the greatest sieges of history. After many brilliant sallies Bazaine was
compelled to surrender, October 27, on account of starvation and
sickness, with an army including 3 marshals, 66 generals, 173,000 men,
including the imperial guard, 400 pieces of artillery, 100
mitrailleuses, and 53 eagles and standards; and on October 29 the
Germans entered Metz. All the army that surrendered was compelled to go
to Germany as prisoners of war. In May, 1871, Metz was ceded to the
German empire by the peace of Frankfort, and its fortifications greatly
strengthened.

=Meurtrières= (_Fr._), Small loop-holes, sufficiently large to admit the
barrel of a rifle or musket, through which soldiers may fire, under
cover, against an enemy. They likewise mean the cavities that are made
in the walls of a fortified town or place.

=Mexico.= A federal republic of North America, next to the United
States. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez in 1521, and
remained as a Spanish dependency for 300 years; and after a long
struggle with the mother-country, which commenced in 1810, it shook off
the Spanish yoke in 1821, and declared its independence. In 1824 the
country was declared a federal republic, with a constitution similar to
that of the United States, and its independence was acknowledged by
Spain in 1836. About this time Texas, which was then the most
northeastern of the Mexican states, withdrew from the federal league and
became an independent republic. The Mexican general, Santa Anna, was
sent to reduce them to subjection, but he was defeated and taken
prisoner by the Texans. In 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States
and admitted into the Union as a State. This led to a war between Mexico
and the United States, by which the former lost all her northern
provinces, consisting of Utah, California, and New Mexico, which were
ceded to the United States in 1848. From this time the history of Mexico
consists, for the most part, of a long series of insurrections,
revolutions, and political changes, which followed each other in rapid
succession. Santa Anna, who had been driven into exile shortly after his
disgrace in Texas, was recalled and made dictator in 1853. He was
succeeded in power by Gens. Carera, Alveraz, Comonfort, and Zulagoa.
When the last named was made dictator in 1858, Benito Juarez, the Indian
statesman, was declared constitutional president by the liberal party; a
civil war ensued, anarchy and confusion reigned supreme in the country;
but Juarez, taking advantage of the dissensions between Zulagoa and
Miramon, the leaders of two opposite sections of the party that was
hostile to his government, at last gained the ascendency, and entered
the capital as president of the Mexican republic in January, 1861. In
the same year, in consequence of the enormities practiced by Juarez and
his partisans, and the outrages committed on European merchants resident
in the country, the governments of England, France, and Spain formed a
triple alliance, and sent an expedition to Mexico to demand satisfaction
for the injuries inflicted on the subjects of their respective
countries, and to endeavor to bring about a more settled state of
affairs. Vera Cruz was occupied by the allied forces, and this event was
followed soon after by the convention of Soledad, signed in February,
1862, in which the government of Juarez engaged to comply with the
requisitions of the allies. But the French government disapproved of the
convention, and although the forces of England and Spain were withdrawn
in compliance with its terms, Napoleon III. determined to advance on the
capital, with the view of effecting the overthrow of Juarez and placing
the government of the country on a settled basis. The French troops
were, however, delayed for some months before Puebla, which capitulated
on May 18, 1863, and entered Mexico on the 8th of the following month,
amid the acclamations of the people, who had become weary of the
intestine strife that had so long convulsed the land, and which had been
produced by the jealousy and rivalry of the party leaders who had
aspired to the direction of the government. This event was followed by
the proclamation of the empire and the nomination of Maximilian, the
brother of the present emperor of Austria, as the first emperor of
Mexico under the new régime. The republican leaders were violently
opposed to this measure, and Maximilian by his severity towards them
alienated the affections of many of his original supporters. At length,
on the withdrawal of the French troops at the demand of the United
States, the republicans advanced into Central Mexico. Maximilian with a
Mexican force vainly attempted to oppose them, and was captured and shot
at Queretaro, June 19, 1867.

=Mézières.= An ancient and well-built town of France, the capital of the
department of Ardennes, situated on a peninsula formed by the Meuse. In
1520, the Chevalier Bayard successfully defended this place against
40,000 Spaniards under the Count of Nassau, and in 1815 it held out for
two months against the Prussians, but was at length obliged to
capitulate.

=Miami Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Algonkin stock, who formerly
resided in Ohio and Indiana. In the war of 1812, they fought against the
United States as allies of the British. In 1846 the majority of the
tribe removed to Kansas, on a reservation in which State a remnant still
resides.

=Michigan.= One of the Northern Central States of the United States. It
was colonized by the French, near Detroit, in the latter half of the
17th century, but, like other French colonies in America, did not
progress rapidly. At the peace of 1763, it came, with the other French
possessions in North America, under the dominion of Great Britain, and
so remained till the breaking out of the American Revolution, when it
passed to the United States. On the expulsion of the French, the
celebrated Indian chief Pontiac seized the occasion to rid the country
of the hated whites by a general uprising, and simultaneous attacks on
all the forts of the English on the lakes. Mackinaw was taken by
stratagem, and the garrison mercilessly butchered. Detroit was besieged
for some months by Pontiac, with 600 Indians; but it held out till the
Indian allies, becoming weary of the siege, retired and left Pontiac no
choice but to make peace. The British surrendered Detroit to the United
States in 1796. In 1805, Michigan, which up to that period had been a
part of the Northwest Territory, was formed into a separate government.
In 1812, it became the scene of some stirring events in the war with
Great Britain. Lying contiguous to Canada, it was invaded in the very
commencement of that struggle, and its capital (Detroit) surrendered
August 15, 1812, by Gen. Hull, under circumstances which led to his
displacement from his command. Previous to this Fort Mackinaw had been
taken by the enemy. In January, 1813, a cruel massacre by the savages of
a party of American prisoners took place at Frenchtown, but soon after,
Gen. Harrison drove the enemy out of the Territory of Michigan, and
removed the seat of war into Canada. Michigan became an independent
member of the American Confederacy in 1837. During the civil war, she
contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and sent over 90,000 men
to the field.

=Micmacs.= A tribe of Indians numbering about 4000, who reside
principally in New Foundland, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia.
They were formerly faithful allies of the French in their wars with the
New England colonies, and with the English, against whom they maintained
a hostile attitude until about 1760.

=Middle Ages.= The ages or period of time about equally distant from the
decline of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in Europe, or
from the 8th to the 15th century of the Christian era.

=Middle Assembling-bar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Middle-chest.= The front ammunition-chest on the body of the
caisson,--so called because it is between the hind chest and the
limber-chest when the caisson is limbered.

=Middle-man.= The man who occupies a central position in a file of
soldiers.

=Midea.= A town in Argolis, of uncertain site; is said to have been
originally called Persepolis, because it had been fortified by Perseus.
It was destroyed by the Argives.

=Midianites.= An Arab race, descended, according to Scripture, from
Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah. They occupied the greater part of
the country between the north side of the Arabian Gulf and Arabia Felix
as far as the Plains of Moab. The Midianites were very troublesome
neighbors to the Israelites till Gideon’s victory over them (about 1249
B.C.), after which they gradually disappeared.

=Mignon= (_Fr._). Picked soldier, now called _élite_.

=Milan= (_Mediolanum_, capital of the ancient Liguria). A city of Italy,
the capital of the province of Lombardy, 78 miles northeast from Turin;
is reputed to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B.C. It was
conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus, 222 B.C. It was the seat of
government of the Western empire in 286; plundered by Attila in 452;
taken by the emperor Frederick I., 1158; it rebelled and was taken by
Frederick and its fortifications destroyed in 1162; but was rebuilt and
fortified in 1169. The Milanese were defeated by the emperor Frederick
II. in 1237; and the city was conquered by Louis XII. of France in 1499.
The French were expelled by the Spaniards in 1525, and the city annexed
to the crown of Spain in 1540; ceded to Austria, 1714. It was conquered
by the French and Spaniards in 1743; reverted to Austria upon Sicily and
Naples being ceded to Spain in 1748; seized by the French, June 30,
1796, retaken by the Austrians, 1799; regained by the French, May 31,
1800. The Milanese revolted against the Austrians, March 18, 1848, but
submitted August 5, 1848. Another insurrection was attempted in 1853,
but with disastrous results. On June 8, 1859, by the peace of Villa
Franca, Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel became
sovereign of Milan.

=Milazzo= (anc. _Mylæ_). A fortified seaport on the north coast of
Sicily, 18 miles west of Messina. It was founded about 700 B.C., and has
been the scene of many battles. It was taken by Laches in 427 B.C. It
was off Mylæ that the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their
first naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took 50 of their ships,
260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36
B.C. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi with 2500 men defeated 7000
Neapolitans, at Milazzo, and compelled the garrison to evacuate the
fortress.

=Mileage.= An allowance for traveling, as so much by the mile;
especially in the United States, an allowance made to military officers
to defray the expenses of their journeys on duty when not traveling with
troops.

=Milesian.= A native or inhabitant of Ireland, descended according to
the legendary history of the country from King Milesius of Spain, whose
two sons conquered the island 1300 B.C., and established a new order of
nobility.

=Milesian.= Pertaining to Ireland, from the tradition that King Milesius
of Spain once conquered the country.

=Miletus.= A flourishing Greek city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, was
situated on the north side of the peninsula of Mt. Grion, at the
entrance of the Gulf of Latmus, nearly opposite the mouth of the
Meander. At the time of the Ionian emigration to Asia Minor it existed
as a town, but when the Ionians arrived in Asia, Neleus and a company of
his followers seized Miletus, put to death all the male inhabitants, who
were Carians or Leleges, and took the women for their wives. Miletus
became for a time a prosperous city under the rule of Lydia and Persia,
but in 500 B.C. it revolted against Persia, and after repeated defeats
in the field, the city was besieged by land and by sea, and finally
taken by storm in 494 B.C. The city was plundered and its inhabitants
massacred, and the survivors were transplanted to a place called Ampe,
near the mouth of the Tigris. The town itself was given up to the
Carians. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, Miletus threw off the
yoke imposed upon her by Athens, and in a battle fought under the very
walls of the city, the Milesians defeated their opponents; the Athenian
admiral, Phrynichus, abandoned the enterprise. In 334 B.C., Alexander
the Great took the city by assault, and destroyed a part of it, but it
continued to flourish, until it was destroyed by the Turks and other
barbarians.

=Milford Haven.= A town of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, 6 miles northwest
from Pembroke. Here the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., landed
on his way to encounter Richard III., whom he defeated at Bosworth,
1485.

=Milice.= An old term for militia.

=Militancy.= Warfare. This term is obsolete.

=Militant.= Engaged in warfare; fighting; combating; serving as a
soldier.

=Militantly.= In a militant manner. This term is rarely used.

=Militar.= Military. This term is obsolete.

=Militarily.= In a military or soldierly manner.

=Militarist.= One devoted to military pursuits.

=Military.= Pertaining to soldiers, to arms, or to war; having to do
with the affairs of war; as, a military parade or appearance; military
discipline. Engaged in the service of soldiers or arms; as, a military
man. Warlike; becoming a soldier; as, military bravery, military virtue.
Derived from the service or exploits of a soldier; as, military renown.
Conformable to the customs or rules of armies or militia; as, the
conduct of the officer was not military. Performed or made by soldiers;
as, a military election.

=Military.= The whole body of soldiers; soldiery; militia; the army.

=Military Academies.= The great improvements made in the art of war in
modern times, in weapons, drill, discipline, etc., has made warfare more
of a science and less of a trial of brute force than formerly, and hence
the necessity for a body of trained officers capable of moving,
directing, and bringing into effective operation all the appliances of
war with which modern armies are furnished. As this special training
cannot be obtained at ordinary educational establishments, special
schools for the purpose have been established in all civilized
countries. A few of them are here noted.

GREAT BRITAIN.--The _Royal Military Academy_, an establishment at
Woolwich, through which must pass all candidates for the artillery and
engineers. It was instituted in 1741, but the present structure was not
erected until 1805. It usually contains about 200 cadets. The age of
admission is sixteen, and the vacancies are open to public competition.
The parents or guardians have to make annual payments for the support
of the cadets as long as they remain at the academy, the amount being
greater for the son of a civilian than of a military or naval officer.
When the term of instruction--which comprises the subjects of a thorough
general education, the higher mathematics, fortification, gunnery, and
military duty--is completed, the cadets compete for vacancies in the
engineers and artillery, those who pass the best examination being
allowed a choice of either branch of the service. All who obtain
commissions in the engineers proceed to Chatham for further instruction
in their professional duties; the artillery cadets at once join the
artillery as lieutenants.

_Royal Military College, Sandhurst_, is an institution for the training
of candidates for commissions in the cavalry and infantry. The course is
limited to one year immediately before entering the army, and the
subjects of instruction confined to the higher mathematics, modern
languages, and military science. Entrance is on the nomination of the
commander-in-chief; and the payment by the cadets’ parents or guardians
varies according to their circumstances and rank. No payment is made for
what are called “Queen’s Cadets,” who must be orphans. Commissions in
the cavalry and infantry are given to the cadets in the order of merit
at the end of the year.

The _Staff College_ was founded in 1858, about 2 miles from Sandhurst,
for the purpose of giving higher instruction to 30 officers aspiring to
appointments on the staff. To be entitled to compete for entrance, an
officer must have been three years in active service, must have passed
the qualifying examination for a captaincy, and must have the
recommendation of his commanding officer. A very strict examination
decides which among the competitors shall be admitted to the college,
one only being eligible from any battalion. The course lasts two years.
At the end of each year there is an examination; that of the second
fixing the order of the candidates’ choice for staff employment. After
passing the Staff College the officer is attached for duty, for a short
period, to each of the arms with which he may not have already served.
He then becomes eligible for appointment to the staff, as opportunity
may occur. There are also the Royal School of Military Engineers at
Chatham, for the instruction of engineer officers, the Royal Military
School at Dublin, and professional schools for officers and enlisted
men, as the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the School of Gunnery at
Shoeburyness.

FRANCE.--The celebrated _Polytechnic School_ at Paris was established by
the National Convention, September 28, 1794. By a decree of July 16,
1804, Napoleon placed it under a military régime. No attempt being made
to impart a general education, candidates are required to have a
thorough general knowledge before they are admitted. The preliminary
examination of candidates for admission comprises mathematics, physics,
chemistry, history, German, etc.; in fact, the candidate to be
successful should have the degree of Bachelor of Science. Admission is
open to competition; a board of examiners passes through the country
once every year, and examines all who present themselves, possessing the
requisite qualifications of age, etc. A list is made out from the
proceedings of the board, and the number of candidates highest in order
of merit for whom there are vacancies admitted. The age of admission is
from sixteen to twenty years, or if the candidate is in the army, to
twenty-five. This school prepares students for various branches of the
public service, for the staff, engineers, artillery, for the corps of
hydrographical engineers, engineers of roads and bridges and of mines,
the department of powder and saltpetre, etc. The number of cadets is
usually about 350, and the course of instruction two years. After the
final examination the first 30 or 40 candidates usually select civil
employment under the government, those next in merit choose the
artillery and engineers, and are sent to the School of Application, to
pass through a technical course. The remaining students either fail to
qualify, and leave the school, or receive commissions in the line,
subordinate situations in the government service, civil or colonial, or
they retire into civil life altogether.

The _Special Military School_ at St. Cyr, near Versailles, was
established for the instruction of candidates for commissions in cavalry
and infantry. The age of admission is the same as for the Polytechnic
School, and pupils are entitled to partial or entire state aid if they
need it, as are also those of the Polytechnic. The course of instruction
is two years, at the end of which time the more promising students pass
to the Staff School, and thence, after a thorough course, to the
_état-major_ of the army; the remaining students pass as subalterns into
the cavalry and infantry, selecting the arm of the service in which they
desire to serve according to the order of merit in which they graduate.
There are also the School of Application for Engineers and Artillery,
the School of Application for the Staff, the Cavalry School at Saumur,
for one year’s instruction to officers of that arm, and the School of
Musketry at Vincennes.

PRUSSIA.--The Prussian system of military education differs from that of
France, in that competition is but sparingly resorted to, the object
being to give a good general and professional education to all the
officers, rather than a specially excellent training to a select few.
For this purpose there are established seven cadet schools, one senior,
at Berlin, and six junior, situated at Bensburg, Culm, Oranienstein,
Ploen, Potsdam, and Wahlstatt. The age of admission to the junior
schools is from ten to eleven years, and the usual course of instruction
is for four years, and two or three at the senior school, followed by
the finishing term of nine months at a division school, when graduates
are eligible to commissions. Some, however, are sent to the army to earn
their commissions as other candidates. Others pass an additional year at
the senior cadet school, in which case the term at the division school
is dispensed with. After completing their course at the junior schools,
students pass to the senior school without examination. They may also be
admitted to the senior school without passing through the junior grade,
provided they come up to the required standard of qualification.
Aspirants for commissions must enter the ranks, and within six months
pass a good examination in general and liberal knowledge if they are not
graduates of a cadet school. Those who are graduates are not examined.
After some further service the candidate goes for nine months to one of
the division schools, which are eight in number, situated at Anclam,
Cassel, Engers, Erfurt, Hanover, Metz, Neisse, and Potsdam. Here he
completes his professional education, and if he passes the final
examination, is eligible for the next vacancy in the line, but cannot be
commissioned unless the officers of the corps are willing to accept him
as a comrade. Candidates for commissions in the artillery and engineer
corps, after graduating from the cadet school or passing an examination
from the army, must pass nine months at the Artillery and Engineer
School, after which they receive a provisional appointment as
sub-lieutenants. Upon graduating, after two more terms of nine months
each, they are commissioned as lieutenants. But the culmination of
Prussian military education is the Staff School, or War Academy, which
presents the highest prizes in the profession, and competition for which
is open to all officers of the army who have had three years’ service,
and can produce testimonials of good conduct, ability, etc., from their
superiors. Admission is by competitive examination, usually about 40 of
the applicants being selected. The course of study lasts three years.
During three months of each year the officers are sent to do military
duty with arms of service or corps not their own. Of the 40 who pass
through the Staff School each year, 8 or 10 only are sent to the
topographical department of the staff. There they serve two or three
years, at the expiration of which time two are selected from the number,
and appointed captains on the staff. The remainder return to their
regiments or corps, sometimes receiving appointments in the division
schools.

AUSTRIA.--The Austrian military system of training is very elaborate,
and commences at an early age,--boys intended for military service
beginning their professional almost contemporaneously with their general
education. There are schools of various orders for training
non-commissioned officers and for officers, and senior departments for
imparting more extended instruction to both classes. Candidates for
appointment as non-commissioned officers pass by competition through
the lower houses, where they remain till eleven years old, the upper
houses, which detain them till fifteen, and the school companies,
whence, after actual apprenticeship to service, a few pupils pass to the
academies as aspirants for commissions, and the others are drafted into
the service as non-commissioned officers. For the education of officers
there are four cadet houses, each containing 200 pupils. The boys are
pledged to the service by their parents at the age of eleven, after
which the state takes charge of them. At fifteen they pass according to
qualification to the academy for the line, the engineer or artillery
academy, and four years later receive their commissions in the arms of
the service for which they have graduated. The young officer’s chance of
entering the Staff School--and therefore the staff--depends upon his
place at the final academic examination.

The _Staff School_ consists of 30 pupils selected by competitive
examination from all arms of the service, 15 entering each year. The
course of instruction is two years. To be qualified for admission a
candidate must have served two years with his regiment, and be over
twenty-one and under twenty-six years of age. The students receive
appointments in the staff corps according to the order of merit,
immediately after the final examination, if there are vacancies; if
there are none, they return to their regiments until vacancies occur. If
the successful candidate is a second lieutenant, he is promoted to the
rank of first lieutenant; if a first lieutenant, he is promoted captain
after three years’ service.

RUSSIA.--Has 22 military colleges for the guards and line, containing
over 7000 cadets, a school of ensigns for the guards, an artillery and
an engineer school, averaging over 8000 military students. There is also
an imperial staff school, into which 20 or 25 officers enter each year
after examination. The term of instruction is for two years. Upon
graduation, the most distinguished scholar is at once promoted to the
rank of captain on the staff, and all the graduates are, from time to
time, as vacancies occur, attached to the staff, but not immediately
promoted in it.

Italy, Spain, and other powers have also their military academies, but
those already given may be considered a fair type of all. It need only
be stated that the educational status of the Italian officers is
considered very high.

THE UNITED STATES.--The Military Academy at West Point is the only
government institution in the United States for the military training of
cadets and their preparation for the duties of officers. The necessity
for such an institution was recognized at an early date in the history
of the country. A committee of Congress which had visited the
Continental army at New York recommended the establishment of a
military academy in their report, October 3, 1776. The subject was
subsequently brought to the notice of Congress on several occasions, but
without result until 1794, when provision was made for the establishment
of 4 battalions of engineers and artillerists, 8 cadets to be attached
to each battalion. The number was increased to 56 in 1798, and provision
made for procuring books and apparatus for their instruction. By the act
of March 16, 1802, determining the military peace establishment, the
artillerists and engineers were made two distinct corps; 40 cadets were
attached to one regiment of artillery, and 10 to the corps of engineers,
said corps to be stationed at West Point, and to constitute a military
academy. The act also provided that the senior engineer officer present
should be superintendent of the academy, and authorized the Secretary of
War to procure the necessary books, apparatus, etc., for the
institution. Another act, dated February 28, 1803, authorized the
President to appoint teachers of French and drawing. At the expiration
of five years, however, further legislation was deemed necessary, and on
April 12, 1808, a bill was passed which added 156 members to the corps
of cadets. By the act of April 19, 1812, it was declared that the
Military Academy should consist of the corps of engineers, the teachers
of French and drawing already provided for, a professor of natural
philosophy, a professor of mathematics, and a professor of engineering,
with an assistant for each professor. Provision was also made for a
chaplain, who was to officiate as professor of geography, physics, and
history. The number of cadets was limited to 260; the requirements for
admission, terms of study and service, and rate of pay and emoluments
were also prescribed. But the commencement of its great success as an
educational institution, and the reputation which the academy possesses
for its elevating and disciplinary government, dates from July, 1817,
when Brevet Maj. Sylvanus Thayer, of the engineer corps, assumed command
as superintendent. He was an early graduate of the academy, had served
with distinction in the war of 1812, and having studied in the military
schools of France, had acquired matured views for the government of such
an institution. He organized and perfected a system of management, which
he carried into successful operation for sixteen years, and which, with
but little modification, is followed to-day. In 1818 the department of
geography, history, and ethics was organized, and the chaplain appointed
professor; the clerical and secular duties thus combined have ever since
remained inseparable. A professorship of chemistry, mineralogy, and
geology was created by act of July 5, 1838, and an assistant authorized,
“to be taken from the officers of the line, or cadets.” In May, 1846,
the teachers of French and drawing were styled professors, and the
appointment of assistants was authorized. In 1857 a professorship of
the Spanish language was established. By act of Congress approved June
23, 1879, whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of professor of the
French or Spanish language, both these offices shall cease, and the
remaining one of the two professors shall be professor of modern
languages. A professorship of law has also been established, which is
held by an officer of the bureau of military justice. The academic staff
consist of the superintendent; the commandant of cadets, who is
instructor of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics, and is charged
with the discipline of the cadets, having usually 8 officers detailed
from the line of the army as assistants; and of the professors of civil
and military engineering and science of war, of natural and experimental
philosophy, of mathematics, of history, geography, and ethics
(chaplain), of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, of drawing, of
French, of Spanish, and of law, all of whom have one or more
commissioned officers as assistants. There are also detailed on duty
several officers of the engineer and ordnance corps as instructors in
practical military engineering, military signals and telegraphing, and
in ordnance and gunnery. A sword-master is also employed. The military
staff consists of an adjutant; a treasurer, quartermaster and
commissary, of the battalion of cadets; a quartermaster, surgeon, and
assistant surgeon. In 1843 the custom which had prevailed of appointing
one cadet from each Congressional district received the sanction of law,
and thus the number was limited to the number of Representatives. But as
the District of Columbia and the army and navy were not represented, the
President was empowered to appoint 1 cadet from the former and 10 cadets
“at large,” the latter to be selected annually from the army or navy, or
any other quarter at his option, without regard to Congressional
districts. The age for admission is from seventeen to twenty-two years,
except when the candidate has served one year in the war of the
Rebellion, in which case he may be admitted up to twenty-four, and the
course of instruction is fixed at four years. Candidates must be able to
read and write well, have a good knowledge of grammar, of geography, and
history, particularly of the United States, and of arithmetic, including
vulgar and decimal fractions. Examinations are held annually on January
1 and June 1. All newly-appointed cadets must report for examination by
June 25, and none are examined after September 1, unless detained by
sickness or other unavoidable cause, when they may be examined with the
fourth class on January 1, and if found competent may proceed with that
class. Each cadet on admission takes the oath of allegiance and binds
himself to serve the United States for eight years, unless sooner
discharged. For purposes of instruction, the cadets are divided into
four classes, the fourth being the junior class, and for matters of
discipline the permanent organization is that of a battalion of infantry
composed of four companies. During their academic course cadets receive
$500 a year and one ration a day. Upon graduating, the cadets highest in
merit are usually commissioned as second lieutenants and appointed to
the engineer corps, those next in order of merit to the artillery, and
the remainder to the cavalry and infantry. Those for whom no vacancies
exist at graduation are attached to regiments or corps as additional
second lieutenants, and promoted second lieutenants as soon as a vacancy
occurs in the arm to which they are attached. By act of Congress
approved June 23, 1879, each member of the graduating classes of 1879-80
may elect, with the assent of the Secretary of War, to receive the sum
of $750 and mileage to the place of his residence in lieu of an
appointment in the army, except in the event of war, until two years
after his graduation. There is also an artillery school at Fort Monroe,
Va., for the training of officers and enlisted men. The school is
entirely conducted by commissioned officers, and the course of
instruction is one year.

=Military Asylum.= See SOLDIER’S HOME.

=Military Asylum, Royal.= See ASYLUM, ROYAL MILITARY.

=Military College.= See MILITARY ACADEMIES (SANDHURST).

=Military Column.= See COLUMN, MILITARY.

=Military Discipline.= Next to the forming of troops, military
discipline is the first object that presents itself to our notice: it is
the soul of all armies; and unless it be established among them with
great prudence, and supported with unshaken resolution, soldiers become
a contemptible rabble, and are more dangerous to the very state that
maintains them than even its declared enemies. See DISCIPLINE.

=Military Execution.= The ravaging or destroying of a country or town
that refuses to pay the contribution inflicted upon them. Also, the
punishment inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.

=Military First Principles.= Is the bodily training for a soldier, to
make him hardy, robust, and capable of preserving health amidst fatigue,
bad weather, and change of climate; to march at such possible pace, for
such length of time, and with such burden, as without training he would
not be able to do.

=Military Frontier, The.= A crown-land of the Austrian empire, bounded
on the north by Croatia, Slavonia, and the Wojwodschaft, on the east by
Transylvania and Wallachia, on the south by Turkey and Dalmatia, and on
the west by the Adriatic, comprising an area of 12,800 square miles. The
military frontier owes its origin as a crown-land to the necessity of
having a permanent body of defenders on the borders during former wars,
and especially during wars with the Turks. In the 15th century the
Austrians had gained from the Turks certain tracts of territory on the
banks of the Save and Danube. These tracts they colonized, making it,
however, a condition that the colonists must render military service
against the Turks. The Warasdin frontier originated in the same manner
under Ferdinand I. In the 17th century the Petrinier frontier, which at
a later period received the name of the Banat frontier, was erected. The
military stations along the frontier serve a threefold purpose,--the
defense of the country, the prevention of smuggling, and the prevention
of the spread of contagious disease into the territories of the Austrian
empire. The inhabitants of this crown-land enjoy peculiar privileges.
Their immigrant ancestors received only the temporary use of lands
consigned to them; but in 1850 a law was passed making over the land to
the occupiers as their own property. This right of property does not
belong, however, to individuals, but to the family in a united sense.
The oldest member of a family is intrusted with the management of the
land; his partner ranks equal with him, and they each receive a double
share of the profits. All who are able to bear arms are sworn to the
service from their twentieth year. The soldier of the frontier, who is
clothed as well as armed and supplied with ammunition by government,
finds it his duty not only to watch and protect the frontier, but to
preserve peace and order in the interior, and to go on foreign service
when required. Only the smaller portion of the forces of the military
frontier is retained in readiness for active service, while the
remainder pursue their ordinary employments. To facilitate the
accomplishment of the purposes aimed at by the military frontier, the
_cordon_, a series of guard-houses along the whole frontier, affording
accommodation to from 4 to 8 men, as well as larger ones, accommodating
12 men and a junior officer, has been instituted. Within this line are
the officers’ posts. Without announcing himself at the posts, no one is
allowed to pass the boundary; and after permission is given the
passenger must remain a longer or shorter time at the quarantine
establishment, in order that all introduction of disease may be
prevented.

=Military Indications.= Officers should study attentively the customs of
their enemy, their hours for dining, commencing their marches, etc., and
the many indications of intended movements which an enemy may
unwittingly afford. The collection of boats, heavy guns,
scaling-ladders, gabions, etc., at particular places, are indications
that must always precede the passage of rivers, sieges, etc. If large
magazines of stores or provisions are collected anywhere, it is clear
that no retreat is contemplated; if, on the other hand, the parks of
heavy, or spare guns, ammunition, engineer stores, etc., are being sent
to the rear, a retreat is imminent, or being prepared for. The dust
raised by columns is a fair guide in some countries as to the numbers
and composition of the force marching. That raised by cavalry forms a
high, light cloud, by infantry, a lower and dense one, by parks and
baggage, one more dense still. With a good glass you can sometimes learn
from the manner in which troops move, and from their dress, whether they
are regulars or militia, or if they belong to any special corps. The
manner and bearing of people in a hostile country is usually a fair
indication of the public spirit and feeling; if they are gloomy and
anxious, it is an indication of want of confidence in their cause, and
that their troops are distant; whilst if they are excited and insolent,
it shows that they rely upon assistance near at hand, and anticipate
success from the number and efficiency of their army. In following a
retreating army much can be learned from its trail; if the _débris_ of
arms, accoutrements, etc., lie about, there is a want of transport, and
it is a sign of demoralization, according to the extent to which it is
the case; a large number of graves indicates the existence of disease in
the enemy’s army. The places where they halted for the night should be
carefully examined; and all indications carefully noted. Did they
bivouac or pitch tents; was their camp laid out with regularity; were
their cooking-places neatly made. Is their track strewn with dead or
dying transport animals; have they plundered the inhabitants or burnt
their crops or houses; have they effectually or only partially destroyed
the bridges, etc. The most insignificant circumstance affords sometimes
whole pages of information to officers who, having studied the manners
and customs of an enemy, know how to interpret them aright. Officers
commanding small detached parties sent out on reconnoitring duties may
many times avoid falling into the hands of strong patrols or detachments
by learning their proximity from their track if crossed anywhere; the
number and composition of such detachments may easily be estimated from
it.

=Military Knights.= See KNIGHTS, MILITARY.

=Military Law.= See LAW, MILITARY.

=Military Mines.= See MINES, MILITARY.

=Military Necessity.= As understood by modern civilized nations,
consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for
securing the ends of war, and which are lawful according to the modern
law and usages of war. Military necessity admits of all direct
destruction of life or limb of _armed_ enemies, and of other persons
whose destruction is incidentally _unavoidable_ in the armed contests of
war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of
importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the
captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the
ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all
withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the
appropriation of whatever an enemy’s country affords necessary for the
subsistence and safety of the army, and of such deception as does not
involve the breaking of good faith, either positively pledged, regarding
agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of
war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do
not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one
another, and to God. Military necessity does not admit of cruelty, that
is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering, or for
revenge, or of maiming or wounding, except in fight, or of torture to
extort confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way,
or of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but
disclaims acts of perfidy; and in general, military necessity does not
include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace
unnecessarily difficult.

=Military Orders.= Religious associations which arose from the mixture
of the religious enthusiasm and the chivalrous love of arms which almost
equally formed the characteristic of mediæval society. The first origin
of such associations may be traced to the necessities of the Christian
residents of the Holy Land, in which the monks, whose first duty had
been to serve the pilgrims in the hospital at Jerusalem, were compelled
by the necessity of self-defense to assume the character of soldiers as
well as of monks. (See SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM.) The order of the
Templars (see TEMPLAR, KNIGHTS) was of singular origin. Those of
Alcantara and Calatrava (which see), in Spain, had for their immediate
object the defense of their country against the Moors. These orders as
well as that of Avis in Portugal, which was instituted with a similar
view, followed the Cistercian rule, and all three differed from the
Templars and the Knights of St. John in being permitted by their
institute to marry once. The same privilege was enjoyed in the Savoyard
order of Knights of St. Maurice, and the Flemish order of St. Hubert. On
the contrary, the Teutonic Knights, who had their origin in the Crusades
(see GRAND MASTER), were bound by an absolute vow of chastity. With the
varying conditions of society, these religious associations have at
various times been abolished or fallen into disuse; but most of them
still subsist in the form of orders of knighthood, and in some of them,
attempts have recently been made to revive, with certain modifications,
the monastic character which they originally possessed.

=Military Positions.= See POSITIONS, MILITARY.

=Military Punishment.= See PUNISHMENT, MILITARY.

=Military Regulations.= The rules and regulations by which the
discipline, formations, field-exercise, and movements of the whole army
are directed, to be observed in one uniform system. See ARMY
REGULATIONS.

=Military Science.= See LOGISTICS, STRATAGEM, STRATEGY, TACTICS, and
WAR.

=Military Secretary.= An officer on the personal staff of generals in
high command. His duties are to conduct the correspondence of his chief,
and to transact a great amount of confidential business, which would
dangerously occupy the time of the general himself. In the British
service the military secretary to the commander-in-chief is usually a
general officer. To a commander-in-chief in the field, he is for most
part below that rank, while to a general commanding a division only, an
assistant military secretary is allowed. His staff pay is of course
additional to the officer’s regimental or unattached pay.

=Military Service.= In the feudal ages, a tenure of lands by knight’s
service, according to which the tenant was bound to perform service in
war unto the king, or the mesne lord, of whom he held by that tenure. As
the king gave to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large
possessions forever, to hold of him for this or that service or rent, so
they in time parceled out to such others as they liked, the same lands
for rents and services as they thought good. And these services were
divided into two sorts, chivalry and socage; the first whereof was
martial and military, whereby the tenant was obliged to perform some
noble or military office unto his lord. This was of two kinds: either
regal, that is, held only by the king, or common, when held of a common
person. That which was held only of the king was called _servitium_, or
_serjeantia_, and was again divided into grand and petit serjeantry. The
grand serjeantry was where one held lands of the king by service, which
he ought to do in his own person; as, to bear the king’s banner or
spear, to lead his horse, or to find a man-at-arms to fight, etc. Petit
serjeantry was when a man held lands of the king, to yield him annually
some small thing towards his wars, as a sword, dagger, bow, etc.
Chivalry that might be holden of a common person was termed _scutagium_,
or _escuage_; that is, service of the shield, which was either uncertain
or certain. _Escuage uncertain_ was likewise twofold: first, where the
tenant was bound to follow his lord, by going in person to the king’s
wars, or sending a sufficient man in his place, there to be maintained
at his cost so long as was agreed upon between the lord and his first
tenant at the granting of the fee. The days of such service seem to have
been rated by the quantity of land so holden; as, if it extended to a
whole knight’s fee, then the knight was to follow his lord forty days;
if but a half a knight’s fee, then twenty days; and if a fourth part,
then ten days, etc. The other kind of this escuage was called
_castle-ward_, where the tenant was obliged by himself or some other, to
defend a castle as often as it should come to his turn.

=Military Stores.= See STORES, MILITARY.

=Military Tenure.= Tenure of land, on condition of performing military
service.

=Military Train.= A highly important corps of the army of Great Britain,
of which the function is to transport the provisions, ammunition, and
all other material, together with the wounded in time of battle. It was
formed after the Crimean war, on the dissolution of the Land-Transport
Corps. In the year 1863 it comprised 6 battalions, in all 1840 officers
and men. The corps ranks after the Royal Engineers, and is classed as
Mounted Infantry, the officers receiving infantry rates, and the men
cavalry rates of pay. The men are armed with carbine and sword, but
rather for defensive than aggressive purposes. Attached to each
battalion are 166 horses, with proportionate wagons and ambulances. It
is proper to observe that the Military Train constitutes the nucleus of
a transport service for a large army, and that in time of war it would
be expanded by the addition of thousands of horses or mules, and the
incorporation of many hundred drivers, etc. The advantage of possessing
even a few men ready trained and capable of directing the movements of
others was amply demonstrated by the failures of the Crimea in 1854-56;
so that Parliament votes ungrudgingly the expense of this corps,
although in time of peace it is comparatively without employment. It is
now termed the Army Service Corps.

=Military Ways.= The large Roman roads which Agrippa caused to be made
through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops
and conveying of carriages. They were paved from the gates of Rome to
the utmost limits of the empire. The British have constructed a military
road throughout India, with wells and other accommodations at certain
distances.

=Militia.= From the Latin _miles_, a “soldier,” a term which was
formerly synonymous with “military,” or the whole fighting force of a
country, but in modern times has come to signify the domestic force for
the defense of a nation, as distinguished from the regular army, which
can be employed at home or abroad in either aggressive or defensive
operations. Every nation has a reserve, under its law military, upon
which its defense would fall on the discomfiture of the regular army;
but the system differs in each country. France has her _Gardes
Nationaux_, Prussia the _Landwehr_ and _Landsturm_, and similar
organizations exist in other European states. It also comprehends the
volunteer organizations of Great Britain and the United States. The laws
of the United States require the enrollment into the militia of all
able-bodied males between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years,
with certain exceptions specified in general and State laws. The militia
of each State is required to be arranged into companies, battalions,
regiments, brigades, and divisions, as the Legislature of the State may
direct, and it shall be subject to military duty and shall serve a
definite time. These organizations are to be officered by the respective
States, the grades and number of officers being named in the laws
requiring enrollment. The Constitution of the United States has given
the power to Congress to provide for “calling forth the militia to
execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel
invasions.” Congress by legislation has given the President the
authority to call forth the militia under certain exigencies, as has
been frequently done. When called into actual service of the United
States, the militia receive pay from the government, and are subject to
the Rules and Articles of War. The militia is therefore a part and
parcel of the army of the United States, although in common use the term
is limited to mean the regular army alone. The organized militia of the
United States numbers 125,906 men, the number of men available for
military duty unorganized, is 6,598,105.

=Militia-man.= One who belongs to the militia.

=Mill, Gunpowder-.= Is a machine used for mixing or incorporating the
ingredients of which gunpowder is composed. The operation was formerly
effected as follows: The ingredients being duly proportioned and put
into the mortars of the mills, which are hollow pieces of wood, each
capable of holding 20 pounds of paste, are incorporated by means of the
pestle and spindle. There are 24 mortars in each mill, where are made
each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care being taken to sprinkle the
ingredients in the mortars with water from time to time, lest they
should take fire. The pestle is a piece of wood 10 feet high, and 4¹⁄₂
inches broad, armed at the bottom with a round piece of metal. It weighs
about 60 pounds. For more modern methods of incorporation, see
GUNPOWDER.

=Mill Springs.= A village of Wayne Co., Ky., about 100 miles south of
Frankfort. Near here a Federal force under Gen. Geo. H. Thomas defeated
a Confederate army under Gen. G. B. Crittenden, January 19, 1862. In
this engagement the Confederate general F. K. Zollicoffer was killed.

=Mill-cake.= The incorporated materials for gunpowder, in the form of a
dense mass or cake, ready to be subjected to the process of granulation.

=Milliken’s Bend.= A village of Madison Parish, La., on the right bank
of the Mississippi River, about 25 miles above Vicksburg. On June 6,
1863, the Confederates under Gen. McCullough made an attack on this
place, which was defended by a body of colored troops and part of an
Iowa regiment, and were repulsed after a severe engagement.

=Mim Bashy.= In the East Indies, a commander of 1000 horse.

=Minas, Sabbatha.= A fort in Babylonia, built in the time of the later
Roman empire on the site of Seleucia, which the Romans had destroyed.

=Mincio.= A river of Lombardy, Italy. Here the Austrians were repulsed
by the French under Brune, December 25-27, 1800, and by Eugene
Beauharnais, February 8, 1814, near Valeggio.

=Minden.= A strongly fortified town of Prussia, in Westphalia, situated
on the Weser, 35 miles southwest from Hanover. In its neighborhood the
battle of Minden was fought, on August 1, 1759, between the English,
Hessians, and Hanoverians (under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the
French were beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. Lord George
Sackville (afterwards Lord Germaine), who commanded the British and
Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience of orders was tried by a
court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dismissed
April 22, 1760. He was afterwards restored to favor, and became
secretary of state, 1776.

=Mines, Military.= Constitute one of the most important departments in
military engineering, and a very formidable accessory both in the attack
and defense of fortresses. A military mine consists of a gallery of
greater or less length, run from some point of safety under an opposing
work, or under an area over which an attacking force must pass, and
terminating in a chamber, which, being stored with gunpowder, can be
exploded at the critical moment. Mines are of use to the besiegers in
the overthrow of ramparts and formation of a breach; the _countermines_
of the besieged in undermining the glacis over which the assaulting
column must charge, and blowing them into the air, or in destroying
batteries erected for breaching, are equally serviceable. But far above
the actual mischief wrought by the mine--often very great--is its moral
influence on the troops, and especially on the assailants. Mines are
either vertical,--when they are called _shafts_,--horizontal, or
inclined, in either of which cases they are “galleries,” the word
“ascending” or “descending” being added, if there be inclination. The
dimensions range from the “great gallery,” 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet, to
the “small branch,”--the last diminutive of the gallery,--which has but
2 feet 6 inches height, with a breadth of 2 feet. The most frequent work
is the “common gallery,” 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet, which is considered
the easiest for the miner.

=Minié Ball.= A ball or bullet of peculiar construction. It is cast
hollow for nearly two-thirds of its length, and into the opening of the
internal cylinder there is introduced a small concave piece of iron,
which the powder at the moment of firing forces into the slug, spreading
it open, and causing it to fit perfectly to the barrel. Hence a great
increase in the precision of aim and the extent of range.

=Minié Rifle.= A species of fire-arm, invented by Capt. Minié, from whom
it receives its name. It is certain in aim, and fatal in its results at
800 yards.

=Mining.= In military affairs, is the art of blowing up any part of a
fortification, building, etc., by gunpowder. The art of mining requires
a perfect knowledge both of fortifications and geometry; and by these
previous helps, the engineer may be qualified to ascertain correctly the
nature of all manner of heights, depths, breadths, and thicknesses; to
judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether they be such as
are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual; together with the
true levels of all kinds of earth. To which must be added, a consummate
skill in the quality of rocks, earths, masonry, and sands; the whole
accompanied with a thorough knowledge of the strength of all sorts of
gunpowder.

=Minion.= An ancient form of ordnance of small size, the caliber of
which was about 3 inches.

=Minister.= Is one who acts not by any inherent authority of his own,
but under another. Thus, in England all ministers act under a supreme
authority, which is vested in the sovereign, lords, and commons, to whom
they are responsible. In military matters, there is not only a war
minister, but a secretary at war, who likewise acts conjointly with the
secretary of state. All dispatches and papers of consequence relating to
the army must first pass through the secretary of state, and the war
minister, before they are laid before Parliament, or otherwise acted
upon by the secretary at war. The common arrangements of corps,
directions with respect to marching, are transmitted to the secretary at
war, and to the quartermaster-general’s office, without previously
passing through the secretary of state, or war minister. See SECRETARY
OF WAR.

=Minnesota.= One of the Northwestern States of the American Union. The
country was visited by white traders as early as 1654, but very few
settlements were made in it until about 1845. The eastern part of the
State formed a portion of the French possessions which were ceded to the
British in 1763, and by them to the United States in 1783. The remaining
part belonged to the Louisiana Territory, which was purchased from the
French in 1803. The country was traversed by an exploring expedition
under Gen. Pike in 1805. A territorial government was organized in 1849,
and in 1853 Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a State. The State
suffered severely in 1862 from an inroad of the Sioux, who destroyed
whole settlements. They were soon afterwards, however, summarily
punished, and removed from the State altogether.

=Minnetarees.= A tribe of Indians, formerly a branch of the Crows, but
now affiliated to the Mandans, who reside on the Upper Missouri. They
have always been friendly to the whites, and hostile to the Sioux, at
whose hands they have suffered severely. They number about 400.

=Minor.= Under age. Minors will not be enlisted in the army of the
United States without the consent of their parents or guardians. If any
have enlisted and it becomes known, the Secretary of War, on demand, is
required to grant the discharges from the army of minors who have
enlisted without the consent of their parents or guardians.

=Minorca.= One of the Balearic Islands (which see) in the Mediterranean.
It was captured by Lieut.-Gen. Stanhope and Sir John Leake in 1708, and
was ceded to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713; taken by the
Spanish and French in July, 1756, and Admiral Byng fell a victim to
public indignation for not relieving it. It was restored to the British
at the peace in 1793; besieged by the Spaniards, and taken February 5,
1782; captured by the British under Gen. Stuart, without the loss of a
man, November 15, 1798; but was given up at the peace of Amiens in 1802.

=Minturnæ= (_Minturnensis_; now _Trajetto_). An important town in
Latium, on the frontiers of Campania; was situated on the Appia Via, and
on both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth of this river. It was an
ancient town of the Ausones, or Aurunci, but surrendered to the Romans
of its own accord, 296 B.C. In its neighborhood Marius was taken
prisoner.

=Minute.= A hasty sketch taken of anything in writing. Hence minutes of
a general or regimental court-martial.

=Minute-gun.= A gun discharged every minute, as a signal of distress or
mourning.

=Minute-man.= A man enlisted for service wherever required, and ready to
march at a moment’s notice;--a term used in the American Revolution.

=Minutes of Councils in the Military Department.= The notification of
orders and regulations, which are directed to be observed by the British
army in India, are so called. These minutes receive the sanction of the
governor-general in council, and are the result of previous
communications from the court of directors in Europe. The answer to the
French word, _resultat_, which was prefixed to all orders and
regulations that were occasionally issued by the military boards, or
_conseils de guerre_, for the government of the army. The term,
_jugement d’un conseil de guerre_, corresponded with our minutes of a
general or garrison court-martial, and expressed not only the minutes,
but the sentence of the court.

=Miquelets= (_Fr._). Bandits, who have infested the Pyrenean Mountains;
armed mountaineers of the Pyrenees; the name is now borne by the
captain-general’s guard; in 1808, Napoleon organized a corps of
_miquelets Français_, who rendered good services.

=Miqueletti.= A small body of mountain fusiliers, who formerly belonged
to the Neapolitan army.

=Mire= (_Fr._). In the French artillery, a piece of wood about 4 inches
thick, 1 foot high, and 2¹⁄₂ feet long, which is used in pointing
cannon.

=Mireur= (_Fr._). An instrument employed in coast batteries for
ascertaining whether the enemy’s ships are within the range of the guns,
and thus to prevent the gunners from expending their shot unnecessarily.

=Mirmillones.= A class of Roman gladiators; said to have been so called
from their having the image of a fish on their helmets. Their arms were
like those of the Gauls; hence we find that they were also called Galli.
They were usually matched with the retiarii or Thracians.

=Mirror.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON; also LOOKING-GLASS SIGNALING.

=Misbehavior before the Enemy.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 42.

=Miscellaneous.= An item or charge in the estimates of the British army,
so distinguished as _miscellaneous services_; the same as our contingent
expenditures.

=Misconduct at Divine Service.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 52.

=Misconduct in Time of War.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 55, 56, 57,
and 58.

=Misericorde= (_Fr._). A short dagger, which the cavalry formerly used,
for the purpose of dispatching an enemy who would not ask quarter or
mercy.

=Misnomer.= The mistaking of the true name of a person; the using of one
name for another. If a prisoner plead a misnomer before a court-martial,
the court may ask the prisoner what is his real name, and call upon him
to plead to the amended charge.--_Hough._

=Miss.= To fail to hit; to fly wide; as, the bullet missed its mark.

=Missile.= Capable of being thrown; adapted for hurling, or to be
projected from the hand, or from any instrument or engine; as, to wing
the missile dart.

=Missile.= A weapon thrown or intended to be thrown, for doing
execution; as, a lance, an arrow, or a bullet.

=Missing.= Wanting; not present when called or looked for; lost; as, 100
soldiers are wounded and missing.

=Mississagas.= A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly
resided on the north shore of Lake Huron, but are now found to the
number of 700 in Ontario. They were one of the Confederate tribes of the
“Seven Nations,” fought as allies of the French against the English
(1743-48), sided with the English in the seven years’ war against the
French and in the war against Pontiac, and aided the Canadian forces
against the United States in the war of 1812.

=Mississippi.= One of the Southwestern States of the American
Confederacy. It was first visited by Europeans about the year 1540, when
De Soto, with 1000 followers, crossed the State on an exploring
expedition from Florida, and remained in it for nearly a year. This
party having suffered severely by attacks from the aborigines, no other
attempt was made to establish a permanent colony till 1682, when La
Salle descended the Mississippi and visited this region. He returned in
two years with a party which he intended to settle in Mississippi, but
meeting with misfortunes, the colony never reached its destination. The
next attempt at settlement was made by Iberville, but with no successful
result. The settlement at Fort Rosalie (now Natchez) in 1716, by some
Frenchmen under Bienville, was generally considered the first permanent
colony. A general massacre of the white inhabitants by the savages took
place in 1728, but, as in every other contest between the Indians and
the whites, victory ultimately rested with the latter. Other conflicts
in 1736, 1739, and 1752, though carried on for a time with varying
success, had the same result. At the peace of Paris, in 1763,
Mississippi became a part of the English territory. Soon after a portion
of the French, so inhumanly driven by the English from Nova Scotia,
settled in Mississippi; and in 1768 commenced an emigration from the
Eastern colonies by way of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. In 1798 the
United States having attained the rights of the British government in
this region, erected it into a Territory, and in 1817 it was admitted
into the Union as an independent State. Mississippi was one of the first
of the Southern States to secede from the Union, and it suffered
severely during the civil war. It was the scene of several engagements,
raids, etc., the most important being the battles of Iuka, Corinth,
siege and capture of Vicksburg, and raids to Meridian.

=Missive.= Intended to be thrown, hurled, or ejected; missile. “The
missive weapons fly.”

=Missolonghi=, or =Mesolonghi=. A town of Greece, in the government of
Ætolia, is separated from the sea by a large lake. It is noted for the
memorable siege it sustained in 1825-26. In the beginning of 1825 it was
garrisoned by 5000 Greeks, who were commanded by Nóthi Bozzaris; and on
April 25 of the same year a Turkish force of 20,000 under Reshid Pasha
appeared before Missolonghi, which was poorly fortified. On May 11, the
first bombardment began, and for the space of two months afterwards the
town was exposed to numerous bombardments and assaults; but the
defenders were not less active in answering the enemy’s fire, and making
sallies from their defenses, by which means they succeeded in repelling
their assailants, and inflicting on them considerable loss. During this
time they were supplied with ammunition and provisions by the fleet
which was stationed at the entrance of the lake; but on July 10, a
superior Turkish fleet, after compelling the ships of Greece to retire,
succeeded in landing a strong reinforcement to the besiegers. The
assaults on the town were then renewed with increased fury, and the
cannonade of the Turks carried destruction to its frail ramparts and
death among the ranks of its brave defenders. Yet the garrison, though
reduced to the number of 4000, continued to maintain their ground until,
in the month of August, the Greek fleet appeared in the offing, and by
defeating the Turkish squadron relieved Missolonghi for a time from the
blockade. But the sultan was resolved at all hazards to reduce this
stronghold of liberty; and in the end of November the Greek ships were
again driven off, and the blockade renewed by the combined Turkish,
Egyptian, and Barbary fleets. In the beginning of 1826 the besieging
army was reinforced by the arrival of 14,000 troops under Ibrahim Pasha,
who took command of all the besieging forces. On January 25, a
bombardment was commenced, which lasted for three days, and reduced the
town to ruins, but could not shake the resolute courage of the Greeks.
The repeated assaults of the enemy were still repulsed with great loss.
At last, reduced to the utmost extremities by famine, and seeing on all
sides nothing but the ships and tents of the enemy, yet never
entertaining any thought of surrender, the Greeks determined to force
their way through the opposing ranks. Although by treachery the enemy
was made aware of their design, and thus prepared to meet them, they
were not able to prevent nearly 2000 of the besieged from making their
way to the mountains. Many prisoners fell into the hands of the Turks,
and the remainder, who were unable from their wounds or weariness to
accompany their fellows, continued to defend themselves among the ruins
until the explosion of a powder-magazine, destroying alike friends and
foes, put an end to the bloody conflict. Such was the siege of
Missolonghi, which attracted, during its continuance, the eyes of all
Europe, and in which the Greeks showed themselves the worthy sons of the
heroes of Marathon and Thermopylæ.

=Missouri.= One of the Central States of the Mississippi Valley, and the
first organized wholly west of the Mississippi River. The French were
the earliest settlers in the country, having built a fort there in 1719.
By the treaty of 1763 it was ceded to Spain, with all the territory west
of the Mississippi. Spain being at war with England during the American
Revolution, her colonies were harassed by the English and their Indians
allies. In 1780, a body of British and Indians attacked and besieged St.
Louis, killing 60 of its defenders. The siege was raised by Col. Clark,
an American, who came to the relief of the place with 500 men. In 1800
Spain restored the territory to France, and it passed to the United
States by purchase in 1803. After the admission of Louisiana as a State
in 1812, the remaining portion of the territory received the name of
Missouri, from which was separated the State of that name in 1821.
Though the State officially declared itself in favor of the Union in
1861, many of its prominent citizens sided with the Confederates. It
was the scene of several engagements during the civil war.

=Missouria Indians.= A tribe of Dakota stock, who reside at the Otoe
agency, Nebraska. They number about 200, and are progressing favorably
in the arts of civilization.

=Mithridatic War.= The name of the celebrated contest carried on for a
long series of years by the Romans against Mithridates VI., king of
Pontus. It was caused by the massacre of about 100,000 Romans by
Mithridates, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, its many
sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates
having taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a
great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, “I am Aquilius, consul of the
Romans.” He is said to have killed him by causing melted gold to be
poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C.

=Mitigate.= To diminish the severity of; as, to mitigate punishment; to
reduce in amount of severity, as a penalty. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF
WAR, 112.

=Mitraille= (_Fr._). Small pieces of old iron, such as heads of nails,
etc., with which pieces of ordnance are sometimes loaded.

=Mitrailleur.= A gun in which several barrels are combined in order to
produce a greater effect by the rapid succession of a number of shots.
Mitrailleures existed as early as the 14th century. They were called
_killing-organs_ at that time. The Scaligers at the end of the 14th
century, the Protestant princes of Germany in the Smalkaldian war, and
Austria in the war against Turkey, used this kind of gun. But the
ancient mitrailleur differs from the modern both in dimensions and in
the positions of the barrels. A peculiar kind of mitrailleur was the
_espingol_, each barrel being loaded with several shots, which, by a
slowly-burning charge, were discharged one after the other. The
_espingol_ was used not only in the Middle Ages, but also recently,--by
the Danes in 1848-50, and 1863-64. At the storming of Düppel the
Prussians took about thirty such guns. In modern times the term has been
specifically applied to certain battery guns employed by the French in
the Franco-Prussian war. (See BATTERY GUN.) In the U. S. Light Artillery
Tactics the term mitrailleur is applied to the Gatling gun.

=Mitylene=, or =Midulu= (anc. _Lesbos_). An island of the Grecian
Archipelago, belonging to Turkey, and lying off the west coast of Asia
Minor. Mitylene suffered much in the Greek war of independence, in the
course of which it lost nearly the half of its inhabitants. (See
MYTILENE.)

=Moabites.= A tribe descended from Moab, the son of Lot, and
consequently related to the Hebrews; they inhabited the mountainous
country east of the lower part of the Jordan and of the Dead Sea. In the
time of the Judges, the Jews were for eighteen years under the yoke of
the Moabites, who were afterwards made tributary by David, but about
900 B.C. shook off their allegiance to the Jewish kings, and after the
Assyrians invaded the land of Judah, took part with the Chaldeans
against the Jews.

=Moat.= The ditch round the ramparts of a fortress may be either
wet--_i.e._, full of water--or dry. In the latter, which is the commoner
case, the depth should not be less than 12 feet, nor the width under 24.
The more perpendicular the walls, so much the greater will be the
obstruction to the enemy. In regular works the walls are usually reveted
with masonry, that at the foot of the rampart being the scarp or escarp,
and that below the covered way the counterscarp. See DITCH.

=Mobile.= A city and capital of Mobile Co., Ala., situated on the west
bank of the Mobile River, immediately above its entrance into the bay of
the same name. It was founded by Bienville in 1711, passed into the
hands of the English in 1763, was taken by the Spanish general Galvez in
1780, and was confirmed to Spain by the treaty of 1783. Mobile was
blockaded by the Federal fleet in May, 1861. In 1864 the Confederates
constructed several ironclads and gunboats, and threatened to raise the
blockade. On August 5, Admiral Farragut with his fleet passed Forts
Morgan and Gaines, the Confederate fortifications guarding the entrance
to Mobile Bay, captured the ram “Tennessee” and the gunboat “Selma,” and
effectually crippled the “Gaines.” With the co-operation of the land
forces, the forts were soon captured, and the city was effectually cut
off from external commerce. Mobile was evacuated by the Confederates,
and surrendered to Gen. Canby and Rear-Admiral Thatcher, April 12, 1865,
about 1000 prisoners, 150 guns, and a large quantity of ammunition and
supplies falling into the hands of the Federals.

=Mobilization.= The calling into active service troops not previously on
the war establishment.

=Mobilize.= To call into active service;--applied to troops which,
though enrolled, were not previously on the war establishment.

=Moccasin= (Algonkin, _makisin_). A shoe or cover for the foot, made of
deer-skin or soft leather, without a sole, and ornamented on the upper
side; the customary shoe worn by the American Indians.

=Möckern.= A town of Prussian Saxony, 13 miles east of Madgeburg, on the
Ehle. Here the French army under Eugène Beauharnais was defeated by the
Prussians under York, April, 1813, and here Blücher defeated the French,
October 16, 1813.

=Modena= (anc. _Mutina_). A fortified city of Northern Italy, 24 miles
west-northwest of Bologna, capital of the former duchy of the same name.
In ancient times Mutina was an important town of Gallia Cispadana,
situated on the Via Æmilia; it fell into the hands of the Romans in 218
B.C., who established a colony here thirty-five years later; in 117 B.C.
the settlers were disturbed by an incursion of the Ligurians, who for a
short time held possession of the town, but were ultimately expelled by
Consul Claudius; it was held by M. Brutus against the victorious Pompey;
sustained a siege of about four months against the troops of Mark
Antony; besieged and taken by Constantine in 312; was laid waste by
Attila in 452. The modern town is surrounded with walls, and defended by
bastions and a citadel; was governed by the house of Este from 1288 till
1796, when the last male of that house, the reigning duke, Hercules
III., was expelled by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio the
Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic,
1797, and with the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The Archduke Francis of Este,
son of the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of
the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena was annexed to Sardinia
March 18, 1860.

=Modocs.= A treacherous tribe of Indians of the Klamath nation. In 1872
they left the Klamath reservation under the leadership of their chief,
Captain Jack, and refused to return. Military aid was invoked to compel
them, and the troops were fired upon by the Indians, who retreated to
the almost inaccessible fastnesses of the lava-beds. Here they held out
until June 5, 1873, by which time nearly all were killed or captured.
Captain Jack and some of the principal men of his tribe were tried by
military commission for the murder of Gen. Canby and Mr. Thomas, Indian
peace commissioner, who were treacherously slain in April while
attending a conference with the Indians outside the camp. Captain Jack
and three others were hanged October 3, 1873, and the remainder of the
tribe deported to Indian Territory.

=Mœsia.= A Roman province in Europe. It was invaded by the Romans, when
C. Scribonius Curio gained a victory over the Mœsians (75 B.C.), but not
until the reign of Augustus was it finally subdued, 29 B.C. A line of
fortresses was then planted for its defense along the southern bank of
the Danube. The principal of these were afterwards known as Singidunum
(Belgrade), Viminacium, and Axiopolis. It was successfully invaded by
the Goths, numbers of whom eventually settled here. In the 7th century
invading hordes of Bulgarians and Sclavonians founded the kingdoms of
Bulgaria and Servia, which now comprise the territory of ancient Mœsia.

=Mogador=, =Mogodor=, or =Suerrah=. A seaport town of Morocco, on the
Atlantic, 132 miles southwest from Morocco. Mogador is walled and
fortified; but its defenses, which are the work of Genoese engineers,
are of no great strength; its harbor, although much exposed, is
considered the best on the coast. Mogador was bombarded in 1844 by a
French fleet under the Prince de Joinville, on which occasion it
suffered severely.

=Mognions= (_Fr._). A sort of armor for the shoulders.

=Mograbian.= A soldier of a branch of the Turkish infantry composed of
the peasants of the northern part of Africa, who sought to better their
condition by entering foreign service.

=Mogul Empire, The.= An empire which at one time extended over the
greater part of Northern India. It was founded by Sultan Baber, a
descendant of Timur (or Tamerlane), in 1526, and lasted until 1749, when
the Mogul army was totally defeated by the Rohillas, and the empire was
broken up into a number of petty sovereignties. In 1857, Mohammed
Bahadur, the last king of Delhi and head of the Mogul empire, joined in
the Indian mutiny, and was transported to Rangoon (1858), where he soon
after died.

=Mohacs.= A town of Southern Hungary, on the western arm of the Danube.
It owes its historical importance to the great battle fought here,
August 29, 1526, between Louis II. of Hungary, with 25,000 Hungarians,
and the sultan Solyman, at the head of about 200,000 Turks. The battle
resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians, who lost their
king, seven bishops, many nobles and dignitaries, and upwards of 22,000
men. A second battle was fought here on August 12, 1687, when the Turks
in their turn were defeated by an Austro-Hungarian army under Charles of
Lorraine.

=Mohammerah.= A Persian town near the Euphrates; captured, after two
hours’ cannonading, by Sir James Outram, during the Persian war, March
26, 1857.

=Mohawks=, or =Maquas=. A warlike tribe of Indians who formerly
inhabited the valley in the State of New York which bears their name.
They were allied with the Onondagas, Oneidas, Senecas, Cayugas, and
Tuscaroras, the confederation constituting what was known as the “Five
Nations.” They were allies of the English in their wars with the French,
and in the Revolutionary war. After the peace of 1783 they removed to
Upper Canada, and settled on Grand River upon lands procured for them by
their chief, Brant.

=Mohegans=, or =Mohicans=. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who
formerly inhabited a considerable part of New England, and a part of New
York. The town of Norwich, Conn., called Mohegan by the Indians, is
situated about the centre of their ancient country. When the English
first settled at Hartford, Uncas, the chief of the tribe, formed a
treaty of amity with them, which appears to have been generally
observed. The Mohegans were long the sworn foes of the Narragansetts.
The latter, under their chief, Miantonomoh, invaded the Mohegan country
in 1643, but were defeated by Uncas, who captured Miantonomoh and put
him to death in September of that year. In 1645, the Narragansetts,
under Passacus, the brother of Miantonomoh, burning to avenge the death
of that chief, again invaded the Mohegan territory. On this occasion
they were more successful. They laid waste the country in all
directions, and compelled Uncas and his warriors to take refuge in his
strong fortress at Shantock, which they would probably have become
masters of but for the timely assistance of the English, who furnished a
supply of provisions to the besieged. The invasion was again repeated,
and with almost fatal effect to Uncas. The English again saved him,
however, and after nearly twenty years of strife the hatchet was at
length buried between these tribes.

=Mohilow.= A town in Russia, where the Russian army under Prince
Bagration was signally defeated by the French under Marshal Davoust,
prince of Eckmühl, July 23, 1812.

=Mohrungen.= A town of East Prussia, 62 miles south-southwest of
Königsberg. The French defeated the Russians here in 1807.

=Moienne= (_Fr._). A piece of ordnance, which is now called a 4-pounder,
and which is 10 feet long, was formerly so called.

=Moineau.= A small, flat bastion, raised in front of an intended
fortification, to defend it against attacks from small-arms.

=Mojave Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Apache stock, residing in
Arizona. They number about 2100, of whom about one-third are located on
a reservation on the Colorado River, and about an equal number (known as
Mojave Apaches) at the San Carlos agency, Arizona.

=Moldavia.= A province in the northeastern part of Turkey in Europe. The
princes of Moldavia were formerly called _voyvodes_, or military
leaders, a name which was afterwards changed by the Turks to that of
_hospodars_, which is still retained. In the 13th century Moldavia was
frequently disturbed by civil war, occasioned by rival claimants for the
crown, and these dissensions rose to such a height that the country was
divided into two parts, one of which acknowledged the sovereignty of
Poland, and the other that of Hungary. A union was, however, soon after
effected, and Moldavia became subject to Hungary, paying at the same
time a tribute to the Poles. In 1536 Moldavia came under the protection
of the sultan; for a considerable time after this period, it was the
scene of constant wars between the Poles and Turks, until the claims of
the former to the sovereignty of the state were finally abandoned in
1621, and peace concluded between Turkey and Poland; in 1738, during the
war of Austria and Russia against Turkey, Moldavia was invaded by a
Russian force, and occupied for two years, but was evacuated after the
peace of Belgrade; in 1769 it was again occupied by the Russians, and
became for a short time subject to the czar, but was restored to Turkey
in 1774; in 1789 this unfortunate principality was again the scene of
contest between Russia and Turkey, until the peace of Jassy in 1792,
when the Russian frontier was fixed by the Dneister; in the war of
1807-12, Moldavia again fell into the hands of the Russians, who, by the
treaty of Bucharest, acquired possession of Bessarabia, and thus
extended their frontier to the Pruth. At the commencement of the Greek
war in 1820 an insurrection broke out in the Danubian principalities,
but it was suppressed by the Turks; in 1828 another war between Turkey
and Russia broke out, and Moldavia was occupied by the Russians without
opposition until peace was established by the treaty of Adrianople in
1829. A conspiracy was formed in 1840, to unite the principalities of
Moldavia and Wallachia into one state, but without success. In 1848 the
influence of revolutionary sentiments was felt in Moldavia; the people
of Jassy demanded a new constitution, and, although the hospodar
successfully resisted this movement, he laid down his authority in the
same year. In 1853 a Russian army took possession of Moldavia and
Wallachia; after attempting in vain to cross the Danube in Wallachia,
the Russians, in the spring of 1854, crossed that river at Galatz, and
seized the fortresses in the Dobrudscha; they then proceeded to lay
siege to Silistria, but this town was so vigorously defended that they
were obliged to raise the siege, and the British and French troops
having arrived at Varna, the Russian army evacuated the principalities
in the autumn of 1854; the hospodars then returned to their respective
governments, and the principalities were occupied by an Austrian army.
At a conference at Paris, August 19, 1858, it was decided that the
principalities should thenceforth be called the United Principalities of
Moldavia and Wallachia, and should have in common a central commission
and court of appeal, but be governed by different hospodars, to be
elected by the people, and confirmed by the Porte.

=Molded Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Mole.= A mound or massive work formed of large stones laid in the sea,
extended either in a right line or an arc of a circle before a port,
which it serves to defend from the violence of the waves, thus
protecting ships in harbor; also, sometimes the harbor itself.

=Molino del Rey.= A range of massive stone buildings, about 500 yards
long, forming the western side of an inclosure which surrounds the rock
and castle, groves and fields of Chapultepec, 2 miles southwest of the
city of Mexico. These buildings were occupied by the troops of Santa
Anna in September, 1847, to intercept the march of the American army
under command of Gen. Scott upon the city of Mexico. They were attacked
on the morning of the 8th by Gen. Worth’s division, and, after a severe
contest, the buildings were captured, with a loss to the Americans of
787 killed and wounded (including 59 officers), out of 3447, the whole
number engaged. The Mexican forces numbered about 10,000 men.

=Mollwitz.= A village of Prussian Silesia; to the east of it lies the
celebrated battle-field where Frederick II. of Prussia gained his first
victory over the Austrians, April 10, 1741.

=Moluccas=, or =Spice Islands=. A numerous group of islands in the
Asiatic Archipelago, situated between Celebes on the west, and New
Guinea on the east, and stretching from lat. 2° N. to lat. 9° S. They
were discovered by the Portuguese about 1510; became dependencies of
Holland, 1795; during the French war of 1796, however, they were taken
by the British, who held possession of them till 1800, when they were
returned to Holland. The islands were again occupied by the British in
1810, but were finally restored to the Dutch in 1814, by the treaty of
Paris.

=Molycrium.= A town in the most southerly part of Ætolia; it was founded
by the Corinthians, but was afterwards taken possession of by the
Ætolians.

=Mombas.= A seaport town of Africa, on a small island, in a bay on the
coast of Zanzibar. It was first visited by the Portuguese under Vasco de
Gama in 1498. In 1505, Francisco de Almeida, the Portuguese viceroy of
India, took and burnt the town; in 1529 the Portuguese returned and
repeated their work of destruction, and retained the city from that date
to 1720, when Mombas fell into the hands of the imam of Muscat, but he
was soon dispossessed by a rebellion of the inhabitants. It was under
British protection from 1824 to 1826, and is now governed by an Arab
sheikh.

=Momentum.= Is that force possessed by a body in motion; and is measured
by the product of the mass of the body into its velocity.

=Mona= (now _Anglesey_). An island off the coast of the Ordovices, in
Britain; it was invaded by Suetonius Paulinus, 61, and was conquered by
Agricola, 78.

=Moncontour.= A town near Poitiers, in France. Here Admiral Coligny and
the French Protestants were defeated by the Duke of Anjou, October 3,
1569.

=Mondovi.= A town of Northern Italy, near the river Ellero, about 47
miles south from Turin. The town is defended by walls and a small
citadel, and contains a great number of religious houses. The French,
under Napoleon I., defeated the Sardinian troops, under Colli, near this
town in 1796, and in 1799 the town was sacked by the French under Soult.

=Monghir.= A town of Hindostan, East Indies, situated on the southern
bank of the Ganges. It was an object of contention between the kings of
Behar and Bengal in the early part of the 16th century; taken by the
British in 1763.

=Mongolia.= A vast district in Asia. Its present boundaries east and
north are Manchuria and Siberia, respectively, and on the south and
west Thibet and Turkestan; but these boundaries have varied greatly at
different periods of history. The whole of what is now usually
recognized as Mongolia is considered to belong to the Chinese empire.
See TARTARY.

=Mongols.= See TARTARY.

=Monmouth, Battle of.= Was fought June 28, 1778, between the
Revolutionary forces under Gen. Washington and the British under Sir
Henry Clinton. Gen. Washington, whose army of about 12,000 men was
encamped at Valley Forge, being informed of the intention of the enemy
to evacuate Philadelphia and proceed to New York, placed his forces in a
condition to march immediately in pursuit. Accordingly, when
intelligence of the evacuation reached him, he broke up his encampment,
and detaching a small force under Gen. Arnold to take possession of
Philadelphia, marched rapidly with his whole army toward the Delaware.
On the morning of June 28 the advance of the Colonial army, under Gen.
Lee, became engaged with the enemy’s rear on the plain near Monmouth
Court-house, in New Jersey; but the English line being soon reinforced,
the Americans were compelled to give way, upon which Lee ordered a
retreat. Gen. Washington, who was riding ahead of the main body of his
army, met the retreating force, and peremptorily ordered Lee to reform
his troops and hold his position. This he for a time partially effected,
but was being again driven back, when the main body of the army arrived
to his assistance. The battle now became general, and under the
inspiring influence of their commander-in-chief the Americans fought
with such desperate resolution that the British were at length obliged
to give way. Washington made preparations to follow up his advantage,
but owing to the broken character of the ground, and twilight coming on
before a proper disposition of his troops could be made, the attack was
postponed until next morning. When morning dawned, however, it was found
that Sir Henry Clinton with his whole force had retreated during the
darkness of the night toward Sandy Hook, and Washington, on account of
the heat of the weather and the fatigue of his men, did not pursue them.
This was one of the most severely contested battles of the war. The
American loss was 227 killed and wounded, the English was a little
greater.

=Monomachy= (Fr. _monomachie_). A single combat, or the fighting of two,
hand to hand. It is derived from the Greek. A duel may properly be
called a monomachy.

=Mons= (Flemish, _Berghen_). A strongly-fortified town of Belgium, in
the province of Hainault, on the Trouille, 33 miles southwest from
Brussels. It has been frequently besieged and taken; in 1709 it was
taken by the allies under Marlborough and Eugène; in 1746 by Marshal
Saxe; and in the wars of the French revolution in 1792-94 it was taken
alternately by the French and the allies, the former of whom held the
town from 1784 to 1814.

=Monsoon.= A wind blowing half the year in one direction, and the other
half in the opposite;--a term applied particularly to certain winds of
the Indian Ocean, which blow from the southwest from April to October,
and from the northeast the rest of the year. The term is sometimes used
to designate similar winds in other parts of the globe.

=Mont St. Jean.= A village of Belgium; it is near the scene of the
battle of Waterloo, called by the French the battle of Mont St. Jean.

=Montana Territory.= A Territory of the United States, which is bounded
on the north by the British possessions, east by Dakota, south by
Wyoming and Idaho, and west by Idaho. This Territory has been overrun by
hostile Indians, who, under the management of the military, are being
rapidly subjugated. It was formed into a separate Territory in May,
1864, before which time it formed part of Idaho.

=Montauban.= A town of France, capital of the department of
Tarn-et-Garonne, 342 miles south by west from Paris. At the Reformation
the people embraced the Protestant cause; and the town was ineffectually
besieged by the adverse party in 1580. It afterwards, in 1621, resisted
for three months the assaults of Louis XIII., and did not yield till
after the fall of Rochelle in 1629. The fortifications were soon after
destroyed.

=Montbéliard=, or =Montbélliard=. A town of France, in the department of
Doubs, 48 miles northeast from Besançon. It was in former times a place
of some strength, and the capital of a county that originally formed
part of the kingdom of Burgundy, but was transferred to the Würtemberg
family in 1395. Although twice taken by the French in the 17th century,
it was not finally ceded to them till 1796.

=Monte Aperto, Battle of.= See SIENA.

=Monte-Baldo.= A mountain of Lombardy; the Austrians were defeated in
its vicinity by the French in 1797.

=Montebello Casteggio.= A village of Northern Italy, in the province of
Voghera; here the Austrians were defeated by a French army under Gen.
Lannes, after a desperate conflict, June 9, 1800; in the last Italian
war the Austrians were again defeated here by the united armies of the
French and Piedmontese in May, 1859.

=Montemaggiore Belsito.= A town of the island of Sicily, 31 miles
southeast of Palermo. It was occupied by the Saracens when they first
took possession of the country.

=Montenegro.= A principality of Europe, situated between the Turkish
eyalets of Bosnia and Albania, and separated from the Adriatic by the
narrow strip of land known as the circle of Cattaro, in Austrian
Dalmatia. The Montenegrins are Slavs of the Servian race, knit together
in clans and families, and have many fights among themselves, which are
perpetuated by the hereditary obligation of avenging blood. Montenegro
belonged in the Middle Ages to the great Servian kingdom, but after the
dismemberment of the latter, and its conquest by the Turks at the battle
of Kossovo (1389), the Montenegrins, under their prince, who was of the
royal blood of Servia, maintained their independence, though compelled
to relinquish the level tracts of land, and confine themselves to the
mountains, in 1485. The Turks continued to assert their claims to
Montenegro, but they were only defeated in their plans, and in 1710 the
Montenegrins sought and obtained the protection of Russia, the czar
agreeing to grant an annual subsidy on condition of their harassing the
Turks by inroads. In 1860 the Montenegrins excited an insurrection
against the Turkish rule in Herzegovina, which was soon suppressed, and
in return they themselves were so hard pressed by the Turks that they
were glad to agree to a treaty (September 8, 1862) by which the
sovereignty of the Porte over Montenegro was recognized.

=Montenotte.= A small village of Northern Italy; here the Austrians were
defeated by the French under Bonaparte, April 12, 1796.

=Monter= (_Fr._). This word means to rise from one rank to another in
the way of promotion, as from lieutenant to captain, etc., or from
having the command of the youngest company to be promoted to that of the
oldest.

=Montereau.= A town of France, in the department of Seine-et-Marne. In
its immediate vicinity Napoleon, on February 18, 1814, gained his last
victory over the allies.

=Monterey.= A city of Mexico, capital of the state of Nuevo Leon, about
85 miles east by north of Saltillo. Gen. Taylor with an army of about
6000 men, the first division under Gen. Worth, appeared before this
place, September 21, 1846. It was defended by a force of about 10,000
Mexicans under Gen. Ampudia. In approaching the city the first obstacles
to be overcome were two batteries, which were in a commanding position.
These were soon taken and their guns turned on a third battery erected
in a large stone building, called the Bishop’s Palace. This was stormed
on the morning of the 22d, and a vigorous sortie of the garrison having
been repulsed, the Americans entered the city with the flying Mexicans.
During the day a feigned attack on the defenses in front was soon
converted into a real one, and after a severe contest the Americans
entered the city, though with great sacrifice of life; for every street
was barricaded, and guns were pointed from almost every wall. On the
morning of the 23d, the defenses on the opposite side were assaulted and
carried by the division of Gen. Worth, and the garrison soon after
surrendered.

=Monterey.= A port of entry and capital of the county of the same name
in California, about 95 miles south-southeast of San Francisco. It was
once a populous and thriving city, but has greatly declined since the
rise of San Francisco. Being led to suppose that war existed between the
United States and Mexico, Commodore Sloat took this place July 7, 1846,
and raised the American flag without opposition.

=Montero.= A military cap and hood formerly worn in camp.

=Monterotondo.= A town of Central Italy, situated about 26 miles
south-southwest of Rieti. An engagement took place here October 25,
1867, between the French and pontifical troops and the volunteers of
Garibaldi, in which the latter were victorious.

=Montevideo.= The capital of the republic of Uruguay, in South America.
It was taken by the British forces under Sir Samuel Auchmuty, February
3, 1807, but was evacuated by them July 7 of the same year, in
consequence of the severe repulse the British met with at Buenos Ayres
(which see). Montevideo was given up to Uruguay in 1828.

=Montgomery.= The capital of the State of Alabama. A convention of
delegates from the Southern States met here February 4, 1861, to
organize a provisional government for the seceded States, which were
thereafter to be known as the Confederate States of America, and
Montgomery was chosen as the seat of government. Richmond being
afterwards made the capital of the Confederacy, the seat of government
was transferred thither on May 20 in the same year.

=Montiel= (Spain), =Battle of=. Took place on March 14, 1369, between
Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Transtamare,
aided by the French warrior, Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter was totally
defeated, and afterwards treacherously slain.

=Montilla.= A town of Spain, in Andalusia; in 1508 the fortifications of
this place were destroyed by Ferdinand the Catholic.

=Montlhery= (Seine-et-Oise, France). The site of an indecisive battle
between Louis XI. and a party of his nobles, termed “The League of the
Public Good,” July 16, 1465.

=Montmartre.= A village of France immediately to the north of Paris, and
standing within the new line of fortifications; it was the scene of some
sharp fighting in March, 1814.

=Montmirail.= A town of France, in the department of the Marne;
Bonaparte defeated the Russians near this place in 1814.

=Montmorency=, or =Montmorenci=. The name of a noble French family,
whose celebrity dates as far back as the 11th century, and which has
produced many famous princes, peers, and generals. Among them were 6
constables and 11 marshals of France.

=Mont-Pagnote= (_Fr._). In fortification, an eminence where persons post
themselves out of the reach of cannon, to see a camp, siege, battle,
etc., without being exposed to danger. It is also called the post of the
invulnerables.

=Montreal.= The largest city of the Dominion of Canada and of British
America; it was surrendered to the English by the French, September 8,
1760; taken by the Americans, November 12, 1775, and retaken by the
English, June 15, 1776.

=Montserrat.= A West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493; it
has several times been taken by the French, but was secured to the
British in 1783.

=Moodkee.= A small town of Hindostan; it is only remarkable for a
victory gained by the British over a greatly more numerous force of the
Sikhs on December 18, 1845.

=Mook.= A village of Holland, in the province of Limburg; Louis of
Nassau was defeated by the Spaniards near this place in 1574, and was
slain in the action.

=Mooltan=, or =Moultan=. A city of India, in the Punjab; this place was
stormed by Runjeet Sing, 1818; it was taken by the British after a
protracted siege, in January, 1849.

=Moon.= A crescent-formed outwork. See HALF-MOON.

=Moors.= Formerly the natives of Mauritania (which see), but afterwards
the name given to the Numidians and others, and now applied to the
natives of Morocco and the neighborhood. They assisted Genseric and the
Vandals in the invasion of Africa, 429, and frequently rebelled against
the Roman emperors. They resisted for a time the progress of the Arab
Mohammedans, but were overcome in 707, and in 1019 by them introduced
into Spain, where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 they were
defeated in Sicily by Robert Guiscard. The Moorish kingdom of Granada
was set up in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before Ferdinand
V. of Castile. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain was decreed by
Charles V., but not fully carried into effect till 1609, when the
bigotry of Philip III. inflicted this great injury on his country. About
1518 the Moors established the piratical states of Algiers and Tunis. In
the history of Spain the Arabs and Moors must not be confounded.

=Mootiana.= In the East Indies, the soldiers are so called, who are
employed to collect the revenue.

=Moppat.= An early name for a sponge of a cannon.

=Moquis.= A body of Pueblo Indians, in Arizona, numbering about 1700,
inhabiting seven villages in the region southwest of the Navajoes. Their
towns would be almost impregnable to an Indian assault. Each pueblo is
built around a rectangular court, and is surrounded by a wall 15 feet
high, the top of which forms a landing, upon which the doors of the
houses open. The exterior walls, which are of stone, have no openings,
and would have to be scaled or battered down before access could be
gained to the interior. The successive stories are set back, one behind
the other. The lower rooms are reached through trap-doors from the
first landing; the latter is reached by means of detached ladders. The
houses are three rooms deep, and open from the interior court; the
arrangement is as strong and compact as could be well devised; but as
the court is common, and the landings are separated by no partitions, it
involves a certain community of residence.

=Morat.= An old town of Switzerland, situated on a lake of the same
name, in the canton of Friburg. Charles the Bold of Burgundy was
defeated before Morat by the Swiss in 1476.

=Moravia.= An Austrian province, occupied by the Slavonians about 458,
and conquered by the Avars and Bohemians who submitted to Charlemagne.
About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas, king of Poland, but recovered by
Ulric of Bohemia in 1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia
were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 1526. Moravia was
invaded by the Prussians in 1866.

=Morea.= The name borne by the ancient Peloponnesus since the Middle
Ages, if not from as early a period as the 4th century; it forms the
most southern part of Greece. Morea was overrun by the Goths and
Vandals, and became a prey in the second half of the 8th century to
bands of Slavic invaders, who found it wasted by war and pestilence.
Gradually, however, these barbarians were subdued and Grecianized by the
Byzantine emperors. In 1207 Morea was conquered by French knights; part
of the country was reconquered in 1261 by the Byzantine emperor Michael
VIII. Palæologus; but in 1460 the greater part of the Morea fell into
the hands of the Turks, who retained possession of it down to the period
of the Greek revolution, except from 1687 to 1715, when it was held by
the Venetians.

=Morella.= A strongly-fortified town of Spain, province of
Castellon-de-la-Plana. It was taken by Philip V. in 1707, surprised in
1838 by Cabrera, and retaken, after a brave defense, by Espartero in
1840. During the last civil war, the walls and magazines of the citadel
were destroyed.

=Morgarten.= A mountain of Switzerland, 5 miles north from Schwyz,
where, in November, 1315, the first battle was fought for Swiss
independence. On this occasion 20,000 of the Austrian forces were
defeated by 1300 Swiss. In 1798 the French were also defeated here by
the Swiss.

=Morglay.= A deadly weapon; a great sword.

=Morion.= An iron or steel head-piece worn by a man-at-arms in the days
when armor was used. It was distinguished from the helmets of the
knights and esquires in having neither visor nor beaver. Under the
Norman laws, every yeoman between certain ages was bound to keep his
morion ready for service.

=Mormons.= A modern sect who profess the religious doctrines of one
Joseph Smith. Polygamy is one of the prominent features of their
religion. The sect has its headquarters at Salt Lake City, Utah.

=Morne.= The head of the lance used in tilting or other peaceful
encounters. It was curved so that an adversary might be unhorsed, but
not wounded, by a stroke.

=Morning Gun.= The gun fired at the first note of reveille in military
barracks, forts, etc.

=Morning Star.= A weapon consisting of a ball with projecting spikes
attached by a chain to a short staff. Used as late as the time of Henry
VIII. by the train-bands of London.

=Morocco.= An empire in Northern Africa, formerly Mauritania. In 1051 it
was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs, by the Almaravides, who eventually
extended their dominion into Spain. They were succeeded by the Almohades
(1121), the Merinites (1270), and in 1516 by the Scherifs, pretended
descendants of Mohammed, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors have had
frequent wars with the French, Spaniards, and Portuguese, due to piracy.

=Moron=, or =Moron-de-la-Frontera=. A town of Andalusia, Spain, about 32
miles northeast of Seville. On a hill east of the town are the ruins of
an ancient castle erected by the Moors, which was one of the most
important strongholds in Spain for several centuries. It was blown up by
the French in 1812.

=Morris Island.= A low sand island, about 5 miles long, on the south
side of Charleston harbor, S. C. A Confederate battery erected on its
northern extremity aided in the capture of Fort Sumter, April 12-13,
1861, after which Fort Wagner and other batteries were erected for the
defense of Charleston. An expedition against the city having been
contemplated, the military occupation of the island by the Federals, and
the erection of land-batteries for the reduction of Fort Sumter were
deemed necessary. As the latter was a task requiring engineering skill,
the duty was assigned to Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, who took command of the
department. He took possession of the south end of the island on July
10, 1863, and on the 11th and 18th made two attempts to capture Fort
Wagner near the north end by assault, his object being to get within
more effective breaching distance of Fort Sumter. His efforts, however,
were unsuccessful, and it was accordingly determined to reduce Fort
Wagner by a regular siege. Gen. Gillmore commenced by the erection of
parallels, which he pushed forward with such diligence in spite of all
difficulties, that by August 13 his works were within about 400 yards of
Wagner. On the morning of the 17th, having completed his batteries,
which numbered about 60 pieces, and obtained the range, his guns opened
fire on Sumter. The fleet, consisting of the frigate “Ironsides” and the
monitors, aided by some wooden gunboats, made an attack at the same time
upon Fort Wagner and Fort Gregg, another Confederate work, both of
which were nearly silenced. On August 26, having completed a parallel
and sap which extended very close to Fort Wagner, Gen. Gillmore
determined to possess a ridge of sand which interposed, and was
necessary to the success of his operations. It was constantly occupied
by a strong body of the enemy’s pickets and at night by a force
protected by rifle-pits. A bombardment of the position was made just
before dark, after which it was carried by the 24th Massachusetts, and
one company of North Carolina troops captured. After a terrific
bombardment of forty-two hours, September 5-6, it was determined to
carry the place by storm on the next day, but during the night the enemy
evacuated the fort, and Gen. Gillmore became master of the whole island.

=Morris-pike.= An ancient Moorish pike.

=Mortar.= Short cannon for throwing shells, usually fired at angles from
45° to 60° elevation, called “vertical fire,” in contradistinction to
the fire of long cannon, usually made at low angles. Mortars--so called
from their similarity of form to the mortar for pulverizing, which has
retained its familiar shape from the earliest ages--are believed to have
been the first guns used, and, though changed from age to age frequently
in form of chamber, size, and projectile, all ages have found them too
useful in their special way to suppress or essentially alter them. The
“Coehorn” mortar--so called from the famous Dutch engineer, Gen.
Coehorn, who first proposed them in 1674--is to-day in use, of the same
pattern and for the like service then suggested. Monster mortars have
been constructed from time to time, in the hope of producing immense
destruction in bombardments with single shells containing a large
quantity of powder. The most recent of these, the monster mortar made by
Mallet for the British government, weighing 114,000 pounds, with a bore
of 36 inches and a shell of 2912 pounds, failed to be of any service.
Perhaps the most unique mortars ever made were to be found in the island
of Malta in the last century. The solid rock had been hollowed out into
immense mortars, some of them 6 feet wide at the mouth. These tremendous
_fougasses_ (the proper term for them) were to be filled with stones,
shells, and missiles of various kinds, to descend in a crushing shower
upon an enemy attempting a landing. For different kinds of mortars now
in use, see ORDNANCE.

=Mortara.= A walled town of Italy, situated on the right bank of the
Arbogna, 14 miles south-southeast of Novara. In 774, the Lombards were
here defeated by Charlemagne with great slaughter.

=Mortar-bed.= See BEDS, and ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Mortar-fuze.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Mortar-piece.= An old term for a mortar.

=Mortar-scraper.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Mortar-wagon.= A wagon used to transport mortars, mortar-beds, spare
guns, and projectiles. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Mortfontaine.= A village of France, in the department of the Oise, in
the castle of which peace between France and the United States was
signed in 1800.

=Mortimer’s Cross.= Four cross-roads about 6 miles northwest from
Leominster, in Herefordshire, England, where the Yorkists defeated the
Lancastrians in 1461.

=Mortlach.= A parish of Scotland, in Banffshire. In this parish the
Danes were defeated by Malcolm II. in the 11th century.

=Mortne.= See MORNE.

=Moscow.= A city of Russia in Europe, situated on the river Moskwa, 375
miles southeast from St. Petersburg. It was the ancient capital of
Russia, and was founded about 1147. It was plundered by Timur, 1382; by
the Tartars, 1451 and 1477; ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in 1611. It
was entered by Napoleon I. and the French, September 14, 1812; the
governor, Rostopchin, ordered it to be set on fire (11,840 houses burnt,
besides palaces and churches), September 15, 1812. It was evacuated by
the French in October, 1812.

=Moskirch= (Baden). Here the Austrians were defeated by Moreau and the
French, May 5, 1800.

=Moskwa, Battle of.= See BORODINO.

=Moslem.= Pertaining to the Mohammedans.

=Moss-troopers.= A name formerly applied to the raiders and
cattle-thieves who infested the borders of England and Scotland.

=Mothir al Moolk.= In the East Indies, fortifications, barricades,
intrenchments, or breastworks, are so called.

=Motion.= Each movement in the manual of arms is divided into motions to
facilitate instruction of recruits.

=Motion of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES.

=Moton.= In ancient armor, a small plate covering the armpits of a
knight, used when plate-armor was worn.

=Motto.= In heraldry, is a word or short sentence which forms an
accompaniment to a coat of arms, crest, or household badge. In modern
heraldry it is customary to place the motto in an escrol either above
the crest or below the shield.

=Motya.= An ancient town in the northwest of Sicily, situated on a small
island (now _Isola di Mezzo_), only 6 stadia from the coast. It passed
from Sicily into the hands of the Carthaginians; was taken from them by
Dionysius of Syracuse about 397 B.C., and was finally captured by the
Carthaginian general Himilco, who transplanted all its inhabitants to
the town of Lilybæum. From this time it disappears from history.

=Moulinet.= A circular swing of the weapon in sword exercise.

=Moultrie, Fort.= See FORT MOULTRIE.

=Mound.= A bulwark for offense or defense.

=Mound.= In heraldry, a representation of a globe, surmounted with a
cross (generally) pattée. As a device, it is said to have been used by
the emperor Justinian, and to have been intended to represent the
ascendency of Christianity over the world. The royal crown of England is
surmounted by a mound, which first appeared on the seal of William the
Conqueror, though the globe without the cross was used earlier.

=Mount.= The means or opportunity for mounting, especially a horse; and
the equipments necessary for a mounted horseman.

=Mount.= To place one’s self on, as a horse or other animal, or anything
that one bestrides or sits upon; to bestride. Hence, to put on
horseback; to furnish with animals for riding; to furnish with horses.
“To mount the Trojan troop.” See DISMOUNT.

=Mount.= To put anything that sustains and fits, for use; as, to mount a
gun on a carriage. To prepare for being worn or otherwise used, as a
sword-blade by adding the hilt and scabbard. A ship or a fort is said to
mount cannon when they are arranged for use in and about it.

=Mount.= A word of command in the cavalry exercise for the men to mount
their horses.

=Mount a Breach, To.= To run up in a quick and determined manner to any
breach made in a wall, etc. _To mount guard_, to do guard duty in a
town, garrison, camp, etc.

=Mount Desert Island.= A mountainous island in the Atlantic, and in
Hancock Co., Me.; is 14 miles long and 7 wide. The French settled it in
1608; they were driven out by the English in 1616. The English settled
it in 1761.

=Mountain Artillery.= A species of light artillery which is used in the
United States and other countries in mountain warfare. See MOUNTAIN
BATTERY.

=Mountain Battery.= A battery of mountain pieces. The pieces and
carriages are carried separately upon the backs of animals, by means of
pack-saddles of special construction. These have, however, of late been
almost entirely superseded for this purpose by the aparejo. A portable
forge also accompanies each battery, and is carried with a bag of coal
upon a pack-saddle.

=Mountain-carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Mountain-gun.= See MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY.

=Mountain-howitzer.= The howitzer used in the U. S. service is a
12-pounder brass gun of old pattern with cylindrical chamber. The gun
weighs 220 pounds and has an extreme length of 37.21 inches. This gun is
ignored in the Light Artillery Tactics.

=Mounted Troops.= Cavalry.

=Mounting Guard.= See GUARD MOUNTING.

=Mourne.= That part of a lance or halbert to which the steel or blade is
fixed.

=Mouser.= In the British army, a sobriquet which was sometimes used in
sport to distinguish the battalion men from the flank companies. It was
indeed generally applied to them by the grenadiers and light bobs,
meaning that while the latter are detached, the former remain in
quarters, like cats to watch the mice, etc.

=Mousquetaires=, or =Musketeers=. A body of horse-soldiers under the old
French _régime_, raised by Louis XIII. in 1622. This corps was
considered a military school for the French nobility. It was disbanded
in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A second company was created in 1660,
and formed Cardinal Mazarin’s guard.

=Mouth.= See MUZZLE.

=Mouth.= The outer opening of an embrasure.

=Movement.= A term used to express the changes of position which troops
undergo in performing their evolutions.

=Mow.= To cut down with speed; to cut down indiscriminately, or in great
numbers or quantity; to sweep away; as, a discharge of grape-shot mows
down whole ranks of men.

=Moyan.= A species of early artillery.

=Moyen= (_Fr._). The bastions which are constructed on the angles are
called royal bastions. Some engineers have distinguished those bastions
by the name of _moyens royaux_, or medium royals, whose flanks contain
from 90 to 100 toises.

=Moyenne= (_Fr._). An ancient 4-pounder, 10 feet long, weighing 1300
pounds. In the time of Charles IX. (1572) it was a 2³⁄₄-pounder.

=Moyenne Ville= (_Fr._). A term formerly given by the French to any town
in which the garrison was equal to a third of the inhabitants, and which
was not deemed sufficiently important to bear the expense of a citadel;
more especially so because it was not in the power of the inhabitants to
form seditious meetings without the knowledge of the soldiers who were
quartered on them.

=Moyens Côtés= (_Fr._). In fortification, are those sides which contain
from 80 to 120 toises in extent. They are always fortified with bastions
on their angles. The _moyens côtés_ are generally found along the extent
of irregular places, and each one of these is individually subdivided
into small, mean, and great sides.

=Mozyr.= A town in the southeast of the government of Minsk, in European
Russia, situated on the Pripet, a tributary of the Dnieper. It is a town
of considerable antiquity, and played a rather important part in the
wars between the various Russian princes previous to the Tartar
invasion. It was unsuccessfully besieged by the Tartars in 1240.

=Muff and Collar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, LIMBER.

=Muffle.= To wrap with something that dulls or renders sound inaudible;
to deaden the sound of; as, to muffle a drum.

=Mufti.= The civilian dress of a military officer when off duty; hence,
a citizen’s dress, as distinguished from military uniform.

=Muhlagis.= Turkish cavalry composed of expert horsemen, who generally
attend the beglierbeys. They are not very numerous.

=Muhlberg.= A town of Prussian Saxony, situated on the Elbe. Here, on
April 24, 1547, a battle was fought between Johann-Friedrich, elector of
Saxony, and the emperor Charles V., a battle fraught with the most
important results to the cause of Protestantism in Germany. The battle
was soon decided in favor of the emperor; the elector was taken
prisoner, and stripped of his territories. From this time till 1552, the
Catholics were triumphant in Germany.

=Muhldorf.= In Bavaria, near which place Frederick, duke of Austria, was
defeated and taken prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, September 28, 1322.

=Mulct.= A soldier is said to be mulcted of his pay when put under fine
or stoppages for necessaries, or to make good some dilapidations
committed by him on the property of the people or the government.

=Mule.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Mullet.= In heraldry, is a charge in the form of a star, generally with
five points, intended to represent a spur-rowel. It is a mark of cadency
assigned to the third son.

=Multan=, or =Mooltan=. An ancient and important city of India, in the
Punjab, 200 miles southwest from Lahore. Multan is a military station,
with a small redoubt in the rear of the cantonment. In 1849 it was taken
by the British troops under Gen. Whish, and annexed with its territory
to the British possessions.

=Multi-charge Gun.= Many attempts have been made by inventors to utilize
the accelerating effect on the projectile of several charges
successively fired in a gun. _Lyman’s multi-charge_ gun has a series of
pockets along the bore, the charges in which are successively fired as
the projectile passes them. _Bessemer_ proposed plan is to use a gun of
great length. The charges are placed separately in holes at the breech,
to be fired in succession by electricity.

=Multiple Lines.= In fortification, several lines of detached walls for
the defense of a position.

=Munchengratz.= A town of Bohemia, on the Iser, 8 miles northeast from
Jungbunzlau; it was taken by the Prussians under Prince Frederick
Charles, after a severe action, June 28, 1866. The Austrians lost about
300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the prince gained about 12 miles of
country. There is a palace here, in which the emperors of Austria and
Russia and the king of Prussia met in 1833.

=Munda.= A Roman colony and an important town in Hispania Bætica,
situated on a small river, and celebrated on account of two battles
fought in its neighborhood, the victory of Cn. Scipio over the
Carthaginians in 216 B.C., and the important victory of Julius Cæsar
over the sons of Pompey in 45.

=Munich= (Ger. _München_). The capital of the kingdom of Bavaria,
situated on the Iser, 117 miles southeast from Stuttgart. It was taken
by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741,
and 1743; and by the French under Moreau, July 2, 1800.

=Munifice= (Lat. _munifex_), Fr. A Roman soldier who was subjected to
every kind of drudgery-work in camp.

=Munimell.= A stronghold, fortification, etc.

=Munition.= Whatever materials are used in war for defense, or for
annoying an enemy; ammunition; also, stores and provisions; military
stores of all kinds.

=Munkacs.= A market-town of East Hungary, 80 miles northeast from
Debreczin. It was taken by the Imperialists in 1687, after a siege of
three years.

=Munsees=, or =Minsees=. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who were
closely allied to the Delawares. Many of them became converts to
Christianity. A few of them now reside on the reservation of the
Stockbridge Indians in Wisconsin, and about 60 are settled in Kansas.

=Münster.= A city of Germany, on the small river Aa, 77 miles northeast
from Cologne. It is the capital of a government of the same name in
Prussian Westphalia. It was seized by the French in 1806; part of the
duchy of Berg, 1809; annexed to France, 1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. It
was the headquarters of the Anabaptists under John Leyden, who defended
it against the bishop of Münster, 1534-35. Here was signed the treaty of
Westphalia or Münster, October 24, 1648.

=Münsterthal.= Two valleys of Switzerland, one in the canton Grisons,
the other in Berne, where, in 1444, the battle of St. Jacob was fought
between the French and Swiss, when the latter were nearly annihilated.

=Muotta Valley.= A secluded valley of Switzerland, canton of Schwytz,
traversed by the river Muotta, an affluent of Lake Lucerne. Here a
sanguinary struggle took place in 1799, between the French under
Lecourbe, Mortier, and Masséna, and the Russians under Suwarrow. The
latter was hemmed in on all sides, but by a desperate onslaught he cut
his way through the French lines, and made a masterly retreat.

=Muradal, Battle of.= See TOLOSA.

=Murage.= Money appropriated to the repair of military works; anciently
so called.

=Mural Crown.= In Roman antiquity, a golden crown, or circlet of gold,
indented so as to resemble a battlement; bestowed on him who first
mounted the wall of a besieged place, and there lodged a standard.

=Murcia.= An old kingdom in the southeast of Spain, now divided into the
modern provinces of Murcia and Albacete. It was conquered by the Arabs
in 711 (712, 713); after the fall of the caliphate of Cordova, it became
an independent Arab kingdom, but six years afterward was subjugated by
King Ferdinand II. of Castile.

=Murcia.= A city of Spain, capital of the ancient kingdom and modern
province of its own name, 30 miles north-northwest of Carthagena. It was
taken by the Moors in 713; wrested from them by Ferdinand of Castile. In
1810 it was taken and sacked by the French.

=Murderer.= A great piece of artillery. Among the ordnance given up to
Monk with Edinburgh Castle in 1650 is mentioned “The great iron
murderer, Muckle Meg.”

=Murdresses.= In ancient fortification, a sort of battlement with
interstices, raised on the tops of towers in order to fire through.

=Muret= (Southern France). Here the Albigenses under the Count of
Toulouse were defeated by Simon de Montfort, and their ally, Peter of
Aragon, killed, September 12, 1213.

=Murfreesboro’.= A town and capital of Rutherford Co., Tenn., about 30
miles southeast of Nashville. A Federal force which occupied this place
in 1862 was surprised and captured by a body of Confederates under Gen.
Forrest. Near here, on December 31, 1862, the Army of the Ohio under
Gen. Rosecrans encountered the Confederates under Gen. Bragg, and a
desperate battle ensued, continuing at intervals and with varying
success until January 3, 1863, when the Confederate army retreated, and
Gen. Rosecrans occupied Murfreesboro’. The Federal loss was about 8500
killed and wounded, and 3600 missing; the Confederates represented their
loss at 10,000, of which 9000 were killed and wounded. This battle is
known as the battle of Murfreesboro’, or of Stone River.

=Murviedro.= A fortified town of Spain in the province of Valencia, 17
miles north from Valencia. It was taken by Hannibal 219 B.C.

=Muscule=, or =Testude=. In ancient times, a machine of war; a mantelet;
shed; low, long, and sharp-roofed shed, which enabled the besiegers to
advance to and sap the wall of the besieged.

=Music.= A general term for the musicians of a regimental band.

=Music, Phrygian.= A martial sort of ancient music, which excited men to
rage and battle; by this mode Timotheus stirred up Alexander to arms.

=Musicians.= See BAND, DRUMMER, FIFER, and TRUMPETER.

=Musket=, or =Musquet= (Fr. _mousquet_). The fire-arm for infantry
soldiers, which succeeded the clumsy arquebuse, and has itself given way
before the rifle (which see). The first muskets were matchlocks; after
which came wheel-locks, asnaphans or snaphance muskets, and lastly
percussion muskets, which were a vast improvement both for accuracy and
lightness on all which had gone before. Compared, however, to the
present rifle, the musket was a heavy, ugly, and ineffective weapon.

=Musket Baskets.= These are about a foot or a foot and a half high, 8 or
10 inches diameter at bottom, and a foot at the top, so that being
filled with earth there is room to lay a musket between them at the
bottom, being set on low breastworks, or parapets, or upon such as are
beaten down.

=Musketeer.= A soldier armed with a musket.

=Musketoon.= An obsolete weapon; was a short musket of very wide bore,
carrying a ball of 5 ounces, and sometimes bell-mouthed like a
blunderbuss. Also one who was armed with such a weapon.

=Musket-proof.= Capable of resisting the effects of musket-balls.

=Musketry.= Muskets in general or collectively. “The rattle of
musketry.”

=Musselburgh.= A royal burgh of Scotland, county of Mid-Lothian, at the
mouth of the Esk, 6 miles east of Edinburgh. The town is historically
important on account of the battle of Pinkie, which was fought in the
neighborhood in 1547, when the Scottish army was defeated by the English
under the Earl of Somerset.

=Mustang.= The wild horse of the prairies in Mexico, California, etc. It
is small, hardy, and easily sustained.

=Muster.= A review of troops under arms, fully equipped, in order to
take an account of their numbers, inspect their arms and accoutrements,
and examine their condition. In the U. S. service troops are mustered
bi-monthly. During the civil war, the mustering in and mustering out of
troops (into or out of the U. S. service) were performed by
staff-officers, called commissaries of musters.

=Muster-book.= A book in which military forces are registered.

=Muster-file.= A muster-roll.

=Muster-master.= One who takes an account of troops, and of their arms
and other military apparatus. This title is not known in the U. S. army.
The person who performs these duties is called a _mustering_ officer, or
an _inspecting_ officer.

=Muster-roll.= A roll or register of the men in each company, troop, or
regiment.

=Muta= (Syria). Here Mohammed and his followers defeated the Christians
in his first conflict with them, 629.

=Mutilated.= In a military sense, signifies wounded in such a manner as
to lose the use of a limb. A battalion is said to be mutilated when its
divisions, etc., stand unequal.

=Mutina.= See MODENA.

=Mutine.= To mutiny; a mutineer. This term is obsolete.

=Mutineer.= One guilty of mutiny; a person in military or naval service,
who rises in opposition to the authority of the officers, who openly
resists the government of the army or navy, or attempts to destroy due
subordination.

=Mutinous.= Disposed to mutiny or resist the authority of laws and
regulations, especially in an army, or openly resisting such authority;
turbulent; seditious.

=Mutinously.= In a mutinous manner.

=Mutinousness.= The quality or state of being mutinous; seditiousness.

=Mutiny.= Insurrection against constituted authority, particularly
military authority; open and violent resistance to the authority of
officers; concerted revolt against the rules of discipline; hence,
generally, forcible resistance to rightful authority on the part of
subordinates. Violent commotion; tumult; uproar; strife.

=Mutiny.= To rise against lawful authority in the military service; to
excite, or to be guilty of mutiny, or mutinous conduct; to revolt
against one’s superior officer or rightful authority.

=Mutiny Act.= In Great Britain, an annual act of Parliament fixing the
strength of the army for the military year, which commences April 1, and
ends March 31, and imposing certain penalties for offenses connected
with the army. It also authorizes the sovereign to issue Articles of
War.

=Muzzle.= See ORDNANCE, NOMENCLATURE.

=Muzzle Velocity.= Velocity at the muzzle. See INITIAL VELOCITY.

=Muzzle-ring.= The metallic ring or circle that surrounds the mouth of a
cannon or other piece.

=Muzzle-sight.= A front sight placed on or near the muzzle.

=Mycale= (now _Samsum_). A mountain in the south of Ionia, in Asia
Minor, north of the mouth of the Meander. It forms the western extremity
of Mount Messogis, and runs far out into the sea, opposite to Samos,
forming a sharp promontory, which was called Mycale, or Trogilium (now
_Cape St. Maria_). This cape and the southeast promontory of Samos
(Posidonium) overlap one another, and the two tongues of land are
separated by a strait only about three-fourths of a mile in width, which
is renowned in Greek history as the scene of the victory gained over the
Persian fleet by Leotychides and Xanthippus, 479 B.C.

=Mycalessus.= An ancient and important city in Bœotia, mentioned by
Homer, situated on the road from Aulis to Thebes. In 413 B.C., some
Thracian mercenaries in the pay of Athens surprised and sacked the town
and butchered the inhabitants. From this blow it never recovered, and
was in ruins in the time of Pausanias.

=Mycenæ=, sometimes =Mycene= (now _Karvata_). An ancient town in
Argolis, about 6 miles northeast of Argos; it is said to have been
founded by Perseus in 2 B.C. After the conquest of Peloponnesus by the
Dorians, it ceased to be a place of importance. It still, however,
continued an independent town till 468 B.C., when it was attacked by the
Argives, whose hatred the Mycenæans are said to have incurred by the
part they took in the Persian war in favor of the Greek cause. The
massive walls of Mycenæ resisted all the attacks of the Argives; but the
inhabitants were at length compelled by famine to abandon their town.
They effected their escape and took refuge, some at Cleonæ, some in
Achaia, and others in Macedonia.

=Mylæ.= See MILAZZO.

=Myonnesus= (now _Cape Hypsili_). A promontory of Ionia, with a town and
a little island of the same name, forming the northern headland of the
Gulf of Ephesus. Here the Romans, under the prætor L. Æmilius, gained a
great naval victory over Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C.

=Myriarch.= A captain or commander of 10,000 men.

=Myrmidons.= The soldiers who accompanied Achilles in the expedition
against Troy. Rough, desperate characters banded under a leader.

=Mysore=, =Maheshasoora=, or =Maisur=. A raj or native principality of
Southern India. It was ruled by Hyder Ali, who acquired the sovereignty
in 1761, and afterwards by his son Tippoo Sahib, who was slain when
Seringapatam (May 4, 1799) was stormed and taken, and the country
occupied by the British, who set up, in the same year, an heir of the
ancient Hindoo royal family of Mysore to rule in his stead. The state is
now subsidiary to the British.

=Mytilene=, =Mitylene=, or =Metelin=. The city of Lesbos. At the
beginning of the 7th century B.C., the possession of its colony, Sigeum,
at the mouth of the Hellespont, was disputed in war between the
Mytileneans and Athenians, and assigned to the latter by the award of
Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Mytilene submitted to the Persians after
the conquest of Ionia and Æolis, and furnished contingents to the
expeditions of Cambyses against Egypt and of Darius against Scythia; it
was active in the Ionian revolt; became again subject to Persia, and
took part in the expedition of Xerxes against Greece. After the Persian
war it formed an alliance with Athens, and remained one of the most
important members of the Athenian confederacy. In 428 B.C. it headed a
revolt of the greater part of Lesbos, the progress and suppression of
which forms one of the most interesting episodes in the history of the
Peloponnesian war. Mytilene fell under the power of the Romans after the
Mithridatic war.



N.


=Naas.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Kildare, 18 miles southwest
from Dublin. Here the insurgent Irish were defeated by a body of the
king’s forces, May 24, 1798; the insurgents lost about 300 killed and
many wounded.

=Nabatæi=, or =Nabathæ= (in the Old Testament _Nebaioth_). An Arabian
people, descended from the eldest son of Ishmaël, had their original
abodes in the northwestern part of the Arabian peninsula, east and
southeast of the Moabites and Edomites. After the Babylonian conquest of
Judæa, the Nabathæans extended west into the Sinaitic peninsula and the
territory of the Edomites. They resisted all the attacks of the Greek
kings of Syria. Under Augustus the Nabathæans are found, as nominal
subjects of the Roman empire, assisting Ælius Gallius in his expedition
into Arabia Felix; under Trajan they were conquered by A. Cornelius
Palma, and Arabia Petræa became a Roman province, 105-107. The
Mohammedan conquest finally overthrew the power of the Nabathæans.

=Nachod.= A town of Bohemia, near where the Prussians, under their crown
prince, defeated the Austrians after a severe conflict, June 27, 1866.
In this battle, the superiority of the Prussian Uhlans over the Austrian
cavalry was demonstrated.

=Nafels.= A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Glarus, 4 miles
north from Glarus. Here in 1388, 1500 men of Glarus, under Matthias am
Buhl, overthrew an Austrian force of from 6000 to 8000 men The event is
still celebrated yearly.

=Nagarkana.= In the East Indies, the place where all the drums and
war-music are kept, is so called.

=Naggur= (_Ind._). The principal drum in Asiatic armies, commonly
allowed only to persons of high dignity; the bass drum.

=Nagpore=, =Nagpur=, or =Nagpoor=. A city of British India, capital of
the province of the same name, 430 miles in a direct line east-northeast
from Bombay. The rajahs of Nagpore, now an extinct dynasty, were the
rulers of a state which was a branch of the great Mahratta confederacy.
Its founder was Parsojee, originally a private soldier. Ragojee, one of
the successors of Parsojee, united his forces in 1803 with those of
Scindia in the war against the British consequent on the treaty of
Bassein. The victories of Assaye and Argaum compelled him to sue for
peace, and by a treaty concluded in 1804, he surrendered the province of
Cuttack. Appa Sahib, his successor, concluded a treaty with the British
government, but on November 26, 1817, he made an attack on the British
troops at Seetabuldee, an eminence on the outskirts of the town of
Nagpore. The British force, only 1400 strong, under Col. Scott, was
opposed to a body of 20,000 native troops; but the best dispositions
which the suddenness of the attack allowed were promptly made. A noble
charge, headed by Capt. Fitzgerald with a small party of cavalry, upon a
large body of the enemy’s horse, decided the fortune of the day, which
ended in the defeat of the natives.

=Naigue=, =Naick=, or =Naik=. A native non-commissioned officer among
Indian and Anglo-Asiatic troops, whose functions are somewhat analogous
to those performed among European troops by the drill-sergeant.

=Nail Cannon, To.= See SPIKE CANNON, TO.

=Nail-ball.= A round projectile with an iron pin protruding from it, to
prevent its turning in the bore of the piece.

=Nairs.= A native military tribe of the Malabar coast. They affirm that
they are the oldest nobility in the world. Their pride on this
supposition is greater than that of the Rajpoots. In 1755, the king of
Travancore, with the assistance of a French officer called Launoy,
disciplined 10,000 Nairs in the method of European infantry.

=Najera.= A town of Spain in the province of Logrono. Near this place
Edward the Black Prince defeated Henry de Trastamere, and re-established
Peter the Cruel on the throne of Castile, April 3, 1367.

=Naked Bullet.= _Grooved_ or _cannelured_ bullet as distinguished from
the _patched bullet_.

=Namur.= A city of Belgium, capital of the province of the same name, 33
miles southwest from Liège. It has been fortified from the earliest
period of its history; in 1692 its defensive works were repaired and
strengthened by Coehorn; was taken in the following year by Louis XIV.
and Vauban, the latter of whom added considerable to its original
strength; in 1695 it sustained a long siege against William III. of
England, and was taken; seized by the French in the beginning of the
18th century, but ceded to Austria in 1713. In 1781 the emperor Joseph
expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was occupied by the French, but
retaken by the Austrians in 1793. In 1794 it was again occupied by the
French, who kept it till the Netherlands were given up by the French
government in 1814; and after having been gallantly defended by its
French conquerors in 1815, against the Prussians under Pirch, it was
finally restored to the Netherlands after the battle of Waterloo, and at
once put into thorough repair. The works were demolished again in 1866
with the exception of the citadel.

=Nana.= In the East Indies, the title which is given to a chief of the
Mahrattas. It more properly signifies the acting head of the government,
and general of the forces.

=Nancy.= A city of France, the capital of the department of the Meurthe,
situated on the Meurthe, 30 miles south from Metz; it was the capital of
Lorraine and the residence of the dukes of that country in the 13th
century. After taking Nancy, November 29, 1475, and losing it, October
5, 1476, Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated and slain beneath its
walls by René II., duke of Lorraine, and the Swiss, January 5, 1477.
Nancy on the retreat of MacMahon’s army, and expecting the German army,
surrendered to four Uhlans, August 12, 1870.

=Nankin=, =Nanking=, =Kianning-Foo=, or =Kiangning-Fu=. The ancient
capital of China, now the chief town of the province of Kiangsu, is
situated about 3 miles from the south bank of the river Yang-tse-Kiang,
about 100 miles from its mouth. On August 4, 1842, the British ships
arrived at Nankin, and were kept before this place till the final treaty
of August 29, between China and Great Britain, was signed and ratified.
The rebel Tae-pings (Taipings) took it on March 19-20, 1853. It was
recaptured by the imperialists, July 19, 1864.

=Nantes= (anc. _Condivicnum_, afterwards _Namnetes_, or _Nannetes_). An
important commercial town of France, capital of the department of
Loire-Inférieure, on the right bank of the Loire, about 30 miles from
its mouth, 208 miles southwest of Paris. The history of Nantes reaches
back to the time of the Romans, in whose hands it seems to have remained
until the beginning of the 5th century, when they were driven from the
town. In 445 it valiantly withstood a siege of sixty days by the Huns.
It was captured by the Normans in 853 and 859, and held in possession by
them for nearly a century, after which the town suffered many
sieges,--in 1343 by the English; in 1380 by the Earl of Buckingham, when
it was relieved by Oliver of Clisson; and again in 1491 by Charles VIII.
It suffered much from the Vendéan civil war of 1793. In June of that
year the Vendéan army, 50,000 strong, under Cathelineau, laid siege to
the city, then defended by Gens. Beysser and Canclaux, but were repulsed
with great loss,--their general being among the slain. Here took place
the wholesale drowning (termed _Noyades_) of the royalists in the Loire,
by command of the brutal Carrier, one of the leaders of the republicans,
November, 1793. It was from Nantes that Prince Charles Edward embarked
for Scotland in 1745.

=Nantes, Edict of.= The name given to the famous decree published in
that city by Henry IV. of France, April 13, 1598, which secured to the
Protestant portion of his subjects freedom of religion.

=Naples.= A province of Italy, occupying the southern part of the
Italian peninsula, formerly the continental division of the old kingdom
of the Two Sicilies. It began with a Greek colony named Parthenope
(about 1000 B.C.), which was afterwards divided into Palæpolis (the
_old_) and Neapolis (the _new_ city), from which latter the present name
is derived. The colony was conquered by the Romans in the Samnite war,
326 B.C. Naples, after resisting the power of the Lombards, Franks, and
Germans, was subjugated by the Normans, under Roger Guiscard, king of
Sicily, in 1131. Naples was conquered by Theodoric the Goth in 493;
retaken by Belisarius in 536; taken again by Totila in 543; retaken by
Narses in 542; conquered, and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies founded by
Roger Guiscard II. in 1131. Here occurred the massacre called the
Sicilian Vespers (which see), March 30, 1282. The territory was invaded
by Louis, king of Hungary, in 1349; seized by Alphonso V. of Aragon in
1435; conquered by Charles VIII. of France in 1494; and by Louis XII. of
France and Ferdinand of Spain, who divided it in 1501. The French were
expelled from Naples in 1504; insurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by
the extortions of the Spanish viceroys, July, 1647; Masaniello slain by
his own followers a few days later; another insurrection suppressed by
Don John of Austria, October, 1647. Naples was conquered by Prince
Eugène of Savoy for the emperor in 1706; the king flies on the approach
of the French republicans, who establish the Parthenopean republic,
January 14, 1799; Nelson appears; Naples retaken June, 1799; the
Neapolitans occupy Rome, September 30, 1799. Ferdinand is compelled to
fly to Sicily, January 23, 1806; the French enter Naples, and Joseph
Bonaparte made king, February, 1806; Joachim Murat made king, July 15,
1808; Joachim declares war against Austria, March 15, 1815; defeated at
Tolentino, May 3, 1815; successful insurrection of the Carbonari under
Gen. Pépé, July 13, 1820; the Austrians invade the kingdom; Gen. Pépé
defeated, March 7, 1821; insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed,
August, 1828; great fighting in Naples; the liberals and the national
guard almost annihilated by the royal troops, aided by the _lazzaroni_,
May 15, 1848; a martial anarchy prevails, 1849; Italian refugees, under
Count Pisacane, land in Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed,
June 27-July 2, 1857; insubordination among the Swiss troops at Naples,
many shot, July 7, 1859; Garibaldi lands in Sicily, May 11, 1860, and
defeats the Neapolitan army at Calatafimi, May 15, 1860; state of siege
proclaimed at Naples, June 28, 1860; Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans at
Melazzo, July 20; enters Messina, July 21, and the Neapolitans agree to
evacuate Sicily, July 30, 1860; the army proclaim Count de Trani king,
July 10, 1860; Garibaldi lands at Melito, August 18, 1860; takes Reggio,
August 21, 1860; he enters Naples without troops, September 7, 1860;
Garibaldi gives up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral
Persano, September 11, 1860; repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo,
September 19, 1860, and defeats them at the Volturno, October 1, 1860;
the king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, and takes command of
his army, which combines with Garibaldi’s, October 11, 1860; Cialdini
defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, October 17, and at Venafro, October
18, 1860; Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel, and salutes him as king of
Italy, October 26, 1860.

=Naples= (Lat. _Neapolis_, It. _Napoli_). A city of Italy, the capital
of the province of Naples, situated on the Bay of Naples, near the foot
of Mount Vesuvius. In 1799 it was taken by the French, who evacuated it
shortly after, but again occupied it in 1806. In 1848 it was plundered
by the _lazzaroni_, of whom 1500 lost their lives. The history of this
city is nearly identical with that of the province of the same name
(which see).

=Napoleon Gun.= In 1856 it was proposed to increase the power of the
light, and diminish the weight of the heavy field artillery, by the
introduction of a single piece of medium weight and caliber; such is the
new field or Napoleon gun. It has no chamber, and should therefore be
classed as a gun. Its exterior is characterized by the entire absence of
molding and ornament, and in this respect may be at once distinguished
from the old field-cannon. The first reinforce is cylindrical, and it
has no second reinforce, as the exterior tapers uniformly with the chase
from the extremity of the first reinforce. The size of the trunnions and
the distance between the rimbases are the same as in the 24-pounder
howitzer, in order that pieces may be transported on the same kind of
carriage. The diameter of the bore is that of a 12-pounder, the length
of bore is 16 calibers. The weight is 100 times the projectile, or 1200
pounds. The charge of powder is the same as for the heavy 12-pounders
(pattern of 1840), or 2¹⁄₂ pounds for solid and case-shot, and 2 pounds
for canister-shot. It has, therefore, nearly as great range and accuracy
as the heaviest gun of the old system, and, at the same time, the recoil
and strain on the carriage are not too severe. The new gun and carriage
weigh about 500 pounds more than the 6-pounder and carriage, still it
has been found to possess sufficient mobility for the general purposes
of light artillery. It is proposed to retain the 12-pounder howitzer in
service, to be employed in cases where great celerity of movement is
indispensable. The effect of this change is to simplify the _matériel_
of field artillery, and to increase its ability to cope with the
rifle-musket, principally by the use of larger and more powerful
spherical case-shot. The principal objection to an increased caliber for
light field-guns is the increased weight of the ammunition, and
consequent reduction of the number of rounds that can be carried in the
ammunition-chests.

=Narbonne.= A city of France, in the department of the Aude, 32 miles
east of Carcassonne. The modern town of Narbonne occupies the site of
the ancient _Narbo Martius_, a Roman colony founded in 118 B.C. After
the first colonization of Narbo, many of the soldiers of Cæsar’s Tenth
Legion were settled here, from whom the town derived the name of
_Decumanorum Colonia_. It was taken by the Visigoths in 462, by the
Burgundians in 508, by the Franks in 531, by the Saracens in 719, and by
the Moors in 779. Charles Martel defeated the Moors under its walls, but
the town held out until it was taken by Pepin in 759. In 859 it fell to
the arms of the Northmen.

=Narisci.= A small but brave people in the south of Germany, of the
Suevic race, dwelt west of the Marcomanni and east of the Hermunduri.
Their country extended from the Sudeti Montes on the north to the Danube
on the south.

=Narni= (anc. _Narnia_). A town of Central Italy, on the Nera, or Nar,
about 45 miles northeast of Rome. During the second Punic war an army
was posted here to oppose the threatened advance of Hasdrubal upon Rome.
The town bore an important part in the civil war between Vitellius and
Vespasian. It was occupied by the generals of the former to check the
advance of Vespasian’s army, but the increasing disaffection towards
Vitellius caused the troops at Narnia to lay down their arms without
resistance. Its natural strength and commanding position rendered it
also of great importance during the Gothic wars of Belisarius and
Narses. The town was sacked by the Venetians and its garrison put to the
sword in the 16th century, since which time it has been a place of
little importance.

=Narragansetts.= A tribe of Algonkin Indians who formerly inhabited a
tract of country nearly corresponding to the present State of Rhode
Island. They were generally friendly to the early white settlers, and
were sworn enemies of the Mohegans (which see). In 1637, when the
Pequots were attempting to induce them to join in a general war upon the
whites, they were dissuaded from doing so by Roger Williams, who had
great influence with their chief, Canonicus. In King Philip’s war (1675)
they were suspected of playing false to the settlers, and of sheltering
the enemy that wasted their settlements. It was accordingly resolved to
treat them as enemies, and 1000 colonists marched against their chief
fort, which was situated on a swamp island near what is now the village
of Kingston, R. I. The fort was taken by storm and burned, all the
winter supplies of the Indians and many of the aged and helpless, it is
said, perishing in the flames. Hunger and distress followed; but the
Narragansetts still maintained the contest under their chief, Canonchet,
until he was taken prisoner and put to death. They subsequently merged
into the dominant race, and only a few of the tribe now exist.

=Narva.= A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of St.
Petersburg, on the Narova, 8 miles from its mouth, and 90 miles
southwest from St. Petersburg. Near this town on November 30, 1700,
Charles XII. at the head of 8000 Swedes, defeated Peter the Great with
about 80,000 Russians. It was taken by Peter in 1804.

=Nasamones.= A powerful but savage Libyan people, who dwelt originally
on the shores of the Great Syrtis, but were driven inland by the Greek
settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterward by the Romans.

=Naseby.= A parish and village of England, in the county of Northampton,
12 miles north of the town of that name. The battle of Naseby, between
Charles I. and the Parliamentary army under Fairfax and Cromwell, took
place here, June 14, 1645. It resulted in the total defeat of the
royalists, the king being compelled to flee, after losing his cannon and
baggage, and nearly 5000 of his army as prisoners.

=Nashville.= A city and capital of the State of Tennessee, situated on
the left bank of the Cumberland River, about 200 miles from its mouth.
During the civil war, after the fall of Fort Donelson, it was occupied
by the Union forces, February 24, 1862. Within a few miles of the city
was fought the memorable battle which bears its name, between the
Confederate forces under Gen. Hood and the Union troops under Gen.
George H. Thomas, December 15-16, 1864. The battle commenced by a feint
on Hood’s right and a real attack on his left, which resulted in driving
it a distance of 8 miles, and the capture of over 1000 prisoners, 20
wagons, and 16 pieces of artillery. During the ensuing night, Gen. Hood
contracted his lines, and next day the battle was renewed with vigor,
towards the afternoon becoming close and obstinate. Near dusk the
Confederates gave way, and a total rout soon followed. Some 4000
prisoners were captured, over 50 pieces of artillery, and an immense
number of small-arms. On the 17th the pursuit of the enemy was continued
and many more prisoners captured. Hood escaped with a mere wreck of his
army, and was soon after relieved of command.

=Nasir-Jung= (_Ind._). Victorious, or triumphant in war.

=Nassau, House of.= A noble family of German origin, which produced many
great men, and derived its title from Nassau, on the Rhine. In the 16th
century the family acquired the principality of Orange, in the southeast
of France; after which the counts of Nassau took the title of Prince of
Orange.

=Natchez=, or =Natches=. A tribe of Indians who formerly occupied four
or five villages situated east of the Mississippi in a tract of country
which embraced the site of the city of that name. They were generally
friendly to the early French settlers; but in 1729, being enraged by the
brutal avarice of Chopart, the commander of the garrison, who demanded
as a plantation the very site of their principal village, they concerted
a general massacre of the French, which they effected November 28,
killing about 200 and holding the women and children captives. The
French took a bloody and terrible revenge. Under the leadership of Le
Sueur, a Frenchman, 700 Choctaws broke upon the slumbers of the Natchez
on the night of January 28, 1730, liberated the captives, and with a
loss of but two of their number, brought off 60 scalps and 18 prisoners.
On February 8 following the French under Loubois completed the ruin of
the tribe. Some fled to the neighboring tribes and some crossed the
Mississippi to the vicinity of the Natchitoches. They were pursued and
their places of refuge taken. Of the scattered remnants some remained
with the Chickasaws, others settled with the Muskogees, and about 400
were shipped to San Domingo and sold as slaves. Thus perished the
Natchez as an independent tribe.

=Natchitoches.= A tribe of Indians allied to the Caddos, who formerly
lived on Red River, La. They were dispossessed of their territory by the
fugitive Natchez in 1731, and settled permanently with the Caddos, with
which tribe a few still exist.

=National Armory.= See ARMORY, NATIONAL.

=National Cemeteries.= In the United States, are the burial-places for
soldiers. They are called national because they belong to and are cared
for by the general government.

=National Flag.= See FLAG.

=National Guards.= The militia organizations of several States of the
United States and of some foreign countries are so called. In the United
States they are authorized by State laws, and may be called into the
service of the general government. After the destruction of the Bastile,
a similar organization, called the _garde nationale_, was formed in
Paris from the bourgeois class in 1789, under Lafayette as
colonel-general. Napoleon subsequently defeated and dispersed it, but it
was again organized by him in 1814. The national guard was adopted as an
institution under the Restoration, and the Comte d’Artois appointed
colonel-general. By decree of 1852 the government reserved the right of
organizing or suppressing the national guard in _communes_, and also of
nominating all the officers, who up to this time had been elected. The
French national guard fought in the war of 1870-71, and also
participated in the Communist struggles.

=National Military Homes.= See SOLDIERS’ HOMES.

=National Salute.= In the United States, a salute of one gun for each
State in the Union.

=National Troops.= Are those raised under the authority of Congress, in
contradistinction to the militia, which may be called State troops,
being organized by the several States.

=Native Cavalry.= A body of natives in the East Indian army, formed into
light dragoons.

=Native Infantry.= A body of native troops in the East Indian army.

=Natural Angle of Sight.= The angle which the natural line of sight
makes with the axis of the piece.

=Natural Fortification.= See FORTIFICATION.

=Natural Line of Sight.= See LINE OF METAL.

=Natural Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, STEEL.

=Naumburg.= A town of Prussia, province of Saxony, 18 miles
south-southwest from Merseburg. It was besieged in 1482 by the Hussites
under Procopius; but they were induced to raise the siege by the
entreaties of the children of the town. Naumburg was a place of
importance in the Thirty Years’ War, as well as in the campaigns of 1806
and 1813.

=Nauplia.= A small fortified town and seaport in the Morea, Greece. At
an early period it was the port and arsenal of Argos; occupied by the
Venetians in the 13th century; taken by the Turks in 1540, and again in
1715. The Turks lost it on the outbreak of the Greek insurrection.

=Navajo Indians.= A numerous and warlike tribe of the Shoshone family,
who are located to the number of about 12,000 on a large reservation in
New Mexico. They were for a long time at war with the whites, but have
at length been thoroughly subdued, and are gradually adopting
semi-civilized habits. They are famous for the manufacture of a peculiar
blanket of excellent quality which bears their name.

=Naval Camp.= In military antiquities, a fortification, consisting of a
ditch and parapet on the land side, or a wall built in the form of a
semicircle, and extended from one point of the sea to the other. This
was beautified with gates, and sometimes defended with towers, through
which they issued forth to attack their enemies. Towards the sea, or
within it, they fixed great piles of wood, like those in their
artificial harbors; before these the vessels of burden were placed in
such order, that they might serve instead of a wall, and give protection
to those without; in this manner Nicias is reported by Thucydides to
have encamped himself. When their fortifications were thought strong
enough to defend them from the assaults of enemies, the ancients
frequently dragged their ships on shore. Around these ships the soldiers
disposed their tents, as appears everywhere in Homer. But this seems
only to have been practiced in winter, when their enemy’s fleet was laid
up, and could not assault them; or in long sieges, and when they lay in
no danger from their enemies by sea, as in the Trojan war, where the
defenders of Troy never once attempted to encounter the Grecians in a
sea-fight.

=Naval Crown.= In heraldry, a rim of gold, round which are placed
alternately prows of galleys and square-sails. A naval crown supporting
the crest in place of the wreath, occurs in various grants of arms in
the early part of the present century to naval heroes. The crest of the
Earl of St. Vincent, bestowed on him after his victory over the Spanish
fleet in 1797, is issuing out of a naval crown or, enwrapped by a wreath
of laurel vert, a demi-pegasus argent maned and hoofed of the first,
and winged azure, charged in the wing with a fleur-de-lis or.

=Navarre.= A province, and formerly a kingdom, of Spain, is bounded on
the north by France, on the south and east by Aragon, and on the west by
the Biscays. It was occupied in ancient times by the Vascones, who were
subdued by the Goths in the 5th century: After having become gradually
amalgamated with their conquerors, the people continued to enjoy a
species of turbulent independence under military leaders until the 8th
century, when they were almost annihilated by the hordes of Arabs who
were rapidly spreading their dominion to all parts of the peninsula.
Navarre was conquered from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. In 1076,
Sancho Ramorez of Aragon seized Navarre. During the war of independence
and the civil war, the province produced bands of formidable
guerrilleros.

=Nave.= In gun-carriages, that part of a wheel in which the arms of the
axle-tree move, and in which the spokes are driven and supported.

=Nave-boxes.= Are boxes which are placed in the naves; they were
formerly made of brass, but experience has shown that those of cast iron
cause less friction, and are much cheaper. There are two, one at each
end, to diminish the friction of the axle-tree against the nave.

=Nave-hoops.= Are flat iron rings to bind the nave; there are generally
three on each nave.

=Navel.= A lug with a hole through it on the under side of a carronade,
used to connect it with its carriage.

=Naxos=, or =Naxia=. An island in the Ægean Sea, and the largest of the
Cyclades; is situated nearly half-way between the coasts of Greece and
Asia Minor. It was conquered by Pisistratus, who established Lydamis as
tyrant of the island about 540 B.C. The Persians in 501 attempted, at
the suggestion of Aristagoras, to subdue Naxos, but failed; Aristagoras,
fearing punishment, induced the Ionian cities to revolt from Persia. In
490 the Persians, under Datis and Artaphernes, conquered Naxos, and
reduced the inhabitants to slavery. The Naxians recovered their
independence after the battle of Salamis (480). They were the first of
the allied states whom the Athenians reduced to subjection, 471. After
the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, the Ægean Sea fell
to the lot of the Venetians; and Marco Sanudo in 1207 took possession of
Nuxos, and founded there a powerful state under the title of duchy of
the Ægean Sea. His dynasty ruled over the greater part of the Cyclades
for 360 years, and was at length overthrown by the Turks in 1566. Naxos
now belongs to the kingdom of Greece.

=Naxos.= A Greek city on the eastern coast of Sicily, south of Mount
Taurus; was founded 735 B.C. by the Chalcidians of Eubœa, and was the
first Greek colony established in the island. It carried on a
successful war against Messina, and was subsequently an ally of the
Athenians against Syracuse. In 403 the town was taken by Dionysius of
Syracuse, and destroyed.

=Nebraska.= One of the Central States of the United States, lying west
of the Missouri River. Nebraska formed a part of the great grant of the
Mississippi Valley to Crozart in 1712, and was part of the territory
included in Law’s celebrated Mississippi scheme. It came into possession
of the United States in 1803, as a portion of the Louisiana purchase. In
1804, Lewis and Clarke explored the interior and western parts of the
State. In 1854 it was erected into a Territory, and in 1867 admitted as
a State.

=Necessaries.= The articles issued to the British soldier, such as
boots, shirts, stockings, razor, etc., which are requisite for his
comfort and cleanliness, are technically termed regimental necessaries.
Non-commissioned officers are not allowed to sell regimental necessaries
to the soldiers. Every article is directed by the regulations to be
marked with the owner’s name, the letter of his company, and the number
of his regiment; and the sale or injury of them renders him liable to be
tried by court-martial and punished.

=Neck.= The elbow or part connecting the blade and socket of a bayonet.

=Neck Line.= An old term in fortification signifying the gorge.

=Neck of a Cascabel.= The part joining the knob to the base of the
breech.

=Neck of a Gun.= The small part of the piece in front of the chase.

=Needle.= A slender bar of steel, usually pointed, and resting on a
vertical pivot, in a mariner’s, or other compass, so as to turn freely
towards the magnetic poles of the earth by virtue of the magnetic
polarity with which it has been artificially endued; called also the
_magnetic needle_.

=Needle-Gun= (Ger. _Zundnadelgewehr_). Is a breech-loading gun, so
constructed that by pulling the trigger a stout needle or wire is thrust
through the base of the cartridge, parallel with its axis, into the
detonating charge behind the ball, causing explosion and the ignition of
the cartridge. This gun was the regulation arm of the German infantry
until it was replaced by the Mauser, a gun somewhat similar. The gun was
invented by Nicolaus Dreyse, of Sömmerda, Prussia, where it is
manufactured. It was first used by the Prussians in 1848, and again in
the Italian war of 1866, when it proved a fearful instrument of
destruction, and to it may be ascribed in a great measure the success of
its employers.

=Neemuch.= In Hindostan, a town with a British cantonment, in the
territory of Gwalior, or possessions of Scindia. The native troops
stationed at this place participated in the general mutiny of the Bengal
army. The rising took place on the night of June 3, 1857, when a
general massacre of the Europeans took place. The work of slaughter was
commenced by the artillery, and all the native troops joined heartily in
it. A native officer opened the gate of the fort and gave entrance to
the rebels. Having committed the most frightful enormities, and outraged
every law of humanity, a large body of the miscreants marched in the
direction of Agra.

=Neerwinden.= A village of Belgium, in the province of Liège. William
III. of England was defeated by the Duke of Luxemburg between this place
and Landen in 1693; the French were also defeated here in 1793 by the
Austrians.

=Neeshungpat= (_Ind._). A violent assault without bloodshed.

=Negapatam.= A considerable seaport in the south of India, and province
of Tanjore. In 1660 it was taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch. It
was a very flourishing city in 1781, when it was besieged and taken by
the British with about 4000 troops, and finally ceded to them at the
peace of 1783.

=Negative.= This term is sometimes used to express the result of
measures or enterprises which, though not entirely successful, are not
productive of serious or mischievous consequences. Hence the British
expeditions to Spain and Walcheren may be considered as having had
negative success.

=Negative Penalty.= Deprived of command; a bar to indulgence; a
reprimand; etc.

=Neglect of Duty.= Is total omission or disregard of any prescribed
service, or unsoldier-like execution, which is punishable at the
discretion of a court-martial. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 62.

=Negrais.= An island, harbor, and cape of the Eastern Peninsula,
situated on the southwest extremity of the kingdom of Pegu. In 1687 a
settlement was founded here by the British; it was soon after abandoned;
again occupied by the British in 1751; it was attacked by the Burmese in
1759, and nearly all the inhabitants were put to death.

=Negropont.= See CHALCIS.

=Nelli-Cotah.= A fort situated about 40 miles to the south of
Tinnevelly, East Indies. This fort has been rendered memorable by the
manner in which it was carried by the English in 1755, and the barbarity
with which the garrison was treated which had not killed a man and had
called for quarter, and yet men, women, and children, to the number of
about 400, were massacred.

=Nepaul=, or =Nipal=. An extensive country of Hindostan. It is said to
have been completely subdued in 1323 by Hurr Singh, one of the princes
of Oude, who was driven out of his own possessions by the Patans.
Runjeet Mull was the last of the Surya Bansi race that reigned in
Nepaul. He formed an alliance with Purthi Nirain, which ended in the
loss of his dominions, of which he was stripped by his ally in 1768. It
was in his reign that Capt. Kinloch with a British force endeavored to
penetrate into Nepaul, but from the sickness of the troops, and the
difficulty of the country, the enterprise was abandoned. In 1790 the
Nepaul government became involved in a war with the emperor of China,
who sent against them an army of 70,000 men, and defeated the Nepaulese
in repeated battles. A peace was at last concluded, though on terms
ignominious to the Nepaulese, who were compelled to become tributaries
to the Chinese. In the year 1814 the British commenced a war against the
Nepaulese, and, after a long and arduous struggle, during which the
British suffered a number of reverses, the Nepaulese were compelled to
sue for peace.

=Nervii.= A nation of Gallia Belgica, whose territory was situated north
of the Ambiani. On receiving intelligence that Cæsar was advancing into
their country, the inhabitants sent away their old men, women, and
children to a place of refuge among the marshes by the sea-shore, and
posted themselves in ambush on the banks of the Sabis (_Sambre_). The
invaders had approached to the place of concealment, and, unsuspicious
of any danger, were engaged in forming a camp, when they suddenly found
themselves attacked by 60,000 fierce barbarians. The Romans would have
been immediately routed, had not the invincible genius of Cæsar been
there to sway and turn the tide of battle. After a hard-fought contest,
the Nervian forces were almost annihilated; but the Nervii were not yet
subdued. In 54 B.C. they assisted the Eburones in the unsuccessful
attack upon the camp of Quintus Cicero; and it was not until the
following year that they finally submitted to the Romans.

=Neshaumburdar= (_Ind._). An ensign.

=Netherlands, Kingdom of the.= A country in the northwest of Europe. The
name of the Netherlands was, for several centuries, applied to the
countries which now form the kingdoms of Belgium and the Netherlands and
part of the north of France. The greater portion of this territory was
held by the Spaniards until Marlborough, the general in command of the
allied forces, gained the memorable victory of Ramilies in 1706. After
this, Brussels, the capital, and great part of these provinces
acknowledged Charles VI., afterwards emperor of Germany, for their
sovereign. They were held by the German house until the war of 1741,
when the French made an entire conquest of them, except part of the
province of Luxemburg. They were restored, however, by the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, in the year 1748. In 1794 Holland was overrun by the
troops of the French republic, and annexed to the French empire in 1810,
after having been formed into the Batavian republic, and subsequently
into a kingdom under Louis Bonaparte. In 1814 the royal family of
Holland was restored, and two years after Holland and Belgium were once
more reunited under the common title of the Netherlands; but in 1830
Belgium became a distinct kingdom. See BELGIUM, HOLLAND, and FLANDERS.

=Netley, Royal Victoria Hospital at.= Is a superb building on the shore
of Southampton Water, Hants, England, for the reception of invalids from
the army on foreign service, and from among the troops serving in the
adjoining military districts. In times of peace, it is only necessary to
use a portion of the vast structure; but in the event of a European war,
in which the British army should take part, the exigencies of the
service would probably tax its accommodation to the utmost. There is
provision for 1000 patients, with power to increase the number. The
establishment has a complete medical staff. Netley is also the
headquarters of the female nurses of the army, who are under the control
of a lady stationed here as superintendent-general. Complete
arrangements have been made for the landing of wounded men in front of
the hospital, and for conveying them thither with the least disturbance.
See MEDICAL SCHOOL.

=Nettoyer les Magazins= (_Fr._). In artillery, signifies to remove the
different pieces of ordnance, for the purpose of having them carefully
examined, etc., and to have the stores and ammunition so arranged as not
to receive damage.

=Nettoyer les Tranchées= (_Fr._). To scour or clear the trenches. This
is effected by means of a vigorous sally which the garrison of a
besieged place make upon the besiegers; when they beat in the guard,
drive off the workmen, level the parapet, break up and choke the line of
circumvallation, and spike or nail the cannon.

=Neusatz.= A town of Hungary, on the Danube, opposite Peterwardein. On
June 11, 1849, it was taken from the Hungarian insurgents by the
imperial troops, and was almost wholly destroyed.

=Neutral.= Not engaged on either side; not taking part with either of
contending parties; neuter.

=Neutral.= A person or nation that takes no part in a contest between
others.

=Neutral Powers.= By the treaty of Paris, signed by the representatives
of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey, and
Sardinia, on April 16, 1856, it was determined that privateering should
be abolished; that neutrals might carry an enemy’s goods not contraband
of war; that neutral goods not contraband were free even under an
enemy’s flag; and that blockades to be binding must be effective. The
President of the United States acceded to these provisions in 1861.

=Neutrality.= In international law, the state of a nation which takes no
part between two or more other nations at war with each other.
Neutrality consists in the observance of a strict and honest
impartiality, so as not to afford advantage in the war to either party;
and particularly in so far restraining its trade to the accustomed
course, which is held in time of peace, as not to render assistance to
one of the belligerents in escaping the effects of the other’s
hostilities. Even a loan of money to one of the belligerent parties is
considered a violation of neutrality. A fraudulent neutrality is
considered as no neutrality.

=Neutrality, Armed.= See ARMED.

=Nevada.= One of the Pacific States of the United States. Nevada is a
part of the territory ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848. It
was at first a part of California Territory; it was subsequently
attached to Utah; in March, 1861, was organized as a Territory; and on
October 31, 1864, was admitted as a State.

=Nevers.= A town of France, the capital of the department of Nièvre,
situated on the right bank of the Loire, 153 miles south-southeast from
Paris. The town is ancient, and is mentioned by Cæsar under the name of
Noviodunum. Here that general, in 52 B.C., fixed his headquarters, and
here he left his hostages, supplies, baggage, and military-chest. After
his defeat at Gergovia, the people of Noviodunum rose against the
Romans, massacred all of them who were in the town, and plundered the
stores.

=Neville’s Cross= (or Durham), =Battle of=. Fought between the Scots
under King David Bruce, and the English under Philippa, consort of
Edward III., and Lord Percy, October 12 or 17, 1346. More than 15,000 of
the Scots were slain, and their king taken prisoner.

=Nevis=, or =Nievis=. One of the West India Islands, belonging to Great
Britain, and separated from the south extremity of St. Christopher by a
channel about 2 miles in width. It was taken by the French February 14,
1782; restored to the English in 1783.

=Newark.= A town of England, in Nottinghamshire, on the Newark River, 16
miles northeast from Nottingham. Here, in the midst of troubles, died
King John, October 9, 1216; here the royal army under Prince Rupert
repulsed the army of the Parliament, besieging the town, March 21, 1644;
and here, May 5, 1646, Charles I., after his defeat at Naseby, put
himself into the hands of the Scotch army, who afterwards gave him up to
his enemies.

=Newbury.= A town of England, in Berkshire, on the Kennet, 15 miles
southwest from Reading. Near here were fought two desperate battles: (1)
On September 20, 1643, between the army of Charles I. and that of the
Parliament under Essex; it terminated somewhat favorably for the king.
(2) A second battle of dubious result was fought between the royalists
and the Parliamentarians, October 27, 1644.

=New Caledonia.= An island of the South Pacific Ocean, discovered by
Cook on September 4, 1774; seized by the French September 20, 1853. The
French government in December, 1864, redressed the outrages committed on
British missionaries at a station established here in 1854.

=Newcastle-upon-Tyne.= A river-port and the chief town of the county of
Northumberland, England, 14 miles north from Durham. The Romans had a
stationary camp here, called _Pons Ælii_, one of the chain of forts by
which the Wall of Hadrian was fortified. Newcastle surrendered to the
Scotch in 1646, who here gave up Charles I. to the Parliament in 1646.
The town occupied by Gen. Wade in 1745.

=New England.= The name given by Capt. John Smith, in 1614, to the
territory granted by James I. to the Plymouth Company for colonization,
which now comprises the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. For history of New
England, see these States under appropriate headings.

=Newfoundland.= A large island of British North America, at the mouth of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Newfoundland is supposed to have been
discovered by the Norwegians, or Northmen, about the year 1000; it was
rediscovered by John Cabot on June 24, 1497; a settlement was
subsequently formed here by some Portuguese adventurers, who were in
their turn expelled by Sir Francis Drake in the reign of Elizabeth.
After this period numerous English colonies were established from time
to time along the east coast, and several French along the south coast,
in the Bay of Placentia. The French often tried to conquer the island,
and during the French and English wars it was the scene of many bloody
events. In 1713, Newfoundland and its dependencies were declared, by the
treaty of Utrecht, to belong wholly to Great Britain; the French
reserving a right to fish on certain parts of the coast. In 1728 the
island was made a province of Great Britain.

=New Grenada= (now _United States of Colombia_). A republic in the
northwest of South America, discovered by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by
the Spaniards in 1536. It formed a part of the new republic of Bogota,
established in 1811, and combined with Caracas, formed the republic of
Colombia, December 17, 1819. (See COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF.) A
struggle took place between the conservative partisans of the old
government and the liberals, January, 1861, and Gen. Mosquera (liberal)
deposed Ospina and seized the government, July 18, 1861. Mosquera
invited Venezuela and Ecuador to join the confederation, August, 1863;
Ecuador declined, which resulted in a war, which commenced November 20,
1863. The troops of Ecuador were defeated, December 6; peace ensued, and
Ecuador remained independent, December 30, 1863; Mosquera declared
himself dictator, by a _coup d’état_, March 11, 1866; he was deposed by
Santos Acosta, May 23, 1867; Gen. Ponce was made provisional president,
July, 1868, and was succeeded by Correoso, August 29, who defeated his
opponents, November 12, 1868.

=New Hampshire.= One of the Eastern States, and one of the original
thirteen of the American Confederacy. New Hampshire was first visited in
1614, and was settled near Portsmouth in 1623. It was several times
connected with Massachusetts up to 1679, when it became a royal
province, but renewed its connections with Massachusetts in 1689, and
was for a short time attached to New York; finally, in 1741, it became
an entirely separate province, and so remained till the Revolution. New
Hampshire was much harassed by the Indians, and in 1689 a party of them
sacked Dover, killed many of the whites, and burnt the town. No
important action took place on the soil of this State, either in the war
of the Revolution or that of 1812. The State contributed greatly to the
cause of the Union in the late civil war.

=New Jersey.= One of the Middle Atlantic States, and one of the original
thirteen of the American Confederacy. Settlements were made at Bergen,
in New Jersey, soon after their arrival in New York, by the Dutch,
between the years 1614 and 1624. The whole of the region lying between
the Delaware and the Hudson was claimed by them, although the Swedes had
made some settlements in the western part of the same country. These
claims, however, were disregarded by the British; and in 1664, Charles
II. granted to the Duke of York the whole of this country, and in the
same year the duke sold it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, in
honor of the latter of whom, a native of Jersey, it received the name
which it still bears. The Dutch again got possession of it in 1673, but
resigned it on the conclusion of peace in the following year. New Jersey
escaped the inroads of the savage tribes which desolated and afflicted
most of the older colonies; but in the war of the Revolution it suffered
greatly, and was the scene of many important battles, such as Trenton,
Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth. In the late civil war, New
Jersey contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and her regiments
were distinguished on many important battle-fields.

=New Matter= (in military courts). Should either party, in the course of
their examination of witnesses, or by bringing forward new ones for that
purpose, introduce new matter, the opposite one has the right of calling
other witnesses to rebut such new matter. A prosecutor, however, cannot
be allowed to bring forward evidence to rebut what has been elicited by
his own cross-examination, but must be confined to new matter introduced
by the accused, and supported by the examination-in-chief of the
accused. The court should be very circumspect to see and prevent new
matter from being introduced, either in the prosecution or defense. But
the accused may urge in his defense mitigating circumstances, or examine
witnesses as to character or service, and produce testimonials of such
facts, without its being considered new matter; and if any point of law
be raised, or any matter requiring explanation, the judge-advocate may
explain; no other reply is admitted.

=New Mexico.= A Territory of the United States, bounded on the north by
Colorado, east by Texas, south by Texas and Mexico, and west by Arizona.
The country was explored by the Spaniards in 1537, and was taken
possession of by the viceroy of Mexico in the name of the king of Spain
towards the latter part of that century. About 1680, the natives, who
were an industrious people of Aztec race, provoked by the oppression of
their rulers, rose against them and succeeded in driving them from the
country. The Spaniards, however, soon regained their foothold, which
they succeeded in maintaining until 1822, when Mexico and its
dependencies threw off the yoke of Spain. In 1846, Gen. Kearney captured
Santa Fé, the capital of New Mexico, and soon after became master of the
whole Territory, which was ceded to the United States in 1848, and in
1850 organized as a Territory. In 1854 another portion of Mexican
territory gained by purchase was added to it, and subsequently the
Territory of Arizona was set off from it, and another portion added to
Colorado. During the civil war New Mexico was the theatre of some
desperate and hard-fought battles. On February 21, 1862, a Confederate
force of Texans about 2500 strong, under Gen. Sibley, defeated the Union
forces under Col. Canby at Valverde, about 10 miles from Fort Craig, and
captured their guns. The loss of his battery compelled Col. Canby to
fall back to Fort Craig, but the enemy was so crippled that he did not
attempt to follow, but proceeded to Albuquerque and Santa Fé, both of
which towns were evacuated by the Union troops. Soon afterwards a force
of 400 Texans going north to reinforce Gen. Sibley were captured by Col.
Canby. On March 26, 1862, an engagement took place at Apache Pass, in
which 100 Texans were captured, between 300 and 400 killed, and 50
wagons burned. Another engagement took place on the 28th, at Pigeon’s
Ranche, 25 miles north of Santa Fé, in which the Confederates lost more
prisoners. About the middle of April, Col. Canby concentrating his
forces attacked the Texans at Parillo, on the Rio Grande, and after a
short action defeated them with great slaughter, and compelled them to
fly to the mountains. From this point until they reached Fort Bliss,
Texas, their retreat was a succession of disasters. They left in New
Mexico more than one-half of their original number as killed, wounded,
or prisoners, and every place which they abandoned in their retreat was
immediately occupied by Union troops.

=New Model.= In the United States, all cannon made since 1861 are on the
new model. This is characterized by the absence of all ornament on the
exterior,--the outline is made up of gentle curves as far us
possible,--on the inside the bottom of the bore is a semi-ellipsoid.

=New Orleans.= Capital of the State of Louisiana, and commercial
metropolis of the Gulf States. It was founded in 1718 by Bienville, the
governor of the province of Louisiana under the French, who caused it to
be laid out, and levees built, under the direction of the engineer De la
Tour. On January 8, 1815, was fought the battle of New Orleans, a few
miles below the city, between Gen. Andrew Jackson at the head of the
American forces, and the British under Gen. Pakenham, ending in the
defeat of the latter with a loss in killed and wounded of nearly 3000
men. The American loss was but 13. In the late civil war, New Orleans
held out until 1862, when it surrendered to the Union forces. Gen.
Butler was placed in command, but on December 16, 1862, was relieved by
Gen. Banks.

=New Ross.= A town in Wexford Co., Southeast Ireland, where Gen.
Johnston totally defeated the insurgent Irish under Beauchamp D. Bagenal
Harvey, June 4, 1798.

=Newry.= A town in Down Co., Ireland, which was reduced to a ruinous
condition in the rebellion of 1641; it was surprised by Sir Con.
Magenis, but was retaken by Lord Conway. After the restoration the town
was rebuilt. It was burnt by the Duke of Berwick when flying from
Schomberg and the English army, and only the castle and a few houses
escaped, 1689.

=Newtown-Butler.= A town in Fermanagh Co., Ireland, where, on July 30,
1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus Hamilton thoroughly defeated the
adherents of James II. commanded by Gen. Maccarty, whom they captured
with his artillery, arms, and baggage.

=New Trial.= The privilege of a new trial does not seem to be denied.
The provisions therefore are borrowed from common law, and are not held,
in either civil or military tribunals, to preclude the accused from
having a second trial on his own motion. Officers who sat on the first
trial should not be detailed for the new trial; they have formed and
expressed opinions. New, or second trial, can only be authorized where
the sentence adjudged upon the first trial has been disapproved. After a
sentence has been duly approved and has taken effect, the granting of a
new trial is beyond the power of a military commander, or the President.

=New York.= One of the Middle States of the United States, and one of
the thirteen of the original confederation. The earliest explorations of
New York by Europeans were in 1609, by Hendrik Hudson, who took
possession of the country on the river which bears his name for the
Dutch, and by Champlain, a Frenchman, who explored Lake Champlain from
Canada. The English, however, claimed the right of prior discovery,
which led to frequent conflicts. The first white settlements were made
in the State in 1713, and the early settlers suffered greatly from
Indian depredations. In 1690, Schenectady was taken and burned by the
savages, and many of the inhabitants massacred. The massacre of the
garrison at Fort William Henry by the Indians in 1757 will long be
remembered in the annals of New York. The State took an active part in
the war of independence, and was the theatre of many important military
events. The defeat of Washington at Long Island and at White Plains in
the autumn of 1776, the surrender of Burgoyne in October, 1777, and the
taking of Stony Point by Wayne in July, 1779, are the most important
actions that took place here during the Revolutionary contest. The
sanguinary naval battle of Lake Champlain in the war of 1812, in which
McDonough defeated the British after a hard-fought action, and several
other minor engagements, took place within the limits of New York in the
last struggle with Great Britain. During the civil war New York took an
active and prominent part in aiding the government in the suppression of
the rebellion; her quotas of troops were promptly filled, $40,000,000
being paid in bounties to her volunteers.

=New York.= The chief commercial city of the United States, and the most
populous, is situated at the southern extremity of Manhattan Island, at
the junction of the Hudson River and the extension of Long Island Sound,
known as the East River, about 18 miles from the Atlantic. It was
founded in 1613 by Dutch traders, who built two trading forts and four
houses on Manhattan Island, and called the settlement New Amsterdam. It
was taken by the English in 1664, and its name changed to New York in
honor of the Duke of York, brother of Charles II. Nine years later it
was recaptured by the Dutch, and its name changed to New Orange in honor
of the prince of that title; but in February, 1674, the English obtained
possession of it by treaty, and restored the name which they had
formerly given it. During the Revolutionary war New York was occupied by
the English troops after the battle of Long Island, and was evacuated by
them November 25, 1783. In the civil war the city was among the first in
manifesting its loyal disposition, and furnished over 116,000 men in
support of the Union cause.

=New Zealand.= A group of islands lying in the South Pacific Ocean,
discovered by Tasman in 1642. The right of Great Britain to New Zealand
was recognized in 1814. An insurrection of the natives (Maoris) took
place in March, 1860; several indecisive actions took place between the
natives and the militia, March 14-28, 1860; war broke out at Taranaki,
and the British were repulsed with loss on June 30; Gen. Pratt defeated
the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and destroyed their fortified places November
6. The Maoris were defeated December 29, 1860, January 23, February 24,
March 16-18, 1861; the natives surrendered March 19, 1861. The Maoris
again resorted to war in May, 1863; Gen. Cameron defeated them at
Rangariri November 20; and forced the Maori king to capitulate December
9, 1863. The British were repulsed at Galepa (the gate pah) with loss of
officers and men, April 29, 1864. The Maoris were again severely
defeated January 25 and February 25, 1864. The Maoris continued in a
state of insurrection, but were finally overcome in 1865.

=Nez Percés Indians= (“pierced noses”). A tribe of aborigines of the
Sahaptin family, who were located on a reservation in Northern Idaho. In
1877 they broke into open hostilities against the whites, and after a
sanguinary struggle under their chief Joseph they were at length
captured by Gen. Miles and transported to Indian Territory. Some few
escaped to the British possessions, where they still remain.

=Niagara.= Chief town of Lincoln County, in the Canadian province of
Ontario, on Lake Ontario. It was burnt down in December, 1813, by the
American general McClure on his retreat; it was afterwards rebuilt.

=Niagara, Battle of.= See LUNDY’S LANE.

=Nicæa= (anc. _Nicæensis_, _Nicensis_). Formerly one of the most
celebrated cities of Asia, stood on the eastern side of Lake Ascania
(now _Iznik_), in Bithynia. At the battle of Nice, 194, the emperor
Severus defeated his rival, Niger, who was again defeated at Issus, and
soon after taken prisoner and put to death. Under the later emperors of
the East, Nicæa long served as a bulwark of Constantinople against the
Arabs and Turks; it was taken by the Seljuks in 1078, and became the
capital of the sultan Soliman; it was retaken by the first Crusaders in
1097. After the taking of Constantinople by the Venetians and the
Franks, and the foundation of the Latin empire there in 1204, the Greek
emperor, Theodorus Lascaris, made Nicæa the capital of a separate
kingdom, in which his followers maintained themselves with various
success against the Latins of Constantinople on the one side, and the
Seljuks of Iconium on the other, and in 1261 regained Constantinople. At
length, in 1330, Nicæa was finally taken by Orchan, the son of the
founder of the Ottoman empire, Othman.

=Nicæa.= A fortress of the Epicnemidian Locrians on the sea, near the
pass of Thermopylæ, which it commanded. From its important position it
is often mentioned in the wars of Greece with Macedonia and with the
Romans. In the former its betrayal to Philip by the Thracian dynast
Phalæcus led to the termination of the Sacred war, 346 B.C.; and after
various changes it is found at the time of the wars with Rome in the
hands of the Ætolians.

=Nicaragua, Republic of.= Formerly a State in the Central American
Confederation, from which it withdrew in 1852. The inhabitants of the
country are Indians and _mestizoes_, with a scattering of a few whites
and negroes. It has been the scene of many revolutions for the last
thirty-five years.

=Nice= (It. _Nizza_, anc. _Nicæa_). Chief town since 1860 of the
department of the Maritime Alps, France, on both sides of the river
Paglione, 100 miles south-southwest from Turin. It was the seat of a
colony from Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part of the Roman
empire. It first became important as a stronghold of the Christian
religion, which was preached there by Nazarius at an early period. In
the Middle Ages it was subject to Genoa, and suffered from the frequent
wars, being taken and retaken by the Imperialists and French. It was
taken by the Austrians under Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France,
1792; restored to Sardinia in 1814; again annexed to France in virtue of
the treaty of March 24, 1860. The French troops entered April 1, and
definite possession was taken June 14 following. Garibaldi protested
vehemently against this annexation. The town of Nice is remarkable as
the birthplace of Masséna, one of the most famous of Napoleon’s
generals.

=Nicomedia= (now ruins at _Izmid_, or _Iznikmid_). A celebrated city in
Asia Minor, capital of Bithynia, built by King Nicomedes I., 264 B.C.,
at the northeast corner of the Sinus Astacenus (now _Gulf of Izmid_).
Like its neighbor and rival Nicæa, it occupied an important place in the
wars against the Turks; it is memorable in history as the scene of
Hannibal’s death. It surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078, and to
Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338.

=Nicopolis=, or =Nikopoli=. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria,
situated on the Danube. The Hungarians under Sigismund were defeated
here in 1396 by the Turks.

=Nicosia=, or =Lefkosia=. The capital of Cyprus, stands near the centre
of the island, on the right bank of the Pedia. In 1570 it was stormed by
the Turks, who on that occasion put to the sword about 20,000 of the
inhabitants.

=Niemen=, or =Memel=. A large river of Lithuania, which rises a few
miles south of Minsk. Napoleon I. and Alexander of Russia held an
interview on the waters of this river in 1807.

=Nieuport.= A fortified town of Belgium, in the province of West
Flanders, 11 miles southwest from Ostend. This place has often been
besieged and taken and retaken by the French and English.

=Nigher= (_Ind._). Any fortified city measuring at least 8 coss, or 8
English miles, in length and breadth.

=Night-firing.= When a fixed object is to be fired at by night, the
piece should be directed during the day, and two narrow and well-dressed
strips of wood (to prevent injury to the strips from the recoil, they
should be nailed at such a distance from the carriage that the space can
be filled up with a strip that can be removed before firing) laid on the
inside of the wheels, and two others outside of the trail of a siege
carriage, and nailed or screwed to the platform. In case of a barbette
carriage, the traverse wheels should be chocked in the proper position.
To preserve the elevation, measure the height of the elevating-screw
above its box, or take the measure between a point on the gun and
another on the stock; cut a stick to this length and adjust the gun on
it at each fire. _Direction_ of fire may be secured at night with
mortars by nailing or screwing two boards to the platform outside of the
cheeks, and the _elevation_ by drawing a line across one of the
trunnions, or by inserting a wedge-shaped block of the proper
inclination below the mortar and the front transom or step. Night-firing
with guns should be limited to a small number of rounds, as it consumes
ammunition to little advantage.

=Night-signaling.= An important branch of signaling. It may be effected
in various ways. In ordinary service two torches are used,--one on the
ground and the other attached to a staff, which is used precisely as the
flag for day signals. Lanterns held in the hands can also be used. For
long distances and when stations cannot be seen on account of
intervening obstacles, such as woods, signal-rockets, candle-bombs, and
other pyrotechnic devices are used.

=Nihilists.= The name given to a political party in Russia. Beyond the
extinction of imperialism it is difficult to give their creed.

=Nijni-Novgorod=, or =Nijnei-Novgorod= (Lower Novgorod). A fortified
town and the capital of the government of the same name in Russia. It is
an ancient town, and was founded in 1221 by Prince Yury Vsevolodovitch
as a stronghold against the invasions of the Bulgarians and the Mordva.
It was devastated on several occasions by the Tartars; and in 1612,
during the civil dissensions in Russia, when it was on the point of
falling a prey to Poland, Minin, the famous butcher of Nijni-Novgorod,
collected an armed force here, which, under Prince Pojarsky, drove the
invaders from the capital.

=Nikolsburg=, or =Mikulov=. A town of Austria, in the south of Moravia,
27 miles south of Brunn. Here were signed, July 26, 1866, the
preliminaries of a peace between Austria and Prussia.

=Nile, The.= A river of Northeastern Africa, and one of the most
powerful, most interesting, and most celebrated rivers on our globe.
Near Rosetta, at the mouth of the Nile, a naval battle took place,
August 1, 1798, between the Toulon and British fleets, the latter
commanded by Lord (then Sir Horatio) Nelson. Nine of the French
line-of-battle ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped. The
French ship L’Orient with Admiral Brueys and 1000 men on board, blew up,
and only 70 or 80 escaped. This engagement is also called the battle of
Aboukir.

=Nimeguen=, or =Nymwegen=. The _Noviomagum_ of the Romans, called by
Tacitus _Batavorum oppidum_, and in the Middle Ages _Numaga_, is the
principal city of the district of the same name, or the Betuwe, in
Holland, province of Guelderland. Nimeguen is celebrated for the great
peace congress of the European powers which was held here, and, August
10, 1678, concluded a treaty between Spain and France on September 17,
between France and the United Netherlands, and between the German empire
and France, and the same empire and Sweden, February 5, 1679. The French
were successful against the British under the Duke of York before
Nimeguen, October 28, 1794; but were defeated by them November 8.

=Nimes=, or =Nismes= (anc. _Nemausus_). A city of France, and the chief
town of the department of the Gard, 30 miles northeast from Montpellier.
Previously to the Roman invasion, it (supposed to have been founded by a
colony from Massilia) was the chief city of the Volcæ Arecomici. It
surrendered to the rule of the Visigoths between 465 and 535, and
afterwards to that of the Franks; subsequently, it became a possession
of Aragon; but was finally restored to France in 1259 by the treaty of
Corbeil. In 1791 and 1815, bloody religious and political reactions took
place here. The treaty termed the Pacification of Nimes (July 14, 1629)
gave religious toleration for a time to the Huguenots.

=Nimrûd=, or =Nimroud=. The Arab name of the great mound on the east
bank of the Tigris, near Mosul, supposed to represent the Assyrian city
of Calah, which was destroyed at the final conquest of Assyria by the
Medes and Babylonians.

=Nineveh.= The greatest city in Assyria and for some time the capital of
the country, was situated on the eastern bank of the Tigris at its
junction with the stream of the Khosr. The walls of Nineveh are
described as about 55 miles in circumference, 100 feet high, and thick
enough to allow three chariots to pass each other on them; with 1500
towers, 200 feet in height. The city is said to have been entirely
destroyed by fire, when it was taken by the Medes and Babylonians, about
606 B.C.

=Ninians, St.= A town and parish of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, about a
mile south from Stirling. Several battles have been fought in this
parish. The first was between the Scottish followers of Wallace and the
English, who were defeated, the second was the famous battle of
Bannockburn, and the third was that in which James III. of Scotland was
defeated and slain by his rebellious nobles.

=Nipple.= Any small projection in which there is an orifice for
discharging a fluid, or for other purposes, as the nipple of a
percussion-lock, or that part on which the cap is put to be fired.

=Niquibs= (_Ind._). Men whose military functions among the Sepoys
correspond with those of corporals in other services.

=Nisbet=, or =Nesbit= (Northumberland, Eng.). Here a battle was fought
between the English and Scotch armies, the latter greatly
disproportioned in strength to the former. Several thousands of the
Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, May 7, 1402.

=Nishapoor=, or =Nishapur=. A town of Persia, province of Khorassan. The
town is said to be very ancient, and to have existed in the time of
Alexander the Great, by whom it was destroyed. In 1269 it was sacked by
the Tartars, again by Ihengiz-khan, and in 1749 by Nadir Shah, from
which last calamity it has never recovered.

=Nisibis.= The capital of ancient Mygdonia, the northeastern part of
Mesopotamia. It was a place of great importance as a military post, was
twice taken by the Romans (under Lucullus and Trajan), and again given
up by them to the Armenians; but being a third time taken by Lucius
Verus in 165, it remained the chief bulwark of the Roman empire against
the Persians, till it was surrendered to them by Jovian after the death
of Julian in 363.

=Nissa=, or =Nish=. A well-fortified town of Turkey in Europe, in the
province of Servia, about 120 miles southeast from Belgrade. It commands
the communication between the provinces of Servia, Bulgaria, and
Roumelia. It was taken by Amurath II. in 1389, and again by the
Austrians in 1737.

=Nithing.= A coward or poltroon.

=Nitre.= Potassium nitrate or saltpetre, the most important ingredient
of gunpowder. It is obtained principally from the East Indies. It has
been the policy of the American government to keep large quantities in
store. See SALTPETRE.

=Nitro-cellulose.= See GUN-COTTON.

=Nitro-glycerine.= Is a light, yellow, oily liquid, inodorous, with a
sweet, pungent, aromatic taste. It received its name from Sobrero, a
chemist, who in 1847 discovered that glycerine when treated with nitric
acid was converted into a highly-explosive substance. This liquid
appears to have been almost forgotten by chemists until in 1864 Nobel, a
Swedish engineer, succeeded in applying it to a very important branch of
his art, namely, blasting. It is now prepared by introducing glycerine
into a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, the whole being kept at a
temperature below freezing-point. When uncongealed this preparation
explodes by concussion, and is therefore unfit for transportation, and
very dangerous to handle while in that state. The chief advantage for
mining purposes which nitro-glycerine possesses is, that it requires a
much smaller hole or chamber than gunpowder does, the strength of the
latter being scarcely one-tenth of the former. Hence the miner’s work,
which, according to the hardness of the rock, represents from five to
twenty times the price of the gunpowder used, is so short that the cost
of blasting is often reduced 50 per cent. The process is very easy: if
the chamber of a mine presents fissures it must first be lined with
clay, to make it water-tight; this done, the nitro-glycerine is poured
in, and water after it, which, being the lighter liquid, remains at the
top. A slow-match, with a well-charged percussion-cap at one end, is
then introduced into the nitro-glycerine. The mine may then be sprung by
lighting the match, there being no need of tamping. Submarine mines may
be sprung by electricity. In this manner the obstructions of Hell Gate,
N. Y., were removed by Gen. Newton, one of the greatest engineering
feats of the time. On account of its liability to spontaneous explosion,
the great danger in handling it, and its liability to decomposition,
nitro-glycerine is now almost entirely superseded for ordinary mining
purposes by dynamite.

=Nitroleum.= Nitro-glycerine; a name given it by Shaffner, an American
patentee of high explosives.

=Nitro-mannite.= See MANNITE, NITRO-.

=Nive.= A river in the southwest of France, the scene of an important
battle, December, 1813. After Wellington had forced Marshal Sault to
fall back on Bayonne from the Pyrenees, the former determined to cross
the Nive in order to place the right of his own army upon the Adour,
with the double purpose of establishing a communication with the
interior of France, and cutting off the enemy’s means of obtaining
supplies. The brunt of this enterprise fell upon the right division of
Wellington’s army under Lord Hill, a good deal of work, however, being
done by the left division under Sir John Hope. Hill’s success was
complete, and after five days’ fighting (December 9-13), the passage of
the Nive had been effected, with the loss on the part of the British of
650 killed and 3459 wounded.

=Nivelle.= A small river which rises in Spain, and, after a short
course, falls into the Bay of Biscay at St. Jean-de-Luz, in the French
department of the Lower Pyrenees, near which the Duke of Wellington
crossed the river in 1812, after carrying the French posts.

=Nizam’s Dominions=, or =Hyderabad=. An extensive territory in the
interior of Southern India, lying to the northwest of the Presidency of
Madras. In 1687 the territory now known as the Nizam’s Dominions, became
a province of the Mogul empire; but in 1719 the governor or viceroy of
the Deccan, Azoph Jah, made himself independent, and took the title of
_Nizam-ool-Moolk_ (Regulator of the State). After his death, in 1748,
two claimants appeared for the throne,--his son Nazir Jung, and his
grandson Mirzapha Jung. The cause of the former was espoused by the East
India Company, and that of the latter by a party of French adventurers
under Gen. Dupleix. Then followed a period of strife and anarchy. In
1761, Nizam Ali obtained the supreme power, and after some vacillation
signed a treaty of alliance with the English in 1768. He aided them in
the war with Tippoo Sahib, sultan of Mysore, and at the termination of
that war, in 1799, a new treaty was formed, by which, in return for
certain territorial concessions, the East India company bound itself to
maintain a subsidiary force of 8000 men for the defense of the Nizam’s
dominions. The Nizam or ruler, _Afzul-ul-Dowlah_, remained faithful to
the British during the mutiny of 1857-58.

=Nizza-Montferrato.= A town of northern Italy, province of Alessandria,
on the Belbo. It was a strongly-fortified place during the Middle Ages,
was besieged unsuccessfully for forty days by Charles of Anjou, and
afterwards suffered severely from the Spanish and French armies.

=Noblesse Militaire= (_Fr._). Military nobility. Although most of the
orders may be considered as appendages which confer a species of
military nobility, especially that of the British “Garter,” which was
instituted by King Edward III. on January 19, 1344, yet the British
cannot be strictly said to have among them that species of military
nobility or distinction that was peculiarly known in France under the
immediate title of _noblesse militaire_. In order to reward military
merit, an edict was issued by the French court at Fontainebleau, in
November, 1750, and enregistered on the 25th of the same month by the
Parliament of Paris, whereby a _noblesse militaire_, or military
nobility, was created; the acquisition of which depended wholly upon
martial character, but did not require any letters patent for the
purpose of ennobling the individual. By the first article of this
perpetual and irrevocable edict, as it was then stated, it was decreed
that no person serving in the capacity and quality of officer in any of
the king’s troops, should be liable to the land- or poll-tax, so long as
he continued in that situation. (2) That by virtue of this edict, and
from the date thereof, all general officers, not being otherwise
ennobled, but being actually and bona fide in the service, should be
considered as noble, and remain so, together with their children, born
or to be born in lawful wedlock. (3) That in future the rank of general
officer should of itself be sufficient to confer the full right of
nobility upon all those who should arrive at that degree of military
promotion; and that their heirs and successors, as well as their
children, actually born and lawfully begotten, should be entitled to the
same distinction; and that all general officers should enjoy all the
rights and privileges of nobility from the date of their commissions. In
Articles IV., V., VI., and VII., it was specifically provided upon what
conditions those officers, who were not noble, and were inferior in rank
to that of maréchal-de-camp, but who had been chevaliers or knights of
the royal and military order of St. Louis, and who should retire from
the service after having been in the army during thirty years without
intermission, were to be exempted from the payment of the land- and
poll-tax, and how the same privileges were to be transferred to their
sons, provided they were in the service. By Article VIII. it was
enacted, that those officers who had risen to the rank of captain, and
were chevaliers or knights of the order of St. Louis, but who were
disabled by wounds, or diseases contracted in the service, should not be
obliged to fill up the period of thirty years as prescribed by the
recited articles. By Article IX. it was provided that when any officer,
not under the rank of captain, died in the actual exercise of the
functions or bearing the commission of captain, the services he had
already rendered should be of use to his sons, lawfully begotten, who
were either in the service or were intended for it. It was specified in
Articles X. and XI. that every officer born in wedlock, whose father and
grandfather had been exempted from the land- or poll-tax, should be
noble in his own right, provided he got created a chevalier or knight of
St. Louis, had served the prescribed period, or was entitled to the
exemption mentioned in Article VIII.; that if he should die in the
service, he would be considered as having acquired the rank of nobility,
and that the title so obtained should descend, as a matter of right, to
the children, lawfully begotten, of such officers as had acquired it. It
further specified, that even those who should have been born previous to
their fathers being ennobled, were entitled to the same privilege.
Article XII. pointed out the method by which proofs of military nobility
were to be exhibited in conformity to the then existing edict. Articles
XIII. and XIV. provided for those officers, who were actually in the
service at the promulgation of the edict, in proportion as the
prescribed periods were filled up. This provision related wholly to the
personal services of officers; as no proof was acknowledged relative to
services done by their fathers or grandfathers, who might have retired
from the army, or have died prior to the publication of the edict. The
XVth or last Article was a sort of register, in which were preserved the
different titles that enabled individuals to lay claim to military
nobility. The whole of this edict may be seen, page 206, in the 3d
volume “Des Elemens Militaires.” The French emperor Bonaparte instituted
an order of nobility called the “Legion of Honor,” the political
influence of which appears to be greater than any order ever
established, even than that of the Jesuits. He also adopted the ancient
military title of duke, which was conferred only on men who had merited
renown by their military greatness. The title of count was also
established, and all the members of the Legion of Honor held a rank
corresponding with the knights of feudal institution. Private soldiers
and tradesmen, for acts of public virtue, have been created members of
the Legion of Honor.

=Noblesse Oblige.= A French phrase,--rank has its obligations.

=Nocera dei Pagani= (anc. _Nuceria Alfaterna_). A town of Southern
Italy, province and 8 miles northwest of Salerno. During the second
Samnite war (315 B.C.) the Nucerians, who were on friendly terms with
the Romans, were induced to abandon their alliance and make common cause
with the Samnites, for which they were punished in 308 by the Roman
consul Fabius, who invaded their territory, laid siege to their city,
and compelled them to unqualified submission. In the second Punic war
the city was besieged by Hannibal, and after a vigorous resistance was
compelled by famine to surrender; it was given up to plunder and totally
destroyed, while the surviving inhabitants took refuge in the other
cities of Campania. It again became a flourishing town, and its
territory was ravaged in the Social war, 90 B.C. The decisive battle
between Narses and Teïas, which put an end to the Gothic monarchy in
Italy (533 A.D.), was fought in its neighborhood. Its modern appellation
is derived from the circumstance that in the 13th century a body of
Saracens were established there by the emperor Frederick II.

=Nogent-le-Rotrou.= A parish and town of France, in the department of
the Eure and Loire, 33 miles southwest from Chartres. Taken by the
English in 1428.

=Nola.= A city of Italy, province of Terra di Lavoro, 14 miles
east-northeast of Naples. The ancient Nola was founded by the Ausonians,
but afterwards fell into the hands of the Tyrrheni (Etruscans). In 327
B.C. it was sufficiently powerful to send 2000 soldiers to the
assistance of Neapolis. In 313 the town was taken by the Romans. It
remained faithful to the Romans even after the battle of Cannæ, when the
other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal; and in consequence retained
its own constitution as an ally of the Romans. In the Social war it fell
into the hands of the confederates, and when taken by Sulla it was burnt
to the ground by the Samnite garrison.

=Nolan’s Range-finder.= See RANGE-FINDER.

=Nolle Prosequi= (_Practice_). An entry made on the record of
courts-martial, by which the prosecutor or plaintiff declares that he
will proceed no further. The effect of a _nolle prosequi_, when
obtained, is to put the defendant without day, but it does not operate
as an acquittal; for he may be afterwards re-indicted, and even upon the
same indictment fresh process may be awarded.

=Nomenclature.= Technical designation. For nomenclature of ordnance, see
appropriate headings in this work.

=Nominal.= By name, hence _nominal call_, which corresponds with the
French _appel nominatif_; and, in a military sense, with our roll-call.

=Non-combatant.= Any person connected with an army, or within the lines
of an army, who does not make it his business to fight, as any one of
the medical officers and their assistants, chaplains, and others, also
any of the citizens of a place occupied by an army; also, any one
holding a similar position with respect to the navy.

=Non-commissioned Officers= (Fr. _sous-officers_, Ger.
_unter-offizieren_). Are the subordinate officers of the general staff,
regiments, and companies who are appointed, not by commission, but by
the secretary of war or commanding officers of regiments; and they are
usually selected on account of good conduct or superior abilities.

=Non-effective.= Signifies men not fit or available for duty, in
contradistinction to effective (which see).

=Noose.= A running knot, which binds the closer the more it is drawn.

=Nootkas=, or =Ahts=. The generic name of the Indians residing on
Vancouver Island and the shore of the mainland along the sound of the
same name. They are subdivided into many tribes and number about 14,000,
some of whom are partially civilized.

=Nora.= A mountain fortress of Cappadocia, on the borders of Lycaonia,
on the northern side of the Taurus, noted for the siege sustained in it
by Eumenes against Antigonus for a whole winter.

=Norba=, or =Norbanus= (now _Norma_). A strongly fortified town in
Latium, on the slope of the Volscian Mountains, and near the sources of
the Nymphæus, originally belonged to the Latin and subsequently to the
Volscian league. The Romans founded a colony at Norba in 492 B.C. It
espoused the cause of Marius in the civil war, and was destroyed by fire
by its own inhabitants when it was taken by one of Sulla’s generals.

=Nordlingen.= A walled town of Bavaria, in the circle of Swabia, 48
miles southwest from Nuremberg. Here the Swedes under Count Horn were
defeated by the Austrians, August 27, 1634; and the Austrians and allies
by Turenne in 1645.

=Noreia= (now _Neumarkt_, in Styria, Austria). The ancient capital of
the Taurisci, or Norici, in Noricum. It was situated in the centre of
Noricum, a little south of the river Murius, and on the road from
Virunum to Ovilaba. It is celebrated as the place where Carbo was
defeated by the Cimbri, 113 B.C. It was besieged by the Boii in the time
of Julius Cæsar.

=Norfolk.= A city and capital of Norfolk Co., Va., on the Elizabeth
River, an arm of Chesapeake Bay, about 18 miles from Fortress Monroe,
has a fine harbor, safe, commodious, and of sufficient depth to admit
the largest vessels. It is the largest naval station in the United
States. Its navy-yard was destroyed on April 21, 1861, by the Federals,
to prevent the ships of war and naval stores that were there from being
appropriated and used by the seceding States.

=Noricum.= A Roman province south of the Danube, was bounded on the
north by the Danube, on the west by Rhætia and Vindelicia, on the east
by Pannonia, and on the south by Pannonia and Italy. Its inhabitants,
the most important of which were the Taurisci, also called Norici, were
conquered by the Romans toward the end of the reign of Augustus, after
the subjugation of Rhætia by Tiberius and Drusus, and their country was
formed into a Roman colony.

=Normandy= (Fr. _Normandie_). Formerly a province in the north of
France, bordering on the English Channel; now divided into the
departments of Seine-Inférieure, Eure, Orne, Calvados, and Manche. In
the time of the Romans, the country bore the name of _Gallia Lugdunensis
II._ Under the Frankish monarchs it formed a part of Neustria. From the
beginning of the 9th century it was continually devastated by the
Scandinavians, termed Northmen, or Normans, from whose irruptions
Charles the Simple of France purchased immunity by ceding the duchy to
their leader, Rollo, 905. Rollo, the first duke, and several of his
successors held it as a fief of the crown of France, until William, the
seventh duke, acquired England in 1066; it was reunited to France in
1204; was reconquered by Henry V. 1418, and held by England partially
till 1450.

=Normans= (the Northmen). Toward the end of the 8th century Western
Europe began to be scourged by the inroads of Scandinavian pirates,
known to the inhabitants of the British Isles as “East-men” and
“Danes,”--to those of the continent as “North-men.” These Northmen were
of Germanic stock, a vigorous, seafaring race, not yet Christianized,
peopling the coasts of the Baltic and of the two peninsulas which form
the Norway and Sweden and the Denmark of to-day. Need and the national
thirst for adventure and for strife drove forth from the thickening
population, down upon the sunnier, richer, weaker South, swarms of
vikings,--_i.e._ warriors,--who scourged the coasts of England, Germany,
and France, pressed with their small, sharp, open vessels up the
narrowest streams, burned, slew, and plundered, and sailed away laden
with booty and with slaves. About the middle of the 9th century these
raids began to assume an altogether new character and importance. The
consolidation of the three great Scandinavian kingdoms broke the power
of the petty kinglets and independent nobles, and drove many a jarl
forth with his followers to seek a freer life in some new home. Northmen
threw themselves in larger bands upon England, which the Wessex kings
had not yet fairly centralized; upon the Frankish kingdoms, fast falling
asunder under the later Karlings; harried the country, besieged and
sacked the cities, wintered at the mouths of the rivers, and by the end
of the century had wrested from Alfred half his kingdom, and begun to
plant colonies on the coasts of France. Northmen ravaged Spain and the
shores of the Mediterranean, fell upon Western Italy, penetrated Greece
and Asia Minor, and there met others of their countrymen, who had
pressed down through Russia. For in the Russia of that day, under the
name of Verangians, Northmen had become the ruling class, a military
aristocracy; while those who made their way still farther south had
formed the famous Verangian body-guard of the Byzantine emperors, which
maintained its existence and its distinctive character for five
centuries. During the latter half of the 9th century, also,
Scandinavians, sailing westward, found and settled Iceland. With the
establishment, early in the 10th century, of settlements upon the
continent, with the occupation Scandinavian energy now found at home in
wars between the three new kingdoms, and with the gradual triumph of
Christianity in the North, Europe gained, at last, comparative rest.
England’s period of misery and humiliation under Ethelred the Unready
(979-1016), ended by the establishment of a Danish dynasty (1017-42),
marks the last great outburst of the pent-up heathenism.

=Northallerton.= A town of Yorkshire, England, 31 miles northwest from
York. Near here was fought the “battle of the Standard,” where the
English under the Earls of Albemarle and Ferrers totally defeated the
Scotch armies, August 22, 1138. The archbishop of York brought forth a
consecrated standard on a carriage at the moment when they were hotly
pressed by the invaders, headed by King David.

=Northampton.= The chief town of Northamptonshire, situated on the Nen,
or Nene, 60 miles northwest from London. It was held by the Danes at the
beginning of the 10th century, and was burnt by them in 1010. Its castle
was besieged by the barons in 1215, during the civil wars of King John.
On July 10, 1460, a conflict took place between the Duke of York and
Henry VI. of England, in which the king was defeated, and made prisoner
(the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place in the
meadows below the town. It was seized and fortified by the Parliamentary
forces in 1642. On March 30, 1645, Cromwell marched from it with 1500
horse and two regiments of foot to Rugby. After the restoration, October
17, 1661, the walls of Northampton were demolished, it having taken the
side of the Parliament.

=North Carolina.= One of the Southern Atlantic States, and one of the
original thirteen of the American Confederacy. Attempts were made under
the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh to settle North Carolina as early as
between 1585 and 1589, but in one year after no trace of the colony
could be found. The first permanent settlement was made on the banks of
the Roanoke and Chowan, by some emigrants from Virginia, in 1653. John
Culpepper rebelled against the arbitrary government of Miller in 1678,
and held the government for two years. In 1693, North and South Carolina
were separated. In 1711 the Tuscaroras, Corees, and other savages
attacked and massacred 112 settlers, principally of the Roanoke and
Chowan settlements; but the following year the united forces of the two
Carolinas completely routed them, killing 300 savages. In 1729 the
proprietors sold their rights to the crown. A party of malcontents, in
1771, rose against the royal governor, but after two hours’ contest,
fled with considerable loss. A severe conflict with the Northwest
Indians occurred in 1774, on the Kanawha River, which resulted in the
abandonment of the ground by the savages. North Carolina took an early
and active part in the events of the Revolution, and within her borders
took place sanguinary conflicts at Guilford Court-house, Brier Creek
Springs, Fishing Creek, and other places. The Mecklenburg Declaration of
Independence was made May 20, 1775: so North Carolina has the honor to
have first proposed a separation from Great Britain. In the second war
with Great Britain she also played a prominent part, although she had no
serious losses on her territory. During the late civil war North
Carolina suffered greatly, and was the scene of many important
engagements, among which were the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark in
1861, Roanoke Island and Newbern in February, 1862, and Fort Fisher in
January, 1865. In March, 1865, the battles of Averysboro’ and
Bentonville were fought by the armies of Gen. Sherman and J. E.
Johnston, which ended in the final surrender of the latter, at Durham
Station, April 26, 1865.

=Norwich.= A city of England, and the capital of the county of Norfolk,
on the river Wensum, 108 miles from London. In 1549 the city was the
scene of an insurrection resembling that of the Jacquerie in France and
the Peasant’s war in Germany. The poor objected to the inclosure of
certain commons and waste lands in the neighborhood of Attleborough and
Wymondham; fences were thrown down; Robert, _alias_ Knight, a tanner, a
bold and resolute man, headed the rebels, aided by his brother William,
a butcher. Their numbers increased, and, marching towards Norwich, they
encamped on Mousehold Heath, took possession of the mansion of the Earl
of Surrey, and thence proceeded to lay siege to the city. Having
augmented their number to 16,000, and strongly fortified their camp,
they summoned the city to surrender. For months they maintained
hostilities, and the country round was pillaged and laid waste, until at
length they gained an entrance to the city. A strong force was sent down
for the defense of the city, under the Marquis of Northampton, who was
defeated on St. Martin’s Palace plain; the rebels plundered and set fire
to the city in many parts. The Earl of Warwick, assisted by his son
Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, was then sent to the relief of the
citizens. The city was stormed by the king’s troops, and the rebels
forced to retreat after a two days’ sharp conflict, during which upwards
of 3000 were killed, and the insurgents subdued. About 300 of the
ringleaders, including the two Ketts, were executed.

=Nose-bag.= A bag of stout canvas with a leather bottom, and straps by
which it can be hung over a horse’s head. It is used for feeding grain
to horses out of stables.

=Note.= A brief writing intended to assist the memory. Members of
courts-martial sometimes take notes. They are frequently necessary to
enable a member to bring the whole body of evidence into a connected
view, where the case is complex.

=Noted.= Well known by reputation or report; celebrated; as, a noted
commander.

=Nottingham.= A large town of England, the capital of the county of the
same name, 13 miles northeast from Derby. The castle here was defended
by the Danes against King Alfred, and his brother Ethelred, who retook
it, 868. William the Conqueror erected a castle, and constructed
fortifications so strong as to render the place impregnable against any
of the methods of attack which were then known. The castle of
Nottingham, defended by the royalists, was besieged by the Parliamentary
forces under the command of Col. Hutchinson, to whom, after a brave
defense, it at length surrendered.

=Nottoways.= A tribe of Indians who formerly resided in Virginia on the
river of the same name. As a distinct race they have ceased to exist.

=Novara.= A city of Northern Italy, defended by a castle, 53 miles west
from Turin. In 1849 the Sardinians were disastrously defeated here by
the Austrians; and in 1859 a French corps occupied the town.

=Nova Scotia.= A province of British North America, connected with New
Brunswick by a narrow isthmus lying between Chignecto and Varte Bays.
This country was discovered by Cabot in 1497; it was subsequently
settled by the French; and came into the possession of the English in
1758.

=Novi.= A town of Northern Italy, situated at the foot of the Apennines,
13 miles southeast from Alessandria. It is noted for a sanguinary battle
fought here in August, 1799, between the French under Joubert and the
allied Austro-Russian forces under Suwarrow. The former were defeated,
and among 10,000 of the French slain were Joubert and several other
distinguished officers.

=Noyan= (_Fr._). In English _mandril_; it also means the whole of the
vacant space or bore of a cannon, under which are comprehended the
diameter of the mouth, the vacant cylinder, the breech, and the vent.
With respect to bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, that which is called
_noyan_ consists of a globular piece of earth, upon which the cover of
bombs, grenades, and hollow balls is cast. The metal is poured in
between this cover and the noyan, after which the noyan, or core, is
broken, and the earth taken out.

=Nubia.= A large country of Africa, the ancient _Æthiopia supra
Ægyptum_, said to have been the site of the kingdom of Meroë, received
its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. It is now subject to the
viceroy of Egypt, having been conquered by Ibrahim Pasha in 1822.

=Nuddea.= A town of British India, in the district of Burdwan, 80 miles
north of Calcutta. It was taken and entirely destroyed in 1204.

=Nuggar.= A term in the East Indies for a fort.

=Nuits.= A small fortified town near Dijon, in Burgundy, Northeast
France. It was frequently captured and ravaged, especially in 1569,
1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese under Von Werder, December
18, 1870, after five hours’ conflict, in which above 1000 French are
said to have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners taken. The
German loss was also heavy. A depot of arms and ammunition was gained by
the victors.

=Numantia.= The chief town of the Celtiberian people, called Arevaci, in
ancient Spain, was situated on the Douro, in Old Castile, and is
celebrated for the long war of twenty years which it maintained against
the Romans. See NUMANTINE WAR.

=Numantine War.= The war between the Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts
who possessed the country near the Iber, now _Ebro_) began 143 B.C., on
account of the latter having given refuge to their allies, the
Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Romans. Numantia, an unprotected
city, withstood a long siege, in which the army of Scipio Africanus,
60,000 men, was opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The
Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and on their own dead, and at last drew
lots to kill one another. At length, those whom plague and famine had
spared destroyed themselves, so that no one remained to adorn the
triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C.

=Numéros= (_Fr._). Round pieces of brass or other metal, which were
numbered and used in the old French service in the detail of guards.

=Numidia.= An ancient country of North Africa, the seat of the war of
the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 111 B.C., and ended with his
subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined Cato, and
was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia became a
Roman province.

=Nuncio.= An ambassador from the pope.

=Nuremberg= (Ger. _Nürnberg_). A town of Bavaria, in the circle of
Middle Franconia, stands on the Pegnitz, an affluent of the Regnitz. In
1219 it became a free city, independent of any European power, and as
such it continued till it was given over by Napoleon in 1806 to the king
of Bavaria. At the Reformation the inhabitants embraced the Protestant
cause; and in the Thirty Years’ War they were on the side of the Swedes,
and suffered much in 1632, during the blockade which Gustavus Adolphus
endured from the imperial forces under Wallenstein. The city was
occupied by the Prussians in 1866, and its fortifications demolished.

=Nurse.= A person whose whole business is to attend the sick in
hospital. In the U. S. service, nurses are detailed in post hospitals
from the companies who are serving at the post, and are exempt from
other duty, but have to attend the parades for weekly inspections and
the musters of their companies, unless especially excused by the
commanding officer. Ordinarily one nurse is allowed to every ten persons
sick in hospital. In the British service there are sergeants, orderly
men, and nurses (generally women) in hospitals of regiments of the
line.

=Nuthall’s Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Nyköping.= A seaport of Sweden, pleasantly situated on the Baltic,
about 60 miles southwest of Stockholm. In 1317 the castle of Nyköping
was seized and sacked by the people, who demolished its keep and
donjons. In 1719 the town was taken and dismantled by the Russians.

=Nystadt.= A town of Finland, on the eastern coast of the Gulf of
Bothnia, 50 miles south of Biorneborg. Here, in 1721, a treaty was
agreed to between Russia and Sweden, by virtue of which all the
conquests of Peter the Great along the coasts of the Gulf of Finland
were annexed to Russia.



O.


=Oakum.= A tangled mass of tarred hempen fibres, is made from old rope
by untwisting the strands and rubbing the fibres free from each other.
Its principal use is in calking the seams between planks, the space
round rivets, bolts, etc., for the purpose of preventing water from
penetrating.

=Oaths, Military.= The taking of the oath of fidelity to government and
obedience to superior officers, was, among ancient armies, a very solemn
affair. A whole corps took the oath together, and sometimes an entire
army. The tribunes of every legion chose out one whom they thought the
fittest person, and gave him a solemn oath at large, the substance of
which was, that he should oblige himself to obey the commanders in all
things to the utmost of his power, be ready to attend whenever they
ordered his appearance, and never to leave the army but by their
consent. After he had ended, the whole legion, passing one by one, every
man, in short, swore to the same effect, crying, as he went by, _Idem in
me_, “the same by me.” In modern times when so many other checks are
used in maintaining discipline, the oath has become little more than a
form. A recruit enlisting in the army or navy, or a volunteer enrolling
himself, swears to be faithful to the government, and obedient to all or
any of his superior officers. The members of a court-martial take an
oath to try the cases brought before them justly, according to the
evidence, to keep secret the finding and sentence of the court, until
they shall be published by the proper authority, and to keep secret the
votes or opinions given by the members individually. The judge-advocate
swears that he will not reveal the individual opinions or votes of the
members nor the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority.
There is also an oath for the members and an oath for the recorder of a
court of inquiry. The only other military oath is the common oath of a
witness before a court-martial, to tell the truth, the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Obedience= (Fr. _obéissance_). Submission to the orders of a superior.
The first principle which ought to be inculcated and impressed upon the
mind of every officer and soldier is obedience to all lawful commands.
It is the mainspring, the soul and essence of military duty. It is
evident that if all officers and soldiers are to judge when an order is
lawful and when not, the captious and mutinous would never be at loss
for a plea to justify their insubordination. It is, therefore, an
established principle, that unless an order is so manifestly against law
that the question does not admit of dispute, the order must first be
obeyed by the inferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress
against his superior as the laws allow. If the inferior disputes the
legality before obedience, error of judgment is never admitted in
mitigation of the offense. The redress now afforded by the laws to
inferiors is not, however, sufficient; for doubtful questions of the
construction of statutes, instead of being referred to the Federal
courts of law for their true exposition, have received variable
expositions from the executive, and left the army in an unfortunate
state of uncertainty as to the true meaning of certain laws; and this
uncertainty has been most unfavorable to discipline. Again, while the
punishment of death is meted to officers and soldiers for disobedience
of _lawful_ commands, the law does not _protect_ officers and soldiers
for obeying _unlawful_ commands. Instances have occurred in the United
States, where officers and soldiers have been subjected to vexatious
prosecutions, simply for obeying orders according to their oath of
office. Would it not be just if the law, instead of requiring officers
and soldiers thus nicely to steer between Scylla and Charybdis, should
hold the superior who gives an illegal order alone responsible for its
execution?

=Obedience to Orders.= An unequivocal performance of the several duties
which are directed to be discharged by military men. All officers and
soldiers are to pay obedience to the lawful orders of their superior
officers.

=Obey, To.= In a military sense, is without question or hesitation to
conform zealously to all orders and instructions which are legally
issued. It sometimes happens that individuals are called upon (by
mistake, or from the exigency of the service) out of what is called the
regular roster. In either case they must cheerfully obey, and after they
have performed their duty they may remonstrate.

=Obidos.= A town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, situated
on the Amaya, 45 miles northwest from Lisbon. An engagement took place
here between the French and English in 1808.

=Object.= A word in military movements and evolutions, synonymous with
_point_. Thus, in marching forward in line, etc., the guide of a squad,
company, or battalion, must take two objects at least to fix his line of
march by which the whole body is regulated. As he advances he selects
succession objects or points to prolong the line.

=Object.= The mark aimed at in the fire of small-arms or artillery.

=Objective-points.= The point to be reached or gained by an army in
executing a movement, has been termed the “objective-point.” There are
two classes of objectives, viz., _natural_ and _accidental_. The term
_geographical_ is frequently used to designate the first of these.

A _natural objective_ may be an important position, strong naturally, or
made so by fortifications, the possession of which gives control over a
tract of country, and furnishes good points of support or good lines of
defense for other military operations. Or, it may be a great business
centre, or a capital of a country, the possession of which has the
effect of discouraging the enemy and making him willing to sue for
peace.

_Accidental objectives_ are dependent upon the military operations which
have for their object the destruction or disintegration of the enemy’s
forces. These objectives are sometimes called “_objective-points of
manœuvre_.” The position of the enemy determines their location. Thus,
if the enemy’s forces are greatly scattered, or his front much extended,
the central point of his position would be a good objective-point, since
the possession of it would divide the enemy’s forces, and allow his
detachments to be attacked separately. Or, if the enemy has his forces
well supported, a good objective would be on that flank, the possession
of which would allow his communications with his base to be threatened.
It is well to remark that the term “point” used in this connection is
not to be considered merely in its geometrical sense, but is used to
apply to the object which the army desires to attain, whether it be a
position, a place, a line, or even a section of country.--_Prof. J. B.
Wheeler._

=Oblat= (_Fr._). Disabled soldier formerly maintained by abbeys.

=Oblique.= In tactics, indicates a direction which is neither parallel
nor perpendicular to the front, but more or less diagonal. It is a
command of warning in the tactics for the movement. It is used in
referring to diagonal alignments, attacks, orders of battles, squares
against cavalry, changes of front, fires, etc.

=Oblique Deployments.= When the component parts of a column that is
extending into line, deviate to the right or left, for the purpose of
taking up an oblique position, its movements are called _oblique_
deployments.

=Oblique Fire.= See FIRE, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Flank.= See FLANK, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Percussion.= Is that wherein the striking body is not
perpendicular to the body struck, or is not in line with its centre of
gravity.

=Oblique Position.= Is a position taken in an oblique direction from the
original line of formation.

=Oblique Projection.= Is that wherein the direction of the striking body
is not perpendicular to the body struck, which makes an oblique angle
with the horizontal line.

=Oblique Radius.= Is a line extending from the centre to the exterior
side of a polygon.

=Oblique Step.= Is a step or movement in marching, in which the soldier,
while advancing, gradually takes ground to the right or left at an angle
of about 25°. It is not now practiced.

=Oblique, To.= In a military sense, is to move forward to the right or
left, by obliquing in either of those directions, according to the words
of command.

=Oblong Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES.

=Obsequies.= See FUNERAL HONORS.

=Observation, Army of.= An army assigned to the duty of observing and
checking the movements of an enemy.

=Observer Sergeants.= In the United States, are sergeants in the signal
service, stationed in large towns and important commercial centres, to
give timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of rivers, and all
other important weather news for the guidance of merchants and others.

=Observe, To.= To watch closely, etc. Hence, _to observe_ the motions of
an enemy, is to keep a good lookout by means of small corps of armed
men, or of intelligent and steady spies and scouts, and to be
constantly in possession of information regarding his different
movements.

=Obsession.= The act of besieging.

=Obsidional.= Belonging to a siege.

=Obsidional Crown= (Fr. _couronne obsidionale_). A crown so called among
the ancient Romans, which was bestowed upon a governor or general, who
by his skill and exertions, either held out or caused the siege to be
raised of any town belonging to the republic. It was made from the grass
which grew on the spot, and was therefore called _gramineus_ (Lat.
_gramen_, “grass”).

=Obsidionale Monnaie= (_Fr._). Any substitute for coin which has a value
put upon it that is greater than its intrinsic worth; and a currency
given to answer the convenience of the inhabitants of a besieged place.

=Obstacles.= Are narrow passes, woods, bridges, or any other impediments
which present themselves when a battalion is marching to front or rear;
or abatis, crows-feet, palisades, etc., which, being placed in the
glacis of a fortress, obstruct the operations of an assaulting party.

=Obstinate.= In a military sense, means determined; fixed in resolution;
as, an obstinate resistance.

=Obstruct.= To block up; to stop up or close, as a way or passage; to
fill with obstacles or impediments that prevent passing; as, to obstruct
a road, highway, channel, etc.

=Obstruction.= The act of obstructing, or the state of being obstructed.
Also, that which obstructs or impedes; obstacle; impediment; hindrance.

=Obtain.= To get hold of by effort; to gain possession of.

=Obus=, or =Obusier= (_Fr._). A species of small mortar, resembling a
mortar in everything but the carriage, which was made in the form of
that belonging to a gun, only shorter. It has been frequently used at
sieges; and was well calculated to sweep the covert way, and to fire
ricochet shots. They were usually loaded with cartouches.

=Obusier= (_Fr._). Howitzer, called _haubitz_ by the Dutch. In 1434 it
was known under the name of _husenicze_.

=Oc.= A Turkish arrow.

=Ocana.= A town of Spain, in New Castile, 33 miles southeast from
Madrid. Near here the Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded
by Mortier and Soult, November 19, 1809.

=Occasion= (_Fr._). Has the same signification in military matters that
_affair_ bears among the French. _Une occasion bien chaude_, a warm
contest, battle, or engagement; it further means, as with us, the source
from whence consequences ensue. _Les malheurs du peuple sont arrivés à
l’occasion de la guerre_, “the misfortunes of the people have been
occasioned by the war,” or “the war has been the occasion of the
people’s misfortunes.” The French make a nice distinction which may hold
good in our language, between cause and occasion, viz.: _Il n’en est
pas la cause,--il n’en est que l’occasion, l’occasion innocente_,--“He
is not the cause, he is only the occasion, the innocent occasion of it.”

=Occupation.= The state of occupying or taking possession. Also, the
state of being occupied or possessed; possession.

=Occupation, Army of.= An army which invades an enemy’s country and
establishes itself in it either temporarily or permanently, is termed an
_army of occupation_.

=Occupy.= Is a military phrase for taking possession of a work or fort,
or to remain stationary in any place.

=Octagon.= A figure or polygon that has eight equal sides, which
likewise form eight equal angles. The octagon in fortification is well
calculated in its ground for the construction of large towns, or for
such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially if the
engineer can so place the bastions, that the entrances and outlets of
the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition
no person could come in or go out of the garrison without the
commandant’s permission, as the sentinels must have a full view from the
flanks of the neighboring bastions.

=Oczakov=, or =Otshakov=. A town of Russia in Europe, in the government
of Cherson, near the mouth of the Dnieper. This place was once the
object of obstinate contests between the Turks and Russians.

=Oda.= The different corps or companies into which the Janissaries were
divided bore this appellation. The word itself means a room, and the
companies were so called from messing separately.

=Oda-Bachi.= Captain superintending the gunners at Constantinople.

=Odas.= Company of soldiers.

=Odessa.= A fortified seaport of European Russia, in the government of
Cherson, on a small bay of the Black Sea between the Dniester and
Dnieper, 85 miles west from Kherson. In the beginning of the 15th
century the Turks constructed a fortress here, which was taken by the
Russians in 1789. On the outbreak of the Crimean war, April, 1854, the
British steamer “Furious” went to Odessa for the purpose of bringing
away the British consul. While under a flag of truce, she was fired upon
by the batteries of the city. On the failure of the written message from
the admiral in command of the fleet to obtain explanations, 12
war-steamers invested Odessa, April 22, and in a few hours destroyed the
fortifications, blew up the powder-magazines, and took a number of
Russian vessels. On May 12, the English frigate “Tiger” stranded here,
and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain, Giffard, and many
of his men were killed, and the rest made prisoners.

=Odius.= A herald in the camp of the Greeks before Troy.

=Odometer.= An instrument attached to the wheel of a carriage to measure
distances in traveling, indicating on a dial the number of revolutions
made by the wheel.

=Odrysæ.= The most powerful people in Thrace, dwelt, according to
Herodotus, on both sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary of the
Hebrus, but also spread farther west over the whole plain of the Hebrus.
Their king Teres retained his independence of the Persians 508 B.C.
Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, and in 429 aided the
Athenians against Perdiccas II. of Macedon with an army of 150,000 men.
Sitalces was killed in battle with the Triballi, 424. Cotys, another
king (382-353), disputed the possession of the Thracian Chersonesus with
Athens; after nine or ten years’ warfare, Philip II. of Macedon reduced
the Odrysæ to tributaries.

=Œniadæ= (now _Triyardon_, or _Trikhardo_). An ancient town of
Acarnania, situated on the Achelous, near its mouth. Œniadæ espoused the
cause of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. At the time of Alexander
the Great, the town was taken by the Ætolians, who expelled the
inhabitants; but the Ætolians were expelled in their turn by Philip V.,
king of Macedonia, who surrounded the place with fortifications. The
Romans captured and restored the town to the Acarnanians 211 B.C.

=Œnophyta= (now _Inia_). A town in Bœotia, on the left bank of the
Asopus, and on the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memorable for the
victory gained here by the Athenians over the Bœotians, 456 B.C.

=Oesel.= An island belonging to Russia, stretches across the mouth of
the Gulf of Riga. It at one time belonged to the Teutonic knights, but
was seized by the Danes at an early period, and ceded by them to Sweden
in 1645. In the beginning of the 18th century it was taken possession of
by Russia, to which power it was finally ceded in 1721.

=Ofanto= (anc. _Aufidus_). A river of Naples, which rises in the
province of Principato Ultra, and after a course of 75 miles flows into
the Adriatic, 4 miles from Barletta. Near its mouth was fought the
famous battle of Cannæ, in which the Romans were defeated by Hannibal.

=Off, To Go.= To be discharged, as a gun.

=Off, To March.= To quit the ground on which you are regularly drawn up,
for the purpose of going upon detachment, relieving a guard, or doing
any other military duty.

=Off, To Tell.= To count the men composing a battalion or company, so as
to have them readily and distinctly thrown into such proportions as suit
military movements or evolutions.

=Offa’s Dyke.= An intrenchment from the Wye to the Dee, England, made by
Offa, king of Mercia, to defend his country from the incursions of the
Welsh, 779.

=Offense, Weapons of.= Those which are used in attack, in distinction
from those of _defense_, which are used to repel.

=Offenses.= All acts that are contrary to good order and discipline,
omissions of duty, etc., may be called military offenses. The principal
ones are specified in the Articles of War (which see). No officer or
soldier can be tried twice for the same offense, unless in the case of
an appeal; nor can any officer or soldier be tried for any offense
committed more than two years before the date of the order for trial,
unless in cases where through some manifest impediment the offenders
were not amenable to justice in that period, when they may be brought to
trial any time within two years after the impediment has ceased.

=Offensive.= Used in attack; assailant; opposed to _defensive_; as, an
offensive weapon or engine. Making the first attack; assailant;
invading: opposed to _defensive_; as, an offensive war.

=Offensive and Defensive Fireworks.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Offensive and Defensive League.= A league that requires both or all
parties to make war together against a nation, and each party to defend
the other in case of being attacked.

=Offensive and Defensive Operations.= Are operations the object of which
is not only to prevent the enemy’s advance, but to attack him whenever
there is a favorable opportunity which promises success.

=Offensive Fortification.= See FORTIFICATION.

=Offensive War.= Military acts of aggression constitute what is called
an _offensive war_. Those who assail an opposite or adverse army, or
invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage an _offensive
war_.

=Office.= Any place or department appointed for the officers and clerks
to attend in, for the discharge of their respective employments; as, the
adjutant-general’s office, etc.

=Office of Ordnance.= See BOARD OF ORDNANCE and ORDNANCE OFFICE.

=Officer, Brevet.= See BREVET.

=Officer, Field-.= See FIELD-OFFICER.

=Officer, General.= See GENERAL OFFICER.

=Officer in Waiting.= In the British service, the officer next for duty
is so called. He is also mentioned in orders, and ought to be ready for
the service specified at a minute’s warning. He must not on this account
quit the camp, garrison, or cantonment.

=Officer, Non-commissioned.= See NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER.

=Officer of the Day.= Is an officer whose immediate duty is to attend to
the interior economy of the corps or garrison to which he belongs, or of
those with which he may be doing duty. The officer of the day has charge
of the guard, prisoners, and police of the garrison, inspects the
soldiers’ barracks, messes, hospital, etc.

=Officer of the Guard.= An officer detailed daily for service with the
guard. It is his duty, under the officer of the day, to see that the
non-commissioned officers and men of his guard are well instructed in
all their duties, he inspects the reliefs, visits the sentinels, is
responsible for the prisoners and the property used by them and the
guard; he is also responsible for good order, alertness, and discipline,
and should never quit his guard duty unless properly relieved.

=Officer, To.= To furnish with officers; to appoint officers over.

=Officers.= Commissioned officers are all those officers of a government
who receive their commissions from the executive, and are of various
grades from the ensign to the marshal, all of which see under their
respective headings. See APPOINTING POWER and COMMISSIONS.

=Officers, Marine.= All those who command in that body of troops
employed in the sea service.

=Officers, Staff-.= Are all those officers who are not attached to
regiments, whose duties extend over the whole, or a large section, such
as a brigade or a division; such as the adjutant-general, the
quartermaster-general, etc., and their subordinates, together with
brigade-majors and aides-de-camp. The regimental staff-officers are
those who are not attached to companies; they are the adjutant and
quartermaster, in the U. S. service, and in European armies the surgeon,
paymaster, adjutant, assistant-surgeon, and quartermaster. See STAFF.

=Officers, Subaltern.= Are all those officers below the grade of
captain.

=Officers, Warrant-.= Are those who have no commissions, but only
warrants from such boards or persons as are authorized by law to grant
them. The only warrant-officers in the British service are
master-gunners and schoolmasters. Technically the non-commissioned
officers of the U. S. army are not warrant-officers, though they are
appointed by warrants.

=Official.= All orders, reports, applications, memorials, etc., which
pass through the regular channels of communication, are called official.

=Official Courtesies.= The interchange of official compliments and
visits between foreign military or naval officers and the authorities of
a military post are international in character. In all cases it is the
duty of the commandant of a military post, without regard to his rank,
to send a suitable officer to offer civilities and assistance to a
vessel of war (foreign or otherwise) recently arrived. After such offer
it is the duty of the commanding officer of the vessel to send a
suitable officer to acknowledge such civilities, and request that a time
be specified for his reception by the commanding officer of the post.
The commanding officer of the post, after the usual offer of civilities,
is always to receive the first visit without regard to rank. The return
visit by the commanding officer of the military post is made the
following day, or as soon thereafter as practicable.

When a military commander officially visits a vessel of war he gives
notice of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or sends a
suitable officer (or an orderly) to the gangway to announce his
presence, if such notice has not been given. He is then received at the
gangway by the commander of the vessel, and is accompanied there on
leaving by the same officer. The officer who is sent with the customary
offer of civilities is met at the gangway of a vessel of war by the
officer of the deck; through the latter he is presented to the commander
of the vessel, with whom it is his duty to communicate.

When a civil functionary entitled to a salute arrives at a military
post, the commanding officer meets or calls upon him as soon as
practicable. The commanding officer tenders a review, provided the
garrison of the place is not less than four companies of troops. When an
officer entitled to a salute visits a post within his own command, the
troops are paraded and he receives the honor of a review, unless he
directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an officer junior to
another present at a post, the senior will be notified to that effect by
the commanding officer. Military or naval officers of whatever rank,
arriving at a military post or station, are expected to call upon the
commanding officer. Under no circumstances is the flag of a military
post _dipped_ by way of salute or compliment.

=Officially.= By the proper officer; by virtue of the proper authority;
in pursuance of the special powers vested; as, accounts or reports
officially verified or rendered; letters officially communicated;
persons officially notified.

=Off-reckonings.= A specific account was so called which existed between
the government and colonels of British regiments for the clothing of the
men.

=Ogee=, or =Ogive=. In pieces of ordnance, an ornamental molding on
guns, mortars, and howitzers.

=Ogival.= The form given the head of oblong projectiles. It was found by
Borda that this shape experienced less resistance from the air than any
other.

=Ohio.= One of the Western States of the American Confederacy, lying
between Lakes Michigan, Erie, and the Ohio River. In 1680, La Salle
explored the State, and built a military post on the Ohio, which the
French claimed; but in 1763 they relinquished it. The first settlement
was made subsequent to the Revolution, a company of New Englanders
having settled at Marietta in April, 1788. The early inhabitants were
much annoyed by incursions of the Indians, who had successively defeated
Gens. Harmar and St. Clair (the latter with great slaughter of his
troops, leaving scarcely one-fourth) in 1791 and 1792, but were
themselves in turn utterly routed by Gen. Wayne in August, 1794. Ohio
was admitted as a State in 1802. In the second war with Great Britain,
Ohio suffered greatly from raids by the British and Indians. Fort
Sandusky was attacked by Gen. Proctor, with 500 regulars and as many
Indians, and was successfully defended by Maj. Croghan, a youth of
twenty-one years, with 160 men. But the most important action which
occurred was the naval engagement on Lake Erie, fought at Put-in-Bay,
September 10, 1813, in which Commodore O. H. Perry defeated a superior
British fleet under command of Barclay. Ohio contributed greatly to the
cause of the Union in the late civil war; she sent her full quotas of
troops to the field, and the women attended to the sick and wounded with
untiring zeal. The State was twice invaded by Confederate guerrillas,
but suffered no material damage.

=Oillets=, or =Œillets=. Apertures for firing through in the walls of a
fort.

=Ojibways.= See CHIPPEWAS.

=Okanagans=, or =Cutsanim=. A semi-civilized tribe of Indians who, to
the number of about 300, reside to the east of the Cascade Mountains, in
Washington Territory.

=Olcades.= An ancient people in Hispania Tarraconensis, north of
Carthago Nova, nearer the sources of the Anas, in a part of the country
afterwards inhabited by the Oretani. They are mentioned only in the wars
of the Carthaginians with the inhabitants of Spain.

=Oldensworth= (Denmark). A conference was held here in 1713, between
Peter the Great and Frederick IV. of Denmark.

=Olifant=, or =Oliphant= (_Fr._). A horn which a paladin or knight
sounded in token of defiance, or as a challenge.

=Olinde.= A sort of sword-blade.

=Olivenza.= A fortified town of Spain, in Estremadura, situated on the
Guadiana, 16 miles southwest from Badajos. This town was ceded by
Portugal to Spain in 1801; and for having arranged this cession, Godoy
received his title of “Prince of Peace.” In 1811 it was taken by the
French.

=Olmütz.= The chief fortress of Moravia, in the district of the same
name, in Austria, 40 miles north-northeast from Brünn. Olmütz was taken
by the Swedes during the Thirty Years’ War; but was besieged in vain for
seven weeks by Frederick the Great in 1758. Lafayette was confined here
in 1794. A conference was held here November 29, 1850, under the czar
Nicholas, when the difficulties between Austria and Prussia respecting
the affairs of Hesse-Cassel were arranged.

=Olot.= A town of Spain, in the province of Gerona, 85 miles from
Barcelona. It figured and suffered much in the war of independence,
being a strong point, and passed alternately into the hands of French
and Spaniards, until the latter dismantled the fortifications. In the
civil war of 1856 and 1857 it was much coveted and frequently attacked
by the Carlists, but unsuccessfully.

=Oltenitza.= A fortified village of Turkey in Europe, in Wallachia,
situated on the Danube, 2 miles north from Turtukai. A Turkish force
having crossed the Danube under Omar Pasha, established themselves at
Oltenitza in spite of the vigorous attacks of the Russians, who were
repulsed with loss November 2-3, 1853. On November 4, a desperate
attempt to dislodge the Turks by Gen. Danneberg with 9000 men, was
defeated with great loss.

=Olympic Games.= Were instituted by Hercules A.M. 2856, in honor of
Jupiter Olympus, at Olympia, a city of Elis, in Peloponnesus. They were
celebrated about every four years, about the summer solstice. The design
of them was to accustom the young military men to running, leaping, and
every other military exercise.

=Olynthus.= A town of Chalcidice, stood at the head of the Toronaic
Gulf, between the headlands of Sithonia and Pallene, about 60 stadia
from Potidæa. During the second Persian invasion of Greece, Artabazus,
the general of Xerxes, captured the town, slaughtered its Bottiæan
inhabitants, and gave it to the Chalcidians. It was subdued in war by
Sparta in 382-379 B.C. It resisted Philip of Macedon 350 B.C., by whom
it was destroyed in 347.

=Omagh= (Irish, _Oigh magh_, “seat of the chiefs”). An ancient town,
capital of the county of Tyrone, in Ireland, 34 miles south from
Londonderry. Omagh grew up around an abbey founded in the year 792, but
is first heard of as a fortress of Art O’Nial in the end of the 15th
century, about which time it was forced to surrender to the English,
although its possession long continued to alternate between Irish and
English hands. It formed part of James I.’s “Plantation grants,” and was
strongly garrisoned by Mountjoy. On its being evacuated by the troops of
James II. in 1689, it was partially burned.

=Omaha Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Dakota stock, who, to the
number of 1000, inhabit a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally
peaceful and industrious.

=Omer, St.= A fortified town of France, in the department of
Pas-de-Calais, 24 miles southeast from Calais. This place was taken by
Louis XIV. in 1677. It suffered severely during the revolution of 1830.

=Omra=, or =Omhra= (plural of _ameer_, a “lord”) Ind. They were persons
of considerable consequence in the dominions of the Great Mogul. Some of
them had command of 1000 horse, others of 2000, and so on to 20,000;
their pay being regulated according to their commands. The governors and
great officers of state were generally chosen out of this body.

=On.= A preposition frequently used in military exercise. It precedes
the word of command which directs the change or formation of bodies of
men upon points that are fixed; as, form on the centre company.

=On the Alert.= In a state of vigilance or activity.

=Onagre= (_Fr._). A warlike machine, which was used by the ancients to
throw stones of different sizes. It is mentioned by Vegetius.

=Oneidas.= A tribe of Indians forming one of the Five Nations of the
Iroquois Confederacy, who resided in the county and near the lake which
bears their name. They were continually at war with the early French
settlers in Canada, and took sides with the colonists against the
British in the war of the Revolution. For this they suffered severely.
Their castle, church, and villages were destroyed by the Tories in 1780,
and they were compelled to flee to the white settlements for protection.
In 1788 they ceded most of their lands to the State and moved to Canada;
subsequently some of the tribe settled in Wisconsin, where they are
still comfortably located on a reservation; and a remnant still resides
near Rome, Oneida Co., N. Y. They are well advanced in the arts of
civilization, and, contrary to the usual fate of Indian tribes, have
increased in numbers.

=Onein.= An offensive weapon of mediæval times, consisting of a staff
with a hooked iron head.

=Onondagas.= One of the confederate tribes of Indians known as the Five
Nations. They resided in the State of New York, in the county which
bears their name. They were long the enemies of the Canadian French,
with whom, and with the Hurons, they were continually at war. They were
allies of the English in the French war, 1756-63, fought against the
colonists in the Revolutionary war, and suffered severely in the
contest. In 1788 they ceded their lands to the State and moved to
Ontario, Canada, where about 400 of them now reside.

=Onset.= A rushing or setting upon; a violent attack; assault; a
storming; especially the assault of an army or body of troops upon an
enemy or a fort.

=Onsetting.= A rushing upon or assaulting.

=Onslaught.= Attack; onset; aggression; assault. “By storm and onslaught
to proceed.”

=Onward.= Toward the point before or in front; forward; as, to move
onward.

=Oodeypoor=, or =Mewar=. A Rajpoot state in India. It became tributary
to the British government by the treaty of 1818. A corps of Bheels was
raised in 1841 at the joint expense of the British and Oodeypoor
governments, in order to reduce to subjection the Bheel districts of the
country.

=Oojein=, or =Oojain=. A city of India, in the territory of Gwalior, 152
miles southwest from Goonah. It fell into the power of the Mohammedans
in 1310. At this time it was the capital of Malwa; and along with this
country it afterwards came under the power of the Patans, but was
recovered by Akbar in 1561. In the middle of the 18th century it was
conquered by the Mahrattas.

=Opatas=, or =Yakis=. An Indian people who reside in the state of
Sonora, Mexico. They number about 25,000, and are generally peaceable
and industrious.

=Open.= In military movements and dispositions, this term is frequently
used in contradistinction to _close_; as, open column, open distance,
open order, etc. It also constitutes part of a word of command; as, rear
rank take open order. By _open distance in column_ is meant that the
intervals are always equal in depth to the extent in front of the
different component parts of the column.

=Open Flank.= In fortification, is that part of the flank which is
covered by the orillon.

=Opening of Trenches.= Is the first breaking of ground by the besiegers,
in order to carry on their approaches towards the place.

=Operations, Lines of.= See LINES OF OPERATIONS.

=Operations, Military.= Consist in the resolute application of
preconcerted measures in secrecy, dispatch, regular movements,
occasional encampments, and desultory combats or pitched battles.

=Opinion.= In military proceedings that regard the interior government
of an army, this word signifies decision, determination, judgment formed
upon matters that have been laid before a court-martial or court of
inquiry.

=Opinion.= Officers on courts-martial give their opinion by seniority,
beginning with the youngest in rank.

=Oporto.= A city of Portugal, in the province of Entre-Douro-e-Minho,
about 2 miles from the mouth of the Douro, and 175 miles north from
Lisbon. It was attacked by the Moors under Abderrahman in 820. In 1092
certain knights of Gascony, commanded by Don Alfonso Fredrico, captured
it from the Moors. It was famous for the strength of its fortifications
during the Middle Ages, its walls being 3000 paces in circumference, 30
feet in height, and flanked with towers. From the 17th to the present
century, Oporto has been the scene of an unusual number of popular
insurrections. In 1808 it was taken by the French. The French, under
Marshal Soult, were surprised here by Lord Wellington, and defeated in
an action fought May 11, 1809. It was besieged in 1832 and 1833 by Dom
Miguel, and successfully defended by Dom Pedro with 7500 men. In this
siege, the city suffered severely, and more than 16,000 of the
inhabitants were killed. It has since been the scene of civil war. The
insurgents entered Oporto January 7, 1847; a Spanish force entered
Oporto, and the Junto capitulated, June 26, 1847.

=Oppenheim.= A town of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left
bank of the Rhine, 10 miles southeast of Mayence. It occupies the site
of the Roman castle of _Bauconia_, and was made a royal palatinate under
the Carlovingians. It afterwards became one of the most important free
towns of the empire. It was taken in 1218 by Adalbert, archbishop of
Mayence, in 1620 by the Spaniards, in 1631 by the Swedes under Gustavus
Adolphus, and in 1634 by the Imperialists, suffering much upon all these
occasions. In 1689 the French under Melac almost entirely destroyed it.

=Opponent.= One who oppones, or opposes; an adversary; an antagonist; a
foe.

=Oppose.= To act as an adversary against another; to resist, etc. It
likewise signifies to place as an obstacle.

=Oppugn.= To fight against, whether in attack, resistance, or simple
opposition; to attack; to oppose; to resist.

=Oppugnant.= Tending to awaken hostility; hostile; opposing.

=Or.= In heraldry the metal gold, represented in heraldic engravings by
an unlimited number of dots.

=Oran.= A seaport town of Algeria, about 220 miles west-southwest of
Algiers; it is defended by strongly armed forts. The town of Oran was
built by the Moors. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1509, by the Turks
in 1708, and again by the Spaniards in 1732. It was taken by the French
in 1831, and has since remained in their hands.

=Orb.= In tactics, is the disposing of a number of soldiers in circular
form of defense. The orb has been thought of consequence enough to
employ the attention of the famous Marshal de Puysegur, in his “Art of
War,” who prefers this position to throw a body of infantry in an open
country to resist cavalry, or even a superior force of infantry; because
it is regular, and equally strong, and gives an enemy no reason to
expect better success by attacking one place than another. Cæsar drew up
his whole army in this form when he fought against Labienus. The whole
army of the Gauls was formed into an orb, under the command of Sabinus
and Cotta, when fighting against the Romans. The orb was generally
formed six deep.

=Orchomenus.= A city of Bœotia, and the capital of the powerful tribe of
the Minyæ, was situated near the western shore of Lake Copaic, on a hill
which overlooked the windings of the Cephissus. Its original inhabitants
are said to have been Thessalian emigrants, and its name was derived
from Orchomenus, one of the kings of the Minyans. Homer compares its
treasures to those of Egyptian Thebes, and tells us that it sent 30
ships to the Trojan war. Some time after this event it became a member
of the Bœotian confederacy. During the Persian war, like the other towns
of Bœotia, it abandoned the national cause. Its government was
thoroughly aristocratic, and after the Peloponnesian war, when Thebes
became a democracy, Orchomenus took part with Sparta, and shared in its
first triumph over Thebes; but the victory of Epaminondas at Leuctra
(371 B.C.) placed it at the mercy of the Thebans, who soon after
destroyed it by fire, and sold its inhabitants as slaves. It was again
rebuilt during the Phocian war, but was a second time destroyed in the
reign of Philip of Macedon, who, however, once more rebuilt it; but it
never again became prominent in history. The site is now occupied by the
modern village of Skripú.

=Orchomenus.= An ancient city of Arcadia, stood in a plain surrounded by
hills, which separated its territory from that of Mantinea on the south
and those of Pheneus and Stymphalus on the north. Its founder is said to
have been Orchumenus, the son of Lycaon, and several of its kings are
said to have spread their rule over all Arcadia. During the
Peloponnesian war, when its acropolis had fallen into ruins, and its
last king, Pisistratus, had been murdered by an oligarchical faction,
Orchomenus began to decline. About 367 B.C. three of its tributary towns
were depopulated to furnish inhabitants to the newly-founded city of
Megalopolis; in 313 B.C. it was taken by the Macedonian general
Cassander; and ever afterwards it continued to be bandied about between
different belligerent powers. At the time of Pausanias it was still
inhabited, and at the present day its ruins are seen near the village of
Kalpáki.

=Order.= This term, considered in its relation to the army, embraces
divers subjects. It gives an idea of harmony in the accomplishment of
duties; a classification of corps or men; injunctions emanating from
authority; measures which regulate service, and many tactical details.
In tactics, the natural order is when troops coming upon ordinary ground
are ranged in line of battle by the prescribed tactical means, and when
they are formed in column, right in front. The _oblique order_ is
contradistinguished from the parallel, and in general means every
tactical combination, the aim of which is to produce an effect upon two
points of an enemy’s line by bringing a superior force to bear down on
these two points. Such combinations constitute the _oblique order_,
whatever manœuvres may be used to accomplish the object. The _parallel
order_ operates, on the contrary, against the whole front of an enemy.
Turenne and Condé fought habitually in parallel order, although they
sometimes made a skillful use of oblique attacks. Guibert well says that
a contiguous and regular parallel order can be of no use in war.

=Order Arms.= A word of command directing that the musket be brought
down to the right side of the soldier, the butt resting on the ground.

=Order, Beating.= In the British service, is an authority given to an
individual empowering him to raise men by beat of drum for any
particular regiment, or for general service. It consists of a warrant
which is signed by the secretary at war, or issued in his name by the
adjutant-general.

=Order Book.= Every company in the service has such a book, in which
orders are written for the information of officers and men. Order books
are also kept at all military headquarters.

=Order, Close.= In tactics, comprehends space of about one-half pace
between ranks.

=Order, Entire.= When applied to rank, means a straight line composed of
half-files.

=Order, Extended.= Is preparatory to rank entire, and is frequently
practiced in light infantry manœuvres. It comprehends the opening of
files of a battalion or company standing two deep, so as to have just
space enough for one man between each two. The battalion or company,
after it has obtained all its relative distances and been halted, is
fronted, and each rear rank man springs into the vacancy when the word
of command is given.

=Order of Alcantara.= A Spanish military order. It was established by
Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Castile, in 1170. The knights wore a
green cross upon their garments. See ALCANTARA.

=Order of Amaranth.= An order of military knighthood, instituted in
Sweden by Queen Christina in 1645, at the close of an annual feast
celebrated in that country, and called _wirtschaft_. Their device was
the cipher of _amarante_, composed of two A’s, the one erect, the other
inverted, and interwoven together; the whole inclosed by a laurel crown,
with the motto, _Dolce nella memoria_.

=Order of Argonauts of St. Nicholas.= Was the name of a military order
instituted by Charles III., king of Naples, in 1382, for the advancement
of navigation, or, as some authors say, merely for preserving amity
among the nobles. They wore a collar of shells inclosed in a silver
crescent, from which hung a ship with the device, _Non credo tempori_.

=Order of Battle.= The arrangement or disposition of the different
component parts of an army in one or more lines, according to the nature
of the ground, for the purpose of engaging an enemy by giving or
receiving an attack, or in order to be reviewed, etc.

=Order of Battle, Concave.= If the attack is made simultaneously on both
wings, and the centre is refused, it is plain that the attacking army
will assume a line of battle which will be concave towards the enemy’s
line.

=Order of Battle, Convex.= If the attack is made in the centre of the
enemy’s line, refusing both wings, the general direction of the line of
battle of the attacking army will be convex towards the enemy’s line,
and the term “_convex order of battle_” is applied to it. Other orders
of battle are named by military writers. Their names will generally
describe the direction of the hostile lines of battle and the particular
formation adopted by the attacking army.

=Order of Battle, Oblique.= An arrangement of an army for battle with
one wing advanced beyond the other, or a movement which brings the line
in contact with an enemy’s flank; in general, any combination which
brings a preponderating force upon any point of the enemy’s line. See
ORDER.

=Order of Calatrava.= See CALATRAVA, ORDER OF.

=Order of Knights of St. Stephen.= Instituted in 1561, by Cosmo, duke of
Florence. They wear a red cross with a border of gold.

=Order of Knights of the Band.= Instituted by Alphonso, king of Spain,
in 1268. Their name proceeded from the knights wearing a red scarf, or
lace of silk, the breadth of 3 inches, which hung on their left
shoulder.

=Order of Knights of the Bath.= A military order in Great Britain,
deriving its name from the ceremony of bathing, which was performed at
the initiation of the knights. The earliest authentic instance of this
ceremony was at the coronation of Henry IV. (1399). The last occasion on
which this ceremony was used was the coronation of Charles II., in 1660,
after which the order fell into oblivion until it was revived by George
I., in 1725. It is now the second in rank among the orders of England,
the order of the Garter being the highest. The order of the Bath
comprises three classes: first class, Knights Grand Cross (K.G.C.), the
number of whom is limited to 50 military men and 25 civilians, besides
the royal family; second class, Knights Commanders (K.C.B.), = 102
military and 50 civil; these and the first have the title of Sir; third
class, Companions (C.B.), = 525 military and 200 civil.

=Order of Knights of the Redemption.= Instituted in the kingdom of
Aragon by King James, who conquered the island of Majorca, in 1212.
Their garments are white, with a black cross thereon.

=Order of Knights Templar.= See TEMPLAR, KNIGHTS.

=Order of Maria Theresa.= This order was instituted in June, 1757, by
the empress queen of Hungary. In 1765 an intermediate class, styled
knights commanders, was added to the two classes that originally
composed the order.

=Order of Merit.= Instituted by Frederick III., king of Prussia, as a
reward to those officers whose behavior deserved some marks of
distinction. The ensign of this order is a golden star of eight rays,
enameled with blue, which is worn appendant to a black ribbon edged with
silver. The motto is _Pour le merite_.

=Order of Mount Carmel.= Instituted by Henry IV. in 1608.

=Order of St. Alexander Newski.= Or the Red Ribbon, which was instituted
by Peter I., emperor of Russia; but the czarina Catherine I. conferred
it in 1725.

=Order of St. Hubert.= See HUBERT, ST., ORDER OF.

=Order of St. James.= See JAMES OF THE SWORD, ST.

=Order of St. Lazarus.= See LAZARUS.

=Order of St. Louis.= See LOUIS.

=Order of St. Mark.= See MARK, ST., KNIGHTS OF.

=Order of St. Michael.= Instituted in 1469 by Louis XII. in honor of the
important services done to France by that archangel at the siege of
Orleans, where he is supposed to have appeared at the head of the French
troops, disputing the passage of a bridge, and to have repulsed the
attack of the English, whose affairs ever after declined in that
kingdom. The order is a rich collar, with the image of that saint
pendent thereto; with the inscription, _Immensi tremor oceani_.

=Order of St. Michael and St. George.= This order of knighthood, founded
for the Ionian Isles and Malta, April 27, 1818, was reorganized in
March, 1869, in order to admit servants of the crown of England
connected with the colonies.

=Order of St. Patrick.= See PATRICK, ST., ORDER OF.

=Order of Teutonic Knights.= Established towards the close of the 12th
century, and thus called, as chiefly consisting of Germans, anciently
called Teutons.

=Order of the Annunciation.= See ANNUNCIADA.

=Order of the Bear.= See BEAR, ORDER OF.

=Order of the Black Eagle.= See EAGLE, BLACK.

=Order of the Crescent.= See CRESCENT.

=Order of the Golden Fleece.= See GOLDEN FLEECE, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the Golden Stole.= A Venetian military order, so called from a
golden stole, which those knights wore over their shoulder, reaching to
the knee both before and behind, a palm and a half broad. None are
raised to this order but patricians, or noble Venetians. It is uncertain
when this order was instituted.

=Order of the Holy Ghost.= See HOLY GHOST, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the Knights of the Garter.= See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the Knights of Malta.= See ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM.

=Order of the Knights of St. Jago.= Instituted by the king Ramico of
Spain, in commemoration of a victory obtained against the Moors, 1030.
Their ensign is a red cross in the form of a sword.

=Order of the Seraphim.= See SERAPHIM, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the Sword.= See SWORD, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the White Eagle.= See WHITE EAGLE, ORDER OF THE.

=Order, Open.= In tactics, comprehends an interval of about 3 yards
between each rank.

=Order, Parade.= When a regiment of horse or foot, a troop, or company,
is drawn up with the ranks open and the officers in front, it is said to
be in _parade order_.

=Orderlies.= Non-commissioned officers and soldiers appointed to wait
upon generals and other officers, to communicate orders and carry
messages.

=Orderlies, Standing.= Are soldiers who permanently perform orderly
duty.

=Orderly Book.= A book for the sergeants to insert the orders which are
issued from time to time.

=Orderly Drum.= The drummer that beats the orders, and gives notice of
the hour for messing, etc., is so called.

=Orderly Officer.= The officer of the day; especially the officer of the
day about an army headquarters in the field.

=Orderly Room.= A room in the barracks, used as the office of a company.

=Orderly Sergeant.= The first sergeant of a company is so called in the
U. S. army.

=Orders.= Are the instructions, injunctions, or commands issued by
superior officers. The orders of commanders of armies, divisions,
brigades, regiments, are denominated orders of such army, division,
etc., and are either general or special. They are numbered, general and
special in separate series, each beginning with the year. In Great
Britain and other European countries, and in the United States, orders
generally take the designation of the headquarters from which they are
issued.

=Orders, General.= Are orders that are issued to announce the hours for
roll-calls and duties; the number and kind of orderlies, and the time
when they shall be relieved; police regulations, and the prohibitions
required by circumstances and localities; returns to be made and their
forms; laws and regulations for the army; promotions and appointments;
eulogies or censures to corps or individuals, and generally, whatever
may be important to make known to the whole command.

=Orders, Military.= Companies of knights, instituted by kings and
princes either for defense of the faith, or to confer marks of honor on
their military subjects. See KNIGHTS, and names of orders under
appropriate headings.

=Orders, Regimental.= Are such orders and instructions as grow out of
general or special orders from superior authority, or proceed
immediately from the commanding officer of a regiment.

=Orders, Special.= Are such as do not concern the troops generally, and
need not be published to the whole command; such as those that relate to
the march of some particular corps, the detaching of individuals, the
granting requests, etc.

=Orders, Standing.= Are certain general rules and instructions, which
are to be invariably followed, and are not subject to the temporary
intervention of rank. Of this description are those orders which the
permanent commander may judge fit to have inserted in the order books,
and which are not to be altered by the temporary commander.

=Ordinaire= (_Fr._). The soldiers’ mess is so called among the French.

=Ordinary of Arms.= In heraldry, an index or dictionary of armorial
coats, arranged, not according to names, like an armory, but according
to the leading charges in the respective shields, so as to enable any
one conversant with heraldic language, on seeing a shield of arms, to
tell to whom it belonged.

=Ordinary Time.= In the U. S. army is quick time, which is 110 steps, or
86 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour.

=Ordnance.= A general name for all kinds of weapons employed in war, and
the appliances necessary for their use. Under the general term ordnance
and ordnance stores are included all guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets,
and projectiles of every description, the explosives used in warfare,
all gun-carriages, limbers, caissons, mortar-beds, battery-wagons, and
traveling-forges with their equipments, and all other apparatus and
machines required for the service and manœuvres of artillery at sieges
or in the field; together with the materials for their construction,
preservation, and repair. Also all small-arms, side-arms, and
accoutrements for artillery, cavalry, and infantry, all ammunition for
cannon and small-arms; and all stores of expenditures for the service of
the various arms, materials for the construction and repair of ordnance
buildings, utensils and stores for laboratories, including standing
weights, gauges, and measures, and all other tools and utensils required
for the performance of ordnance duty. Harness and horse equipments are
also furnished by the ordnance department. This general application of
the word is not the purport of the present article; it is its special
signification as used by the artillery with which we have to do.
Technically speaking, ordnance is a term applied to all heavy fire-arms
which are discharged from carriages.

_History._--Although the battering-rams and the engines for projecting
missiles employed by the ancients and during the Middle Ages are
regarded as artillery, yet the military weapons in use before the
invention of fire-arms cannot fairly come under this designation. At
what exact date cannon were first used is not known, but guns called
“Crakys of War” were employed by Edward III. against the Scots in 1327,
by the French at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and by Edward III.
at Crécy, and at Calais in 1346. The first cannon, or _bombards_, were
clumsy, wider at the mouth than at the chamber, and made of iron bars
hooped together with iron rings. Ancient cannon were also made of wood
wound with rope or wire, and in some instances were even occasionally
constructed of leather. The balls fired from these bombards were first
made of stone, which was afterwards superseded by iron. In the 15th
century various kinds were known by the names of cannon, bombards,
culverins, serpentines, etc. Bombards of great length and power were
employed by Louis XI. during his Flemish campaign in 1477, some with
stone balls and some with iron. About this time cannon began to be made
of cast iron instead of hooped bars; and bronze or brass as material
began to be used as well as iron, and projectiles were also made of cast
iron instead of stone. The introduction of cast-iron projectiles led to
the invention of _culverins_, which corresponded very nearly in
construction and appearance to the guns of the present day; these were
in some instances made of enormous lengths from the erroneous idea that
the range increased with the length of the piece. A remarkable gun of
this description still exists at Dover, England, familiarly known as
“Queen Anne’s pocket-piece;” while it carries a ball weighing only 18
pounds, it is more than 28 feet in length. From the earliest days of
artillery there existed short-chambered pieces, which projected stone
balls under great angles of elevation; and in 1478 hollow projectiles
filled with powder began to be employed; but it is probable that the
accidents which accompanied their use caused them to be abandoned for
the time. In 1634, however, this difficulty was overcome, and these
pieces were introduced into the French service, forming the class of
cannon now known as mortars. Early attempts were also made to throw
hollow projectiles from culverins and other long guns, but great
difficulties were experienced in loading them, and the accidents to
which they were liable caused them to be abandoned. Subsequently,
however, the Dutch artillerists reduced their length so that the
projectile could be inserted in its place by hand, and thus improved
these cannon rapidly came into use under the name of howitzers, from the
German _Haubitz_. A short cannon of large caliber for naval service was
invented by Mr. Gascoigne in 1799, and called a _carronade_, after the
Carron Iron-Works, Scotland, where it was first made. It was not for
many years after hollow projectiles had been used that it was
accidentally discovered that the firing of the gun-charge could be
relied upon to light the fuze. Prior to this a long fuze lighted from
the outside had been used. The difficulties and danger incurred in
loading long guns with hollow projectiles delayed their application to
shell-firing, and it was not until 1812 that they were used for firing
both solid shot and shell at low angles. In this year a gun of this
class, which was invented by Col. Bomford, Chief of Ordnance, U.S.A.,
was adopted by the United States, and a number of these guns were used
in the war with England, 1812-15. About 1814 this invention of Col.
Bomford’s was improved upon by himself, and the gun thus improved was
called a _columbiad_. The columbiad gave way about 1859 to the gun
invented by Gen. Rodman. (See RODMAN GUN.) The dimensions of the
columbiads were first taken to Europe by a young French officer, and
thus fell into the hands of Gen. Paixhans, who introduced them, with
certain modifications, into the French service about 1822. They were by
this means first made known to the rest of Europe by the name of
_Paixhan gun_, and small calibers were afterwards used in the U. S.
service under that name. Cannon up to this time were constructed on the
smooth-bore principle; the rifle principle, although employed by the
Russians in 1615, by the Prussians in 1661, and by the Germans in 1696,
had not been brought into general use on account of its imperfectness.
From 1696 to 1833 many attempts were made to rifle cannon with more or
less success; but although the firing of smooth-bore guns was as
aberrant as that of smooth-bore muskets, and from greater range even
more so, yet, since the gunners were safe from musketry fire at 200
yards, and the cannon could be directed against masses of men with
tolerable certainty up to three times that distance, there was no
special inducement to improve their powers. But the introduction of
rifled small-arms changed the relative advantages; for a rifled
small-arm might pick off the gunners of a smooth-bore cannon before
their weapon could come into effective play. The Crimean war set
inventors vigorously to work, and many admirable guns have resulted from
their attempts, the great difficulty of the day being to decide which is
most effective. Rifled guns have nearly superseded smooth-bored cannon,
except in the United States, which still gives the preference to the
latter.

=Ordnance, Modern, History of.= Heavy modern ordnance dates properly
from the casting of the great Rodman smooth-bores in the United States.
To the impetus thus given may be ascribed the origin of the powerful
guns of the present day. In Rodman’s study of gunpowder and the
improvements introduced by him lay the germ of all subsequent progress
in ordnance. His most important invention, _perforated cake powder_, was
transplanted bodily to the continent of Europe, where, under the name of
_prismatic powder_, it has been used ever since. So perfect is the
theory of this powder that invention and science toiling over the
subject for twenty years has produced nothing better. Since the first
half of the decade--1860-70--the United States has fallen behind the
nations of Europe in the power of her armament. Having been committed by
her two great inventors, Rodman and Dahlgren, to cast-iron smooth-bores,
which were fabricated in great numbers, her attitude has been that of
Micawber,--waiting for something to turn up. England occupies the other
extreme,--of all the powers she has ventured the greatest sums upon the
theories of her gun-makers. Her private manufacturers have received such
encouragement at home or abroad that they are now able to supply the
whole world. Their only great rival on the continent is Krupp, who finds
his market principally in Germany, Russia, and Turkey.

The early adoption of the rifle principle by all European powers placed
them at once on a plane of advancement. The vexed questions of breech-
and muzzle-loading and of gun construction have been decided by each
nation in the manner most satisfactory to itself. Opinions differ
widely, and it is probable that many changes may be made in these
matters. Still, they all possess powerful guns which have certain
features in common, essential to heavy ordnance in the present stage of
its development. Large-grained powder, the first of these requisites,
is universally used (for varieties, see GUNPOWDER). Great length of
bore, to utilize the whole force of the powder, is another
characteristic. Great power is secured by immense charges of powder and
weight of shot. A caliber of at least 12 inches, giving an oblong shot
of about 700 pounds, seems to be regarded as a _sine qua non_ for all
armaments. (See CANNON, ORDNANCE, GREAT BRITAIN, RUSSIA, FRANCE, etc.)
England has taken the lead in all these improvements, and though it
would appear from recent events that her choice of gun systems is
unfortunate, there is no question that all great advances since Rodman’s
day have been based upon her expensive experiments. The work of the
celebrated “Committee on Explosives,” 1875, of which Col. Younghusband
and Capt. Noble (now a member of Sir Wm. Armstrong’s firm) were members,
did more to this end than any other investigation since Rodman’s
experiments in gunpowder. Acting upon the obvious idea that the peril to
the life of the gun is relieved by air-space, the committee recommended
the enlargement of the bore at the seat of the charge, or the use of a
chamber larger than the bore. This simple expedient led at once to an
immense increase in the power of guns while the pressure endangering
them was kept at a point lower than before. Every good thing can be
pushed too far. The immense charges made possible by the English chamber
have been continually added to by the Italians in their 100-ton
Armstrong monsters and the vital air-space reduced till a charge of 552
pounds of powder has recently (1880) burst one of these magnificent
guns.

_Nomenclature of Ordnance._--For component parts of cannon and their
description, see CASCABEL, BASE OF THE BREECH, BASE-LINE, BASE-RING,
BREECH, CHASE, ASTRAGAL AND FILLETS, NECK, SWELL OF THE MUZZLE, FACE,
TRUNNIONS, RIMBASES, BORE, and REINFORCE. For recent modifications in
the external form of cannon, see ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

UNITED STATES.--_Smooth-bored._--The official system for the land
service comprises the following smooth-bored cannon: The Napoleon gun
for field service (see NAPOLEON GUN) and the mountain howitzer for
mountain and prairie service. (See HOWITZER.) For siege purposes, the
8-inch howitzer, 8- and 10-inch and 24-pounder Coehorn mortars,--and for
sea-coast defense, 13-, 15-, and 20-inch (Rodman) and 10-, 13- and
15-inch mortars. No 15-inch mortars have been yet cast. The 24-pounder
flank defense howitzer, as well as the 8- and 10-inch smooth-bored
Rodman and the 10-inch sea-coast mortar, no longer belong to the system,
and are no more to be cast. The 13-inch smooth-bore is an experimental
gun, not more than two or three of which have been cast. The
smooth-bored gun principally used in the naval service is the Dahlgren.
(See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) The carronade is now little employed.

_Rifled Cannon._--The rifled cannon adopted for the land service of the
United States at the present time (1880) are, for the field service a 3-
and 3¹⁄₂-inch rifle, having the exterior shape of Rodman guns, but made
of wrought iron,--the former adopted in 1861; the 3¹⁄₂-inch gun has
never been made--the model was adopted in 1870,--and three mitrailleurs,
viz., 1-inch and ¹⁄₂-inch (Gatling), adopted in 1868, and a .45-inch
Gatling, adopted in 1874, intended to replace the ¹⁄₂-inch, and to use
the service cartridge of the rifle musket. In the siege service there is
but one rifle gun properly belonging to the system of the United States,
viz., 4¹⁄₂-inch, of casting, having the Rodman shape, but cast solid.
The 30-pounder (4.2-inch) Parrott so extensively used is not a
regulation gun. (See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) The weight of the
4¹⁄₂-inch is 3570 pounds. It has an extreme length of 133 inches. The
twist is uniform, and the weight of the solid projectile 32¹⁄₂ pounds,
and of the charge 3¹⁄₄ pounds. The piece is loaded at the muzzle. The
rifled sea-coast guns belonging to the system are a 10- and 12-inch,
made of cast iron, and weighing 40,681 and 52,000 pounds respectively.
The extreme length of the 10-inch is 180, and of the 12-inch 192 inches;
the weight of the solid shot, 292 and 620 pounds respectively; the twist
in each is uniform, and both are muzzle-loaders. Such is the official
system of the United States. All the large guns are cast iron and are
now useless as an armament to cope with modern armed ironclads. We have,
however, a number of experimental guns, the models of which must be our
immediate reliance in case of foreign war. In making these experimental
rifles it has been held in view to utilize as far as possible the
cast-iron ordnance now on hand. They are all made of cast-iron cases
fitted with internal tubes of wrought iron (steel has also been used)
after the plans of Parsons and Palliser. (See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION
OF.) The 12¹⁄₄-inch rifle, muzzle-loader, is an original construction,
the case required being larger than the 15-inch smooth-bored. The weight
of gun is 40 tons; charge, 110 pounds _hexagonal powder_; shot, 700
pounds. The others are converted guns,--the 10-inch rifle,
muzzle-loader, converted from 13-inch smooth-bore by inserting
wrought-iron tube; two patterns of 8-inch rifle, breech- and
muzzle-loaders, converted from 10-inch smooth-bores by muzzle and breech
insertion of tubes. Quite a number of the muzzle-loaders have been made
and mounted. A similar gun has been made for the naval service by
converting the 11-inch Dahlgren. Parrott 100-pounders have also been
converted into 6.4-inch breech-loaders for the navy.

Although the Parrott gun does not belong to the system adopted by the
United States, it has been much employed for both siege and sea-coast
purposes, almost to the exclusion of other rifled cannon. They are also
very generally used in the naval service. There are eight of these guns
employed in the service of the United States, viz.: a 300-pounder
(10-inch), 200-pounder (8-inch), and 100-pounder (6.4-inch), in use by
both land and naval forces; a 60-pounder (5.3-inch) and 30-pounder
(4.2-inch), used exclusively by the navy, and a 30-pounder (4.2-inch),
20-pounder (3.67-inch), and 10-pounder (3-inch), employed exclusively by
the land forces. The Parrott cannon are all muzzle-loading and made of
cast iron, reinforced with a wrought-iron jacket. See ORDNANCE,
CONSTRUCTION OF.

GREAT BRITAIN.--The cannon employed in the British service are all
rifled, and nearly all muzzle-loaders.

_Royal Arsenal, Woolwich._--The guns belonging to the British system,
and made at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, are: for land service, an
11-inch gun, wrought iron, muzzle-loading, weighing 25 tons; two 7-inch,
weighing 7 tons, and differing slightly in length and details of
construction; a 16-pounder (3.6-inch), weighing 12 cwt.; and a 9-pounder
(3-inch), weighing 8 cwt. These guns are all made of wrought iron. There
are also an 8-inch howitzer weighing 46 cwt., also of wrought iron, and
two converted guns, viz., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from
32-pounder, and an 80-pounder converted from 68-pounder smooth-bore.
Both of these guns are of cast iron, with wrought-iron tubes, and were
converted according to the Palliser method. For the Woolwich 38-ton gun,
see ARMSTRONG CANNON. For sea service exclusively, there are made at the
Woolwich Arsenal a 12-inch, weighing 35 tons; two 8-inch, weighing 9
tons respectively, of the same length, one having no preponderance, and
differing in other details of their construction; two 7-inch, weighing
6.5 tons respectively, differing slightly in length and details; a
7-inch, weighing 4.5 tons; and 9-pounder (3-inch), weighing 6 cwt. These
guns are all made of wrought iron, and are muzzle-loading. For both land
and sea service, there are made at the Royal Arsenal a 12-inch, weighing
25 tons; a 10-inch, weighing 18 tons; two 9-inch, one of which has no
preponderance, the other a preponderance of 5 cwt.; three 64-pounders
(6.3-inch), each weighing 64 cwt., but differing in length and
construction. These guns are all made of wrought iron; for both services
is used a 64-pounder (6.29 inch), converted from 8-inch smooth-bored
according to the Palliser method. There are besides two bronze guns, one
called the “boat gun,” a 7-pounder (3-inch) weighing 200 pounds; the
other a 9-pounder (3-inch), used in the Indian service, and weighing 8
cwt.; also a 7-pounder (3-inch) mountain gun of steel, and weighing 150
pounds; these are all muzzle-loaders. The 9-, 10-, 11-, and 12-inch
calibers have all steel tubes; one 7-ton and one 6.5-ton gun have tubes
of wrought iron.

_Armstrong Cannon._--The guns used in the British service made by Sir
William Armstrong are--for the land service--a 12-inch weighing 38 tons
(some of these guns are bored to 12¹⁄₂ inches), an 11-inch weighing 25
tons, a 7-inch weighing 7 tons, a 40-pounder (4.75-inch) weighing 35
cwt., a 25-pounder (4-inch), and a 16-pounder (3.6 inch) weighing 18 and
12 cwt. respectively, a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing 6 cwt., a 10-inch
weighing 6 tons, having no preponderance. These guns are all of wrought
iron and muzzle-loading. There are also used in the land service, and of
the same make, a 7-pounder (3-inch) muzzle-loading steel gun weighing
150 pounds, an 8-inch muzzle-loading howitzer made of wrought iron and
weighing 46 cwt., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 32-pounder,
and an 80-pounder (6.29-inch) converted by Palliser method from
68-pounder muzzle-loading, made of cast iron with wrought-iron tubes.
The other guns manufactured by Sir William Armstrong, and used in the
land service, are all breech-loading, viz.: a 7-inch (screw) weighing 72
cwt., a 20-pounder (3.75-inch screw) weighing 16 cwt., a 64-pounder
(6.4-inch wedge) weighing 64 cwt., and a Gatling gun (0.45) weighing 3
cwt. 84 pounds. The guns used in the sea service of this make are a
12-inch weighing 35 tons, an 8-inch weighing 9 tons, two 7-inch weighing
6 tons 10 cwt. and 90 cwt. respectively, and a 9-pounder (3-inch)
weighing 6 cwt. These are all muzzle-loading, and made of wrought iron.
There is another muzzle loading gun used for sea service, viz., a
64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 8-inch, and weighing 71 cwt.; this
gun is of cast iron with a wrought iron tube. The breech-loaders used
for sea service are two 20-pounders (3.75-inch screw) weighing 15 and 13
cwt. respectively, 40-pounder (4.75-inch) wedge weighing 32 cwt., and a
Gatling gun (0.65-inch) weighing 7 cwt. 35 pounds; these guns are all of
wrought iron. For land and sea service are constructed a 12-inch
weighing 25 tons, a 10- and 9-inch weighing 18 and 12 tons respectively,
a 64-pounder (6.3-inch) weighing 64 cwt., a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing
8 cwt., a 7-pounder (3-inch) weighing 200 pounds, and made of steel; the
others are of wrought iron, and all are muzzle-loading. The
breech-loading guns of this manufacture used in both land and sea
service are a 7-inch (screw) weighing 82 cwt., two 40-pounders
(4.75-inch) screw weighing 35 and 32 cwt., respectively, a 12-pounder
(3-inch), 9-pounder (3-inch), and 6-pounder (2.5-inch) screw weighing 8,
6, and 3 cwt. respectively. They are all made of wrought iron. See
ARMSTRONG GUN.

GERMANY.--In Germany the Krupp gun is almost entirely employed; they are
all breech-loading and constructed of steel. (For particular
construction, see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) Those used in the German
land service are a 28-centimetre howitzer weighing 9.82 tons, caliber
in inches 11.023, a long 21-centimetre weighing 9.84 tons, caliber 8.241
inches, a short 21-centimetre weighing 8.84, caliber 8.241 inches, a
short 15-centimetre weighing 2.9 tons, caliber 5.869 inches, a 12-, 9-,
8-, and 6-centimetre, whose calibers are 4.735, 3.602, 3.090, and 2.362
inches, and whose weights are 1.37 tons, and 935, 649, and 235 pounds
respectively. In the sea service are used a 30¹⁄₂-centimetre weighing
35.3 tons, caliber 12.007 inches, a short 26-centimetre weighing 17.67
tons, caliber 10.236 inches, a long 24-centimetre weighing 14.38 tons,
caliber 9.267 inches, and a short 24-centimetre. For both land and sea
service are employed a long 17-centimetre weighing 5.5 tons, caliber
6.771 inches, a short 17-centimetre, a long 15-centimetre weighing 3.03
tons, caliber 5.869 inches, and a long 15-centimetre weighing 3.09 tons.

FRANCE.--The guns adopted in the French service are both breech- and
muzzle-loading, and are, for the land service, a siege-gun, 24-pounder
rifled breech-loading, weighing 40.55 tons, caliber 6.01 inches, for
fortress guns a 24- and 12-pounder rifled muzzle-loading, weighing 5953
and 3307 pounds, and having calibers of 6.01 and 4.77 inches
respectively. For siege-guns a 24- and 12-pounder rifled weighing 4409
and 1940 pounds, whose respective calibers are 6.01 and 4.77 inches and
muzzle-loading. For field artillery a 12-, 8-, and 4-pounder rifled,
weighing respectively 1367, 1234.6, and 727.55 pounds, and whose
calibers are 4.77, 4.17, and 3.40 inches respectively, all
muzzle-loading. There is also a 4-pounder rifled muzzle-loading mountain
piece weighing 220.5 pounds, whose caliber is 3.40 inches. In the
sea-coast service there are a 30-pounder (muzzle-loader) not hooped,
weighing 61 cwt., caliber 6.48 inches, a 30-pounder (muzzle-loader or
breech-loader) hooped, weighing 70.86 cwt., caliber 5.46 inches, a
howitzer 22-centimetre rifled and hooped, caliber 8.66 inches. In the
French sea-service are a 32-centimetre weighing 34.5 tons, caliber
12.599 inches, and a 27-centimetre weighing 21.7 tons, caliber 10.803
inches. Both of these guns are breech-loading. For both land and sea
service are used a 24-centimetre weighing 13.8 tons, caliber 9.499
inches, a 19-centimetre weighing 7.9 tons, caliber 7.638 inches, a
16-centimetre weighing 98.42 cwt., caliber 6.484 inches, a 14-centimetre
weighing 52.26 cwt., caliber 5.456 inches. The guns used for sea service
only, or for both land and sea service, are all made of cast iron, tubed
with steel nearly to the trunnions, and strengthened near the breech by
steel rings heated and shrunk on. The fortress guns, most of the siege,
and all the field-guns are made of bronze. The large breech-loaders use
the solid breech-screw _fermeture_. The term “pounder” as applied to
certain guns has no reference to the weight of the oblong projectile
used, but to the weight of the corresponding spherical solid shot.

RUSSIA.--In the Russian service the Krupp gun is rapidly taking the
place of all others; there are, however, still used for sea service, a
12-inch and 6-inch breech-loader weighing 40 tons and 3.92 tons
respectively; also a 12.2-pounder boat-gun weighing 792 pounds, and for
both land and sea service an 8-inch breech-loader weighing 8.754 tons,
and an 8-inch breech-loading mortar, weighing 3.21 tons. These guns are
all made of steel.

=Ordnance, Ammunition for.= For convenience in loading and safety in
transportation, cannon ammunition is prepared in a peculiar manner and
with great care. The ammunition so prepared is classified into field and
mountain, siege and sea-coast ammunition.

_Ammunition for Field Service_ is composed of solid shot, shells,
spherical case-shot, and canister-shot (see headings). In mountain
service solid shot are omitted. A stand of ammunition is composed of the
projectile, sabot, straps, cartridge-bag, cylinder, and cap. The
projectile is secured by two tin straps, fastened at the ends with tacks
driven into the sabot. The straps cross each other at right angles; for
solid shot, one strap passing through a slit in the other; for hollow
projectiles, both straps are fastened to a tin ring which surrounds the
fuze-hole. A round of canister for the field service consists of a tin
cylinder filled with cast-iron shot, which slips over the end of the
sabot, to which it is secured with small nails. The materials of which
cartridge-bags are made are flannel, wildbore, or serge; the fabric
should be soft and closely woven, to prevent the powder sifting out.
Fabrics of cotton and flax are not used, because the powder sifts
through them, and they are more apt to leave fire in the gun than woolen
stuffs. A cartridge-bag for the field service is made of two pieces,--a
rectangular piece for the sides, and a circular piece for the bottom.
The charge is determined by measurement. The cylinder and cap are made
of stout paper. The cylinder is used to give stiffness to the cartridge
at the junction of the sabot and bag; the cap covers the exposed portion
of the bag, is drawn off before loading, and placed over the projectile,
or thrown away. The cartridge-bag is attached to the projectile by tying
it around the grooves of the sabot with twine.

_Fixed Ammunition._--Ammunition thus prepared is called fixed
ammunition. It is used in the field and mountain service for smooth-bore
guns and howitzers. For rifled guns the bag and projectile are carried
separately. The term _strapped ammunition_ is applied when the
projectile is attached to a sabot without grooves; and to give a proper
form to the cartridge-bag, the mouth is closed with a cartridge-block,
which resembles a sabot; hence the name strapped ammunition. This kind
of cartridge is nearly obsolete.

_Packing, etc._--As soon as ammunition is finished it should be gauged,
to see that it is of the proper caliber; it is afterwards packed in
boxes containing 10 rounds each.

_Siege and Sea-coast Ammunition._--On account of the great weight of
siege and sea-coast ammunition, the cartridge-bag and projectile are
carried separately. The cartridge-bags for large charges of powder are
made of two pieces of woolen stuff, or of a paper tube with a woolen
cloth bottom. The former are preferred for rapid firing. For sea-coast
howitzers the bag should fill the chamber; if the piece be fired with a
reduced charge, a cartridge-block should be inserted into the bag to
give it proper size. For mortars the bag is only used to carry the
powder, and when the piece is loaded, the powder is poured into the
chamber; bags of any suitable size will answer for this service. For
hot-shot cartridges bags are made double, by putting one bag within
another. Care should be taken to see that the bags are free from holes.
For ricochet firing, or other occasions when very small charges are
required, a cartridge-bag of inferior caliber may be used. In the siege
and sea-coast services, solid shot are transported and loaded loosely,
but hollow projectiles are strapped to sabots, to prevent the fuze from
coming in contact with the powder of the charge. The sabots are made
from thick plank, and the straps are fastened as in the field service.

=Ordnance, Carriages for.= The carriages for cannon may be classified
from their use into field, mountain, prairie, and sea-coast carriages,
and mortar-beds. (See particular headings.) They may be further divided
into those required for the immediate service and transportation of
cannon, as gun-carriages and mortar-beds, and those employed for the
transportation of ammunition, implements and materials for repairs, as
caissons, mortar-wagons, forges, and battery-wagons. The field-,
mountain-, prairie-, and siege-carriages being required for the
transportation of their pieces are similar in their construction; those
for sea-coast purposes differ materially from the others.

_Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage._--The principal parts of the
field-carriage and of all artillery carriages, other than the sea-coast,
are: stock, of squared wood in two pieces, which serves to connect the
gun-carriage with the limber, and to direct the piece; it includes the
head, to which the sponge-bucket ring is attached; groove, trail, or
curved part of the stock, which rest on the ground when the piece is
unlimbered; rounding of the trail, trail-plate, a piece of iron fastened
to the end of the trail and terminated by a very strong ring, called the
lunette, which receives the pintle-hook by which the limber is attached;
pointing-rings, large and small, which receive the hand-spike;
trail-handles, on each side of the stock for the purpose of raising it;
prolonge-hooks, on which the prolonge is coiled; wheel-guard plates,
lock-chain, used to keep the wheel from turning; it is on the side of
the carriage, and has an eye-plate and bolt; sponge and rammer stop,
sponge-chain and hasp, ear-plate for sponge-chain and hasp; ear-plate to
support worm; key-chain and key; elevating-screw; the latter has a
handle with four prongs; elevating-screw box, elevating-screw bed,
rondelles, which connect cheeks and stock; cheeks, two pieces of wood
between which the gun rests; washer-hooks for handspike, washer-hook for
lock-chain, under-strap, right sponge-hook, sponge and worm-hook,
handspike-rings, trunnion-plates, into the beds or depressions of which
the trunnions fit; cap-squares, cap-square chain, key-chain and key.
Axle, including axle-body, of wood; axle-tree, of iron, axle-arm, the
rounded extremities of the axle-tree on which the wheels revolve;
linch-pin, linch-pin washer and hook. Wheels; each includes nave,
nave-bands, nave-box, spokes, felloes, tire. In the new model for field
service, cannoneers’ seats are on the axle between the cheeks and
wheels; each consists of an iron chair supported on a rectangular bar
inserted in a vertical iron socket, and resting on a strong steel
spring; the socket is supported by two brass braces fastened to the axle
by axle-straps; to an iron cross-piece at the top of the socket are
attached two iron braces, which help to support the iron foot-rest
attached to the brass braces. The chair has arms and faces to the trail.
This refers to the carriage proper, considered only in relation to the
fire of the piece, or as a two-wheeled carriage. To suit it to the easy
and rapid transportation of its load it must be converted into a
four-wheeled carriage, which is done by attaching it to another
two-wheeled carriage called a limber.

The _limber_ consists of a similar axle-body, axle, and two wheels, and
on these rests a frame-work, to receive the tongue. On top of the whole
is an ammunition-box, the top of which forms a seat for three
cannoneers. In rear of the axle-tree is a pintle-hook to receive the
lunette of the trail. Connected with the frame-work in front is a fixed
splinter-bar with four hooks, to which are attached the traces of the
wheel horses. At the extremity of the tongue are placed two pole-chains,
by which the tongue or pole is held up, and a pole-yoke with two movable
branches, to prevent, as much as possible, the pole from oscillating and
striking the horses. The principal parts of a field-limber are: pole,
including pole-pad; pole-straps, by which the pole is guided when the
team is hitched; pole-strap iron, pole-yoke, muff and collar, pole-yoke
branches, to which are attached sliding-rings; splinter-bar, to which
the horses are hitched by four trace-hooks; end-bands, middle-bands,
pole-prop, including socket, ferrule, and chain; hounds, pieces of wood
upon which the chests rest, connecting the axle-body with the
splinter-bar; forks, pieces of wood between the hounds, forming an
opening in which the pole is placed; fork-strap, foot-boards,
foot-board brackets, chest, chest-handles, cover, of wood; cover-plate,
of copper; turnbuckle, hasp, back-stay, front-stay, stay-pins, stay-pin
keys, under strap, pintle-hook, on rear part of axle-tree, which
attaches the limber to the carriage; pintle-hook key, axle, wheels. The
field-carriages employed in the U. S. service are three, one for the
3-inch rifle carriage (which, with slight modifications, is adapted to
the 1-inch mitrailleur), one for the 12-pounder, and one for the
¹⁄₂-inch and .45-inch mitrailleur. The corresponding parts of these
carriages differ only in their dimensions. All limbers are similar.

_Mountain-Carriage._--The mountain-carriage differs in construction from
the field-carriage inasmuch as the stocks and cheeks are formed of the
same piece by hollowing out the head of the stock, the wheels are
smaller and the axle-tree is made of wood, the arms being protected from
wear by skeans. It is arranged for draught by attaching a pair of shafts
to the trail. The pack-saddle and its harness are constructed to carry
severally the howitzer and shafts, the carriage, or two
ammunition-chests; or it enables an animal to draw the carriage with the
howitzer mounted upon it.

_Prairie-Carriage._--The prairie-carriage is designed to carry the
mountain howitzer, and is similar to the mountain-carriage in form; but
being exclusively for draught, the axle-tree is of iron, and the wheels
are made higher and the distance between them greater than in the
mountain-carriage. It has a limber and is drawn by two horses abreast,
as in field-carriages. The ammunition is packed in mountain
ammunition-chests, two of which are carried on the limber.

_Siege-Carriages._--There are three different kinds of siege-carriages
used in the U. S. service, one for the 4¹⁄₂-inch rifle, another on which
the 30-pounder Parrott is mounted, and a third for the 8-inch howitzer,
being the old 12-pounder, 18-pounder, and 24-pounder siege-carriages
modified; these are all constructed in the same manner, and differ only
in their dimensions. Siege-carriages are similar to the field-carriage
in construction (see FIELD-CARRIAGE), the principal difference being in
the manner in which they are joined to the limbers. Projecting upwards
from the limber and in rear of the axle-tree is placed a pintle, which
enters a hole made in the trail from the under side, and a lashing chain
and hook keep the two parts together when once in position; the weight
of the stock bearing on the rear of the limber relieves the horses of
the weight of the pole, which is long and heavy. On the upper surface of
the cheeks near the rear ends are placed two projecting bolts, which
with the curve of the cheeks form resting-places for the trunnions, when
the piece is in position for transportation. They are called traveling
trunnion-beds. When the piece is in this position the breech rests upon
the bolster, which is a curved block of wood bolted to the upper side of
the stock.

_Sea-Coast Carriages_ are divided into barbette front-pintle and
barbette centre-pintle carriages, casemate, and flank-defense carriages;
depending upon the part of the work in which they are mounted. The
casemate-carriage differs from the barbette in being much lower.
Sea-coast carriages are now chiefly made of wrought iron. All are
composed of two principal parts, viz.: the gun-carriage and chassis. The
gun-carriage is composed of two cheeks, held together by two plates of
boiler-iron, called the front and rear transoms respectively. Each cheek
is formed of two pieces of boiler-iron cut to a triangular shape,
separated at the edges by interposing the vertical portion or web of a
T-shaped bar. The horizontal branches project over each side to form a
double rim, which gives stiffness to the cheeks. Flat bars of iron are
also placed between the plates at suitable intervals to stiffen the
cheeks in the direction in which the weight and recoil of the piece bear
upon them. All these parts are held together by screw-bolts. The motion
to and from battery is regulated in the 8- and 10-inch carriages by a
pair of eccentric truck-wheels, called manœuvring-wheels, which work on
an axle-tree placed underneath and a little in front of the centre of
the trunnions. When it becomes necessary to check the recoil of the
gun-carriage, the wheels are thrown out of gear by means of a handspike
inserted in the socket attached to the end of the axle-tree, and the
carriage moved on sliding friction. When the gun is to be moved into
battery, the wheels are thrown into gear in a similar manner, and the
front of the carriage moves on rolling friction. The manœuvring-wheels
mentioned above are fixed on the projecting ends of the axle-tree, the
axis of the wheel being eccentric with the axis of the axle-tree. These
eccentrics are so arranged that when the centres of the wheels are at
their lowest points, the surfaces of the wheels bear on the rails of the
chassis, and raise the gun-carriage from it; and when the centres are at
their highest points, the surfaces of the wheels do not touch the rails,
and the gun-carriage is in contact with them. In case there is no socket
connected with the end of the axle-tree, the wheel is thrown into or out
of gear, that is, made to bear on the rail of the chassis, or relieved
from it, by turning the axle-tree with a wrench placed on the hexagonal
end. In the 15-inch carriage there are two pairs of manœuvring-wheels,
one pair being placed in front as above described, and the other pair
near the rear end of the carriage. In all sea-coast carriages except the
flank casemate the elevation and depression are given by a lever, the
point of which works in a ratchet cut in the breech of the piece. The
fulcrum (ratchet-post) is made of cast iron and rests on the rear
transom of the gun-carriage. It has several notches for adjusting the
position of the elevating bar. The chassis is a movable railway on which
the gun-carriage moves to and from battery. It is composed of two
wrought-iron rails inclined 3° to the horizon, and united by transoms as
in the gun-carriage. In addition to the transoms, there are several
diagonal braces to give stiffness to the chassis. For the 10-inch and
smaller carriages, the chassis-rails are single beams of rolled iron, 15
inches deep; for all calibers above, the rails are made of long
rectangular pieces of boiler-plate and T-iron, in a manner similar to
that of the cheeks of the gun-carriage. In order to move the carriage
horizontally in the operation of aiming the piece, the chassis is
supported on traverse wheels, which roll on circular plates of iron,
fastened to a bed of solid masonry, called the traverse circles. The
motion of the gun-carriage is checked front and rear, by pieces of iron
bolted to the top of the rails, called hurters and counter-hurters; and
it is prevented from slipping off sideways by friction rollers and
guides, which are bolted to the cheeks and transoms. In a late
modification of the 15-inch carriage, the front eccentric axle is
replaced by an ordinary one, dispensing with axle-pawls and
friction-bands, the handspike pawls are made double instead of single,
with a spring to keep them out of the ratchets, the front set of
transoms and diagonal braces are removed from the chassis, and pneumatic
or hydraulic buffers to check the recoil are put in with thick braces.
When the rear manœuvring-wheels are out of gear, the top carriage
touches the rails of the chassis and moves on sliding friction, and when
they are in gear the front wheels are also made to touch the rails and
the top carriage moves on rolling friction. To prevent the rear
manœuvring-wheels from working out of gear while the gun is being run
from battery, or jumping in gear when the gun is fired, pawls are
provided for locking the rear axle. When no pawls are provided for
locking the eccentric axle, it is often necessary for one cannoneer to
remain embarred in the axle-socket to prevent the axle from flying out
of gear. The 15-inch carriage allows an elevation of about 32° and a
depression of about 6°, unless when fitted with pneumatic buffers, when
no more than 25° elevation can be given. With the hydraulic buffer which
passes along the centre of the chassis and is little used in the U. S.
service the elevation is still further diminished. The 10-inch rifle and
13-inch smooth-bore are used with the 13-inch carriage, and the 12-inch
rifle and 15-inch smooth-bore on the 15-inch carriage; the 20-inch gun
has a separate carriage. The flank-casemate carriage is adapted to the
mounting of the 24-pounder iron howitzer in the flanks of casemate
batteries. Several modifications have been introduced into the carriages
for the experimental rifled guns. For the largest calibers the
chassis-rails are deeper in rear than in front. The pintle, set in a
heavy flanged block of cast iron, is in front of the chassis, to which
it is attached by a strap or heavy plate of iron. The top carriage is
manœuvred by chain-gearing worked by a capstan near the rear of the
chassis. The elevation is given by a wheel with projecting spokes on the
side of the top carriage, which is geared to work a toothed arc attached
to the breech of the gun, the reading being given by a pointer on a
dial-plate above the wheel. Rubber buffers are placed at the rear
transom of the chassis to assist the cylinders to take up the recoil.
Friction-plates attached by india-rubber ends to the rear transom take
the place of cylinders in certain smaller carriages. In some cases the
traverse-wheels are made to relieve the pintle of part of the strain by
grooving them to run on heavy traverse-rails and inclining them towards
the pintle.

_Mortar-Beds._--Mortars are fired from a bed; in the U. S. service there
are three kinds of mortar-beds in use in the siege service; the 8-inch,
10-inch, and the Coehorn; the first two differ only in dimensions. They
are made of wrought iron and put together after the manner of the
sea-coast gun-carriage. The different parts are the cheeks, which, like
those of the gun-carriage, are triangular in shape, and two transoms
connecting the cheeks together. At the end of each cheek are
projections, called front and rear notches, underneath which the
cannoneers embar with their handspikes to move the bed on the platform;
there are also two front and two rear manœuvring-bolts for the same
purpose. The elevation and depression are given as in the gun-carriage
by embarring with the iron elevating bar through the fulcrum into the
ratchets on the breech of the mortar. The Coehorn-bed is made of a block
of oak wood, in one piece, or two pieces joined together with bolts. A
recess for the trunnions and part of the breech is made in the top of
the bed, and the trunnions are kept in their places by plates of iron
bolted down over them. Two iron handles are bolted to the bed on each
side, by which four men can carry the bed with the mortar in its place,
the entire weight being only 296 pounds. Sea-coast mortar-beds are
similar to those for siege purposes, but they have eccentric
truck-wheels for manœuvring the mortar-bed on the platform and the
manœuvring-bolts are omitted. The 13-inch sea-coast mortar is now
mounted upon a centre pintle-carriage. The usual bed, now become the top
carriage, is placed upon a chassis resting on a platform. The top
carriage has a crane attached to the left cheek, and to the inside of
the right cheek is attached a pawl worked from the front, for locking
the eccentric axle in and out of gear, and the carriage is strengthened
by an additional rear transom about 5 inches wide, the pipe being
omitted. The chassis has the usual appliance for throwing this class of
carriages into gear, and in addition an eccentric axle placed at right
angles to and supported by a double front transom, and carrying a
traverse wheel, by means of which motion is communicated to the
chassis. The chassis is otherwise transomed and braced in accordance
with the system. Heretofore nearly all sea-coast carriages were made of
wood, but in consequence of the great difficulty of preserving this
material from decay, especially when exposed to the dampness of
casemates, they have nearly all been replaced by wrought iron. The
carriages principally employed for the transportation of ammunition,
implements, and materials for repairs, are caissons, mortar-wagons,
forges, and battery-wagons.

_The Caisson._--Caissons are used for conveying ammunition for a
field-battery; all are similar in form. It is a four-wheeled carriage,
consisting of two parts, one of which is a limber similar to that of the
gun-carriage, and connected in a similar way by a wooden stock and
lunette. On the axle-body of the rear part and parallel to the stock are
placed three rails, upon which are fastened two ammunition-chests, one
behind the other, and similar to the one on the limber; so that the
caisson has three ammunition-chests, which will seat 9 cannoneers. The
interior compartments of the ammunition-chests vary according to the
nature of the ammunition with which they are loaded. In rear of the last
chest is placed a spare-wheel axle of iron, with a chain and toggle at
the end of it. On the rear end of the middle rail is placed a carriage
hook similar to a pintle-hook, to which the lunette of a gun-carriage
whose limber has become disabled may be attached, and the gun carried
off the field. The caisson has the same turning capacity and mobility as
the gun-carriage, so that it can follow the piece in all its manœuvres,
if necessary. It also carries a spare-wheel, spare-pole, etc. The
principal parts of the caisson are: stock, or middle-rail; it has an
iron lunette on its front end; side-rails, front foot-board, rear
foot-board, middle-chest, rear-chest, spare-wheel axle; it has a body,
two ribs, and a chain and toggle to secure the wheel; there are also two
stays for the axle; lock-chains, fastened to lock-chain bridles under
the front ends of the side-rails, and held up by lock-chain hooks
fastened to the outside of the side-rails; spare-pole, spare-pole key,
key-plate, chain, and pin; the key-plate is fastened to the under side
of the lunette; the key is attached to the left side of the stock by a
chain and eye-pin; carriage-hook, for attaching a carriage that has lost
its limber; wheel-guard plates, spare-pole ring, held by the axle-strap;
ring-bolt for spare hand-spike, key-plate and key, on the right side of
the middle-rail; key-plate, chain, and key for the shovel-handle, on the
inside of the right side-rail; middle assembling-bar, of iron; it has
two ears in the middle to serve as stay-plates for the middle-chests,
and a slot for the axe on the right of the middle-rail; rear
assembling-bar; it supports the spare-wheel axle, and has a slot for the
pickaxe on the left of the middle-rail. Axle, the axle-body, being
notched to receive the middle-rail and tenoned to fit into the notches
in the side-rails; staples for tool-handles; they are driven into the
top of the axle-body in front of the iron axle-tree, one for the
shovel-handle near the right side-rail, the other for the handle of the
pickaxe on the left of the middle-rail. Wheels of all artillery
carriages are similarly constructed; they differ, however, in the size
and strength of certain parts, depending on the size of the carriage to
which they are attached. The principal parts are: the nave, the
nave-bands, the nave-box, the spokes, the felloes, and the tire. The
nave constitutes the central portion of the wheel, and distributes the
pressure of the axle-arm to the spokes. It is generally made of a single
piece of wood, and strengthened by four iron bands called the
nave-bands. It is also pierced with a conical hole for the axle-arm; and
to diminish wear and friction, it is lined with a box of brass or cast
iron, called the nave-box. The spokes serve to transmit the pressure of
the load to the rim of the wheel. In all artillery carriages there are
seven felloes and fourteen spokes. The felloes are the wooden segments
which form the rim, and are joined together at their ends by wooden
pins, or dowels. The tire is a strong band of iron, shrunk tightly
around the felloes, to hold them together, and protect the rim from
wearing away by contact with the ground.

_Mortar-wagons_ are designed for the transportation of siege-mortars and
their beds, or of guns or large shot, and shells. A limber similar to
the one for siege-gun carriages is used with it. The body consists of a
platform of rails and transoms resting on an axle-tree. The stock is
formed by prolonging the two middle-rails. The side-rails projecting to
the rear form supports for the pivots of a windlass-roller. This roller
is used to load guns and mortars on the wagon by drawing them up the
stock. A muzzle-bolster on the stock near the limber, and a
breech-hurter near the hind part of the wagon, are provided and used
when long pieces are transported on it. Mortars are usually carried
mounted on their beds.

The _traveling-forge_ is a complete blacksmith’s establishment, which
accompanies a battery for the purpose of making repairs and shoeing
horses. It consists of a body, upon which is constructed the
bellows-house, etc., and the limber, which supports the stock in
transportation. The body is composed of two rails, a stock, and an
axle-tree. The bellows-house is divided into the bellows-room and
iron-room. Attached to the back of the house is the coal-box, and in
front of it is the fireplace. From the upper and front part of the
bellows an air-pipe proceeds in a downward direction to the air-box,
which is placed behind the fireplace. The vise is permanently attached
to the stock, and the anvil, when in use, is supported on a stone or log
of wood, and when transported is carried on the hearth of the
fireplace. The remaining tools are carried in the limber-chest. When in
working order the point of the stock is supported by a prop.
Nomenclature of the traveling-forge body: Lunette, prop, vise, stock,
wheel-guard plates, stock-stirrup, fireplace, back of fireplace,
air-back, wind-pipe, bellows, ribs, hinges, hook, fulcrum, hook and
staple, roof of bellows-house, bows, studs, girders, end-boards,
bottom-boards, side-rail, lock-chain hook, coal-box, lid or roof,
handles, hinges, turnbuckle, and hasp. A new pattern of field-forge has
been proposed by Col. Laidley, U. S. Ordnance Corps.

The _battery-wagon_ is employed to transport the tools and materials for
repairs. Among the tools are those for carriage-makers, saddlers,
armorers, and laboratorians’ use, scythes and sickles for cutting
forage, and spare implements for the service of the piece. The body of
the battery-wagon is a large, rectangular box, covered with a roof of
painted canvas; and to the back part is attached a rack for carrying
forage. The bottom of the body is formed of one middle- and two
side-rails, resting on a stock and axle-tree, as in the traveling-forge.
The tools and materials of the battery-wagon are carefully packed in the
manner prescribed by the Ordnance Manual, in order that no difficulty
may be experienced in finding a particular article when wanted. The
smaller articles are carried in boxes properly lettered and numbered.
The traveling-forge and battery-wagon are not confined to the service of
field-batteries, but are used with siege and sea-coast carriages as
occasion may require. Nomenclature of the battery-wagon body: Lunette,
stock, wheel-guard plate, lock-chain, lock-chain bridle, lock-chain
hook, studs, side-rails, upper rails, hinges, bows, cover-boards,
cover-strap and turnbuckle, hasp, side-boards, stays, bottom-rails,
bottom-boards, cross-bars, forage-rack, including chains, sides, and
bars.

=Ordnance, Construction of.= The present condition of gun construction
is mainly experimental. Iron in one form or another is the only material
used for heavy artillery, but the particular form in which it is to be
used, whether as cast, wrought, or steel, or whether in bars, coils, or
ingots, or in combination,--as, for instance, steel or wrought iron
interior and cast iron or wire-wrapped or hooped exterior,--is still
undecided, and it is left for experiments which are still in progress,
or to be made hereafter, to decide which is best. In the United States,
cast iron is used for smooth-bore guns, and also for rifle guns, but as
its use for the latter has not proved satisfactory, experiments are now
being made with wrought iron lined and with wire-wrapped and other
built-up guns, with fair prospect of success. In England, modern gun
construction at one period inclined to the use of a steel or wrought
iron interior tube, strengthened by an exterior casting of iron, which
is the system of Palliser and Parsons. But the preference for the
inventions of Sir William Armstrong, improved by those of Fraser, have
resulted in the exclusive use, in that country at present, of the system
of these two inventors. This method of gun construction is, in brief, a
steel core (or body of the gun) strengthened by three or more exterior
tubes of coiled wrought iron. This system is at present popularly known
as the “Woolwich,” but sometimes called the “Elswick,” from the place
where Sir William Armstrong’s works are now located. In Germany and
Russia, and some other European nations, the Krupp system of heavy
forgings of steel ingots is preferred. This last is by far the most
expensive, and does not always produce the most durable guns. The
question of breech- or muzzle-loading is still an undecided one. (See
BREECH-LOADING and BREECH-MECHANISM.) The Germans prefer the first
named, as do the French, Austrians, and Russians, for large calibers and
for most small guns, while the English, after several years’ trial of
the first, have of late abandoned its use and returned to the
muzzle-loader, though the question has again been recently agitated. In
the United States, experiments still going on have not yet demonstrated
which principle is the best suited to the gun construction used in
America. The advantages of loading at the breech with heavy guns are
numerous and great; but the serious mechanical difficulties (see
BREECH-MECHANISM) of perfecting the movable breech attachment have
militated against its adoption, especially in a country committed like
the United States to the use of cast iron. During the half-decade
(1855-60), and the succeeding decade (1860-70), enormous strides were
made in gun construction and in that of carriages and projectiles, and
the manufacture of gunpowder.

_Cast Metal Guns._--The principles which govern the construction of
homogeneous cast metal guns as established by long practice will be
considered under the following heads:

_Exterior Form._--The exterior of cannon is generally divided into five
principal parts, viz.: the breech, the first reinforce, the second
reinforce, the chase, and the swell of the muzzle.

The _breech_ (see BREECH) is the thickness of metal in the prolongation
of the axis of the bore, and should be at least equal to one and a
quarter times the diameter of the bore; a less thickness has been found
insufficient for heavy iron guns.

The _first reinforce_ (see REINFORCE) extends from the base-ring to the
seat of the ball, and is the thickest part of the piece, for the reason
that the pressure of the powder is found to be greatest before the
projectile is moved far from its place. In shape this reinforce was
formerly made slightly conical, under the impression that the pressure
was greater at the vent than at the seat of the projectile; but it is
now made cylindrical throughout. The thickness of bronze cannon at the
seat of the charge is less than for iron guns.

The _second reinforce_ (see REINFORCE) connects the first reinforce with
the chase. It is made considerably thicker than is necessary to resist
the action of the powder, in order to serve as a proper point of support
for the trunnions, and to compensate for certain defects of metal liable
to occur in the vicinity of the trunnions of all cast cannon, arising
from the crystalline arrangement and unequal cooling of the different
parts.

_The Chase_ (see CHASE).--From the extremity of the second reinforce
cannon taper more or less rapidly to the vicinity of the muzzle; this
part called the chase constitutes the largest portion of the piece in
front of the trunnions. The thickness of metal in the chase should be
sufficient to resist the striking of the ball against the side of the
bore. This injury being greater in bronze and soft iron guns, their
taper is less than in cast-iron cannon. In the construction of bronze
guns, the thickness of metal at the neck or thinnest part is about
five-elevenths of that at the first reinforce. All projections on the
surface of cannon not absolutely necessary for the service of the piece
are omitted in cannon of _late models_. This omission simplifies their
construction, renders them easier to clean, and obviates certain
injurious strains that would otherwise arise from unequal cooling in
fabrication.

_Swell of the Muzzle._--The enlargement called swell of the muzzle was
generally regarded as necessary, inasmuch as the metal situated
immediately at the muzzle is supported only in rear, and it was thought
necessary to increase its thickness in order to enable it to resist the
action of the projectile at this point. At present, however, the
tendency is to reduce the size of the swell of the muzzle and to omit it
entirely on all sea-coast cannon.

_Interior Form of Cannon._--The interior of a cannon may be divided into
three distinct parts, viz.: the vent, or channel which communicates with
the charge; the seat of the charge or chamber, if its diameter be
different from the rest of the bore, and the cylinder, or that portion
of the bore passed over by the projectile (see appropriate headings).

The _vent_ (see VENT) is perpendicular to the axis of the piece, and the
interior orifice is at a distance from the bottom of the chamber equal
to a quarter of its diameter, or at the junction of the sides of the
chamber with the curve of the bottom. Experiment has shown this position
to be the most favorable to the full development of the force of the
charge, and to be least injurious to the piece. The size of the vent
should be as small as possible, in order to diminish the escape of the
gas and the erosion of the metal which results from it. In the U. S.
service all vents are 0.2 inch in diameter. Experiment has, however,
shown that the actual loss of force by the escape of the gas through the
vent, as compared to that of the entire charge, is inconsiderable, and
in practice may be neglected. In the U. S. service some pieces are made
with two unbushed vents which are situated in two vertical planes on
opposite sides of and parallel to the axis of the bore, and at a
distance from it of one-half the radius of the bore. The left vent is
bored entirely through, the other stops one inch short of the surface of
the bore. When the open vent is too much enlarged by wear for further
use, it is closed with melted zinc, and the other is bored out. Each
vent is calculated to endure at least five hundred service rounds. In
English guns of old model, the vent is placed four-tenths of the length
of the cartridge from the bottom of the bore. In most breech-loaders, as
well as many large modern muzzle-loaders, the vent is in the axis of the
piece through the breech.

_Seat of the Charge._--The form of the seat of the charge, or that part
of the bore of a fire-arm which contains the powder, will have an effect
on the force of the charge and the strength of the piece to resist it.
The considerations most likely to affect the force of the powder are the
form of the surface and its extent compared with the inclosed volume. To
obtain the full force of the charge it is necessary that the
inflammation be nearly completed before the gas begins to escape through
the windage, and the projectile is sensibly moved from its place, and as
the tension depends much upon the heat evolved by the combustion, the
absorbing surface should be a minimum compared with the volume. In
cannon where the charge of powder is large, the form of the seat of the
charge is simply that of the bore prolonged; this arrangement, when
compared with the chamber, makes the absorbing surface of the metal a
minimum and reduces the length of the charge, so that its inflammation
will be as complete as possible before the gas escapes and the
projectile is moved. To give additional strength to the breech, and to
prevent the angle formed by the plane of the bottom and sides of the
bore from becoming a receptacle for dirt and burning fragments of the
cartridge-bag, it is rounded with the arc of a circle, whose radius is
one-fourth the diameter of the bore at this point. Instead of being a
plane bottom it is sometimes made hemispherical, tangent to the surface
of the bore. In all United States cannon of the most recent model, the
bottom of the bore is a semi-ellipsoid; this is thought to fulfill the
condition of strength more fully than the hemisphere. With light pieces,
in which it is necessary to use small charges of powder, if the charge
were made into a cartridge of a form to fit the bore its length would be
less than its diameter, and being ignited at the top, a considerable
portion of the gas generated in the first instance of inflammation would
pass through the windage, and a part of the force of the charge would be
lost. To obviate this defect, to give the cartridge a more manageable
form in loading, and to make the surface a minimum as regards the
volume, the diameter of this part of the bore is reduced so as to form a
chamber. The shape of the chambers of fire-arms is either cylindrical,
conical, or spherical; the effect of these different forms of chambers
on the velocity of the projectile will be modified by the size of the
charge and the length of the bore. Up to a charge of powder equal to
one-seventh of the weight of the projectile, and a length of bore equal
to 9 or 10 calibers, experience shows that the presence of a chamber is
advantageous, but beyond these it possesses no advantages to compensate
for its inconvenience. For very small charges of powder and short
lengths of bore, the cylindrical chamber gives better results than the
conical chamber. For the same capacity, the conical chamber gives a
shorter cartridge, and is therefore better suited to the rapid
inflammation of a large charge of powder than the cylindrical chamber.

The Gomer chamber belongs to this class. (See GOMER CHAMBER.) The
spherical chamber was formerly used particularly in mortars, but owing
to the inconveniences which attend its construction and use, and its
liability to deterioration, it is now entirely abandoned. In all the
regulation guns of the U. S. land service, the bottom of the bore is a
semi-ellipsoid. The adoption of this form simplifies the whole subject
of chambers, and it is found to give increased ranges for small charges.
No very careful experiments have been made to determine in a general way
the effect of chambers on the strength of cannon; but late experience
indicates that cylindrical chambers in heavy iron guns have an injurious
effect on their endurance, and they have consequently been abandoned in
these pieces.

_The Bore_ (see BORE).--The length of the bore has an important effect
on the velocity of the projectile, and it was formerly supposed that the
longest pieces gave the greatest ranges; this belief was in a great
measure due to the slow rate of burning of mealed powder, which was
originally used in cannon, but was entertained even after gunpowder
received its granular form. When a gun is discharged, the accelerating
force is due to the expansive effort of the inflamed powder, which
reaches its maximum when the grains of the charge are completely
converted into vapor and gas. This event depends on the size of the
charge, and the size and velocity of combustion of the grains. With the
same accelerating force, the point at which a projectile reaches its
maximum velocity depends on its density, or the time necessary to
overcome its inertia. The retarding forces are:

(1) The friction of the projectile against the sides of the bore; this
is the same for all velocities, but different for different metals.

(2) The shocks of the projectile striking against the sides of the bore;
these will vary with the angle of incidence, which depends on the
windage and the extent of the injury due to the lodgment and balloting
of the projectile.

(3) The resistance offered by the column of air in front of the
projectile; this force will increase in a certain ratio to the velocity
of the projectile and length of the bore. As the accelerating force of
the charge increases up to a certain point, after which it rapidly
diminishes as the space in rear of the projectile increases; and as the
retarding forces are constantly opposed to its motion, it follows that
there is a point where these forces are equal, and the projectile moves
with its greatest velocity; it also follows that after the projectile
passes this point its velocity decreases, until it is finally brought to
a state of rest, which would be the case in a gun of great length.
Elaborate experiments have been made in this country and abroad to
determine accurately the influence which the length of the piece
exercises on the velocity of its projectile. The experiments made by
Maj. Mordecai of the U. S. Ordnance Department with a 12-pounder gun,
show that the velocity increases with the length of the bore up to 25
calibers; but that the entire gain beyond 16 calibers, or an addition of
more than one-half to the length of the gun, gives an increase of only
one-eighteenth to the effect of a charge of four pounds. It follows from
the foregoing that the length of bore which corresponds to a maximum
velocity depends upon the projectile, charge of powder, and material of
which the piece is made, and taking the caliber as a unit of measure, it
is found that this length is greater for small-arms which fire leaden
projectiles than for guns which fire solid iron shot, and greater for
guns than for howitzers and mortars, which fire hollow projectiles. For
the same charge of powder it may be said that the initial velocity of a
projectile varies nearly with the fourth root of the length of the bore,
provided the variation in length be small.

_Manufacture of Cannon._--Cannon for the U. S. service are made by
private founders. The material and product of the casting are under the
supervision of an ordnance officer, who receives the pieces only after
they have satisfied all the conditions imposed by the regulations of the
service. There are several foundries for making cast-iron cannon.
Wrought-iron field cannon are principally made at the Phœnixville
Iron-Works, Pa. There are also several private establishments where
special cannon are made. The several operations of manufacturing cannon
are, molding, casting, cooling, and finishing.

_Molding_, in general terms, is the process by which the cavity of the
form of the gun is obtained by imbedding a wooden model in sand, and
then withdrawing it. The wooden model is technically called the pattern,
and the sand is confined in a box, which is divided into two or more
parts for convenience in withdrawing the pattern. The pattern of the
piece to be cast, somewhat enlarged in its different dimensions, is
composed of several pieces of hard wood, well seasoned, or, for greater
durability, of cast iron. The first piece of the model comprises the
body of the piece from the base-ring to the chase-ring; the swell of the
muzzle, and the sprue, or dead-head, are formed of the second piece; the
breech, of the third; and the trunnions, of the fourth and fifth pieces.
The sprue, usually called the “head,” is an additional length given to
the piece, for the purpose of receiving the scoria of the melted metal
as it rises to the surface, and furnishing the extra metal needed to
feed the shrinkage. Its weight also increases the density of the lower
portion of the piece. The breech is slightly lengthened in the direction
of the knob of the cascabel, to form a square projection by which the
piece can be held when being turned and bored. The best material for the
mold is dry, hard, angular, and refractory sand, which must be moistened
with water in which strong clay has been stirred, to make it
sufficiently adhesive; when not sufficiently refractory, the sand is
vitrified by the high temperature of the melted metal, and
protuberances--not easily removed--are formed on the casting. When not
sufficiently coarse and angular, the materials cannot be so united as to
preserve the form of the molds. The mold is formed in a case of cast
iron, and termed the “box,” or the “flask,” consisting of several
pieces, each of which has flanges perforated with holes for screw-bolts
and nuts, to unite the parts firmly. To form the mold, the pattern for
the sprue and muzzle, previously coated with pulverized charcoal or
coke, moistened with clay-water to prevent adhesion, is placed
vertically on the ground, muzzle part up, and carefully surrounded by
the corresponding parts of the jacket. When properly adjusted, the sand,
prepared as above, is rammed around it. The model for the body of the
piece is then placed on the top of this, and the corresponding parts of
the jacket correctly secured, and filled in succession with the molding
composition. The patterns for the trunnions and rimbases are bolted to
the model of the piece, and when the sand is rammed firmly around these,
the bolts are withdrawn, this part of the mold completed, and the
end-plates screwed on. After completing the mold for the body of the
piece, the model for the cascabel is properly adjusted and the mold
completed. Care is taken to cover each portion of the model with the
coke-wash mentioned above, and to sprinkle dry sand upon the top of the
mold in each piece of the jacket, to prevent adhesion, so that the
portions of the mold may be separated. In the body of the sand, a
channel for the introduction of the metal is formed in the same manner
as the mold cavity. It enters at the bottom of the mold, to prevent the
bottom from being injured by the falling metal, and in an oblique
direction, to give a circular motion to the metal as it rises in the
mold, and thereby prevent the scoria from adhering to the sides. When
the mold is completed, the parts of the flask are carefully taken apart,
and the pieces of the model withdrawn from the mold contained in them.
If any portions of the mold be injured in withdrawing the model, they
are repaired, and the interior of the mold is covered with coke-wash;
after which the several parts are placed in an oven to be gradually and
perfectly dried. When this is accomplished, the parts are carried to a
pit, where they are united and secured in a vertical position, with the
breech below. Any portion of the sand broken off during the movements
and adjustments should be replaced, and the whole of the interior
covered with coke-wash. The object of coke-wash is to prevent the sand
from adhering to the melted metal, which, when prepared, is made to flow
in at the entrance of the side-channel. As the metal rises in the mold,
a workman agitates it with a long pine stick, to cause the scoria and
other impurities to rise to the surface, and brings them toward the
centre of the mold, to prevent their entering the cavities for the
trunnions.

_Cooling._--After the mold is placed properly in the pit, it is usual to
surround the box with sand, at least as high as the trunnions of the
gun. This is done to prevent rapid cooling. With guns as heavy as
24-pounders, this sand is not removed for three days, and as the gun is
heavier the time is prolonged, and is from seven to eight days for the
10-inch columbiad. At the proper time the sand is removed, and the gun,
still imbedded in the box and sand of the mold proper, is hoisted out,
the box taken off, and when nearly cold, the gun cleaned of the sand.

_Boring and Turning._--A cannon is bored by giving it a rotary motion
around its axis, and causing a rod armed with a cutter to press against
the metal in the proper direction. The piece, supported in a rack, is
carefully adjusted, with its axis horizontal, and made to revolve on
this axis by machinery attached to the square knob on the cascabel.
After adjustment, the sprue-head is first to be cut off. This is
effected by placing a cutter opposite the point at which the section is
to be made, and pressing it against the metal whilst the piece is
turning. The head being cut off, and the cutter removed, the boring is
commenced by placing the boring-rod, armed with the first cutter, called
the piercer, in the prolongation of the axis of the piece, and pressing
it against the metal. The piercer is used till it penetrates to the
bottom of the chamber, after which a second cutter, or reamer, is
attached to the boring-rod, and with this the boring is made complete
to the round part of the chamber. The reamer is then removed and its
place supplied by the chamber-cutter, which gives the necessary form and
finish to that part of the bore. In hollow-cast cannon the piercer is
dispensed with. Whilst the boring is taking place the workman contrives
to finish the turning of all the exterior of the piece except the
portion between the trunnions, which is afterwards planed off in another
machine. These operations having been completed, the piece is placed in
the trunnion-machine, and the trunnions are turned down to the proper
size. Care is taken to make the trunnions of the same diameter, and
perfectly cylindrical. Their axes should be in the same right line,
perpendicular to the axis of the piece and intersecting it.

_Boring the Vent._--Whilst in the trunnion-lathe, the axis of the piece
is inclined to the horizon at the angle the vent is to make with it. A
drill is placed vertically over the point where the vent is to be bored,
and pressed against the metal whilst a rotary motion is given to it by
hand or machinery. The time required to finish a cannon, ready for
inspection, depends upon its size, or from three to four weeks for a
24-pounder gun, and six weeks for an 11-inch gun.

_Cast Metal Guns, Modern Improvements in._--The first great step in this
direction was taken by Gen. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Corps. It was
his investigation into the crystallization of cast iron which led to the
abolition of sharp angles or projections in the form of cannon. His
reputation, however, rests mainly upon the principle of _hollow
casting_. The general form of the old casting is that of a _solid_
frustrum of a cone; it is therefore cooled from the exterior, which
causes the thin outer layer to contract first, and forces the hotter and
more yielding metal within towards the opening of the mold. Following
this the adjacent layer cools and tends to contract, but the exterior
layer to which it coheres has become partially rigid and does not fully
yield to the contraction of the inner layer. The result is, the cohesion
of the particles of the inner layer is diminished by a force of
extension, and that of the outer layer increased by a force of
compression. As the cooling continues this operation is repeated, until
the whole mass is brought to a uniform temperature, and the straining
force is increased to an extent which depends on the size and form of
the mass, the rapidity with which it is cooled, and the contractibility
of the particular metal used. The foregoing considerations led Rodman to
cast the gun hollow and to cool it from the interior, to reverse the
strains by external cooling, and make them contribute to the endurance
rather than to the injury of the piece. The method employed is to carry
off the internal heat by passing a stream of water through a hollow
core, inserted in the centre of the mold cavity before casting, and to
surround the flask with a mass of burning coals, to prevent too rapid
radiation from the exterior. Results show that cast-iron cannon made by
this plan are not only stronger, but are less liable to enlargement of
the bore from continued firing. All large American guns of cast iron,
including the cases for the experimental rifles, are now cast on the
Rodman plan. The plan has also been adopted by most of the nations of
Europe that use cast-iron guns,--France, Sweden, Italy, etc.

For improvements in _bronze_, see the methods of Dean and Uchatius,
ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

The following are among the best known of cast metal homogeneous guns:

_Columbiad._--The columbiads are a species of sea-coast cannon
containing certain qualities of the gun, howitzer, and mortar; they are
long, chambered pieces capable of projecting solid shot and shells with
heavy charges of powder, at high angles of elevation. The columbiad was
invented by Col. Bomford, late of the U. S. service; the model was
afterwards changed by lengthening the bore and increasing the weight of
metal. (See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.) It was afterwards discovered that
these pieces did not possess the requisite strength, and they were
degraded to the rank of shell guns, and their places supplied by pieces
of improved model. The change consisted in giving greater thickness of
metal in the prolongation of the axis of the bore, which was done by
diminishing the length of the bore itself; in substituting a
hemispherical bottom to the bore, and removing the cylindrical chamber;
in removing the swell of the muzzle and base-ring, and in rounding off
the corner of the breech. In 1860 the model prepared by Capt. Rodman was
adopted for all sea-coast cannon, and is essentially the same as the one
described below.

_Paixhan Gun._--See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

_Dahlgren Gun._--The guns constructed after the plan of Admiral Dahlgren
of the U. S. navy, are used principally in the U. S. sea service. Those
of large caliber are made of cast iron, solid, and cooled from the
exterior. To produce uniformity in the cooling, the piece is cast nearly
cylindrical, and then turned down to the required shape. The thickness
of the metal around the seat of the charge is a little more than the
diameter of the bore, as is true of nearly all the cast-iron guns. The
chase, however, tapers more readily than in other cast-iron guns; they
are smooth-bored, and the chamber is of the Gomer form. The principal
guns of this system are of 9- and 11-inch caliber. A piece of 10-inch
caliber has, however, been introduced into the navy for firing solid
shot. The 15- and 20-inch naval guns are shaped exteriorly after the
Dahlgren pattern, but are cast hollow, and have the elliptical chamber
of the Rodman system.

_Napoleon Gun._--A bronze field-piece in the U. S. service. See NAPOLEON
GUN.

_Rodman Gun._--The principal difficulty formerly experienced in
manufacturing very large cast-iron cannon was the injurious strain
produced by cooling the casting from the exterior. Gen. Rodman of the
U. S. Ordnance Department developed a theory of the strains produced by
cooling a casting like that of a cannon (see ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON),
and as a remedy for them proposed that cannon should be cast with a
hollow core and cooled by a stream of water or air passing through it.
This new mode of casting was afterwards adopted by the War Department.
By this system of casting, guns of greatly-increased size and endurance
are fabricated. The largest guns employed in the U. S. service (20-inch)
are made on the Rodman plan, as well as the 15-inch, 13-, 10-, 8-inch,
etc. The external form of Rodman guns is striking, as they are much
larger at the seat of the charge than elsewhere. Their outline is made
up of curved lines. This form has been almost universally adopted for
U. S. guns. The Dahlgren, which preceded it, has nearly the same shape.

The great power demanded at the present day in heavy ordnance, however,
cannot be attained by the use of cast iron alone. The difficulties of
constructing homogeneous guns of the stronger metals--wrought iron and
steel--have given birth in modern times to

_Built-up Guns._--The term “built-up” is applied to those cannon in
which the principal parts are formed separately, and then united
together in a peculiar manner. One object of this mode of manufacture is
to correct the defects of one material by introducing another of
opposite qualities, as for instance, trials have been made to increase
the hardness, and therefore endurance, of bronze cannon by casting them
around a core of steel which formed the surface of the bore. Built-up
cannon are not necessarily composed of more than one kind of metal. Some
of the most noted are made of steel or wrought iron alone. In this case
the defects which we have seen accompany the working of large masses of
wrought iron (crystalline structure, cracks, false welds) are obviated
by first forming them in small masses, as rings, tubes, etc., of good
quality, and then uniting them separately. The mode of uniting a built
gun may be by welding the parts, by shrinking, or forcing one over the
other, or by screwing them together.

In the _construction of built-up guns_, makers have aimed at the ideal
gun which has its strength proportioned to the strain it is called upon
to bear in all its parts. All parts of the sides of a cannon are not
strained equally, and are therefore not brought to the breaking-point at
the same time. Any arrangement of the parts by which the explosive
strain is distributed equally over the entire thickness of the piece,
necessarily brings a greater amount of resistance into play to prevent
rupture. There are two general plans for accomplishing this, viz.:
First, by producing a strain of compression on the metal nearest the
surface of the bore. This is termed an “initial strain,” and is brought
about by shrinking heated bands or tubes around the part to be
compressed, or by slipping a tube into the bore, which has been slightly
enlarged by heat. In either case it is apparent that the extent of the
strain depends on the relative size of the fitting surfaces, and the
amount of heat used to produce expansion. Sometimes the parts are forced
together by hydraulic pressure after they have been carefully bored and
turned to the proper size. The second plan is based on “varying
elasticity,” and is accomplished by placing that metal which stretches
most within its elastic limit around the surface of the bore, so that by
its enlargement the explosive strain is transmitted to the outer parts.
By the selection of suitable materials and their proper management, both
of these plans may be combined in the same gun, and thereby give it
increased strength. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

The best-known cannon of the _built-up_ class are:

_Ames Gun._--The rifled guns made by Mr. Horatio Ames, of Falls Village,
Conn., are made of wrought iron on the built-up principle. The wrought
iron is in the form of rings, made by bending a bar around a mandrel and
welding the ends. After turning them in a lathe, two or more of these
rings are fitted one within another to form a disk. These disks are
welded in succession to a concave breech-piece. Some of these guns have
shown remarkable endurance. They are weakest against longitudinal
strains.

_Armstrong Gun._--Is so much like the _Woolwich_, which it preceded,
that a separate description is unnecessary. See WOOLWICH GUN.

_Blakely Gun._--The most approved pattern of the gun invented by Capt.
Blakely combines in its construction the principles of “initial tension”
and “varying elasticity,” the object of which is to bring the strength
of all the metal of the piece into simultaneous play to resist
explosion. It is made of several tubes or barrels, the inner one of
which is of low steel, having considerable but not quite enough
elasticity. The next tube is made of high steel with less elasticity,
and is shrunk on the barrel with just sufficient tension to compensate
for the insufficient difference of elasticity between the two tubes. The
outer cast jacket, to which the trunnions are attached, is the least
elastic of all, and is put on with only the shrinkage by warming it over
a fire. The steel tubes are cast hollow and hammered over steel mandrels
under steam-hammers; by this process they are elongated, and at the same
time the tenacity of the metal is increased, all the steel parts are
annealed. Other combinations of iron and steel are used, except wrought
iron, which is regarded as objectionable on account of its tendency to
stretch permanently. Blakely guns were rifled with one-sided grooves,
and are fired with expanding projectiles. This gun is no longer made
under that name. As now made it is called the

_Vavasseur Gun_, and is manufactured by Messrs. J. Vavasseur & Co. of
the London Ordnance-Works. It is made entirely of the best Sheffield
cast steel, except the trunnions, which are wrought iron, and consists
of an interior tube and outer tube and a number of hoops. The inner tube
is forged from a solid ingot. It is rough bored and turned and then oil
tempered. The outer tube and rings are cast hollow and hammered over
steel mandrels. They are heated and shrunk on. Theoretically, it is
difficult to pick a flaw in the construction of this gun. The rifling
used is anomalous. It consists of three _ribs_ instead of grooves
projecting into the bore. The projectile has corresponding grooves.
These guns have found quite a market in the South American republics.

_Brooke Gun._--This gun was made after the plan of Capt. Brooke for the
Confederate service; it resembles Parrott’s in shape and construction,
except that the reinforcing band is made up of iron rings not welded
together. The rifling is similar to that used in the Blakely guns.

_Fraser Gun._--See WOOLWICH GUN.

_Gatling Gun._--See GATLING GUN.

_Krupp Gun._--See KRUPP GUN.

_Lancaster Gun._--This gun is now little used; it was made of wrought
iron. The bore was cut in a spiral form with an elliptical
cross-section, and the projectile shaped to fit it, by which means a
rotary motion was imparted.

_Palliser Gun._--Maj. Palliser of the British service is the inventor of
a system which has been successfully applied in England to utilize
smooth-bore cast-iron guns by converting them into rifles. By his plan
the gun is first bored to a cylinder or finely tapering cone, then lined
with a tube of coiled wrought iron, the breech end of which is shrunk
on; the exterior of the barrel has a uniform diameter throughout. The
tube is double at this part to obtain the benefit of the tension and to
enable any fracture of the inner layer to be made known without bursting
the gun. The bottom of the barrel is closed by a wrought-iron cup
screwed in. The tube is inserted into the gun from the muzzle without
the application of heat. A small amount of play is allowed between the
barrel and the cast-iron body; this disappears, or is much reduced by a
“setting up charge,” which expands the barrel against the cast iron. The
end of the barrel is made to bear accurately against the cast-iron
breech. A collar screwed into the muzzle secures the tube in position,
and prevents it from being thrust forward by the compression of the
metal by repeated firing. In front of the trunnions a pin is screwed in
through the cast iron, to resist the tendency of the tube to be turned
by the bearing of the projectile in the grooves. On the exterior of that
portion of the inner tube that is covered by the second tube is cut a
spiral gas channel; this communicates with a tell-tale hole drilled
through the cast-iron breech, by which gas can escape and announce the
fracture of the inner tube. The venting and rifling are similar to those
employed in the Woolwich guns. In the larger guns Maj. Palliser proposes
to use two or more concentric tubes, in some the exterior one to be of
steel. This system is being applied in the United States with the most
promising results in the conversion of 10-inch Rodman guns into 8-inch
rifles. The rifles thus obtained, though giving to a projectile a less
muzzle velocity than does the 10-inch smooth-bore, has, on account of
the increased weight of shot, greater penetrating power at all ranges,
being doubled at some and trebled at others. Its accuracy is three times
greater, and the capacity of its shell twice that of the original gun.

_Parsons Gun._--The system upon which Mr. Parsons makes his guns is
similar to that of Maj. Palliser. (See PALLISER GUN.) It depends upon
the principle of varying elasticities, and is based upon the fact that
wrought iron may be stretched three times as much as cast iron, and will
offer three and a half to six times the resistance within the limit of
its elasticity. These well-known gun constructions, known as _converting
systems_, both consist in lining a cast-iron case with a wrought-iron or
steel tube. In the Palliser or English method the tube is inserted from
the muzzle. In the Parsons or American method, through the breech. In
both nearly the whole of the longitudinal strain is transferred to the
cast-iron case. Both systems were first perfected in England. Col.
Crispin (U. S. Ordnance Corps) deserves the credit of introducing them
into the U. S. service in constructing the new _experimental rifles_.
The Parsons system is better adapted to constructing breech-loaders.

_Parrott Gun._--The Parrott rifled gun is a cast-iron piece of about the
usual dimensions, strengthened by shrinking a coiled band or barrel of
wrought iron over that portion of the reinforce which surrounds the
charge. The body of the larger Parrott guns are cast hollow, and cooled
from the interior on the Rodman plan. The barrel is formed by bending a
rectangular bar of wrought iron spirally around a mandrel, and then
welding the mass together by hammering it in a strong cast-iron
cylinder, or tube. In bending the bar, the outer side being more
elongated than the inner one, is diminished in thickness, giving the
cross-section of the bar a wedge shape, which possesses the advantage of
allowing the cinders to escape through the opening, thereby securing a
more perfect weld. The barrel is shrunk on by the aid of heat, and for
this purpose the reinforce of the gun is carefully turned to a
cylindrical shape, and about one-sixteenth of an inch to the foot larger
than the interior diameter of the barrel in a cold state. To prevent the
cast iron from expanding when the barrel is slipped on to its place, a
stream of cold water is allowed to run through the bore. At the same
time, and while the band hangs loosely upon it, the body of the gun is
rotated around its axis to render the cooling uniform over the whole
surface of the barrel. The proof of the Parrott guns consists in firing
each piece 10 rounds with service charges.

_Rodman Gun._--The principal difficulty formerly experienced in
manufacturing very large cast-iron cannon was the injurious strain
produced by cooling the casting from the exterior. Gen. Rodman of the
U. S. Ordnance Department developed a theory of the strains produced by
cooling a casting like that of a cannon (see ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON),
and as a remedy for them proposed that cannon should be cast on a hollow
core and cooled by a stream of water or air passing through it. This new
mode of casting was afterwards adopted by the War Department. By this
system of casting, guns of greatly increased size and endurance are
fabricated. The largest guns employed in the U. S. service (20-inch) are
made on the Rodman plan, as well as many of the guns employed in the
field service.

_Whitworth Gun._--These guns are made of a species of low steel; the
smaller are forged solid, the larger are built up with coils or hoops;
the hoops are forced on by hydraulic pressure, and for this purpose are
made with a slight taper and with the design to secure initial tension.
The ends of the hoops are joined by screw-threads. The hoops are first
cast hollow, and then hammered out over a steel mandrel. Before
receiving their final finish they are subject to an annealing for some
three or four weeks, which makes the metal very ductile, but at the same
time slightly impairs its tenacity. The system differs from Krupp’s in
the smaller masses used and the greater number of hoops. The process for
making the hoops is better calculated to develop their tensile strength.
The breech-pin is made with offsets in such a way as to screw into the
end of the barrel and the next two surrounding hoops. The cross-section
of the bore of the Whitworth gun is a hexagon with rounded corners. The
twist is very rapid and the projectiles are made very long.

_Woodbridge Gun_ (invented by Dr. Woodbridge, of Little Falls, New
York).--The system of construction consists essentially of a thin steel
barrel over which wire is wound, barrel and wire being subsequently
consolidated into one mass by a brazing solder melted and poured into
the interstices. The following brief description is extracted from one
of the inventor’s letters to the chief of ordnance: “Square wire is
wound upon a steel core somewhat longer than the intended bore of the
gun, a sufficient number of wires being wound at once side by side to
produce the required obliquity of the turns. The successive layers have
opposite twists. When the mass has reached the required dimensions, it
is inclosed in an air-tight case to protect it from oxidation, and is
heated therein to a temperature somewhat above that required for the
fusion of the soldering metal. The soldering metal having been melted is
run in, filling all the interstices of the mass. When cooled the gun is
bored and finished as usual.” The invention dates back to about 1850. A
small gun made in this way was tested by Maj. Laidley (U. S. Ordnance
Corps) in 1865. It endured 1327 rounds with excessive charges, when the
attempt to burst it was abandoned on account of the breaking off of the
trunnions. The only large gun ever made--a 10-inch gun--was fabricated
at Frankford Arsenal. It was not entirely finished till April, 1876,
soon after which it was displayed at the Centennial Exhibition in
Philadelphia. Certain defects in its manufacture prevent it from fairly
representing the Woodbridge system.

_Woolwich Gun._--The Woolwich or Fraser gun is in its construction a
modification of the Armstrong plan, which latter had been previously
used in Great Britain; the principal difference is in substituting for a
number of single coils and a forged breech-piece a few long double and
triple coils, and in using a cheaper quality of wrought iron. The number
of pieces employed in the construction depends upon the size of the gun;
an 8-inch rifled gun is composed of the inner tube (barrel) of steel,
the muzzle-coil (trousers), the breech-coil (jacket), and the
cascabel-screw. The barrel is made from a solid forged cylinder of cast
steel, drawn by heating and hammering; it is turned, bored, and
chambered; then heated to a uniform temperature in a vertical furnace
and plunged into a covered tank of rape-oil, where it cools and soaks.
The muzzle-coil is constructed of two single coils welded together
endways. Each coil is formed by heating a long bar and wrapping it about
a mandrel; this is next heated in a reverberatory furnace and welded
under a steam-hammer. Before being united the two cylinders are turned
and bored. The breech-coil is composed of a triple coil, a
trunnion-ring, and a double coil welded together. The double coil is
formed by placing a single coil, when cold, on a mandrel and winding
over it, but in the reverse directions to break joints, a second bar; if
over this a third bar is immediately wound in the same direction as the
first, a triple coil will result. These coils are welded by being heated
and hammered on the end and on the sides. The trunnion-ring is made by
welding slabs of iron together on the flat end of a bar, and gradually
forming a ring by driving through the centre wedges and mandrels
increasing in size; the trunnions, one of which comes from the bar, are
at the same time hammered into shape. The coils and the ring having been
turned and bored, the latter is placed on a shoulder of the triple coil,
the double coil is dropped through the trunnion-ring on the triple coil,
and the joints welded in this position. The cascabel is forged of good
scrap-iron; the different parts having been formed are accurately turned
and bored with a slight taper. The muzzle-coil tube being heated is
dropped over the barrel, which is stood in a pit, a stream of cold water
circulating through the bore. The half-formed gun is then placed on its
muzzle, water forced through the bore, and the breech-coil heated and
slipped into position. The cascabel is screwed into the breech-coil
abutting against the barrel, great care being taken that the contact is
perfect. A tell-tale hole is cut along the thread on the cascabel to
give warning by the escape of gas should the barrel break in firing. The
vent is bored through hardened copper; it enters near the centre of the
service cartridge. This gives greater velocity, but also greater
pressure. The large guns have from seven to ten grooves. The twist is
uniformly increasing; the shape of the grooves is circular, with curved
edges.

_Sutcliffe Gun._--This invention, by E. A. Sutcliffe of New York City,
relates to a breech-mechanism for cannon. See BREECH MECHANISM.

_Griffin Gun._--Name sometimes given to the 3-inch rifled field-piece in
the U. S. service. It is made of wrought iron. The method of fabrication
is to wrap boiler-plate around a mandrel and to weld it.

=Ordnance, Metals for.= The only metals ordinarily used for cannon are
cast and wrought iron, steel, and an alloy of copper and tin, or a
combination of these metals. Cannon metals should be able to resist the
corroding action of the atmosphere, the heat and the products of
combustion of the powder; should be susceptible of being easily bored
and turned, and should not be too costly. The qualities necessary in
cannon metals are strength to resist the explosion of the charge, weight
to overcome severe recoil, and hardness to endure the bounding of the
projectile along the bore. The shape of the bore would otherwise be
rapidly altered by the action of the projectile. This quality is
particularly necessary in rifled cannon. The term strength as applied to
cannon metal is not confined to tensile strength alone, but embraces
also elasticity, ductility, and crystalline structure, which affect its
power to resist the enormous and oft-repeated force of gunpowder. (See
ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.) Each discharge of a cannon, however small,
impairs its strength, and repeated a sufficient number of times, will
burst it; this arises from the fact that the feeblest strains produce a
permanent elongation or compression of iron; this is technically known
as the permanent set, and the same is probably true of all other metals.
The property of ductility is of importance in enabling a metal to resist
rupture after it has passed its elastic limit. The size and arrangement
of the crystals of a metal have an important influence in its strength
to resist a particular force. A metal will be strongest when its
crystals are small, and the principal faces parallel to the straining
force, if it be one of extension, and perpendicular to it, if it be one
of compression. The size of the crystals of a particular metal depends
on the rate of cooling; the most rapid cooling giving the smallest
crystals.

_Cast iron_ is very generally employed, notably in the United States, in
the fabrication of heavy cannon for siege and sea-coast purposes. It
possesses the very important qualities of tenacity, hardness, and
cheapness, and with proper care is not seriously affected by rust. Its
principal defect is an almost entire want of elasticity, in consequence
of which its tenacity is destroyed after a certain number of
applications of the straining force. But little is known of the causes
which affect the quality of the cast iron used for cannon metal. The
amount of carbon, the state of its combination, together with the ore,
fuel, and fluxes, and the process of manufacture, all materially affect
the quality of the iron. All that is known is, that certain ores treated
in a certain way make cast iron suitable for cannon, and the fitness of
a particular kind of cast iron for artillery purposes can only be
determined by submitting it to the tests of the service. After this is
known, a knowledge of certain physical properties, such as tenacity,
hardness, density, and color, form and size of crystals presented in a
freshly fractured surface, will be useful in keeping the metal up to the
required standard. The pig-iron from which cannon are made should be
soft, yielding easily to the file and chisel; the appearance of the
fracture should be uniform, with a brilliant aspect, dark gray color,
and medium-sized crystals. When remelted and cast into cannon, it should
have about sufficient hardness to resist the file and chisel, but not to
be so hard as to be bored and turned with much difficulty; its color
should be a bright gray, crystals small, structure uniform, close, and
compact. The density of gun metal should be about 7.25, and its tenacity
about 30,000. There are several varieties of cast iron differing from
each other by almost insensible shades. The principal divisions are,
however, gray and white. Gray iron is softer and less brittle than the
white, is slightly malleable and flexible, and does not resist the file.
It has a brilliant fracture of a gray or bluish-gray color. This iron
melts at a lower temperature than white iron and becomes more fluid,
contracts less and contains fewer cavities; it fills the mold well, the
edges of a casting are short, and the surface smooth, convex, and
covered with carburet of iron. Gray iron is the only kind suitable for
making castings which require great strength, such as cannon. White iron
is very brittle, resists the file and chisel, and is susceptible of high
polish, the surface of a casting is concave, the fracture presents a
silvery appearance. Its qualities are the reverse of those of gray iron;
it is therefore unsuitable for ordnance purposes. Mottled iron is a
mixture of white and gray; it has a spotted appearance, and flows well.
The casting has a plane surface with edges slightly rounded. It is
suitable for making shot and shells. Besides these general divisions,
there are several other varieties of iron whose qualities depend upon
the proportion of carbon, and the state in which it is found in the
metal. The color and texture of cast iron depend greatly on the size of
the casting and the rapidity of cooling. See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

_Wrought iron_ was among the earliest metals employed in the
construction of cannon, but in consequence of the defects which almost
invariably accompany the forging of large masses, it was superseded by
bronze and cast iron to a great extent. Wrought iron is softer than cast
iron, and, being pure iron, is more liable to be corroded by the action
of the atmosphere and products of combustion of the powder; it possesses
also considerable ductility. The tensile strength of wrought iron, which
under the most favorable circumstances is double that of the best cast
iron, depends on the character of the crystalline structure, and the
manner of applying the tensile force, or in other words, wrought iron
offers the greatest resistance to a force of extension when the
structure is fibrous, and the force acts in the direction of the fibres.
The practical difficulties of rapidly cooling large masses so as to form
small crystals, and compressing them by hammering, rolling, or otherwise
to develop and give a particular direction to the fibre, have not thus
far been wholly surmounted. On the contrary, large masses are generally
found to contain such internal defects as false welds, cracks, and a
spongy and irregularly crystalline structure, arising from the more
rapid cooling of the exterior surface.

_Steel_ is a compound of iron and carbon, in which the proportion of the
latter seldom exceeds 1.7 per cent. It may be distinguished from iron by
its fine grain, its susceptibility of hardening by immersing it when hot
in cold water, and with certainty by the action of diluted nitric acid,
which leaves a black spot on steel, and on iron a spot which is lighter
colored in proportion as the iron contains less carbon. For the
construction of cannon, steel may be divided into high and low steel,
the difference being that the former contains more carbon than the
latter. High steel is very hard and has great ultimate tenacity. It has
but little extensibility within or without the elastic limit, and is
therefore too brittle for use in cannon, unless used in such large
masses that the elastic limit will not be exceeded by the explosive
force of the powder. It melts at a lower temperature than wrought iron
and is difficult to weld, as its welding temperature is but little less
than that at which it melts. Low steel is often known as “mild steel,”
“soft steel,” “homogeneous metal,” and “homogeneous iron,” and is made
by fusing wrought iron with carbon in a crucible; after which it is
cast into an ingot and worked under a hammer. As it contains less carbon
than high steel, it has greater specific gravity. It can be welded
without difficulty, although overheating injures it. It more nearly
resembles wrought iron in all its properties, although it has much
greater hardness and ultimate tenacity, and a lower range of ductility
depending on its proportion of carbon. It has less extensibility within
the elastic limit than high steel, but greater beyond it, or in other
words, greater ductility. Its great advantage over wrought iron for
general purposes is that it can be melted at a practicable heat, and run
into large masses possessing soundness and tenacity. Its advantages for
cannon are greater elasticity, tenacity, and hardness. Its tenacity when
suitable for cannon is three times as much as cast gun iron, and
one-half more than the best wrought iron. The principal varieties of
steel are:

_Natural Steel._--This is made principally in Germany, and is used for
making files and other tools. It is obtained by reducing the rich and
pure kinds of iron ore with charcoal, and re-fusing the cast iron so as
to bring it to a malleable state. The India steel, or Wootz, is a
natural steel containing a small proportion of other metals.

_Blistered Steel._--This is prepared by exposing alternate layers of
bar-iron and charcoal in a close furnace for several days. When taken
out the bars are brittle in quality and crystalline in appearance. The
purpose for which the steel is to be used determines the degree of
carbonization. The best qualities of iron (Russian and Swedish) are used
for the finest kind of steel.

_Tilted Steel._--This is blistered steel moderately heated and subjected
to the action of a tilt-hammer, by which means its density and tenacity
are increased.

_Shear Steel._--A blistered or natural steel refined by piling thin bars
into fagots, and then rolling or hammering them into bars, after they
have been brought to a welding heat in a reverberatory furnace. The
quality is improved by a repetition of this process, and the steel is
known accordingly by the names, half shear, single shear, double shear,
etc.

_Cast Steel._--This is made by breaking blistered steel into small
pieces, and melting it in close crucibles from which it is poured into
iron molds. The ingot is then reduced to a bar by hammering or rolling
with great care. Cast steel is the finest kind of steel, and is best
adapted for most purposes; it is known by a very fine, even, and close
grain, and a silvery homogeneous fracture. The most remarkable specimen
of cast steel for tenacity which is on record was manufactured at
Pittsburgh, Pa. It was tested at the Washington Navy-Yard, and found to
sustain 242,000 pounds to the square inch. The strength of cast steel
usually runs from 70 to 140,000 pounds.

_Bessemer Steel._--This steel is produced by forcing air into melted
iron, by means of which the carbon and silicon of the crude cast iron is
oxidized. The essential difference between this process and the ordinary
puddling is mechanical, and consists in the intense and violent stirring
of the Bessemerized iron, to which alone is due the production and
maintenance of a temperature, without any other fuel than the carbon and
silicon contained, that keeps the metal fluid so that it can be cast
into homogeneous malleable ingots. When decarburation has been carried
far enough, the current of air is stopped, and a small quantity of white
pig-iron containing a large amount of manganese is dropped into the
liquid metal. No very large cannon have yet been made wholly of Bessemer
steel, but several small ones have, which have shown great endurance.
Experiments at the Woolwich Arsenal have shown that the tenacity of this
steel is more than doubled by hammering.

_Siemens-Martin._--In this process the ingredients of cast steel are
melted together on the open hearth of a reverberatory furnace of special
construction, and a certain proportion of manganese necessary to make a
sound and practically malleable steel added. This steel is, however,
little used in gun construction.

_Semi-Steel._--If in the process of puddling or decarbonizing cast iron
the process be stopped at a particular time, determined by indications
given by the metal to an experienced eye, an iron is obtained of greater
hardness and strength than ordinary iron, to which the name of
semi-steel, or puddled steel, has been given. The principal difficulty
in its manufacture is that of obtaining uniformity in the product,
homogeneity and solidity throughout the entire mass. It is much improved
by reheating and hammering under a heavy hammer; but it has not been
found a reliable material for even cannon of small caliber. The
celebrated guns made by Mr. Krupp of Germany are of cast steel, made
from puddled steel, and of peculiar character, combining great tensile
strength with the property of stretching to a great extent without
breaking. Sir Joseph Whitworth improves the qualities of steel for his
more recent guns by casting it under hydraulic pressure.

_Chrome Steel._--An alloy of iron and chromium, which is not steel in
the ordinary sense, but which possesses many of its characteristics. The
tensile strength and resistance to crushing is much higher than ordinary
cast steel. This material has been largely used in bridge-building, but
has not yet been applied to cannon-making.

_Bronze_ for cannon (commonly called brass) consists of 90 parts of
copper and 10 of tin, allowing a variation of one part of tin more or
less; by increasing the proportion of tin, bronze becomes harder, but
more brittle and fusible; by diminishing it it becomes too soft for
cannon, and at the same time loses a part of its elasticity. Bronze is
more fusible than copper, much less so than tin. It is harder, less
susceptible of oxidation, and much less ductile than either of its
constituents. Its fracture is of a yellowish color, with little lustre,
a coarse grain, irregular, and often exhibiting spots of tin which are
of a whitish color. The density and tenacity of bronze when cast into
the form of cannon, are found to depend upon the pressure and mode of
cooling. In consequence of the difference of fusibility of tin and
copper, the perfection of the alloy depends much on the nature of the
furnace and the treatment of the melted metal. By these means alone the
tenacity of bronze has been carried up to 60,000 pounds. Bronze is but
slightly corroded by the action of the gases evolved from gunpowder, or
by atmospheric causes; but its tin is liable to be melted away at the
sharp corners by the great heat generated in rapid firing. It is soft,
and therefore liable to serious injury by the bounding of the projectile
in the bore. This injury is augmented as the force of the rebound is
increased by the elasticity of the metal. It was established by
experiments of Maj. Wade of the U. S. Ordnance Corps more than twenty
years ago that the tensile strength of bronze is related to its density.
It has been discovered since that this density can be produced by
artificial compression. Two men claim the honors of the invention--Gen.
Uchatius of the Austrian army, and S. B. Dean, an American inventor. The
methods are essentially the same. After the gun is cast, steel mandrels
slightly conical in shape are driven through the bore by hydraulic
pressure,--each being succeeded by one slightly larger,--thus enlarging
the bore and compressing the metal surrounding it. It is claimed that
the bronze is thus rendered harder and stronger, and the defects above
cited in a large measure obviated. The term “steel bronze” or “bronze
steel” has been applied to the metal so treated. Many guns have been
made of it for the Austrian service,--the largest of which is a 6-inch
breech-loader throwing a projectile of 85 pounds. This gun has proved
itself slightly superior in power to the same sized Krupp gun of steel.

_Aluminium Bronze._--An alloy of 90 parts of copper and 10 of aluminium.
It is harder than ordinary bronze; much stronger, being 100,000 pounds
to the square inch; it does not tarnish readily. Its properties would
seem to especially fit it for a gun metal. _Phosphor bronze_ is an alloy
with very similar properties.

_Combined Metals._--Numerous trials have been made to improve the
strength of cannon by combining two or more metals in such a way that
the good qualities of one will counteract the defects of the others. But
the only metals used to any extent are those described above. Steel is
constantly gaining in favor as a cannon metal. It is now almost
exclusively employed throughout Europe, and wherever the Krupp gun is
used. The great perfection arrived at by Krupp and others in the
manufacture of steel seems to place that metal above all others for gun
construction, whilst the difficulty of handling large masses has been
overcome by the enormous power of the machinery used. Steel is also
sparingly employed both in the United States and England for converting
smooth-bore guns into rifles according to the Palliser method, but
experiments in the United States have shown that it is inferior to
wrought iron for this purpose. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

Wrought and cast iron are much used in this way for cannon in both the
United States and in England. In the former, all the larger cannon
belonging to the official system (both siege and sea-coast) are made of
the cast metal, whereas the Parrott gun and the new rifled pieces are a
combination of both. (See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) The metal chiefly
employed in England is wrought iron, in combination with steel; the
largest guns made at the Woolwich Arsenal are of this nature. Bronze,
except as modified by the Austrians, has now nearly entirely gone out of
use as a cannon metal. In France and the United States, field-pieces,
mortars, and howitzers are still made of this material.

=Ordnance, Strains Upon.= The exterior form of cannon is determined by
the variable thickness of the metal which surrounds the bore at
different points of its length. In general terms, the thickness is
greatest at the seat of the charge, and least at or near the muzzle.
This arrangement is made on account of the variable action of the powder
and projectile along the bore, and the necessity of disposing the metal
in the safest and most economical manner. The pressure at different
points may be approximately determined by calculation, or, more
accurately, by experiment. In the latter method, the plan generally
employed consists in boring a series of small holes through the side of
a gun at right angles to its axis at known distances apart. A steel ball
is projected from each hole in succession into a target, or ballistic
pendulum, by the force of the charge acting through it, and the pressure
at the various points is deduced from the velocities communicated to
these balls. This method was adopted by Col. Bomford. Instead of the
projectile a steel punch may be employed, which is pressed by the force
of the charge into a piece of soft copper. (See PRESSURE-GAUGE.) The
weight necessary to make an equal indentation in the same piece is then
ascertained by a testing machine. The strains to which all fire-arms are
subjected may be classified as follows: (1) The tangential strain which
tends to split the piece open longitudinally, and is similar in its
action to the force which bursts the hoops of a barrel. (2) The
longitudinal strain which acts to pull the piece apart in the direction
of its length. Its action is greatest at or near the bottom of the
bore, and least at the muzzle, where it is nothing; these two strains
increase the volume of the metal to which they are applied. (3) A strain
of compression which acts from the axis outward to crush the truncated
wedges of which a unit of length of the piece may be supposed to
consist; this strain compresses the metal and enlarges the bore. (4) A
transverse strain which acts to break transversely by bending outward
the staves of which the piece may be supposed to consist. This strain
compresses the metal on the inner and extends it on the outer surface.
It is known that rupture will take place due to the tangential strain
alone, when three times the pressure upon a unit of surface of the bore
is greater than twice the tensile strength. Due to the longitudinal
strain alone, rupture will take place in the direction of the length,
when the pressure is greater than twice the tensile strength; and if the
transverse strain alone is considered, rupture will take place when
twice the pressure is greater than three times the tensile strength. It
therefore appears that the tendency to rupture is greater from the
action of the tangential force than from any other, and for lengths
above two, or perhaps three calibers, the tangential resistance may be
said to act alone, as the aid derived from the transverse resistance
will be but trifling for greater lengths of bore; but for lengths of
bore less than two calibers, this resistance will be aided by both the
transverse and the longitudinal resistance. Every piece should therefore
have sufficient thickness of breech to prevent splitting through the
latter; after this point has been attained, any additional thickness of
breech adds nothing to the strength of the piece. It therefore appears
that a fire-arm is strongest at or near the bottom of the bore, and that
its strength is diminished rapidly as the length of the bore increases
to a certain point (probably not more than three calibers from the
bottom); after which, for equal thickness of metal, its strength becomes
sensibly uniform. The metals of which cannon are made being crystalline
in structure, the size and arrangement of the crystals have an important
influence on its strength to resist a particular force; and a metal will
have the greatest strength with reference to a particular force when its
crystals are small, and the principal faces are parallel to the
straining force, if it be one of extension, and perpendicular to it, if
it be one of compression. The position of the principal crystalline
faces of a cooling solid is found to be perpendicular to the cooling
surface; the result of this arrangement of crystals is to create planes
of weakness where the different systems of crystals intersect. The
effect of this law upon cannons, it has been discovered, is to render
radial specimens more tenacious than those cut tangentially from the
same gun. The manner and rapidity of cooling have also a great effect
upon the ability of cannon to resist strains, and as all solid bodies
contract their size in the operation of cooling, it follows that if the
different parts of a cannon cool unequally, it will change its form,
provided it be not restrained by the presence of a superior force. If it
be so restrained, the contractile force will diminish the adhesion of
the parts by an amount which depends on the rate of cooling of the
different parts, and the contractibility of the metal. This is an
important consideration in estimating the strength and endurance of
cannon, particularly those made of cast iron. All such cannon cooled
from the exterior (see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF) are affected by two
straining forces; the outer portion of the metal being compressed, and
the interior extended, in proportion to their distances from the neutral
axis or line composed of particles which are neither extended nor
compressed by the cooling process. The effect of this unequal
contraction may be so great as to crack the interior metal of cast iron
even before it has been subjected to the force of gunpowder. The strain
produced by the explosion of gunpowder is not distributed equally over
the thickness of metal, but it varies inversely as the square of the
distance from the centre; it therefore follows that the sides of a
cannon are not rent asunder as by a simple tensile force, but they are
torn apart like a piece of cloth, commencing at the surface of the bore.
Hence it is that the effect of ordinary cooling is to diminish the
strength and hardness of the metal of cannon at or near a point where
the greatest strength and hardness are required, _i.e._, at the surface
of the bore. The strains produced by unequal cooling increase with the
diameter of the casting and the irregularity of its form. This explains
the great difficulty found in making large cast-iron cannon
proportionally as strong as small ones, and also how projections like
bands, moldings, etc., injure the strength of cannon. It also explains
why cannon made of “light” cast iron, or cast iron made more tenacious
by partial decarbonization, are not so strong as cannon made of weaker
iron; for it is well known that such iron contracts more than the latter
in cooling, and therefore produces a greater strain of extension on the
surface of the bore. Capt. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Department has
proposed a plan for cooling cannon from the interior (see ORDNANCE,
CONSTRUCTION OF), thereby reversing the strains produced by external
cooling, and making them contribute to the endurance rather than to the
injury of the piece. It is likely, however, that the strains produced by
unequal cooling are modified by time, which probably allows the
particles to accommodate themselves to a certain extent to their
constrained position. In confirmation of this, great endurance has been
frequently found in _old_ solid cast guns, as in the old 42-pounders
tested about the beginning of the war, 1861-65.

=Ordnance Department.= In the United States, was first established May
14, 1812, and was not provided for in the reduction of the army in 1815,
but continued in the service. In 1821 the department was merged into the
artillery, attaching to each regiment of artillery 1 supernumerary
captain, and giving to each company 4 subaltern officers. The corps of
ordnance was re-established April 5, 1832. The department consists of 1
brigadier-general, 3 colonels, 4 lieutenant-colonels, 10 majors, 20
captains, 16 first lieutenants, and 350 enlisted men. It is the duty of
the senior officer of the ordnance department to direct the inspection
and proving of all pieces of ordnance, shot, shells, small-arms, and
equipments procured for the use of the armies of the United States; and
to direct the construction of all cannon and carriages, and every
implement and apparatus for ordnance, and all ammunition-wagons,
traveling-forges, and artificers’ wagons; the inspection and proving of
powder, and the preparation of all kinds of ammunition and ordnance
stores. It is also the duty of the senior officer of the ordnance
department to furnish estimates, and, under the direction of the
Secretary of War, to make contracts and purchases for procuring the
necessary supplies of arms, ordnance, and ordnance stores, etc. In the
British service, the ordnance department was a distinct branch of the
war department, originally for the supply of all warlike stores used in
the naval or military service. The first master of ordnance was created
in the time of Henry VIII., and the Tower of London was probably the
depot of arms and military stores; Robert, earl of Essex, is said to
have been the first master-general, in 1596. It does not appear that the
ordnance department of the British service became especially military
until the early part of the 18th century, after the organization of the
Royal Artillery, in 1743, under the Duke of Montague as master-general.
From this time the ordnance department was administered by a
master-general and board, the latter being composed of a
lieutenant-general of ordnance, surveyor-general, clerk of the ordnance,
principal store-keeper, clerk of the deliveries, and treasurer. About
1763 the department became a construction board, with charge of all
forts and fortresses, and directed the construction of all the
fortifications and military store-houses, and barracks for the ordnance
corps. The board was finally abolished as a separate department, the
duties carried on by the commander-in-chief, and the various civil
branches by separate offices under the secretary of state for war.

=Ordnance Office.= Before the invention of guns, this office was
supplied by officers under the following names: the bowyer, the
cross-bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the armorer, and the
keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. placed under the management of a
master-general, a lieutenant, surveyor, etc. The master-general was
chosen from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign.
The appointment was formerly for life; but since the restoration, was
held _durante bene placito_, and not unfrequently by a cabinet minister.
The letters patent for this office were revoked May 25, 1855, and its
duties vested in the minister of war. The last master-general was Lord
Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards Lord Raglan.

=Ordnance Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Ordnance Sergeants.= In the U. S. service, are staff sergeants who are
selected from the sergeants of the line of the army. Their duties
consist in receiving and preserving the ordnance, arms, ammunition, and
other ordnance stores at posts, under the direction of the commanding
officer of the same. They must not be confounded with sergeants of
ordnance, who are sergeants in the ordnance detachments at arsenals,
etc.

=Ordnance Store-keeper.= In the British service, is a civil officer in
the artillery who has charge of all the stores, for which he is
accountable to the office of ordnance.

=Ordnance Store-keeper.= In the U. S. army, an officer of the ordnance
department who holds the rank of captain. The grade has been abolished
by act of Congress, and the duties appertaining to the office will be
performed by other officers of the ordnance department.

=Ordnance Stores.= See ORDNANCE.

=Oregon.= One of the Pacific States of the American Confederacy. Oregon
was the name formerly given to the whole territory north of the Rocky
Mountains, and was first claimed by the Spanish government, and next by
the government of the United States, as far as lat. 54° 40′ N. This
latter claim was resisted by the British government, which asserted a
right to the entire territory, and in 1818 a treaty was made, and
renewed in 1827, giving joint occupation to the disputed territory. In
1846 a treaty was concluded, by which the boundary was settled on the
49th parallel. Previous to this latter treaty (1839) emigration from the
United States, for the purpose of settlement, commenced, and it
continued steadily until the opening of the gold mines in California,
which attracted a great many emigrants. In 1849 it formed a Territorial
government, and in 1859 it was admitted into the Union as a State. This
State has been troubled greatly by Indians, and has been the scene of
several wars in earlier days, notably, in 1853, on Rogue River; in 1855,
when a general outbreak took place, of which the following is a brief
summary: In 1855 a war broke out between the whites and the Indians of
Washington Territory. The head and front of the outbreak on the part of
the Indians was Kam-ai-a-kin. He took this stand from a fixed principle:
that of resisting all encroachments on the part of the whites. He had
seen the fate of the Indian race in the Willamette Valley, and he
determined to anticipate such a result with regard to his own people,
and, if possible, to prevent it. When Gov. Stevens made his arbitrary
treaties with him, and left him no discretion but to sell his land; and
when the miners began to traverse his country, he concluded that the
hour had arrived to fight, and he called to his aid as many of the
adjoining tribes as he could persuade into it. The manner in which the
treaties on Puget Sound were conducted created great dissatisfaction
among the Indians, and they were quite ready to join Kam-ai-a-kin. The
war commenced by the killing of miners, who were picked off in the
Yakama country as they were going to Fort Colville, scarcely a month
after the council which was held at Walla Walla. The killing of the
agent Bolen set the war in a blaze. The small detachment of troops sent
to chastise them was driven back. This success on the part of the
Klickatats encouraged the Sound Indians, who also took up arms, and in
the absence of troops, fell upon and killed the inhabitants of White
River; but the wholesale slaughter of women and children by a party
under the command of Major Lupton on October 8, 1855, drove the Indians
to desperation and caused them to commence the war in earnest;
hostilities continued until the summer of 1856. Also, in later years,
the Modoc war (1872), the Nez Pérces (1877), and the Bannock war (1878).

=Oreillere= (_Fr._). Oreillet, ear-piece of an ancient helmet, shaped
like an oyster-shell, for protecting the ear and cheek.

=Oreillon= (_Fr._). Ear of a sword, languet, or small slip of metal on
the hilt, which, when the sword is sheathed, extends along the scabbard.

=Organization.= The act of assigning and putting troops into such
uniform state of discipline as may fit them to co-operate on any
service. _Organization_ may be said to be begun by grouping those
combatants who have the same mode of action. These groups are known as
“arms of service.” An arm of service may be defined to be “a union of
combatants having the same mode of action.” There are four of these arms
in modern armies, viz.: _Infantry_, _Cavalry_, _Artillery_, and
_Engineers_. These four arms form the principal part of a mobilized
army, and as they or their representatives are always formed into a line
of battle to resist the attack of an enemy, or to make an attack, they
are generally known as the “line of the army” or “troops of the line,”
to distinguish them from other bodies of men who form parts of an army.
These _arms_ are subdivided into fractions for the purpose of
instruction and of supply. The unit for instruction and the unit for
supply may be the same or different. The unit of supply, as a general
rule, is constant, and is also usually the unit of instruction in
discipline. The unit of instruction in tactics will depend upon
circumstances, and upon the kind of movements the commander desires to
make. The common unit for the four arms, for supplying the men’s wants
and for instruction in discipline, is the “company.” This unit receives,
at other times, other names, depending upon circumstances. For instance,
a _battery_ of artillery is the same as company; the term _squadron_ of
cavalry frequently means a company, etc.

_A company_ consists of a given number of men commanded by a
commissioned officer who has the rank of captain. Two, sometimes three,
and even more commissioned officers of a grade below that of captain are
appointed to assist the captain in the discharge of his duties. These
officers have the grade of lieutenant. Their number and the number of
men forming a company are fixed by law. A certain number are selected
from the men and appointed non-commissioned officers, with the rank of
sergeant or of corporal. These non-commissioned officers are used to
instruct the men in their military duties and in discipline. The whole
company should be divided into _squads_ of equal numbers, and each squad
placed under the charge of a non-commissioned officer, who should be
held responsible for the cleanliness of the men of his squad, not only
as to their persons, clothing, and arms, but as to their tents or
quarters. The _company_, with its size based on the theory that it must
not be larger than one man on foot can thoroughly command in person, is
the unit of organization. Two or three or more companies form a
_battalion_. Four, and at the outside, five companies placed in line
form, in these times, so extended a line that a single person in
immediate and personal command of them will find difficulty in making
himself heard and understood throughout the entire line. For this reason
the battalion should not, as a rule, contain more than four companies.

_The battalion_ is the _tactical_ unit, both for instruction in tactics
and in the execution of its movements. The battalion is sometimes made a
unit of administration, and forms a complete organization under the
command of a commissioned officer of the grade of major or
lieutenant-colonel. The more usual rule is to increase the number of
companies so as to have enough to form at least two battalions, and with
these companies to form the organization known as a _regiment_.

_The regiment_ is always an _administrative_ unit, and is commanded by a
commissioned officer who has the grade of _colonel_. The colonel is
charged with the proper administration of the supplies for the regiment,
and with preserving good order and promoting discipline. He takes every
opportunity to instruct both the officers and men in the principles and
details of all movements that ought in any case to be made by a
battalion. Upon the organization of a regiment, the company officers are
assigned to companies, and each company is designated by a letter of the
alphabet. Upon the recommendation of the captains, the colonel appoints
the non-commissioned officers of the companies. He appoints an adjutant
from the lieutenants of the regiment, and a non-commissioned staff from
the enlisted men, to assist him in his duties. He selects from the
lieutenants a quartermaster, whose appointment is confirmed by the
Secretary of War.

The elements of organization for the other three arms of service are
practically the same, being that of a company or similar body of men
under the command of a captain, and these units grouped together into a
battalion or regimental organization for administrative purposes. This
subdivision into companies and into regiments is most essential for
instruction in discipline.

_Discipline_ is an indispensable condition for the existence of a good
army. It imparts _cohesion_ and _flexibility_ to the armed mass. Without
discipline an army is only an armed mob over which a commander would
have no control, and upon which he could not rely in the execution of
his plans. When the army is to be mobilized the regiments are brought
together and organized into _brigades_ and _divisions_. Two or more
regiments form a brigade; two or more brigades form a division. A
general officer of the grade of _brigadier-general_ is assigned to the
command of a brigade, and one of the grade of _major-general_ to the
command of a division. These divisions and brigades may be composed
entirely of one arm, or they may be composed of troops belonging to all
four of the arms.

_The division_ is the unit of organization and administration of a
mobilized army, and is also the _tactical_ unit of the general in
command. When the army is very large, three or four divisions are joined
together and form an _army corps_. The officer commanding an army corps
should be of a higher grade than he who commands a division. This grade
in the U. S. army would be that of _lieutenant-general_.

_An army corps_ is most generally composed of all arms of service, and
is, to all intents and purposes, an army complete in itself. Two or more
army corps or armies would be under the command of the _general_, or of
a “general-in-chief.” There has arisen an organization forming an
essential part of every army, known as the _general staff_, and divided
into corps and departments to which are assigned special duties. In some
cases, the term “general staff” is limited to include only those
officers who are used by the general to communicate his orders, and to
inform him of the general and particular conditions of the troops; and
the term “staff department” or “supply department” is used to include
those officers whose duties are confined to distinct branches of service
having for their object the supply of troops. If the army is one of very
great size, the general ordinarily attaches to his headquarters a
representative of the three arms of artillery, cavalry, and engineers,
giving them the position of staff-officers with the name of “chief of
artillery,” “chief of cavalry,” etc. They are required to keep the
general informed of the state of supplies, and whatever concerns their
particular arm, in a similar manner to that required by the other
officers of the staff. The general also appoints from the subordinate
officers belonging to his command a certain number of _aides-de-camp_.
These officers are _ex officio_ adjutants-general, and receive orders
from the general himself. They are confidential officers, who are
supposed to be used only in delicate and difficult duties, where they
may in a degree represent the general. Hence, they are intrusted to
deliver verbal orders which cannot be intrusted with propriety to
enlisted men or to the ordinary means of communication.

_Proportion of Arms of Service._--The mass of a modern army is composed
of infantry. The amount of cavalry will depend upon the topographical
features of the country, being in some cases as much as one-fourth of
the infantry, and in others as little as one-tenth. The amount of light
artillery depends upon the character of the country. There should be at
least two guns to every thousand men. The quantity of heavy artillery,
or number of siege-batteries, which enter the composition of an army,
will depend to a great extent upon the plan of campaign and the probable
use for which they may be intended. The circumstances of the case in
each campaign will therefore decide as to the proportion to be employed.
The number of engineer troops will depend both on the nature of the
country and on the probable amount of work which will be required from
this class of troops. Each division should contain at least one company
of engineer troops. It is usual, if there be none, to detail one or more
companies of infantry to act as engineer soldiers; they are designated
as “pioneers.” These engineer troops, or troops acting in that capacity,
marching in the advance, make the roads practicable for the command by
repairing them, removing obstructions, etc. At the crossing of streams,
where bridges are to be made, or where existing bridges are to be
repaired to an extent requiring more knowledge of bridge construction
than that usually possessed by the pioneer, another detachment of troops
belonging to the engineer arm is brought forward to do the work. These
troops are known as _pontoniers_, and have special charge of bridge
construction for the army. They may be divided into two parts: one to
have charge of construction of temporary bridges, especially of floating
and trestle bridges, and construction of ferries; the other to have
charge of repairs of bridges which have been broken or injured by the
enemy, and where quick repair is of importance to an army’s movements.
These troops charged with bridge construction usually form a part of the
reserve, and are only attached to a division under peculiar
circumstances. There should be also in the reserve several companies of
sappers and miners; their number, like the heavy artillery, being
dependent upon the nature of the campaign.

_The army_, as a machine, is now ready to be used by the general. The
next step is to keep it in a condition so that it can be used; in other
words, to _preserve_ the fighting condition of the army. The discipline
and drill have been cared for, and with the organization just sketched
out, the general can move the whole mass as a unit in accordance with
his will. The army can be kept ready for use only by supplying all the
actual and necessary wants of the soldier, and by keeping him in comfort
and good health. To do this there must be ammunition, clothing, food,
shelter, medicines, surgical attendance, hospital comforts, etc.,
provided for his use. Also a good system of recruiting must be adopted,
by means of which the natural losses due to sickness and death may be
made good.

_The transportation_ of the munitions, equipments, provisions, hospital
supplies, tents, engineering tools, bridge equipage and boats, baggage,
cooking utensils, etc., necessary for the use of an army moving against
an enemy, requires the use of large numbers of wagons and a great number
of draught animals, which of course should not exceed the absolute
necessity of the service. These accompaniments to the army received from
the Romans the name of _impedimenta_, for the reason that they hindered
the movement of the army. These supply departments form important parts
of the composition of a modern army, and the method of executing the
duties assigned them constitutes an important branch of the “science and
art of war.”--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Organize.= To arrange or constitute in parts, each having a special
function, act, office, or relation; as, to organize an army, etc.

=Orgue= (Fr. _un orgue_). A term used to express that arrangement or
disposition of a certain quantity of musket-barrels in a row, which, by
means of a priming train of gunpowder, may be subjected to one general
explosion. This machine has been found extremely serviceable in the
defense of a low flank, a tenaille, or to prevent an enemy from crossing
the ditch of a fortified place.

=Orgues.= Are beams of wood hanging perpendicularly over the entrance of
a fortified town, which were formerly used as a portcullis, to be
dropped in case of any emergency. They are not now used.

=Orient.= The east or eastern part of the horizon. In surveying, _to
orient_ a plan signifies to make its situation or bearing with respect
to the four cardinal points.

=Oriflamme=, or =Auriflamme=. A banner which originally belonged to the
abbey of St. Denis, and was borne by the counts of Vexin, patrons of
that church, but which, after the country of Vexin fell into the hands
of the French crown, became the principal banner of the kingdom. It was
charged with a saltire wavy or, with rays issuing from the centre
crossways. In later times the oriflamme became the insignia of the
French infantry. The name seems also to have been given to other flags;
the oriflamme borne at Agincourt was an oblong red flag split into five
parts.

=Orihuela.= A town of Spain, in Valencia, on the Segura, 31 miles
southwest from Alicante. It was a place of some importance in the
Moorish invasion, and was held in 713 successfully by Theodoric against
Abd-el-Aziz after the battle of the Guadalete. It was conquered in 1265
by Don Jaime of Aragon for his father-in-law, Don Alonso, king of
Castile. The city was sacked in 1520 in the civil war at that time
raging, and again in the War of the Succession, 1706. It was held for
some time in 1837 by the Carlist general Forcadell.

=Orillon.= This may be described as a projection at the shoulder of a
bastion beyond the ordinary flank of a curved portion of rampart and
parapet, the curve being convex to the ditch. The orillon, introduced
during the 17th century, was generally used in conjunction with a
retired flank, made ordinarily with a curve concave to the ditch. Both
orillon and retired flank are now obsolete.

=Orissa.= An extensive province of Hindostan, in the Deccan. A race of
Hindoo princes governed the country till 1592, when they were conquered
by the viceroy of Akbar. The French, who had taken possession of a part
of the country long known as the Northern Circars, attempted to drive
the English (who had formed commercial settlements on the coast) out of
India. The result of the contest for supremacy in India between the
French and English is well known. The Mahrattas, who had seized a
portion of Orissa in 1740, were forced to surrender it to the English in
1803. The soldiers of the East India Company were marched into Orissa at
the commencement of the present century, and an engagement was
subsequently entered into between the Company and the native chiefs and
princes, by which the former bound themselves to perform certain
services for the country (as maintaining the river-banks in good
repair), while the latter engaged to pay a yearly tribute.

=Orizaba.= A town of Mexico, in the department of Vera Cruz, 60 miles
southwest from Vera Cruz. It was occupied by Gen. Prim, in command of
the Spanish troops that formed part of the expedition sent by England,
France, and Spain to Mexico in March, 1862. A conference was held here
shortly after the occupation of the town between the plenipotentiaries
of the three powers, when the English and Spanish commissioners
determined to withdraw their contingents from Mexico, in accordance with
the terms of the treaty of Soledad, while the French on the other hand
resolved to push on to the capital, to establish a settled government in
the country in lieu of that of Juarez.

=Orkney Islands= (anc. _Orcades_). A cluster of islands in the North
Sea, separated from the north coast of Scotland by the Pentland Firth.
From an early period the Norsemen resorted to these islands as a
convenient spot from which to make a descent on the Scotch and English
coasts. In 876 Harald Haarfager conquered both them and the Hebrides;
they were conquered by Magnus III. of Norway in 1499, and were ceded to
James III. in 1469.

=Orle.= In heraldry, one of the charges known under the charge of
sub-ordinaries, said to be the diminutive of a bordure, but differing
from it in being detached from the sides of the shield. Or an orle gules
was the coat borne by John Baliol. An orle of heraldic charges of any
kind denotes a certain number (generally eight) of these charges placed
in orle, as in the coat of the old Scottish family of Gladstanes of that
Ilk; argent, a savage’s head couped, distilling drops of blood proper,
thereon a bonnet composed of bay and holly leaves all proper, within an
orle of eight martlets sable.

=Orléans.= An important town of France, capital of the department of
Loiret, 75 miles south-southwest from Paris by railway. Orléans,
originally called _Genabum_, afterwards _Aureliani_ (probably from the
emperor Aurelian), was besieged by Attila in 451, but relieved by the
Romans, who here defeated Attila. It afterwards passed into the hands of
the Franks, was taken by the Northmen in 855, and again in 865. In 1428
it was besieged by the English under the Duke of Bedford, but was
delivered from the besiegers by the inspiriting exertions of Joan of
Arc, who on this account is also named the Maid of Orléans. In the civil
wars of the 16th century it was besieged in 1563 by the Duke of Guise,
who was assassinated before the walls. During the Franco-Prussian war,
1870-71, Orléans was occupied by the Germans, September 27, and
evacuated November 10, 1870.

=Ormskirk.= A town of England, county of Lancaster, 12 miles north by
east from Liverpool. Near this place, in 1644, the royalists were
defeated by the Parliamentary troops with great slaughter.

=Ormus=, or =Ormuz=. A small island in the strait of the same name, at
the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and within 10 miles of the Persian
coast. It is about 12 miles in circumference, and belongs to the sultan
of Muscat. It was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century. The
town was demolished in 1622 by Shah Abbas, assisted by the English, and
its trade was removed to Gombroon.

=Ornamental Fireworks.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Ornaments, Military.= Are those parts of the dress of a soldier which
are more for appearance or distinction than for absolute use, as plates
for belts, trimmings, etc.

=Orneæ.= An ancient town in Argolis, near the frontiers of the territory
of Philius, and 120 stadia from Argus. It was originally independent of
Argos, but was subdued by the Argives in the Peloponnesian war, 415 B.C.

=Orteil.= See BERME.

=Ortelsburg.= A town of East Prussia, in the government of Königsberg,
80 miles southeast of Königsberg. Several engagements took place here
between the French and Russians in 1807.

=Orthez=, or =Orthes=. A town of France, in the department of the Lower
Pyrenees, situated on the Gave de Pau, 25 miles northwest from Pau. It
suffered much during the civil wars in France after the Revolution. Near
this town the British and Spanish armies commanded by Wellington
defeated the French under Soult, February 27, 1814.

=Ortona.= An ancient city of Latium, situated on the confines of the
Æquian territory. It is twice mentioned during the wars of the Romans
with the latter people: first in 481 B.C., when it was besieged and
taken by the Æquians; and again in 457 B.C., when the Æquians by a
sudden attack took Corbio, and after putting to the sword the Roman
garrison there, made themselves masters of Ortona also; but the consul
Horatius engaged and defeated them at Mount Algidus, and after driving
them from that position, recovered possession both of Corbio and Ortona.
No mention of it is found in later times, and it probably ceased to
exist.

=Orvieto.= Called in the time of the Longobards _Urbs Vetus_, of which
its present name is a corruption, a city of Italy, province of Perugia;
is of Etruscan origin, but of its early history nothing is known. It has
been a place of residence and retreat in turbulent times of upwards of
thirty popes.

=Osage Indians.= A tribe of aborigines of Dakota stock who are located,
to the number of about 2500, on a reservation in Indian Territory. They
are divided into eight bands,--the Beavers, Big Chiefs, Big Hills, Black
Dogs, Clammores, Half-Breeds, Little Osages, and White Hairs, and have
made but little progress in civilization.

=Oschatz.= A town of Saxony, circle of Leipsic, 31 miles east-southeast
from Leipsic. It was here that the treaty of peace was concluded between
Frederick the Great and the empress Maria Theresa which put an end to
the Seven Years’ War, in 1763.

=Osci=, or =Opici=. One of the most ancient tribes of Italy; they
inhabited the centre of the peninsula, from which they had driven out
the Siculi. Their principal settlement was in Campania, but we also find
them in parts of Latium and Samnium. They were subdued by the Sabines
and Tyrrhenians, and disappeared from history at a comparatively early
period. They were called in their own language _Uskus_.

=Osnabruck=, or =Osnaburg=. A town in Hanover, 71 miles from Hanover.
Here was concluded the peace of Westphalia in 1648.

=Ossun.= A town of France, in the department of the Upper Pyrenees, 7
miles southwest from Tarbes. A great battle was fought with the
Saracens, in the 8th century, in its neighborhood.

=Ostend.= A fortified seaport town of Belgium, province of West
Flanders, situated on the coast of the North Sea, 67 miles northwest
from Brussels. During the war of the Dutch against Spain, Ostend
sustained a memorable siege for more than three years (1601-4). So
tremendous was the bombardment that the noise of the Spanish artillery
is said to have been occasionally heard at London. At last, after a loss
of 50,000 men on the part of the garrison, and 80,000 on that of the
Spaniards, the town surrendered on honorable terms, and the Spanish
general Spinola was put in possession of Ostend, now reduced to heaps of
ruin. On the death of Charles II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend;
but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the allies.
It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756
the French garrisoned this town for the empress queen Maria Theresa. In
1792 the French once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, but
regained in 1794. The English destroyed the works of the Bruges Canal;
but the wind shifting before they could re-embark, they surrendered to
the French, May 19, 1798.

=Ostrolenka.= A town of Poland, on the Narew. Near here the French
repulsed the Russians under Essen, February 16, 1807, and an indecisive
and bloody engagement took place between the Poles under Skrzynecki and
the Russians under Diebitsch, May 26, 1831.

=Ostrovno.= A village of Russia, in the government of Mohilev, 90 miles
northwest from Mohilev. The Russians were defeated here in 1812 by the
French.

=Oswego, Fort.= See FORT ONTARIO.

=Oswestry.= A town of England, in Shropshire, 15 miles northwest from
Shrewsbury. Oswestry is said to derive its name (originally
_Oswaldstree_) from Oswald, the king of Northumbria, who was slain here
in the early part of the 7th century, in a battle fought with the
ferocious Penda, king of Mercia.

=Otaheite=, or =Tahiti=. The largest of a cluster of islands in the
South Pacific Ocean, that were frequently visited by Capt. Cook, and
named by him the Society Islands. In 1799, King Pomare ceded the
district of Matavai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was
compelled to put herself under the protection of France, September 7,
1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the neighboring islands were taken
possession of by Admiral Dupetit-Thuars in the name of the French king,
November, 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Prichard, the English consul,
March 5, 1844, but the act was censured in France.

=Otchakow.= A small town and seaport of South Russia, in the government
of Kherson, 40 miles east-northeast from Odessa. During the Russian wars
with Turkey in the 18th century, Otchakow was alternately the property
of each, until it was taken by Potemkin in 1788, and definitively
annexed to the Russian dominions.

=Otoes.= A tribe of Indians of Dakota stock who reside with the
Missourias on a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally peaceful and
industrious, and number with their kindred tribe about 450.

=Otomis=, or =Othomis=. An ancient tribe of Indians who are said to have
inhabited the Valley of Mexico before the Aztecs. They are now scattered
through different parts of the country, and having lost all tribal
distinctions are become amalgamated with other Mexican races.

=Otricoli.= A town of Italy, 37 miles north of Rome. The Neapolitans
were defeated by the French in its neighborhood in 1798.

=Ottawas.= A tribe of Algonkin Indians, who formerly resided on the
shores of Lake Erie. They subsequently moved to Kansas, and in 1870
settled in Indian Territory, where they now prosper. They are well
advanced in civilization. A number of this tribe settled in Canada,
where their descendants may yet be found; some are also settled on Lake
Michigan with the Chippewas.

=Otterburn= (or Chevy Chase), =Battle of=. Was fought in August, 1388; a
fight which Froissart declares to have been the bravest and most
chivalrous which was fought in his day. According to the ballad (named
Chevy Chase) Percy vowed that he would enter Scotland and take his
pleasure for three days in the woods of his rival, and slay the deer
therein at will. Douglas, when he heard the vaunt, exclaimed, “Tell him
he will find one day more than enough.” Accordingly, at the time of the
hay harvest, Percy, with stag-hounds and archers, passed into the
domains of his foe, and slew a “hundred fallow deer and harts of grice.”
When the English had hastily cooked their game and were about to retire,
Earl Douglas, clad in armor and heading his Scottish spears, came on the
scene. Haughty challenge and defiance passed between the potentates, and
the battle joined. In the centre of the fray the two leaders met. “Yield
thee, Percy!” cried Douglas. “I will yield to no Scot that was ever born
of a woman!” cried Percy. During this colloquy, an English arrow struck
Douglas to the heart. “Fight on, my merry men!” cried he, as he died.
Percy, with all the chivalrous feeling of his race, took the dead man by
the hand, and vowed that he would have given all his lands to save him,
for a braver knight never fell by such a chance. Sir Hugh Montgomery
having seen the fall of Douglas, clapped spurs to his horse, dashed on
Percy, and struck his spear through his body, a long cloth-yard and
more. Although the leaders on both sides had fallen, the battle, which
had begun at break of day, continued till the ringing of the
curfew-bell. Scotsmen and Englishmen claim the victory. When the battle
ended, representatives of every noble family on either side of the
border lay on the bloody greensward.

=Oude=, or =Oudh=. A province of British India, separated on the north
from Nepaul by the lower ranges of the Himalaya, whence it gradually
slopes to the Ganges, which forms its boundary on the south and
southwest. The people of this province are of a decidedly warlike
disposition; they mainly supply the famous (or infamous) Sepoys of the
Bengal army. Oude is believed by Sanscrit scholars to be the ancient
Kosala, the oldest seat of civilization in India. The country was
conquered by a Mohammedan army in 1195, and made a province of the Mogul
empire. In 1753 the vizier of Oude, Saffdar Jung, rebelled against his
imperial master, Ahmed Shah, and forced the latter to make the
governorship hereditary in his family. When the mutiny of 1857 broke
out, Oude became one of the great centres of rebellion. The country was
subdued by the British.

=Oudenarde= (Fr. _Audenarde_). A town of Belgium, in East Flanders, 14
miles southwest from Ghent. The town was taken by the French, aided by
an English force, in 1658; it was again besieged in 1674 by the
stadtholder William (III. of England) of Orange; and in 1706 it was
taken by Marlborough. An attempt made by the French to retake it brought
on the famous battle of Oudenarde, one of Marlborough’s most celebrated
victories, which was gained on July 11, 1708, with the aid of Prince
Eugène, over a French army under the Duke of Burgundy and Marshal
Villars. After this battle the French king made offers of peace, which
were not accepted.

=Oulart= (Southeast Ireland). Here 5000 Irish insurgents attacked the
king’s troops in small number, May 27, 1798. The North Cork militia,
after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, 5 men only escaping.

=Ourique.= A town of Portugal, province of Alemtijo, 30 miles southwest
of Beja. Hero Alfonso, count or duke of Portugal, is said to have
encountered and signally defeated five Saracen kings and a prodigious
army of Moors, July 25, 1139, and to have been hailed king on the spot.
Lisbon, the capital, was taken, and he soon after was here crowned as
the first king, the Moorish dominion being overthrown.

=Outbar.= To shut out by fortification.

=Outbrave.= To excel in bravery or boldness; to defy.

=Outfit.= In the British service, is the necessaries, uniform, etc.,
which an officer provides when he is gazetted to a regiment, or as
proceeding to India. No allowance is made for an outfit, excepting in
case of officers first promoted from the ranks, when £100 is granted to
infantry and £150 to cavalry officers.

=Outflank.= To go beyond on the flank or side; to get the better of, as
by extending one’s lines beyond or around that of one’s enemy.

=Outgeneral.= To exceed in generalship; to gain advantage over by
superior military skill.

=Outguard.= A guard at a distance from the main body of an army; or a
guard at the farthest distance; hence, anything for defense placed at a
distance from the thing to be defended.

=Outline=, or =Tracing=. Is the succession of lines that show the figure
of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive masses
are laid out, in order to obtain a proper defense.

=Outlyers.= In the British service, formerly this term applied to men
who were permitted to work, on condition that the whole of their pay was
left in the hands of their captain for the time they were so employed.
This sum the officer appropriated to his own use, to enable him to
increase his pay and to keep a handsome table when he mounted guard. It
was also a common practice to place on the muster-rolls the names of
officers’ children, and instances have occurred of girls receiving men’s
pay as outlyers.

=Outlying.= Lying or being at a distance from the main body; as,
outlying pickets. Also, being on the exterior or frontier.

=Outmanœuvre.= To surpass in manœuvring.

=Outmarch.= To march faster than; to march so as to leave behind; as,
the horse outmarched the foot.

=Outnumber.= To exceed in number; as, the French were outnumbered.

=Outpart.= At a distance from the main body.

=Out-pensioner.= A pensioner attached to a hospital, as Greenwich or
Chelsea, England, who has liberty to live where he pleases.

=Outpost.= A post or station without the limits of a camp, or at a
distance from the main body of an army. The troops placed at such a
station.

=Outposts.= The term, _outposts_, is used at the present time to
designate the particular detachments of troops and the method of
arranging them, by means of which an army when in bivouac, in camp, or
in cantonment, is protected _from surprise_ by an enemy.

=Outrank.= To take the precedence of, or be superior to, in rank; to
rank.

=Out-sentry.= A sentry who guards the entrance or approach to a place;
an outguard.

=Outside.= In fencing, that part which is to the right of the line of
defense.

=Outside Guard.= A guard used with the broadsword and sabre, to defend
the outside of the position.

=Outwall.= The exterior wall of a building or fortress.

=Outward Face.= A word of command for troops to face to the right and
left from their centre.

=Outwing, To.= To extend the flanks of an army or line in action, so as
to gain an advantageous position against the right or left wing of an
enemy.

=Outworks.= In fortification, are minor defenses constructed beyond the
main body of a work, for the purpose of keeping the enemy at a distance,
or commanding certain salient points which it is undesirable that he
should occupy. Such works are ravelins, lunettes, hornworks,
crown-works, demi-lunes, tenailles, etc. They occur in certain necessary
order, as a ravelin before the curtain and tenaille, a hornwork before a
ravelin, and so on.

=Ovation.= See TRIUMPH.

=Ovens.= Are always provided in garrisons, so that the troops may bake
their own bread. A large saving of flour is thus made, which is the most
considerable element of the post fund. A brick oven large enough to bake
500 rations can be constructed in less than twenty-four hours. The
cylindrical form is greatly to be preferred, as it is more easily made
and requires less material than the ordinary forms. The want of brick
for the arch and fireplace of ovens may be supplied in the field by two
gabions of semicircular or semi-elliptical form. They are placed one
above the other on the flat side, and form a cradle. The interior and
exterior is plastered with clay, which must penetrate the interstices of
the basket-work. The front and back parts are shut in the same manner,
or with sods. The cradle is then covered with earth to retain the heat;
and in order that the superincumbent weight may not cause it to give
way, withes are attached to the top of the basket-work, passed
vertically through the embankment, and then fastened to the longitudinal
beam of a wooden horse straddled against the exterior curve. Ovens may
also be made of wood or earth. To construct rapidly an earthen oven, dig
a slope with a step, and on its prolongation dig the length of the oven
in a trench separated from the step by a mass of earth, to be pierced
later as the mouth of the oven. Then dig laterally portions of an
elliptical arch so as to make the arch a given breadth. This work
finished, pierce the mouth, and cover the trench with from three to five
sods as arch stones, leaving a chimney-place at the bottom. Ovens for
from 100 to 250 rations may be thus made. In some European armies they
have very convenient portable ovens.

=Over.= Above in place, position, or authority; as, he was placed in
command over Lord Monkton.

=Overcharge.= An excessive charge, as of a gun.

=Overcharge.= To fill with too much powder and ball, as a gun.

=Overcharged Mine.= A mine whose crater is wider at top than it is deep.

=Overlap.= Is to overspread any preceding object. In marching by echelon
for the purpose of forming upon any given point, but particularly in
wheeling from column into line, troops may lose their relative distances
by not taking ground enough; when this occurs, the rear division,
company, or section, unavoidably crowds upon its preceding one, and is
then said to overlap.

=Overmarch.= To fatigue or wear out by too much marching.

=Overmatch.= To be too powerful for; to conquer; to subdue; to suppress
by superior force. Also, one superior in power; one able to overcome.

=Overpower.= To vanquish by force; to subdue; to defeat.

=Overrun.= In a military sense, to ravage, to lay waste. A country which
is harassed by incursions is said to be overrun.

=Overseer.= An officer in the ordnance department, who superintends the
artificers in the construction of works, etc. He is also called a
superintendent.

=Overshoot.= To shoot beyond the mark.

=Overslaugh.= To hinder or stop; as, by an overslaugh or unexpected
impediment; as, to overslaugh a military officer, that is, to hinder or
stop his promotion or employment by the appointment of another to his
rank or duties.

=Overthrow.= Total defeat; discomfiture; rout.

=Overturn.= To overthrow; to conquer.

=Oviedo.= A town of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 55
miles north-northwest of Leon. This city was twice plundered of its
ecclesiastical and other treasures during the war of independence, first
by Soult, and subsequently by Bonnet.

=Own, King’s= or =Queen’s=. A term which has been attached to some
British regiments since the revolution in 1688. Thus the 4th Foot, which
landed with William III., was called the 4th King’s Own.

=Owyhee=, or =Hawaii=. An island in the North Pacific Ocean, the most
eastern, and by far the largest of the Sandwich Islands. It was on this
island that the celebrated Capt. Cook fell a sacrifice to a
misunderstanding, or sudden impulse of revenge on the part of the
natives, on Sunday, February 14, 1779.

=Ox.= See BULLOCK.

=Oxford.= An ancient and famous city in England, the chief town of the
county of Oxford, 55 miles west-northwest from London. The townsmen
closed their gates against William the Conqueror, who stormed the town
in 1067, and gave it to one of his followers, Robert d’Oyley, who built
a castle here to overawe the disaffected Saxons. The paction that
terminated the strife between Stephen and Henry II. was drawn up at
Oxford. During the great civil war of the 17th century, it was for a
while the headquarters of the royalist forces, and was conspicuous for
its adherence to the cause of Charles I.

=Oxford Blues.= See HORSE GUARDS, ROYAL.



P.


=Pace= (Lat. _passus_). In its modern acceptation, is the distance, when
the legs are extended in walking, between the heel of one foot and that
of the other. Among disciplined men the pace becomes one of constant
length, and as such is of the utmost value in determining military
movements, the relative distances of corps and men being fixed by the
number of paces marched, and so on. The pace varies in different
countries; in the United States it is 28 inches direct step, and 33
double step; in Great Britain 30 inches direct step, and 33 double step.
With the Romans the pace had a different signification; the single
extension of the legs was not with them a pace (_passus_), but a step
(_gradus_); their pace being the interval between the mark of a heel and
the next mark of the same heel, or a double step. This pace was
equivalent to 4.84 English feet.

=Pack and Draught Animals.= All animals which are used as beasts of
burden and of draught, and all artillery horses are considered under
this head. Taking the usual effect of a man’s daily labor as unity, a
horse can carry a load on a horizontal plane 4.8 to 6.1 times, and a
mule, 7.6 times greater than a man. Taking a man with a wheel-barrow as
unity, a horse in a four-wheel wagon can draw 17.5, and in a cart, 24.3,
and a mule in a cart, 23.3 times greater burden. On account of the
peculiar build of a mule he is a superior pack-animal to the horse.
There are from 91 to 130 draught horses required for a field-battery;
for siege-train about 1900 (see SIEGE-TRAIN); and 8 for a siege-gun. The
load allotted to a light artillery horse is 700 pounds; to a heavy field
artillery horse, 800 pounds; and to a siege artillery horse, 1000
pounds, including weight of carriages. It is less than that drawn by a
horse of commerce, in consequence of bad roads, bad forage, rapid
movements, and forced marches. A team of four horses can draw, with
useful effect, including the weight of carriage, 2400 pounds; six
horses, 3000 pounds; eight horses, 3600 pounds; and twelve horses, 4800
pounds. It is usual to estimate the weight of a carriage exceeding 1200
pounds as part of the load. A pack-horse can carry 250 to 300 pounds 20
miles a day; and a draught horse, 1600 pounds 23 miles a day, weight of
carriage included. Usually a horse can draw seven times as much as he
can carry. An ordinary march is about 15 miles at 2¹⁄₂ miles per hour
for six hours; this must depend upon the condition of the horses, state
of the roads, and various other circumstances. Horses starting fresh,
and resting after their work, may, on tolerable roads, perform 2 miles
in half an hour; 4 miles in one and a half hours; 8 in four, and 16 in
ten hours. The daily allowance of water for a horse is four gallons. For
the daily ration of forage supplied to animals in the U. S. service, see
FORAGE. An army requires to be accompanied by several thousand
pack-animals, sometimes horses, but preferably mules; and in Asia,
commonly camels, or even elephants. In battle, the immediate reserves of
small-arm ammunition are borne in the rear of divisions by pack-animals;
the heavy reserves being in wagons between the army and its base of
operations.

_Buffalo._--An animal of the ox tribe, very important and useful to man.
It is a native of the East Indies, where it has long been domesticated,
and from which it was carried to Egypt and the south of Europe. It was
introduced into Italy about the close of the 6th century A.D., is now
very generally used as a beast of draught and of burden in that country,
as it is also in India; it is also used in the latter country by the
military as a beast of burden.

_Bullock._--This beast is admirable for slow draught, especially over
rough roads, or through forests, or other places where there are no
roads at all. Bullocks stand fire better than any other animals, and
used to be employed in India for draught in field-batteries. They must
not be hurried; their ordinary pace is from 2 to 2¹⁄₂ miles an hour. If
used over hard roads, they require shoeing. They want but little care,
and thrive well on poor food. They attain their prime at six years, age
to be known by annular swelling on horns, allowing three years for first
ring, and one for each of the others. They are used in many parts of
India as pack-animals, when they carry a load of 200 pounds.

_Camels._--These animals are used in East India from three to sixteen
years of age; about 7 feet high (to top of hump), about 8 feet long from
nose to tail; pace about 2 miles an hour, kept up steadily for the
longest marches; load for work on service about 400 to 450 pounds. They
thrive well upon leaves of trees, and can go without water longer than
any other animal. During temporary halts the laden camel can kneel down
and rest. They are admirably adapted for carrying long articles, such as
scaling-ladders, pontons, etc. The camel is at home in the desert and
works well in the plains of India; it is unsuited for hilly countries.
After rain in clay soil, and over rocks and stony places, they split up
and are consequently useless there. They are good for fording rivers
that are deep but not rapid, and where the bottom of the river is
shifting sand, the passage of a number of camels over it renders it hard
and firm. The average weight of the camel is about 1170 pounds.

_Elephant._--A gigantic animal of the order _Proboscidea_, is the
largest and heaviest of existing quadrupeds, and is celebrated for
sagacity and docility. The ancient Carthaginians and other nations
employed elephants in war, not only as beasts of burden but as
combatants. These animals formed part of the army which Hannibal led
across the Alps, and they are said to have decided the victory at the
battle of Trebia. For a long period the elephant was as important an arm
of war as the artillery of modern nations. Seleucus is said to have had
more than 100 elephants at the battle of Ipsus. The elephant is the king
of beasts of burden, becoming fit for work at twenty years of age, and
lasting well to fifty and even sixty years of age. The load for steady
work varies from 1680 to 2240 pounds exclusive of the pad; pace from 3
to 3¹⁄₂ miles an hour; when laden can keep up well with infantry in
their daily marches; full grown his height is from 10 feet to 11 feet;
is most tractable in disposition, is invaluable during marches in
countries flooded by rain for extricating carts, guns, and wagons that
have stuck in the mud. They are now used in India for the draught of
guns in siege-trains; before such guns are taken under fire it is
necessary to have the elephants taken out and replaced by bullocks, as
the former cannot be made to stand fire. The average weight of an
elephant in India is about 6600 pounds. They are often used in hilly
countries to carry mountain guns on their back.

_Lama_, or _Llama_.--Is a most useful South American quadruped of the
family _Camelidæ_. It was in general use as a beast of burden on the
Peruvian Andes at the time of the Spanish conquest, and was the only
beast of burden used by the natives of America before the horse and ass
were introduced by Europeans. From the peculiar formation of its feet it
can walk securely on slopes too rough and steep for any other animal.
The burden carried by the lama should not exceed 125 pounds, and its
rate of traveling is about 12 to 15 miles per day.

_Mule._--This is an excellent draught animal and almost rivals the horse
for general military purposes. Their common load, including weight of
pack-saddle, is from 200 to 250 pounds; height varies from 13 to 16
hands. They will eat almost anything, and require less careful
management than the horse; the mule from the male ass and the mare is
the best; their voices take after the sire. The real value of the mule
is felt most strongly in mountainous countries.

=Packer.= A man whose duty it is to place and adjust the loads of
pack-animals and to take charge of them upon the march. As packing
requires long training and experience, packers are usually hired when
needed.

=Packing.= Is the act of making up and adjusting the load of a
pack-animal. It may be considered one of the arts.

=Pack-mule.= Mule used for carrying a pack.

=Pack-saddles= (Sp. _aparejos_). Are variously fitted, according to the
objects to be carried; some for provisions or ammunition; others for
carrying wounded men, tents, and, in mountain warfare, even small
cannon. The one in general use in the U. S. army (called _aparejo_) is 4
feet 9 inches long by 2 feet wide.

To “set up” an aparejo.--Prepare straight, smooth sticks, from ¹⁄₂ to 1
inch in diameter (wild-rose stems are the best, but any tough elastic
wood will answer), and the coarsest grass that can be obtained. The
grass should be cut green, free from flower-stalks, and dried slowly in
the shade. Place the aparejo upside-down; take four sticks 1 inch in
diameter, cut them to fit tightly, two in the width and two in the
length; place one in each end, and one in each side of the compartment.
Then place sticks ¹⁄₂ to ³⁄₄ of an inch in diameter, cut to fit tightly,
lengthwise of the compartment at intervals of 2 inches. Shake the grass
thoroughly, and place layer after layer on the sticks without displacing
them, until the compartment is as full as it can be stuffed with the
hand. Great care is necessary to insure an equal distribution of the
grass in the compartment. The corners are stuffed as hard as possible, a
sharp stick being used for the purpose. When the aparejo is stuffed, it
should be put on the mule for which it is intended, and the crupper
adjusted.

An _aparejo cincha_ is canvas, 72 inches long and 20 wide, folded so as
to bring the edges in the centre of the cincha. A semicircle of strong
leather pierced with two holes is stitched on one end, and two loops of
strong leather on the other.

The _latigo strap_ is strong bridle leather, 72 inches long, 1¹⁄₂ inches
wide at one end and tapering to ¹⁄₂ inch at the other. The wide end has
holes punched in it. The aparejo cincha and latigo strap are used to
tighten the aparejo.

Under the aparejo is placed a saddle-blanket, and a corona, or upper
saddle-blanket; the latter is made by stitching two or three folds of
old blanket or other woolen cloth together. It is the same size as the
saddle-blanket and used over it.

The _hammer-cloth_ is made of matting or canvas, of a size to exactly
cover the aparejo. Two pieces of hard wood 20 inches long, 2 inches
wide, 1¹⁄₂ inches thick, flat on one side, round on the other, and
beveled to an edge at the ends, are placed 6 inches from the ends of the
cloth. They have leather caps stitched over their ends. The hammer-cloth
is used over the aparejo and under the aparejo cincha.

The _sling-rope_ is of half-inch rope, 16 feet long.

The _lash-rope_ is of one and a fourth inch hemp rope, 32 to 36 feet
long; one end spliced to the cincha ring, the other end served.

The _cincha_ is strong canvas, 33 inches long by 11 inches wide; two
rectangular pieces of strong leather 8 inches long by 5¹⁄₂ inches wide
are stitched on one end, one on either side; in one of these pieces of
leather there is a slit through which a hard-wood hook is passed and
firmly fastened with a leather thong. There is a ring 3 inches in
diameter securely stitched in the other end of the cincha.

There is also a pack-cover made of canvas, 5 feet square; and a blind
made of leather, with strings and loop of the same material. The aparejo
when securely placed on the pack-animal is a very serviceable
pack-saddle, and cannot readily be displaced.

=Pack-train.= A number of loaded pack-animals with their drivers.
Pack-trains are employed in mountainous countries or regions impassable
for vehicles to carry supplies for armies. The mule is more generally
serviceable in this work than the horse.

=Padua= (anc. _Patavium_, It. _Padova_). A town of Italy, capital of the
province of the same name. It is surrounded by walls and ditches, and is
fortified by bastions. Patavium was founded by the Trojan chief Antenor,
and according to Strabo, it could send an army of 120,000 men into the
field. The Patavians were constantly at war with, and successfully
withstood, the Cisalpine Gauls; and in 301 B.C. they also defeated
Cleonymus the Lacedæmonian, who had unexpectedly landed at the mouth of
the _Medoacus_ (the modern Brenta), and attacked them. Patavium fell
eventually under the power of Rome, though it seems to have retained a
semblance of independence. In 452 its prosperity came suddenly to an
end, when it was taken and destroyed by Attila; and in 601 it was again
taken and burnt to the ground by Agilulf, king of the Longobards. It
rose, however, from its ashes, and in the 10th century it had already
become, as it has continued, one of the most important cities of Upper
Italy. In 1164 Padua formed, with Verona, Vicenza, and Treviso, a league
for the protection of their liberties against Frederick I. (Barbarossa);
in 1167 it joined the great Lombard League; and by the peace of
Constance in 1183 had at length its liberties acknowledged. In 1239,
Eccelino da Romano made himself master of it, and after having practiced
unheard-of cruelties, in 1256 he was driven out and defeated by a
crusade formed against him by most of the towns in Upper Italy. After a
period of stormy independence, Padua in 1337 fell under the sway of the
house of Carrara, who held it till the year 1405, when it was taken by
the republic of Venice, with which, in 1797, it passed into the hands of
Austria, by the treaty of Campo Formio. In 1866 it was ceded to
Napoleon III., and by him transferred to the kingdom of Italy.

=Pæones.= A powerful Thracian people, who in early times were spread
over a great part of Macedonia and Thrace. Their country was called
Pæonia. The Pæonian tribes on the lower course of the Strymon were
subdued by the Persians, 513 B.C.; but the tribes in the north of the
country maintained their independence. They frequently invaded and
plundered the territories of the Macedonian monarchs; but they were
eventually subdued by Philip, the father of Alexander the Great. After
the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168, the part of Pæonia east of
the Axius formed the second, and the part of Pæonia west of the Axius
formed the third of the four districts into which Macedonia was divided
by the Romans.

=Pæstum= (anc. _Posidonia_, It. _Pesto_). Anciently a Greek city of
Lucania, in the present Neapolitan province of Principato Citeriore, on
the _Sinus Pæstanus_, now the Gulf of Salerno. It was founded by the
Trœzenians and the Sybarites some time between 650 and 610 B.C. It was
subdued by the Samnites of Lucania, who named it Pæstum, and slowly
declined in prosperity after it fell into the hands of the Romans, who
established a colony here about 273 B.C. In 210 B.C. it furnished ships
to the squadron with which D. Quintus repaired to the siege of Tarentum;
and in the following year it was among the eighteen colonies which still
professed readiness to furnish supplies to the Roman armies. In the 10th
century it was burnt by the Saracens, and the site is now occupied by
the modern village of Pesto.

=Pageant.= In ancient military history, a triumphal car, chariot, or
arch, variously adorned with colors, flags, etc., carried about in
public shows, processions, etc. Also gorgeous show or spectacle.

=Pagræ= (now _Pagras_, _Bagras_, _Bargas_). A city of Syria, on the
eastern side of Mount Amanus, at the foot of the pass called by Ptolemy
the Syrian Gates, on the road from Antioch to Alexandria, the scene of
the battle between Alexander Balas and Demetrius Nicator, 145 B.C.

=Pah.= The name of the stockaded intrenchments of the New Zealanders.

=Pah-Ute Indians.= A tribe of aborigines of Shoshone stock, who, to the
number of 2000, reside on two reservations in Nevada. (See INDIANS AND
THEIR AGENCIES.) They are a peaceable race, but are low down in the
scale of civilization.

=Pailler= (_Fr._). An ancient body of French militia. The soldiers
belonging to it were probably so called either from the circumstance of
their wearing straw in their helmets, in order to know one another in
action, or because they were accustomed to set fire to the habitations
of their enemies with bundles of straw, which they always carried with
them for that purpose.

=Paladin= (_Fr._). A name given to those ancient knights who were
either what the French call _comtes du palais_, “counts of the palace,”
or princes lineally descended from Charlemagne and other old kings.

=Paladin.= A term originally derived from the counts Palatine, or of the
palace, who were the highest dignitaries in the Byzantine court, and
thence used generally for a lord or chieftain, and by the Italian
romantic poets for a knight-errant.

=Palæsta= (now _Palasa_). A town of Epirus, on the coast of Chaonia, and
a little south of the Acroceraunian Mountains. Here Cæsar landed his
forces when he crossed over to Greece to carry on the war against
Pompey.

=Palæstra.= In Grecian antiquity, a public building where the youth
exercised themselves in the military art, wrestling, running, etc.

=Palais Royal.= A heterogeneous mass of buildings on the eastern side of
the Rue Richelieu, in Paris, composed of a palace, theatres, public
gardens, shops, cafés, etc. The old palace was built between 1624 and
1636 on the site of the Hôtel Rambouillet by Cardinal Richelieu, who, at
his death, bequeathed it to Louis XIII. It was taken possession of by
the republican government, and used for the sittings of the tribunes
during the Reign of Terror. The palace was sacked by the mob during the
revolution of 1848.

=Palanka.= A species of permanent intrenched camp attached to Turkish
frontier fortresses, in which the ramparts are revetted with large
beams, rising 7 or 8 feet above the earthwork, so as to form a strong
palisade above.

=Palanquin= (Hind. _palki_). A vehicle commonly used in Hindostan,
China, Japan, and other Asiatic countries by travelers. The palanquin in
use in Hindostan is a wooden box, about 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4
feet high, with wooden shutters, which can be opened or shut at
pleasure, and constructed like Venetian blinds for the purpose of
admitting fresh air, while, at the same time, they exclude the scorching
rays of the sun and the heavy showers of rain so common in that country.
At each end of the palanquin, on the outside, two iron rings are fixed,
and the _hammals_, or palanquin-bearers, of whom there are four, two at
each end, support the palanquin by a pole passing through these rings.
Traveling in this mode is continued both by day and night, and the
palanquin is accompanied by a train of attendants, who carry the
traveler’s clothes and whatever articles he may not immediately need.
Similar modes of traveling have been at various times in use in Western
Europe, but only for short distances. The Roman _lectica_ (“litter”),
the French _chaise à porteurs_, and the English sedan-chair were the
forms of vehicles most in use, and the two latter were in general use in
towns till they were superseded by coaches, etc. The Roman litter was
one of the criteria of its owner’s wealth, the rich man generally
exhibiting the prosperous condition of his affairs by the multitude of
the bearers and other attendants accompanying him.

=Palatinate, The= (Ger. _Pfalz_). A name applied to two German states,
which were united previously to the year 1620. They were distinguished
as the Upper and Lower Palatinate. The Upper now forms apart of the
kingdom of Bavaria, and the Lower a part of Rhenish Prussia, situated on
both sides of the Rhine, between Worms and Carlsruhe. By the peace of
Lunéville (1801), the Duke Maximilian of Zweibrücken was compelled to
cede a portion of the Rhenish Palatinate to France, a part to Baden, a
part to Hesse-Darmstadt, and a part to Nassau. Treaties of Paris of 1814
and 1815 re-assigned the Palatinate lands beyond the Rhine to Germany,
Bavaria receiving the largest share, and the remainder being divided
between Hesse-Darmstadt and Prussia.

=Palatine.= A town of Montgomery Co., N. Y., on the north side of the
Mohawk River. Near here, at Stone Arabia, an engagement took place
October 18, 1780, between the Tories under Johnson and the Continental
militia under Col. John Brown, in which the latter were defeated and
their leader slain.

=Pale.= In heraldry, one of the figures known as ordinaries, consisting
of a horizontal band in the middle of the shield, of which it is said to
occupy one-third. Several charges of any kind are said to be “in pale”
when they stand over each other horizontally, as do the three lions of
England. A shield divided through the middle by a horizontal line is
said to be “parted per pale.” The pallet is the diminutive of the pale,
and is most generally not borne singly. Three pallets gules were the
arms of Raymond, count of Provence. When the field is divided into an
even number of parts by perpendicular lines, it is called “paly of” so
many pieces. When divided by lines perpendicular and bendways crossing,
it is called “paly bendy.” An endorse is a further diminutive of the
pallet, and a pale placed between two endorses is said to be endorsed.

=Pale.= In Irish history, means that portion of the kingdom over which
the English rule and English law were acknowledged. There is so much
vagueness in the meaning of the term, that a few words of explanation
appear necessary. The vagueness arises from the great fluctuations which
the English authority underwent in Ireland at various periods, and from
the consequent fluctuation of the actual territorial limits of the Pale.
The designation dates from the reign of John, who distributed the
portion of Ireland then nominally subject to England into twelve
counties palatine, Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny,
Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Limerick. To this entire
district, in a general way, was afterwards given the designation of the
Pale. But as it may be said that the term is commonly applied by the
writers of each age to the actual English territory of the period, and
as this varied much, care must be taken to allude to the age of which
the name Pale is used. Thus at the close of the reign of Edward III.,
the English law extended only to the four counties of Dublin, Carlow,
Meath, and Louth. In the reign of Henry VI., the limits were still
further restricted. In a general way, however, the Pale may be
considered as comprising the counties of Dublin, Meath, Carlow,
Kilkenny, and Louth. This, although not quite exact, will be sufficient
for most purposes.

=Paleagas.= See POLYGARS.

=Palembang.= A Dutch province in the island of Sumatra, comprehending
the former kingdom of that name. In 1811 the Dutch had merely a
commercial factory at Palembang, when the sultan began hostilities
against them; and in order to insure their entire destruction, under
pretense of conveying them safely to Batavia, sunk during the night the
ships in which they had embarked by means of holes previously made. The
Dutch regained Palembang in 1816. The Dutch factory was cannonaded by
the sultan’s forces in 1818, and the country remained in rebellion until
1821, when it was entirely conquered by the Dutch. The sultan still
retains his title, but the supreme power is exercised by a Dutch regent,
who resides at Palembang, the capital.

=Palermo= (anc. _Panormus_). A fortified city of Sicily, situated on the
north side of the island. Palermo is of Phœnician origin, and is first
brought into notice in 480 B.C., when the Carthaginians under Hamilcar
made it their headquarters against Himera. How it came into their hands
we have no means of knowing; but it continued for a long time to be
their principal naval station, and the capital of their possessions in
Sicily. With the exception of a short time, about 276 B.C., when it was
taken by the Greeks, it continued to be the headquarters of the
Carthaginians, until it was taken by the Romans during the first Punic
war (254 B.C.). When Sicily was conquered by the Goths, Palermo, along
with the rest of the island, fell into their hands; but it was recovered
by Belisarius, and the Byzantine empire retained possession of it till
855 A.D., when it was taken by the Saracens, and made the capital of
their Sicilian possessions. The Vandals and afterwards the Arabs made it
the capital of the island, and after the Norman conquest it continued to
be the seat of the king of Sicily. It still remained the royal residence
under the Aragonese kings; but the court was removed (1269) after Sicily
became united to the kingdom of Naples. In 1860 the inhabitants flocked
to the standard of Garibaldi, and in the same year the city was annexed
to the new kingdom of Italy.

=Palestine=, or =Holy Land=. A country of Asia, lying along the east
coast of the Mediterranean Sea, and occupying the southwestern part of
Syria, which is included within the limits of the Turkish empire. It now
forms the modern pashalic of Beirut or Beyrout, and part of the pashalic
of Damascus. This is the country in which the principal events recorded
in Scripture took place. When it was conquered by the Israelites, Joshua
divided this and a portion of the country to the east of the Jordan
among the twelve tribes. It was conquered, however, by the kings of
Assyria, who carried captive, first Israel and then Judah, into the
eastern provinces of their empire. After the conquest of Babylon by
Cyrus, the Jews were allowed to return to their country, to rebuild
their temple, and re-establish their ecclesiastical constitution. Judæa
thus continued a province of Persia until Asia was invaded by Alexander
the Great, to whom it submitted without resistance. The Jews were again
exposed to oppression from some of the Ptolemies, who attempted to
enforce the adoption of the idolatrous worship of the Greeks on the
Jewish people. The Jews, however, under the guidance of the Maccabees,
offered a most determined resistance to the Egyptian monarch who sought
to deprive them of the exercise of their own religion, and Judæa once
more became an independent country. It subsequently fell under the
dominion of Rome, which established the Herods as tributary kings. It
was at this crisis that Judæa became the theatre of those great events
which form the foundation of the Christian faith. The Jews, however,
having repeatedly rebelled against the authority of the Romans, Titus
entered Judæa with a large force in 70, and after a long siege, during
which the Jews endured terrible hardships and privations, he took
Jerusalem, and razed it to the ground. The temple which had been twice
rebuilt, after having been burnt by Nebuchadnezzar and plundered by
Antiochus, was again destroyed. More than 1,100,000 Jews perished in the
siege and destruction of the city, and about sixty-five years after the
Jewish people were banished from Judæa by a decree of the emperor
Hadrian. The country continued to form a part of the Roman empire until
it was divided into the Eastern and Western empires, when Palestine
became a province of the former. Although it was frequently invaded by
the Parthians, Persians, and Saracens, it was held by the emperors of
Constantinople until it was wrested from them by the last-named people
in 638. It then fell under the sway of the Mohammedans, in whose power
the land remained until 1099, when the Holy Land was recovered by the
Crusaders, and erected into a Latin kingdom under Godfrey de Bouillon.
This kingdom lasted till 1187, when it was conquered by Saladin, on the
decline of whose kingdom it passed through various hands, till, in 1517,
it was finally swallowed up in the Turkish empire.

=Palestrina= (anc. _Præneste_). An episcopal city of the present kingdom
of Italy, built upon the site of one of the most ancient as well as
powerful cities of Latium. We first hear of Præneste as member of the
Latin League; but in 499 B.C. it quitted the confederacy and joined the
cause of the Romans. In 380 B.C. the Prænestines, having rejoined their
ancient allies, waged war against Rome; but were completely routed on
the Allia by T. Quintus Cincinnatus, and beaten back to their own gates.
They took a prominent part in the famous Latin war, 340 B.C. Having
given shelter to the younger Marius in the year 82 B.C., this city was
besieged by the forces of Sulla, and on its being taken, all the
inhabitants were put to the sword. A military colony was then
established in their place, and soon the city began to flourish anew.
The town became the stronghold of the family of Colonna in the Middle
Ages; but was given to the Barberini family by Urban VIII.

=Palestro.= A village of Piedmont, 12 miles southwest from Novara. It is
famous as the scene of a battle between the Sardinians and Austrians in
May, 1859. On May 30 the Piedmontese drove the Austrians from this
village, and on May 31 defended it with great bravery against an
Austrian attack. The Piedmontese in the battle of May 31 were assisted
by 3000 French Zouaves, and on that occasion the Austrians lost 2100 men
killed and wounded, 950 prisoners, and 6 pieces of cannon. On July 1 the
allies entered Novara.

=Palgaut.= A city of India, in the south of Hindostan, captured by the
British in 1790.

=Palisade.= To surround, inclose, or fortify with stakes or posts.

=Palisades.= Are strong palings 6 or 7 inches broad on each side, having
about one foot of their summits sharpened in a pyramidal form. They are
frequently placed at the foot of slopes as an obstacle to the enemy. A
large beam or lintel, sunk about 2 or 3 feet, is often used to unite
them more firmly. Their tops should be a foot above the crest of the
parapet behind which they stand, and in field fortifications they form a
very good obstruction, if protected from artillery. An expeditious mode
of planting them is to sink a small ditch, about 2 feet 6 inches deep
and the same breadth, and to nail the ends of the palisades to a piece
of timber, or the trunk of a tree laid on the bottom of it, and then
fill in the earth, and ram it well. The palisades should be 9 or 10 feet
long, so that when finished, the ends shall be at least 7 feet above the
ground. They may be made out of the stems of young trees of 6 or 8
inches diameter; but stout rails, gates with the ends knocked off,
planks split in half, cart-shafts, ladders, and a variety of such things
will come into play, where more regular palisades are not to be had. If
the materials are weak, a cross-piece must be nailed to them near the
top, to prevent their being broken down, and they must not be placed so
close together as to cover an enemy.

=Palliser Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Palmyra.= The name given by the Greeks to an ancient city of Upper
Syria. It occupied a fertile oasis, 140 miles east-northeast from
Damascus. Palmyra was, in the time of Solomon, a bulwark of the Hebrew
kingdom against the wandering hordes of Bedouins. After the fall of
Seleucia, it became a great commercial centre, and greatly increased
both in wealth and magnificence after the time of Trajan, who subjected
the whole country to the Roman empire. In the 3d century, Odonathus, a
Syrian, founded here an empire, which, after his murder, rose to great
prosperity under his wife, Zenobia, and included both Syria and
Mesopotamia; but this was not of long duration, for the Roman emperor
Aurelian conquered it in the year 275, and the city was soon after
almost entirely destroyed in revenge for the slaughter of a Roman
garrison. It never recovered from this blow, although Justinian
fortified it anew. The Saracens destroyed it in 774, and in 1400 it was
plundered by Tamerlane. A village called Tedmor, inhabited by a few Arab
families, now occupies its site.

=Palo Alto.= A noted battle-field, situated near the southern extremity
of Texas, between Point Isabel and Matamoras, about 9 miles northeast of
the latter. Here, on May 8, 1846, the Americans, numbering 2111, under
Gen. Taylor, defeated 6000 Mexicans, commanded by Gen. Arista. The loss
of the former was 32 killed (among whom was the brave Maj. Ringgold),
and 47 wounded; that of the latter, 252 killed.

=Paludamentum.= Was a garment worn by the Romans, and differing little,
if at all, from the chlamys. It was worn by the officers and principal
men in time of war, who were therefore called _paludati_, and this
distinguished them from the common soldiers, who, because they wore the
_sagum_, were called the _sagati_. The _paludamentum_, which was
generally white or red, came down to the knees, or lower, was open in
front, hung loosely over the shoulders, and was fastened across the
chest by a clasp.

=Paly.= In heraldry, divided into four or more equal parts by
perpendicular lines, and of two different tinctures disposed
alternately.

=Pamphylia.= An ancient district on the south coast of Asia Minor, with
Cilicia on the east and Lycia on the west. It was originally bounded on
the inland or northern side by Mount Taurus, but was afterwards
enlarged, so as to reach the confines of Phrygia. The inhabitants--a
mixed race of aborigines, Cilicians and Greek colonists--spoke a
language the basis of which was probably Greek, but which was disfigured
and corrupted by the infusion of barbaric elements. Along with Phrygia
and Lycia, it fell to the share of Antigonus on the partition of the
Macedonian empire. It afterwards passed successively into the hands of
the Græco-Syrian princes, the kings of Pergamus, and the Romans.

=Pamplona=, or =Pampeluna=. A fortified town of Spain, the capital of
the province of Navarre, on the Arga, 39 miles southeast from St.
Sebastian. Pamplona was called by the ancients _Pompeiopolis_, from the
circumstance of its having been rebuilt by the sons of Pompey in 68 B.C.
It was taken by Euric the Goth in 466, by the Franks under Childebert in
542, and again under Charlemagne in 778, who dismantled it. It was
subsequently for a time in possession of the Moors, who corrupted the
name Pompeiopolis into Bambilonah, whence the modern Pamplona. In the
11th century the three districts of the town were separately fortified.
The continual intestine contests of these three fortresses caused Carlos
III., in the beginning of the 15th century, to destroy the interior
walls and strengthen the common bulwarks; he also erected a citadel, in
the defense of which, against André de Foix, in 1521, St. Ignacio was
wounded. It was taken by a stratagem by the French under D’Armagnac, and
remained in their power until recaptured after a blockade by Wellington
in 1813. In the civil war that followed the death of Ferdinand VII.,
Pamplona was the strong place of the liberals. The citadel was seized
and held for a short time by O’Donnell in September, 1841.

=Pan.= That part of the lock of a musket, pistol, etc., which holds the
priming powder, the necessity of which is superseded by the use of
percussion-caps.

=Pan.= The distance which is comprised between the angle of the epaul
and the flanked angle in a fortification.

=Pan.= A name well known among the shepherds of antiquity, and
frequently used by modern writers in their rural fictions. In military
history it signifies a man who was lieutenant-general to Bacchus and his
Indian expedition. He is recorded to have been the first author of a
general shout, which the Grecians practiced in the beginning of their
onsets in battle.

=Pan Coupé.= The short length of parapet by which the salient angle of a
work is sometimes cut off.

=Panache= (_Fr._). A plume worn upon the crest of an ancient helmet;
military plume or feather.

=Pancarte= (_Fr._). An ancient exercise or tournament, which was
performed in the Roman amphitheatre, when strong athletic men were
opposed to all sorts of enraged animals.

=Pandoor.= See PANDOUR.

=Pandosia= (now _Castel Franco_). A town in Bruttium (which see) near
the frontiers of Lucania. Lævinus, the Roman consul, was defeated at
Pandosia by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 280 B.C.

=Pandour= (from _Pandur_, a mountainous district of Hungary). The name
has been applied to that portion of the light-armed infantry in the
Austrian service which is raised in the Slavonian districts on the
Turkish frontier. The Pandours originally fought under the orders of
their own proper chief, who was called Harun-Basha, and rendered
essential service to the Austrians during the Spanish War of Succession,
and afterwards in the Seven Years’ War. They originally fought after the
fashion of the “free lances,” and were a terror to the enemy, whom they
annoyed incessantly. Their appearance was exceedingly picturesque, being
somewhat oriental in character, and their arms consisted of a musket,
pistol, a Hungarian sabre, and two Turkish poniards. Their habits of
brigandage and cruelty rendered them, however, as much a terror to the
people they defended as to the enemy. Since 1750 they have been
gradually put under a stricter discipline, and are now incorporated with
the Austrian frontier regiments.

=Panic.= A sudden fright; especially, a sudden fright without real
cause, or terror inspired by a trifling cause, or misapprehension of
danger; as, the troops were seized with a panic; they fled in a panic.
These terrors are attributed to Pan, as some say, because when Osiris
was bound by Typho, Pan and the satyrs appearing, cast him into a
fright; or because he frightened all the giants that waged war against
Jupiter; or, as others say, that when Pan was Bacchus’s
lieutenant-general in his Indian expedition, being encompassed in a
valley by an army of enemies far superior to them in number, he advised
the god to order his men to give a general shout, which so surprised the
enemy that they immediately fled from their camp. And hence it came to
pass that all sudden fears impressed upon men’s spirits without any just
reason were, by the Greeks and Romans, called _panic_ terrors.

=Panic-stricken.= Struck with a panic or sudden fear; as, the troops
were panic-stricken.

=Paniput=, or =Paneeput=. A town of British India, capital of a district
of the same name in the territorial division of Delhi, Northwest
Provinces, 78 miles north of Delhi, and 965 miles northwest of Calcutta.
The neighborhood of Paniput, lying in the great military highway between
Eastern India and Afghanistan, has been at various times the field of
great battles. The _first_ great battle of Paniput was fought in 1526,
and gained by Mirza Baber, the ex-ruler of Ferghana, at the head of
12,000 Mongols, over Ibrahim, the emperor of Delhi, whose unwarlike
array numbered 100,000 men, with 1000 elephants. This victory seated
Baber on the throne of Hindostan as the first of the “Great Mogul”
dynasty. The _second_ great battle was fought in 1556 by the Mongols
under Akbar, grandson of Baber, and third of the Mogul emperors, against
Hemu, an Indian prince, who had usurped the throne of Delhi. Hemu’s army
was defeated with great slaughter, and himself slain. The _third_
battle was fought on January 14, 1761, between Ahmed Abdalli, ruler of
Afghanistan, and the till then invincible Mahrattas. The Jats, who had
been forced to join the Mahrattas, deserted to the Afghans at a time
when victory seemed to be declaring for the former; and this act of
treachery, together with the loss of their leaders, threw the Mahrattas
into confusion, and in spite of their most resolute valor they suffered
a total defeat. They left 50,000 slain on the field of battle, including
all their leaders except Holkar, and 30,000 men were killed in the
pursuit, which was continued for four days. It was at Kurnaul, a town a
little to the north of Paniput, that Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1739, won
the celebrated battle over the Mogul emperor, which placed Northwestern
India at his feet.

=Pannels.= Are the carriages upon which mortars and their beds are
conveyed upon a march.

=Pannier.= A shield of basket-work formerly used by archers, who set
them up in their front. Also a basket, usually slung in pairs over the
back of a beast of burden to carry a load. The term is also applied to
leather bags to be used in the same way, and especially to cases for
carrying medicines.

=Pannonia.= A province of the ancient Roman empire, bounded on the north
and east by the Danube, on the west by the mountains of Noricum, and on
the south reaching a little way across the Save; and thus including part
of modern Hungary, Slavonia, parts of Bosnia, of Croatia, and of
Carniola, Styria, and Lower Austria. The Pannonians (Pannonii) were a
brave, warlike people. They maintained their independence of Rome till
Augustus, after his conquest of the Illyrians (35 B.C.), turned his arms
against them; they were shortly afterwards subdued by his general
Vibius. In 7, the Pannonians joined the Dalmatians and the other
Illyrian tribes in their revolt from Rome, and were with difficulty
conquered by Tiberius, after a desperate struggle, which lasted three
years (7-9). The dangerous mutiny (14) of the Roman troops which were
garrisoned in Pannonia was with difficulty quelled by Drusus. Fifteen
legions had to be assembled against the Pannonians, who mustered 200,000
warriors. Great numbers of the Pannonian youth were drafted into the
Roman legions, and proved, when disciplined, among the bravest and most
effective soldiers in the imperial army. Pannonia was subsequently
divided into Upper and Lower Pannonia. Upper Pannonia was the scene of
the Marcomannic war in the 2d century. In the 5th century it was
transferred from the Western to the Eastern empire, and afterwards given
up to the Huns. After Attila’s death, in 453, the Ostrogoths obtained
possession of it. The Longobards under Alboin made themselves masters of
it in 527, and relinquished it to the Avari upon commencing their
expedition to Italy. The Magyars, or Hungarians, took it in the end of
the 9th century.

=Panonceau= (_Fr._). An ancient name for an ensign or banner.

=Panoply.= Complete armor, or harness.

=Papagos.= A tribe of Indians closely allied to the Pimas, who reside on
a reservation on the Santa Cruz River, in Arizona. They were converted
to Christianity by Spanish missionaries at an early date, and are a
peaceable and industrious race.

=Papal States=, or =States of the Church=. A territory, or rather group
of states in Central Italy, formerly united into one sovereignty, with
the pope for its head. The Papal States were bounded on the north by the
Po, on the south by Naples, on the east by the Gulf of Venice and
Naples, and on the west by Modena, Tuscany, and the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Detached portions, as Benevento and Pontecorvo, lay within the
Neapolitan territory. About 720, Gregory III. having quarreled with the
emperor Leo the Isaurian, declared the independence of Rome. In 726,
Pepin le Bref compelled the Lombard king to hand over Ravenna, Rimini,
Pesaro, Fano, Cesena, Urbino, Forli, Comacchio, and fifteen other towns
to the pope, who now assumed the state of a temporal sovereign. Pepin’s
example was followed by his son Charlemagne. In the 11th century the
Normans greatly aided to increase the papal temporal authority, and in
1053 the duchy of Benevento was annexed. In 1278 the emperor Rodolf I.
confirmed the popes in the acquisitions thus obtained, defined the
boundaries of the Papal States, and absolved their inhabitants from
their oath of allegiance to the empire. Sixtus IV. in the end of the
15th century annexed the Romagna to his dominions. By the victory of the
French at Marignan (1515), the very existence of the papal power was
threatened. In 1598 the possessions of the house of Este, viz.: Ferrara,
Comacchio, and a part of the Romagna, were seized by Pope Clement VIII.;
and the Papal States received their final additions in Urbino (1623),
Ronciglione, and the duchy of Castro (1650). The Romagna was seized by
Napoleon in 1797, and incorporated in the Cisalpine Republic; and in the
following year Rome was taken by the French, and the Papal States
erected into the _Roman Republic_. Pius VII., in 1800, obtained
possession of his states, but they were almost immediately retaken by
the French. In 1814, the pope returned to his dominions, and was
formally reinstated by the treaty of Vienna. In 1830, the people of
Ancona and Bologna rose in rebellion; they were put down by the aid of
an Austrian army. The Bolognese again rebelled; and this revolt supplied
Austria with a pretext for occupying the northern Legations, and the
French at the same time garrisoned Ancona. Occasional risings took place
from time to time up to 1846. In 1848, the people rose, and Pius IX.
fled to Gaeta, whilst Rome was proclaimed a republic. He was restored
and his subjects reduced to submission by the arms of France, Austria,
Naples, and Spain. The Austrians held the Legations in subjection to the
pope’s authority till 1859; the French occupied Rome in his behalf till
1870. In July, 1859, the four northern Legations (the Romagna) taking
advantage of the withdrawal of the Austrian troops, threw off the papal
authority, and proclaimed their annexation to Sardinia, which was
formally acknowledged by Victor Emmanuel in March, 1860. The pope now
raised a large body of troops, appointing Lamoricière, an eminent French
general, to command them, for the purpose of resisting any further
encroachments on his dominions; but the news of Garibaldi’s success in
Sicily and Naples produced revolt in the Legation of Urbino and in the
Marches, the people proclaiming Victor Emmanuel. The Sardinians
accordingly marched into the Papal States, defeated Lamoricière, who
retired into Ancona, where he was compelled to surrender with his whole
army. The revolted provinces of Umbria, Urbino, and the Marches, and
part of Frosinone were annexed to Sardinia. In September, 1870, the
remaining states were occupied by the Italian troops, and the pope was
removed from temporal power. On October 2, 1870, the people pronounced
their annexation to the kingdom of Italy, with which the territory of
the States of the Church was incorporated by decree of October 9, and
Gen. Marmora appointed governor of the new provinces.

=Papegai= (_Fr._). A popinjay; a bird made of wood or pasteboard, stuck
upon a lance, and used as a mark when practicing with the bow,
cross-bow, musket, etc.

=Paper Shell.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Paper Time-fuze.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Paphlagonia.= Was a country of Asia Minor, separated from Pontus on the
east by the river Halys (_Kizil Ermak_), and from Bithynia on the west
by the river Parthenius (_Bartan-Su_), and bounded on the north by the
Euxine, and on the south by Galatia. Its limits, however, were somewhat
different at different times. The Paphlagonians are supposed to have
been of Syrian, or at least of Semitic origin, and were a wild and
warlike people. Crœsus made Paphlagonia a part of the kingdom of Lydia,
and Cyrus united it to Persia; it subsequently became part of the empire
of Alexander the Great, and afterwards of the kingdom of Pontus, was
included in the Roman province of Galatia, and in the 4th century of the
Christian era was made a separate province by Constantine.

=Papilio= (_Fr._). A square Roman tent for eight men.

=Parachute Light Ball.= A thin shell, the upper half of which is blown
off by the charge at a certain height. The lower half filled with
composition, which is kindled by the explosion, is kept floating in the
air by means of a small parachute, which is set free when the upper
half of the shell flies off.

=Parade.= Signifies in its original sense a prepared ground, and was
applied to the court-yard of a castle, or to any inclosed and level
plain. From the practice of reviewing troops at such a spot, the review
itself has acquired the name of parade.

=Parade.= To assemble troops in a uniform manner for the purpose of
regular muster, exercise, and inspection. The parades are general,
regimental, or private (troop, battery, or company), according to the
strength of the force assembled.

=Parade.= In camp, is that spot of ground in the front of each
encampment, between the camp colors, on the right and left wings.

=Parade, Dress.= A parade which takes place in the U. S. army at the
troop or retreat on each evening, when the soldiers appear in full
uniform and under arms.

=Parade, Evening.= The hour generally fixed for the evening parade is at
sunset. When troops are encamped, the signal for evening parade is given
from the park of artillery, by the discharge of a piece of ordnance
called the evening gun.

=Parade Guard Mounting.= The parading of the soldiers who are to go on
guard.

=Parade, Morning.= In every garrison town, fortified place, and camp, as
well as in every town through which soldiers pass, or occasionally halt,
a certain hour in the morning is fixed for the assembling of the
different corps, troops, or companies, in regular order.

=Parade Officer.= An officer who attends to the minutiæ of regimental
duty, but who is not remarkable for military science.

=Parade Rest.= A position of rest for soldiers, in which, however, they
are required to be silent and motionless, used specially at parade;
also, the command for the position.

=Parade, Troop.= Morning parade (which see).

=Parade-ground.= The piece of ground on which soldiers are paraded.

=Parados.= An elevation of earth which is effected behind fortified
places, to secure them from any sudden attack that may be made in
reverse.

=Parætonium=, or =Ammonia=. Formerly an important city on the northeast
coast of Africa. It was a strong fortress; restored by Justinian, and
continued a place of some consequence till its complete destruction by
Mehemet Ali in 1820.

=Paraguay.= A republic in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot
in 1526; conquered by Alvarez Nuñez in 1535, and civilized by the
Jesuits, who in 1608 commenced their missions there, and established an
exclusive government, which they held until their expulsion in 1768.
Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811, and achieved its
independence. Paraguay was recognized as an independent state by the
Argentine Confederation in 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. On
November 11, 1864, hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began, when a
Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder on Paraguayan waters; in
the same year Brazil was invaded by the Paraguayans, and on April 14,
1865, Lopez (president of the republic) invaded the territories of the
Argentine Republic, which immediately made alliance with Brazil. In
September, 1865, the army of Lopez was defeated. The war continued
almost without intermission until 1870, when Lopez was killed. Since
that time Paraguay, though nominally independent, has been almost
completely under control of Brazil.

=Parallels.= Are trenches cut in the ground before a fortress, roughly
parallel to its defenses, for the purpose of giving cover to the
besiegers from the guns of the place. The parallels are usually three,
with zigzag trenches leading from one to another. The old rule used to
be to dig the first at 600 yards’ distance; but the improvements in
artillery have rendered a greater distance necessary, and at Sebastopol
the allies made their first trench 2000 yards from the walls. The third
trench is very near to the besieged works, and from it saps and zigzag
approaches are directed to the covert way. See SIEGE.

=Paramount.= The highest in rank or order; the chief.

=Parapets= (Ital. _parapetto_, “breastguard”). In fortifications, are
breastworks, walls, or bulwarks of earth, brick, wood, iron, stone, or
other material. The battlement around a flat roof, or the railing of a
bridge is also called a parapet. The parapets of field-works are always
made of earth, which is also largely used in permanent fortifications.
Earth has great advantages for this purpose, being readily obtained,
easily handled, and affords good cover on account of the absence of
splinters and flying fragments when struck by a shot. The presence of
rock or large gravel in the earth is objectionable for this reason. Of
the different earths, sand, hard clay, tufa, etc., resist penetration
better than rich soils. The profile of the parapet is determined by its
location and purpose. The earth to form it is taken from the ditch,
which is sometimes in front and sometimes in rear. In inclosed works, or
works built at leisure, the ditch is always on the outside, leaving the
natural surface for the parade. Works built hastily, or under fire, have
the ditch on the inside. In this way cover is more rapidly obtained.
This form of parapet is used in all the trenches in siege operations and
the temporary lines thrown up on the field of battle. The _command of a
parapet_ is the height of the interior crest above the site. For
isolated works the command should be at least 8 feet, as the chances of
a successful resistance increase with the command. The profile of a
parapet is a section taken at right angles to its length. In infantry
parapets the _banquette_ is the bank of earth in rear of the parapet,
on which the troops stand to deliver their fire. This is usually about 4
feet wide, and about 4 feet 3 inches below the interior crest. The
height of the banquette depends upon the command of the parapet. The
_interior slope_ of the parapet, against which the soldier leans in
firing, has a slope of 3 on 1. To support the earth at this inclination
a revetment of sand-bags, fascines, gabions, sod, pisa, or plank, is
used. The _superior slope_ of the parapet is usually 1 on 6. It should
be steep enough to give a fire just above the farther edge of the ditch,
but not so steep as to weaken the parapet. The _exterior slope_ is 1 on
1, or the natural slope of the earth. If it is made steeper than this it
will be beaten down by the projectiles of the enemy; if less steep, it
will offer a less obstacle to open assault. The _berme_, or space
between the foot of the exterior slope and the edge of the ditch, is
objectionable, in offering a breathing-place to the enemy in the
assault, but it is usually necessary to prevent the weight of the
parapet from crushing in the scarp. The dimensions of the ditch are
regulated by the amount of earth necessary to form the parapet. The
scarp and counterscarp are made as steep as the stiffness of the soil
will allow. As a general rule, the depth of the ditch should not be less
than 6 feet, and its width should not be less than 12. The greatest
width is regulated by the superior scope of the parapet, the line of
which produced should not pass below the crest of the counterscarp. In
excavating near a salient it will be found that more earth is furnished
than in re-enterings. On this account the width of the ditch is usually
made variable, being less at the salients than elsewhere.

The thickness of a parapet is the horizontal distance between the
interior and exterior crests. This thickness should be one-half greater
than the penetration of the projectiles it is designed to resist. As the
rifled guns now in use have much greater penetration than the
smooth-bores of former times, a proportionate increase in the dimensions
of parapets has become necessary. The parapets of semi-permanent
field-works are usually calculated to resist the fire of siege-guns;
those of permanent works to resist the most powerful ordnance in use.
The trenches so much used in modern times to cover operations of armies
in the field are shallow ditches, with the earth thrown outwards.

=Parasang.= A Persian military measure, sometimes assumed as a league,
but equal to about 4 English miles.

=Parbuckle.= To hoist or lower by means of a parbuckle.

=Parbuckles.= Are 4-inch ropes, 12 feet long, with a hook at one end and
a loop at the other. To parbuckle a gun, is to roll it in either
direction from the spot in which it rests. To do this, place the gun on
skids, and if it is to be moved up or down a slope, two 4¹⁄₂-inch ropes
are made fast to some place on the upper part of the slope, the ends
are carried under the chase and breech of the gun respectively, round it
and up the slope. If the running ends of these ropes are hauled upon,
the gun ascends; if eased off, it descends. If the ground is horizontal,
handspikes only are necessary to move the gun.

=Parcourir= (_Fr._). In a military sense, to run over the ground during
an action. This word is particularly applicable to those movements which
are made by general officers, officers commanding brigades, etc., for
the purpose of encouraging their soldiers in the heat of an engagement.

=Pardon and Mitigation of Sentences.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR,
112.

=Parga.= A town of European Turkey, eyalet of Yanina, stands on a rocky
peninsula on the shore of the Mediterranean, and is defended by a
citadel which is nearly impregnable. It has played a part of some
importance in history since the beginning of the 15th century. It
maintained its independence, under the protection of Venice, from this
period till the fall of the Venetian power in 1797, when it was for a
short time garrisoned by the French. Ali Pasha, the governor of Yanina,
obtained command of it in 1800, and in 1814 besieged it, on account of
the inhabitants refusing to submit to his rule; and as the French would
not defend them, the inhabitants applied for aid to the British, who
took possession of the citadel. Parga was finally given up to Turkey by
the treaty of 1819; but the inhabitants, not wishing to come under the
Ottoman sway, migrated to the Ionian Islands, and the town was then
occupied by the Turks.

=Paris= (anc. _Lutetia Parisiorum_). The metropolis of France, and after
London, the most populous city in Christendom, is situated on both sides
of the Seine, and is surrounded by walls and a strong line of
fortifications. When Cæsar conquered Gaul, he rebuilt Lutetia, which had
been nearly destroyed through the obstinacy of the Celtic tribe who here
had their stronghold, and it rose to be a place of considerable
importance during the 500 years of Roman dominion. In the beginning of
the 5th century it suffered much from the northern hordes, and
ultimately fell into the hands of the Franks, headed by Clovis, who,
having embraced Christianity, made it his residence in 508. In 845 the
city was ravaged by the Normans, and in 845 and 920 suffered from
famine; in 885 it was gallantly defended by the Count Eudes and the
Bishop Goslin against the Danes; in 1231 it was rebuilt; and in 1411-18
suffered by the factions of the Armagnacs and Burgundians; taken by the
English in 1420, and retaken by the French in 1436; on August 24, 1572,
the massacre of St. Bartholomew occurred; in 1589-90 Henry IV. vainly
besieged it, and he entered it in March, 1594; surrendered to the allies
on March 30, 1814. Paris was the scene of many revolutions from July,
1830, to February 22, 1848. The following are the great treaties of
Paris: Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal, cession of Canada
to Great Britain by France, and Florida by Spain, on February 10, 1763;
between France and Sardinia; the latter ceding Savoy, May 15, 1796;
France and Sweden, whereby Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen
were given up to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt the French prohibitory
system against Great Britain, January 6, 1810; on April 11, 1814, Paris
capitulated, and Napoleon renounced the sovereignty of France; the
convention of Paris, between France and the allied powers, the
boundaries of France to be the same as on the first day of January,
1792; peace of Paris ratified by France and all the allies on May 14,
1814; convention of St. Cloud, between Marshal Davoust, Wellington, and
Blücher, for the surrender of Paris, July 3, 1815, and the allies
entered it on July 6; treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria,
Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner of those powers, and
confiding his safeguard to England on August 2, 1815; establishing the
boundaries of France, and stipulating for the occupation of certain
fortresses by foreign troops for three years, on November 20, same year,
and the treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chaumont and Vienna,
same day; treaty between Russia and Turkey, England, France, and
Sardinia, March 30, 1856; another between England and Persia, March 4,
1857; the treaty between the European powers, Prussia, and Switzerland,
respecting Neufchâtel, May 26, 1857; and the convention between France
and Italy for withdrawal of French troops from Rome, September 15, 1864.
In the late war with Prussia the armies of France having been defeated
by the Germans, on August 7, 1870, Paris was declared in a state of
siege. On September 4, a republic was proclaimed and a “provisional
government of national defense” instituted under the presidency of Gen.
Trochu. On September 20, Paris was invested by the Germans, and
communication was kept up with the outer world by means of pigeons and
balloon mails. On October 30, riot reigned in Paris, and the members of
the provisional government were arrested and held prisoners for several
hours. On November 28, 300,000 troops supported by 700 field-pieces,
divided into three corps, were concentrated at points around the city
under Gen. Trochu as commander-in-chief. Early in January the
bombardment was begun, and continued most of the month without serious
injury. The city, nearly reduced to starvation and threatened with
intestine commotion, surrendered on January 28, with 1900 pieces of
artillery, 180,000 prisoners, a forced contribution of 200,000,000
francs having been levied by the enemy. The National Assembly having
ratified the preliminaries of peace on February 28, the German troops,
who, to the number of 30,000, had occupied a quarter of Paris, quietly
withdrew. The terms of peace proving distasteful to the populace, Paris
was soon plunged into political chaos, and sanguinary conflicts followed
between the government of the Commune, or Red Republicans, and the
Versailles government under the presidency of Thiers.

=Park.= The space occupied by the animals, wagons, pontons, and
materials of all kinds, whether of powder, ordnance stores, hospital
stores, provisions, etc., of an army when brought together; as, a park
of wagons; a park of artillery; a park of provisions; engineer park, and
the like.

=Park.= To bring together in a park, or compact body; as, to park the
artillery, etc.

=Parley.= An oral conference with an enemy. It takes place under a flag
of truce, and usually at some spot--for the time neutral--between the
two armies. _To beat a parley_, is to give a signal for such a
conference by beat of drum or sound of trumpet.

=Parma.= A kind of round buckler used by the velites in the Roman army.
It was 3 feet in diameter, made of wood and covered with leather. Its
form was round, and its substance strong; but Servius on the Æneid, and
even Virgil, say that it was a light piece of armor in comparison with
the clypeus, though larger than the pelta.

=Parma.= A city of Italy, situated on a river of the same name, about 72
miles southeast of Milan. It is supposed to be of Etruscan origin, but
is first mentioned as a Roman colony, having become of considerable
importance in the time of the republic. It took a prominent part against
Antony in 43 B.C., and was in consequence taken by that general and
plundered by his troops. Under Augustus it received a fresh colony, and
it again rose to be one of the principal towns of this populous and
flourishing part of Italy. In 377 a colony of Goths was settled in the
territory of Parma by order of Gratian; Attila devastated and plundered
it; and it was taken by Narses in his wars against the Goths and their
allies. In 1247, Frederick II. besieged it without success. It
subsequently became a prey to feudal lords, and afterwards fell into the
hands of the popes. Parma is now part of the province of Æmilia, in the
kingdom of Italy, to which it was annexed March 18, 1860.

=Parma, Battles of.= An indecisive engagement took place at Parma, June
29, 1734, between the confederated armies of England, France, and Spain
and the Austrians; and on June 19, 1799, the French under Macdonald were
routed by the Russians under Suwarrow, with a loss of 4 generals and
10,000 men.

=Paroi= (_Fr._). A stout wooden frame having long, sharp-pointed stakes
driven into it horizontally; it is placed upon the parapet to oppose
scaling parties.

=Parole.= A watch-word differing from the countersign (which see) in
that it is only communicated to officers of guards, while the
countersign is given to all the members. The parole is usually the name
of a person, generally a distinguished officer, while the countersign is
the name of a place, as of a battle-field. It is also the declaration
made on honor by an officer, in a case in which there is no more than
his sense of honor to restrain him from breaking his word. Thus, a
prisoner of war may be released from actual prison on his parole that he
will not go beyond certain designated limits; or he may even be allowed
to return to his own country on his parole not to fight again during the
existing war against his captors. To break _parole_ is accounted
infamous in all civilized nations, and an officer who has so far
forgotten his position as a gentleman ceases to have any claim to the
treatment of an honorable man, nor can he expect quarter should he again
fall into the hands of the enemy he has deceived.

=Paros.= One of the larger islands of the Grecian archipelago, situated
west of Naxos. In ancient times, it is said to have been colonized by
Cretans, and was very wealthy and powerful. It submitted to the
Persians; and after the battle of Marathon was assailed ineffectually by
Miltiades, who received here the wound of which he soon after died.
After the death of Xerxes, Paros came under the supremacy of Athens, and
shared the fate of the other Cyclades.

=Parrain= (_Fr._). In military orders, the person who introduces or
presents a newly-elected knight. The term is also used to signify the
comrade who is selected by a soldier who is condemned to be shot to bind
the handkerchief over his eyes.

=Parrott Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Parrott Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Parry.= To ward off; to stop or to put or turn off; to prevent; as, to
parry a thrust, a blow, or the like, or anything that means or threatens
harm.

=Parry.= A defensive movement in sword and bayonet exercises; also a
command; as, _tierce parry_, _quarte parry_, etc.

=Parrying.= The action of warding off the push or blow aimed at one by
the other.

=Parsees=, or =Guebres=. The followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till
638, when, at the battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by the
Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the battle of Náhárand in 641.
Many submitted to the conquerors (and their descendants are termed
Guebres), but others fled to India, and their descendants still reside
at Bombay (where they are termed Parsees), where they numbered 114,698
in 1849.

=Parsons Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Parsonstown= (anc. _Birr_). A considerable inland town on the river
Brosna, in King’s Co., Ireland, 69 miles west-southwest from Dublin.
Birr was the scene of many important events, both in the Irish and in
the post-invasion period. The castle, which was anciently the seat of
the O’Carrols, was granted by Henry II. to Philip de Worcester; but it
frequently changed masters, and even alternated between English and
Irish hands. Through the entire period of the civil wars it was
constantly disputed, until after 1690, when the Parsons family was
finally established in possession of the castle and adjoining lands.
Parsonstown is a large military station.

=Partheniæ.= A word derived from the Greek, signifying children born of
unmarried women. The name was applied to a particular class of citizens
in Sparta after the Messenian war, whose origin was ascribed to the
following circumstances: The Spartans having been at war with the
Messenians for twenty years, and having by that means very much
depopulated their country, and apprehending that if the war continued it
might eventually strip Sparta of all its male inhabitants, they sent
some of their young men from the army into the city, with license to be
familiar with as many unmarried women as they would; and the children
begotten by them in this manner were called _partheniæ_, on account of
the uncertainty as to who were their fathers. At the end of the war,
this brood were deemed bastards, and were denied the bearing of any
office in the government, etc. This unjust exclusion enraged them so
much that they conspired with the slaves to destroy all the nobility;
but, on the discovery of their plot, they were driven out of the city;
after which, being headed by Phalantus, a bold and enterprising son of
chance, they traveled into Magna Grecia in Italy, and built Tarentum.

=Parthenopean Republic.= Was the name given to the state into which the
kingdom of Naples was transformed by the French republicans, January 23,
1799, and which only lasted till the following June, when the invading
army was forced to retreat.

=Parthia.= Anciently a country of Western Asia, lying at the southeast
end of the Caspian Sea, from which it was separated by a narrow strip,
known as Hyrcania, now forms the northern portion of Khorassan, and is
an almost wholly mountainous region. The original inhabitants are
believed to have been of Scythian race, as shown by their language as
well as by their manners, and to belong to the great Indo-Germanic
family. The Parthians, during the time of the Roman republic, were
distinguished by primitive simplicity of life and extreme bravery,
though, at the same time, much given to bacchanalian and voluptuous
pleasures. They neglected agriculture and commerce, devoting their whole
time to predatory expeditions and warfare. They fought on horseback, and
after a peculiar fashion. Being armed solely with bows and arrows, they
were rendered defenseless after the first discharge, and, to gain time
for adjusting a second arrow to the bow, turned their horses, and
retired, as if in full flight; but an enemy incautiously pursuing was
immediately assailed by a second flight of arrows; a second pretended
flight followed, and the conflict was thus carried on till the Parthians
gained the victory, or exhausted their quivers. They generally
discharged their arrows backwards, holding the bow behind the shoulder;
a mode of attack more dangerous to a pursuing enemy than to one in order
of battle. The Parthians first appeared in history as subject to the
great Persian empire. After the death of Alexander the Great, Parthia
formed part of the Syrian kingdom, but revolted under Antiochus II., and
constituted itself into an independent kingdom under the _Arsacidæ_, 250
B.C., a race of kings who exercised the most completely despotic
authority ever known. The Parthian dominion rapidly became a most
powerful and flourishing empire. In spite of repeated attacks on the
part of the Romans, the Parthians maintained their independence; and
though Trajan, in 115-116, seized certain portions of the country, the
Romans were soon compelled to abandon them. In 214, during the reign of
Artabanus IV., the last of the Arsacidæ, a revolt headed by Ardshir, son
of Babegan, broke out in Persia, and the Parthian monarch, beaten in
three engagements, lost his throne and life, while the victor
substituted the Persian dynasty of the Sassanidæ for that of the
Arsacidæ. Some scions of the Parthian royal family continued for several
centuries to rule over the mountainous district of Armenia, under the
protection of the Romans, and made frequent descents upon Assyria and
Babylonia.

=Partiality.= An unequal state of judgment or leaning in favor of one of
two parties. Every member of a court-martial is sworn to do justice,
without partiality, favor, or affection. A previous opinion expressed by
a member, before the court is sworn, is deemed a good and sufficient
cause of challenge by either the prisoner or prosecutor, and the
individual cannot sit on the trial and judgment of the case.

=Partisan.= The name given to small corps detached from the main body of
an army, and acting independently against the enemy. In partisan warfare
much liberty is allowed to partisans. Continually annoying the flanks
and rear of columns, they intercept convoys, cut off communications,
attack detachments, and endeavor to spread terror everywhere. This kind
of warfare is advantageously pursued only in mountainous or
thickly-wooded districts. In an open country, cavalry very readily
destroys partisans. The Spanish race make active partisans. The party is
called _guerrilla_, the partisan a _guerrillero_.

=Partisan.= A term formerly applied to a pike or halbert.

=Partition Lines.= In heraldry, lines dividing the shield in directions
corresponding to the ordinaries. According to the direction of the
partition lines, a shield is said to be party or parted per fess, per
pale, per bend, per chevron, per saltire; a shield divided by lines in
the direction of a cross is said to be quartered; and a shield parted at
once per cross and per saltire is said to be gironné of eight. The
partition lines are not always plain; they may be engrailed, invected,
embattled, wavy, nebuly, indented, dancetté, or raguly.

=Partridges.= In artillery, were very large bombards, formerly in use at
sieges and in defensive works.

=Parts, Bridges By.= See PONTONS.

=Party.= A small detachment of men, horse or foot, sent upon any kind of
duty; as, into an enemy’s country, to pillage, to take prisoners, and
oblige the country to come under contribution.

=Party.= In heraldry, parted or divided;--used with reference to any
division of a field or charge.

=Party, Firing.= Are those who are selected to fire over the grave of
any one interred with military honors.

=Party, Recruiting.= Is a certain number of men, under an officer or
non-commissioned officer, detached from their respective regiments for
the purpose of enlisting men.

=Party, Working.= See WORKING PARTY.

=Pas de Sours= (_Fr._). Steps leading from the bottom to the top of a
ditch in permanent fortification.

=Pasha=, or =Bashaw= (from the Persian _padishah_, “powerful ruler”). A
title applied in the Ottoman empire to governors of provinces, or
military and naval commanders of high rank. The distinctive badge of a
pasha is a horse-tail, waving from the end of a staff crowned with a
gilt ball; in war, this badge is always carried before him when he goes
abroad, and is at other times planted in front of his tent. There are
three grades of pashas, which are distinguished by the number of
horse-tails on their standards; those of the highest rank are pashas of
three tails, and include, in general, the highest functionaries, civil
and military. All pashas of this class have the title of vizier. The
pashas of two tails are the governors of provinces, who are generally
called by the simple title “pasha.” The pashas of one tail, the lowest
rank of pashas, are provincial governors. See HORSE-TAIL.

=Pass.= A straight, difficult, and narrow passage, which, well defended,
shuts up the entrance to a country.

=Pass.= A certificate of leave of absence given to a soldier for a short
period.

=Pass of Arms.= In ancient chivalry, a bridge, road, etc., which the
knights undertook to defend, and which was not to be passed without
fighting the person who kept it. He who was disposed to dispute the pass
touched one of the armories of the other knight who held the pass, that
were hung on pales, columns, etc., erected for the purpose; and this was
a challenge which the other was obliged to accept. The vanquished gave
the conqueror such prize as was agreed on.

=Pass, To.= Is to march in review by open order of columns, for the
purpose of saluting.

=Passable.= Capable of being passed, traveled, traversed, or the like;
as, the roads are not passable for troops.

=Passade=, or =Passado=. In fencing, a push or thrust; also, a sudden
movement to the front.

=Passage.= A pass or encounter; as, a passage at arms.

=Passage of Ditches.= In siege operations the passage of a dry ditch
consists in the _descent_ (which is by a blindage, if the ditch is not
too deep, or a blindage and gallery for deep ditches) and a full sap,
which leads from the outlet of the _descent_ to the bottom of the
breach. The passage of a wet ditch is more difficult, and specially
perilous if the besieged can produce sudden freshets by flood-gates or
other contrivance. The method usually followed is to build a dike or
bridge of fascines and hurdles across the ditch. The abutment for this
bridge is formed by excavating a grand gallery behind the counterscarp
and throwing the earth taken from it into the ditch through the outlet
of the _descent_. The dike is carried forward from this abutment by
sappers, who work on a raft carrying a musket-proof mask on the side of
the enemy. A gabionade parapet on the exposed side of the dike serves to
protect the men in bringing forward the fascines, hurdles, etc., to
extend the dike.

=Passage of Rivers.= The passage is effected by surprise or by main
force, and detachments are thrown by one means or the other upon the
enemy’s bank of the river before proceeding to the construction of
bridges. The passage by force ought always to be favored by diversions
upon other points. Infantry cross bridges without keeping step. Cavalry
dismount in crossing, leading their horses. Wagons heavily loaded pass
at a gallop.

=Passages.= Are openings cut in the parapet of the covered way, close to
the traverses, in order to continue the communication through all parts
of the covered way. See TRAVERSES.

=Passandeau= (_Fr._). An ancient 8-pounder gun, which was 15 feet long,
and weighed about 3500 pounds.

=Passant.= A heraldic term, used to express the attitude of an animal in
a walking position, with his head straight before him.

=Passarowitz.= A well-built town of European Turkey, in the province of
Servia, 5 miles south of the Danube, and 15 miles east of Semendria. The
town is chiefly noteworthy for the treaty which was signed here by
Prince Eugène and the grand viziers, July 21, 1718. By this treaty,
which put an end to the war undertaken by the Turks against Venice in
1714 for the conquest of the Morea, a truce of twenty-five years was
established, and the Banat of Temesvars, the western portion of
Wallachia and Servia, the town and territory of Belgrade, and a part of
Bosnia, were secured to the house of Austria.

=Passau.= A picturesque, fortified, frontier town of Bavaria, at the
confluence of the Inn and the Ilz with the Danube, 90 miles
east-northeast from Munich. Fort Oberhaus, on the left bank of the
Danube, stands on steep wooded cliffs, at an elevation of upwards of 400
feet, and commands the passage of both the Inn and Danube, besides which
the town is further defended by the castle of Niederhause, and by ten
detached forts. The treaty whereby religious freedom was established,
was ratified here between the emperor Charles V. and the Protestant
princes of Germany, July 31, 1552.

=Pass-box.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Passegardes.= In ancient armor, were ridges on the shoulder-pieces to
turn the blow of a lance.

=Passe-Mur.= An ancient 16-pounder gun, 18 feet long, weighing 4200
pounds.

=Passes-Balles= (_Fr._). Boards or machines made of iron or brass, used
in disparting cannon, and fitted to every species of caliber.

=Passion Cross.= A cross of the form on which our Saviour suffered, with
a long stem and a short traverse near the top. It is of occasional
occurrence as a heraldic charge, though less frequent than many other
varieties of cross. A passion cross, when elevated on three steps or
degrees (which have been said by heralds to represent the virtues of
Faith, Hope, and Charity), is called a Cross Calvary.

=Passive Operations.= Are operations the object of which is solely to
repel an attack of the enemy and thus prevent his advance.

=Pass-parole.= An order passed from front to rear of an army by word of
mouth.

=Passport.= A document given by the competent officer of a state, which
permits the person therein named to pass or travel from place to place
by land or water. Also a license granted in time of war for the removal
of persons and effects from a hostile country; a safe-conduct.

=Pataremo.= A sort of small swivel artillery, having a movable chamber.

=Patavium= (now _Padova_, or _Padua_). An ancient town of the Veneti in
the north of Italy, on the Medoacus Minor, and on the road from Mutina
to Altinum. In 302 B.C. it was powerful enough to drive back the Spartan
king Cleomenes with great loss when he attempted to plunder the
surrounding country. It was plundered by Attila; and in consequence of a
revolt of its citizens, it was subsequently destroyed by Agilolf, king
of the Longobards, and razed to the ground.

=Patay.= A town of France, department of Loiret, 14 miles northwest of
Orleans, where John of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, was present, when the
Earl of Richemont signally defeated the English, June 18, 1429. Talbot
was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In
consequence, Charles VII. of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was
crowned July 17, following year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony
in full armor, and holding the sword of state.

=Patched-up Peace, The.= In French history, the name given to a treaty
of peace between the Duke of Orleans and John of Burgundy, in 1409.

=Paté= (_Fr._). In fortification, a sort of horseshoe, that is, a
platform or terre-plein, irregularly built, yet generally constructed in
an oval form. It is surrounded by a parapet, without anything to flank
it, and having no other defense than what is front or fore right.
_Patés_ are usually erected in marshy grounds to cover the gate of a
fortified town or place. Also an iron or earthen pot filled with powder
and grenades for throwing against besiegers; some were used at Lille in
1708.

=Patereros.= Were small pieces of ordnance, now obsolete, worked on
swivels; most commonly used on board of ships, where they were mounted
on the gunwale, and discharged showers of old nails, etc., into hostile
boats. The French called them Pierriers, from loading them with stones.

=Patience.= The power or faculty of suffering; endurance; the power of
expecting long, without rage or discontent; the power of supporting
faults or injuries, without revenge; long suffering. In military life,
patience is an essential requisite. Without patience half the toils of
war would be insupportable; with patience there are scarcely any
hardships but what coolness, courage, and ability may overcome. It is
one of the greatest virtues, indeed, in an officer or soldier patiently
to support, not only the rigor of discipline, but the keen and vexatious
circumstances of disappointment.

=Patna=, or =Pattana=. A town of British India, capital of a district of
the same name, in the presidency of Bengal, on the right bank of the
Ganges, 10 miles east of Dinapore, and 377 miles northwest of Calcutta.
Factories were established here at an early period by the British. In
1763 disputes began to arise between Meer Cossim, the nawaub of Bengal
and Behar, and the servants of the East India Company, about the transit
dues levied on native traders, from which the English claimed exemption.
The nawaub for some time refused to accede to these demands; but finally
he abolished all the imposts, both on British and native goods, a step
which was not desired by the Company, and which must have greatly
diminished his revenues. In revenge for this injury, he proceeded in
various ways to annoy the British; and at length went so far as to seize
some of their boats on the Ganges. On this Mr. Ellis, the chief of the
factory at Patna, made an attack on the city and took possession of it,
although Meer Cossim soon afterwards recovered it, and forced the
British to take refuge in the factory. For four months hostilities
continued between the two parties, in the course of which the nawaub was
several times defeated, until he became so exasperated at the loss of
the city of Monghyr, that he ordered the murder in cold blood of 200
prisoners. On November 6, in the same year, Patna was taken by the
British; and in May, 1764, Meer Cossim’s troops were totally defeated
under the walls. Since that time the place has remained undisturbed in
the hands of the British.

=Patomemeter.= An instrument for measuring the force of currents.

=Patonce, Cross.= In heraldry (Lat. _patens_, “expanding”), a cross with
its terminations expanding like early vegetation or an opening blossom.

=Patoo-patoo.= A formidable weapon with sharp edges, used by the
Polynesian Islanders and New Zealanders as a sort of battle-axe to
cleave the skulls of their enemies.

=Patræ= (now _Patras_). One of the twelve cities of Achaia, was situated
west of Rhium, near the opening of the Corinthian Gulf. The town was
chiefly of importance as the place from which the Peloponnesians
directed their attacks against the opposite coast of Ætolia. Patræ was
one of the four towns which took the leading part in founding the second
Achæan League. Patræ assisted the Ætolians against the Gauls in 279 B.C.

=Patriarchal Cross.= A cross which, like the patriarchal crosier, has
its upright part crossed by two horizontal bars, the upper shorter than
the lower. A cross patriarchal fimbriated or was a badge of the Knights
Templar.

=Patrick, St., Order of.= A national order of knighthood for Ireland,
established by George III. on February 5, 1783, and enlarged in 1833. As
originally constituted, it consisted of the sovereign, the grand master
(who was always the lord-lieutenant of Ireland for the time being), and
15 knights. By the statutes of 1833 the number of knights was increased
to 22. The collar of the order (of gold) is composed of roses
alternating with harps, tied together with a knot of gold, the roses
being enameled alternately white within red, and red within white, and
in the centre is an imperial crown surmounting a harp of gold, from
which the badge is suspended. The _badge_ or _jewel_ is of gold, and
oval; surrounding it is a wreath of shamrock proper on a gold field;
within this is a band of sky-blue enamel charged with the motto of the
order, _Quis Separabit_ MDCCLXXXIII. in gold letters; and within this
hand a saltire gules (the cross of St. Patrick) surmounted by a shamrock
or trefoil slipped vert, having on each of its leaves an imperial crown
or. The field of the cross is either argent or pierced, and left open. A
sky-blue _ribbon_, worn over the right shoulder, sustains the badge when
the collar is not worn. The _star_, worn on the left side, differs from
the badge only in being circular in place of oval, and in substituting
for the exterior wreath of shamrocks eight rays of silver, four rays of
which are larger than the other four. The _mantle_ is of rich sky-blue
tabinet, lined with white silk, and fastened by a cordon of blue silk
and gold with tassels. On the right shoulder is the _hood_, of the same
materials as the _mantle_. The order is indicated by the initials K.P.

=Patriot.= A sincere and unbiased friend to his country; an advocate for
general civilization, uniting in his conduct through life, moral
rectitude with political integrity. Such a character is seldom found in
any country; but the specious appearance of it is to be seen everywhere,
most especially in Europe. It is difficult to say how far the term can
be used in a military sense, although it is not uncommon to read of a
citizen soldier, and a _patriot_ soldier. Individually considered the
term may be just, but it is hardly to be understood collectively.

=Patrol.= To go the rounds in a camp or garrison; to march about and
observe what passes as a guard. To pass round as a sentinel; as, to
patrol the city.

=Patrolling.= Performing the duties of a patrol.

=Patrols.= A patrol is a detachment which is employed to obtain
information respecting the enemy’s movements and position, and relating
to the nature of the country over which the army has to move, and to
keep open the communications between the different portions of a
command. Patrols are generally composed entirely of cavalry, although
they are sometimes composed of infantry and cavalry; and in very much
broken and obstructed ground, it might be necessary that they contain
only infantry.

=Patte= (_Fr._). A term used in mining; when a well or excavation is
made in loose or crumbling earth, and it becomes necessary to frame it
in, the rafters must be laid horizontally to support the boards in
proportion as the workmen gain depth. The ends of the rafters that are
first laid run 10 or 12 inches beyond the border of the well, for the
purpose of sustaining the platform. These supports are called
_oreilles_; consequently, that every frame may be supported the second
is attached or made firm to the first by means of the ends of boards
which are nailed together. In this manner the third is joined to the
second, and the fourth to the third. These ends are called _pattes_, or
handles.

=Pattée, Cross=, or =Cross Formeé= (Lat. _patulus_, “spreading”). In
heraldry, a cross with its arms expanding towards the ends, and flat at
their outer edges.

=Patte d’Oie= (_Fr._). A term used in mining to describe three small
branches which are run out at the extremity of a gallery. They are so
called from their resemblance to the foot of a goose.

=Pattern Regiment.= A phrase of distinction which is applied to a corps
of officers and soldiers who are remarkable for their observance of good
order and discipline.

=Paulus Hook.= A point on the Jersey shore which ran into the Hudson
River near where the Pavonia ferries now are. The first settlement was
made here in 1633. A British fort erected at this point was taken on the
morning of August 19, 1779, by the Americans under Maj. Harry Lee, who
made a descent on it by way of the Point of Rocks, and captured 179
prisoners, a number of guns, and a quantity of stores.

=Pavade.= Formerly a short dagger was so called in Scotland.

=Pavecheur=, or =Pavesier=. An ancient militia who carried the
(_pavois_) shield.

=Pavia= (anc. _Ticinum_). A city of Northern Italy, capital of the
province of the same name, on the left bank of the Ticino, 20 miles
south of Milan, and 3 miles above the confluence of the Ticino and the
Po. Pavia was founded by the Ligurii; it was sacked by Brennus and by
Hannibal; burned by the Huns; conquered by the Romans, and became a
place of considerable importance at the end of the Roman empire. Then it
came into the possession of the Goths and Lombards, and the kings of the
latter made it the capital of the kingdom of Italy. It became
independent in the 12th century, then, weakened by civil wars, it was
conquered by Matthew Visconti in 1345. Since that period, its history is
merged in that of the conquerors of Lombardy. Here, in 1525, the French
were defeated by the Imperialists, and their king taken prisoner; but in
1527, and again in the following year it was taken and laid waste by the
French. It was stormed and pillaged by Napoleon in 1796, and came into
the possession of Austria by the peace of 1814. Since 1859 it has been
included within the reorganized kingdom of Italy.

=Pavilion.= A tent raised on posts; a flag, colors, ensign, or banner;
in heraldry, a covering in form of a tent, investing the armories of
kings.

=Pavilion, To.= To furnish or cover with tents; to shelter with a tent.

=Pavise= (written also _Pavais_, _Pavese_, and _Pavesse_). A large
shield covering the whole body, having an inward curve, managed by a
pavisor, who with it screened an archer.

=Pavisor.= In military antiquity, a soldier who managed a pavise.

=Pavon.= An ancient military flag shaped like a right-angled triangle.

=Pawnees.= A warlike tribe of Indians who formerly resided in Nebraska,
but are now located in Indian Territory. Their numbers have been greatly
reduced, owing to their wars with the Sioux, with whom they maintained a
hereditary warfare. They now number about 2000 souls, and are divided in
four bands.

=Pay.= Is the stipend or salary allowed for each individual serving in
the army.

=Pay Bills.= In the British service, accounts regularly tendered by
captains of troops or companies of the money required by them for the
effectives of such troop or company.

=Pay, Colonial.= In the British service is a certain allowance which is
made to troops serving in the colonies.

=Pay Department.= Is that department of a government which takes charge
of all matters relating to the pay of the army. In the U. S. army the
pay department consists of 1 paymaster-general, with the rank, pay, and
emoluments of a brigadier-general; 2 assistant paymaster-generals, with
the rank, pay, and emoluments of colonels of cavalry; 2 deputy
paymaster-generals, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of
lieutenant-colonels of cavalry; and 50 paymasters, with the rank, pay,
and emoluments of majors of cavalry.

=Pay, Half-.= Sec HALF-PAY.

=Pay, Full.= See FULL PAY.

=Pay, Staff.= Is the pay and allowances which are made to officers
serving on the staff of an army, or in any particular division or
department.

=Paymaster-General.= In the U. S. army, is the chief officer of the pay
department, with the rank of brigadier-general. Under the direction of
the Secretary of War, the paymaster-general assigns paymasters to
districts; he receives from the treasurer all the moneys which are
intrusted to him for the purpose of paying the pay, the arrears of pay,
etc., appertaining to the army. He is also charged with all necessary
instructions to his subordinates in reference to the supply and
distribution of funds for the payment of the army, and all other things
appertaining to the financial duties of his department and the
accountability of its officers. In these and all other matters having
relation specially to the internal administration of the pay department,
the correspondence and orders is direct between the paymaster-general
and his subordinates, and between the department and district chiefs and
their subordinates.

=Paymasters.= Are officers appointed in the army for the purpose of
keeping its pay accounts, and the disbursing of moneys in payment of
troops. In the U. S. service it is the duty of paymasters to pay all the
regular and other troops; and to insure punctuality and responsibility,
correct reports shall be made to the paymaster-general once in two
months, showing the disposition of the funds previously transmitted,
with accurate estimates for the next payment of such regiment, garrison,
or department, as may be assigned to each. In the British service a
paymaster is attached to each regiment.

=Paymaster-Sergeant.= In the English army, a non-commissioned officer
who assists the paymaster.

=Pay-roll.= A roll or list of persons entitled to payment, with the sums
which are to be paid on them. In the U. S. army, commanders of
companies are required to prepare at each regular muster, beside one
muster-roll, three copies of the “muster- and pay-roll,” two for the
paymaster, and one to be retained in the company files. When the
paymaster’s rolls have been computed and returned to the company for
examination and signature, the calculations thereon will be transcribed
on the triplicate muster- and pay-roll, under the direction of or by the
company commander, who is responsible for the correct performance of
this duty.

=Pay-Sergeant.= In the British service, a sergeant who, on the
responsibility of the captain of a troop, battery, or company, keeps the
men’s accounts. He is generally, but not invariably, the color-sergeant
in the infantry, or the troop or battery sergeant-major in the cavalry
or artillery.

=Pea Ridge.= A range of hills in Benton Co., Ark., which gives its name
to the battle fought here March 6-8, 1862, between the Union forces
under Gen. Curtis and the Confederates under Van Dorn, in which the
latter were defeated with loss of over 2500 killed, wounded, and
captured.

=Peabody-Martini Rifle.= A breech-loading rifle invented by an
American--Peabody--and improved by a Swiss. It is called _Martini-Henry_
in England, in which country it is the official arm. More than half a
million of these rifles were manufactured for the Turkish government
during the late Russo-Turkish war by the Providence Tool Company of
Rhode Island. The gun has a great reputation on account of its long
range.

=Peace.= Freedom from war, exemption from, or cessation of, hostilities.
This condition of affairs is effected and maintained by treaties between
independent powers.

=Peace Establishment.= The reduced number of effective men in the army
during a period of peace.

=Peal.= A long sound, or a succession of long sounds, as of cannon, etc.

=Pean= (Old Fr. _pannes_, “furs”). One of the furs borne in heraldry,
differing from ermine only in the tinctures,--the ground being sable and
the spots of gold.

=Pea-rifle.= A rifle of small bore carrying a ball of the size of a pea.

=Peasants’ War.= In German history, the name given to that great
insurrection of the peasantry which broke out in the beginning of the
year 1525. The oppression of the peasants had gradually increased in
severity, as the nobility became more extravagant and the clergy more
sensual and degenerate. The example of Switzerland encouraged the hope
of success, and from 1476 to 1517 there were risings here and there
among the peasants of the south of Germany. A peasant rebellion, called
from its cognizance, the _Bundschuh_ (laced shoe), took place in the
Rhine countries in 1502, and another called the “League of Poor Conrad,”
in Würtemberg, in 1514, both of which were put down without any
abatement of the grievances which occasioned them. The Reformation, by
the mental awakening which it produced, and the diffusion of sentiments
favorable to freedom, must be reckoned among the causes of the great
insurrection itself. The Anabaptists, and in particular Münzer,
encouraged and excited them, and a peasant insurrection took place in
the Hegau in 1522. Another known as the “Latin War” arose in 1523 in
Salzburg, against an unpopular archbishop, but these were quickly
suppressed. On January 1, 1525, the peasantry of the abbacy of Kempten,
along with the towns-people, suddenly assailed and plundered the
convent; this event proved the signal for a general rising of the
peasantry on all sides throughout the south of Germany. They organized
themselves into bands of from 9000 to 30,000, and destroyed convents and
castles, murdered, pillaged, and were guilty of the greatest excesses,
which must indeed be regarded as partly in revenge for the cruelties
practiced against them. In May and June, 1525, they sustained a number
of severe defeats from the regular forces under Truchsess von Waldburg,
in which large bodies of them were destroyed. The landgraf Philip of
Hesse was also successful against them in the north of Germany. The
peasants after they had been subjugated were everywhere treated with
terrible cruelty; a great body of them were massacred; multitudes were
hanged in the streets, and many were put to death with the greatest
tortures. It is supposed that more than 150,000 persons lost their lives
in this war. The lot of the defeated insurgents became harder than ever.

=Pebble Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Pecq, Le.= A village of France, on the right bank of the Seine, about
half a mile east from St. Germain en Laye. The allied forces crossed the
Seine at this spot in 1815.

=Pectoral= (Fr. _pectorale_). A breastplate. Among the Romans the poorer
soldiers, who were rated under 1000 drachmas, instead of the _lorica_,
or brigantine (a leathern coat of mail) wore a pectoral, or breastplate
of thin brass, about twelve fingers square. Some modern troops, such as
the cuirassiers, etc., wear pectorals for the direct purposes of defense
and bodily protection; but in general small ornamental plates with
clasps have been substituted.

=Peculation.= A term used in a military sense for embezzling public
moneys, stores, arms, or ammunition. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60.

=Pedro.= An early gun of large caliber for throwing stone balls.

=Peel.= To strip; to plunder; to pillage; as, to peel a province or
conquered people.

=Peel.= A small tower or fort.

=Peel-house.= A small fortified place.

=Peel-towers.= The name given to the towers erected on the Scottish
borders for defense. They are square, with turrets at the angles, and
the door is sometimes at a height from the ground. The lower story is
usually vaulted, and forms a stable for horses, cattle, etc.

=Peep o’ Day Boys.= Were insurgents in Ireland, who visited the houses
of their antagonists at break of day, in search of arms. They first
appeared July 4, 1784, and for a long period were the terror of the
country.

=Pegu.= A British province of Eastern India, is bounded on the north by
the Burmese empire, east by the Tenasserim provinces, south by the Gulf
of Martaban, and west by the Bay of Bengal and the province of Arracan.
It was discovered by the Portuguese in 1520. The early history of Pegu
consists of little more than a narrative of barbarous and cruel contests
between that country and the kingdom of Ava, in which the latter was
finally successful, and reduced Pegu to a province of that kingdom, or,
as it is generally called, the Burman empire. Pegu, the capital, was
taken by Maj. Cotton, with 300 men, in June, 1852, without loss; and
afterwards abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese and strongly
fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. It was recaptured by Gen. Godwin
with 1200 men and 2 guns, in two hours, with the loss of 6 killed and 32
wounded. The province was annexed to the British possessions, by
proclamation, December 20, 1852, and has since prospered. In February,
1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenasserim as British Burmah.

=Pei-ho.= A river of China, which rising on the confines of Tartary,
traverses the northern part of the province of Chih-le or Pe-chih-le,
and falls into the Gulf of Pe-chih-le, in about 38° 30′ N. lat. The
attack on the escort of the British and French ambassadors whilst
ascending the Pei-ho to Pekin (June, 1859), led to the war with China of
1860, in which year the Taku forts on this river were taken by the
British.

=Peishwa.= The title of the military governor of the Mahrattas, whose
office became hereditary in the family of Balajee Biswanath, its first
possessor, who fixed his residence at Poonah.

=Peking=, or =Pekin=. The capital of the Chinese empire, situated
between the Pei-ho and Hoen-ho, 100 miles northwest from the mouth of
the Pei-ho River. About 5 miles north from the city the famous
Yuen-ming-yuen palaces are situated, which were sacked and destroyed by
the allies in October, 1860; these were 30 in number. Here had been
heaped up for centuries all the movable riches and presents of the
emperors of China. At the approach of the allies Hien-fung fled in
haste; and when Lord Elgin learned that it was in those grounds that the
British and French prisoners, captured by treachery, had been tortured,
he gave the order to sack and destroy this favorite residence of the
emperor’s, as it could not fail to be a blow to his pride as well as his
feelings; and it became a solemn act of retribution. Peking has thus
been rendered memorable by this march of the British and French forces
(1860) to the walls of the city, on which the British and French flags
were raised. The provisions of the treaty of Tien-tsin (1858) were
subsequently ratified and supplemented by the convention of Peking,
which was signed in the English and French languages at Peking, October
24, 1860.

=Pelican.= An ancient name for a 6-pounder culverin, 9 feet long and
weighing 2400 pounds.

=Pelican.= In heraldry, the pelican is drawn with her wings endorsed,
and wounding her breast with her beak. When represented in her nest
feeding her young with her blood, she is called a pelican in _her
piety_.

=Peligni.= A brave and warlike people of Sabine origin, in Central
Italy, bounded southeast by the Marsi, north by the Marrucini, south by
Samium and the Frentani, and east by the Frentani likewise. They offered
a brave resistance to the Romans, but concluded a peace with the
republic along with their neighbors the Marsi, Marrucini, and Frentani,
in 304 B.C. They took an active part in the Social war (90, 89). They
were subdued by Pompeius Strabo, after which time they are rarely
mentioned.

=Pelinna=, or more commonly =Pelinnæum= (now _Gardhiki_). A town of
Thessaly, in Hestiæotis, on the left bank of the Peneus, was taken by
the Romans in their war with Antiochus.

=Pellene.= A city in Achaia, bordering on Sicyonia, the most easterly of
the twelve Achæan cities, was situated on a hill 60 stadia from the sea,
and was strongly fortified. Its port-town was Aristonautæ. In the
Peloponnesian war Pellene sided with Sparta. In the later wars of Greece
between the Achæan and Ætolian leagues, the town was several times taken
by the contending parties.

=Pellet.= An old word for shot or bullet.

=Pellet=, or =Ogress=. In English heraldry, a roundle sable.

=Pell-mell.= In utter confusion; with disorderly mixture; with confused
violence; as, the battle was a confused heap, the ground unequal, men,
horses, chariots, crowded pell-mell.

=Peloponnesian War.= One of the most celebrated and important of the
wars carried on between the different states of Greece; the particulars
of which are related in the writings of Xenophon and Thucydides. It
existed for twenty-seven years, during which time the Athenians and the
inhabitants of the Peloponnesus, the most southern peninsula of Greece,
were the principal belligerents. After the Athenians had sustained
immense losses, it was at best agreed that to establish the peace the
fortifications of the Athenian harbors should be demolished, and all
their ships, except twelve, be surrendered to the enemy. They were to
resign every pretension to their dominions abroad; to follow the
Spartans in war, and in time of peace to frame their constitutions
according to the will and prescription of their Peloponnesian
conquerors. Their walls and fortifications were instantly leveled to the
ground; and the conquerors observed that in the demolition of Athens,
succeeding ages would fix the era of Grecian freedom. This memorable
event happened about 404 years before the Christian era; and thirty
“tyrants” were appointed by Lysander over the government of the city.

=Pelta.= A small light shield, sometimes attributed to the Amazons, but
used by numerous nations of antiquity, such as the inhabitants of
Thrace, Spain, and Mauritania, before its general introduction among the
Greeks. It consisted mainly of a frame of wood or wicker-work covered
with skin or leather, without the metallic rim, and of a great variety
of shapes. It was sometimes round, as in the special case of the
_cetra_, sometimes elliptical, sometimes variously situated round the
rim, sometimes even quadrangular, but most commonly crescent-shaped or
lunated, as alluded to in the “_Amazonidum lunatis agmina peltis_” of
Virgil. Soldiers bearing the _pelta_ were called _peltastæ_.

=Pelusium.= The Greek name of an ancient Egyptian city situated on the
northeastern angle of the Delta, and important as the key of Egypt on
the Asiatic side. Pelusium is called _Sin_ in the Old Testament. It
first figures in semi-authentic history as the scene of Sennacherib’s
defeat, when (according to the Egyptian tradition, as reported by
Herodotus) the camp of the Assyrians was invaded at night by a host of
field-mice, who gnawed their bow-strings and shield-straps, so that in
the morning, when the Egyptians fell upon them, they were defenseless.
In 525 B.C., Cambyses overthrew, near Pelusium, the forces of
Pharaoh-Psammetichus. It surrendered to Alexander in 333 B.C. The city
was also taken by the Persians in 309 B.C.; and in 173 B.C., it was the
scene of the defeat of Ptolemy Philometor by Antiochus Epiphanes. Mark
Antony captured it 55 B.C., and it opened its gates to Octavian after
his victory at Actium, 31 B.C. It was taken after a protracted
resistance by Amrou, the Saracen, in 618.

=Pembroke.= A seaport town of South Wales, on a navigable creek of
Milford Haven, 210 miles west of London. In 1648 its castle was
beleaguered by Cromwell, and taken after a siege of six weeks.

=Penalba=, or =Penalva=. A village of Spain, province of Huesca, 18
miles northwest of Mequinenza. During the War of the Succession the
troops of Philip V. were here defeated in a bloody battle by the army of
the Archduke Charles, August 15, 1710.

=Penalty.= In a military sense, signifies forfeiture for
non-performance, likewise punishment for embezzlement, etc.

=Pencel.= A small flag or streamer which was formerly carried at the top
of a lance;--called also _pennoncel_.

=Pend d’Oreilles=, or =Kalispels= (_Calispels_). A tribe of partially
civilized Indians, divided into several bands aggregating about 2000,
who reside in Washington, Idaho, and Montana Territories. A few of this
tribe are also to be found in British Columbia.

=Pendant.= In heraldry, a part hanging from the label, resembling the
drops in the Doric frieze.

=Pendulum, Ballistic.= See BALLISTIC PENDULUM.

=Pendulum Hausse.= See HAUSSE, PENDULUM.

=Penetrating.= Having the power of entering or piercing another body.

=Penetration of Spherical Projectiles.= Their penetration when of the
same size, with different velocities or charges, is nearly as the
squares of the velocities; when of different sizes the penetration will
be proportionate to their diameters multiplied by the density, and
inversely as the tenacity of the medium. The depth of penetration of a
projectile fired from field-pieces at the distance of 500 or 600 yards,
is from 4¹⁄₂ to 6 feet in parapets recently constructed, and will
traverse walls of ordinary construction; but a 12-pounder is necessary
to make a breach in walls of good masonry and of 4 feet in thickness,
and in this case the position of the battery must be favorable, and the
operation a slow one. The depth of penetration of projectiles fired from
the 4¹⁄₂-inch siege-gun, is about the same as that of projectiles fired
from the 30-pounder Parrott gun, namely, 12 feet. Sand, sandy earth
mixed with gravel, small stones, chalk, and tufa, resist shot better
than the productive earths. Shells may be considered as round shot of a
lower specific gravity, and their penetrations are therefore
proportionally less. A bank of earth, to afford a secure cover from
heavy guns, will require a thickness from 18 to 24 feet. In guns below
18-pounders, if the number of the feet in thickness of the bank be made
equal to the number of pounds in the weight of the shot by which it is
to be assailed, the requisite protection will be obtained. Earth
possesses advantages over every other material. It is easily obtained,
regains its position after displacement, and the injury done to an
earthen battery by day can be readily repaired at night. Where masonry
is liable to be breached, it should be covered with earth. Wrought-iron
plates 4¹⁄₂ inches in thickness will withstand the effects of 32-pound
shots, and of all inferior calibers at short ranges, as 400 yards.
Plates of this thickness, however, are soon destroyed by 68-pound shots,
and afford little protection from the elongated shots of the new rifled
ordnance. To resist successfully the fall of heavy shells, buildings
must be covered with arches of good masonry, not less than 3 feet thick,
having bearings not greater than 25 feet, and these must be again
protected by a covering of several feet of earth. Iron plates half an
inch thick, oak planks 4 inches thick, or a 9-inch brick wall, are
proof against musketry or canister at a range of 100 yards. Iron plates
1 inch thick, oak from 8 to 10 inches thick, a good wall a foot thick or
a firm bank of earth 4 feet thick, will afford secure cover from
grape-shot, from any but the largest guns at short ranges. The common
musket will drive its bullet about a foot and a half into well-rammed
earth, or it will penetrate from 6 to 10 half-inch elm boards placed at
intervals of an inch. The penetration of the rifled musket is about
twice that of the common musket. A rope matting or mantlet 3¹⁄₂ inches
thick is found to resist small-arm projectiles at all distances; it may
therefore be employed as a screen against riflemen.

=Peninsular War.= A war which had for its theatre the kingdoms of Spain
and Portugal, and in which England, Spain, and Portugal fought against
France. It lasted from March, 1808, until May, 1814, when the former
powers were completely victorious.

=Pennetière=, or =Panetière= (_Fr._). A pocket or small bag in which
slingers carried stones and leaden balls.

=Pennon= (_Fr._). Formerly a copper wing of a long, light arrow
(_vireton_), substituted for a feather.

=Pennon.= In former times was something like a banner, but with the
addition of a triangular point, charged with arms, and borne before
knights-bachelors.

=Pennsylvania.= One of the Middle States of the Atlantic slope, the
second in population in the Union, and one of the thirteen of the
original confederacy. The earliest settlements were made in 1627 by a
colony of Swedes and Finns, who established themselves on the Delaware
River, going as far northward as the locality of Philadelphia. In 1665 a
Dutch expedition from New Amsterdam took formal possession of the
country. The Dutch in their turn were superseded by the English after
the capture of New York in 1664; and in 1681 the territory was granted
by Charles II. to William Penn, who with his co-religionists of the
Society of Friends established a Christian government “founded on peace,
reason, and right.” Having purchased the lands of the Indians, and
conciliated them by kindness and good will, he secured their friendship
during seventy years. Previous to the French and Indian war in 1755, the
contests waged between the French and English colonists had not reached
Pennsylvania; but in that year occurred the disastrous defeat of
Braddock, near Pittsburgh, in which Washington, then a young man,
distinguished himself. Pennsylvania took an active part in the
Revolutionary contest, and on her soil occurred the battles of
Brandywine and Germantown, September and October, 1777, the massacres of
Wyoming and Paoli, and the suffering winter encampment at Valley Forge
in 1777-78. The most prosperous of the colonies, and in a central
position, it became the seat of the congress held by the colonies both
before and after the decision of the struggle. Independence was
proclaimed here, and it remained the seat of the general government
until 1800. No State in the confederacy has been more loyal to the
Constitution. During the war of 1812 she promptly furnished her quota of
troops, and during the civil war she sent nearly 400,000 men into the
field. During this trying period her territory was three times invaded:
in 1862, when Chambersburg (which see) was captured, and in 1864, when
it was burned; and in 1863, when it was invaded by Lee, and the battle
of Gettysburg fought on its soil.

=Penobscots.= A tribe of Indians, of Algonkin stock (numbering about
500), who reside on an island in the Penobscot River, about 8 miles
north of Bangor, Me. They were allies of the colonists in the war of the
Revolution, and received for their services a large tract of land, the
greater part of which has been from time to time disposed of.

=Penon de Velez.= A fortified town, built on a high and steep rock,
lying off the north coast of Morocco, 75 miles southeast from Ceuta. It
belongs to Spain, and was founded by Pedro of Navarre in 1508. It was
taken by the Moors in 1522; but recovered by the Spaniards in 1664.

=Penrith.= A town of England, county of Cumberland, 282 miles
north-northwest of London. On a knoll to the west of the town stand the
ruins of a castle, which was built by the Nevilles during the wars of
the Roses, and dismantled in the civil war by the Parliamentary party.
The town is a place of considerable antiquity, and it formerly played a
conspicuous part in the border warfare. It was taken by the Scots
several times in the 14th century, and in 1715 and 1745 was occupied by
the insurgents.

=Pensacola.= City and capital of Escambia Co., Fla., situated on the
west shore of Pensacola Bay, about 10 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, has
an excellent harbor, and is one of the safest in the Gulf. Pensacola was
settled by the Spaniards, occupied by the British in 1814, and acquired
by the United States in 1821. It contains a navy-yard, and is defended
by Forts Pickens and McRae. During the civil war, 1861-65, it was the
scene of several military and naval operations. The navy-yard was
surrendered to the Confederates in 1861, but was recovered by the Union
forces in the following year.

=Pension.= Specifically, a stated allowance to a person in consideration
of past services; payment made to one retired from service, for age,
disability, or other cause; especially a yearly stipend paid by
government to retired officers, disabled soldiers, the families of
soldiers killed, etc.

=Pensioner.= In the British army, is a soldier maintained in Chelsea
Hospital.

=Pensioner, Out-.= In the British army, is a soldier receiving a
pension, but not maintained in Chelsea Hospital. Those who are capable
of bearing arms are available for military service when required.

=Pensioners, Gentlemen.= See GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS.

=Penstock.= A machine composed of timber, which, by means of a movable
board, enables the defenders of a fortress to allow such a rush of water
from the batardeaux as to inundate and destroy the works which the enemy
may have constructed in the ditch.

=Pentagon.= In fortification, a figure bounded by five sides, which form
so many angles, capable of being fortified with an equal number of
bastions. It also denotes a fort with five bastions.

=Pentathlon.= The five exercises performed in the Grecian games, namely,
leaping, running, quoiting, darting, and wrestling.

=Penthouse.= A shed hanging forward in a sloping direction from the main
wall of a place.

=Pentland Hills.= A range of hills in Scotland, commencing about 4 miles
west from Edinburgh. Here the Scotch Presbyterians, since called
Cameronians, who had risen against the government, on account of the
establishment of Episcopacy, were defeated by the royal troops, November
28, 1666.

=Pentri.= One of the most important of the tribes in Samnium; were
conquered by the Romans along with the other Samnites, and were the only
one of the Samnite tribes who remained faithful to the Romans when the
rest of the nation revolted to Hannibal in the second Punic war.

=Peons.= East Indian municipal foot-soldiers. These men are chiefly
employed to assist in collecting the revenues, and carry a pike or
staff. Most persons in India keep servants, who wear a belt with their
master’s name on it. These are called _peadahs_.

=Peoria Indians.= A tribe of aborigines who formerly resided in
Illinois, but are now settled on the Quapaw agency, in Indian Territory,
in confederation with the Kaskaskias and other tribes. They are but few
in number, the northern tribes having nearly exterminated them in 1769,
in revenge for the murder of Pontiac.

=Pequots=, or =Pequods=. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, closely
allied to the Mohegans, who resided in Eastern Connecticut. The tribe
was nearly exterminated by the colonists in the Pequot war (1637).

=Perclose=, or =Demi-Garter=. In heraldry, the lower half of a garter
with the buckle.

=Percussion.= Is the impression which a body makes in falling or
striking against another, or the shock of two moving bodies. It is
either direct or oblique.

=Percussion, Centre of.= That point wherein the shock of the percutient
bodies is the greatest.

=Percussion, Direct.= Is where the impulse is given in the direction of
a right line perpendicular to the point of contact.

=Percussion, Oblique.= Is where the impulse is given in the direction of
a line oblique to the point of contact.

=Percussion-bullet.= A bullet made by placing a small quantity of
percussion powder in a copper envelope in the point of an ordinary
rifled-musket bullet.

=Percussion-caps.= See CAPS, PERCUSSION-.

=Percussion-fuze.= See FUZE.

=Percussion-lock.= A lock of a gun in which gunpowder is exploded by
fire obtained from the percussion of fulminating powder.

=Percussion-match.= A match which ignites by percussion.

=Percussion-powder.= Powder composed of such materials as to ignite by
slight percussion; fulminating powder.

=Percutient.= That which strikes or has power to strike.

=Perdu.= A word adopted from the French, signifying to lie flat and
closely in wait. It likewise means employed on desperate purposes;
accustomed to desperate enterprises.

=Pered= (Hungary). Here the Hungarians under Görgey were defeated by
Wohlgemuth and the Russians, June 21, 1849.

=Perekop.= An isthmus 5 miles broad, connecting the Crimea with the
mainland. It was called by the Tartars Orkapou, “gate of the Isthmus,”
which the Russians changed to its present name, which signifies a barren
ditch. The Tartar fortress of the same name, which was situated on this
isthmus, was taken and destroyed by the Russian marshal Münich in 1736,
by assault, although it was defended by 1000 Janissaries and 100,000
Tartars. It was again strongly fortified by the khan, but was again
taken by the Russians in 1771, who have since retained it.

=Peremptory.= Whatever is absolute and final, not to be altered,
renewed, or restrained. _Peremptory execution_, what takes place
immediately.

=Perfidious.= Treacherous; false to trust; guilty of violated faith;
hence a perfidious foe. War, however melancholy in its effects, and
frequently unjustifiable in its cause and progress, is nevertheless,
among civilized nations, so far governed by certain principles of honor
as to render the observance of established laws and customs an object of
general acquiescence. When two or more countries are engaged in a
hostile contest, whatever belligerent party grossly deviates from those
rules is deservedly stamped with infamy, and justly called a
_perfidious_ foe.

=Perfidy.= Want of faith; treachery.

=Perforated Cake Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Périgueux.= A town of France, capital of the department of Dordogne,
296 miles south-southwest from Paris. Périgueux occupies the site of the
ancient Vesunna, which was at the time of the Roman invasion the capital
of the Petrocorii. Under the empire, it was a place of no small
importance, as it stood at the junction of five roads, and was strongly
fortified. It was ceded, along with Aquitaine, to the English by Louis
IX. After having been recovered by the French, the town was again lost;
but it was finally taken from the English by Charles V. During the civil
wars of the Reformation, it was a stronghold of the Protestants till the
year 1581; and it was not till 1653 that it came into the power of the
crown.

=Peril.= Instant or impending danger; risk; hazard; jeopardy; exposure
to injury, loss, or destruction.

=Peril.= To expose to danger; to hazard; to risk, etc.

=Perim.= A small island belonging to Great Britain, situated in the
strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, at the entrance to the Red Sea, about 1 mile
distant from the Arabian, and about 13 miles from the African coast. On
its southwest side is an excellent harbor, capable of accommodating 40
men-of-war. Fortifications have been erected on the island, and the guns
command the strait on both sides. It was first occupied by the English
in 1799, and held by them as a check upon the designs of the French, who
were then in Egypt. It was abandoned in 1801, but was reoccupied by
Great Britain in February, 1857, with a view to the protection of her
Indian possessions, which were thought to be exposed to some chance of
danger from the opening of the Suez Canal.

=Perjury.= False swearing; the act or crime of willfully making a false
oath, when lawfully administered; or the crime committed when a lawful
oath is administered, in some judicial proceeding, to a person who
swears willfully, absolutely, and falsely in a matter material to the
issue. For punishment of persons convicted of perjury, see APPENDIX,
ARTICLES OF WAR, 60 and 62.

=Perkernucka.= Petty officers are so called in India.

=Perm.= A government of Russia, situated partly in Russia in Europe and
partly in Russia in Asia. It was invaded and ruined by the Mongols in
the 13th century.

=Permanent Fortification.= See FORTIFICATION.

=Permanent Rank.= A rank in the military service which does not cease
with any particular service, or locality of circumstances; in opposition
to local or temporary rank.

=Péronne.= A town of France, in the department of Somme, 30 miles east
of Amiens. Louis XI. of France, having placed himself in the power of
the Duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign the treaty of Péronne,
confirming those of Arras and Conflans, with several humiliating
stipulations, October 14, 1468. Louis XI. had promised Champagne and
Brié as appanages to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, not intending
to keep his word, apprehending that those provinces, being so near
Burgundy, would prove a fresh source of broils and disputes. Péronne was
a place of much importance in the Middle Ages, and bore the name of _La
Pucelle_ (“The Maiden City”), as it was never captured till Wellington
took it eight days after the battle of Waterloo.

=Perpendicular Direction.= In the march of a line, is the direction at
right angles to the line which each man should take in a direct movement
to the front. Without the strictest attention is paid to this essential
principle in all movements, the greatest irregularity, and ultimately
the greatest confusion, must ensue. Perpendicular and parallel movements
constitute, indeed, the whole system of good marching. When several
columns, divisions, or companies advance, the lines and directions of
marching must be strictly perpendicular and parallel to each other,
otherwise the distance will be lost, and the ultimate object of forming
a correct line must be defeated.

=Perpendicular Fortification.= Owes its origin to the Marquis de
Montalembert, a distinguished French general, who published his works
upon the subject in 1776. Vauban had, it was admitted, rendered the art
of attack superior to that of defense. Montalembert strove to reverse
this relation, and in his endeavors, rejected entirely the bastion
system of the older engineers. Instead of the occasional bastions, with
intervening curtains, with which they surrounded their _enceinte_, he
broke the whole polygon into salient and re-entering angles, the latter
being generally at right angles. Before the connected redans thus formed
were counterguards of low elevation and ravelins, to which the
approaches were through casemated _caponnieres_. In the salient angle of
each redan he built a brick tower, 40 feet in diameter, twelve-sided,
and four stories high. The second and third tiers were built for heavy
guns, and the upper loop-holed for musketry. In the centre of the tower
was a circular _reduit_, intended as a last refuge for the garrison.
Montalembert maintained that from these towers every possible approach
could be commanded, which to a great extent is true; but it must be also
remembered that the greater space a gun commands, by so much the more is
it raised above the plain, and rendered visible. These towers would have
little chance against the rifled ordnance of the present day.
Montalembert’s system was violently attacked by the French engineers,
but Carnot subsequently adopted it, with some modifications, and it
enters largely into the modern German defensive works. The system has
never, however, found favor with British engineers.

=Perpendicular, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S LEVEL.

=Perpignan.= A town of France, in the department of the Eastern
Pyrenees, situated on the Tet, 35 miles from Narbonne. It commands the
passage by the Eastern Pyrenees from Spain into France, and is defended
on the south by a citadel and by ramparts flanked with bastions, and
protected by raised works. Perpignan now ranks as one of the first
strongholds in France. In 1474 the town was taken by Louis XI. of
France, but having been restored to Spain, it was again taken by Louis
XIII. in 1642, and, along with the province of Roussillon, finally ceded
to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. In 1793 a battle was
fought in its neighborhood between the Spaniards and the French, in
which the former were defeated.

=Perrhæbi.= A powerful and warlike Pelasgis people, who, according to
Strabo, migrated from Eubœa to the mainland, and settled in the
districts of Hestiætos and Pelasgiotis in Thessaly. The Perrhæbi were
members of the Amphictyonic League. At an early period they were subdued
by the Lapithæ; at the time of the Peloponnesian war they were subject
to the Thessalians, and subsequently to Philip of Macedon; but at the
time of the Roman wars in Greece they appear independent of Macedonia.

=Perrières.= A kind of short mortars formerly much used for throwing
stone shot.

=Persepolis.= An ancient city, the capital of Persia at the time of the
invasion of Alexander the Great, and the seat of the chief palaces of
the Persian kings. The city is said to have been burned by Alexander,
and is not subsequently mentioned in history except in the second book
of the Maccabees, where it is stated that Antiochus Epiphanes made a
fruitless effort to plunder its temples. In the later times of the
Mohammedan rule, the fortress of _Istakhr_ seems to have occupied the
place of Persepolis.

=Persia= (Per. _Iran_). A country of Asia, which may be considered as
the most opulent and powerful of any that lie to the west of India; it
is bounded on the west by Turkey in Asia, north by Caucasus, the Caspian
Sea, and Asiatic Russia, east by Afghanistan and Beloochistan, and south
by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. The Persians, as a nation, first
rose into notice on the ruins of the great empires founded on the
Euphrates. Babylon was taken by Cyrus in 638 B.C., and soon after he
extended it more widely than any that had been previously established in
the world. It comprised, on one side, the west of India, and on the
other, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; and the valor, indeed, with which
the Greeks defended their small territory, alone prevented him from
annexing a considerable part of Europe to his domains. After a feeble
struggle, it succumbed to the brave and disciplined armies of Alexander,
who won the entire empire of Darius Codomanus for his own by force of
arms, in 331. After his death, his immense possessions were divided
among his generals; but Greeks and Greek sovereigns continued during
several centuries to reign over Western Asia. About 2 B.C. Artaxerxes
founded the monarchy of the Parthians; and in 3 A.D. the dynasty of the
Sassanidæ arose, who restored the name, with the religion and laws, of
ancient Persia. They were overthrown by the Mohammedan invaders, who
suffered in their turn from the successive invasions of the country by
the descendants of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and the Turks, who entirely
changed the aspect of Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a native dynasty
again arose, under Ismael Shah, who placed himself on the throne. After
the reign of Abbas the Great, who died in 1628, the princes of the Safi
dynasty became enervated by luxury and dissipation, and Persia, in the
beginning of the last century, was overrun by the Afghans, who carried
fire and sword throughout the whole country, and reduced its proudest
capitals to ashes. The atrocities of the Afghans were avenged, and the
independence of Persia vindicated, by Nadir Shah; but though the
victories of this daring chief threw a lustre on his country, it was
almost torn to pieces after his death by civil war, till the fortune of
arms gave a decided superiority to Kerim Khan. His death gave rise to
another disputed succession, with civil wars as furious as before. At
length Aga-Mohammed, a eunuch, raised himself in 1795 by crimes and
daring to the sovereignty, and not only held it during his lifetime, but
transmitted it to his nephew, who assumed the title of Feth Ali Shah,
and subdued the rebellious tribes in Khorassan, but was dragged into a
war with Russia, in which he lost the power of Derbend and several
districts on the Kur. In 1848, Nasr-ed-Din, the great-grandson of Feth
Ali, succeeded to the throne, and in consequence of the capture of Herat
by the Persians in 1856, war was declared against them by Great Britain.
Bushire was occupied, and the Persian troops were twice defeated by Gen.
Outram at Kooshab and Mohammerah in the following year. These victories
were followed by the conclusion of a treaty of peace, April, 1857, and
the evacuation of Herat by the Persians in the month of July.

=Personnel= (_Fr._). All the officers and men, military and civil,
composing an army, or any part of one, as opposed to _matériel_.

=Personnel of a Battery.= All officers and men necessary for the
manœuvre, management, and care of a battery.

=Perspective.= Is the art of drawing the resemblance of objects on a
plane surface, as the objects themselves appear to the eye, etc.

=Perth.= The principal town of Perthshire, and formerly the metropolis
of Scotland, situated on the Tay, which is crossed here by a fine stone
bridge, 33 miles from Edinburgh. It is one of the most ancient towns of
Scotland. It is a generally received opinion that Perth was built and
fortified by Agricola, who erected a citadel to maintain his conquests,
and check the wild spirit of the savage natives. In 1298, after the
battle of Falkirk, Edward I. fortified Perth and rebuilt the walls in
the strongest manner. The worthy burgesses of this town seem to have
been men of mettle in those days, and on various occasions sallying
forth from behind their walls, set fire to the castles of their haughty
neighbors, when the latter had forbidden their vassals to carry
provisions to the city. In the year 1311, Robert Bruce laid siege to the
town, but was obliged to withdraw his troops, after various unsuccessful
attempts to take it; but subsequently, choosing a dark night, he led a
selected band of determined men against it, scaled the walls, and
carried the town sword in hand, the king himself being the second man
who entered the place. About the beginning of the 14th century, the
famous combat between the Clan Chattan and the Clan Quhele, or Clan Kay,
took place on the North Inch, and was decided in favor of the former,
partly by the bravery of a citizen or burgess called Harry Wind, whom
the chief of the Clan Chattan had engaged on the spot to supply the
place of one of his men who had failed to appear. In 1544, the regent,
at the instigation of Cardinal Bethune, turned Lord Ruthven, provost of
the town, out of his office, and conferred it upon Chartres of Kinfauns.
The citizens, however, resisted the attempt, and repulsed, in a smart
skirmish, the cardinal’s nominee, who came to enter upon his duties at
the head of an armed force. In 1559, after a riotous insurrection,
during which the Catholic churches were demolished, the queen determined
to inflict the severest vengeance on the Reformers. Both parties took
the field; negotiations ensued; Perth was thrown open to the queen, and
occupied by a French garrison. Relief from the insolence and exactions
of the garrison was only obtained after a regular siege by the
Reformers. On June 26, Lord Ruthven attacked the town on the west, and
Provost Halyburton of Dundee fired into it from the bridge, and speedily
obliged the garrison to capitulate. Subsequently, Argyle, and Stewart,
prior of St. Andrews, marched out of Perth with 300 citizens, resolved
to prosecute the Reformation, or perish in the attempt. The people
joined them everywhere as they proceeded, and before they reached
Stirling their numbers had increased to 5000. The gates of Stirling and
every other town in their way were thrown open to receive them. They,
without violence, took possession of Edinburgh, cast the images out of
its churches, and placed in them ministers of the Reformation.

=Peru.= A republic of South America, formed out of the former Spanish
viceroyalty of the same name. The first information received of the
country by the Spaniards was obtained from a young cacique in the
neighborhood of the Isthmus of Darien about the year 1511. In 1513,
Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the mountains which separated the two
oceans, and took possession of the Pacific in the name of the king of
Castile. He extended his discoveries many leagues southward, but appears
not to have reached the territory of Peru. In 1525, Francisco Pizarro, a
soldier of mean birth but of daring spirit, who had accompanied Balboa
in the previous expedition, embarking at Panama with about 100 men,
landed in Peru, and spent three years in exploring the country. Having
returned to Spain with presents of gold and jewels for the king, he was
sent out with orders to effect the conquest of the newly-discovered
country. Recrossing the ocean with 180 men and 27 horses, he again set
sail from Panama, and receiving some further reinforcements at Puerto
Viejo and Puna, now considered himself in a fit position to enter upon
the proper scene of his labors. He accordingly crossed over to Tumbez,
and there learned that the country had for some time been distracted by
a civil war between Huascar and Atahuallpa, two sons of the late inca.
Pizarro saw at once the importance to him and his cause of this state of
the country. After some time spent in reconnoitring, he fixed upon a
fertile spot in the rich valley of Tangarala as a site for a settlement.
Here he established a town which he called San Miguel. On September 24,
1532, leaving 50 men as a guard for this new settlement, he started out
with 167 men, 67 of whom were cavalry, to meet the inca Atahuallpa, who
now victorious over his brother was encamped with his army about ten or
twelve days’ journey off. His force was everywhere received with
kindness; an envoy from the inca was sent with presents to meet and
invite him to an interview at Caxamarca. The Spaniards arrived here
November 15, 1532, and treacherously prepared to use the unsuspecting
kindness of the Peruvians as the means of their destruction. When at the
appointed time the inca accompanied by his nobles and retinue was
proceeding to the place of interview, he and his followers were assailed
by the Spaniards who were concealed in the neighboring buildings,
thousands of the unsuspecting and unarmed natives were slain, and
Atahuallpa himself taken prisoner. An immense ransom was offered for
him; it was accepted by Pizarro, who, however, basely refused to give up
his prisoner, but after a mockery of a trial put him to death. For many
years the country was in a state of war and anarchy, resulting finally
in Pizarro becoming master of Peru in 1546, and it became a viceroyalty
of Spain. In its subsequent history there is matter of little interest
till the war of independence, which was proclaimed in 1821 by Gen. San
Martin, and successfully terminated by Bolivar, who, after a succession
of engagements, the most notable of which was that of Ayacucho (which
see), finally drove the Spaniards from Callao, their last stronghold,
July 29, 1826. The country has since on several occasions been the scene
of those insurrections to which the states of Spanish America have been
subject. In 1879 war was proclaimed between Peru and Chili, which has
recently terminated in a complete victory for the latter.

=Perugia= (anc. _Perusia_). A city of Central Italy, 10 miles east of
the lake of the same name, and 85 north of Rome. It formed in ancient
times one of the twelve Etrurian republics. In conjunction with other
cities of Etruria, it long resisted the power of the Romans, but was
finally ruined by the latter, having been defeated in two engagements,
309 and 295 B.C., and becoming subject to Rome in 294. It is memorable
in the civil wars as the refuge of L. Antonius, the brother of the
triumvir, when unable to oppose the progress of Octavianus. It was held
by the latter for some months and was compelled to surrender through
famine, and burned to the ground in 40 B.C. It was afterwards rebuilt by
Augustus, and was captured by the Goths under Totila at the fall of the
Western empire. It was afterwards united to the Papal States, and in
1860 became part of the kingdom of Italy.

=Perugia, Lake of.= See TRASIMENUS LACUS.

=Perusia.= See PERUGIA.

=Pescara.= A town of Italy, province of Chieti. It was formerly strongly
fortified, and has stood many sieges.

=Peschiera.= A frontier town and fortress of Italy, in Lombardy, at the
south extremity of the Lake of Garda, 20 miles north-northwest from
Mantua. Peschiera commands the right bank of the river Mincio. During
the French republican war, it was a simple pentagon. Its fortifications,
however, have been greatly strengthened by the Austrians. It is defended
by walls and by forts, lunettes, fosses, and a covered way; and the
purpose which it is mainly intended to serve, besides that of forming an
intrenched camp capable of accommodating a considerable number of
troops, is to harass an army attempting to cross the Mincio by Goito or
Valeggio. It has been taken frequently by siege, by the French in 1796;
by the Austrians and Russians, 1799; by the French again, 1801; given up
by them, 1814; taken by the Sardinian troops under Charles Albert, May
30, 1848; retaken by Radetzky, 1849. It was invested by the Sardinians
in June, 1859, after the battle of Solferino. The conclusion of the
treaty of Villafranca, however (July 11, 1859), relieved Peschiera from
a siege, and it was included in the kingdom of Italy by treaty of
Vienna, 1866.

=Peshawur.= A city of British India, capital of the province of Peshawur
(or Peshawer), about 18 miles east of the eastern extremity of the
Khyber Pass. It was founded by the Mogul emperor Akbar. Runjeet Singh
took it after his victory over the Afghans at Noushera, and destroyed
many of its finest buildings.

=Pesth.= A city of Hungary, situated on the Danube, opposite to Buda,
with which it is connected by a bridge of boats three-quarters of a mile
in length. It was repeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary,
particularly in the long contests with the Turks. The great
insurrection broke out here September 28, 1848. Buda-Pesth was taken by
the Imperialists, January 5, 1849. The Hungarians afterwards defeated
the Austrians, who were obliged to evacuate it April 18, 1849; but the
latter, under Gen. Hentzi, occupied Buda, and a severe contest began
between the two parties. On May 4, Görgei, with an army of 40,000
Hungarians, occupied the heights above Buda, and began to bombard that
town; while the Austrians in their turn directed their artillery against
the lower city of Pesth. On May 16, the Hungarians made an unsuccessful
attack on Buda, but on the 20th the place was taken by assault, after an
obstinate and bloody struggle.

=Pestle.= An instrument used in the fabrication of gunpowder.

=Petards.= Are instruments used for blowing open gates, demolishing
palisades, etc. They consist of a half-cone of thick iron, filled with
powder and ball; they are usually fastened to a plank, and the latter is
provided with hooks to allow of its being attached securely to a gate,
etc. The petard has been almost universally superseded by the use of
powder-bags.

=Petardeer=, or =Petardier=. One who manages petards.

=Petelia=, or =Petilia= (now _Strongoli_). An ancient Greek town on the
eastern coast of Bruttium; founded, according to tradition, by
Philoctetes. It was situated north of Croton, to whose territory it
originally belonged, but it was afterward conquered by the Lucanians. It
remained faithful to the Romans when the other cities of Bruttium
revolted to Hannibal, and it was not till after a long and desperate
resistance that it was taken by one of Hannibal’s generals.

=Peterero=, or =Pedrero=. A short piece of chambered ordnance was
formerly so called.

=Petersburg.= A city of Dinwiddie Co., Va., on the south bank of the
Appomattox River, about 25 miles from Richmond. The city is one of
historic interest. It was twice occupied by the British forces as
headquarters during the Revolutionary war; but it is principally noted
as the scene of several sanguinary encounters during the civil war, and
for the obstinate and bloody defense which it made. On June 15-16, 1864,
two formidable assaults were made on it by the Army of the Potomac under
Gen. Grant, but they were repulsed with heavy loss. It was then
determined to invest the city, which was done a few days later. On July
30, another attempt was made to take it by storm, but without success.
The siege was prolonged with many indecisive operations until April 3,
1865, after a week’s bombardment it was evacuated by Gen. Lee, who
surrendered six days later.

=Petersburg, St.= The capital and most populous city of the Russian
empire, at the mouth of the Neva in the Gulf of Finland, 16 miles east
of Cronstadt, and 400 miles northwest of Moscow. It was founded by Peter
the Great, May 27, 1703. The peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia
and Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to the latter, was
signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of
Poland, August 5, 1772. Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition
against France, September 8, 1805. Treaty of Alliance, signed at St.
Petersburg, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor
Alexander; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France,
in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, March 24, 1812.

=Peterwalden= (Germany), Convention of. Between Great Britain and
Russia, by which a firm and decisive alliance between these powers was
made against France and the course of action against Napoleon Bonaparte
was planned, signed July 8, 1813. This alliance led to the overthrow of
Bonaparte in the next year.

=Peterwardein=, or =Varadin=. The capital town of Slavonia, Austria, and
the strongest fortress on the Danube, is situated on a scarped rock, on
the right bank of the Danube, opposite Neusatz, with which town it is
connected by a bridge of boats, defended by a strong _tête-de-pont_, 44
miles northwest of Belgrade. It is the residence of the general
commandant of the Slavonian military frontier, and of several
subordinate military authorities. It derives its present name from Peter
the Hermit, who here marshaled the soldiers of the first Crusade.
Peterwardein was taken by the Turks, July, 1526. In 1688, the
fortifications were blown up by the Imperialists, and the town was soon
after burned to the ground by the Turks; but at the peace of
Passarowitz, on July 21, 1718, it remained in the possession of the
emperor. It was here that, on August 5, 1716, the Austrians, under
Prince Eugène, obtained a great victory over the Turks under Grand Vizer
Ali; the latter then lost their last footing in Central Europe.

=Petra.= The _Sela_ of the Old Testament, the chief town of Arabia
Petræa, once the capital of the Idumeans, and subsequently of the
Nabatæi. It was subdued by A. Cornelius Palma, a lieutenant of Trajan’s,
and remained under the dominion of the Romans a considerable time, and
its destruction is supposed at length to have been wrought by the
Mohammedans.

=Petra.= An ancient town of Colchis, in the land of the Lazi, founded by
Joannes Tzibus, a general of Justinian, to keep these people in
subjection. It was situated on a rock near the coast, and was very
strongly fortified. It was taken by Chosroes in 541 A.D., and its
subsequent siege by the Romans is described by Gibbon as one of the most
remarkable actions of the age. The first siege was relieved; but it was
again attacked by the Romans, and was at length taken by assault, after
a long protracted resistance, in 551 A.D. It was then destroyed by the
Romans, and from that time disappears from history.

=Petra.= An ancient and strong fortress in Sogdiana, held by Arimazes
when Alexander attacked it.

=Petronel= (Fr. _petrinal_, or _poitronal_). A piece between a carbine
and a pistol (with a wheel-lock), which was used by the French during
the reign of Francis I.; it was held against the breast when fired. To
prevent any injury from its recoil, the soldier who used it was provided
with a pad.

=Petropaulovski.= A fortified town on the east coast of Kamtschatka, was
attacked by an English and French squadron August 30, 1854. They
destroyed the batteries, and a party of 700 sailors and marines landed
to assault the place, but fell into an ambuscade, and many were killed.
After this the Russians greatly strengthened their defenses, but on May
30, 1855, the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here found the
place deserted. The fortifications were destroyed, but the town was
spared.

=Pettah.= In Southern India, a term applied to the _enceinte_ of a town,
as distinguished from the fortress by which it is protected.

=Pettman Fuze.= See FUZE.

=Pfaffendorf and Liegnitz.= See LIEGNITZ.

=Pfedersheim.= A town of Germany, in Hesse-Darmstadt, 4 miles northwest
from Worms. A battle was fought here, in 1555, which brought the
“Peasants’ war” to a termination.

=Phalanx.= The ancient Greek formation for heavy infantry, which won for
itself a reputation of invincibility. It may be described as a line of
parallel columns, rendered by its depth and solidity capable of
penetrating any line of troops. The oldest phalanx was the Lacedæmonian,
or Spartan, in which the soldiers stood 8 deep, but this was reduced to
4 men by Miltiades, in order to increase his front at the battle of
Marathon, 480 B.C. The Macedonian phalanx, as the latest form that
organization assumed, and as the shape in which the phalanx encountered
the military skill of the West, is deserving of description. The line
was 16 deep: a grand-phalanx comprising 16,384 men, composed of four
phalanxes or divisions, each under a general officer, called a
_phalangarch_; his command was divided into two brigades, or
_merarchies_, each of these comprising two regiments, or _chiliarches_,
of four battalions, or _syntagmata_, each, and each syntagma of 16 men
each way, making a perfect square. The Roman legion was far superior to
the phalanx.

=Phalsbourg.= A strong town of Alsace, department of La Meurthe,
Northeast France. It was ceded to France in 1661, and its fortress
erected by Vauban, 1679. It checked the progress of the victorious
allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the Germans from August 16
to December 12, 1870, when it capitulated unconditionally.

=Pharax.= One of the council of ten appointed by the Spartans in 418
B.C. to control Agis. At the battle of Mantinea in that year, he
restrained the Lacedæmonians from pressing too much on the defeated
enemy, and so running the risk of driving them to despair. In 396 B.C.
he laid siege with 120 ships to Caunus, where Conon was stationed, but
was compelled to withdraw by the approach of a large force.

=Pharsalus= (now _Fersala_, or _Pharsalia_). Anciently a town of
Thessaly, to the south of Larissa, on the river Enipeus, a branch of the
Peneus (now the Salambria), and historically notable mainly for the
great battle fought here between Cæsar and Pompey, August 9, 48 B.C.
Pompey had about 45,000 legionaries, 7000 cavalry, and a great number of
light-armed auxiliaries. Cæsar had 22,000 legionaries and 1000 German
and Gallic cavalry. The battle-cry of Cæsar’s army was “_Venus victrix_”
that of Pompey’s “_Hercules invictus_.” Cæsar’s right wing began the
battle by an attack on the left wing of Pompey, which was speedily
routed. Pompey fled into the camp, and his army broke up; Cæsar’s troop
stormed his camp about mid-day, and he himself, awaking as from
stupefaction, fled to Larissa, whither Cæsar followed him next day.
Cæsar lost about 1200 men. On Pompey’s side about 6000 legionaries fell
in battle, and more than 24,000 who had fled, were taken, whom Cæsar
pardoned and distributed among his troops.

=Pheon.= In heraldry, the barbed iron head of a dart; used also as a
royal mark, to denote crown property, and termed the _broad_, or _broad
arrow_.

=Philadelphia.= A city and metropolis of Pennsylvania, situated between
the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers. The city was settled and planned by
William Penn in 1682, and its name (City of Brotherly Love) given
through the Society of Friends, of whom he was the great leader in
America. It had a prominent position in the Revolution, and was in
possession of the British troops after the disastrous battles of
Brandywine and Germantown, until 1778. Being the second city of the
United States in wealth and importance, it has been ever forward in
promoting her interests.

=Philibeg.= See FILLIBEG.

=Philiphaugh.= Near Selkirk, Southern Scotland, where the Marquis of
Montrose and the royalists were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch
Covenanters, September 13, 1645.

=Philippi.= A city of Macedonia. It was named after Philip II. of
Macedon, who conquered it from Thrace. Here Antony and Octavianus, in
two battles, defeated the republican forces of Cassius and Brutus, who
both committed suicide, October, 42 B.C.; this ended the republican
government of Rome.

=Phocæa.= The most northern of the cities of Ionia, was situated about
25 miles northwest from Smyrna. It was founded by a colony of Phocians,
led by two Athenians, Philogenes and Damon. Its citizens are said to
have been the first among the Greeks who extended their commercial
voyages to great distances; and its inhabitants abandoned their city
rather than submit to the Persians, 544 B.C. They settled in Italy, and
founded Velia. Massilia in France, and Alalia in Corsica, were colonies
of the Phocæans.

=Phocis.= A province of Greece Proper, or Hellas, bounded on the north
by the Ozolian Lokri, on the north by Doris, on the east by the Opuntian
Lokri, and on the south by the Gulf of Corinth. During the Peloponnesian
war, the Phocians were close allies of the Athenians. In 357 B.C. they
seized Delphi, and commenced the second Sacred war. They were opposed by
Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued by Philip II. of
Macedon in 346.

=Phœnicia.= Is the name given by the Greeks and Romans to a certain
territory situated about 34°-36° N. lat., bounded by the Mediterranean
on the west, by Syria to the north and east, and Judæa to the south. Its
length may be said to have been about 200 miles, while its breadth never
exceeded 20 miles. The natives were the most eminent navigators and
traders of antiquity; their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon,
Berytus, Tripolis, Byblos, and Ptolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to the
13th century B.C., they established colonies on the shores or isles of
the Mediterranean, Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus, and are said
to have visited the British Isles. Phœnicia was conquered by Cyrus, 537
B.C.; by Alexander, 332; by the Romans, 47; and after partaking of the
fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman empire, 1516.

=Phous-dan.= An East Indian term for a commander of a large body of
forces.

=Phrygia.= A country of Asia Minor. According to the division of the
provinces under the Roman empire, Phrygia formed the eastern part of the
province of Asia, and was bounded on the west by Mysia, Lydia, and
Caria, on the south by Lycia and Pisidia, on the east by Lycaonia (which
is often reckoned as a part of Phrygia) and Galatia (which formerly
belonged to Phrygia), and on the north by Bithynia. The kingdom of
Phrygia was conquered by Crœsus, and formed part of the Persian,
Macedonian, and Syro-Grecian empires; but, under the last, the
northwestern part was conquered by the Gauls; and a part west of this
was subjected by the kings of Bithynia; this last portion was the object
of a contest between the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus. The whole of
Phrygia was assigned by the Romans to the kingdom of Pergamus, after the
overthrow of Antiochus the Great in 190 B.C.

=Piacenza= (anc. _Placentia_). A city of Northern Italy, in the province
of the same name, on the right bank of the Po, 2 miles below the
confluence of the Trebbia. It is of an oblong form, surrounded by
ancient walls and ditches, and defended by a citadel, which was
garrisoned by the Austrians till 1859. Piacenza is first mentioned in
219 B.C., when a Roman colony was settled there. In 200 B.C. it was
plundered and burned by the Gauls, but rapidly recovered its prosperity,
and was long an important military station. It was the western terminus
of the great Æmilian road, which began at Ariminum on the Adriatic. In
later history, it plays an important part as one of the independent
Lombard cities.

=Pianosa.= An island in the Mediterranean, about 10 miles
south-southwest of Elba. Pianosa was annexed to Elba and granted to
Napoleon I. after his first abdication.

=Pibroch= (Gael. _piobaireachd_). A wild, irregular species of music,
peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. It is performed on a bagpipe, and
adapted to excite or assuage passion, and particularly to rouse a
martial spirit among troops going to battle.

=Picador= (_Sp._). A horseman armed with a lance, who commences the
exercises of a bull-fight by attacking the animal without attempting to
kill him.

=Picardy.= An ancient province in the north of France, was bounded on
the west by the English Channel, and on the east by Champagne. The name
does not occur till the 13th century. It was conquered by the English in
1346, and by the Duke of Burgundy in 1417, to whom it was ceded by the
treaty of Arras, September 21, 1435, and annexed to France by Louis XI.,
1463.

=Picaroon.= A pillager, one who plunders; one who violates the laws.

=Picentia= (_Picentinus_; now _Acerno_). A town in the south of
Campania, at the head of the Sinus Pæstanus, and between Salernum and
the frontiers of Lucania, the inhabitants of which were compelled by the
Romans, in consequence of their revolt to Hannibal, to abandon their
town and live in the neighboring villages. Between the town and the
frontiers of Lucania, there was an ancient temple of the Argive Juno,
said to have been founded by Jason, the Argonaut. The name of Picentia
was not confined to the inhabitants of Picentia, but was given to the
inhabitants of the whole coast of the Sinus Pæstanus, from the
promontory of Minerva to the river Silarus. They were a portion of the
Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted by the Romans to this part of
Campania after the conquest of Picenum, 268 B.C., at which time they
founded the town of Picentia.

=Picentines= (_Picentes_). A Sabine tribe, subdued by the Romans, and
their capital, Asculum, taken, 268 B.C. They began the Social war in 90,
and were conquered in 89 B.C.

=Picenum.= An ancient province of Italy, was bounded on the north by the
Galli Senones, on the west by the Umbrians and Sabines, on the south by
the Vestini, and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. The Picentes, its
inhabitants, remained long in undisturbed tranquillity, while the
neighboring tribes were vainly struggling against the all-usurping
ambition of Rome. That power condescended in 299 B.C. to enter into an
alliance with them. Even when they were at length obliged, in 268 B.C.,
to bow before the resistless destinies of the Romans, they suffered
little injury. It was not until the outbreak of the Social war, in 90
B.C., that the Picentes appear to have experienced the toils and
calamities of a great struggle. Then they assumed an active and zealous
part in the general revolt against Rome. Their capital city, Asculum,
gave the signal of insurrection, by assassinating the Roman proconsul.
Their armies kept the Roman general Cn. Pompeius Strabo for a long time
at bay. Nor when the tide of battle began to turn against them did their
courage waver. They continued to fight until 89 B.C., and were put down
by sheer force.

=Pichegru’s Conspiracy.= See GEORGES CONSPIRACY.

=Pickeer.= To pillage; to pirate. To skirmish, as soldiers on the
outpost of an army, or in pillaging parties.

=Picker.= A small, pointed brass wire, which was formerly supplied to
every infantry soldier for the purpose of cleaning the vent of his
musket.

=Picket.= A detachment composed of cavalry or infantry, whose principal
duty is to guard an army from surprise and oppose such small parties as
the enemy may push forward for the purpose of reconnoitring.

=Picket.= A sharp stake used for securing the fascines of a battery, or
fastening the tent-ropes of a camp, etc.

=Picket.= To fortify with pickets or pointed stakes. Also, to fasten to
a picket, as a horse while grazing.

=Picket, Inlying.= See INLYING PICKET.

=Picket, Outlying.= Is a detachment of troops, sometimes with light
guns, posted on the front and flanks of an army in the field, in order
to guard against surprise, and to keep reconnoitring parties at a proper
distance.

=Picket-guard.= A guard of horse and foot, always in readiness in case
of alarm.

=Picket-line.= A rope to which horses are secured when groomed.

=Picket-line.= A position held and guarded by small bodies of men placed
at intervals.

=Picket-pin.= An iron pin with a ring at the top. It is driven in the
ground and the lariat is attached to it to secure a horse while grazing.

=Pickets, Tracing.= See TRACING PICKETS.

=Picqueering=, =Pickering=, or =Pickerooning=. A little flying skirmish,
which marauders make when detached for pillage, or before a main battle.

=Picrate.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Picric Acid.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Picric Powder.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Picts= (_Picti_). The ancient inhabitants of the northeast provinces of
Scotland. The Pictish territory extended along the whole sea-coast from
the Firth of Forth to the Pentland Firth. It was bounded on the west by
the country of the Scots, which extended along the western coast from
the Firth of Clyde to the modern Ross-shire; but the precise line
between the two nations cannot be ascertained. The country of the Picts
was bounded on the south by the Firth of Forth and the province of
Lothian, then possessed by the English; while the country of the Scots
had for its southern boundaries the Firth of Clyde and the kingdom of
Cumbria, held by the independent Britons. In the middle of the 7th
century, a portion of the southern province of the Pictish territories
was subdued by Oswy, king of Northumbria. Egfrid, Oswy’s son and
successor, seems to have contemplated the subjugation of the whole
Pictish kingdom. He advanced northwards with his army; Brude, son of
Bili, king of the Picts, retreating before him. The English sovereign
passed the Tay, and the Picts made a stand at Nechtansmere, supposed to
be Dunnichen, in Anchus; the English were utterly defeated, and their
king slain, May 20, 685. The most active of all the Pictish sovereigns
was Hungus, son of Urgust, who succeeded, in 730, and reigned for thirty
years. He was in constant wars with the Scots, the Britons, and the
English, in which he was generally victorious. After his death the
kingdom began to decline. Between 838 and 842, the Scots under Kenneth
II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom. Their
incursions in England led to the Saxon invasion.

=Picts’ Wall.= One of the barriers erected by the Romans across the
northern part of England to restrain the incursions of the Picts (which
see).

=Piece.= A general name for any kind of ordnance or musket.

=Piece.= In heraldry, an ordinary or charge; as, the fesse, the bend,
the pale, the bar, the cross, the saltire, the chevron, are called
honorable _pieces_.

=Piece, Battering-.= See BATTERING-PIECES.

=Piece, Field-.= See FIELD-PIECE.

=Piedmont.= An Italian principality, which now forms the northwest part
of the kingdom of Italy. In 1796 it was seized by the French, and
parceled out into six departments, five being incorporated with France,
and one with the kingdom of Italy, but after the fall of Napoleon, the
house of Savoy recovered possession of it. Since 1860 the name Piedmont,
as a provincial designation, has been disused; and in the new division
of Italy into provinces, the boundaries of Piedmont as a distinct
country have been disregarded.

=Piegans.= A tribe of Blackfeet Indians, numbering about 2000, who
reside in Montana, and were frequently at war with the Shoshones, Flat
Heads, and Gros Ventres. Like the majority of nomadic tribes, they at
various times make raids on the settlers, and as a natural result
require the correctionary discipline of the military forces. In 1870
they were severely punished by Col. Baker, and, owing to disease and
pestilence, they will probably soon cease to exist.

=Pierced.= In heraldry, a term used to indicate that a charge is
perforated so as to show the field beneath it. The aperture is presumed
to be circular, unless some other form, as square-pierced or
lozenge-pierced, be specified in the blazon.

=Piercer.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, BORING AND TURNING.

=Pieria.= A narrow slip of country on the southeastern coast of
Macedonia, extending from the mouth of the Peneus in Thessaly to the
Haliacmon, and bounded on the west by Mount Olympus and its offshoots.
The inhabitants of this country, the Pieres, were a Thracian people, and
are celebrated in the early history of Greek poetry and music. After the
establishment of the Macedonian kingdom in Emathia in the 7th century
B.C., Pieria was conquered by the Macedonians, and the inhabitants were
driven out of the country.

=Pierrier.= Was a term originally applied to an engine for casting
stones; then to a small kind of cannon; now to a mortar for discharging
stones, etc.

=Piers.= The columns upon which a bridge is erected.

=Pies= (_Fr._). Counts palatine who were created in 1560, by Pope Pius
IV., and who had precedence at Rome over knights of the Teutonic order
and order of Malta.

=Pike=, =Pikeman=. Previously to the use of the bayonet, infantry of the
line--that is, the heavy-armed troops--were from the earliest times
armed with pikes or spears. The Macedonians carried pikes 24 feet long;
those of modern warfare averaged 12 or 14 feet. They were of stout wood,
and tipped with a flat iron spear-head, which sometimes had cutting
edges. As a defense against cavalry, the pike, from its length and
rigidity, was of great value; but though it long survived the
introduction of gunpowder, that event was really fatal to it. For
success with the pike, especially in offensive war, a depth of several
men was essential, and this depth rendered the fire of artillery
peculiarly fatal. The pike is now superseded by the bayonet on the end
of the musket.

=Pikestaff.= The wooden pole or handle of a pike.

=Pile.= A beam of wood driven into the ground to form a solid foundation
for building. Also a heap, as a pile of balls. Balls are piled according
to kind and caliber, under cover if practicable, in a place where there
is a free circulation of air, to facilitate which the piles should be
made narrow if the locality permits; the width of the bottom tier may be
from twelve to fourteen balls, according to the caliber. Prepare the
ground for the base of the pile by raising it above the surrounding
ground so as to throw off the water; level it, ram it well, and cover it
with a layer of screened sand. Make the bottom of the pile with a tier
of unserviceable balls buried about two-thirds of their diameter in the
sand; this base may be made permanent; clean the base well and form the
pile, putting the fuze-holes of shells downwards, in the _intervals_,
and not resting on the shells below. Each pile is marked with the number
of serviceable balls it contains. The base may be made of bricks,
concrete, stone, or with borders and braces of iron. Grape- and
canister-shot should be oiled or lackered, put in piles, or in strong
boxes, on the ground-floor, or in dry cellars; each parcel marked with
its kind, caliber, and number.

=Pile.= In heraldry, one of the lesser ordinaries, having the form of a
wedge, usually placed pale-wise, with the broadest end uppermost,
resembling a pile used in laying the foundations of buildings in watery
places, whence it has its name.

=Pile.= The head of an arrow was formerly so called.

=Pile Arms, To.= To place three guns together in such a manner that they
may stand upright steadily. Also called _stack arms_.

=Pile-bridge.= A bridge of which the piers are built with piles. These
may be either temporary wooden structures, in which wooden piles, driven
into the ground, serve also as piers, or they may be permanent bridges,
with iron cylinders forming the piles below the surface, and piers
above.

=Piletus.= A kind of arrow formerly used, having a knob upon the shaft,
near the head, to prevent it from penetrating the object aimed at too
deeply.

=Piling Balls.= See PILE.

=Pillage.= The act of plundering. Also that which is taken from another
by open force, particularly and chiefly from enemies in war; plunder;
spoil.

=Pillage.= To strip of money or goods by open violence; to plunder; to
spoil; as, troops pillage the camp or towns of an enemy.

=Pillnitz=, or =Pilnitz=. A palace and ordinary summer residence of the
royal family of Saxony, in a beautiful situation 7 miles southeast of
Dresden. Pillnitz acquires a historic interest from the meeting of
princes held in the castle in August, 1791, when the Declaration of
Pillnitz was framed, according to which Austria and Prussia agreed to
declare the circumstances of the king of France (then a prisoner in the
Tuileries, after his ineffective flight to Varennes) to be a matter of
common interest to the sovereigns of Europe, and to express the hope
that common cause would be made for his restoration. The convention of
Pillnitz took place between the emperor Leopold and the king of Prussia,
July 20, 1791. On August 27, 1791, the treaty of Pillnitz, or as some
style it, the Partition Treaty, was finally agreed upon at Pavia by the
courts in concert. It was to the effect “that the emperor should retake
all that Louis XIV. had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and
uniting these provinces to the Netherlands, give them to his serene
highness the elector palatine, to be added to the palatinate; Bavaria to
be added to Austrian possessions,” etc.

=Pillow, Fort.= See FORT PILLOW.

=Pilon= (_Fr._). A half-pike, 7 feet long exclusive of the iron, which
was 18 inches. It consisted of a fir tube covered with parchment and
varnished. Marshal Saxe proposed to draw up an army four deep, the two
front ranks armed with muskets, and the two rear with pilons and muskets
too.

=Pilum.= A missile weapon, used by the Roman soldiers, and in a charge
darted upon the enemy. Each man of the legionary soldiers carried two of
these pila.

=Pimas=, or =Névomes=. A tribe of aborigines, about 4000 in number, who
are located on a reservation along the Gila River, in Pima and Maricopa
Counties, Arizona. They are an active, athletic race, cultivate the soil
and pursue a few crude industries, and are at hereditary enmity with the
Apaches.

=Pin.= See ORDNANCE.

=Pincers, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S PINCERS.

=Pindarees.= In the East Indies, are plunderers and marauders, who
accompany a Mahratta army. The name is properly that of persons who
travel with grain and merchandise; but war affording so many
opportunities and creating so many necessities, the merchants, as it is
all over the world, become plunderers and the worst of enemies.

=Pinerolo=, or =Pignerol=. A town of Northern Italy, province of Turin.
It is surrounded by a wall of no great strength, and though originally a
part of Piedmont, was in possession of France from 1631 till the peace
of Utrecht in 1713. It was once very strongly fortified; but its
defenses were blown up by the French in 1713.

=Ping.= The whistle of a shot, especially the rifle-bullets in their
flight.

=Pinion.= To bind the hands or arms of a person so as to prevent his
having the free use of them.

=Pinkie= (near Edinburgh). Here the English under the Earl of Hertford,
protector, totally defeated the Scots, September 10, 1547. About 10,000
of the Scots were slain, and about 1500 taken prisoners. The English
loss was scarcely 200.

=Pintle=. In artillery, is the vertical bolt around which the chassis is
traversed. In the centre-pintle carriage it is the centre of the
chassis, but in the front-pintle carriage it is in the centre of the
front transom. It is a stout cylinder of wrought iron inserted in a
block of stone, if the battery be a fixed one; or it is secured to
cross-pieces of timber bolted to a platform firmly imbedded in the
ground, if it be of a temporary nature. In casemate batteries the pintle
is placed immediately under the throat of the embrasure, and the
chassis is connected with it by a stout strap of iron, called the
tongue.

=Pintle-hole.= An oval-shaped aperture made in the trail transom of a
field-carriage, wider above than below, to leave room for the pintle to
play in.

=Pintle-hook.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY
CARRIAGE.

=Pintle-plate.= Is a flat iron through which the pintle passes, and is
nailed to both sides of the bolster.

=Pintle-washer.= An iron ring through which the pintle passes, placed
close to the bolster for the trail to move upon.

=Piombino.= A town of Italy, province of Pisa, opposite the island of
Elba. Here is a large metallurgic establishment for the manufacture of
Bessemer steel and military projectiles of great hardness and
perfection.

=Pioneer Sergeant.= In the British service, the non-commissioned officer
who commands the pioneers.

=Pioneers.= Are soldiers sometimes detailed from the different companies
of a regiment and formed under a non-commissioned officer, furnished
with saws, felling axes, spades, mattocks, pickaxes, and bill-hooks.
Their services are very important, and no regiment is well fitted for
service without pioneers completely equipped. In European armies there
are a certain number of pioneers to each regiment.

=Pipe of Peace.= See CALUMET.

=Pipe-clay.= A composition which soldiers use for the purpose of keeping
their buff cross-belts, etc., clean.

=Piquichins= (_Fr._). Irregular and ill-armed soldiers, of which mention
is made in the history of the reign of Philip Augustus. They were
attached to the infantry.

=Piquier= (_Fr._). A pikeman, or one who is armed with a pike.

=Pirmasens=, or =Pirmasenz=. A town of Rhenish Bavaria. Here Moreau and
the French were defeated by the Duke of Brunswick and the Prussians,
September 14, 1793.

=Pirogue.= American Indian canoe, dug out, formed out of the trunk of a
tree; or two canoes united. A term also applied in the United States to
a narrow ferry-boat carrying two masts and a leeboard.

=Pisa= (anc. _Pisæ_). One of the oldest and most beautiful cities of
Italy, and, till lately, the capital of the now extinct grand duchy of
Tuscany, on the banks of the river Arno. Pisæ was one of the twelve
cities of Etruria; it is frequently mentioned in the Ligurian wars as
the headquarters of the Roman legions. Early in the 11th century, Pisa
had risen to the rank of a powerful republic. Its troops took part in
all the great events of the Holy Land; and its fleet in turn gave aid to
the pope in Southern Italy, to the emperor in Northern France, chastised
the Moors, and exacted its own terms from the Eastern emperors. In their
wars with the Saracens of Sardinia, the Pisans had conquered Sardinia,
Corsica, and the Balearic Islands, and for a time maintained their
ground against their hereditary enemies, the Genoese; but having sided
with the Ghibellines in the long wars which desolated the empire, Pisa
suffered severely at the hands of the victorious Guelphic party. Indeed,
the rivalry of the Guelphic cities of Florence, Lucca, and Siena nearly
brought Pisa to the brink of ruin at the close of the 13th century; and
after struggling for more than a hundred years against external foes and
the internal dissensions between the democratic mob and the Ghibelline
nobles, without losing their character for indomitable valor, the Pisans
finally threw themselves under the protection of Galeazzo Visconti of
Milan. It became subject to Florence after a long siege, 1405-6. In
1494, Pisa became independent under the protection of Charles VIII. of
France. When the French left Italy, the old struggle was renewed; and
after offering a desperate resistance, the Pisans, in 1509, were
compelled by hunger to surrender the city to the Florentine army
besieging the walls.

=Pisidia.= A district of Asia Minor, originally included within
Pamphylia, or Phrygia, was constituted a separate province in the
division of the Roman empire under Constantine the Great. It was bounded
north and west by Phrygia and Lycia, and south by Pamphylia, and east by
Cilicia and Isauria. The inhabitants were a lawless and freebooting
people, spurning the advance of civilization, and daring any invader to
follow them into their rugged fastnesses. Rome conquered them only to
find that their spirit of independence was not broken. They would not
brook the establishment of a single garrison or colony. It was only
their towns that paid tribute. They carried their invincible
dispositions down to modern times; and under the appellation of
_Karamanians_ they still continue to be wild, rapacious, and suspicious
of strangers.

=Pistol.= Is the smallest description of fire-arm, and is intended to be
used with one hand only. Pistols were first used by the cavalry of
England about 1544. They vary in size from the delicate saloon-pistol,
often not 6 inches long, to the horse-pistol, which may measure 18
inches, and sometimes even 2 feet. They are carried in holsters at the
saddle-bow, in the belt, or in the pocket. Every cavalry soldier should
have pistols, for a fire-arm is often of great service for personal
defense, and almost indispensable in giving an alarm or signal. Of late
years pistols have been made with revolving cylinder breeches, in which
are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing them
in succession into a line with the barrel ready for firing. See
REVOLVERS.

=Pistol-carbine.= A horseman’s pistol with a detachable gun-stock.

=Pistolet.= A little pistol.

=Pistol-grip.= A shape given to the small of the stock in shot-guns and
rifles, to give a better hold for the hand.

=Pistolier= (_Fr._). Soldier armed with a pistol; a good pistol shot.

=Pitan Nabobs.= Certain chiefs in India are so called, namely, of
Cudapa, Carroul, and Savanare.

=Pitans=, or =Patans=. A tribe in the East Indies, who are supposed to
be the descendants of the northern Indians, and who were early converted
to Mohammedanism. They are very fierce, and have been reckoned among the
best troops in India.

=Pitaux= (_Fr._). This word is sometimes written petaux, and was
formerly used to distinguish those peasants that were pressed into the
service, in contradistinction to soldiers who were regularly enlisted.

=Pitch.= To fix firmly; to plant; to set in array; as, to pitch a tent;
to pitch a camp.

=Pitched Battle.= A battle in which the hostile forces have firm or
fixed positions, in distinction from a skirmish.

=Pitched Fascines.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Pitch-field.= A pitched battle.

=Pittsburgh.= A city and port of entry of Alleghany Co., Pa. Pittsburgh
was first settled in 1754, a stockade having been erected here which was
occupied by the French as a trading-post, and given the name of Fort
Duquesne. An English expedition against this fort under Gen. Braddock
was defeated by the French and Indians, July 9, 1755. In 1758 another
English expedition marched against this post, which was then regarded by
the youthful Washington as the key of the West. An advanced detachment
under Capt. Grant having encamped on what is still called Grant’s Hill,
was attacked and defeated by a party of French and Indians from Fort
Duquesne. But on the approach of Gen. Forbes, with a force of 6200 men,
the disheartened garrison set fire to the fort and descended the Ohio
River. The victorious troops, on entering, November 25, by general
acclamation called the place Pittsburgh, in honor of William Pitt, then
prime minister of England. The town of Pittsburgh was incorporated as a
borough in 1804, and chartered as a city in 1816.

=Pivot.= That officer or soldier upon whom the company wheels.

The _pivot flank_ in a column is that which when wheeled up preserves
the proper front of divisions of the line in their natural order. The
opposite flank of the column is called the reverse flank.

=Pivot-gun.= A cannon which turns on a pivot in any direction.

=Pivot-man.= The same as pivot (which see).

=Pizzo.= A city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of Calabria Ultra
II., situated on the Gulf of Santa Euphemia, 6 miles northeast from
Monteleone. It was at Pizzo that Murat, the ex-king of Naples, landed
with a few followers, October 8, 1815, with the view of recovering his
kingdom, He was immediately taken prisoner and shot in the castle of
Pizzo on the 13th. In 1860 it was taken by Garibaldi.

=Placage= (_Fr._). In fortification, a kind of revetment, which is made
of thick plastic earth laid along the talus of such parapets as have no
mason-work, and which is covered with turf.

=Place.= In fortification, signifies, in general terms, a fortified
town, a fortress; hence we say it is a strong place.

=Place Basse= (_Fr._). In fortification, the lower flanks according to
certain systems are so called.

=Placed, To be.= This expression is frequently used in military matters,
to signify the appointment or reduction of officers. Hence, _to be
placed_ upon full or half-pay. It is more generally applicable to the
latter.

=Placentia.= See PIACENZA.

=Places of Arms.= This term has various significations, although it
uniformly means places which are calculated for the rendezvous of men in
arms, etc. When an army takes the field, every stronghold or fortress
which supports its operations by affording a safe retreat to its depots,
heavy artillery, magazines, hospitals, etc., is called a _place of
arms_. In offensive operations, those lines are called _places of arms_,
or parallels, which unite the different means of attack, secure the
regular approaches, etc., and contain bodies of troops who either do
duty in the trenches, protect the workmen, or are destined to make an
impression upon the enemy’s outworks. There are _demi-places of arms_
between the _places of arms_. These are more or less numerous in
proportion to the resistance made by the besieged. See RE-ENTERING
PLACES OF ARMS.

=Plain.= A field of battle.

=Plan.= A scheme devised; a method of action or procedure expressed or
described in language; a project. A plan of campaign (says Napoleon)
should anticipate all that an enemy may do, and combine within itself
the means necessary to baffle it. Plans of campaign are modified by
circumstances, the genius of the chief, the nature of the troops, and
topography. There are good and bad plans of campaign, but sometimes the
good fail from misfortune or mismanagement, while the bad succeed by
caprices of fortune.

=Plan of a Work.= A plan shows the tracing; also the horizontal lengths
and breadths of the works; the thickness of the ramparts and parapets;
the width of the ditches, etc. It exhibits the extent, division, and
distribution of the works; but the depth of the ditches and the height
of the works are not represented in a plan.

=Plane of Comparison.= In the plan of a fortress, and of the surrounding
country, are expressed the distances of the principal points from a
horizontal plane, imagined to pass through the highest or lowest points
of ground, in the survey. This imaginary plane is called a _plane of
comparison_.

=Plane of Defilade.= Is a plane supposed to pass through the summit or
crest of a work, and parallel to the plane of site.

=Plane of Fire.= See POINTING.

=Plane of Sight.= See POINTING.

=Plane of Site.= The general level of the ground or ground line, upon
which the works are constructed, is called the _plane of site_, whether
that plane be horizontal or oblique to the horizon.

=Plane Table.= A surveying instrument, consisting of a table or board
and arrangements for leveling and traversing it. It is much used in
military surveys and in gunnery in getting the ranges of projectiles by
the method of intersections.

=Plant, To.= In a military sense, to place; to fix; as, to plant a
standard. It likewise signifies to arrange different pieces of ordnance
for the purpose of doing execution against an enemy or his works; hence,
to plant a battery. Some authors apply this word to the act of directing
a cannon properly.

=Plantagenet.= The surname of a dynasty of English kings who ruled from
1154 to 1485. Henry II. was the founder, and Richard III., who was
killed at Bosworth, the last of the line. They were generally warlike
and ambitious rulers, being engaged in contests at home (see ROSES, WARS
OF THE) and in France. The name belonged to the house of Anjou, and is
said to have been derived from the circumstance of the first count of
this house having caused himself to be scourged with branches of broom
(_planta genista_) as a penance for some crime. The name passed to the
English line of kings through the extinction of the old Norman dynasty
in the male line in the person of Henry II., and the marriage of
Matilda, his daughter, to Geoffrey, count of Anjou, their son succeeding
to the throne.

=Plassey.= A village of British India, in the district of Nuddea,
presidency of Bengal, on the left bank of the Hooghly, 96 miles north of
Calcutta. It is memorable as the scene of the victory that laid the
foundation of the British-Indian empire. On June 23, 1757, Clive, with a
force of 900 Europeans and 2100 Sepoys, crossed the river to attack
68,000 men under Sooraj-oo-Dowlah, soubahdar of Bengal. After much
cannonading on both sides, Meer Jaffier, who was in the interest of the
British, advised the soubahdar to retreat. Clive immediately advanced,
routed the army, and took the camp of the soubahdar, who was dethroned
to make way for the traitor Meer Jaffier.

=Plastron= (_Fr._). Stuffed pad or cushion, formerly worn at the
shoulder to sustain the recoil of heavy muskets and other fire-arms,
still used by fencers upon the right side; also a breastplate or half
cuirass. In the old French service, the gens d’armes, the heavy cavalry,
the light horse, etc., were obliged to wear them on all occasions, at
reviews, etc.

=Platæa= (more commonly _Platææ_). An ancient city of Bœotia, on the
northern slope of Mount Cithæron, on the frontiers of Attica. At an
early period, the Platæans deserted the Bœotian confederacy, and placed
themselves under the protection of Athens; and when the Persians invaded
Attica in 490 B.C., they sent 1000 men to the assistance of the
Athenians, and had the honor of fighting on their side at the battle of
Marathon. Ten years afterwards (480 B.C.) their city was destroyed by
the Persian army under Xerxes at the instigation of the Thebans. It was
the site of the battle between Mardonius, commander of the army of
Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commanding the Lacedæmonians and
Athenians, 479 B.C.; the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000
Persians, scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The Grecian army, about
110,000, lost but few men. The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were
henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian invasions. In the third
year of the Peloponnesian war (429), the Thebans persuaded the Spartans
to attack Platæa, and after a siege of two years at length succeeded in
obtaining possession of the place (427). Platæa was then razed to the
ground, but was again rebuilt after the peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.).
It was destroyed the third time by its inveterate enemies, the Thebans,
in 374 B.C. It was rebuilt by Philip II. of Macedon, after his victory
at Chæronea, 338 B.C.

=Plate.= Metallic armor composed of broad pieces, and thus distinguished
from mail.

=Plate.= To arm with plate or metal for defense. “Why plated in
habiliments of war?”

=Plate-armor.= Armor of strong metal plates for protecting
fortifications and the like; also mail consisting entirely of metallic
plates, formerly worn to protect the person.

=Platform.= Is a strong flooring upon which a piece of ordnance, mounted
on its carriage, is manœuvred when in battery. Its object is to
facilitate the service of heavy guns and mortars, and to insure accuracy
of fire. Fixed platforms are used for casemate and barbette batteries in
fortifications, and are constructed with the works; siege-platforms for
guns and howitzers; and siege-platforms for mortars; the other kinds are
the rail-platform, the ricochet-platform, and the platforms for
sea-coast mortars. Platforms should possess strength and portability,
and the pieces composing them should be constructed of the same
dimensions, viz.: 9 feet long, 5 inches wide, and 3¹⁄₂ inches thick. The
weight of each piece in a platform is about 50 pounds; and in a
siege-platform for guns and howitzers, there are 49 pieces, 1 being used
as a _hurter_ on the front part of the platform to prevent the carriage
from running too far forward, and 12 for sleepers. The weight of this
platform complete is 2601¹⁄₂ pounds. This platform is laid with an
elevation to the rear, of 1¹⁄₂ inches to the yard, or 4¹⁄₂ inches in the
whole length. This elevation is given to diminish the recoil of the
piece and to permit the water to run off. The length of this platform
is 15 feet by 9 feet. The platform for a siege-mortar is composed of
only 6 sleepers and 21 deck-planks. It is laid level, and the front and
rear deck-planks are connected by eye-bolts to every sleeper. This
platform is about 9 feet deep by 9 feet wide, and weighs 1220 pounds.
The rail-platform for siege-mortars consists of 3 sleepers and 2 rails
for the cheeks of the mortar-bed to slide on, instead of the deck-plank,
and is very strong, and easily constructed and laid. For method of
laying platforms for siege-gun or howitzer, and for mortars, see
“Hand-book of Artillery,” by Roberts, pages 143-47.

=Platform Wagon.= A sort of wagon used for transporting heavy ordnance.

=Platoon.= Probably from the French _peloton_, a “ball of thread,” a
“knot,” was a term formerly used in the English service to designate a
body of men who fired together. In U. S. tactics, it is now a recognized
subdivision of a company, being one-half.

=Plattsburg.= A township and capital of Clinton Co., N. Y., situated on
both banks of the Saranac River, at its entrance into Lake Champlain. In
the bay was fought the naval battle of Champlain, in which the British
flotilla, under Commodore Downie, was defeated by the American commodore
McDonough, September 11, 1814; while the land forces amounting to 14,000
men, under Sir George Prevost, were defeated by Gen. Macomb.

=Play.= Is occasionally applied to a military action; as, the guns
played upon the enemy.

=Plea.= That which is alleged by a party in support of his cause; in a
stricter sense, an allegation of fact in a cause, as distinguished from
a demurrer; in a still more limited sense, and in modern practice, the
defendant’s answer to the plaintiff’s declaration and demand. That which
the plaintiff alleges in his declaration is answered and repelled or
justified by the defendant’s _plea_.

=Plevna.= A town of Bulgaria, which became important in a military sense
through the battles which took place around it during the Russo-Turkish
war. The first battle took place July 15-16, 1877, resulting in the
capture of Nikopolis. The second took place July 30, with considerable
loss to both sides, but without any decisive results. The third took
place September 11.

=Plombée= (_Fr._). An ancient war-club, whose head was loaded with lead.

=Plongée.= In artillery and fortification, means a slope toward the
front. Thus, in speaking of the course of a shell through the air, its
plongée is from the point of greatest altitude to the point at which it
strikes the earth. So, in fortification, the plongée is the top of the
parapet, sloping gently toward the front. This depression varies from
one-fourth to one-sixth of the thickness of the parapet.

=Ploy.= To form a column from a line of battle on some designated
subdivision.

=Ployments.= A general term for all tactical movements by which a column
is formed from line upon a designated subdivision.

=Pluck.= Spirit; perseverance under opposition or discouragement;
indomitableness; courage.

=Plume.= A large and handsome feather worn as an ornament on a helmet,
on a military hat, and the like.

=Plummet.= In gunnery, is a simple line and bob for pointing mortars. A
plummet is also used for regulating the march of infantry. It is made by
means of a musket-ball, suspended by a silk string, upon which the
required lengths are marked; the length is measured from the point of
suspension to the centre of the ball. The different lengths of these
plummets are as follows: for common time, 90 steps in a minute, 17.37
inches; quick time, 110 steps in a minute, 11.6 inches; double time, 165
steps in a minute, 5.17 inches.

=Plunder.= To take the goods of another by force; to take from by
robbery; to spoil; to strip; to rob; as, to plunder a place. Also to
take by pillage or open force; as, the enemy plundered all the goods
they found.

=Plunder.= That which is taken from an enemy; pillage; spoil.

=Plunging Fire.= See FIRE, PLUNGING.

=Pluteus.= A kind of wicker helmet covered with raw ox-hide, worn by the
ancient Greeks when engaged in sapping walls. Others were made of
hurdles, covered in the same way, running upon three wheels, and
affording cover to 7 or 8 miners.

=Plymouth.= A seaport town in England, county of Devon, on the east side
of a peninsula, between the rivers Plym and Tamar, at the head of
Plymouth Sound, 37 miles southwest of Exeter. Prior to the time of the
Norman conquest it was called _South Town_, or _Sutton_; under the Saxon
dynasty it was called _Tamerweorth_. The growing prosperity of the town
excited the jealousy of France; and in 1339 a force from thence landed,
and attempted to burn it. They succeeded in burning a portion, but were
ultimately repulsed, with the loss of 500 men, by Hugh Courtenay, earl
of Devon, aided by a number of “knights and men of the countrie.” A
similar attempt was made in 1377, but with no great result; and after
each, the fortifications were extended and strengthened. In 1335 the
Black Prince embarked from Plymouth for France, and on his return to
England he landed here with his prisoner, King John of France, who had
been captured at the famous battle of Poitiers. During the civil war
between Charles I. and the Parliament, Plymouth was held by the troops
of the latter party, who, though besieged, and almost reduced by famine,
resisted for three years every effort of the royalists. After the
restoration the citadel was erected, and in the reign of William III.
the dock-yard and the naval arsenal were established toward the west,
upon the eastern shore of Hamoaze.

=Plymouth.= A town of Washington Co., N. C., on the south bank of
Roanoke River about 8 miles from its mouth, where it empties into
Albemarle Sound. During the civil war it was held for some time by the
Union troops as a key to the river, and was strongly fortified. On April
17, 1864, a Confederate force under Gen. Hoke attacked this place, and
after four days’ severe fighting, being five times repulsed with great
slaughter, succeeded in capturing it, by the powerful assistance of an
ironclad ram and a floating sharpshooter battery.

=Pocket Ledger.= In the British service, is a small book in the
possession of each soldier, containing the result of the monthly
settlement of pay, the state of his savings-bank account, the date of
his enlistment, his services, wounds, decorations, date of birth, next
of kin, a summary of the regulations which affect him, and many other
useful particulars.

=Podoll= (Bohemia). The site of a severe conflict between the Austrians
and a part of the army of Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, June 26,
1866, in which the latter had the advantage.

=Point.= In heraldry, a triangular figure issuing from the dexter and
sinister base of the shield. It is common in French and German heraldry,
and occurs in the shield of Hanover, which was a part of the royal arms
of Great Britain from the accession of George I. till that of the
present sovereign. A shield charged with a point is in heraldic drawing
hardly distinguishable from one parted per chevron.

=Point d’Appui.= Any particular given point or body, upon which troops
are formed, or by which they are marched, in line or column. _Points
d’appui_ also signify the different advantageous posts, such as castles,
fortified villages, etc., which the general of an army takes possession
of in order to secure his natural position.

=Point of Alignment.= The point which troops form upon and dress by.

=Point of Formation.= A point taken, upon which troops are formed in
military order.

_Perpendicular points_, the points upon which troops march in a
straight-forward direction.

_Relative points_, the points by which the parallelism of a march is
preserved.

=Point of Honor.= See HONOR, POINT OF.

=Point of War.= A loud and impressive beat of the drum, the perfect
execution of which requires great skill and activity. The point of war
is beat when a battalion charges.

=Point-blank.= The second point at which the line of sight intersects
the trajectory of a projectile. See POINTING.

=Point-blank.= Directed in a line toward the object aimed at; aimed
directly toward the mark.

=Point-blank Range.= Is the distance from the muzzle of the piece to
that point in a projectile’s trajectory where it cuts the prolongation
of the natural line of sight, a second time, the natural line of sight
being horizontal. The British define point-blank range as, “the distance
from the muzzle to the first graze when the axis of the piece is
parallel to the horizontal plane upon which the carriage stands.” This
definition is being adopted in the U. S. service.--See POINTING.

=Point-blank Shot.= The shot of a gun pointed directly toward the object
to be hit.

=Pointing.= To point or aim a fire-arm is, to give it such direction and
elevation that the projectile shall strike the object.

_Definitions._--The _axis of the piece_ is the centre line of the bore.

The _line of fire_ is the axis of the piece prolonged.

The _plane of fire_ is a vertical plane through the line of fire.

The _line of sight_ is the right line from the eye to the object to be
hit, passing through the front and rear sights.

The _plane of sight_ is a vertical plane through the line of sight.

The _angle of sight_, or the _elevation_, is the vertical angle included
between the line of sight and the plane containing the axis of the piece
and a horizontal line at right angles to it.

The _natural line of sight_ is the line of sight nearest to the axis of
the piece. In guns without rear sights it is the right line through the
highest point of the base-ring and swell of the muzzle or top of the
front sight when there is one. It is sometimes called the _line of
metal_, as in mortars. For convenience and accuracy the _natural line of
sight_ is usually parallel to the axis of the piece. When special
breech-sights are used, it passes through the zero of the scale, which
in the _pendulum hausse_ and other vibrating scales coincides with the
axis of vibration. All other lines of sight are called _artificial lines
of sight_.

_Point-blank_, in small-arms, is the second point in which the natural
line of sight (when horizontal) cuts the trajectory. In artillery, it is
the point where the projectile first strikes the horizontal plane on
which the gun stands, the axis of the piece being horizontal.

_Pointing Guns and Howitzers._--In pointing old model guns and howitzers
under ordinary angles of elevation, the piece is first directed toward
the object, and then elevated to suit the distance. The accuracy of the
aim depends: (1) On the fact that the object is situated in the plane of
sight; (2) That the projectile moves in the plane of fire, and that the
planes of sight and fire coincide, or are parallel and near to each
other; and (3) On the accuracy of the elevation. The first of these
conditions depends on the eye of the gunner, and the accuracy and
delicacy of the sights; the errors under this head are of but little
practical importance. When the trunnions of the piece are horizontal,
and the sights are properly placed on the surface of the piece, the
planes of sight and fire will coincide; but when the axis of the
trunnions is inclined, and the natural line of sight is oblique to the
axis of the bore, the planes are neither parallel nor coincident, but
will intersect at a short distance from the muzzle, and the aim will be
incorrect. If the natural line of sight be made parallel to the line of
fire, by making the height of the front sight equal to the dispart of
the piece, the planes of sight and fire will be parallel. Field-guns of
the present day have special breech-sights or pendulum-sights. The zero
of the scale and top of front sight are in a line parallel to the axis
of the piece, and in pendulum-sights this zero coincides with the pivot
at which the scale vibrates. Siege and sea-coast cannon are generally
fired from fixed platforms, which renders the axis of the trunnions
horizontal; they are, therefore, not furnished with pendulum-sights, but
usually with breech-sights set in sockets at the breech. In the absence
of a breech-sight the piece can be pointed with a natural line of sight
so as to strike objects not situated at point-blank distance. Owing to
the shape and size of the reinforce of sea-coast cannon, the natural
line of sight is formed by affixing a front sight to the muzzle, or to a
projection cast on the piece between the trunnions. Although the latter
arrangement does not give quite so long a distance between the sights as
is desirable, it permits the use of a shorter breech-sight, and the
front sight does not interfere with the roof of the embrasure, when the
piece is fired under high elevation.

_Errors in Pointing._--When the platform or ground upon which the gun
stands is not level there is an error in pointing (except when
compensating sights such as the _pendulum hausse_ are used), which
varies in direction with the circumstances of the pointing and in amount
with the elevation of the piece.

If the _natural line of sight_ is pointed upon the object and the
elevation then given by a gunner’s quadrant or other device, the shot
will go to the side of the lower wheel. If the gun be depressed, it will
go to the side of the upper wheel.

If the _tangent scale_ or old pattern _breech-sight_ is used with the
ordinary fixed muzzle-sight, and it be placed on a chalk-mark just
determined, the shot will fall on the side of the upper wheel. If the
scale is placed on the permanent mark, the contrary will hold.

If a _socket or fixed breech-sight_ is used, the shot will fall on the
lower or upper side according as the gun is elevated or depressed.

_Pointing Mortars._--In pointing mortars, the piece is first given the
elevation, and then the direction necessary to attain the object.
Mortars are generally fired from behind epaulements, which screen the
object from the eye of the gunner. The elevation is first given by a
gunner’s quadrant, and the direction is given by moving the mortar-bed
with a handspike, so as to bring the line of metal into the plane of
sight, which passes through the object and the centre of the platform.
The plane of sight may be determined in several ways; the method
prescribed is to plant two stakes, one on the crest of the epaulement,
and the other a little in advance of the first, so that the two shall be
in a line with the object, and the gunner standing in the middle of the
rear edge of the platform; a cord is attached to the second stake and
held so as to touch the first stake; a third stake is driven in a line
with the cord, in rear of the platform, and a plummet is attached to
this cord so as to fall a little in rear of the mortar. The cord and
plummet determine the required plane of sight into which the line of
metal of the mortar must be brought. With the 13-inch mortar mounted
upon centre-pintle chassis, the plane of sight must be so determined as
to pass through the pintle to obtain perfect accuracy. One of the best
methods of pointing mortars so mounted, is to place on the crest of the
parapet in line with the axis of the platform a goniometer, the alidade
of which can be directed upon the object,--the angle is read from the
vertical plane containing the axis of the platform. The traverse circle
is similarly graduated from the axis of the platform. A pointer attached
to the chassis enables the gunner to lay the mortar very nearly in the
vertical plane passing through the object,--the error being the
perpendicular distance from the pintle to the plane of sight. This is
the method of Lieut. A. B. Dyer, 4th U. S. Artillery. Gen. Abbot of the
U. S. Engineer Corps used a similar principle during the late war,
1861-65. The usual angle of fire of mortars is 45°, which corresponds
nearly with the maximum range. The advantages of the angle of greatest
range are: (1) Economy of powder; (2) Diminished recoil, and strain on
the piece, bed, and platform; (3) More uniform ranges. When the distance
is not great, and the object is to penetrate the roofs of magazines,
buildings, etc., the force of fall may be increased by firing under an
angle of 60°. The ranges obtained under an angle of 60° are about
_one-tenth_ less than those obtained with an angle of 45°. If the object
be to produce effect by the bursting of the projectile, the penetration
should be diminished by firing under an angle of 30°. When the object is
not on a level with the piece, the angle of greatest range is considered
in practice to be 45° increased or diminished by one-half the angle of
elevation or depression of the object. The angle of fire being fixed at
45° for objects on the same level with the piece, the range is varied by
varying the charge of powder. Stone-mortars are pointed in the same
manner as common mortars; the angle of fire for stones is from 60° to
72°, in order that they may have great force in falling; the angle for
grenades is about 33°, in order that their bursting effect may not be
destroyed by their penetration into the earth.

_Night-firing._--Cannon are pointed at night by means of certain marks,
or measurements, on the carriage and platform, which are accurately
determined during the day.

_Pointing Small-arms._--The rear-sights of small-arms are graduated with
elevation marks for certain distances, generally every hundred yards; in
aiming with these as with all other arms, it is first necessary to know
the distance of the object. This being known and the slider being placed
opposite the mark corresponding to this distance, the bottom of the
rear-sight notch, and the top of the front-sight, are brought into a
line joining the object and the eye of the marksman. The term
_coarse-sight_ is used when a considerable portion of the front-sight is
seen above the bottom of the rear-sight notch; and the term
_fine-sight_, when but a small portion of it is seen. The graduation
marks being determined for a fine-sight, the effect of a coarse-sight is
to increase the true range of the projectile.

_Graduation of Rear-sights._--If the form of the trajectory be known,
the rear-sight of a fire-arm can be graduated by calculation; the more
accurate and reliable method, however, is by trial.

_Distance of Objects._--Various instruments have been devised to
determine the distance of objects, based on the measurement of the
visual angles subtended by a foot or cavalry soldier, of mean height, at
different distances, and upon other principles. (See RANGE-FINDER.) The
range being known, the proper elevation (or charge of powder in mortars)
and length of fuze is given by tables of fire obtained from calculation
or experiment. The ranges for guns of position are determined by
thorough surveys of the surrounding country or harbor channels, by which
the distances of all prominent points in the route of an approaching
enemy are fixed beforehand. The ranges in field artillery are usually
obtained by trial shots at the enemy. For small-arm and field-gun
firing, the importance of at once getting the range cannot be
overvalued; hence the importance of _estimating distances_ without
instrumental aid. The soldier is guided by his experience of aerial
perspective, by the apparent size of known objects, and numerous other
aids too delicate for enunciation. The art can be acquired to a high
degree of perfection by _practice_, which now forms a very important
part of the soldier’s training.

=Pointing-board.= See BOARD, POINTING.

=Pointing-cord.= Cord used in pointing mortars (which see). See
POINTING-STAKES.

=Pointing-rings.= See ORDNANCE.

=Pointing-stakes.= Are used in pointing mortars, and by them one of the
fixed points is established upon the crest of the parapet or at the foot
of the interior slope, and another in rear of the piece. Then by a cord
called the _pointing-cord_, stretched between these two points, with
the plummet suspended from it, a vertical plane is determined with which
the line of metal is made to coincide. Mortars are also pointed by means
of _pointing-wires_.

=Pointing-wires.= Are wires which are used in directing mortars. The two
fixed points required in directing a mortar are determined by planting
two wires upon the epaulement, one upon its crest, and the other about a
yard in advance of it, both as nearly as possible in the vertical plane
passing through the centre of the platform and the object. The points
being thus established, the direction is thus given to the mortar, by
causing a plummet held in rear of it to cover the wires and the line of
metal. This method is defective both in accuracy of aim and the
liability of the wires being deranged by the shots of the enemy or by
other causes.

=Points of Passing.= The ground on which one or more bodies of armed men
march by a reviewing general.

=Points of the Escutcheon.= In heraldry, in order to facilitate the
description of a coat of arms, it is the practice to suppose the shield
to be divided into nine points, which are known by the following names:
The dexter chief point, the middle chief, the sinister chief, the
collar, or honor point, the fess point, the nombril, or navel point, the
dexter base point, the middle base point, and the sinister base point.
The dexter and sinister sides of the shield are so called, not in
relation to the eye of the spectator, but from the right and left sides
of the supposed bearer of the shield.

=Poitiers=, or =Poictiers=. A town of France, capital of the department
of Vienne, on the Clain, 58 miles south-southwest of Tours. In the
vicinity of Poitiers, Alaric II., the Visigoth, was defeated and slain
by Clovis in 507. Somewhere between Poitiers and Tours a great battle
took place on October 10, 732, between the Franks under Charles Martel
and the Saracens under Abder-Rahman. The Saracens were routed with
enormous slaughter,--357,000 of them (according to one old chronicler,
and supposed to be exaggerated) being left dead on the field. Near here
was fought the battle between Edward the Black Prince and John, king of
France, September 19, 1356, in which Edward, with some 12,000 or 14,000
Englishmen and Gascons, defeated 60,000 of the troops of King John, and
took the monarch himself and one of his sons prisoners. See TOURS.

=Poitou.= A former province of Western France, now mainly comprised in
the departments of Deux Sèvres, Vendée, and Vienne. It became an English
possession in 1152. In 1204, Philip Augustus regained it by conquest
from England, and in 1295 it was formally ceded to France. It again
reverted to England in 1360 by the peace of Bretigny, but was retaken by
Charles V., and incorporated with the French crown.

=Poitrel= (_Fr._). Armor for the breast of a horse.

=Pokanokets.= See MASSACHUSETTS INDIANS.

=Poland.= Called by the natives _Polska_, “a plain,” a former kingdom of
Europe,--renowned, in mediæval history, as the sole champion of
Christendom against the Turks, and more recently, and at present, an
object of general and profound sympathy throughout Western Europe, from
its unprecedented misfortunes. The natives belong to the great Slavonic
family. The word Pole is not older than the 10th century. Poland first
took rank as one of the political powers of Europe, when Micislas I.
(962-992) occupied the throne and became a convert to Christianity.
Boleslas I. (992-1025) surnamed “the Great,” reunited the separate
portions of the kingdom (which had been divided by Micislas among his
sons) and extended it beyond the Oder, the Carpathians, and the
Dniester, and sustained a successful war with the emperor Henry II. of
Germany, conquering Cracovia, Moravia, Lusatia, and Misnia. He also took
part in the dissensions among the petty Russian princes. Boleslas was
recognized as “king” by the German emperors. After a period of anarchy
he was succeeded by his son, Casimir (1040-1058), whose reign, and that
of his warlike son, Boleslas II. (1058-1081), though brilliant, were of
little real profit to the country. Boleslas III. (1102-1139), an
energetic monarch, annexed Pomerania, defeated the pagan Prussians, and
defended Silesia against the German emperors. A division of the kingdom
among his sons was productive of much internal dissensions, under cover
of which Silesia was severed from Poland; ultimately, Casimir II.
(1177-1194) reunited the severed portions, with the exception of
Silesia. His death was the signal for a contest among the various
claimants for the throne, which was speedily followed, as usual, by a
division of the country, and during this disturbance Pomerania
emancipated itself from Polish rule. About the same time the Teutonic
Knights were summoned by the Duke of Masovia to aid him against the
pagan Prussians, but they soon became as formidable enemies to Poland as
the Prussians; and conquered a great part of Podlachia and Lithuania.
The Mongols swept over the country in 1241, reducing it to the verge of
ruin, and defeating the Poles in a great battle near Wahlstatt. From
this time Poland began to decline; various districts were ceded to the
markgrafs of Brandenburg, while many districts began to be colonized by
Germans. Ladislaus (1305-1333), surnamed _Lokietek_, “the Short,” again
restored unity to the country. In conjunction with Gedymin, grand duke
of Lithuania, a vigorous war was carried on against the Teutonic
Knights, on returning from which the aged monarch (he was now seventy
years old) experienced a triumphant reception from his subjects, who
hailed him as the “father of his country.” His son, Casimir III. the
Great (1333-1370), greatly increased the power and prosperity of Poland.
In the latter part of his reign he was compelled to defend sundry new
acquisitions against the Tartars, Lithuanians, and Wallachians, which he
did successfully. With Casimir, the Piast dynasty became extinct.
Jagello (Ladislaus IV.), grand duke of Lithuania, the son-in-law of
Louis the Great, king of Hungary, founded the dynasty of the Jagellons
(1386-1572), and for the first time united Lithuania and Poland. Casimir
IV. (1444-1492) recovered West Prussia from the Teutonic Knights. The
Wallachian invaders carried off 100,000 Poles, and sold them to the
Turks as slaves, 1498. Sigismund I. (1506-1548) surnamed “the Great,”
raised the country to the utmost pitch of prosperity; he was forced into
a war with Russia, in which he lost Smolensk. Sigismund II., Augustus,
was a successor worthy of him; Lithuania was finally joined indissolubly
to Poland. Livonia was conquered from the Knights Sword-bearers. (See
SWORD-BEARERS, KNIGHTS.) Stephen Battory (1575-1586), voivode of
Transylvania, the second elective monarch, a man of energy and talent,
carried on war successfully against the Russians, pursued them into the
very heart of their own country, and compelled the czar to sue for
peace; he also subdued the semi-independent Cossacks of the Ukraine. His
successor, Sigismund III. (1586-1632), who was succeeded by his sons,
Ladislaus VI. (1632-1648) and John Casimir (1648-1672), was of the Vasa
family, and was the crown prince of Sweden. These three monarchs were
most unworthy successors of Poland’s ablest king. They were always
quarreling with their neighbors, declaring war with Russia, Sweden, or
Turkey, in the most imprudent and reckless manner, and often without
valid pretext. But the Polish armies, though as little fostered and
cared for as the other portion of the nation, were everywhere
victorious; the Swedish and Muscovite armies were successively
annihilated; Moscow was taken, and the Russians reduced to such an
abject condition that they offered to make Sigismund’s son, Ladislaus,
their czar. Sweden made a similar offer to another son of the Polish
monarch; but the latter’s absurd behavior lost for Poland this rich
result of her great victories; and the foolish policy of the whole three
not only rendered fruitless all the lavish expenditure of Polish blood
and treasure, but lost the country many of her richest provinces, and
left her without a single ally. During the reign of this dynasty
Wallachia and Moldavia were snatched by the Turks from under the Polish
protectorate; Livonia with Riga was conquered (1605-1621), along with a
part of Prussia (1629) by Sweden; and Brandenburg established itself in
complete independence. The Cossacks rose in rebellion to a man, put
themselves under the protection of Russia, and ever afterwards proved
themselves the most inveterate enemies of the Poles. In the reign of
John Casimir, Poland was attacked simultaneously by Russia, Sweden,
Brandenburg, the Transylvanians and the Cossacks; the country was
entirely overrun; Warsaw, Wilna, and Lemburg taken; but Czarniecki,
after defeating Poland’s enemies in detail, ignominiously expelled them
from the country. But in subsequent treaties Ducal or East Prussia was
given up to Brandenburg; almost all Livonia to Sweden, and Smolensk,
Severia, or Tchernigov, and the Ukraine beyond the Dnieper were given to
Russia. During the reign of Michael Wisniowiecki (1668-1674) a war with
Turkey, concluded by an ignominious peace, was the chief event. But the
senate rejected the shameful treaty, the Polish army was reinforced, the
Polish monarch resigned the command to John Sobieski, and the Turks were
routed with great slaughter at Choczim (1673). After the reign of
Sobieski, Augustus II. of Saxony entered Poland at the head of a Saxon
army, and succeeded in obtaining the throne. His war with the Turks
restored to Poland part of the Ukraine and the fortress of Kaminiec; but
that with Charles XII. brought nothing but misfortune. Augustus returned
after the battle of Poltava; his rival retired without a contest; a
close alliance was formed with Russia, and the Russian troops which had
campaigned in Poland against the Swedes were, along with his Saxon army,
retained. The Poles demanded their extradition, but in vain; and the
Russian cabinet interfered (1717) between the king and his subjects,
compelling both parties to sign a treaty of peace. This was the
commencement of Poland’s dependence on Russia and her consequent
decline. By the instigation of Peter the Great, the Polish army was
reduced from 80,000 to 18,000. For the massacre of Protestants at Thorn
see MASSACRE. Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an easy
prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia, in 1772, when the first partition
was effected. Catherine II. of Russia, on various pretexts, advanced her
army into Poland (1792), and the fruitless resistance to the united
Prussians and Russians, headed by Joseph Antony Poniatowski and
Kosciusko, was followed by a second partition (1793) between Russia and
Prussia, which the diet were forced to sanction at the point of the
bayonet. A general rising took place (1794); the Prussians were
compelled to retreat to their own country; the Russians were several
times routed; but an Austrian army advanced, compelling the Poles to
retreat; and fresh hordes of the Russians arriving, Kosciusko at the
head of the last patriot army, was defeated; and the sack of Praga,
followed by the capture of Warsaw, finally annihilated the Polish
monarchy. The third and last partition (1795) distributed the remainder
of the country between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. King Stanislaus
resigned the crown, and died broken-hearted at St. Petersburg in 1798.
Napoleon I. established the duchy of Warsaw (1807), chiefly out of the
Prussian share of Poland, with the elector of Saxony at its head. The
division of Poland was re-arranged by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. On
November 30, 1830, Constantine (brother of the czar and military
governor) and his Russians were driven out of Warsaw, and a general
insurrection of the people, headed by the aristocracy, took place; and
military leaders, as Radzivil, Dembinski, Bem, etc., were soon found.
From January, 1831, till September 8 of the same year, a series of
bloody conflicts were fought, in which the Prussians and Austrians, with
pitiable subservience, aided the czar. At first, the Poles were
successful; but the taking of the capital by Paskievitch soon ended the
war, which was followed, as a matter of course, by imprisonment,
banishment, confiscation, and enforced service in the Russian army. From
this time, the independence of Poland was suppressed, and in 1832 it was
declared to be an integral part of the Russian empire, and the most
severe and arbitrary measures taken to Russianize the people. The
outbreaks of 1833 and 1846 were punished by the gallows. Simultaneous
disturbances (1846) in the Prussian and Austrian portions of Poland were
summarily suppressed; their leaders in Prussia were imprisoned, and only
saved from death by the revolution of March, 1848, at Berlin; and those
in Austria were butchered by the peasantry, who preferred the Austrian
to a national government. On November 6, 1846, the republic of Cracow
was incorporated with Austria. In 1861 another insurrection broke out,
and Poland was declared (in October) in a state of siege; the country
continued in a state of commotion without any very decided outbreak; and
on January 13, 1863, Lithuania and Volhynia were also put in a state of
siege. In February, 1863, Mieroslavski raised the standard of
insurrection in the northwest, on the Posen frontier, and many districts
of Augustovo, Radom, Lublin, Volhynia, and Lithuania, were speedily in
insurrection. It was a mere guerrilla war, and no great or decisive
conflicts took place, but the whole populations of villages were put to
the sword by the Russians; while murders and assassinations marked the
reign of terror of the National Committee. At last, with the officious
assistance of Prussia, and the secret sympathy and support of Austria,
the czar’s troops succeeded in trampling out (1864) the last embers of
insurrection. In 1868 the government of Poland was absolutely
incorporated with that of Russia.

=Polans.= Knee-pieces in armor.

=Pole.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Poleaxe.= An axe fixed to a pole or handle; or rather, a sort of
hatchet with a handle about 15 inches in length, and often a point or
claw bending downward, or projecting from the back of its head. It was
formerly used by mounted soldiers.

=Polemarch.= In Grecian antiquity, was originally the
commander-in-chief, but afterwards, a civil magistrate who had under his
care all strangers and sojourners in the city.

=Pole-pad.= A pad placed on the end of the pole in field-gun carriages
to prevent injury to the horses.

=Pole-prop.= A short stick attached to the under side of the pole in
field-gun carriages.

=Pole-strap.= See ORDNANCE, LIMBER.

=Pole-yoke.= See ORDNANCE, LIMBER.

=Pole-yoke Branches.= See ORDNANCE, LIMBER.

=Polibole=, or =Palintonne= (_Fr._). A ballista which was capable of
throwing both arrows and stones.

=Police.= The cleaning of a camp or garrison; the state of a camp in
regard to cleanliness.

=Police Guard.= An interior guard having care of the arms, property, and
prisoners of the regiment; also charged with the regulation of the camp
in regard to order and cleanliness. A guard for prisoners occupied in
cleaning the camp.

=Police, Military.= This word has two significations: (1) The organized
body employed within an army to preserve civil order, as distinct from
military discipline. (2) A civil police with a military organization.
The police of an army commonly consists of steady intelligent soldiers,
who act under the orders of the provost-marshal, and arrest all persons
out of bounds, civilians not authorized to pass the lines, disorderly
soldiers, etc.; they also attend to sanitary arrangements. As in all
military matters, the police of an army possess summary powers, and a
sentence of the provost-marshal is carried out immediately after it is
pronounced. Of civil police with military organization may be instanced,
as specimens, the gendarmerie of France, the sbirri of Italy, and, in an
eminent degree, the Irish constabulary.

=Police Party.= A working party engaged in cleaning the camp or
garrison.

=Police Sergeant.= A sergeant specially charged with cleaning the camp.

=Polkownick.= Colonel of a Polish regiment.

=Pollentia= (now _Polenza_, Northern Italy). A town of the Statielli in
Liguria, at the continence of the Sturia and the Tanarus, and
subsequently a Roman municipum. In its neighborhood Stilicho, the
imperial general, defeated Alaric the Goth, March 29, 403.

=Polotzk=, =Polotsk=, or =Polock=. A town of Russian Poland, 60 miles
west-northwest of Vitebsk, at the continence of the Dwina and the
Polota. It was taken by the Russians from the Poles in 1579, and again
in 1655. The French under Marshal Oudinot were here defeated by the
Russians under Gen. Wittgenstein, July 30-31, 1812, the next day the
Russians were defeated. After several smaller actions with various
results, Polotzk was stormed by the Russians, and retaken October, 1812.

=Polron.= That part of the armor which covered the neck and shoulders.

=Poltava=, or =Pultowa=. A town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, situated on the Vorskla, about 934 miles south-southeast
from St. Petersburg. Here Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by Peter
the Great of Russia, July 8, 1709.

=Polygars=, or =Paleagas=. Chiefs of mountainous and woody districts in
the peninsula of India, who pay only a temporary homage.

=Polygon.= The name applied to the many-angled forms in which the outer
walls of all fortified places are built.

=Polygon.= A school of practice for artillery is so called in Japan.

=Polyorcetes.= Taker of cities; a name applied by the Greeks to a very
successful general.

=Polytechnic School.= See MILITARY ACADEMIES.

=Pomada.= An exercise of vaulting the wooden horse, by laying one hand
over the pommel of the saddle.

=Pomerania.= A province of Prussia, bounded north by the Baltic, east by
West Prussia, south by Brandenburg, and west by the Mecklenburg duchies.
It was held by the Poles, 980, and by Denmark, 1210; made an independent
duchy, 1479; occupied by the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War, and
divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, 1648. The Swedish part, awarded
to Denmark in 1814, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1815.

=Pomerium.= In ancient architecture, that space of ground which lay
between the walls of a fortified town and the inhabitants’ houses. The
term is still used among modern architects, particularly by the
Italians, to describe the breadth of the terre-plein of the rampart, its
inward talus, and the vacant space which is usually left between this
talus and the houses of the town.

=Pomfret.= See PONTEFRACT.

=Pomme.= In heraldry, a bearing or device representing, or in the form
of, an apple.

=Pommee.= In heraldry, having the ends terminating in rounded
protuberances resembling apples;--said of crosses.

=Pommel.= The knob on the hilt of a sword. Also the protuberant part of
a saddle-bow.

=Pommeled=, or =Pommelled=. In heraldry, furnished or mounted, with one
or more pommels, as a sword, dagger, or the like.

=Pommelion.= The cascabel, or hindmost knob of a cannon.

=Pompon.= A tuft of wool, sometimes worn by soldiers on the top of the
hat in front, instead of a feather.

=Poncho.= A Spanish-American garment, consisting of a piece of woolen
cloth, 5 to 7 feet long, 3 to 4 feet broad, having in the middle a slit
through which the wearer passes his head, so that the poncho rests upon
the shoulders and hangs down before and behind. In the U. S. army
mounted troops are issued a waterproof poncho, consisting of painted
cotton or rubber cloth.

=Pondicherry.= A maritime town, and the capital of the French
settlements in India, on the Coromandel coast, 83 miles south-southwest
from Madras. Pondicherry was first settled by the French in 1674, they
having purchased the town two years before from the rajah of Bejapoor.
The Dutch took the town in 1693; but by the treaty of Ryswick it was
restored to the French in 1697. In 1748 it was besieged by the English
under Admiral Boscawen, who, two months later, was compelled to raise
the siege. In 1758, Count de Lally became governor-general, and attacked
the English settlement of Fort St. David, which surrendered, and was
totally destroyed. In 1761 it was taken by the English, under Col.
Coote. By the peace of Paris, Pondicherry was restored to the French in
1763 with reduced territory. It was again taken by the English under Sir
Hector Monro in 1778, and restored in 1783. In 1793 the English again
repossessed themselves of Pondicherry, but the treaty of Amiens in 1802
again restored it, but only till the following year. From this time it
was held by the English till, by the treaties of 1814 and 1815, it was
for the last time restored to France, reduced to the narrow limits
assigned by the treaty of 1783.

=Poniard.= A pointed instrument for stabbing; borne in the hand, or at
the girdle, or in the pocket; a small dagger.

=Poniard.= To pierce with a poniard; to stab.

=Pont à Noyelles.= At this place near Amiens, France, took place a
fierce indecisive conflict lasting from 11 A.M. to 6 P.M. between the
Germans under Manteuffel and the French Army of the North under
Faidherbe, December 23, 1870. Both sides claimed a victory.

=Pontefract=, or =Pomfret=. A town of England, in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, near the river Aire, and 21 miles southwest from York. Its
castle, which was finished in 1080, was taken after three successive and
desperate sieges, by the Parliamentary army, and demolished by order of
the Parliament.

=Pontia= (now _Ponza_). A rocky island off the coast of Latium, opposite
Formiæ, which was taken by the Romans from the Volscians, and colonized,
313 B.C. Under the Romans it was used as a place of banishment for state
criminals. There is a group of smaller islands round Pontia which are
sometimes called Insulæ Pontiæ.

=Pontianak.= The capital of the kingdom of the same name on the west
coast of Borneo, is situated near the junction of the Landak and Kapuas.
There has been constant war on the southeast coast of the kingdom since
1859. The interior of the kingdom was very much disturbed in 1864.

=Pontifical States.= See PAPAL STATES.

=Pontones.= Ancient square-built ferry-boats for passing rivers, as
described by Cæsar and Aulus Gellius.

=Pontonier=, or =Pontonnier=. A soldier having the charge of
constructing bridges.

=Pontons.= A kind of portable boats specially adapted for the formation
of floating bridges required by armies. They are constructed in various
ways, of wood, metal, or prepared canvas, stretched over frames made for
the purpose (the latter it is said are much in favor), and have the
necessary gear placed with them for transport. The ponton used in the
U. S. army is constructed as follows:

The _ponton frame_ is composed of two side frames, of twelve narrow and
of two wide transoms. The former are strengthened at the ends by iron
straps, which are countersunk and perfectly smooth; all the edges of the
frame and transoms are well rounded to prevent chafing the canvas. The
wide transoms are of 10-inch by 1¹⁄₂-inch plank, provided with tenons to
fit the mortises in the frame. The narrow transoms are of 4-inch by
2¹⁄₂-inch scantling. The articles of each of the above classes are made
exactly alike, so that they may be interchanged. Two of the narrow
transoms are provided with an iron mooring becket.

The frame when assembled is held together by a rope passed through the
rings in the ends of the side frame, and tightened with a rack-stick.

The _ponton cover_ is of 0000 cotton duck, double-seamed, with the
border double for 1¹⁄₂ inches in width. The clew-line eyelets are of
metal. The lashings are of 1-inch rope 18 feet in length, and looped at
one end, and the cable used is of 3-inch Manilla rope, 30 fathoms long.

_Bridge Equipage._--The United States bridge equipage is composed of
reserve and of advance-guard trains. The former are intended to
accompany large bodies of troops in the field, and are provided with the
material necessary for the construction of bridges of sufficient
capacity to pass large armies with their heaviest trains over rivers of
any size and rapidity.

The advance-guard equipage is intended for the use of light troops, such
as advance-guards, cavalry expeditions, etc. It is organized, both as
regards material and carriages, with a view to rapidity of movement. At
the same time, it is capable of furnishing a bridge which will fulfill
all the requirements of troops engaged on such service.

_Organization._--The reserve equipage is divided into trains, each of
which is composed of four ponton divisions and one supply division. Each
division is accompanied by tool-wagon and traveling-forge.

Each _ponton division_ is complete in itself, containing all the
material necessary for constructing a bridge of eleven bays, or 225 feet
in length.

Each of these divisions is subdivided into four sections, two of which
are ponton and two abutment sections; the former contain three
ponton-wagons and one chess-wagon; the latter, one ponton-, one chess-,
and one trestle-wagon each.

The ponton section contains the material for three bays, and should
never be subdivided. The division may be increased or diminished at
pleasure, by the changing the number of its ponton sections.

The carriages are loaded as follows: Each ponton-wagon contains 1
ponton, 7 long balks, 1 anchor, 1 cable, 5 oars, 2 boat-hooks, 20
lashings, 6 rack-sticks, 1 scoop-shovel, 2 small scoops, 1 axe, 1
hatchet, 1 bucket, and 20 pounds of spun yarn.

Each trestle-wagon (identical with ponton-wagon) contains 7 long balks,
7 trestle balks, 1 trestle complete, 2 abutment sills, 2 coils of 3-inch
rope.

Each chess-wagon contains 60 chess.

The forge is identical with forge A furnished by the ordnance
department.

Each tool-wagon contains 50 axes, 20 shovels, 20 spades, 15 picks, 25
hatchets, 4 broad-axes, 4 adzes, 4 cross-cut saws, 12 augers (assorted),
2 crow-bars, 2 calking-irons, 12 tin lanterns, 2 monkey-wrenches, 1
sledge, 1 steel square, 1 grindstone, 1 spirit-level, 1 coil telegraph
wire, 1 coil 3-inch rope, 1 coil 1-inch rope, 1 coil spun yarn, 50
pounds iron (assorted), 25 pounds paint, 6 paint-brushes, 1 dozen chalk
lines, 1 pound red chalk, 4 pounds white chalk, 6 sail-needles, 1 palm,
6 balls twine, 50 pounds 6-inch spikes, 100 pounds 6-, 8-, 10- and
20-penny nails, 2 sets blocks and falls, 2 gross each of 1-, 2- and
5-inch screws, 1 roll canvas, 20 pounds calking cotton. Also 4 boxes of
carpenters’ and saddlers’ tools nearly identical with those furnished by
the ordnance department for battery-wagon C. If desirable, extra stores
to the amount of 500 pounds may be added to the load.

The _supply division_ is provided with articles necessary to replace
material lost or worn out, such as balk, chess, spare parts of
carriages, a few complete carriages, etc.

The carriages of this division consist of ponton-, chess-, and
tool-wagons, and of forges. Their number and proportion will be
determined by the nature of the country in which the army is operating,
and by the proximity of the main depot.

The ponton-wagon contains 17 long and 7 trestle balks. The chess-wagon,
60 chess. Tool-wagon No. 1 carries the same load as that attached to a
ponton division. Tool-wagon No. 2 contains 80 rack-collars; of 6-, 8-,
10-, and 20-penny nails, 2 kegs each; of 4- and 6-inch spikes, 2 kegs
each; of 1-, 2-, and 5-inch screws, 4 gross each; of 1- and 3-inch rope,
2 coils each.

The loads may be increased to the extent that circumstances will permit,
by adding spare parts of carriages.

The forges are of the patterns A and B issued by the ordnance
department.

_Advance-guard Equipage._--The trains of this equipage are composed of 4
ponton divisions, each of which consists of 8 ponton-, 2 chess-, and 2
trestle-wagons.

The load of the _ponton-wagon_ consists of 7 balks, 16 chess, 2 side
frames, 1 cable, 1 anchor, and a ponton-chest containing 1 ponton cover,
14 transoms, 5 paddles, 2 scoops, 2 mallets, 20 lashings, 2 boat-hooks,
1 scoop-shovel, and 8 rack-sticks.

The _chess-wagon_ contains 50 chess and 2 spare ponton covers.

The trestle-wagon carries 14 balks, 1 trestle complete, 1 abutment sill,
and 1 coil of 3-inch rope and 1 of 1-inch rope.

The forge is forge A of the ordnance department.

When necessary, this load may be reduced by transferring a part of the
tools and coal to a forage-wagon.

The ponton-wagon carries all the material necessary for constructing a
complete bay. The division may, therefore, be increased or diminished by
one or more ponton-wagons without disorganizing it. When a forced march
is to be made, and it is desirable to lighten the loads, the chess may
be removed from the ponton-wagons, the rope from the trestle-wagons, and
the load of the chess-wagons may be reduced to 40 chess. The number of
the latter wagons in this case must be increased to five.

The tool-wagon is loaded with the necessary tools, materials, etc.,
suitable to the advance-guard equipage.

There are four methods of constructing a ponton-bridge: by successive
pontons; by parts; by rafts; and by conversion.

_By Successive Pontons._--The location of the bridge having been
selected, the ponton-wagons are brought as near the river-bank as
practicable, with the rear of the carriage toward the stream. The
pontons are unlashed and slid from the wagon-bed into the water; cables
are attached to the anchors; one of the former is coiled in the bow of
each ponton with its anchor on the top, the flukes projecting over the
gunwale.

Those pontons which cast up-stream anchors are moored above the approach
to the bridge, and the others below.

A trench about 1 foot in width and depth is excavated to receive the
abutment sill; this should be laid horizontally, and exactly
perpendicular to the axis of the bridge; it is secured by four pickets,
two driven in front and two in rear, about 8 inches from each end. A
ponton is brought up opposite to the abutment, and close to the shore.
The ponton is then pushed off and adjusted in its place by means of
shore-lines, which are made fast to mooring-posts.

As soon as the first set of balks is laid, a chess is placed on edge in
the trench above mentioned, and in contact with the ends of the balks.
Its upper edge should be 1¹⁄₂ inches above the balks. Earth is rammed
behind it, crowding it firmly against the balks. The chess is then laid
on.

The ponton which has cast the first up-stream anchor, having dropped
down to the head of the bridge, is entered by the pontoniers. Five balks
are then brought up and delivered to the lashers in the second ponton,
which is pushed off; the shore ends of the balks are delivered to the
lashers in the first ponton, who place them on the down-stream side, and
in contact with those of the first set, their cleats against the outside
of the interior gunwale. They lash the balks firmly together and to the
lashing-hooks at both gunwales, and then step into the third ponton.

When a bay is covered with chess, the side-rails are laid. They are
placed directly over the outside balks, to which they are lashed at
three points,--at the middle and immediately over the axis of each
ponton, at which point the two side-rails and balks of two bays lap and
are all lashed together.

In constructing a ponton-bridge there are two points that require
particular attention: the anchorage, and the lashing; the men who are
intrusted with their execution should be selected from the most
intelligent and experienced pontoniers in the command.

_The Anchorage._--The distance of the anchor from the bridge should be
at least ten times the depth of the stream; with a less distance the
bows of the ponton would sink too deeply in the water.

The direction of the cable when made fast to the bridge must coincide
with that of the current,--_i.e._, a ponton in the bridge must have the
same position which it would assume if riding freely at anchor. It will
be remembered that the cable is not finally made fast to the ponton
which casts its anchor, but to the one following it in the bridge; and
due allowance must be made for this in selecting the place for casting
anchor.

The number of anchors required will depend somewhat on the strength of
the current. It is generally sufficient to cast an anchor up-stream for
every alternate ponton, and half that number down-stream; but where the
current is very rapid it may be necessary to anchor every up-stream
boat, especially near the middle of the bridge. The number of anchors
cannot be much diminished, however moderate the current, as the
anchorage has a very marked effect in checking the horizontal
oscillation to which bridges are subject when troops are marching over
them.

_The Lashings._--With respect to the lashings, the corresponding balks
of adjacent bays lap each other by 6 feet, and are lashed together and
to the gunwales at two points about 5 feet apart. Thus a strong splice
is formed, making five continuous beams running the entire length of the
bridge. The stability of the bridge is further increased by the manner
of placing and securing the side-rails.

_By Parts._--The abutment bay is formed as in the previous method. The
parts are constructed at suitable points along the shore above the
bridge, and for each is required the material for three bays. They are
constructed as follows:

A ponton is moored bow and stern close to the shore, and five chess are
temporarily laid from the bank to its interior gunwale, for the
convenience of the pontoniers during the construction of the part.

The other two pontons are brought up in succession, and two bays are
constructed in the ordinary manner, except that six chess are omitted
from the roadway at both ends. Twenty-six chess and seven balks are
loaded on the parts thus formed, which is then pushed off and conducted
to the line of up-stream anchors, where it casts its anchor and drops
down to its place in the bridge.

The first part is connected with the abutment bay by the pontoniers on
shore, who construct one length of bridge flooring in the usual manner,
to join the abutment ponton with the first ponton of the part.

The other parts are united as they come in position, by bays formed from
the balks and chess with which they are loaded.

The down-stream anchors are cast by separate pontons provided for the
purpose; and it may sometimes be necessary to cast the up-stream anchors
in the same way, as the parts are not easily managed in a rapid current.

When the current is moderate, the parts may be constructed below as well
as above the bridge.

_By Rafts._--The abutment bay is laid in the same manner as in the last
method, and the rafts differ from the parts only in having the roadway
completed,--that is, the six chess at each end are not omitted. The
rafts are not loaded with extra balks and chess, but are provided with
two false balks, 6 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 5 inches, and with four
rack-collars and wedges.

The rafts cast their up-stream anchors, and drop down to their places in
the bridge. The outer pontons of the adjacent rafts are in contact, and
are lashed together bow and stern by their mooring-posts. False balks
are laid over the side-rails of the two rafts at their junction; and two
rack-collars embrace each false balk, and the side-rails and balks under
them. These collars are placed on each side, and 2 feet from, the
junction of the side-rails. The wedges are driven between the false
balks and the tops of the collars.

_By Conversion._--The position of the bridge having been determined, and
the width of the stream accurately measured, a suitable place at some
distance above the position of the abutment is selected for the
construction of the bridge. This place may be at a considerable distance
from that which the bridge is to occupy; it is frequently on some
tributary of the stream to be bridged, out of sight of the enemy’s
shore.

The bridge is constructed parallel to the shore; side-rails are lashed
on all except the extreme bays. The balks, chess, etc., for the
abutment bay on the enemy’s side, are embarked on the next to the last
bay of the bridge; a ponton is lashed to the last ponton in the bridge;
this contains, in addition to the articles necessary for constructing
the abutment, two strong pickets. The up-stream anchors are deposited in
the bows of the boats on the wheeling flank, 10 or 15 yards of their
cables coiled, the remainder stretched along the bridge. Two strong
spring-lines are extended and lashed, the one over the bows, the other
over the sterns of all the pontons; these lines should be considerably
longer than the bridge, and the ends coiled on the platform. The bridge
is then allowed to float down to within 15 yards of the first abutment.

The material for the first abutment and bay is brought down in a ponton.
Two strong pickets are planted to receive the spring-lines and two to
receive the shore-lines, which are coiled on the platform between the
first and second pontons.

The wheeling flank is pushed off, and men are stationed in the bow and
stern of each ponton with oars and boat-hooks to increase or retard the
progress of their ponton, as may be necessary. A detachment is stationed
at the first abutment to manœuvre the spring-lines; another to prevent
the pivot flank from touching shore; a turn of the shore-line is also
taken around the mooring-post of the ponton, and this line is eased off,
as the case may require. The anchors are cast as the pontons in which
they are carried come in their proper places, and their cables are
shifted to the pontons to which they are to be attached. The progress of
the bridge is checked when it arrives opposite the abutments, which
should be constructed during the conversion of the bridge, if the force
be strong enough.

The down-stream anchors are cast by the spare pontons, as in the bridge
by successive pontons.

_Flying Bridge._--This term is applied to any floating support anchored
to a fixed point (usually in the stream), and driven from shore to shore
by the oblique action of the current on its sides.

Although these bridges do not afford a continuous communication, yet
they possess some decided advantages, viz.:

They are readily established, even over the most rapid streams.

They require but little material for their construction.

They may be worked by very few men.

They permit the passage of troops of all arms, and of the heaviest
carriages.

The entrance to and exit from them is easy.

They do not interrupt navigation; and they are not liable to be injured
by floating bodies which, either by accident or design, are carried
down-stream by the current.

The current should not be less than one yard per second.

_To Construct the Raft._--The raft is formed of six pontons. Two
pontons are lashed stern to stern, and to these a third, breaking
joints. A second set similar to the above are placed at a distance from
the first of 26 feet from set to set. The two sets are connected by six
balks over which four courses are lashed. Then fifteen balks in a manner
suitable for receiving chess. The extreme chess are nailed down, and the
outer courses secured by side-rails. The length of the cable should be
at least one and a half times the width of the river. One, two, or three
anchors are used, depending on the strength of the current. The cable is
supported by pontons. The boat nearest the anchor is the largest; the
distance between the boats should be such that the cable shall not touch
the water between the first boat and the raft; each boat is fitted with
a staging, composed of two short balks, and a supporting block, on which
the cable rests and to which it is lashed. The cable is also connected
with the bow of the boat by a line of such length that the boat is
allowed to turn just enough to keep parallel with the raft. After the
raft is attached to the cable it is passed from shore to shore once or
twice, using a stern veering-line if necessary, until the anchors are
firmly imbedded and the cable is stretched; the two abutments are then
constructed; these do not differ from the first bay of the ordinary
bridge.

The proper angle for the axis of the boat to make with the current is
about 55°. This angle is gradually increased on nearing the shore, until
the way of the raft is diminished sufficiently to prevent it from
striking the abutment with a shock.

_Trail Bridges._--When the river is not more than 150 yards wide, a
sheer-line may be used in place of the anchor and cable; the sheer-line
must be taut enough to keep above water.

If the banks are not high enough, the sheer-line should be elevated at
each shore by passing it over a frame formed by three poles, arranged
like an artillery gin. Upon this line a pulley is fixed, so that it can
run freely from shore to shore; through the eye of the pulley-block a
line is passed, one end of which is attached to the bow of the first,
and the other to the bow of the second, boat forming the raft. The raft
is manœuvred in the same manner as the flying bridge; or one end of a
line may be made fast to the running-block on the sheer-line, while the
other passes through a snatch-block near the stern of the raft on the
up-stream side; by hauling in or letting out this line the proper
direction is given to the raft.

_Rope-ferries._--The rope-ferry is used when the velocity of the current
is not sufficient to propel the raft. It consists of a raft or flat,
provided with a standard near each end on the up-stream side. These
standards are forked on top to receive the sheer-line, which is
stretched across the stream in the same manner as for the trail bridge.
The raft is propelled across the stream by men on its deck hauling on
the sheer-line.

_Prairie Raft._--It frequently occurs in the Western country that
expeditions, unaccompanied by regular ponton-trains, are compelled to
cross streams so situated that it is impossible to obtain timber or
other material suitable for the construction of rafts or bridges. Under
these circumstances, a raft may be constructed of two canvas pontons, by
means of which loaded wagons may readily be ferried over the stream. All
the material required for such a raft is easily carried in one
ponton-wagon. The construction is as follows: The wagon to be floated is
backed into the stream until the rear wheels stand in about one foot of
water. A canvas ponton is placed on each side of the wagon, parallel to
and one foot from it. A balk is placed against the tail-board of the
wagon, and resting upon the gunwales of the pontons. A second balk is
similarly placed against the front-board of the wagon. On each side of
the wagon a strong rope is made fast to the front balk, passed under the
axle-trees round the rear balk, and thence back to the starting-point,
where it is made fast. The raft and wagon are pushed into the stream,
and, as soon as the latter is clear of the bottom, the balks are lashed
to the gunwales of the pontons. A line is attached to the wagon-pole,
and coiled in the bow of one of the pontons. This raft may be conveyed
across the stream either by rowing, or in the manner of a trail bridge.
On approaching the opposite shore, it should be turned with the
wagon-pole toward the bank. As soon as the wagon grounds, the balks are
removed and the wagon is drawn on shore by means of the rope attached to
its pole. A single hinged canvas ponton, which is readily packed in an
ordinary quartermaster wagon, will suffice for the crossing, if the
wagons are unloaded and taken apart.

_Box Pontons._--In localities where plank and boards can be conveniently
procured, pontons may be constructed very expeditiously, by placing ten
partitions of 2-inch plank, each 5 feet long, and 2¹⁄₂ inches high, in
parallel positions, on the top and sides of which boards are nailed: the
box thus formed to be covered with pitched canvas, as described in the
mode of constructing crib pontons.

_Wagon-body Pontons._--Ordinary wagon-bodies, covered with pitched
canvas or india-rubber blankets, may be used either as boats or pontons.
The small capacity of the wagon-body requires such pontons to be placed
more closely to compensate for it.

=Ponton-train.= See PONTONS, BRIDGE EQUIPAGE.

=Pontus.= An ancient kingdom in the northeast of Asia Minor, which
derived its name from its being on the _Pontus Euxinus_ (Black Sea),
extending from the river Colchis in the east to the river Halys in the
west. In early times, its various parts were designated after the tribes
which inhabited them. The most important of those tribes are,--the
Leucosyri, Tibareni, Chalybes, Mosynœci, Heptacometæ, Drilæ, Bechires,
Byzeres, Colchi, Macrones, Mares, Taochi, and Phasiani. From the middle
of the 7th century B.C., many of those tribes inhabiting the coast rose
to great power and opulence, spreading Greek culture and civilization
around them; while many of those of the interior were extremely savage
and wild. According to tradition, it was conquered by Ninus, founder of
the Assyrian empire; and it was certainly under the Persian dominion
after the time of Cyrus the Great. In the reign of Artaxerxes II.,
Ariobarzanes conquered several of the Pontian tribes, and laid the
foundation of an independent kingdom. Mithridates II. succeeded him 337
B.C., who by availing himself of the disputes of the successors of
Alexander, considerably enlarged his dominions. Under Mithridates VI.,
from 120 to 63 B.C., the kingdom of Pontus rose to its highest dignity.
In his war with the Romans his kingdom was dismembered by Pompey in 65
B.C., who annexed the western part of the nation, and gave the remainder
to the native chiefs. In 63 A.D. Pontus was made a Roman province, and
in the changes which transpired under Constantine the province was
divided into two parts.

=Pontvalent.= A kind of light bridge, used in sieges, for surprising a
post or outwork which has but a narrow moat; a flying bridge.

=Poor Knights of Windsor.= See KNIGHTS, MILITARY.

=Port Royal.= In Beaufort Co., S. C., noted as one of the earliest
settlements made by the Spaniards within the present limits of the
United States, and for important events during the war of the Rebellion.

=Portable Forge.= A light and compact blacksmith’s forge, with bellows,
etc., that may be moved from place to place; used frequently in the
quartermaster’s department.

=Portate.= In heraldry, borne not erect, but athwart an escutcheon; as,
a portate cross.

=Portcullis.= Is an assemblage of several large pieces of wood, joined
across one another like a harrow, and each pointed with iron at the
bottom. They are sometimes suspended over the gateway of old fortified
towns and castles, ready to be let down in the case of surprise, when
the gates cannot be shut.

=Portcullis.= In heraldry, the portcullis is represented with rings at
its uppermost angles, from which chains depend on either side. It was a
badge of the Beaufort family, and borne in virtue of their Beaufort
descent by their Tudor sovereigns. Portcullis is the title of one of the
pursuviants belonging to the English College of Arms, whose office was
instituted by Henry VII.

=Port-fire.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Portfolio.= A portable case for keeping loose papers in. Hence, also,
the office and functions of a minister of state or member of the
cabinet; as, to receive the portfolio of war.

=Portglave.= An ancient name for a sword-bearer.

=Portland Isle.= An island off the coast of Dorset, England, which was
fortified before 1142.

=Porto= (or =Puerto=) =Bello=. A seaport town of South America, on the
north coast of the Isthmus of Darien.

=Porto Novo.= A seaport of British India, in the Presidency of Madras,
at the mouth of the Vellaur. It suffered severely in the wars of the
British government against Mysore, and fell into a state of decay. At
Porto Novo, Hyder Ali, with an immensely superior army, was totally
defeated by the British under Sir Eyre Coote in 1791.

=Porto Rico.= A Spanish possession, one of the group of West India
Islands called the Great Antilles. Porto Rico was invaded in 1509 by
Spaniards from Hayti, and the natives were soon exterminated by them.
Towards the end of the 17th century the island was captured by the
British, but was abandoned by them soon afterwards. In 1820 a revolution
took place in Porto Rico, which was finally put down in 1823.

=Portugal= (anc. _Lusitania_). A kingdom in the southwest of Europe,
forming the western part of the Spanish peninsula. After nine years’
struggle, under Viriathes, a brave and able leader, the Lusitanians
submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. In the 5th century the Suevi,
Vandals, and Visigoths became possessors of the country. In the
beginning of the 8th century Portugal shared the fate of Spain, and was
overrun by the Moors. After a long struggle, during which many battles
were fought, and many illustrious deeds achieved, the Portuguese
monarchy was formally established by the Cortes at Lamego in 1143, with
Alfonso I. (of the Burgundian house) as king. The immediate successors
of Alfonso I. were engaged in many severe struggles with the clergy, who
were always ready to combine against the sovereign; but on the whole,
the dignity of the kingdom was well maintained by the representatives of
this family, who are, moreover, distinguished as the promoters and
upholders of the maritime glory of Portugal. Alfonso, surnamed “the
Brave,” ascended the throne in 1325, and his reign was almost wholly
occupied in wars with the Castilians and the Moslems. With his grandson,
Ferdinand I., the legitimate branch of the Burgundian house became
extinct in 1383. During the reign of John II., the Azores, Madeira, Cape
de Verde, and other islands were seized. The discovery of Brazil and the
settlements made there and on the western coast of India increased the
maritime power and fame of Portugal, which were further extended under
John III., who ascended the throne in 1521, and during whose reign the
Inquisition was introduced. At this period Portugal ranked as one of the
most powerful monarchies in Europe. Sebastian (grandson of John III.),
urged by the Jesuits, entered upon a fatal expedition to Africa against
the infidels. The defeat of the Portuguese, and the capture and death of
their young king at the battle of Alcazar in 1578, and the extinction of
the old Burgundian line in 1580, plunged the country into difficulties
and misfortunes of every kind. Philip II. of Spain succeeded in securing
to himself the crown of Portugal, and annexing the Portuguese kingdom to
the Spanish monarchy. This event proved disastrous in the extreme to
Portugal, involving it in all the ruinous wars of Spain in the Low
Countries and in Germany, the greater part of the expenses of which it
bore; while the Dutch, in retaliation for Spanish aggression at home,
attacked the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, and almost completely
deprived them of their possessions in the Indian Archipelago. In 1640,
after a forced union of 160 years, Portugal was freed, by a bold and
successful conspiracy of the nobles, from all connection with Spain, and
the Duke de Braganza placed on the throne, under the title of John IV.
The war with Spain, which was the natural result of this act, terminated
in 1668, when by the treaty of Lisbon, the independence of Portugal was
formally recognized by the Spanish government. For the next hundred
years, Portugal vegetated in a state of inglorious apathy. It was
invaded by the French in 1807,--a measure which gave rise to the
Peninsular war. The victory of Vimeira, gained by the combined English
and Portuguese army in 1808, freed the land from its French assailants.
A revolution broke out in Lisbon in 1820. In 1832, Dom Pedro raised a
fleet and made a landing at Oporto. Admiral Napier in the mean while
operated on the coast of Algarve successfully in favor of the young
queen Doña Maria de Gloria, whose cause, by these victories and the
support of an alliance with the great powers, finally proved victorious.
Doña Maria made her entry into Lisbon in 1833; and in the following year
Dom Miguel (who had disputed the throne) signed the convention of Evora,
by which he renounced all pretensions to the throne. During the reign of
Doña Maria insurrections and counter-insurrections were of frequent
occurrence, the troops were not to be depended on in moments of
emergency; guerrilla bands scoured the country at will, and openly
defied the queen’s authority. An armed intervention of the great powers
in 1847 produced a partial abatement of the national disorders; but the
queen’s partiality for her unpopular ministers, Count Thomar and his
brother Cabral, led to the insurrection which, without bloodshed, made
the national idol, the Marquis de Saldanha, _de facto_ military dictator
of Portugal. The eldest son of the queen ascended the throne in 1853, as
Pedro V., under the regency of the king-consort his father. The latter
used his power discreetly, and the financial disorders were partially
adjusted, and since that period the general condition of the nation is
more promising.

=Positions, Military.= The sites occupied by armies, either for the
purpose of covering and defending certain tracts of country, or
preparatory to the commencement of offensive operations against an
enemy. A position is considered as advantageously chosen when it is on
elevated ground; when it is not commanded by eminences within the range
of artillery; and when, from the existence of natural obstacles, as
rivers or marshes, on the wings, it is incapable of being turned,--that
is, the enemy cannot, without making an extensive movement, get to the
rear of the army by which the position is occupied. In the event of such
points of support being wanting, the position, whether it be a plain or
an eminence, should have its flanks protected by villages, or by
redoubts raised for the purpose. A village, or even a single building,
on the ground occupied by the army, may become the key of the position;
and as, not unfrequently, on the preservation of this point depends the
field of battle, such point should be well supported by troops and
artillery. The highest point of ground, particularly if near the lines
of operation, may also constitute the key, and is usually strengthened
by one or more redoubts. Artillery should always be placed where it can
act with the most effect; and when the ground occupied by an army
presents alternately salient and retired points along the front of the
line, the batteries should be placed at such points. Infantry may occupy
any kind of ground, but should, if possible, always form a close line.
It is usually placed between the batteries; and if exposed to a distant
cannonade, the troops may be drawn up in a trench, the earth from which
will serve to cover them without preventing them from marching out in
line to meet the enemy. Cavalry must be posted on a level plain, over
which it may advance with regularity when a charge is to be made; if
compelled to act on broken ground, it is formed in small detachments
behind the infantry, through whose intervals it may pass at proper
opportunities. The power of readily appreciating the character of ground
for military purposes is what is called by foreign writers the military
_coup d’œil_; and this can only be acquired by a profound knowledge of
military tactics of war, joined to much experience in the practice of
executing military surveys, and of contemplating the appearance of
ground from all possible points of view.

=Posse Comitatus.= A sheriff or marshal, for the purpose of keeping the
peace and pursuing felons, may command all the people of his county
above fifteen years old to attend him, which is called the _posse
comitatus_, or “power of the county.”--_Blackstone._

=Possession.= To take possession, is the act of occupying any post,
camp, fortress, etc., which might facilitate the operations of an army,
or which previously belonged to the enemy.

=Post.= Any sort of ground, fortified or not, where a body of men can be
in a condition of resisting the enemy.

_Advance post_, a spot of ground seized by a party to secure their
front, and the post behind them.

_Post_ is also the walk or position of a sentinel.

=Post.= In the British service, a bugle-sound. The first post is the
bugling which precedes the tattoo; the last post that which follows it.
Also, the piece of ground to which a sentinel’s walk is limited; any
place or office assigned to a soldier or body of soldiers on duty.

=Post, Abandoning a.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 42.

=Post, Advantageous.= Every situation is so called which an enemy
occupies in such a manner that not only mere force of arms, but great
military skill, and many stratagems, are required to dislodge him.

=Post of Honor.= The advanced guard is a post of honor; the right of the
two lines is the post of honor, and is generally given to the eldest
corps; the left is the next post, and given to the next eldest, and so
on. But the laws of military discipline forbid an inconvenient
accordance with this practice, as the circumstances of the case may
require a very different arrangement, which it would be wanton to
oppose.

=Post, Sleeping Upon.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 39.

=Post, To.= In a military sense, means to station; as, to post a
sentinel. _To be posted_, in military tactics signifies to be formed
ready for action. Thus, when troops are brought up in column, and
ordered to deploy, it frequently happens that some part of the line is
refused, in order to flank an enemy, or to cover a weak position; the
part that is aligned is said to be posted. To be posted also means, in a
familiar sense, to be publicly announced as an infamous or degraded
character. Hence, to post a man as a coward is to stick his name up in a
conspicuous place, and to accuse him of want of spirit, etc.

=Postern=, or =Sally-port=. Is a passage usually vaulted, and
constructed under the rampart, to afford a communication from the
interior into the ditch. The passages from the covered way into the
country are likewise called sally-ports, as they afford free egress and
ingress to troops engaged in making a sally or sortie.

=Post-traders.= Traders are allowed in the American army at the rate of
one to each military camp or post, who have the exclusive privilege to
trade upon the military reserve to which they are appointed, and no
other person will be allowed to trade or sell goods by sample or
otherwise, within the limits of the reserve, except producers of fresh
fruit and vegetables, by permission of the post commander. Post-traders
are selected for the appointment by a council of administration,
consisting of the three senior officers, next to the commanding officer,
on duty at the post, and upon the recommendation of these officers,
approved by the post commander, are appointed by the Secretary of War.
The trader is authorized to keep on hand for sales to the troops,
articles of wholesome food, such clothing as soldiers may be permitted
to purchase, tobacco, blacking, etc., the prices to be regulated by the
council of administration. At remote military posts in the United
States, traders are authorized to keep on hand the necessary supplies
for sales to miners, settlers, and emigrants. See CANTEEN, and SUTLER.

=Pot.= The paper cylinder forming the head of a signal-rocket and
containing the decorations. To diminish the resistance of the air the
pot is surmounted by a paper cone.

=Pot, Stink-.= See STINK-POT.

=Potence= (_Fr._). Troops are ranged _en potence_ by breaking a straight
line, and throwing a certain proportion of it, either forward or
backward, from the right or left, according to circumstances, for the
purpose of securing that line. An army may be posted _en potence_ by
means of a village, a river, or a wood.

=Potent Counter-potent.= In heraldry, one of the heraldic furs, in which
the field is filled with crutch-shaped figures alternately of metal and
color, those of opposite tinctures being placed base against base, and
point against point. The metal and colors are understood to be argent
and azure, unless they be specifically blazoned otherwise. Potent
counter-potent is sometimes blazoned Vairycuppy.

=Potent, Cross.= In heraldry, a cross crutch-shaped at each extremity.
It is also called a Jerusalem cross, from its occurrence in the insignia
of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, which are, argent a cross potent
between four crosslets or. This coat is remarkable as being a departure
from the usual heraldic rule which prohibits the placing of metal upon
metal.

=Potentee.= A heraldic line of division which takes the form of the
outline of a succession of crutch-shaped figures.

=Potgun.= Formerly a short, wide cannon, formed like a pot.

=Potidæa.= A town in Macedonia, on the narrow isthmus of the peninsula
Pallene, was a strongly fortified place, and one of considerable
importance. It was a colony of the Corinthians, and was founded before
the Persian wars. It afterwards became tributary to Athens, and its
revolt from the latter city in 432 B.C. was one of the immediate causes
of the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by the Athenians in 429, after a
siege of more than two years, its inhabitants expelled, and their place
supplied by Athenian colonists. In 356 it was taken by Philip of
Macedon, who destroyed the city, and sold the inhabitants into slavery.
Cassander, however, built a new city on the same site, to which he gave
the name of _Cassandria_, and which he peopled with the remains of the
old population, and the inhabitants of the surrounding towns. It was
taken and plundered by the Huns, but was restored by Justinian.

=Potomac.= A river of the United States, formed by two branches, which
rise in the Alleghany Mountains, and unite 20 miles southeast of
Cumberland, Md., from which point the river flows in a generally
southeasterly course, 400 miles, and falls into Chesapeake Bay, where it
is 6 to 8 miles broad, 75 miles from the ocean. Line-of-battle ships
ascend to Washington, 120 miles from its mouth. The Potomac forms the
greater part of the boundary between Virginia and Maryland. During the
civil war, both Federal and Confederate armies crossed several times the
fords of the Upper Potomac, and severe actions were fought upon its
banks. The largest army of the Union was named after it.

=Pottawatomies.= A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly
occupied a great part of Michigan, where a few still remain. They fought
against the settlers in the Pontiac war, and against the Americans in
the war of the Revolution; and were allies of the British in the war of
1812, soon after which they removed to Kansas, where they now reside in
a partial state of civilization, only about 500 of what is known as the
Prairie band being located on a reservation.

=Pouch.= A case of strong leather, lined with tin divisions, for the
purpose of carrying a soldier’s ammunition. It is covered by a flap to
preserve the cartridges from wet. The leather cases containing primers,
lanyard, etc., in field and heavy artillery, and those containing a
gunner’s level, vent-punch, gimlet, etc., in heavy artillery, are also
called pouches.

=Pounder.= The term used in describing the force of a cannon employed in
firing solid shot; as, a 9-pounder field-gun, a 300-pounder Armstrong,
etc.

=Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Powder-cart.= A two-wheeled carriage covered with an angular roof of
boards. To prevent the powder from getting damp, a tarred canvas is put
over the roof; and on each side are lockers to hold shot, in proportion
to the quantity of powder.

=Powdered=, or =Semée=. In heraldry, strewn with an indefinite number of
small charges.

=Powder-magazine.= See MAGAZINE.

=Powder-measure.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Powder-mill.= See MILL, GUNPOWDER-.

=Power.= In military affairs as well as in all others, is knowledge--of
human passions--of arms--of distance--of the skill and numbers of an
enemy. To be in the _power_ of an enemy, is to have taken up,
injudiciously, such a position as to expose you to a defeat whenever the
enemy may think proper to attack you.

=Powerful.= Full of power; capable of producing great effects of any
kind; as, a powerful army or navy.

=Powldron.= In heraldry, that part of armor which covers the shoulders.

=Powwow.= A priest or conjurer among the North American Indians. Also
conjurations performed for the cure of diseases and other purposes,
attended with great noise and confusion, and often with dancing.

=Poynado.= A poniard was formerly so called.

=Pozzuoli.= A city of Southern Italy, at the east of the Bay of Naples.
It is first mentioned in history during the second Punic war, when it
was surrounded by strong walls. In 214 B.C. it repulsed Hannibal, and
subsequently became a place of importance. It was destroyed by Alaric,
Genseric, and Totila. It was afterwards rebuilt by the Byzantine Greeks,
but being exposed to new devastations, to earthquakes, and volcanic
eruptions, it sank into decay.

=Practicable.= A word frequently used in military matters to express the
possible accomplishment of any object. Hence, a practicable breach.

=Practice, To.= In a military sense, to go through the manual and
platoon exercises, or through the various manœuvres, etc., for the
purpose of becoming thoroughly master of military movements. Practice is
likewise used to signify the act of effecting or executing any military
operation.

=Præliares.= Among the Romans, fighting days, on which they thought it
lawful to engage in acts of hostility; for during the time of some
particular feasts, they reckoned it a piece of impiety to raise, march,
or exercise men for war, or to encounter the enemy, unless first
attacked.

=Prætorians.= Was, during the Roman republic, a select cohort that
attended the prætor or commander of an army. They frequently decided the
fate of battles. After the overthrow of the republic, Augustus formed
them into nine cohorts, and fixed their station in the capital as
body-guards. They became, in short, under the emperors, what “the
guards” are to the monarchies of Europe. They, in addition to their
military duties, frequently had the charge of state prisoners, and often
acted the part of executioners. They were all picked men, chosen for the
most part from Italy. Their power increased greatly under the empire
until they frequently determined the fate of an emperor. Diocletian
reduced their number, and Constantine disbanded them.

=Prætorium.= See PRETORIUM.

=Praga.= A town of Poland, on the Vistula, opposite to Warsaw, with
which it communicates by a bridge of boats. In 1794 the Polish
insurgents took refuge here, and it was stormed by Suwarrow, and given
up to pillage and massacre, when about 20,000 were slain. In 1830 the
Grand Duke Constantine of Russia was forced to retreat from this town
with his troops, at the beginning of the Polish revolution in that year,
which unfortunately proved unsuccessful.

=Prague.= A city of Austria, the capital of Bohemia, situated on the
Moldau. Prague was conquered and almost destroyed by the Hussites in
1424; but after the subsequent defeat and submission of the Hussites,
the city was rebuilt. In the Thirty Years’ War it suffered severely, and
in 1620 the battle was fought at the White Mountain, near the city, in
which Frederick V. (the “Winter King”), son-in-law of James I. of
England, was completely defeated, and compelled to renounce his assumed
crown, and to give up the town into the power of the emperor of Austria.
Swedes and Imperialists successively gained possession of it during the
war; and a century later, during the Seven Years’ War, it again fell
into the hands of different victors, being compelled, in 1744, to
capitulate to Frederick the Great of Prussia; but he was obliged to
abandon it the same year. In 1757 the king of Prussia again besieged it,
but his efforts to reduce it proved ineffectual. In 1848 it was
bombarded, the inhabitants having risen against the Austrian government,
when great cruelties were perpetrated by the Austrian troops. A treaty
of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague, August 23,
1866.

=Praguerie, War of= (so named from Prague, then celebrated for its civil
disorders). Was the name given to the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards
Louis XI., against his father, Charles VII., aided by Alexander, the
bastard, of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was soon quelled; Louis was
exiled, and Alexander put to death by drowning, July, 1440.

=Prairie Raft.= See PONTONS.

=Prairie-carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Prance.= To spring or bound, as a horse in high mettle. To walk or
strut about in a showy manner, or with warlike parade.

=Precedence.= Priority in rank or precedence in military life, is
regulated by the date of an officer’s commission, or the standing in the
corps to which he may belong.

=Precedent.= Any act which can be interpreted into an example for future
times, is called a precedent. Persons in high office are extremely
scrupulous with respect to precedents, especially in military matters.

=Precision.= Exact limitation, scrupulous observance of certain given
rules.

=Predal=, or =Predatory War=. A war carried on by plunder and rapine.

=Prefect= (Lat. _præfectus_). A Roman officer who was over, or who
superintended, a particular command, charge, department, and the like.
Of this class there were several, as the prefect of a camp, of a fleet,
of the city guards, etc.

=Prefect Pretorian.= In Roman antiquity, was the commander of the
pretorian guards.

=Preferment.= The state of being advanced to a higher post.

=Prejudice.= An opinion or decision of mind formed without due
examination; prejudgment; a bias or leaning toward one side or the other
of a question from other considerations than those belonging to it; an
unreasonable predilection or prepossession for or against anything;
especially, an opinion or leaning adverse to anything formed without
proper grounds, or before suitable knowledge.

=Prejudicial to Military Discipline, Conduct.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF
WAR, 62.

=Prenzlow.= A town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, 71 miles
north-northeast from Berlin. Here, in October, 1806, a body of
Prussians, 10,000 strong, under the Prince of Hohenlohe, surrendered,
after the defeat of Jena, to the French under Murat.

=Prepare for Action.= A word of command used in the artillery.

=Preponderance.= In gunnery, is the excess of weight of the part in rear
of the trunnions over that in front; it is measured by the lifting force
in pounds, which must be applied at the rear of the base-ring, at the
base-line, or at the bottom of the ratchet, to balance the piece when
suspended freely on the axis of the trunnions. Preponderance was given
to prevent the sudden dipping of the muzzle, in firing, and violent
concussion on the carriage at the breech. Most of the heavy pieces of
the late models have no preponderance, the axis of the trunnions
intersecting the axis of the piece, at the centre of gravity.

=Presburg.= A town of Hungary, situated on the Danube, 36 miles east
from Vienna. This town was once the capital of Hungary, and the emperors
of Austria are still crowned here as kings of Hungary. It is noted for
the treaty concluded there between France and Austria in 1805, when the
Tyrol was given to Bavaria, and Venice to the French.

=Prescott= (Upper Canada). On November 17, 1838, the Canadian rebels
were attacked by the British under Maj. Young, and (on the 18th) by
Lieut.-Col. Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, several of whom were
killed, and many taken prisoners, the remainder surrendering. The troops
also suffered considerably.

=Presence of Mind.= Ready conceptions of expedient, producing
promptitude of action under difficult and alarming circumstances. A
quality indispensable in a general.

=Present.= In the British service, means to level; to aim; to bring the
musket to a horizontal position, the butt resting against the right
shoulder for the purpose of discharging its contents at a given object.

=Present.= To offer openly; to exhibit; to give in ceremony; as, to
present the colors.

=Present Arms, To.= In tactics is to bring the musket to a certain
prescribed position, for the purpose of paying a military compliment.

=Preservation of Cannon and Ammunition.= See LACKER.

=President.= The President of the United States is commander-in-chief of
the army, navy, and militia, called into service. His functions as such
are assigned by Congress, but embrace of course whatever authority may
be assigned to any military commander, on the principle that the
authority of the greater includes that of the less. For the command,
government, and regulation of the army, however, Congress has created a
military hierarchy or range of subordination in the army with rights and
duties regulated by Congress, and the commander-in-chief cannot make use
of any other agents in exercising his command; and all orders issued by
him must be according to the rules and articles made by Congress for the
government of the army. In his capacity of chief magistrate of the
Union, Congress has also invested the President with many administrative
functions relating to military affairs; and for the performance of the
latter duties the secretary of the department of war has been made his
minister, upon matters connected with _matériel_, accounts, returns, the
support of troops, and the raising of troops.

=President.= The president of a court-martial is the senior member. He
preserves order in court; administers the oath taken by the
judge-advocate, and the proceedings of the court are authenticated by
his signature and that of the judge-advocate.

=Presidio= (_Sp._). A place of defense; a garrison or guard-house.

=Pressure-gauge.= Called also _pressure-plug_. An apparatus invented by
Gen. Rodman for measuring the pressure exerted by the gases of exploded
powder. It consists essentially of a steel plunger, on the head of which
the pressure is exerted. The other end of the plunger is widened out
into two cutting edges which meet at an obtuse angle. This point rests
on a disk of copper, into which the cutter is driven by the pressure.
The pressure is deduced from the length of the cut. Two forms of the
instrument are used,--one is placed in a hole bored through the side of
the gun. The other is complete in itself and is placed at the bottom of
the cartridge-bag. Lieut. Metcalfe’s (U. S. Ordnance Corps) modification
of the pressure-gauge has a cutter with a helicoidal edge. To measure
the cut he uses a circular scale with a hole in the centre (in which the
inducted copper is placed), and a radial arm to show the extent of the
spiral cut. The English modification of Rodman’s instrument is called
the _crusher-gauge_,--a short cylinder of copper is substituted for the
disk,--the reduction in its length gives a measure of the pressure. The
crusher-gauge is frequently attached to the base of the shot. A similar
modification is used to test the power of the high explosives, such as
dynamite, dualin, etc. A lead cylinder is crushed in this case. A very
small charge is used. The reaction is obtained by placing a heavy
cylindrical shot over the charge, which rests directly in a cavity on
the top of the plunger.

=Preston.= A town of England, in Lancashire, on the north bank of the
Ribble. This town was partially destroyed by Bruce in 1322; and after
declaring for the king, it was taken by the forces of the Parliament
under Gen. Fairfax. Here also ended the ill-fated Jacobite rising of
1715, when, after a brave resistance, the insurgents were compelled to
surrender.

=Prestonpans.= A village of Haddingtonshire, 8 miles east of Edinburgh.
In the vicinity, on September 21, 1745, was fought the famous battle of
Prestonpans, between the royal troops under Sir John Cope and the
Jacobites under Prince Charles, in which the latter, with a loss of only
about 10 officers and 120 men in killed and wounded, routed the royal
forces with great slaughter, and captured their cannon, baggage, and
military chest.

=Pretence, Escutcheon of=, or =Escutcheon Surtout=. In heraldry, a small
shield placed in the centre of the field of another shield. The husband
of an heiress may bear the arms of his wife in an escutcheon of
pretence, instead of impaling them. Feudal arms are also sometimes
placed on an escutcheon of pretence, particularly in the insignia of
elective sovereigns, who have been in use of bearing their own proper
arms in surtout over those of the dominions to which they are entitled.

=Pretorian.= Appertaining to pretor; also the general’s guard among the
ancient Romans.

=Pretorium.= The hall or court where the pretor lived and administered
justice. It also denoted the tent of the Roman general, in which
councils of war were held. The place where the pretorian guards were
quartered or lodged, was likewise called pretorium.

=Prevesa.= A fortified town of European Turkey, in Albania, on the north
shore of the Gulf of Arta, 58 miles south-southwest of Yanina. Prevesa
belonged to the Venetians from 1684 until the fall of that republic in
1797. It was then held by the French for a time, but was afterwards
taken by the Turks.

=Prey.= Anything, as goods, etc., taken by force from an enemy in war;
spoil; booty; plunder.

=Pricker.= A light horseman was formerly so called.

=Pricker.= A priming-wire (which see).

=Pride.= In heraldry, a peacock or other bird, when the tail is spread
out in a circular form, and the wings drooped, is said to be “in his
pride.”

=Priest-cap.= In fortification, a work so named from its shape; called
also _swallow-tail_. See REDAN.

=Prime.= To charge with the powder, percussion-cap, or other device for
communicating fire to the charge, as a fire-arm.

=Primer.= A wafer, cap, tube, or other device for communicating fire to
the charge of powder in a cannon. The cap or tube usually contains a
friction- or percussion-powder. The _friction-primer_ is generally used
in the land service. (See FRICTION-PRIMER.) For service on shipboard, a
quill filled with rifle-powder, having on the top a capsule of fulminate
of mercury, is generally employed. The capsule is exploded by a blow
from the lock-hammer. The _tape-primer_, used sometimes in blasting, is
formed of long, flexible strips of paper or fabric containing fulminate
or other quick-burning substance. The _electric primer_ is used to fire
simultaneous discharges, both in ordnance and blasting. In firing wet
gun-cotton, the small charge of dry gun-cotton used in conjunction with
the _detonating exploder_ is called a _primer_. In _small-arms_ the term
is specially applied, at the present time, to the percussion-caps used
in reloading metallic cartridge-cases. The cap is set in a recess in the
head of the shell. When the firing-pin strikes the outside end of the
cap, the fulminate is exploded by being driven against a perforated cone
called the _anvil_. This _anvil_ is usually a part of the shell. In the
_Winchester primer_, recently invented, the anvil is a part of the
primer itself, being inserted upon the fulminate. A shoulder in the
recess holds the anvil when the cap is struck.

=Priming.= The powder, percussion-cap, or other device used to
communicate fire to the charge in a fire-arm.

=Priming-tubes.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Priming-wire.= A pointed wire, used to penetrate the vent of a piece,
for examining the powder of the charge, or for piercing the cartridge.

=Primipilarii=, =Primopilarii=, or =Primipilares=. Among the Romans,
were such as had formerly borne the office of primipulus of a legion.
The banner was intrusted to his care. Among other privileges which the
primipilarii enjoyed, they became heirs to what little property was left
by the soldiers who died in the campaign.

=Primipilus.= The centurion belonging to the first cohort of a legion.
He had charge of the Roman eagle.

=Princeton.= A town of Mercer Co., N. J., about 40 miles northeast of
Philadelphia. This place was the scene of an important engagement during
the Revolutionary struggle, although the numbers engaged were
comparatively small. On hearing of the English reverse at Trenton (which
see), Gen. Howe immediately ordered Cornwallis, who was in New York, to
proceed with his forces to Princeton. Leaving a part of his troops at
this place, he proceeded towards Trenton with the intention of giving
battle to the Americans, and arrived with his vanguard on January 1,
1777. Washington, learning that only three regiments were left at
Princeton, by a circuitous night march arrived there by daybreak of
January 3, surprised and completely routed the enemy with a loss of 200
killed and wounded, and as many prisoners. The American loss did not
exceed 30. This event greatly aroused the drooping spirits of the
colonists, who had been previously disheartened by a series of reverses.

=Principes.= In the Roman armies, were the infantry, who formed the
second line in the order of battle. They were armed like the _hastati_,
with this difference, that the former had half-pikes instead of whole
ones.

=Principles, Military.= The basis or ground-work upon which every
military movement is made, and by which every operation is conducted.

=Prismatic Compass.= A surveying instrument, much used on account of its
convenient size and form in military sketching, and for filling up the
details of a map where great accuracy is not required.

=Prismatic Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Prisoners.= Are persons under arrest or in custody, whether in prison
or not. Whenever any officer is charged with a crime, he is to be
arrested and deprived of his sword by the commanding officer; and
soldiers charged with crimes are to be confined until tried by a
court-martial, or released by proper authority. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES
OF WAR, 65 and 66.) When brought into court, a prisoner should
be without irons, or any manner of shackles or bands, unless
there is danger of an escape, and then he may be secured with
irons.--_Blackstone._

=Prisoners of War.= Are soldiers captured during an engagement, siege,
or continuance of hostilities, who are deprived of their liberty until
regularly exchanged.

=Prisons, Military.= Are buildings constructed for the retention of
prisoners of war, or for the safe-keeping and punishment of offenders
against military law. Sometimes during war forts and other strong
buildings are utilized for these purposes. The following were noted
prisons during the civil war, 1861-65, for the retention of Federal
prisoners of war:

_Andersonville_ (which see).

_Belle Isle._--An island in the James River near the city of Richmond,
Va. The unfortunate prisoners taken were placed on this island without
shelter of any kind to protect them from the scorching rays of the sun
during the day or the chilly cold mists of the night, until death or
exchange released them from their sufferings.

_Castle Thunder._--A fort in Charleston harbor, S. C., which was used
for the same purpose.

_Libby._--An old tobacco warehouse in Richmond, Va., which was
temporarily converted into a military prison; and for cruelty and
torture to the Union prisoners this place was second only to
Andersonville.

_Salisbury._--A town in North Carolina, which had another depot for
prisoners.

There were also prisons established for the retention of Confederate
prisoners at Camp Douglas, Chicago, Camp Chase, Ohio, Elmira, N. Y.,
Point Lookout, Md., and Rock Island, Ill.

At _Fort Leavenworth_, Kansas, a permanent military prison was
established in accordance with an act of Congress passed March 3, 1873,
in which soldiers of the U. S. army are confined for serious offenses
against military law.

At _Dartmoor_, a desolate region in England, a prison was constructed in
1809 for the confinement of French prisoners of war which deserves a
passing notice, inasmuch as Americans were confined there during the war
of 1812. It comprised 30 acres, inclosed with double walls, with seven
distinct prison-houses with inclosures. In 1812 there were 6000 American
prisoners of war within its walls who were treated with much cruelty,
and, in consequence of the appearance of mutinous intentions of some of
the prisoners on account of the tardiness of the English officials in
releasing them after the treaty of peace was ratified, they were fired
upon by the English soldiers, which resulted in the killing of 5 and
wounding of 33 prisoners. This act was regarded in America as a wanton
massacre.

=Privas.= A town of France, capital of the department of Ardèche, 26
miles southwest from Valence. In the civil wars of the 16th and 17th
centuries in France, Privas, which was then a strongly-fortified town,
played a conspicuous part, being always favorable to the Protestant
party. In 1629 it was bravely defended by a small garrison under St.
André de Montbrun against Louis XIII., but after a siege of two months
had to be abandoned. Montbrun being soon afterwards taken was hanged,
and the fortifications of Privas were leveled to the ground.

=Private.= The title applied in the British army to a common soldier of
the cavalry and infantry; the corresponding rank in the artillery being
gunner or driver, and in the engineers, the sapper. A private in the
cavalry is sometimes called a trooper. In the U. S. army all the
soldiers who are below the grade of non-commissioned officers are called
privates.

=Privy-coat.= A light coat or defense of mail, concealed under the
ordinary dress.

=Prize.= That which is taken from another; a thing seized by force,
stratagem, or superior power. Hence, specifically, anything captured by
a belligerent using the right of war.

=Prize.= The application of a lever to move any weighty body, as a cask,
cannon, or the like.

=Prize Agent.= In the British service, a person appointed for the
distribution of such shares of money as may become due to officers and
soldiers after battle, siege, or capture.

=Prize-bolt.= A manœuvring-bolt of a mortar-bed.

=Prize-money.= The proportion which is paid to the troops who are
present at the capture or surrender of a place, etc., which yields
booty.

=Prizing.= The same as _prize_, which see.

=Proclamation.= The act of publishing abroad; conspicuous announcements;
official or general notice; publication; that which is put forth by way
of public notice; an official public announcement or declaration; a
published ordinance; as, the proclamation of a king. A proclamation may
be issued to declare the intention of the head of a government to
exercise some prerogative or enforce some law which has for a long time
been dormant or suspended. In time of war, the head of the government by
a proclamation may lay an embargo on shipping, and order the ports to be
shut. But the most usual class of proclamations are admonitory notices
for the prevention of offenses, consisting of formal declarations of
existing laws and penalties, and of the intention to enforce them.
Proclamations are only binding when they do not contradict existing
laws, or tend to establish new ones, but only enforce the execution of
those which are already in being, in such manner as the head of the
government judges necessary.

=Proconsul.= In Roman antiquity, an officer who discharged the duties of
a consul without being himself consul; a governor of a province, or a
military commander under a governor. He was usually one who had
previously been consul, and his power was nearly equal to that of a
regular consul.

=Prodd.= A cross-bow, used for throwing bullets in ancient times.

=Profile.= A section of a parapet or other work in fortification.

=Projectile.= A body projected or impelled forward by force, especially
through the air. In a limited military sense the term is applied to a
body intended to be projected from a cannon by the force of gunpowder,
or other explosive agent, to reach, strike, pass through, or destroy a
distant object. The materials of which projectiles are usually composed
are lead, wrought or cast iron, each possessing advantages according to
the circumstances under which they are fired. But the material which
combines in a greater degree than any other the essential qualities of
hardness, strength, density, and cheapness, is cast iron, which is
exclusively used in the U. S. service for large projectiles. Compound
projectiles are sometimes made, so as to combine the good and correct
the bad qualities of different metals. To obviate the serious results
that may arise from the wedging of the flanges of a cast-iron projectile
in the grooves of a rifle-cannon, it is frequently covered with a
coating of lead or other soft metal. Cast and wrought iron have also
been combined with success, and also cast iron and soft metal in such a
manner as to attain the strength of one metal and the softness and
expansibility of the other. Other metals, such as brass, are also used
in projectiles of special construction. Projectiles are generally
classified, according to their form, into spherical, or smooth-bore, and
oblong, or rifle projectiles.

_Spherical Projectiles_ are fired mainly from smooth-bore guns. They are
solid shot, shells, spherical case or shrapnel, grape, canister,
carcasses, grenades, light- and fire-balls. The advantages which they
possess over the oblong are their uniformity of resistance to the air,
presenting the least extent of surface for a given weight, the
coincidence of their centres of form and inertia; they are less liable
to wedge in the bore, as they touch the surface at only one point; and
they are best adapted for rolling and ricochet fire on account of the
regularity of their rebounds. Solid shot are usually made of cast iron,
and are designated by the diameter of the bore of the piece in which
they are to be used, or by their weight. Shells are cast with a core of
sand (greater or less according to the thickness required), which is
afterwards removed. The mortar-shell has the thinnest walls, and
contains the greatest bursting charge for the same caliber; the
gun-shell is thicker, and the battering-shell is nearly as strong as the
solid shot. Shells are usually designated by the weight of the solid
shot of the same diameter.

_Oblong Projectiles_ are fired principally from rifled pieces, and have
been adopted on account of the increase of range and accuracy which can
be obtained with them. For this purpose it is necessary that the
projectile should move through the air in the direction of its length.
Though experience would seem to show that the only sure method of
effecting this is to give it a rapid rotary motion round its axis by the
grooves of the rifle, numerous trials have been and are now being made
to produce the same effect with smooth-bored guns. One of the simplest
plans for this purpose is to place the centre of gravity or inertia in
advance of the centre of figure. Another is to make the projectile very
long, with its rear portion of wood, and its point of lead or iron,
somewhat after the manner of an arrow; but these plans do not seem to be
of much practical utility. The system by which the desired result is
obtained with the greatest certainty is the rifle system.

_Rifle System._--Spiral grooves are cut into the bore of the piece, or
it is ribbed with spiral bands, and the projectile is so formed or
prepared as to follow them as it passes along the bore of the piece. The
principal question which now occupies the attention of those engaged in
improving this species of cannon is to obtain the safest and surest
means of effecting this object. Various plans have been tried to obtain
the proposed object; nearly all may be ranged under the following heads:

1. _The Flanged System._--This comprises all projectiles which have
certain flanges or projections to fit into the grooves of the gun in
loading. These are usually deep and few in number, rounded at their
bottom edges so as to cause the flanges or studs to pass up the
inclined side when rotation is imparted. This is the system at present
adopted in England. Though this plan affords a certain means of
communicating the rifle motion, it has not always been found a safe one,
probably from the wedging of the flanges in the grooves. Besides, the
dirt from the burning of the powder collects in the grooves; and as it
is difficult to clean them by the usual means, the projectile is liable
to meet with obstruction in loading. To obviate these difficulties, the
flanges are sometimes made of softer metal than the body of the
projectile. Guns for flanged or studded projectiles usually have from 3
to 9 grooves, 0.15 to 0.25 inch deep.

2. _The Compressive System._--By this system the projectile is forced by
the action of the powder through the bore of a piece whose diameter
without the grooves is less than the diameter of the projectile. Such
are the projectiles for the breech-loading Krupp and Broadwell guns.
These usually consist of cast iron or steel, and are covered with a
coating of lead or other soft metal having horizontal ribs or
corrugations, which is secured by a chemical solder, or cast into
undercuts in the body of the shot. As the projectile is forced through
the bore, an impression of the rifling is cut out of the ribs, the lead
thus displaced finding room in the grooves between. This system has been
found to work satisfactorily in breech-loading guns. The rifling should
be shallow and consist of numerous grooves, slightly narrowing towards
the muzzle. Large guns usually have from 20 to 76, from .05 to .08 inch
deep. Experiments are now being made, with prospects of success, to
substitute bands of soft copper encircling the projectile for the lead
coating.

3. _The Expansive System._--This system has been so exclusively used in
the United States that it has frequently been called the American
system. It embraces all projectiles which are loaded without regard to
the rifling, but which are fitted with an expanding portion of some
softer metal, as pewter, copper, wrought iron, or _papier-maché_, which
is forced into the grooves by the discharge. This system requires for
its rifling fewer grooves than the compressive, but a somewhat greater
number than the flanged system. Among the projectiles of this class used
during the civil war were the Blakely, Dyer, Hotchkiss, James, Parrott,
Reed, Schenkle, and Stafford. The principal objections to an expanding
or compound projectile are its want of strength to resist a charge of
powder proportionately as large as that employed for a simple
projectile, and the danger of its breaking and wedging in the bore of
the piece. Of late years, however, marked improvements have been made,
and projectiles of this class can now be safely fired with double their
former charges. The large projectiles of this description now used in
the United States consist of the usual cast-iron body having a sabot,
or ring of brass or copper either cast or screwed to its base. This ring
is divided into an upper and lower flange or lip by an annular groove.
When the gun is fired, the gases enter this groove, forcing the lower
flange down upon the projectile and the upper or outer into the rifling
of the gun, where it is kept during its passage through the bore.

_Armstrong Projectile._--But one kind of projectile is used in the
Armstrong breech-loading guns for the field service, and this is so
constructed as to act as a shot, shell, or case-shot at pleasure. It
consists of a very thin cast-iron shell, inclosing 42 segment-shaped
pieces of cast iron built up so as to form a cylindrical cavity in the
centre, which contains the bursting charge and the concussion-fuze. The
exterior of the shell is thinly coated with lead, which is applied by
placing the shell in a mold and pouring it in a melted state. The lead
is also allowed to percolate among the segments, so as to fill up the
interstices, the central cavity being kept open by the insertion of a
steel core. In this state the projectile is so compact that it may be
fired without injury, while its resistance to a bursting charge is so
small that less than one ounce of powder is required to burst it. When
the projectile is to be tired as a shot, it requires no preparation; but
the expediency of using it otherwise than as a shell is doubted. To make
it available as a shell, the bursting tube, the concussion- and
time-fuzes, are all to be inserted; the bursting tube entering first and
the time-fuze being screwed in at the apex. If the time-fuze be
correctly adjusted, the shell will burst when it reaches within a few
yards of the object; or failing in this, it will burst by the
concussion-fuze when it strikes the object, or grazes the ground near
it. If it be required to act as a canister-shot upon an enemy close to
the gun, the regulation of the time-fuze must be turned to the zero of
the scale, and then the shell will burst on leaving the gun. The
Armstrong projectiles for the muzzle-loading guns have rows of brass or
copper studs projecting from their sides to tit into the grooves of the
gun, which are constructed on the _shunt_ principle. The projectile is
made of wrought iron, or low steel, with very thick sides. There is no
fuze, the explosion resulting from the heat generated by the impact, and
the crushing in of the thin cap which closes the mouth of the
powder-chamber. The sides and bottom of the shell being thick enough to
resist crushing by the impact, and also to resist the explosive force of
the bursting charge, its effect will, after penetration, be expended on
the backing of the armor, or the decks which the armor is intended to
screen. Such projectiles are called “blind shells.”

_Blakely Projectile._--Capt. Blakely’s projectile has an expanding cap
attached to its base by means of a single tap-bolt in the centre. It is
prevented from turning by radial grooves cast on the surface of the
bottom of the projectile, into which the cup is pressed by the charge.
The angle between the curved sides of the cup and the bottom of the
projectile is filled with a lubricating material. On the forward part of
the body are soft metal studs, more numerous than the grooves of the
bore of the piece, that some of them may always form a bearing surface
for the projectile against the lands. The driving sides of the grooves
are deeper than the others.

_Dyer Projectile._--The Dyer projectile is composed of a cast-iron body,
and a soft metal expanding cup, attached to its base. The adhesion of
the cup is effected by tinning the bottom of the projectile, and then
casting the cup on to it. The cup is composed of an alloy of lead, tin,
and copper, in certain proportions. This projectile, as improved by Mr.
Taylor at the Washington Arsenal, gives good results for even as large a
caliber as 12 inches.

_French Projectile._--The projectile used in the French field service is
made of cast iron, and has 12 zinc studs on its sides, arranged in
pairs, so as to fit the 6 grooves of the gun. For the larger cannon
projectiles, but 3 studs are used, and these are cast on the projectile,
nearly opposite to its centre of gravity; the bearing sides of the studs
are faced with white metal to diminish friction against the grooves of
the bore. The shape of the grooves is such as to centre the projectile.
The latter projectile is used with increasing, the former with grooves
of uniform twist. Russian, Austrian, and Spanish artillery projectiles
belong to the studded, or button class, but differ from each other in
the details of their construction.

_Hotchkiss Projectile._--The Hotchkiss projectile is composed of three
parts: the body, the expanding ring of lead, and the cast-iron cup. The
action of the charge is to crowd the cup against the soft metal ring,
thereby expanding it into the rifling of the gun. The time-fuze
projectile has deep longitudinal grooves cut on its sides to allow the
flame to pass over and ignite the fuze. The last rifle projectile
submitted by Mr. Hotchkiss has an expanding cup of brass attached to its
base in a peculiar manner. The cup is divided into four parts by thin
projections on the base of the projectile. This arrangement is intended
to facilitate the expansion of the cup and to allow the flame to pass
over to ignite the fuze.

_James Projectile._--The expanding part of the James projectile consists
of a hollow formed in the base of the projectile, and eight radial
openings, which extend from this hollow to the surface for the passage
of the flame of the charge, which presses against and expands into the
grooves of the bore, an envelope or patch, composed of paper, canvas,
and lead. In a later pattern of this projectile, the internal cavity and
radial openings are omitted, and the outside is furrowed with
longitudinal grooves which increase in depth towards the base of the
projectile, forming inclined planes, up which the outer covering of lead
and canvas is moved by the force of the charge and expanded into the
rifling of the piece.

The first projectile used in Parrott guns was invented by Dr. Reed of
Alabama, in 1856 or 1857, and was made at Parrott’s foundry. It
consisted of a soft wrought-iron cup, slightly swedged to fit the
grooves, upon which was cast the body of the shot.

_Palliser Projectile._--This is the most formidable armor-piercing
projectile in use. It owes its efficiency to the material used,--chilled
cast iron. In the later forms the head only is chilled, the body being
cast in sand. Both shot and shell are cast with a core. The shell is
“blind.” The curve of the ogival head is struck with a radius of one and
one-half times the diameter of the projectile.

_Parrott Projectile._--Capt. Parrott’s projectile, as now made, is
composed of a cast-iron body with a brass ring cast into a rabbet formed
around its base. The flame presses against the bottom of the ring and
underneath it so as to expand it into the grooves of the gun. To prevent
the ring from turning in the rabbet, the latter is recessed at several
points of its circumference. _Parrott’s incendiary shell_ has two
compartments formed by a partition at right angles to its length. The
lower and larger space is filled with a burning composition, the upper
one is filled with a bursting charge of powder, which is fired by a
time- or concussion-fuze. The burning composition is introduced through
a hole in the bottom of the shell, which is stopped up with a
screw-plug.

_Sawyer Projectile._--The Sawyer projectile has upon its sides six
rectangular flanges or ribs to fit into corresponding grooves of the
bore. To soften the contact with the surface of the bore, the entire
surface of the projectile is covered with a coating of lead and
brass-foil. The soft metal at the corner of the base is made thicker
than at the sides to admit of being expanded into the grooves, and
thereby closing the windage. In the latest pattern of Sawyer
projectiles, the flanges are omitted, and the projectiles are made to
take the grooves by the expansion of the soft metal at the base, which
is peculiarly shaped for this purpose.

_Schenkle Projectile._--Schenkle’s projectile is composed of a cast-iron
body, the posterior portion of which is a cone. The expanding portion is
a _papier-maché_ sabot or ring, which is expanded into the rifling of
the bore by being forced on to the cone by the action of the charge. On
issuing from the bore the wad is blown to pieces, leaving the projectile
unencumbered in its flight. A great difficulty has been found in
practice in always getting a proper quality of material for the sabot,
and in consequence, these projectiles have not been found to be
reliable.

_Scott Projectile._--The shell devised by Commander Scott of the British
navy, for firing molten iron, has three ribs cast upon it, which fit
grooves so constructed as to centre it in the bore of the gun when
fired. The interior of this shell is lined with loam to prevent the heat
of the charge from penetrating through to the bursting charge. It is
supposed to be broken and its contents diffused on striking the object.

_Whitworth Projectile._--The cross-section of the bore of the Whitworth
gun is a hexagon with the corners slightly rounded. The projectile is
first formed so that its cross-section is a circle, and its sides taper
towards both ends. The middle portion is then carefully planed off to
fit the bore of the gun. The Whitworth blind shell for firing against
armor-plates, is made of tempered steel, and each end is closed with a
screw. To prevent the heat of impact from acting too soon on the
bursting charge, it is surrounded by one or more thicknesses of flannel.
A 7-inch shell of this kind has been found to have sufficient strength
and stiffness to penetrate 5 inches of wrought iron before bursting.

_Confederate Projectiles._--The rifle projectiles used by the
Confederates in the late war belonged, with a few exceptions, to the
expanding class. Besides the above there are three kinds of projectiles
much used in the U. S. service, viz.:

_Absterdam Projectile._--The best form is cast in a single piece, and
has an expanding ring of brass which projects three-eighths of an inch
beyond the base of the projectile.

_Eureka Projectile._--Consists of a cast-iron body in one piece, with a
brass sabot; the sabot is an annular disk intended to move on the
frustum of a cone with an expanding cup in rear to take the grooves.

_Ordnance Projectile._--Consists of a cast-iron body, with a sabot
composed of an alloy of lead and tin, which is cast on the base of the
projectile, and is held in position by undercuts and dovetails, the
action of the charge being to force the sabot on the cast-iron body and
to make it take the grooves.

Projectiles of special construction were formerly much used for
particular purposes, as:

_Bar-shot_, which consisted of two hemispheres or spheres connected by a
bar of iron either rigidly or in such a manner as to traverse its
length; these were useful in cutting the masts and rigging of ships.

_Chain-shot._--This differed from bar-shot only in the mode of
connection, which was a chain instead of a bar.

_Chain-ball._--To arrest the motion of rotation of an oblong projectile
thrown under high angles, and with a moderate velocity, it has been
proposed to attach a light body to its posterior portion by means of a
cord, or chain, which will offer a resistance to the flight of the
projectile, and cause it to move with its point foremost.

_Nail-ball._--A round projectile, having a projecting pin to prevent it
from turning in the bore of the piece.

_Grooved Ball._--An oblong projectile, having spiral grooves cut along
its base, by means of which the action of the charge produces rotation
about the longer axis of the projectile. Sometimes these grooves are cut
in the forward part of the projectile for the action of the air. Neither
of these plans has succeeded in practice.

_Bullets._--A bullet is a leaden projectile discharged from a musket,
fowling-piece, pistol, or similar weapon.

_Spherical Bullets._--When smooth-bore muskets alone were used the
bullets were chiefly spherical in form and made by casting; at present,
however, spherical bullets are manufactured by a compressing machine
invented by Mr. George Napier. They are denominated by the number
contained in a pound. In consequence of the great improvements that have
been made of late in small-arms, the spherical bullet is now very little
employed for military purposes, its use being chiefly confined to
case-shot.

_Oblong Bullets._--Are denominated by their diameter and weight. About
1600, when rifles began to be used as a military weapon, spherical
bullets were fired; in the early part of the 18th century, however, it
was found that good results could be obtained by the use of oblong
projectiles of elliptical form. The great difficulty, however, of
loading the rifle, which was ordinarily accomplished by the blows of a
mallet on a stout iron ramrod, prevented it from being generally used in
regular warfare. The foregoing plan was afterwards improved by making
the projectile a little smaller than the bore, and wrapping it with a
patch of cloth greased to diminish the friction in loading. The
improvements which have been made in the last thirty years have entirely
overcome this difficulty, and rifles are now almost universally
employed, although until 1855 the mass of the American infantry was
armed with smooth-bored muskets. The first person to overcome the
difficulty of loading rifles was M. Delavigne, an officer of the French
infantry. His plan, proposed in 1827, was to make the projectile small
enough to enter the bore easily and to attach it to a sabot, which, when
in position, rested upon the shoulder of a cylindrical chamber formed at
the bottom of the bore to contain the powder. In this position the
projectile was struck two or three times with the ramrod, which expanded
the lead into the grooves of the barrel. The method of Delavigne was
afterwards improved by Thouvenin and Minié, both officers of the French
service. The projectiles suggested by them were elongated in form and
the metal of the projectile was forced into the grooves of the rifling
by means of a plug or cup driven into the base of the projectile, which
was cast hollow for that purpose. The cup used in the Minié bullet wits
made of sheet-iron. Mr. Greener of England appears to have been the
first person to utilize this expanding or dilating action. Various other
bullets have been invented, of greater or less usefulness, as the
Whitworth, Pritchett or Enfield, and those used in the French, Austrian,
and Swiss services. In the British service, the Enfield bullet is
employed; this has a perfectly smooth exterior, and a conical boxwood
plug inserted into a cavity at the base; they are made by machinery
which draws in a coil of leaden rod, unwinds it, cuts it to the required
length, stamps out the bullets with steel dies, drops them into boxes,
and conveys them away.

_United States Bullets._--The bullets used in the U. S. service are of
two kinds, one for the rifle and carbine ball-cartridge weighing 405
grains, the other for the revolver cartridge weighing 230 grains. The
metal used is an alloy of 16 parts of lead and 1 part of tin. The bullet
in shape is a cylinder surmounted by a conical frustum terminating in a
spherical segment. It has three rectangular cannelures which contain the
lubricant. This latter is protected by the case which covers more than
half the length of the bullet. A dished cavity is made in the base of
the bullet to bring it to the proper weight.

=Projectiles, Theory of.= Is the investigation of the path, or
_trajectory_ as it is called, of a body which is projected into space. A
body thus projected is acted upon by two forces, the _force of
projection_, which, if acting alone, would carry the body onwards
forever in the same direction and at the same rate; and the _force of
gravity_, which tends to draw the body downwards towards the earth. The
force of projection acts only at the commencement of the body’s motion;
the force of gravity, on the contrary, continues to act effectively
during the whole time of the body’s motion, drawing it farther and
farther from its original direction, and causing it to describe a curved
path, which, if the body moved in a vacuum, would be accurately a
parabola.

_Trajectory in Vacuo._--This general theory is not the object of the
present discussion, but simply the theory of projectiles as far as it
relates to fire-arms. The path that the centre of gravity of a
projectile would describe in _vacuo_ would be a parabola, and the
greatest range given by an angle of fire of 45°. Under the same angles
of fire the range would be proportional to the squares of the
velocities, the velocity least at the summit of the trajectory, and the
velocities at the two points in which the trajectory cuts the horizontal
plane equal. The time of flight would be given for an angle of 45° by
the formula:

  _T_ = ¹⁄₄√_X_

In which _T_ represents the time of flight, and _X_ the range expressed
in feet. These results are found to answer in practice for projectiles
which experience slight resistance from the air, or for heavy
projectiles moving with low velocities, as is usually the case with
those of mortars and howitzers, for which, within certain limits, the
above results are sufficiently accurate in practice.

_Trajectory in Air._--A body moving in air experiences a resistance
which diminishes the velocity with which it is animated. Thus it has
been shown that certain cannon-balls do not range one-eighth as far in
the air, as they would if they did not meet with this resistance to
their motion, and small-arm projectiles which have but little mass are
still more affected by it. This resistance is expressed by the formula:

                 (    _v_)
  _P_ = _A_{p}R_²(1 + ---)_v_²;
                 (    _r_)

in which _P_ represents the resistance in the terms of the unit of
weight, _v_ the velocity, and _pR_² the area of a cross-section of the
projectile, _A_ the resistance in pounds on a square foot of the
cross-section of a projectile moving with a velocity of one foot, _r_ is
a linear quantity depending on the velocity of the projectile. For all
service spherical projectiles _A_ is .000514, and for all service
velocities _r_ is 1.427 feet; the value of _A_ for the rifle-musket
bullet is .000358; hence, the resistance of the air is about one-third
less on the ogival than on the spherical form of projectile. _A_ being a
function of the density of air, its value depends on the temperature,
pressure, and hygrometric condition. It has been demonstrated that the
final velocity of a projectile falling in the air is directly
proportional to the product of its diameter and density, and inversely
proportional to the density of the air; the retarding effect of the air
is less on the larger and denser projectiles, and for the same caliber
an oblong projectile will be less retarded by the air than one of
spherical form and consequently with an equal, perhaps less, initial
velocity, its range will be greater. It has also been shown that great
advantage in point of range is obtained by using large projectiles
instead of small ones, solid projectiles instead of hollow ones, leaden
projectiles instead of iron ones, and oblong projectiles instead of
round ones. The ogival form, or the form of the present rifle-musket
bullet, experiences less resistance in passing through the air than any
other known. In consequence of the variable nature of the resistance of
the air, it has been found impossible to find an accurate expression for
the trajectory. Capt. Didion, of Metz, has, however, found an
approximate solution; he states that all cases of the movement of a
projectile may be divided into three classes: 1st. When the angle of
projection is slight or does not exceed 3°, as in the ordinary fire of
guns, howitzers, and small-arms,--for slight variations of the angle of
projection above or below the horizontal, the form of the trajectory may
be considered constant, and when the object is but slightly raised above
or depressed below the horizontal plane, it may be considered as in
this plane. 2d. When angles of projection do not exceed 10° or 15°, as
in the ricochet fire of guns, howitzers, and mortars. 3d. When the angle
of projection exceeds 15°, as is the case in mortar fire. For each of
these cases he has deduced formulæ, by means of which the range, time of
flight, etc., can be determined. As a projectile rises in the ascending
branch of its trajectory, its velocity is diminished by the retarding
effect of the air, and the force of gravity, in consequence of the
resistance of the air alone, the velocity continues to diminish to a
point a little beyond the summit of the trajectory, where it is a
minimum, and from this point it increases, as it descends, under the
influence of the force of gravity, until it becomes uniform, which event
depends on the diameter and weight of the projectile, and the density of
the air.

The inclination of the trajectory decreases from the origin to the
summit, where it is nothing, it increases in the descending branch from
the summit to its termination, and if the ground did not interpose an
obstacle, it would become vertical at an infinite distance. An element
of the trajectory in the descending branch has a greater inclination
than the corresponding element of the ascending branch. Strictly
speaking, therefore, the trajectory of a projectile in air is not a
parabola, but is an exponential curve with two asymptotes, the first the
axis of the piece, which is tangent to the trajectory when the initial
velocity is infinite, the second a vertical line toward which the
trajectory approaches, as the horizontal component of the velocity
diminishes and the effect of the force of gravity increases. The
curvature of the trajectory increases in the ascending branch to a point
a little beyond the summit. The point of greatest curvature is situated
nearer the summit than the point of minimum velocity. In the fire of
mortar-shells, under great angles of projection, the trajectory may be
considered as an arc, in which the angle of fall is slightly greater
than the angle of projection. In the formulæ deduced by Didion, in
consequence of considering the inclination of the trajectory as
constant, the resistance of the air is slightly underestimated in the
more inclined portions of the trajectory or at the beginning and end,
and slightly overestimated in the less inclined portions or about the
summit. It follows that the calculated trajectory will at first rise
above the true one, then pass below it and again pass above it; the
calculated ranges are therefore slightly in excess of the true ones.

_Trajectory of Oblong Projectiles._--From the law of inertia, a rifle
projectile moves through the air with its axis of rotation parallel to
the axis of the bore. Hence it follows that an oblong projectile, fired
under a low angle of projection, presents a greater surface toward the
earth, and less parallel to it, than a round projectile of the same
weight, consequently the vertical component of the resistance of the air
is greater, and the horizontal component less, in the first case than in
the second. The effect of this will be to give an oblong projectile a
flatter trajectory and longer range than a round one.

_Deviation of Projectiles._--The path described by the centre of inertia
of a projectile, moving under the influences of gravity and the
tangential resistance of the air, is called the _normal trajectory_. In
practice, various causes are constantly at work to deflect a projectile
from its normal path. All deviating causes may be divided into two
classes,--those which act while the projectile is in the bore of the
piece, and those which act after the projectile has left it. The first
class includes all the causes which affect the initial velocity, and
give rotation to the projectile; the second includes the action of the
air.

_Causes which affect Initial Velocity._--The principal causes which
affect initial velocity are variations in the weights of the powder and
projectile, the manner of loading, the temperature of the piece, and the
balloting of the projectile along the bore. _Rotation._ The principal
cause of the deviation of a projectile is its rotation combined with the
resistance of the air. _By balloting._ If the projectile be spherical
and homogeneous, rotation is produced by the bounding or balloting of
the ball in the bore, arising from the windage. In this case the axis of
rotation is horizontal, and passes through the centre of the ball; the
direction of rotation depends on the side of the projectile which
strikes the surface of the bore last. The velocity of rotation from this
cause depends on the windage, or depth of the indentations in the bore,
the charge being the same. _By eccentricity._ If, from the structure of
the ball, or from some defect of manufacture, the centre of gravity does
not coincide with the centre of figure, rotation generally takes place
around the centre of gravity. This arises from the fact that the
resultant of the charge acts at the centre of figure, while inertia, or
resistance to motion, acts at the centre of gravity. For the same charge
the velocity of rotation passes through the centre of gravity, and is
perpendicular to a plane containing the resultant of the charge and the
centres of figure and gravity. For the same charge, the velocity of
rotation is proportional to the lever arm, or the perpendicular, let
fall from the centre of gravity to the resultant of the charge. Knowing
the position of the centre of gravity of the ball in the bore, it is
easy to foretell the direction and velocity of rotation. In general
terms the front surface of the projectile moves toward the side of the
bore on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the velocity of
rotation is greatest when the line joining the centres of gravity and
figure is perpendicular to the axis of the bore.

_The Effect of Rotation._--The effect of rotation in producing deviation
may be discussed under three heads: 1st. When the projectile is
spherical and concentric; 2d. When it is spherical and eccentric; and,
3d. When it is oblong. If a projectile be spherical and concentric,
rotation takes place from contact with the surface of the bore around a
horizontal axis, and the effect will be to shorten or lengthen the
range, as the motion of the front surface is downward or upward. If the
projectile be eccentric, the motion of the front surface is generally
toward the side on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the
deviation takes place in this direction. The extent of the deviation for
the same charge depends on the position of the centre of gravity; the
horizontal deviation being the greatest when the centres of gravity and
figure are in a horizontal plane, and the line which joins them is at
right angles to the axis of the piece; the vertical deviation will be
the greatest when these centres are in a vertical plane, and the line
which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece. If the
axis of rotation coincide with the tangent to the trajectory throughout
the flight, all points of the surface have the same velocity in the
direction of the motion of translation, and there will be no deviation.
This explains why it is that a rifle projectile moves through the air
more accurately than a projectile from a smooth-bored gun. In accurate
firing, therefore, it is important to know the true position of the
centre of gravity. In ricochet firing over smooth water, the number of
grazes may be increased or diminished by placing, in loading, the centre
of gravity above or below the centre of figure.

_Deviation of Oblong Projectiles._--The cause of the deviation of an
oblong rifle projectile is quite different from one of spherical form.
An oblong projectile moving in the air is acted upon by two rotary
forces, viz.: one which gives it its normal rotary motion around its
axis of progression, and another the resistance of the air, which, in
consequence of the deflection of the axis of progression from the
tangent to the trajectory by the action of gravity, does not pass
through the centre of inertia, but above or below it; depending on the
shape of the projectile. From a law of mechanics, a body thus
circumstanced will not yield fully to either of the forces that thus act
upon it, but its apex will move off with a slow uniform motion to the
right or left of the vertical plane, depending on the relative direction
of the two rotary forces. If the action of these forces be continued
sufficiently long, it will be seen that the axis of the projectile
before referred to describes a cone around a line passing through the
centre of inertia and parallel to the direction of the resistance of the
air. Owing to the short duration of the flight of an ordinary
projectile, it is only necessary to consider the first part of this
conical motion. If the projectile rotates in the direction of the hands
of a watch to the eye of the marksman, and the resultant of the
resistance of the air pass above the centre of inertia, as it does in
the service bullet with a conoidal point, then the point of the
projectile will move to the right, which brings the left side of the
projectile obliquely in contact with the current of the air. The effect
of this position with reference to the air will be to generate a
component force that will urge the projectile to the right of the plane
of fire. This peculiar deviation was called by the French officers that
first observed it, “_derivation_,” or “_drift_.”

_Summary of Deviating Causes._--The following summary may be considered
as embracing nearly all the causes of deviation of cannon and small-arm
projectiles: 1st. _From the construction of the piece._ These causes
are, wrong position of the sight; bore not of the true size; windage,
etc. 2d. _From the charge of powder._ Improper weight; form of grain and
variable quality of the powder, etc. 3d. _From the projectile._ Not of
the exact size, shape, or weight; disfiguration in loading, or on
leaving the bore; eccentricity. 4th. _From the atmosphere_, _etc._ The
effect of wind; variations in the temperature, moisture, and density of
the air; position of the sun as regards the effect on the aim;
difference of level between the object and the piece; and rotation of
the earth. It is found that a projectile will deviate to the right of
the object in the northern hemisphere whatever may be the direction of
the line of fire, and at a distance from it, depending on the latitude
of the place, and on the time of flight and the range of the projectile.

=Projectiles, Effects of.= The effects of projectiles, and particularly
that of penetration, depend on the nature of the projectile, its initial
velocity, and the distance of the object. The effects of the various
kinds of projectiles upon iron and steel plates are not yet thoroughly
understood, and experiments are still being made, particularly in
England, to determine the best combinations of wrought and cast iron,
and steel, to resist the penetration of the enormous projectiles of the
present day. Their effects upon wood, earth, etc., are, however, better
understood.

_Effect on Wood._--The effect of a projectile fired against wood varies
with the nature of the wood and the direction of the penetration. If the
projectile strikes perpendicular to the fibres, and the fibres be tough
and elastic, as in the case of oak, a portion of them are crushed, and
others are bent under the pressure of the projectile, but regain their
form as soon as it has passed by them. In consequence of the softness of
white pine, nearly all the fibres struck are broken, and the orifice is
nearly the size of the projectile; for the same reason the effects of
the projectile do not extend much beyond the orifice; pine is therefore
to be preferred to oak for structures that are not intended to resist
cannon projectiles, as block-houses, etc.

_Effect on Earth._--Earth possesses advantages over all other materials
as a covering against projectiles; it is cheap and easily obtained, it
offers considerable resistance to penetration, and to a certain extent
regains its position after displacement. It is found by experience that
a projectile has very little effect on an earthen parapet unless it
passes completely through it. Wherever masonry is liable to be breached,
it should be masked by earthworks with natural slopes. Gen. Gillmore
states that the powers of resistance of pure, compact, quartz sand to
the penetration of projectiles very much exceed that of ordinary earth,
or mixture of several earths. The size of the openings formed by the
passage of a projectile into the earth is about one-third larger than
the projectile, increasing, however, towards the outer orifice. Rifle
projectiles especially are easily deflected from their course in earth,
hence their penetration is variable. Unless a shell be very large in
proportion to the mass of earth penetrated, its explosion will produce
but little displacement,--generally, a small opening is formed around an
exploded shell by the action of the gas in pressing back the earth.
Time-fuzes, being liable to be extinguished by the pressure of the
earth, are inferior to percussion-fuzes, which produce explosion when
the projectile has made about three-fourths of its proper penetration.
The penetration in earth of oblong, compared to round projectiles, when
fired with service charges, and at a distance of about 400 yards, is at
least _one-fourth greater_. This difference, however, is less at short
and greater at long distances. The penetrations of similar projectiles
into a given substance, are proportional to the squares of the
velocities of impact and to the diameters and densities of the
projectiles.

_Penetration in Water._--The penetration of a rifle projectile in water
depends much on the direction of its axis with respect to penetration;
for instance, penetration rapidly diminishes at long distances, as the
axis of the projectile strikes the surface of the water under a
diminished angle.

_Effect on Masonry._--The effect of a projectile against masonry is to
form a truncated conical hole, terminated by another of a cylindrical
form. The material in front of and around the projectile is broken and
shattered, and the end of the cylindrical hole even reduced to powder.
The exterior opening varies from four to five times the diameter of the
projectile, and the depth varies with the size and density of the
projectile, and its velocity. When a projectile strikes against a
surface of oak, as the side of a ship, it will not stick if the angle of
incidence be less than 15°, and if it do not penetrate to a depth nearly
equal to its diameter. Solid cast-iron shot break against granite, but
not against freestone or brick. Shells are broken into small fragments
against each of these materials.

_Breaching._--Formerly stone projectiles were much used for breaching,
but from the want of sufficient hardness in these projectiles, the
besiegers were forced to commence battering at the top of the wall where
the least resistance was offered, and gradually to lower the shot until
the breach reached the wrecks already formed at the base of the wall.
Iron projectiles superseded stone, and then more rapid modes of
effecting a practicable breach were suggested. The easiest manner of
making the cut is to direct the shots upon the same line, and form a
series of holes a little greater than a diameter apart, and then to fire
a second series of shots, directed at the intervals between the first,
and so on, until an opening is made completely through the wall. If the
portion of the wall between the vertical cuts should not be overthrown
by the pressure of the earth behind, it must be detached by a few
volleys of solid shot, fired at its centre.

_Breaching with Rifle-cannon._--The foregoing has reference particularly
to breaching masonry with smooth-bored guns. The same principle is
applicable to rifled guns, the only difference being that, from their
superior penetration and accuracy, the latter are effective at much
longer distances. The most destructive projectile against masonry is the
elongated percussion shell.

_Effect of Bullets._--From experiments made in Denmark, the following
relations were found between the penetration of a bullet in pine and its
effects on the body of a living horse, viz.: 1st. When the force of the
bullet is sufficient to penetrate 0.31 inch into pine, it is only
sufficient to produce a slight contusion of the skin. 2d. When the force
of penetration is equal to 0.63 inch, the wound begins to be dangerous,
but does not disable. 3d. When the force of penetration is equal to 1.2
inch, the wound is very dangerous. A plate of wrought iron
three-sixteenths of an inch thick, is sufficient to resist a
rifle-musket bullet at distances varying from 20 to 200 yards. Iron of
thickness, however, will not resist bullets of the present day. That a
rope mantlet may give full protection against rifle-musket bullets, it
should be composed of five layers (three vertical and two horizontal) of
4¹⁄₂-inch rope.

=Projection.= In mathematics, the action of giving a projectile its
motion. It is also used to signify a scheme, plan, or delineation.

=Proking-spit.= A large Spanish rapier.

=Prolongation.= An extension of leave of absence, or a continuation of
service.

=Prolongation of the Line.= Is effected by parallel movements at the
right or left of any given number of men on a front division.

=Prolonge.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Prolonge-hooks.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY
CARRIAGE.

=Promotion.= This word signifies, in military matters, the elevation of
an individual to some appointment of greater rank and trust to the one
he holds.

=Promulgation.= The act of promulgating; publication; open declaration;
as, the promulgation of the sentence of a court-martial.

=Proof.= A term applied to the testing of powder, and also of ordnance,
which are always fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, to
test their strength and soundness.

=Proof.= Conclusive evidence.

=Proof.= Capable of withstanding; as, bomb-proof, shot-proof.

=Propel.= To drive forward; to urge or press onward by force; to move or
cause to move; balls are _propelled_ by the force of gunpowder.

=Proper.= A term which serves to mark out a thing more especially and
formally. Thus, the _proper form of a battalion_ is the usual continuity
of line given to the formation of a battalion, and which remains
unaltered by the wheelings of its divisions; or if altered, is restored
by the same operation. _Proper right_, is the right of a battalion,
company, or subdivision, when it is drawn up according to its natural
formation. _Proper pivot flank_, in column, is that which, when wheeled
up to, preserves the division of the line in the natural order, and to
their proper front. The other may be called the _reverse_ flank.

=Proper.= In heraldry, a charge borne of its natural color, is said to
be _proper_. An object whose color varies at different times and in
different examples, as a rose which may be white or red cannot be borne
proper.

=Prosecute.= To carry on; to continue; as, to prosecute the war. Also,
to accuse of some crime or breach of law, or to pursue for punishment
before a legal tribunal; to proceed against judicially.

=Prosecutor.= In courts-martial the judge-advocate is usually the
prosecutor; but if an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to
sustain the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecutor not subject
to the articles of war, except the judge-advocate.--_Hough._

=Proveditor.= One employed to procure supplies for an army; a purveyor.

=Proving-ground.= Ground used for testing powder or ordnance.

=Provision.= Properly to victual; to furnish with provisions.

=Provost.= The temporary prison in which the military police confine
prisoners till they are disposed of.

=Provost Cells.= Also called regimental or garrison cells, in the
British service are those certified cells under a provost or acting
provost-sergeant, in which court-martial prisoners may be imprisoned up
to forty-two days.

=Provost-Marshal.= In the army, is an officer appointed to superintend
the preservation of order, and to be, as it were, the head of the police
of any particular camp, town, or district. He has cognizance of all
camp-followers, as well as members of the army. His power is summary,
and he can punish an offender, taken _flagrante delicto_, on the spot,
according to the articles of war.

=Provost-Sergeant.= Is a sergeant who is charged with the military
police of a corps. He is generally given one or two non-commissioned
officers as assistants. In the British service he also is charged with
the custody of all prisoners in the cells.

=Prowess.= Valor; bravery in the field; military gallantry.

=Prowlers.= Are persons who steal within the lines of a hostile army for
the purpose of robbing, killing; or destroying bridges, roads, mails, or
other means of communication. Such persons are not entitled to the
privileges usually accorded to prisoners of war.

=Prussia.= A kingdom of the new German empire. The people of Prussia
first appear in history in the 10th century, under the name of Borussi;
from these the country derives its name. Some historians, however,
derive the name from _Po_, signifying near, and _Russia_. The Prussians
were subjected by Boleslaus of Poland in 1018; they made a successful
stand against Boleslaus IV. of Poland in 1161, and for a time maintained
a rude and savage kind of independence. The Teutonic Knights were
engaged in war for half a century with the people,--winning lands and
souls by hard fighting,--until at length, in 1283, they found themselves
undisputed masters of the country, having almost exterminated the pagan
population. During this period the knights founded many cities and
repeopled the country with German colonists. In 1454 the municipal and
noble classes, with the co-operation of Poland, rose in open rebellion
against the knights, who were forced to cede West Prussia and Ermland to
Poland. Albert (or Albrecht) of Brandenburg was acknowledged duke of
East Prussia in 1525; his son-in-law, John Sigismund, created elector of
Brandenburg and duke of Prussia in 1608. The reign of John Sigismund’s
successor, Georg-Wilhelm (1619-1640), was distracted by the miseries of
the Thirty Years’ War, and the country was alternately the prey of
Swedish and imperial armies. The electorate was raised by the genius of
Frederick William, the great elector, to the rank of a great European
power. His successor, Frederick III. (1688-1713), was proclaimed king of
Prussia by the title of Frederick I. in 1701. During the reign of
Frederick William IV., Prussia co-operated powerfully in putting down
the insurrections in Poland and Baden. In the war of the
Schleswig-Holstein duchies, the Prussians acted in concert with the
disaffected against their sovereign, the king of Denmark, occupying the
ducal provinces in the name and on behalf of the diet. A treaty of peace
was concluded between Prussia and Denmark, on July 2, 1850. In 1863 the
allied Prussian and Austrian armies entered the duchies of
Schleswig-Holstein and defeated the Danes; the duchies were separated
from Denmark. Warm disputes with Austria respecting Schleswig-Holstein
arose in the beginning of 1866. The vote of the majority of the diet of
the Germanic Confederation supported Austria; Prussia announced her
withdrawal from the confederation, and its dissolution; the diet
declared itself indissoluble, and continued its functions, June 14,
1866. War was declared by Prussia, June 18, 1866, which ended in the
total defeat of Austria and her allies. A treaty of peace between
Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague on August 23, 1866. By its
articles Austria consented to the breaking up of the Germanic
Confederation, and to Prussia’s annexing Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau,
and Frankfort-on-the-Main, and gave up Holstein and her political
influence in North Germany. For further history, see FRANCO-PRUSSIAN
WAR.

=Pruth.= A river of Europe, which rises in the Carpathian Mountains. It
forms a portion of the boundary-line between Russia and Turkey, and by
crossing it, in 1853, the Russians gave rise to the war with Turkey and
the subsequent Crimean war.

=Psiloi.= Among the Greeks, were light-armed men who fought with arrows
and darts, or stones and slings, but were unfit for close fight. They
were in honor and dignity inferior to the heavy-armed soldiers.

=Publish.= To make known. In a garrison orders are published by being
read at parade. Orders are also published by circulating written copies.

=Puebla=, or =La Puebla de los Angeles=. Capital of the department of
Puebla, in Mexico, 80 miles southeast from the city of Mexico. It was
taken by the French on May 17, 1863, after a siege of several weeks’
duration, the Mexican general Ortega, with 18,000 men, surrendering to
Gen. Forey. This event threw open the road to Mexico, and was the
immediate precursor of the overthrow of the government of Juarez.

=Pueblo Indians= (Sp. _pueblo_, “village”). An interesting class of
semi-civilized Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, so called from their
remarkable residences, a description of some of which may be found under
MOQUIS INDIANS. They are divided into several tribes speaking different
languages. Their internal administration is patriarchal, each pueblo or
village being ruled by its governor and council of three elders.

=Pulk.= A tribe; a particular body of men. This word is chiefly used in
Russia; as, a pulk of Cossacks.

=Pultowa.= See POLTAVA.

=Pultusk.= A town of Poland in the government of Plock, situated on the
Narew, 35 miles north-northeast from Warsaw. Here on December 26, 1806,
was fought one of the battles of the campaign of Eylau, between the
Russians and the French. The field was most obstinately contested, but
the victory, which, however, was claimed by both armies, inclined in
favor of the French.

=Pummel.= The hilt of a sword, the end of a gun, etc.

=Puncto.= The point in fencing.

=Punic Wars.= The name of three celebrated contests, in which the Romans
and Carthaginians were engaged from the year 264 to 146 B.C., and which
finally terminated with the destruction of Carthage. It was in the
second war, which began in 218, that the Carthaginian commander Hannibal
rendered himself so distinguished by his victories over the Romans. The
illustrious Scipio was eventually the conqueror of Hannibal and the
victor of Carthage. _Punic faith_ is a reproachful term in frequent use,
derived from _Punici_, or Carthaginians, because they were considered by
the Romans a perfidious race.

=Punishment, Military.= In a military sense, is the execution of a
sentence pronounced by a court-martial upon any delinquent. The Romans
punished crimes committed by the soldiery with the utmost rigor. On the
occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was
sometimes chosen by lot, but generally only the ringleaders were
selected for punishment. Deserters and seditious persons were
frequently, after being scourged, sold for slaves; and occasionally the
offender was made to lose his right hand, or was bled nearly to death.
Among the nations of Western Europe, the punishments for military
offenses were, till lately, no less severe than they were among the
Romans. Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes with cords,
soldiers convicted of theft, marauding, or any other breach of
discipline which was not punishable with death, were sentenced to run
the gantlope. (See GANTLOPE.) In Russia the knout was extensively used.
(See KNOUT.) It is often necessary to punish to maintain discipline, and
the rules and articles of war provide ample means of punishment, but not
sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judgment. In the French
army degrading punishments are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to
quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving the garrison; confined in
the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon; required to walk or to perform
hard labor; and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous arrests.
Every officer who inflicts a punishment, must account for it to his
superior, who approves or disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes
it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he cannot be liberated
except upon application to a superior. Any officer who has been
subjected to punishment, must, when relieved, make a visit to him who
ordered it. The French code has, in a word, been careful to provide for
both the security of its citizens and the strength of authority. The
punishments established by law or custom for U. S. soldiers by sentence
of court-martial, are embodied in the Articles of War. (See APPENDIX,
ARTICLES OF WAR.) It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary
confinement, or confinement on bread and water exceeding fourteen days
at a time, or for more than eighty-four days in a year, at intervals of
fourteen days.

=Punitz.= A town of Prussia in the province of Posen. A battle was
fought here in 1706, between the Saxons and the Swedes, in which the
latter were victorious.

=Punjab=, or =Five Rivers=. An extensive river of Hindostan, situated
chiefly in the province of Lahore, but including Moultan, and comprising
the country traversed by the “five great waters,” or rivers, of which
the Indus is the most westerly, and the Sutlej the most easterly. This
region was traversed by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C.; and again by
Tamerlane in 1398. The wars with the Sikhs began here on March 29, 1849,
when the Punjab was annexed to the British possessions in India.

=Punkah.= A swinging fan used in the hot districts of India.

=Purchasing.= Any person purchasing from any soldier his arms, uniform,
clothing, or any part thereof, may be punished by any civil court having
cognizance of the same, by fine in any sum not exceeding $300, or by
imprisonment not exceeding one year.--_Act of March 16, 1802._

=Purpure.= In heraldry, the color purple, expressed in engravings by
lines in bend sinister. It is of unfrequent occurrence in British
heraldry.

=Pursuit.= The act of following or going after; a following with haste,
either for sport or hostility; as, the pursuit of an enemy.

=Pursuivant.= The third and lowest order of heraldic officers. The
office was instituted as a novitiate, or state of probation, through
which the offices of herald and king-at-arms were ordinarily to be
attained, though it has been held that a herald or king-at-arms may be
made _per saltum_. For the present titles of the several British
pursuivants, see HERALD. In ancient times any great nobleman might
institute his own pursuivant with his own hands and by his single
authority. The dukes of Norfolk had a pursuivant called _Blanch-lyon_,
from the white lion in their arms; the pursuivant of the dukes of
Northumberland was styled _Espérance_ from the Percy motto, and Richard
Nevil, earl of Salisbury, had a pursuivant called _Egle vert_.

=Purveyor.= A person employed to make purchases, or to provide food,
medicines, and necessaries for the sick.

=Push.= To press against with force; to drive or impel by pressure; as,
to push back an enemy.

=Push.= An assault or attack; a forcible onset; a vigorous effort.

=Put to the Sword, To.= To kill with the sword; to slay.

=Puteoli= (the modern _Puzzuoli_). A celebrated seaport town of
Campania, was situated on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Baiæ. A
colony from the neighboring Greek city of Cumæ founded it in 521 B.C.,
under the name of Dicæarchia. In the second Punic war the Romans
fortified it, and changed its name into that of Puteoli. It was
destroyed by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in
545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. In the 9th century the
Lombard dukes of Benevento reduced it.

=Putteeala.= A town of British India, capital of a dependent native
state of the same name, in Sirhind, on the Kosilla, 1023 miles northwest
of Calcutta. It was taken possession of by the British in 1809, but the
rajah retains the sovereignty, on condition of furnishing a certain
number of troops in case of war to the British government.

=Puzzuoli=, or =Pozzuoli=. See PUTEOLI.

=Pydna= (now _Kitron_). A town of Macedonia, in the district Pieria, was
situated at a small distance west of the Thermaic Gulf, on which it had
a harbor. It was originally a Greek colony, but was subdued by the
Macedonian kings, from whom, however, it frequently revolted. Toward the
end of the Peloponnesian war it was taken after a long siege by
Archelaus. It again revolted from the Macedonians, and was subdued by
Philip, who enlarged and fortified the place. It was here that Olympias
sustained a long siege against Cassander, 317-16 B.C. It is especially
memorable on account of the victory gained under its walls by Æmilius
Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 168 B.C.

=Pylos=, or =Pilus=. In the southwest of Messenia, was situated at the
foot of Mount Ægaleos on a promontory at the northern entrance of the
basin, now called the Bay of Navarino, the largest and safest harbor of
Greece. In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of Pylos offered a
long and brave resistance to the Spartans; but after the capture of Ira,
they were obliged to quit their native country with the rest of the
Messenians. It again became memorable in the Peloponnesian war, when the
Athenians under Demosthenes built a fort on the promontory Coryphasium,
a little south of the ancient city, and just within the northern
entrance of the harbor (425 B.C.). The attempts of the Spartans to
dislodge the Athenians proved unavailing; and the capture by Cleon of
the Spartans, who had landed in the island of Sphacteria, was one of the
most important events in the whole war.

=Pyramids, Battle of the.= So called from having taken place close to
the large pyramids in the plain of Mummies, at Waardam, within a few
miles of Grand Cairo. A previous engagement had been fought on July 15,
1799, between the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and the French army,
commanded by Bonaparte in person. On July 21, 1799, the second battle,
called the “battle of the Pyramids,” was fought, when Bonaparte defeated
the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and thus subdued Lower Egypt.

=Pyrenees, Battle of the.= The Pyrenees are a chain of mountains which
separate Spain from France, and are nearly 75 miles broad. Towards the
close of the Peninsular war, in 1813, these mountains were the scene of
many severe conflicts between the British troops under the Duke of
Wellington and the French forces under Marshal Soult. After the defeat
of Joseph Bonaparte at Vittoria, Soult took the command of the French
armies as _lieutenant de l’empereur_; and after addressing the beaten
soldiery in language that proved fatally unprophetic, he hastened to
relieve the beleaguered fortresses, and the result was “the battles of
the Pyrenees.” Pampeluna, Roncesvalles, Maya, Orthez, etc., were the
seats of the principal struggles. For nine days the armies had been in
each other’s presence; and in severe operations and desperate fighting
these days were unexampled. The allied casualties exceeded 7000
men,--and those of the French might be safely set down at 15,000.

=Pyrgi.= Movable towers, used by the Greeks in scaling the walls of
besieged towns. They were driven forward upon wheels, and were divided
into different stories, capable of carrying a great number of soldiers
and military engines.

=Pyroboli.= Fireballs, used both by the Greeks and Romans. They seem to
have been the very same as the malleoli.

=Pyrometer.= An instrument for determining the pressure of fired
gunpowder by the registered compression of oil,--invented by Dr. W. E.
Woodbridge, and used by him and Maj. Mordecai (U. S. Ordnance
Department) in experiments at Washington Arsenal, 1854-55. It consists
of a small hollow steel cylinder filled with oil and a piston which is
pressed inwards upon the oil by the powder gases. The piston has a small
stem projecting inwards, which is guided by a tube in the bottom of the
cylinder. A steel point presses against the stem and scratches a line
upon it, when the piston is moved. The pyrometer is received by a hollow
screw-plug placed in the side of the gun at the point where the pressure
is to be taken. This instrument is probably the most accurate and
delicate one ever invented for the purpose. In the experiments it
recorded certain vibrations in the column of gases, which have been
generally neglected by theorists on the subject, but which are of great
importance to the life of the gun. It seems unfortunate that an
instrument which promised so much should have been allowed to fall into
disuse, if not almost oblivion.

=Pyrotechny.= Is the art of preparing ammunition and fireworks for
military and ornamental purposes. (See AMMUNITION.) Military fireworks
comprise preparations for the service of _cannon ammunition_, and for
_signal_, _light_, _incendiary_, and _defensive_ and _offensive_
purposes. The term composition is applied to all mechanical mixtures
which, by combustion, produce the effects sought to be attained in
pyrotechny. The preparations for the service of ammunition are
_slow-match_, _quick-match_, _port-fires_, _friction-tubes_, and
_fuzes_.

_Slow-match_ is used to preserve fire. It may be made of hemp or cotton
rope; if made of hemp, the rope is saturated with acetate of lead, or
the lye of wood-ashes; if made of cotton, it is only necessary that the
strands be well twisted. Slow-match burns from 4 to 5 inches in an hour.

_Quick-match_ is made of cotton-yarn (candle-wick) saturated with a
composition of mealed powder and gummed spirits; after saturation, the
yarn is wound on a reel, sprinkled (dredged) with mealed powder and left
to dry. It is used to communicate fire, and burns at the rate of one
yard in thirteen seconds. The rate of burning may be much increased by
inclosing it in a thin paper tube called a _leader_.

_Port-fire_ is a paper case containing a composition, the flame of which
is capable of quickly igniting primers, quick-match, etc. A port-fire is
about 22 inches long, and burns with an intense flame for ten minutes.

_Friction-tube_ is at present the principal preparation for firing
cannon; it has the advantage of portability and certainty of fire. It is
composed of two brass tubes soldered at right angles. The upper, or
short tube contains a charge of friction-powder, and the _roughed_
extremity of a wire loop, the long tube is filled with rifle-powder, and
is inserted in the vent of the piece. When the extremity of the loop is
violently pulled by means of a lanyard, through its hole in the long
tube, sufficient heat is generated to ignite the friction-powder which
surrounds it, and this communicates with the grained powder in the long
tube. The charge of grained powder has sufficient force to pass through
the longest vent, and penetrate several thicknesses of cartridge-cloth.

_Fuzes._--See FUZE.

_Fireworks for Signals._--The preparations for signals are _rockets_ and
_blue-lights_.

_Signal-Rockets._--The principal parts of a signal-rocket are the
_case_, the _composition_, the _pot_, the _decorations_, and the
_stick_. The _case_ is made by rolling stout paper around a former. The
vent is formed by choking one end of the case.

_Composition._--A variety of compositions are employed for
signal-rockets; a mixture of nitre 12 parts, sulphur 2 parts, charcoal 2
parts, is frequently used. The _pot_ is formed of a paper cylinder,
slipped over and pasted to the top of the case; it is surmounted with a
paper cone, filled with tow. The object of the pot is to contain the
decorations which are scattered through the air by the explosion which
takes place when the rocket reaches the summit of its trajectory; the
explosion is produced by a small charge of mealed powder. The
_decorations_ of rockets are _stars_, _serpents_, _marrons_, _gold
rain_, _rain of fire_, etc.

_Stars._--The compositions for stars are, for _white_: nitre 7 parts,
sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 2 parts; for _red_: chlorate of potassa
7 parts, sulphur 4 parts, lampblack 1 part, nitrate of strontia 12
parts; _blue_: chlorate of potassa 3 parts, sulphur 1 part, ammoniacal
sulphate of copper 1 part; _yellow_: chlorate of potassa 4 parts,
sulphur 2 parts, sulphate of strontia 1 part, bicarbonate of soda 1
part.

_Serpents._--The case of a serpent is similar to that of a rocket; the
composition is driven in, and the top is closed with moist plaster of
Paris. The composition is nitre 3 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder
16 parts, charcoal ¹⁄₂ part.

_Marrons._--Marrons are small paper shells, or cubes, filled with
grained powder, and primed with a short piece of quick-match.

_Stick._--The stick is a tapering piece of pine, about nine times the
length of the case.

_Blue Light._--A very brilliant bluish light may be made of the
following ingredients, viz.: nitre 14 parts, sulphur 3.7 parts, realgar
1 part, mealed powder 1 part; the brilliancy depends on the purity and
thorough incorporation of the ingredients.

_Incendiary Fireworks._--Incendiary preparations are _fire-stone_,
_carcasses_, _incendiary-match_, and _hot shot_.

_Fire-stone_ is a composition that burns slowly, but intensely; it is
placed in a shell, along with the bursting charge, for the purpose of
setting fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is composed of nitre 10 parts,
sulphur 4 parts, antimony 1 part, rosin 3 parts.

_Carcass._--A common shell may be loaded as a carcass by placing the
bursting charge at the bottom of the cavity, and covering it with
carcass composition, driven in until the shell is nearly full, and then
inserting four or five strands of quick-match. This projectile, after
burning as a carcass, explodes as a shell. See CARCASS.

_Incendiary-match._--Is made by boiling slow-match in a saturated
solution of nitre, drying it, cutting it into pieces, and plunging it
into melted fire-stone. It is principally used in loaded shells.

_Hot Shot._--See HOT SHOT.

_Fireworks for Light._--The preparations for producing light are
_fire-balls_, _light-balls_, _tarred-links_, _pitched-fascines_, and
_torches_.

_Fire-ball._--A fire-ball is an oval-shaped canvas sack filled with
combustible composition. It is intended to be thrown from a mortar to
light up the works of an enemy, and is loaded with a shell to prevent it
from being approached and extinguished. The composition for a fire-ball
consists of nitre 8 parts, sulphur 2 parts, antimony 1 part. The bottom
of the sack is protected from the force of the charge by an iron cup
called a culob, and the whole is covered and strengthened with a
net-work of spun-yarn or wire, and then overlaid with a composition of
pitch, rosin, etc.

_Light-ball._--These are made in the same manner as fire-balls, the
shell being omitted.

_Tarred-links._--Tarred links are used for lighting up a rampart,
defile, etc., or for incendiary purposes. They consist of coils of soft
rope placed on top of each other, and loosely tied together; they are
immersed in a composition of 20 parts of pitch, and one of tallow; when
dry, they are plunged into a composition of equal parts of pitch and
rosin, and rolled in tow or sawdust.

_Pitched-fascines._--Fagots of vine twigs or other very combustible
wood, about 20 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, tied in three
places with iron wire. They may be treated in the same manner and used
for the same purposes as tarred-links.

_Torches._--A torch is a ball of rope impregnated with an inflammable
composition, and is fastened to the end of a stick, which is carried in
the hand.

_Offensive and Defensive Fireworks._--The principal preparations of this
class, employed in modern warfare, are _bags of powder_ and
_light-barrels_.

_Bags of Powder._--Bags or cases of powder may be used to blow down
gates, stockades, or form breaches in thin walls. The petard was
formerly employed for these purposes, but it is now generally thrown
aside. The effect of the explosion may be much increased by making three
sides of the bag of leather, and the fourth of canvas, which should rest
against the object.

_Light-barrel._--A light barrel is a common powder barrel pierced with
numerous holes, and filled with shavings that have been soaked in a
composition of pitch and rosin; it serves to light up a breach, or the
bottom of a ditch.

_Fireworks._--Ornamental fireworks are divided into fixed pieces,
movable pieces, decorative pieces, and preparations for communicating
fire from one part of a piece to another. The different effects are
produced by modifying the proportions of the ingredients of the burning
composition, so as to quicken or retard combustion, or by introducing
substances that give color and brilliancy to the flame. The fixed pieces
are _lances_, _petards_, _gerbes_, _flames_, etc.

_Lances._--These are small paper tubes filled with a composition which
emits a brilliant light in burning. See LANCE A FEU.

_Petard._--Petards are small paper cartridges filled with powder.

_Gerbe._--Gerbes are strong paper tubes or cases filled with a burning
composition. The ends are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or clay.
The movable pieces are _sky-rockets_, _tourbillions_, _Saxons_, _jets_,
_Roman candles_, _paper shells_, etc.

_Sky-rocket._--Sky-rockets are the same as the signal-rockets before
described, except that the composition is arranged to give out a more
brilliant train of fire. Composition: 122 parts mealed powder, 80 parts
nitre, 40 parts sulphur, and 40 parts cast-iron filings.

_Tourbillion._--The tourbillion is a case filled with sky-rocket
composition, and which moves with an upward spiral motion.

_Saxon._--The Saxon is similar to the tourbillion; it has the appearance
of a revolving sun.

_Jets._--Jets are rocket-cases filled with a burning composition; they
are attached to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a movable
arm, to set it in motion.

_Roman candles._--A Roman candle is a strong paper tube containing
stars, which are successively thrown out by a small charge of powder
placed under each star. A slow-burning composition is placed over each
star to prevent its taking fire at once.

_Paper Shell._--This piece is a paper shell filled with decorative
pieces, and fired from a common mortar. It contains a small bursting
charge of powder, and has a fuze regulated to ignite it when the shell
reaches the summit of its trajectory.

_Decorative Pieces._--Decorative pieces are _stars_, _serpents_,
_marrons_, etc., described under the head of ROCKETS.

_Preparations for communicating fire_ from one piece to another are
_quick-match_, _leaders, ort-fires_, and _mortar-fuzes_. The leader is
a thin paper tube containing a strand of quick-match. See QUICK-MATCH,
etc.

=Pyroxyline=, or =Pyroxyle=. Gun-cotton (which see).

=Pyrrhic Dance.= The most famous of all the war-dances of antiquity; is
said to have received its name from Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, the son of
Achilles, and was a Doric invention. According to Plato, it aimed to
represent the nimble motions of a warrior either avoiding missiles and
blows, or assaulting the enemy; and in the Doric states it was as much a
piece of military training as an amusement. Elsewhere in Greece, it was
purely a mimetic dance, in which the parts were sometimes represented by
women. It formed part of the public entertainments at the Panathenaic
festivals. Julius Cæsar introduced it at Rome, where it became a great
favorite.



Q.


=Quadi.= A powerful and warlike German tribe, belonging to the Suevic
race, whose territories were situated between the Danube, the Bohemian
mountains, and the river Marus. They make their first appearance in
history in the 1st century as formidable foes of the Romans. Their
bodies were covered with mail, consisting of plates of horn; their
weapons were long spears; and each man had three swift horses for his
use in battle. Thus equipped, they commenced the practice of making
rapid and sweeping raids into Pannonia, Mœsia, and other neighboring
provinces. Sometimes they routed the imperial forces which tried to
check their inroads. At all times they returned home with their
predatory spirit unbroken. No reverses in fact, however frequent, could
daunt those wild border troopers of the Danube. The emperors Marcus
Aurelius, Probus, Carus, and Valentinian I., defeated them without
subduing or crushing them. The last glimpse that we get of them in
history shows them in company with other barbaric hordes, in 407,
overrunning Gaul, and reveling in boundless havoc and slaughter.

=Quadrant.= An instrument for measuring altitudes, variously constructed
and mounted for different specific uses in astronomy, surveying,
gunnery, etc., consisting commonly of a graduated arc of 90°, with an
index or vernier, and either plain or telescopic sights, together with a
plumb-line or spirit-level for fixing the vertical or horizontal
direction.

=Quadrant, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S QUADRANT.

=Quadrat.= Or to quadrat a gun, is to see it duly placed on its
carriage, and that the wheels be of an equal height.

=Quadriga.= In antiquity, a car or chariot, drawn by four horses
harnessed abreast. This chariot was used in battle and in triumphal
processions.

=Quadrilateral.= In military language, an expression designating a
combination of four fortresses, not necessarily connected together, but
mutually supporting each other; and from the fact that if one be
attacked, the garrisons of the others, unless carefully observed, will
harass the besiegers, rendering it necessary that a very large army
should be employed to turn the combined position. As a remarkable
instance, and a very powerful one, may be cited the celebrated
quadrilateral in Venetia, comprising the four strong posts of Mantua,
Verona, Peschiera, and Legnago. These form a sort of outwork to the
bastion which the southern mountains of the Tyrol constitute, and divide
the north plain of the Po into two sections by a most powerful barrier.
Napoleon III., in 1859, even after the victories of Magenta and
Solferino, hesitated to attack this quadrilateral.

=Quadrille= (_Fr._). Small parties of horse richly caparisoned, etc., in
tournaments and at public festivals. The quadrilles were distinguished
from one another by the shape or color of the coats which the riders
wore.

=Quadruple Alliance.= Between Great Britain, France, and the emperor of
Germany (signed at London, July 22, 1718); it obtained its name on the
accession of the states of Holland, February 8, 1719. It guaranteed the
succession of the reigning families of Great Britain and France, settled
the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to war.

=Quadruple Treaty.= Concluded in London, April 22, 1834, by the
representatives of Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, which
guaranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., the young queen
of Spain.

=Quaker-guns= (Fr. _passe-volans_). Were wooden pieces of ordnance which
were made to resemble real artillery. They subsequently were used in
other countries, and placed in the embrasures of forts, in order to
deceive an enemy.

=Quarrel=, or =Quarry=. An arrow with a square head, for a cross-bow,
was so called.

=Quarrels.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 24.

=Quarte.= In tactics, a word of command given in the bayonet exercise;
as, quarte parry, to thrust in quarte.

=Quarter.= A fourth part of anything.

=Quarter.= To furnish with shelter or entertainment; to supply with the
means of living for a time; especially to furnish shelter to; as, to
quarter soldiers.

=Quarter.= In heraldry, one of the divisions of a shield, when it is
divided into four portions by horizontal and perpendicular lines meeting
in the fesse point; especially either of the two divisions thus made.
Also, to bear as an appendage to the hereditary arms. “The coat of
Beauchamp ... quartered by the Earl of Hertford.”

=Quarter.= In war, signifies the sparing of the life of a vanquished
enemy, which by the laws of war is forfeit to the victor. The expression
seems to be derived from the use of the word “quarter” to designate the
lodging of the particular warrior; to _give quarter_ to a prisoner being
to send him to his captor’s quarter for liberation, ransom, or slavery.
The refusal of quarter is a terrible aggravation of the horrors of war,
and is only at all justifiable towards an enemy who has been guilty of
atrocious cruelty himself, or of some flagrant breach of faith.

=Quarter Arms, To.= In heraldry, to place the arms of other families in
the compartments of a shield, which is divided into four quarters, the
family arms being placed in the first quarter. When more than three
other arms are to be quartered with the family arms, it is usual to
divide the shield into a suitable number of compartments; and still the
arms are said to be _quartered_.

=Quarter Guard.= The guard which is stationed in front of the centre of
the camp of each corps, at about 80 paces from it.

=Quarter of Assembly.= The place where the troops meet to march from in
a body, and is the same as the place of rendezvous.

=Quarter Upon, To.= Is to oblige persons to receive soldiers, etc., into
their dwelling-houses, and to provide for them. In the United States no
soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the
consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
prescribed by law.

=Quarter-block.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Quartering.= In heraldry, the division of a shield containing many
coats. See QUARTER.

=Quarterly.= In heraldry, in quarters or quarterings; as, to bear arms
quarterly.

=Quartermaster.= A regimental staff-officer, of the relative rank of
lieutenant, whose duty is to look after the assignment of quarters, the
provision of clothing, forage, fuel, and all other quartermaster’s
supplies; and when on the march he sees to the marking out of the camp.
He is appointed by the colonel of the regiment, subject to the approval
of the Secretary of War. He vacates his staff position when promoted to
the rank of captain, or at the discretion of the colonel. In the British
service the regimental quartermaster rises, with scarcely any exception,
from the ranks. He has no further promotion to look forward to; but
after thirty years’ service in all--including ten as an officer--he may
retire with the honorary rank of captain.

=Quartermaster-General.= A staff-officer in the U. S. army, who has the
rank of brigadier-general, and is at the head of the quartermaster’s
department.

=Quartermaster’s Department.= This department provides the quarters and
transportation of the army, except that, when practicable, wagons and
their equipment are provided by the ordnance department; storage and
transportation for all army supplies; army clothing; camp and garrison
equipage; cavalry and artillery horses; fuel, forage, straw, and
stationery. The incidental expenses of the army (also paid through the
quartermaster’s department) include per diem to extra-duty men; of the
pursuit and apprehension of deserters; of the burials of officers and
soldiers; of hired escorts; of expresses, interpreters, spies, and
guides; medicines for horses; and of supplying posts with water; and,
generally, the proper and authorized expenses for the movements and
operations of an army not expressly assigned to any other department.
The present organization of the quartermaster’s department consists of 1
quartermaster-general, with the rank of brigadier-general; 3 assistant
quartermaster-generals, with the rank of colonels; 8 deputy
quartermaster-generals, with the rank of lieutenant-colonels; 14
quartermasters, with the rank of majors; and 30 assistant
quartermasters, with the rank of captains.

=Quartermaster-Sergeant.= A non-commissioned officer who assists the
quartermaster. He ranks among the regimental non-commissioned staff, and
is appointed by the colonel of a regiment upon the recommendation of the
quartermaster.

=Quarters.= In military affairs, are, generally, the positions assigned
to persons or bodies of men. In a more special sense, the quarters in
the army are the places of lodging assigned to officers or men when not
actually on duty.

=Quarters.= The encampment on one of the principal passages round a
place besieged, to prevent relief and intercept convoys.

=Quarters, Choice of.= In the U. S. service, when officers arrive in a
garrison they shall have choice of quarters according to rank; but the
commanding officer may direct the officers to be stationed near their
troops. The commanding officer of a post cannot be displaced by his
senior who does not command, though assigned to the same post. An
officer who has made his choice of quarters cannot again displace a
junior, unless himself displaced by a senior.

=Quarters, Intrenched.= A place fortified with a ditch and parapet to
secure a body of troops.

=Quarters of Refreshment.= The place where the troops that have been
much harassed are put to recover themselves, during some part of the
campaign.

=Quarters, Out of.= Beyond the prescribed limits. For punishment of
soldiers sleeping out of quarters, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 31.

=Quarter-sights.= In gunnery, are divisions marked on the upper quarters
of the base-ring, commencing where it would be intersected by a plane
parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent to the upper surface of
the trunnions. These sights are used for giving elevations up to three
degrees; but especially for pointing a piece at a less elevation than
the natural angle of sight. Quarter-sights are not used in the U. S.
service.

=Quarter-staff.= Formerly a favorite weapon with the English for
hand-to-hand encounters; was a stout pole of heavy wood, about 6¹⁄₂ feet
long, shod with iron on both ends. It was grasped in the middle by one
hand, and the attack was made by giving it a rapid circular motion,
which brought the loaded ends on the adversary at unexpected points.

=Quasi Officers.= See SURGEONS, ACTING-ASSISTANT.

=Quatre Bras.= See WATERLOO.

=Quatrefoil.= A heraldic bearing meant to represent a flower with four
leaves. It is not represented with a stalk unless blazoned as _slipped_,
in which case the stalk joins the lower leaf.

=Quebec.= The capital of the province of Quebec, formerly Canada East,
is situated on a steep promontory at the junction of the rivers St.
Lawrence and St. Charles, and its citadel is the most impregnable
fortress on the continent of America. The site of Quebec, originally
occupied by an Indian village named Stadacona, was discovered by Jacques
Cartier in 1535; but the city was founded by Champlain in 1608. It was
taken from the French by the English in 1626, restored in 1632, and
fortified in 1690. It remained in the possession of the French till
1759, when in consequence of the victory of Wolfe, it was surrendered to
the British, and finally confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in
1763. Quebec was attacked by the American republicans in 1775, but the
siege was raised in the following year. Since then its capture has not
been attempted.

=Queen Anne’s Pocket-piece.= An ancient 18-pounder cannon at Dover,
England. See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Queen’s Color.= In the British service, the one which is carried on the
right of the two colors of a battalion of infantry. It is, in the line,
the great union or union-jack, with the imperial crown in the centre and
the number of the regiment in gold Roman characters below the crown. In
the Guards the queen’s color is crimson, with various devices on it.

=Queen’s County.= An inland county of the province of Leinster, Ireland.
Queen’s County anciently formed part of the districts of Leix and
Ossory; and after the English invasion, on the submission of the chief
O’More, the territory retained a qualified independence. Under Edward
II., the O’Mores became so powerful, that for a long series of years an
unceasing contest was maintained by them with the English, with various
alternations of success. In the reign of Edward VI., Bellingham, the
lord-deputy, succeeded in re-annexing the territory of the O’Mores to
the Pale; and in Mary’s reign it was reduced to a shire.

=Queenstown.= A town of Upper Canada. It was taken by the U. S. troops
October 13, 1812; but was retaken by the British forces, who defeated
the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners,
on the same day. Queenstown suffered severely in this war.

=Quell.= To crush; to subdue; to put down; to reduce; as, the military
were called out to quell the riot.

=Quentin, Saint-.= See SAINT-QUENTIN.

=Queretaro.= An important town of Mexico, capital of a state of the same
name, situated on a hilly plateau, 110 miles northwest of the city of
Mexico. The peace between Mexico and the United States was ratified here
by the Mexican congress in 1848. The town was besieged and taken
(through the treachery of Lopez) by the Liberal general Escobedo, May
15, 1867. The emperor Maximilian, and his generals Miramon and Mejia,
were taken prisoners, and after trial, were shot on June 19 following.

=Quesnoy.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Nord. It was
taken by the Austrians, September 11, 1793, but was recovered by the
French, August 16, 1794. It surrendered to Prince Frederick of the
Netherlands, June 29, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo.

=Queue.= A tail-like twist of hair formerly worn at the back of the head
by soldiers.

=Queues d’Hironde= (_Fr._). In fortification, lines composed of
projecting tenailles, or works, which, from the facility with which an
enemy can enfilade their long branches, are considered extremely
defective, and consequently are seldom employed.

=Quiberon.= A town of France, in the department of Morbihan, situated on
a long and narrow peninsula of the same name, which, with some islands,
forms one of the largest bays in Europe, 20 miles southwest from Vannes.
A body of French emigrant royalists, under D’Hervilly and Puisaye,
landed here from an English fleet, on June 27, 1795, and endeavored to
rouse the people of Brittany and La Vendée against the Convention, but
were defeated, in July, and driven into the sea by Gen. Hoche. A large
number of prisoners taken were shot, by order of the Convention. During
the war of the Austrian Succession, an English force attempted a landing
here (1746), but was repulsed.

=Qui Vive? Qui va La? Qui est La?= (_Fr._) Literally means, Who is
alive? Who goes there? and Who is there? These terms are used by the
French sentinels when they challenge, and are equivalent to the English
challenge, Who comes there?

=Quick Time.= In tactics, the length of the direct step in quick time is
28 inches, measured from heel to heel; the cadence is at the rate of 110
steps per minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour.

=Quick-match.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Quickstep.= A lively, spirited march generally played by military
bands.

=Quiloa=, or =Keelwa=. A seaport town of Zanguebar, on the east coast of
Africa, 225 miles north of Mozambique. It was taken and burned by the
Portuguese, in 1505, but abandoned by them soon after.

=Quincunx.= Forming a body of men checkerwise.

=Quintain=, or =Quintin=. An instrument used in the ancient practice of
tilting. It consisted of an upright post, on the top of which a cross
post turned upon a pivot; at one end of the cross post was a broad
board, and at the other a bag of sand. The practice was to ride against
the board with a lance, at such speed as to pass by before the sand-bag
could strike the tilter on the back.

=Quinte.= The fifth guard in fencing.

=Quirites.= In ancient Rome the citizens were so called as distinguished
from the soldiery.

=Quischens.= The old term for _cuisses_, the pieces of armor which
protected the thighs.

=Quit.= To leave; to abandon. _To quit your post or ranks_, is to
retire, without having received any previous order for that purpose,
from a station intrusted to your care, or a position in which you may
be. For punishment inflicted upon persons quitting their posts, see
APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 40.

=Quiver.= A case or sheath for arrows.

=Quoin.= In gunnery, is a wedge used to lay under the breech of a gun to
elevate or depress it.

=Quota.= A proportional part or share; or the share, part, or proportion
assigned to each. “Quota of troops and money.”



R.


=Raab=, or =Nagy-Gyor=. A town of Hungary, 67 miles west-northwest of
Buda. A battle was fought under its walls in June, 1809, in which
Napoleon totally defeated the disorderly force of the Hungarian nobles.

=Rabinet.= A small piece of ordnance formerly in use. It weighed but 300
pounds, and fired a small ball of 1³⁄₈ inch diameter; with a very
limited range.

=Rachat des Cloches= (_Fr._). Redemption of bells. Formerly in France
when a fortified place was taken, the bells became the property of the
master-general of artillery, which were usually redeemed by the
inhabitants at a certain price; it was necessary that the place should
be attacked by artillery in order to secure this right over the bells.

=Rack, Forage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, BATTERY-WAGON.

=Rack-stick and Lashing.= Consist of a piece of two-inch rope, about 6
feet long, fastened to a picket about 15 inches long, having a hole in
its head to receive the rope. Rack lashings are used for securing the
planks of a gun or mortar platform, between the ribbons and the
sleepers.

=Radius.= In fortification, a term applied to a line drawn from the
centre of the polygon to the extremity of the exterior side. There are
the _exterior_, the _interior_, and the _right radii_.

=Radstadt.= See RASTADT.

=Raft.= A species of floating bridge for the passage of rivers, on which
the soldiers and light artillery may be safely conveyed.

=Raft of Casks.= This raft may be constructed by forming a frame of
timber to contain the casks.

The frame consists of four longitudinal pieces halved into four
transoms. The long pieces must be at least 20 feet long, and their
distance apart be a little less than the head diameter of the casks. The
under edges are beveled so as to give them a good bearing on the casks.

In default of square timber, poles may be used in the construction of
the frame. The string-pieces and transoms may be spiked or lashed at
their points of junction.

The four exterior casks in the raft should be lashed to the frame,
otherwise they may be carried off by the current when the raft lurches.
For other kinds of rafts, see PONTONS.

=Raft, Prairie.= See PONTONS.

=Rafts, Timber.= Employ the largest and longest timber, giving at least
35 feet length to the raft. Shorter than this it will not have
sufficient stability, but will be subject to dangerous oscillations,
especially in a rapid stream. Squaring the timber will be worse than
useless. Any irregularities, such as branches and knots, should be
trimmed off. The raft must be built in the water. Select a place where
there is little current, and where the bank slopes gently to the water.

The timber is then arranged in the position it is to have in the
raft,--the butts alternately up and down the stream,--the upstream ends
forming a right angle, salient up-stream.

Suppose the case of a raft to be composed of 20 logs, 47 feet long, and
averaging 12 inches in diameter.

The first log is brought alongside the shore, and the end of a plank or
small trunk of a tree is spiked to it, about 3 feet from each end; it is
pushed off a little, and a second log is brought up, under the transoms
and in close contact with the first.

The second log is spiked like the first, and so on for each of the
remaining logs; care being taken to alternate the butts, placing the
whistle ends up-stream with the bevel underneath, and to spike the
transoms perpendicular to the logs. When the current of the river in
which the raft is to be used is very gentle, the up-stream ends may be
on a line parallel to the transom; but if rapid, they should form a
right-angle salient upstream, the vertex being in the middle log.

When the bank is too steep to admit of this construction, the trees may
be floated into their proper positions, lashed together, and the
transoms spiked on; if the logs are nearly of the same size, the centre
of gravity will be near the centre of the raft.

Two additional transoms are spiked at equal distances from the centre of
gravity of the raft, and at a distance apart equal to the width of the
roadway or platform.

The transoms should be about 8 inches wide by 6 inches thick, and should
have a bearing on all the logs forming the raft. When a platform is to
be constructed on the raft, intermediate transoms are laid, and at a
distance apart depending on the strength of the planking. The size of
the platform must be regulated by the buoyant power of the raft. A
single course of logs will not have sufficient power to sustain troops
enough to cover its whole surface. When the raft is to be used in a
bridge the two intermediate transoms are separated by a distance a
little less than the length of the chess, and placed at equal distances
from a point somewhat astern of the centre of gravity of the raft, in
order to correct the downward action of the cable on the bow.

For use in a bridge, a raft should be able to sustain at least 15,000
pounds. The same expedients are employed for the anchorage of rafts as
boats.

Rafts are sometimes constructed for flying-bridges in the form of a
lozenge, the acute angles being about 55°,--so that when two of the
sides are parallel to the action of the current, the up-stream side,
which in this form is the only one acted on by the current, is in the
most favorable position.

=Raguled=, or =Ragguld=. In heraldry, jagged or notched in an irregular
manner.

=Raguled, Cross.= One made of two trunks of trees without their
branches, of which only the stumps appear.

=Raguly.= In heraldry, a term applied to an ordinary whose bounding
lines are furnished with serrated projections.

=Ragusa.= A town of Austria, formerly the capital of an independent
republic which now forms part of the kingdom of Dalmatia, on a peninsula
on the east side of the Adriatic, and built in terraces on the side of
Mount Sergio, the upper streets communicating with the lower by a flight
of steps. It is strongly fortified with citadels, forts, and walls. It
was taken by the Venetians in 1171, but became an independent republic,
1358; was taken by the French in 1806, and given up to Austria in 1814.

=Rahmanieh.= A town of Lower Egypt, situated at the junction of the Nile
with the canal of Alexandria, 25 miles southeast from Rosetta. The
French, during their occupation of Egypt, made it a fortified station.
It was taken from them by the British in 1801.

=Raid.= A hostile or predatory incursion, especially an inroad or
incursion of mounted men; a sudden and rapid invasion by a cavalry
force.

=Raillon= (_Fr._). A quarrel; a short arrow.

=Rail-platform.= See PLATFORM.

=Rails.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Rain=, or =Rhain=. A town of Bavaria, 22 miles north from Augsburg,
where the Austrian general Tilly received his mortal wound in 1632.

=Raise.= Armies are _raised_ in two ways: either by voluntary
engagements, or by lot or conscription. The Greek and Roman levies were
the result of a rigid system of conscription. The Visigoths practiced a
general conscription; poverty, old age, and sickness, were the only
reasons admitted for exemption. “Subsequently” (says Hallam), “the
feudal military tenures had superseded that earlier system of public
defense, which called upon every man, and especially upon every
land-holder, to protect his country. The relations of a vassal came in
place of those of a subject and a citizen. This was the revolution of
the 9th century. In the 12th and 13th another innovation rather more
gradually prevailed, and marks the third period in the military history
of Europe. Mercenary troops were substituted for the feudal militia.
These military adventurers played a more remarkable part in Italy than
in France, though not a little troublesome to the latter country.” A
necessary effect of the formation of mercenaries was the centralization
of authority. Money became the sinews of war. The invention of fire-arms
caused it to be acknowledged that skill was no less essential for
warlike operations than strength and valor. Towards the end of the
Middle Ages, the power of princes was calculated by the number and
quality of paid troops they could support. France first set the example
of keeping troops in peace. Charles VII., foreseeing the danger of
invasion, authorized the assemblage of armed mercenaries called
_compagnies d’ordonnance_. Louis XI. dismissed these troops but enrolled
new ones, composed of French, Swiss, and Scotch. Under Charles VIII.,
Germans were admitted in the French army, and the highest and most
illustrious nobles of France regarded it as an honor to serve in the
_gens d’armes_. Moral qualifications not being exacted for admission to
the ranks, the restraints of a barbarous discipline became necessary,
and this discipline divided widely the soldier from the people. The
French revolution overturned this system. “Now” (says Decker) “mercenary
troops have completely disappeared from continental Europe. England only
now raises armies by the system of _recruiters_. The last wars of Europe
have been wars of the people, and have been fought by nationalities.
After peace armies remain national, for their elements are taken from
the people by legal liberations. The institution of conscription is
evidently the most important of modern times. Among other advantages, it
has bridged the otherwise impassable gulf between the citizen and
soldier, who, children of the same family, are now united in defense of
their country. Permanent armies have ceased to be the personal guard of
kings, but their sympathies are always with the people, and their just
title is that of skillful warriors maintained as a nucleus for the
instruction of their countrymen in the highest school of art.”

=Raise a Blockade, To.= To remove or break up a blockade, either by
withdrawing the ships or forces employed in enforcing it, or by driving
them away or dispersing them.

=Raise a Purchase, To.= To dispose instruments or machines in such a
manner as to exert any mechanical force required.

=Raise a Siege, To.= To relinquish an attempt to take a place by
besieging it, or to cause the attempt to be relinquished.

=Rajah=, or =Raja=. A hereditary prince among the Hindus belonging to
the warrior caste, or the Kshattriya. In later times it became a title
given by the British government to Hindus of rank, and is now not
uncommonly assumed by the zemindars, or land-holders; the title of
Maharajah, or “great Rajah,” being in these days generally reserved to
the more or less independent native princes.

=Rajpoots=, or =Rajputs=. Is the name of various tribes in India which
are of Aryan origin, and either descended from the old royal races of
the Hindus, or from their Kshattriya, or warrior caste. They attained a
high degree of power and renown just before the Mohammedan conquests in
the 12th century. In 1193 and 1194 the Rajpoot chiefs sustained more
than one defeat at the hands of the Mohammedans, and were deprived of
all their possessions except the regions they now occupy. They came
under the protection of the English, from about the beginning of this
century, when the Rajpoots proved unable to defend their country against
the Mahrattas.

=Rake.= To enfilade; to fire in a direction with the length of; as, to
rake the enemy’s ranks.

=Rally.= To bring back to order troops that may have been dispersed, or
have retreated in a panic.

=Rally.= To come into orderly arrangement; to renew order, as troops
scattered or put to flight; to assemble; to unite.

=Ram.= To push home the charge of a gun; also, the corresponding word of
command.

=Ram, Battering-.= See BATTERING-RAM.

=Ram Home, To.= To drive home the ammunition in a gun.

=Ramillies.= A village of Brabant, Belgium, 28 miles southeast of
Brussels, is memorable as the place near which one of the most important
battles of the War of the Spanish Succession was fought, May 23, 1706.
In this conflict the French forces were under the command of Marshal de
Villeroy and the elector of Bavaria, while the Duke of Marlborough led
the troops of the allies. Villeroy, after a battle of three hours and a
half, was defeated, with the loss of all his cannon, the whole of his
baggage, and 13,000 men in killed and wounded. The great result of this
victory was that the French were compelled to give up the whole of the
Spanish Netherlands. About 4000 of the allies were slain in the
engagement.

=Rammer.= See IMPLEMENTS, and INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Rammer-head.= See IMPLEMENTS, and INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Ramnuggur.= A walled town of the Punjab, on the Chenaub, 62 miles
northwest of Lahore. Here the Sikh army was defeated by the British,
October, 1848.

=Ramp.= An oblique or sloping interior road to mount the terre-plein of
the rampart.

=Rampant= (_Fr._, literally, “raging”). In heraldry, an epithet applied
to a lion or other beast of prey when placed erect on the two hind-legs,
with only one of the fore-legs elevated, the head being seen in profile.
When the face is turned toward the spectator, the attitude is called
_rampant gardant_, and when the head is turned backwards, _rampant
regardant_. A lion _counter-rampant_ is one rampant towards the
sinister, instead of towards the dexter, the usual attitude. Two lions
rampant contrariwise in saltire, are sometimes also said to be
_counter-rampant_.

=Rampart.= To fortify with ramparts.

=Rampart-grenades.= Grenades used to defend a rampart. Shells of large
size may be used, being rolled down the parapet. See GRENADE.

=Rampart-gun.= A large gun fitted for rampart use, and not used for
field purposes.

=Ramparts.= In fortification, are broad embankments or masses of earth
which surround fortified places. A rampart forms the _enceinte_, or body
of the place, and on its exterior edge the parapet is placed, while
towards the place it is terminated by the interior slope of the rampart,
on which _ramps_ are made for the easy ascent of the troops and
material. See BULWARK.

=Rampier.= The same as rampart.

=Rampire.= The same as rampart,--seldom used except in poetry.

=Ramps.= Are inclined planes of earth serving as a means of
communication between two levels. A ramp for a field-gun is 8 feet wide,
and for short distances it has a slope of one-fourth to one-sixth. When
the distance is long the slope is increased to as much as one-twelfth.

=Ramrod.= The rod of iron formerly used in loading a piece to drive home
a charge; but now used to clean the rifle.

=Ram’s Horns.= In fortification, a kind of low works made in the ditch
of a circular arc, which serves instead of tenailles.

=Rancheros= (from the Spanish _rancho_, “comradeship”). Is the name
given in Mexico to a mixed breed of Spanish and Indian blood, who
inhabit the country, and may almost be said to live in the saddle from
their youth; are splendid riders and hunters, and form the bravest part
of the Mexican army,--its irregular cavalry. The importance of their
services was seen in the wars between Mexico and the United States. The
rancheros are lank in frame, with brown, weather-stained faces and
muscular limbs, hardy, temperate, and always ready for the boldest
enterprises.

=Rancon= (_Fr._). The name of an old weapon, consisting of a long stake
with a sharp iron point at one end, and two blades or wings bent
backwards, and extremely keen.

=Random.= Distance to which a missile is thrown or projected; range;
reach; as, the farthest random of a missile weapon.

=Random Shot.= A shot not directed or aimed towards any particular
object, or when the piece is elevated at an angle of 45° upon a level
plane.

=Range.= In artillery, is the horizontal distance from the muzzle of the
piece to the first graze of the projectile. The extreme range is the
distance from the muzzle to where the projectile finally rests. The
range of a projectile may be extended without increasing the charge of
powder, in the modes, viz.: 1st, by raising the piece to a higher level;
2d, by giving its axis greater elevation; 3d, by _eccentric_
projectiles. Experiments have shown that if the centre of gravity be
placed directly above the centre of figure, the range is greatly
increased. The range increases with the angle of fire up to a certain
limit, beyond which it diminishes. The greatest range in _vacuo_ is at
an angle of 45°. A mortar is usually fired at an angle of 45°, and the
charge is varied according to the range required. Mortars are sometimes
fired at an angle of 60°, when the battery is situated very near the
object assailed, and it is desired that the shells may fall upon the
magazines of the besieged. It is evident that the higher projectiles are
thrown, the greater the velocity they acquire in falling; besides, they
strike the object more directly and with increased violence.
Stone-mortars were sometimes fired at an angle of 75°, that, in falling
from a great height, the stone might have the maximum force of
percussion. Grenades should be thrown from mortars at an angle of 33°;
otherwise they will be buried in the earth, and their fragments will not
be sufficiently destructive. For tables of ranges, see Roberts’s
“Hand-book of Artillery.”

=Range, Point-blank.= See POINT-BLANK RANGE.

=Range-finder.= An instrument for determining ranges. There are several
different principles which may be used. The distance may be measured,
1st, by the visual angle subtended by objects of known height; 2d, by
the velocity of sound; 3d, the instrument may furnish a base-line in
itself and solve a triangle in which the base and two adjacent angles
are given. The term is also applied to instruments used to solve a
triangle, the base of which is obtained by outside means. Range-finders
constructed on the visual angle principle have been known for many
years. _Boulanger’s_ instrument uses the 2d principle. It consists of a
glass tube closed at both ends filled with a liquid in which a small
umbrella-shaped piece of metal is submerged. The tube is held vertically
in the hand, the metal slowly sinks to the bottom. When the flash of the
enemy’s gun is seen, the tube is inverted and the metal moves towards
the other end. When the sound is heard, the tube is brought to the
horizontal. The distance through which the piece of metal has moved
gives the range by means of a scale on the side of the tube. _Berdan’s
range-finder_ is an expensive instrument using the 3d principle. It is
mounted on a wagon, and intended to accompany either foot-troops or
artillery. It has found great favor in Germany. _Nolan’s range-finder_
consists of an instrument for automatically solving triangles. A similar
thing was devised about 1870 by two American officers, Maj. Morgan of
the 4th Artillery, and Capt. Lorain of the 3d Artillery. The most
ingenious, complete range-finder has been proposed by Lieut. Gordon of
the 4th Artillery. He uses two fixed angles and a variable base-line
supplied by the instrument itself. The principal parts of Nolan’s
range-finder are: Two instruments for measuring angles, one tape-line,
and one reckoning cylinder. Each of the two instruments consist of two
telescopes, which lie crosswise one above the other under an angle of
about 90°; the smaller of the two has a long arm, with a vernier at one
end; to the other a sector is fastened, which is divided up into
degrees. By means of a screw, an angle of about 20° can be described by
the upper or smaller telescope. The reckoning cylinder consists of a
solid body and two rotating rings. The lower ring and the lower edge of
the body are divided into 100 equal parts. On the upper ring are the
logarithms of the figures, and on the upper edge of the body are the
logarithms of the signs, from 6″ up to 2° 15′.

To find the range, the instruments on their tripods are arranged at the
end of the assumed base-line, which is perpendicular to the range; or
the instruments may be attached to the right and left guns of a battery.
The long telescopes are turned toward the object whose distance is to be
found; the smaller ones upon each other, and the cross-threads of each
made to cover the cross-lines on the leather disk through which each
small telescope points. The coincidence obtained by directing the longer
telescope on the object, the two angles at the base are determined; the
base-line being measured, one side and two angles of the triangle are
obtained. With this data recourse is then had to the reckoning cylinder.
The arrow marked “band” is set on the figure that corresponds with the
distance between the instruments or base-line,--say 34 yards; then set
the arrow on the lower ring on the figure corresponding with the angle
found through the instrument,--say 18°; then find the figure for the
number of degrees of the other angle,--say 42° on the lower ring. Just
above that is the figure 60 on the other division of the lower ring;
coinciding with this on the lower edge of the upper ring is the
distance, 1320 yards. The bases used are from 30 to 40 yards for a range
of 2000 yards and over.

_Watkins’s range-finder_ and _Gautier’s telemeter_ are instruments which
require a measured base-line. See TELEMETER.

=Ranger.= One of a body of mounted troops, who were formerly armed with
short muskets, and who ranged over the country around, and often fought
on foot.

=Ranging.= The disposal of troops in proper order for an engagement,
manœuvres, or march, etc.

=Rank.= Range of subordination, degree of authority. The relative
situations which officers hold with respect to each other, or to
military things in general. Questions as to the positive or relative
rank of officers may often be of the greatest importance at law, in
consequence of the rule, that every person who justifies his own acts on
the ground of obedience to superior authority must establish, by clear
evidence, the sufficiency of the authority on which he so relies. There
may also be many occasions on which the propriety of an officer’s
assumption of command, or his exercise of particular functions, or his
right to share with a particular class of officers in prize-money,
bounties, grants, and other allowances, may depend on the correctness of
the view taken by himself or others of his rights to a specific rank or
command; and an error in this respect may expose him to personal loss
and damage in suits before the civil tribunals. The regulation of
military rank is vested absolutely in Congress, which confers or varies
it at pleasure. The will of Congress in this respect is signified by the
creation of different grades of rank; by making rules of appointment and
promotion; by other rules of government and regulation; or is by fair
deduction to be inferred from the nature of the functions assigned to
each officer; for every man who is intrusted with an employment is
presumed to be invested with all the powers necessary for the effective
discharge of the duties annexed to his office. Rank and grade are
synonymous, and in their military acceptation indicate rights, powers,
and duties, determined by laws, creating the different degrees of rank,
and specifying fixed forms for passing from grade to grade and when rank
in one body shall give command in another body; and also when rank in
the army at large shall not be exercised. Rank is a right of which an
officer cannot be deprived, except through forms prescribed by law. When
an officer is on duty, the rank itself indicates his relative position
to other officers of the body in which it is created. It is not,
however, a perpetual right to exercise command, because the President
may, under the 62d article of war, at any time relieve an officer from
duty; or an officer may be so relieved by arrest duly made according to
law; or by inability to perform duty from sickness, or by being placed
by competent authority on some other duty. But whenever an officer is on
duty his rank indicates his command.

=Rank.= A line of soldiers; a row of troops reckoned from side to side,
or in breadth;--opposed to _file_. _The ranks_, the order of common
soldiers; as, to reduce a non-commissioned officer to the ranks. _To
fill the ranks_, to supply the whole number, or a competent number. _To
take rank of_, to enjoy precedence over, or to have the right of taking
a higher place than.

=Rank and File.= The body of soldiers constituting the mass of the army,
and including corporals and privates. In a more extended sense, it
includes sergeants also, excepting the non-commissioned staff.

=Rank, Brevet.= See BREVET.

=Rank, Double.= A rank composed of front and rear files.

=Rank, Honorary.= That which merely gives a title and precedence,
without any command being attached to that rank.

=Rank, Insignia of.= Are badges or distinguishing marks of office of
honor. In the army of the United States the rank of officers is
determined by the insignia on the epaulettes and shoulder-straps, and is
as follows:

“For the general commanding the army, two gold-embroidered stars of five
rays, one on each side equidistant between the centre and the outer edge
of the strap, and a gold-embroidered shield in the centre. For the
lieutenant-general, three silver-embroidered stars of five rays, one
star on the centre of the strap, and one on each side equidistant
between the centre and outer edge of the strap; the centre star to be
the largest. For the major-generals, two silver-embroidered stars, the
centre of each star to be one inch from the outer edge of the gold
embroidery on the outer ends of the straps, both stars of the same size.
For a brigadier-general, the same as for a major-general, except that
there will be but one star instead of two. For a colonel, the same as
for a major-general, omitting the stars and introducing a
silver-embroidered eagle; cloth of the strap as follows: for the general
staff and staff corps--dark blue; artillery--scarlet; infantry--light or
sky-blue; cavalry--yellow. For a lieutenant-colonel, the same as for a
colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing a
silver-embroidered leaf at each end. For a major, the same as for a
colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing a
gold-embroidered leaf at each end. For a captain, the same as for a
colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing at each
end two gold-embroidered bars. For a first lieutenant, the same as for a
colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing at each
end one gold-embroidered bar. For a second lieutenant, the same as for a
colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle. For a brevet second
lieutenant, the same as for a second lieutenant.”

=Rank, Local.= See LOCAL RANK.

=Rank, Relative.= See RELATIVE RANK.

=Rank, Single.= A rank of single files.

=Rank, Substantive.= Is genuine rank, with all the command and
authority, as well as precedence, attaching to the title. For instance,
a regimental major possesses the substantive rank of major, while a
captain and brevet major is only a substantive captain. It may be
briefly described as being the reverse of brevet rank.

=Ranker.= One who ranks, or disposes in ranks; and one who arranges.

=Ransack.= To plunder; to pillage completely; to ravage; as, to ransack
a city.

=Ransom of Prisoners.= A prisoner of war, being a public enemy, is the
prisoner of the government, and not of the captor. No ransom can be paid
by a prisoner of war to his individual captor, or to any officer in
command. The government alone releases captives, according to rules
prescribed by itself.

=Rapier.= Is said to have had distinct meanings at different times, and
in ancient fencing to have been a long cutting broadsword; but for the
last century, at least, the rapier has been a light, highly-tempered,
edgeless, thrusting weapon, finely pointed and about 3 feet in length.
At present, it is worn only on occasions of court ceremonial, and
answers no other purpose than to incommode the wearer. In war a rapier
could never have been of any service.

=Rapine.= The act of plundering; the seizing and carrying away of things
by force; spoliation; pillage; plunder. Violence; force; also, to
plunder.

=Rappahannock.= A river of Virginia, formed by the union of the North
Fork and the Rapidan, 40 miles above Fredericksburg. On the Rappahannock
and the Rapidan occurred some of the most sanguinary battles of the war
of Secession, at Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and the Wilderness.

=Rapparee.= A wild Irish plunderer, so called from his being generally
armed with a _rapary_, or half-pike. The term was in common use in the
17th century.

=Rappel.= The beat of the drum to call soldiers to arms.

=Rarefaction.= The extension of the parts of a gas, by which it is made
to take up more room than it did before.

=Rasaldar.= In the East Indies, the name applied to the commander of
_rasallah_, which is 10,000 armed horsemen.

=Rasante.= A French term, applied to a style of fortification in which
the command of the works over each other, and over the country, is kept
very low, in order that the shot may more effectually sweep or graze the
ground before them.

=Ras-el-Kyma.= A fortress in the Persian Gulf, and formerly the
principal stronghold of the Joasmee pirates. This fortress was destroyed
and the pirates thoroughly subdued by an English force under Sir W. Kier
Grant in 1817.

=Rasgrad=, or =Hesarorad=. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, and
about 215 miles northwest from Constantinople. The Turks were defeated
here by the Russians in 1810.

=Rassova.= A fortified town of Turkey in Europe, on the right bank of
the Danube, 38 miles east by north of Silistria. Rassova was occupied
by the Russians for a short time in 1854.

=Rastadt=, =Radstadt=, or =Rastall=. A fortified town of the grand duchy
of Baden, on the Murg, not far from its confluence with the Rhine. The
peace of 1714, which put an end to the War of the Spanish Succession,
was signed in the palace by Prince Eugène and Marshal Villars. A
congress was held here in 1797-99, to negotiate a peace between France
and the empire, after which the French ambassadors, Roberjot and
Bonnier, were murdered on their return, only a short distance from the
town. At Rastadt the insurrection in Baden in 1849 first broke out; and
the insurgents, after a three weeks’ siege, were obliged to surrender at
discretion to the Prussians.

=Ratchet-post.= A cast-iron post at the head of large Rodman guns to
serve as a fulcrum for the bar used in elevating the gun. See FULCRUM.

=Ratchet-wheel.= A wheel with pointed and angular teeth, against which a
ratchet abuts, used either for converting a reciprocating into a
rotatory motion on the shaft to which it is fixed, or for admitting of
its motion in one direction only.

=Rate of March.= See HORSES, PACK AND DRAUGHT HORSES, and QUICK TIME.

=Rathenow=, or =Rathenau=. A town of Prussia, in the province of
Brandenburg, 45 miles west of Berlin. A victory was gained here in 1675
by the troops of Brandenburg under the elector Frederick William, over
the Swedes.

=Rathlin, Island of.= An island off the north coast of Ireland, 3 miles
northwest of Fairhead. It was the scene of more than one struggle in the
Danish wars, and it afforded shelter, after his defeat in Scotland, to
Robert Bruce. In 1558, the Scottish colony which then inhabited the
island was attacked by the lord-deputy Sussex, and expelled from it with
much slaughter.

=Rathmines.= A suburb of Dublin, on its south side, 1¹⁄₂ miles south of
Dublin Castle. It is the site of a battle-field, where Col. Jones,
governor of Dublin Castle, making a sally out, routed the Marquis of
Ormond, killed 4000 men, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon,
baggage, and ammunition, August 2, 1649.

=Ration.= A portion or fixed allowance of provisions, drink, and forage,
assigned to a soldier in the army, or a sailor in the navy, for his
daily subsistence, and for the subsistence of horses, etc.

The soldier’s ration in Europe is as follows:

AUSTRIA.

_Peace Ration._

  Bread                       31.   ounces.
  Meat without bone            6.6    „
  Suet                          .62 ounce.
  Vegetables                   2.48 ounces.
  Salt                          .6  ounce.
       22.37 ounces anhydrous food.

_War Ration._

  Fresh pork                   6.5  ounces.
  Or salt pork                 6.     „
  Or fresh beef                6.     „
  Or bacon                     6.     „
  Butter                        .14 ounce.
  Biscuit                      3.5  ounces.
  Flour                       25.2    „
  Fresh vegetables             2.1    „
  Beans                        1.5  ounce.
  Beer and wine               variable.
       38.6 ounces anhydrous food.

ENGLAND.

In the home service the soldier receives from the government:

  Bread                        1   pound.
  Meat                        ³⁄₄   „

The soldier buys

  Potatoes                    16.   ounces.
  Other vegetables             8.     „
  Milk                         3.25   „
  Sugar                        1.33 ounce.
  Salt                          .25   „
  Coffee                        .33   „

  The whole being equivalent to 23.4 ounces of anhydrous food.

In time of war the ration is varied according to location, climate, and
kind of service.

FRANCE.

During peace the soldier buys from the government his ration, paying 43
out of the 48 centimes which he receives per day, except in Paris, where
he pays 51 out of 58 centimes. Meat is furnished 35 per cent. below
market rates.

  Munition bread              26.5  ounces.
  White bread                  8.8    „
  Meat                        10.6    „
  Vegetables, green            3.5    „
  Beans                        1.1  ounce.
  Salt and pepper               .43   „
  If meat is salt beef         8.8  ounces.
  If meat is salt pork         7.     „
  Biscuit in lieu of bread    19.4    „
  Being equal to 24 ounces of anhydrous food.

_War Ration._

  Meat without bone            8.4  ounces.
  Bread                       35.3    „
  Or biscuit                  26.5    „
  Beans                        2.12   „
  Salt                          .5  ounce.
  Sugar                         .7    „
  Coffee                        .6    „
  Or in lieu of coffee, wine   9.   ounces.
  Or brandy                    2.2    „
    Being 24.56 ounces of anhydrous food.

PRUSSIA.

About one-half the daily pay is retained by the government for the
soldier’s food.

_Peace Ration._

                         Garrison.           Marching or Fatigue.
  Bread                26.5   ounces           26.5   ounces.
  Meat                  6.      „               8.2     „
  Rice                  3.2     „               4.22    „
  Or groats             4.21    „               5.28    „
  Or peas or beans      8.22    „              10.6     „
  Or potatoes          53.8     „              70.5     „
  Salt                   .87  ounce              .87  ounce.
  Coffee                 .468   „                .468   „
              26.57 oz. of anhydrous food.  28.26 oz. of anhydrous food.

_War Ration._

  Bread                       26.5  ounces.
  Or biscuit                  17.      „
   One   { Fresh beef         13.      „
    of   { Salt beef           9.      „
  these. { Bacon               5.75    „
  Rice                         4.4     „
   One   { Groats              4.4     „
    of   { Beans               8.8     „
  these. { Flour               8.8     „
  Potatoes                    50.      „
  Salt                         8.7     „
  Coffee, pure                  .7   ounce.
  Coffee, roasted              1.      „
       40.2 ounces anhydrous food.

RUSSIA.

                                           169 Fast Days.
                  196 Meat Days      117 days         52 days
                  with schtschi    schtschi and       peas and
                   and gruel.         gruel.           gruel.
  Meat             7.   oz.
  Bread           42.   oz.        42.   oz.       42.   oz.
  Sour-krout      14.5  fl. oz.    14.5  fl. oz.
  Chervil                           1.1  oz.
  Peas                                              2.33 oz.
  Buckwheat        1.87 fl. oz.     1.87 fl. oz.    1.87 fl. oz.
  Oats              .5  fl. oz.      .7  fl. oz.     .28 fl. oz.
  Flour             .7  fl. oz.      .7  fl. oz.
  Onions            .2  fl. oz.      .3  fl. oz.     .5  fl. oz.
  Vegetable oil                      .25 fl. oz.
  Butter            .6  oz.
  Lard                               .5  oz.         .5  oz.
  Salt             1.86 oz.         1.86 oz.        1.86 oz.
  Pepper            .07 oz.          .07 oz.         .07 oz.
  Bay leaves        .07 oz.          .07 oz.         .07 oz.
  Water           70.   fl. oz.    70.   fl. oz.   70.   fl. oz.
                   (Buckwheat cooked into gruel.)

_Sepoy Ration._

  Flour                     16.   ounces.
  Rice                      16.      „
  Butter or vegetable oil    2.      „
  Peas                       4.25    „
  Salt                       1.33 ounce.
      34.9 ounces of anhydrous food.

=Ratisbon=, or =Regensburg=. A town of Bavaria, on the right bank of the
Danube, 67 miles north-northeast of Munich. In 1524 the Roman Catholic
powers of Germany assembled here, and formed a league against the
Protestants; and near it, in 1809, Napoleon I. was wounded in a battle
in which he forced the Austrians to retreat.

=Raucoux= (Belgium). Here Marshal Saxe and the French army totally
defeated the allies, October 11, 1746.

=Ravage.= Desolation by violence; violent ruin or destruction;
devastation; havoc; waste; ruin; as, the ravages of an army. Also, to
lay waste by force; to desolate violently; to commit havoc or
devastation upon; to plunder.

=Ravelin.= In fortification, is the work constructed beyond the main
ditch, opposite the curtain, composed of two faces, forming a salient
angle, and two demi-gorges, formed by the counterscarp. It is separated
from the covered way by a ditch which runs into the main ditch. See
DEMI-LUNE.

=Ravenna= (anc. _Ravenna_). An important city of Central Italy, 43 miles
east-southeast from Bologna, 4¹⁄₂ miles from the Adriatic. Augustus made
it a first-class seaport and naval station. It was taken by Odoacer,
then by Theodoric, and by Totila; was subdued by the Lombards in 752,
and their king, Astolphus, in 754, surrendered it to Pepin, king of
France. In 1275, Guido da Polenta conquered it. Ravenna was afterwards
taken by the Venetians, who kept it till 1509. Under the walls of
Ravenna a battle was fought between the French under Gaston de Foix
(duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and Papal
armies. The confederate army was cut to pieces. De Foix perished in the
moment of his victory, and his death closed the good fortune of the
French in Italy. Ravenna became a part of the kingdom of Italy in 1860.

=Ravine.= In field fortification, a deep hollow, usually formed by a
great flood, or long-continued running of water; frequently turned to
advantage in the field.

=Raw.= Unseasoned, unripe in skill, wanting knowledge in tactics.

=Raw Troops.= Are inexperienced soldiers, or men who have been little
accustomed to the use of arms.

=Razant.= See RASANTE.

=Razed.= Works or fortifications are said to be razed when they are
totally demolished.

=Razzia.= A plundering and destructive incursion.

=Readiness.= A state of alertness or preparation; thus, to hold a corps
in readiness, is to have it prepared in consequence of some previous
order to march at a moment’s notice.

=Reading.= A town of England, in Berkshire, on the Kennet, 36 miles west
by south from London. In 871 it was in possession of the Danes, who,
after resisting an assault of the West Saxons, were in the following
year obliged to evacuate it. In 1006 they again made their appearance,
and burned the town. In the civil war of the 17th century Reading was at
different times in the possession of both parties, and suffered much
during the contest.

=Ready.= In tactics, a word of command in firing, being a contraction of
_make ready_.

=Reamer.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, BORING.

=Rear.= In general acceptation, anything situated or placed behind
another.

=Rear.= The direction opposite the enemy. The opposite of front.

=Rear Assembling-bar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Rear Foot-board.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Rear Open Order.= An open order taken by moving the rear rank
backwards.

=Rear-chest.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Rear-front.= The rear rank of a body of troops when faced about and
standing in that position.

=Rear-guard.= A detachment of troops whose duty it is to protect the
rear of an army.

=Rear-line.= The line in the rear of an army.

=Rearward.= The last troop; the rear-guard.

=Rebel.= One who rebels; one who revolts from the government to which he
owes allegiance, either by openly renouncing the authority of that
government, or by taking arms and openly opposing it; one who defies and
seeks to overthrow the authority to which he is rightfully subject; a
revolter; an insurgent.

=Rebel.= Acting in revolt; rebellious; as, rebel troops.

=Rebel.= To revolt; to take up arms traitorously against the state or
government; to renounce the authority of the laws and government to
which one owes allegiance.

=Rebellion.= The act of rebelling; open and avowed renunciation of the
authority of the government to which one owes allegiance; the taking of
arms traitorously to resist the authority of lawful government; revolt;
insurrection.

=Rebellious.= Engaged in or marked by rebellion; traitorously renouncing
the authority and dominion of the government to which allegiance is due;
violently resisting government or lawful authority; as, rebellious
troops.

=Rebounding-lock.= A gun-lock in which the hammer rebounds to half-cock
after striking the cap; specially used in sporting arms.

=Rebuffo= (_Fr._). A bastard cannon, or three-fourth carthoum (or
karthaune), a 36-pounder of 15 calibers long; according to Ufano a
45-pounder.

=Recall.= A call on the trumpet, bugle, or drum, by which the soldiers
are recalled from duty, labor, etc.

=Recaptor.= One who retakes; one who takes a prize which had been
previously taken.

=Recapture.= The act of retaking; especially the retaking of a prize or
goods from a captor. That which is captured back; a prize retaken.

=Recast.= To mold anew; to cast anew; to throw into a new form or shape;
to reconstruct; as, to recast cannon.

=Receipt.= A voucher or acknowledgment, which should always be given
when official papers are received. When flags of truce are the bearers
of a parcel or a letter, the officer commanding an outpost should give a
receipt for it, and require the party to depart forthwith.

=Receive.= In a military sense, to await the approach of a friend or
foe. _To receive an enemy_, is to make the best disposition possible of
your troops, for the purpose of meeting the attack of an advancing
enemy.

=Recharge.= A renewal of the charge or attack.

=Rechaud= (_Fr._). A chafing-dish, or pan used for various purposes,
particularly during a siege. Rechauds are filled with burning materials
and hung in different parts of the walls, so as to throw light into the
ditches, and to prevent surprises.

=Rechute= (_Fr._). Literally means a second fall; but in fortification
it signifies a greater elevation of the rampart in those parts where it
is likely to be commanded.

=Recoil.= In gunnery, is the retrograde motion impressed upon cannon by
the discharge. The gas produced by the ignition of the charge in the
bore, expanding with equal force in every direction, finds only two ways
of escape (the muzzle and the vent); the pressure upon these points will
therefore cease while it will be proportionally increased upon the parts
directly opposite, that is, the bottom of the bore and that portion
directly opposite the vent, producing in the first case the recoil, and
in the other, indirectly, the dipping of the muzzle. The distance of the
recoil depends entirely upon the nature and inclination of the ground
upon which the carriage stands, the situation of the trunnions, angle of
elevation, comparative weight of the gun and carriage, and upon the
strength of the charge. The recoil has no appreciable effect upon the
flight of a projectile, the latter being expelled from the gun before it
has recoiled a fraction of an inch.

The recoil of heavy guns fired with large charges is a serious
consideration in gunnery. The recoil must be checked in a comparatively
short space, and yet checked too suddenly the shock destroys the
carriage as well as platform. Various methods have been tried. The
truck-wheels upon which the top carriage runs in and out of battery are
provided with eccentrics, which are thrown out of gear to produce
sliding friction,--but this alone is not sufficient in most cases.
Counter-mortars are sometimes clamped on the chassis-rail against the
carriage, but this is objectionable, as it tends to destroy the chassis.
Friction-plates, with clamping attachments to the carriage between them,
and extending full length of the chassis, have also been tried, but the
buckling of the plates soon ruined them. This plan has been recently
revived, and the buckling prevented by interposing india-rubber between
the rear ends of the plates and the transom of the chassis. For the most
approved methods, see AIR-CYLINDERS and HYDRAULIC LOADING APPARATUS.

=Recommend.= To commend to the favorable notice of another.
Non-commissioned officers of companies are appointed by the colonel upon
the recommendation of company commanders. Recommendation of members of a
court-martial in favor of the person being tried, is introduced after
the finding and sentence are closed and authenticated. The
recommendation should distinctly set forth the reasons which prompt
it.--_Hough._

=Reconnoissance.= The reconnoitring or examination of any tract of
country preparatory to the march of an army, in order either to take up
quarters for the season, or commence operations against an opposing
enemy.

The _military reconnoissance_ of a country is generally performed under
the protection of an armed force. It is considered as one of the most
essential operations connected with the tactics of the field, and serves
as the basis of every movement or combination which it may be proposed
to make. Those who are charged with this duty should be habituated to
the performance of topographical surveys; in the first place, by the
most accurate methods, and with the best instruments; and, secondly, by
such methods as admit of being practiced rapidly, on foot or on
horseback. In these cases a compass held in the hand must be used for
observing the angles, and the distances must be obtained by pacing, or
be merely estimated by the eye. The nature of the roads should be
described with indications denoting that they are passable for
artillery, for cavalry, or merely for infantry; and if defective,
estimates should be made of the materials and time requisite for
repairing them. In contemplating rivers and marshes as means of
retarding an advance of the enemy, it should be ascertained and reported
whether by being dry in summer, or frozen in winter, they may not at
times cease to be obstacles. It should be also stated how, on a retreat,
the roads may be blocked up, the fords rendered impassable, or the
bridges destroyed.

=Reconnoitre.= To make oneself acquainted by personal inspection, as far
as may be practicable, with the enemy’s position and movements; also, to
survey, and draw in a rapid manner, ground of importance to operations
of war, not represented in existing maps, with sufficient accuracy or
minuteness; and likewise to particularize the banks of rivers, canals,
streams, mountains, passes, positions, villages, forts, and redoubts.

=Record.= To preserve by committing to writing; to make official note
of; as, to record the proceedings of a court.

=Record.= An authentic copy; a statement of the proceedings of a court
or board; a written history; an official account or register.

=Recorder.= One who keeps a record; specifically, the officer who
registers the proceedings of a board or minor court.

=Recover.= In tactics, a word of command in firing whereby the piece is
brought from the position of aim to that of ready.

=Recreant.= Crying for mercy, as a combatant in the trial of battle;
yielding; cowardly. Also, one who yields in combat, and cries craven;
one who begs for mercy; a mean-spirited, cowardly wretch.

=Recruit.= To supply with new men, as an army; to fill up or make up by
enlistment. Also, a person enlisted to make up deficiency in an army; a
newly-enlisted soldier.

=Recruiting.= The act of obtaining men for service. The people of the
United States and Great Britain resemble each other in their jealousy of
large standing armies and their abhorrence of a system of universal
service, as well as in their warlike spirit and self-sacrificing
patriotism. The organization of the English army, based upon voluntary
enlistment, has been pronounced by foreign officers of thorough
education and acute observation as unworthy of scientific study,--that
is, for home application, although the United States have borrowed a
great deal from it,--in the writer’s opinion, to their detriment. In
Great Britain the whole recruiting has been placed under the immediate
direction of the adjutant-general since 1802. For this purpose, the
country has been divided into recruiting districts, at the head of which
is placed an inspecting field-officer with the duty of superintending
all recruiting parties in his district, and of approving the recruits
brought. Staff-officers and sergeants of the Pensioner Force are also
occasionally intrusted with the obtaining of recruits. The United States
recruiting service is conducted by the adjutant-general, under the
direction of the Secretary of War. Recruiting officers consist generally
of captains and lieutenants of the line, who must not permit any man to
be deceived or inveigled into the service by false representations. If
the recruit is a minor, his parents or guardians must, if possible, be
informed of the minor’s wish to enlist, and their written consent
obtained therefor. Any male person above the age of eighteen, and under
thirty-five years, being effective, able-bodied, sober, free from
disease, of good character and habits, with a competent knowledge of the
English language, may be enlisted. No man having a wife or child can be
enlisted in time of peace without special authority from the
adjutant-general’s office. The Prussian system is based upon the theory
that military service is not a trade or craft, to be followed by a
portion of the population, but a duty owed by every male citizen to his
country. For further particulars of this system, see LANDWEHR. The
Prussian system has been adopted by all other states of the German
empire, and also by most of the other European nations.

=Recruiting Flag.= See FLAG, STORM.

=Recruitment.= The act or business of recruiting or raising new supplies
of men for an army.

=Recursant.= In heraldry, moving or coursing backward;--said of an eagle
displayed with the back towards the spectator’s face.

=Red Hand.= In heraldry, a sinister hand erect, open, and couped, or the
wrist gules, being the arms of the province of Ulster, was granted to
the baronets of England and of Ireland as their distinguishing badge, on
the institution of that order in 1611, and is borne by the baronets of
Great Britain and of the United Kingdom. It is assumed into the armorial
coat, and may be borne upon a canton, or on an escutcheon, which may be
placed either in the middle chief or in the fess point, so as least to
interfere with the charges composing the family arms.

=Red River Settlement.= Is in British North America, between Lakes
Superior and Winnepeg. While the proposed transfer to the crown
(1869-70) of the rights of the Hudson’s Bay Company was pending, it was
the scene of much contention and violence. The hasty action of the
Canadian authorities incensed the French-speaking population, who, led
by Louis Riel, organized a force, imprisoned their opponents (English
and Scotch), seized on Fort Garry, established a provisional government,
robbed the strong-box, and dictated terms to the governor of the
Hudson’s Bay Company, who was obliged to submit to them. In July, 1870,
a military force suddenly appeared in the province, and Riel fearing
capture, escaped, and thus closed the insurrection.

=Red Tape.= The tape used in public offices for tying up documents,
etc.; hence, official formality.

=Redan.= Is the simplest work in field fortification. It consists of two
parapets whose faces join in forming a salient angle toward the enemy,
like a letter V, in which the apex is to the front. Regarded by itself,
the redan is a work of very little strength, since there is no flanking
fire to protect its faces, and nothing to prevent an enemy from forcing
an entrance at the gorge; but redans are useful in many positions, and
the rapidity with which they may be constructed renders them favorites
with engineers and generals. A row of redans along an exposed front of
an army adds much to its strength, the troops behind protecting the
gorge, and the redans flanking each other. It forms an excellent defense
for a bridgehead, the gorge being covered by the river. Redans figured
largely in Wellington’s works for defending Lisbon in 1810. The redan of
Sebastopol in 1855 was the principal point of the English attack, and
the scene of two bloody repulses by the Russians in June and September.

=Redcoat.= A soldier who wears a red coat; an English soldier.

=Red-hot Shot.= Are cannon-balls heated to redness, and fired from
cannon at shipping, magazines, wooden buildings, etc., to combine
destruction by fire with battering by concussion. In modern warfare,
shells containing molten iron are intended to be used in lieu of red-hot
shot; but they have not yet been tested in actual practice, although a
similar device was attempted unsuccessfully in 1863 by the U. S. forces
when besieging Charleston.

=Redinha.= A village of Portugal, province of Estremadura, the scene of
an affair between the British under Lord Wellington, and the French
retreating army under Marshal Masséna, in 1811.

=Redoubt.= Is a small fort of varying shape, constructed for a temporary
purpose, and usually without flanking defenses. The term is vague in its
acceptation, being applied equally to detached posts and to a strong
position within another fortress. Redoubts are made square, pentagonal,
and even circular. Each redoubt has parapet, ditch, scarps, banquette,
etc., as in regular fortification; but it is commonly rather roughly
constructed, haste and unprofessional labor precluding mathematical
accuracy. The entrance may be by a cutting through the parapet, the
cutting being covered within by a traverse, or, preferably, by an
excavated gallery leading into the ditch, and thence by a ramp through
the counterscarp. For the sake of flanking the ditch, and preventing an
assaulting party from forming in it, caponnières of timber, loop-holed,
are sometimes formed; or, if the soil be stiff or chalky, a gallery may
be cut behind the counterscarp, and loop-holed towards the ditch. In
some modern redoubts, the line of each side is broken to afford flanking
defense. Redoubts have the weak feature of not defending their own
ditches, and of being approached at their salient angles with
comparative impunity. They are therefore not adapted to a protracted
defense, but as temporary field-works, or in war of posts, they are
often of incalculable importance. Troops whose stability in open field
is doubtful are especially strengthened by redoubts in their line.
Redoubts are particularly useful in fortifying the tops of hills, or
commanding passes, or where the object is to occupy a hostile territory,
or to feel the way gradually through a wooded country.

=Redoubtable.= Formidable; to be dreaded; terrible to foes; as, a
redoubtable hero; hence, valiant; often in contempt or burlesque.

=Redout Kalé=, or =Redoot Kalé=. A flourishing, fortified seaport of
Russia, in Trans-Caucasia, stands on the eastern shore of the Black Sea,
about 15 miles north of Poti. During the Crimean war, the Russian
garrison at Redout Kalé, finding the fort invested by Sir Edmund Lyons,
with several men-of-war, set fire to the town, May 19, 1854.

=Redressing Wrongs.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 29, 30.

=Reduce a Place.= Is to oblige the commander to surrender it to the
besiegers, by capitulation. _To reduce the square_, is to restore or
bring back a battalion or battalions, which have been formed in a hollow
or oblong square, to their natural situation in line or column. _To
reduce to the ranks_, is to degrade, as to reduce a non-commissioned
officer, for misconduct, to the station of a private soldier.

=Reduce, To.= To degrade to a lower rank.

=Reduced.= In a military sense, is to be taken off the establishment,
and to cease to receive pay as soldiers. When a regiment is reduced, the
officers are generally put upon half-pay. Sometimes the corps are
reduced, and the officers remain upon full pay. This happens at the
close of a war, when the standing army of the country is confined to a
certain number of battalions. Hence is derived the expression, _in_ and
_out_ of the _break_. _In the break_, is the liability of being reduced.
_Out of the break_, is the certainty of being kept upon the
establishment.

=Reduit.= In fortification, is a central or retired work within any
other work, intended to afford the garrison a last retreat, whence they
may capitulate. It is commonly of masonry, loop-holed, and often
circular. Many engineers doubt the use of reduits altogether, as
blocking up the working space, being themselves inconvenient for the
men, and incapable of protracted defense, while they frequently mask the
fire of other works more to the rear.

=Re-embark.= To embark or go aboard of a ship again.

=Re-embattle.= To array again for battle; to arrange again in the order
of battle.

=Re-engage.= To engage again; to enlist a second time.

=Re-enlist.= To enlist again. In the U. S. army any non-commissioned
officer, musician, or private soldier, who re-enlists within one month
after the date of discharge from first enlistment, receives $2 per month
in addition to the monthly pay he was receiving prior to discharge; and
also $1 per month additional after each subsequent re-enlistment so long
as he shall remain continuously in the army.

=Re-enlistment.= A renewed enlistment.

=Re-entering Angle.= See ANGLE.

=Re-entering Place of Arms.= In fortification, is an enlargement of the
covered way of the fortress, between a bastion and a ravelin; its rear
coinciding with the counterscarp of the ditch, and its front consisting
usually of two faces of the glacis, which are disposed at angles of
about 100° with the glacis before the neighboring bastion and ravelin.
It serves as a place for assembling troops previously to making sorties;
and the fire from its faces serves to defend the approaches to the
salient parts in front of the collateral works.

=Rees.= A town of Rhenish Prussia, 12 miles southeast from Cleves. This
town was taken by the Dutch in 1614, and by the French in 1678.

=Reflection, Angle of.= Whether the instance be a ray of light or a
cannon-ball, the angle of reflection will always be found equal to the
angle of incidence.

=Re-form, To.= In a military sense is, after some manœuvre or evolution,
to bring a line to its natural order by aligning it on some given point.
Also, to restore order among broken troops.

=Reformado.= An officer was formerly so called, who for some disgrace
was deprived of his command, but retained his rank, and perhaps his pay.

=Reformed Officer.= In the British army, one whose troop or company
being broken up, is continued on full or half-pay. He preserves the
right of seniority, and continues in the way of preferment by brevet.

=Re-fortification.= A fortifying anew, or a second time.

=Re-fortify.= To fortify anew.

=Refusal to Receive Prisoners.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 67.

=Refuse, To.= In a military sense, is to refuse a wing, to throw it
back, or to keep it out of that regular alignment which is formed when
troops are upon the point of engaging an enemy. _To refuse any part of
the line in battle_, as the centre or a wing, to keep that part retired,
while the remainder is advanced to fight.

=Regardant.= A term used in heraldry, with reference to an animal whose
head is turned backwards. See PASSANT and RAMPANT.

=Regensburg.= See RATISBON.

=Reggio= (anc. _Rhegium_, which see). A city in Southern Italy which was
taken by Garibaldi, August, 1860.

=Regillus Lacus.= A lake in Latium, memorable for the victory gained on
its banks by the Romans over the Latins, 498 B.C.

=Regiment.= In all modern armies, is a colonel’s command, and the
largest permanent association of soldiers. Regiments may be combined
into brigades, brigades into divisions, and divisions into corps and
armies; but these combinations are but temporary, while in the regiment
the same officers serve continually, and in command of the same body of
men. The strength of a regiment may vary greatly even in the same army,
as each may comprise any number of battalions. French and Austrian
regiments have ordinarily four to six battalions. Among British infantry
the smallest regiments are those numbered from the 26th upwards (except
the 60th), which, unless serving in India, have 1000 men each, composing
one battalion. Regiments in India have 1200 to a battalion. The largest
regiment is the Royal Artillery, comprising 34,713 officers and men. The
strength of a regiment, however, is changed from time to time; usually
by the addition or withdrawal of private soldiers. In the U. S. service
the strength of cavalry regiments is about 1200 men each, artillery
about 600, and infantry about 500 each. The regimental system could only
exist where standing armies were maintained. Accordingly the Macedonian
syntagmata and the Roman cohorts were evidently regiments in a strict
sense. During the Middle Ages, feudal organization precluded the system,
and its first appearance was in France. Francis I. formed legions of
6000 men each, which were divided into independent companies, the latter
being, in fact, battalions, and each legion a regiment. The word
regiment began to be applied to bodies of British troops in Elizabeth’s
reign; regiments are spoken of at the time of the Armada, 1588, and as
composing the force in Ireland, 1598. From that time forward the army
and militia of Britain have been organized in regiments.

=Regimental.= Anything belonging to a regiment.

=Regimental Colors.= See COLORS.

=Regimental Court-martial.= Is a legal tribunal convened for the
punishment of offenders in the army. It is composed of three members and
a judge-advocate. See COURT-MARTIAL, JUDGE-ADVOCATE, and TRIAL.

=Regimental Courts-martial.= See COURT-MARTIAL.

=Regimental Inspection.= See INSPECTION.

=Regimental Necessaries.= See NECESSARIES.

=Regimental Orders.= See ORDERS, REGIMENTAL.

=Regimental Schools.= In Great Britain, are educational establishments
maintained by the state in every regiment, for the instruction of
soldiers and soldiers’ children. There is a schoolmaster for the
soldiers and elder boys, and a trained schoolmistress--usually the
schoolmaster’s wife--to teach the girls and infants of both sexes.
Attendance at the schools is compulsory for the soldiers and optional
for the children. Religious instruction takes place on Monday mornings,
when children can be kept from school if their parents object to the
instruction imparted. The girls’ school comprises an “industrial”
section for needle-work, etc.

In France, _écoles primaires_ or _regimentaires_, “primary or regimental
schools,” were founded in 1818, in which the soldiers were taught
writing, reading, and arithmetic.

In Prussia, there are established garrison schools (_Garnisons Schulen_)
for the instruction of soldiers’ children; and battalion schools
(_Bataillons Schulen_), in which non-commissioned officers and privates
are instructed in writing, reading, orthography, and arithmetic; also in
making out reports and other official papers.

=Regimentals.= The uniform worn by the troops of a regiment.

=Register.= A list or roll; as, the army register; which is a list of
the officers, with rank and date of commission, etc.

=Regulars.= Are those troops whose conditions of enrollment are not
limited to time or place, in contradistinction to militia or volunteer
corps; troops permanently in service.

=Regulation Sword.= A sword of the kind or quality prescribed by the
official regulations. Also regulation cap, uniform, etc.

=Regulations.= Under the Constitution of the United States, rules for
the government and regulation of the army must be made by Congress.
Regulation implies regularity; it signifies fixed forms; a certain
order; method; precise determination of functions, rights, and duties.
(See MILITARY REGULATIONS.) A “regulation” of an executive department is
a rule by the head of such department for its action, under a statute
conferring such power, and has the force of law; a mere order of the
President, or of the Secretary of the department, is not a regulation.
The power of the Executive to establish rules and regulations for the
government of the army is undoubted. The power to establish implies
necessarily the power to modify or repeal, or to create anew. The
Secretary of War is the regular constitutional organ of the President
for the administration of the military establishment of the nation; and
rules and orders publicly promulgated through him must be received as
the act of the Executive, and as such be binding upon all within the
sphere of his legal and constitutional authority. Such regulations
cannot be questioned or defied, because they may be thought unwise or
mistaken. But as it sometimes occurs that rights of rank, command, and
pay, concerning which Congress has legislated, are subjects of dispute,
and variable expositions of laws regulating those essentials of good
government have been by different Executives, with an increasing
tendency to invalidate rank created by Congress; there should be a law
passed by Congress to enable cases to be brought before the Federal
civil courts, in order that the true exposition of military statutes and
authorities in dispute may be determined. With such a remedy, laws,
however defective they may be, would at least be known, and rights,
powers, and duties, established by law would be well determined.

=Regulators.= The popular name of a party in North Carolina, which arose
in 1768, and had for its object the forcible redress of public
grievances.

=Reigate.= A town of England, in the county of Surrey. Its castle was
destroyed in 1648. Its church contains the tomb of Lord Howard, who
commanded the English fleet against the Armada.

=Reign of Terror.= A term applied to a period of anarchy, bloodshed, and
confiscation, in the history of the French revolution, during which the
country was under the sway of the actual terror inspired by the
ferocious measures of its governors, who had established it avowedly as
the principle of their authority. It commenced after the fall of the
Girondists, May 31, 1793, and extended to the overthrow of Robespierre
and his accomplices, July 27, 1794. Thousands of persons were put to
death during this short time.

=Reims.= See RHEIMS.

=Rein.= A crack or vein in a musket-barrel.

=Reinforce.= In gunnery, is the thickest part of the body of the gun, in
front of the base-ring or base-line; if there be more than one
reinforce, that which is next the base-ring or base-line is called the
_first reinforce_; the other the _second reinforce_. See ORDNANCE,
CONSTRUCTION OF, MOLDING.

=Reinforce.= To strengthen with new force, assistance, or support;
especially, to strengthen, as an army or a fort, with additional troops,
or a navy with additional ships.

=Reinforce Band.= Is at the junction of the first and second reinforces.

=Reinforcement.= The act of reinforcing. That which reinforces;
additional force; especially additional troops or force to augment the
strength of an army, or ships to strengthen a navy.

=Reitres= (_Fr._). A body of armed horsemen, who came out of Germany and
entered the French service during the reign of Henry III. They were
incorporated with the carabineers.

=Rejoin.= To join again; to return; as, the officer rejoined his
regiment.

=Rejoinder.= In military law, the defendant’s answer to the plaintiff’s
replication. The weight of authority is against permitting a rejoinder
on the part of the prisoner, unless evidence has been adduced in the
reply of the prosecutor. But such evidence should not be permitted in
reply, and there should be no rejoinder.--_Hough’s “Military Law
Authorities.”_

=Relais= (_Fr._). A term used in fortification to signify a space,
containing some feet in breadth, which is between the foot of the
rampart and the scarp of the fosse. It serves as a convenient receptacle
for the earth that occasionally crumbles off.

=Relative Rank.= Signifies the comparative rank, as regards precedence,
etc. The following is the relative rank of officers in the army and navy
of the United States:

         Army.               Navy.
  General               Admiral.
  Lieutenant-general    Vice-admiral.
  Major-general         Rear-admiral.
  Brigadier-general     Commodore.
  Colonel               Captain.
  Lieutenant-colonel    Commander.
  Major                 Lieut.-commander.
  Captain               Lieutenant.
  First lieutenant      Master.
  Second lieutenant     Ensign.

The officers of the marine corps are of rank corresponding to that of
those of the same titles in the army.

=Release of Prisoners.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 69.

=Relief.= A fresh detachment of troops, ordered to replace those already
upon duty. Also, the body of men proceeding to take the places of, or
_relieve_, the existing sentinels. Guards are usually divided into three
_reliefs_. See GUARD, RUNNING.

=Relief.= In fortification, is the height to which works are raised
above the bottom of the ditch. If the works are high and commanding,
they are said to have a bold _relief_; but if the reverse, they are said
to have a low _relief_. The _relief_ should provide the requisite
elevations for the musketry and artillery, to insure a good defense.

=Relieve, To.= Is to take a man or a body of men off any kind of duty;
as, to relieve a sentinel; to relieve the guard, etc.; also to succor,
to deliver; as, to relieve a besieged town.

=Reliever.= An iron ring fixed to a handle, by means of a socket, so as
to be at right angles to it. It serves to disengage the searcher of a
gun, when one of its points is retained in a hole, and cannot be
extracted otherwise.

=Relieving the Enemy.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 45.

=Reload.= To load anew, as a gun, etc.

=Reloading Implements.= Are implements used in reloading
cartridge-shells,--to perform the various operations of measuring the
powder, setting home the bullet or charge, removing exploded primer,
recapping, etc.

=Remaining Velocity.= In gunnery, is the velocity of the projectile at
any point of the flight.

=Remand.= To send back; as when a soldier who has been discharged from
prison or the guard-house, for the purpose of being examined or tried,
is sent back to await the final decision of his case.

=Remarks.= Army returns, regimental returns, guard reports, etc., have a
column allotted for observations relative to extraordinary occurrences,
and these are headed “remarks.” The word is also applied with reference
to a reviewing officer’s observations on the verdict of a court-martial.

=Remblai.= Is the quantity of earth in the mass of rampart, parapet, and
banquette.

=Remedy.= The rules and articles for the government of the army are
defective in not providing sufficient remedies for wrongs. The army of
the United States is governed by law. The law should therefore provide a
sufficient remedy for cases in which the rights of officers are wrested
from them by illegal regulations, purporting to interpret the true
meaning of acts of Congress. In cases arising in the land and naval
forces of the United States, where the true construction of any act of
Congress is in dispute, legislation is wanted to enable an officer who
thinks himself wronged by an illegal executive decision, to bring the
matter before the Federal civil courts to determine the true exposition
of the statute or authority in dispute.

=Remi=, or =Rhemi=. One of the most powerful people in Gallia Belgica.
They formed an alliance with Cæsar when the rest of the Belgæ made war
against him, 57 B.C.

=Remington Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Remit.= To lessen; as, to remit a part of a soldier’s sentence.

=Remonstrate.= To make a representation of a case or cases wherein one
or more may consider themselves to be aggrieved. Military men may
remonstrate through their superior officers; but where the duty of the
service is concerned, that duty must be first performed with
cheerfulness and fidelity.

=Remount.= A supply of good and serviceable horses for the cavalry. _To
remount the cavalry_, is to furnish them with horses in the room of
those which have been either killed, disabled, or cast.

=Renchen.= A town of Baden, on the Rench, 8 miles northeast from
Offenburg. The French defeated the Austrians here in 1796, and entered
Suabia.

=Rendezvous.= A place appointed for a meeting; especially, the appointed
place for troops, or for the ships of a fleet, to assemble; sometimes a
place for enlistment. Also, to assemble or meet at a particular place,
as troops, ships, etc.

=Rendsburg.= A fortified town of Holstein, on an island in the Eyder, at
the commencement of the Kiel Canal. It was taken by the Imperialists in
1627; by the Swedes in 1643; and by the Prussians and confederate troops
in 1848. It was reoccupied by the Danes in 1852, and taken by the
Prussians after a serious conflict, July 21, 1864.

=Renegade.= One who deserts from a military or naval post; a deserter.

=Rennes= (anc. _Condate_). A town of France, capital of the department
of Ille-et-Vilaine, 60 miles north of Nantes. After the fall of the
Roman empire it fell into the hands of the Franks. In 1357, Rennes was
unsuccessfully besieged by the Duke of Lancaster; and at the time of the
revolution was the scene of some conflicts, being always firmly attached
to the popular cause.

=Reorganize.= To organize anew; to reduce again to an organized
condition; to cause to assume wonted or regular functions; as, to
reorganize an army.

=Repair of Arms.= The keeping in constant good order the different
fire-arms belonging to a troop or company, such as rifles, etc. In the
British army, a half-yearly allowance is made to captains of troops and
companies for this purpose. In the U. S. service the cost of repairs of
damage done to arms, equipments, etc., through negligence of an officer
or soldier, is deducted from the pay of said officer or soldier.

=Repeater.= A fire-arm that may be discharged many times in quick
succession; especially, a form of fire-arm so constructed that the
charges are successively introduced, by an action of the lock, from a
chamber containing them, into the breech, and fired or are discharged
from a revolving chamber at the breech. See REVOLVER and MAGAZINE GUN.

=Repel.= To drive back; to force to return; to check the advance of; to
repulse; as, to repel an enemy or an assailant.

=Reply.= It is the duty of a court to prevent new matter from being
introduced into the prosecution or defense, but a prisoner may urge in
his defense mitigating circumstances, or examine witnesses as to
character or services, and produce testimonials of such facts, without
its being considered new matter. If any point of law be raised, or any
matter requiring explanation, the judge-advocate may explain. No other
reply to be admitted.--_Hough._

=Report.= Sound; loud noise, as that made by the discharge of a rifle or
a cannon.

=Report.= A specific statement of any particular occurrences. Officers
making written reports are required to sign them, specifying the
regiment to which they belong, and their rank.

=Reporting Prisoners.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 68.

=Repose, In= (Fr. _en repos_). This term, which is manifestly taken from
the French, applies to troops that are allowed to be stationary for any
given period during an active campaign, either through sickness or from
some other cause. Thus, the 5th regiment being in repose, the 24th was
ordered to the front.

=Repository.= A place, or repertory, in which anything is preserved.
Thus, the British repository at Woolwich contains models of every sort
of warlike stores, weapons, and fortifications; whether invented by
officers of the army or civilians, as well of other nations as of
Britain, receipts being given to preserve the title to the inventor.

=Repress.= To press back or down effectually; to crush down or out; to
quell; to subdue; as, to repress rebellion.

=Reprimand.= A reproof for some error or misconduct. A reprimand is
sometimes publicly conveyed to officers, either in orders or at the head
of a regiment, by direction of the President or a general officer in
command. Non-commissioned officers and privates are sometimes
reprimanded. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 52.

=Reprisal.= Is the retaking, from an enemy, goods which he has seized,
or the capture from him of other goods, as an equivalent for the damage
he has wrought.

=Reproachful or Provoking Speeches.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 25.

=Repulse.= To repel; to beat or drive back. The condition of being
repelled or driven back. Also, the act of repelling or driving back.

=Requisitions.= Are forms prescribed for the demand of certain
allowances, as forage, rations, etc. It also signifies the act of
exacting either men or things for the public service. Requisitions are,
however, an uncertain and unequal means of supply and only enable an
army to live from hand to mouth, and although practicable in offensive
wars, are only justifiable in rapid movements, where time does not admit
the employment of more certain means of supply. The system is less
odious than pillage. Bonaparte skillfully adopted another method, in
harmony with the spirit of wars of invasion, and also more reliable as a
means of support. He substituted himself in place of the supreme
authorities of the invaded country, and exacted _pecuniary
contributions_, paying, or promising to pay, for all provisions and
other supplies needed for his army. This system was well executed by
Marshal Suchet in Spain, and a similar system was also matured and
published in orders by Gen. Scott while in Mexico. A treaty of peace,
however, soon after was made, which put an end to military operations,
and the system was therefore only partially executed. But with a
sufficient army in a fertile country, the experience of the world has
shown that if the inhabitants are protected from injuries, they will
very generally sell to the best paymasters. It is therefore the interest
of an invading army not to interfere with the ordinary avocations of
citizens, and such is the modern usage.

=Rereward.= The part of an army that marches in the rear, as the guard;
the rear-guard.

=Resaca de la Palma.= A ravine which crosses the Matamoras road about 3
miles north of that place; the position taken by the Mexican general
Arista to resist the further advance of Gen. Taylor’s army. Although the
latter was outnumbered three to one, the Mexicans were routed after a
short conflict (May 9, 1846) and driven across the Rio Grande.

=Rescue.= The retaking by a party captured of a prize made by the enemy.

=Reservation, Military.= Land set aside from the public domain by the
President of the United States for military purposes.

=Reserve.= In army affairs, is a body of troops held somewhere in the
rear, generally out of fire, and kept fresh, in order that they may
interfere with decisive force at any point where yielding troops require
support, or an advantage gained needs powerful following up. The reserve
of ammunition is a magazine of warlike stores, situated between an army
and its base of operations, sufficiently retired from the front to be
safe from sudden raids of the enemy, and at the same time advanced
enough to allow of the supply actually in the field being speedily
replenished.

=Reserve, Army.= In Great Britain, is divided into first and second
class reserves. The first class consists of men who are serving or have
served in the regular army, and whose past service has not exceeded
their first term of enlistment. These men are liable to be called out
for training for a period not longer than twelve days in a year, and to
be permanently embodied for general service in case of imminent national
danger or great emergency. The second class consists of out-pensioners
of Chelsea Hospital, and persons enrolled in the force under the
provisions of the 6th, 7th, 9th, and 10th Victoria. The members of this
force may be called out for training as if they were in the first class,
but can only be permanently embodied in case of national danger or great
emergency, for service in the United Kingdom. For army reserve in
Prussia, see LANDWEHR.

=Reserve Equipage.= See PONTONS, BRIDGE EQUIPAGE.

=Ressaldar.= In the East Indies, is a native officer in a native cavalry
regiment. He commands the right troop of a squadron, and on parade leads
the squadron.

=Ressaldar Major.= In the East Indies, is the native commandant of a
native cavalry regiment.

=Rest.= In tactics, a word of command whereby the men are brought to a
position of rest; as, parade rest, in place rest.

=Rest on Arms.= A word of command which is used at military funerals.

=Retained Pay.= In the U. S. army, is pay that is retained from the
soldier until the expiration of his term of service.

=Retainers.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 63.

=Retaliation.= This should never be resorted to as a measure of mere
revenge, but only as a means of protective retribution, and, moreover,
cautiously and unavoidably; that is to say, retaliation is only to be
resorted to after careful inquiry into the real occurrence and the
character of the misdeeds that may demand retribution.

=Retiarius.= A kind of gladiator who fought in the amphitheatre during
the time of the Romans. He was dressed in a short coat, having a
_fuscina_, or trident, in his left hand, and a net, from which he
derived his name, in his right. With this he endeavored to entangle his
adversary, that he might then with his trident easily dispatch him. On
his head he wore only a hat tied under his chin with a broad ribbon.

=Retinue.= Applied strictly to the admiral’s suite or followers, though
it means an accompanying train in general; whether military, naval, or
civil.

=Retirade.= In fortification, a retrenchment, which is generally made
with two faces, forming a re-entrant angle, and is thrown up in the body
of a work, for the purpose of receiving troops, who may dispute the
ground inch by inch.

=Retire.= Signifies to fall back a short distance. Also, a bugle-sound
intimating to skirmishers that they are to fall back. This bugle-sound
in the U. S. service is termed “to the rear.”

=Retired Flank.= In fortification, a flank having an arc of a circle
with its convexity turned toward the place.

=Retired Full Pay.= See FULL PAY, RETIRED.

=Retired List.= Is a list of officers retired from the army or navy. In
every service, to maintain a reasonably low age among the persons
actively employed, it is essential that some scale should be fixed for
retirement of old and worn-out officers. In the British army, medical
officers are allowed to retire after twenty-five years full-pay service;
other officers after thirty years on full pay, or twenty-five years on
half-pay. In the navy, officers are placed on the retired list at sixty
years of age, with the rank they then hold. In most cases, in both
services, the retiring officer is allowed a step of honorary rank; but
this higher rank carries neither present nor prospective advantage.
Officers of the U. S. army may be retired on their own application after
thirty years’ service. If an officer has been borne on the army register
for forty-five years, or if he has attained the age of sixty-two years,
he may be retired at the discretion of the President. Officers retired
from active service receive 75 per cent. of the pay of the rank upon
which they were retired. Retired officers of the army may be assigned to
duty as professors of colleges and at the Soldier’s Home, and shall not
be assignable to any other duty. Any officer may be retired on account
of disability contracted in the line of duty. When an officer has served
forty years as a commissioned officer he shall, if he makes application
therefor, be placed on the retired list. Officers retired shall be
withdrawn from command and promotion. Officers may be wholly retired for
disability not incident to the service and dropped from the rolls of the
army with one year’s pay. Officers of the marine corps shall be retired
in the same manner and with the same relative conditions as are provided
for officers of the army.

=Retreat.= The retrograde movement of any army or body of men who retire
from the enemy. It signifies a more prolonged and systematic movement to
the rear than retire. _Full retreat_ is when an army retires with all
expedition before a conquering enemy. The retreat is also a beat of the
infantry drums, or sounding of the bugles or trumpets, which takes place
every day at sunset, and at which troops fall in and the roll is called;
the details for duty the following day, and orders, are published. _To
retreat_ is to make a retrograde movement. An army or body of men are
said to retreat when they turn their backs upon the enemy, or are
retiring from the ground they occupied; hence, every march in
withdrawing from an enemy is called a retreat.

=Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks.= The 10,000 Greeks who had joined
the army of the Younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother,
Artaxerxes Mnemon, were victors, but Cyrus was defeated and slain at
Cunaxa, 401 B.C. Artaxerxes having enticed the Greek leaders into his
power and killed them, Xenophon was called to the command of his
countrymen. Under continual alarms from sudden attacks, he led them
across rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of mountains,
till he reached the sea. The Greeks returned home after a march of 1155
parasangs, or leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 days,
after an absence of fifteen months.

=Retrench.= To furnish with a retrenchment; as, to retrench bastions.

=Retrenchment.= In fortification, is a defensive work, comprising at
least ditch and parapet, within some other work of a fortress, and
intended as a place of retreat for the defenders, whence they may
prolong the defense, or capitulate after the faces of the work itself
have fallen into the enemy’s hands. The retrenchment bears a
considerable resemblance to the _reduit_, except that it is almost
always of earth. Retrenchments are made in ravelins, and the re-entering
_place d’armes_ at the time of constructing the works. A retrenchment
is thrown across the gorge of a redan or bastion, or from shoulder to
shoulder, when it is apprehended that the salient angle will fall into
the possession of the besiegers; these retrenchments are usually made
when wanted. Such a retrenchment across the interior of the Redan at
Sebastopol caused the sanguinary repulse of the British on September 8,
1855.

=Return.= An official account, report, or statement, rendered to the
commander or other superior; as, the return of men fit for duty; the
return of the number of the sick; the return of provisions, etc. For
punishment of officers making false returns, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF
WAR, 8.

=Returns of a Mine.= Are the turnings and windings of the gallery
leading to the mine.

=Returns of a Trench.= Are the various turnings and windings which form
the lines of the trench, and are, as near as they can be, made parallel
to the place attacked, to avoid being enfiladed.

=Reveille.= The beat of the drum about break of day, to give notice that
it is time for the soldiers to rise, and for the sentinels to forbear
challenging.

=Reveil-matin= (_Fr._). A double cannon; an ancient 96-pounder.

=Revel=, or =Reval=. A strongly fortified seaport town of Russia,
government of Esthonia, on a small bay on the south side of the Gulf of
Finland, 200 miles west-southwest from St. Petersburg. It was long held
by the Teutonic Knights; was made over to Sweden in 1562; bombarded by
the Danish and Lübeck fleets in 1569; besieged by Peter the Great, and
annexed to the Russian empire in 1710. In 1713 a naval harbor, in
addition to the commercial harbor, was founded.

=Reverse.= A change for the worse, or partial defeat.

=Reverse Fire.= See FIRE, REVERSE.

=Reverse Flank.= See FLANK, OUTWARD.

=Reversed.= Upside down; as, arms reversed. Arms are said to be reversed
when the butts of the pieces are slung, or held upwards.

=Reversed.= In heraldry, a term applied to a charge turned upside down.

=Revet.= In fortification, to face with masonry, wood, or material, as
an embankment.

=Revetment.= In permanent fortification, is a retaining wall of masonry
built for the purpose of holding back the earth of which works are
composed. The most ordinary position of revetments is for the escarp and
counterscarp of the ditch. The most important of these two is the
escarp, which has to hold back the great mass of earth represented by
the rampart, parapet, banquette, etc. It is usually of solid brick-work
or stone, 5 feet thick at the top, and sloping outwards as it descends
(on the ditch side only) to the extent of 1 in 6. Prior to Vauban’s
time, the escarp revetment was commonly raised to the top of the
parapet; but as in this case the artillery of a besieger played on the
top of the wall, and ruined it soon after the siege commenced, that
engineer adopted the principle--thenceforth followed--of raising it no
higher than the crest of the glacis, or about 7 feet above the natural
ground, leaving the parapet above of sloped earth only. When the main
ditch is 24 feet deep, the scarp revetment will be about 30 feet high.
Additional strength is imparted to the revetment wall by massive
buttresses at every 15 feet, called _counter-forts_, and these again are
sometimes connected and strengthened by masonry arches outside the
revetment. The revetment forms a terrible barrier to an assaulting
party. In field-works temporary revetments may be made of timber, turf,
hurdles, or any other materials on hand.

=Review.= An examination or inspection of troops under arms, by a
general or commander, for the purpose of ascertaining the state of their
discipline, equipments, etc.

=Revision.= A re-examination for correction. Where an officer, who
orders a court-martial, does not approve their proceedings, he may, by
the custom of war, return them to the court for revision, and no
additional evidence can be taken on such revision.--_Hough._

=Revocable.= That may be recalled. Nominations for appointments in the
army are made by the President of the United States, subject to the
concurrence of the Senate, who, if they disagree, revoke the
appointment.

=Revolt.= To renounce allegiance or subjection; to rise against the
government in declared rebellion.

=Revolution.= In politics, any extensive change in the constitution of a
country suddenly brought about. The most important events in history
known under this name are: The destruction of the Assyrian empire, and
the foundation of that of the Medes and Persians by Cyrus the Great, 536
B.C.; the foundation of the Macedonian empire on the destruction of the
Persian, by the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331
B.C.; the establishment of the Roman empire on the ruins of the republic
by Julius Cæsar, 47 B.C.; the establishment of the empire of the Western
Franks under Charlemagne, 800; the revolution in Portugal, by which the
Portuguese threw off the Spanish yoke and placed John, duke of Braganza,
on the throne, 1640; the English revolution of the 17th century, which
began in the early part of the reign of Charles I., with the struggle
between that king and his Parliament. In 1642, the struggle became a
civil war, in which the Parliament obtained the ascendency, and brought
Charles to the block in 1649. A republic followed, under the
protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, which was succeeded in 1660 by the
restoration of monarchy in the person of Charles II.; but the arbitrary
rule of James II. brought the king and people again into antagonism, and
James having fled the country, William III. was called to the throne
under such conditions and safeguards as secured the balance of the
constitution. The revolutions in Russia, 1730 and 1762. The French
revolution was a violent reaction against that absolutism which had come
in the course of time to supplant the old feudal institutions of the
country. It began with an outbreak of insurrectionary movements at Paris
in July, 1789, including the destruction of the Bastile. On January 21,
1793, King Louis XVI. was beheaded. A disastrous reign of terror
followed (see REIGN OF TERROR), which was brought to an end in 1794. The
revolution in Sweden, 1772 and 1809; in Holland, 1795, and
counter-revolution in 1813; in Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. The
American Revolution of 1775, by which the United States threw off their
dependence on Great Britain. The French revolution of 1830, which drove
Charles X. into exile, and raised Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, to
the throne by the will of the people; as also the revolution of 1848,
when France rose against Louis Philippe and adopted for a time a
republican form of government; which was followed by the revolution of
1851. The revolutions in the Netherlands, and in Brunswick, 1830; in
Brazil, 1831; in Hungary, 1848; in Rome, 1798 and 1848; in Italy,
1859-60, when the various minor sovereigns were driven into exile, and
the whole of the peninsula, with the exception of the Roman and Venetian
territory, became subject to the constitutional sway of Victor Emmanuel;
in the United States, 1860-65; in the Danubian principalities, 1869; and
the Papal States, suppressed, October, 1867.

=Revolutionary.= Tending or pertaining to a revolution in government;
as, a revolutionary war.

=Revolutionary Tribunal.= The name specially given to the infamous court
of judgment--the most extreme republican will scarcely affirm that it
was a court of justice--instituted by the French Convention in March,
1793, on a motion made by Danton, who considered that such a court had
become necessary, inasmuch as the recent disasters that had befallen the
national armies on the frontiers had led to dangerous conspiracies
against the revolutionary government. Its members were chosen from the
various departments, and their appointment was ratified by the
Convention. Their function was to sit in judgment on all persons accused
of crimes against the state, and from their sentence, delivered with
appalling promptitude, there was no appeal. During the “Reign of Terror”
(which see), when Fouquier-Tinville was “public accuser,” it acquired a
horrible notoriety, abolishing soon almost all forms of justice, neither
hearing witnesses on behalf of the accused, nor allowing him an
opportunity of defense, but blindly executing the orders of the
“Committee of Public Safety,” which was merely a tool in the hands of
Robespierre. In the provinces, similar tribunals, under the name of
“Revolutionary Committees,” were established, the commissaries-general
of which, as, for instance, Carrier, shot or drowned _suspects_ in
crowds.

=Revolvers.= See SMALL-ARMS, REVOLVER.

=Revolving Light.= A light or lamp in a light-house so arranged as to
appear and disappear at fixed intervals, either by being turned about an
axis so as to show light only at intervals, or by having its light
occasionally intercepted by a revolving screen.

=Reward.= A recompense given for the performance of a meritorious or
gallant act; as, the soldiers were rewarded with medals for their
gallantry. In the U. S. service a reward of $30 is paid for the
apprehension of a deserter.

=Rezonville.= See GRAVELOTTE.

=Rhagæ= (ruins at _Rai_, southeast of _Tehran_). The greatest city of
Media, lay in the extreme north of Great Media, at the southern foot of
the mountains (Caspius Mons) which border the southern shores of the
Caspian Sea. It was destroyed in the Parthian wars, but rebuilt by
Arsaces; it was finally destroyed by the Tartars in the 12th century.

=Rhegium= (now _Reggio_). A celebrated Greek town on the coast of
Bruttium, on the south of Italy, was situated on the straits which
separate Italy and Sicily. Rhegium was founded about the beginning of
the first Messenian war, 743 B.C., by Æolian Chalcidians from Eubœa, and
by Doric Messenians, who had quitted their native country on the
commencement of hostilities between Sparta and Messenia. Even before the
Persian war Rhegium was sufficiently powerful to send 3000 of its
citizens to the assistance of the Tarentines. Dionysius carried on war
against the city for a long time, and after two or three unsuccessful
attempts he at length took the place, which he treated with the greatest
severity. The Rhegians having applied to Rome for assistance when
Pyrrhus was in the south of Italy, the Romans placed in the town a
garrison of 4000 soldiers, who had been levied among the Latin colonies
in Campania. These troops seized the town in 279, killed or expelled the
male inhabitants, and took possession of their wives and children. When
Pyrrhus was driven out of Italy, the Romans took signal vengeance upon
these Campanians, and restored the surviving Rhegians to their city.

=Rheims=, or =Reims=. A town of France, in the department of Marne, 82
miles east-northeast from Paris. The town was taken by the Russians in
1814, but before they had been in possession many hours Napoleon came
down upon them, and gained here one of his last successes before victory
deserted his standards. Gen. MacMahon was at Rheims with his army,
including the remains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert, and marched
from here in hopes of joining Bazaine; the crown-prince of Prussia
started in pursuit, August 23, 1870. It was occupied by the Germans and
the king, September 5, 1870.

=Rhin, Bas= and =Haut= (Lower and Upper Rhine). Recently departments of
France, which formed the former French province of Alsace. See ELSASS.

=Rhine= (anc. _Rhenus_, Ger. _Rhein_). An important river in Germany,
and one of the most noted in Europe, takes its rise in the Swiss canton
of Grisons, and after a north-northwest course of about 800 miles, falls
in the German Ocean. Cæsar was the first Roman general who crossed the
Rhine; he threw a bridge of boats across it. It was fortified as the
frontier of the Roman empire 298 and 369, and became the boundary of the
French republic in 1776.

=Rhode Island.= One of the original thirteen United States of America,
and the smallest, on the southern coast of New England, is about 47
miles from north to south, and 37 miles from east to west. It is bounded
north and east by Massachusetts, south by the Atlantic, and west by
Connecticut. Rhode Island is believed to have been the Vineland of the
Norsemen, who are supposed by some antiquarians to have explored this
coast in the 10th century. It was settled in 1636 by Roger Williams and
his companions, Baptists, who were expelled for their religious opinions
from the Puritan colony of Plymouth. The colony suffered from the Indian
wars until the defeat and death of Philip, king of the Wampanoags. Rhode
Island took a prominent part in the Revolutionary war, and in the late
civil war (1861-65) she filled her quotas cheerfully for the cause of
the Union, her soldiers winning distinction and honor in the field.

=Rhodes= (Lat. _Rhodus_, Gr. _Rhodos_.). An island of Asiatic Turkey, in
the Mediterranean, off the southwest coast of Asia Minor, long an
important, wealthy, and independent state of ancient Greece. At the
beginning of the Peloponnesian war, Rhodes was one of those maritime
states which were subject to Athens; but in the twentieth year of the
war (412), it joined the Spartan alliance, and the oligarchal party,
which had been depressed, and their leaders, the Eratidæ, expelled,
recovered their former power under Dories. In 408 the capital, called
Rhodus, was built. The history of the island now presents a series of
conflicts between the democratical and oligarchal parties, and of
subjection to Athens and Sparta in turn, till the end of the Social war,
355, when its independence was acknowledged. Then followed a conflict
with the princes of Caria, during which the island was for a time
subject to Artemisia. At the Macedonian conquest, they submitted to
Alexander; but upon his death they expelled the Macedonian garrison. In
the ensuing wars they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the son of Lagus,
and their city, Rhodus, endured a most famous siege by the forces of
Demetrius Poliorcetes, who at length, in admiration of the valor of the
besieged, presented them with the engines he had used against the city,
from the sale of which they defrayed the cost of the celebrated
Colossus. The state now for a long time flourished with great maritime
power. At length they came into connection with the Romans, whose
alliance they joined in the war against Philip III. of Macedon. In the
ensuing war with Antiochus, the Rhodians gave the Romans great aid with
their fleet. A temporary interruption of their alliance with Rome was
caused by their espousing the cause of Perseus, for which they were
severely punished, 168; but they recovered the favor of Rome by the
important naval aid they rendered in the Mithridatic war. In the civil
wars they took part with Cæsar, and suffered in consequence from
Cassius, 42. They were at length deprived of their independence by
Claudius. In 1309 the island came into the possession of the Knights of
St. John (see SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM), who baffled every effort made by
Mahomet II., the conqueror of Constantinople, to drive them from the
island, and held it until they were compelled to evacuate it by Solyman
the Great in 1522, after one of the most memorable sieges recorded in
history.

=Rhoxolani=, or =Roxolani=. A warlike people in European Sarmatia, on
the coast of the Palus Mæotis, and between the Borysthenes and the
Tanais, usually supposed to be the ancestors of the modern Russians.
They frequently attacked and plundered the Roman provinces south of the
Danube; and Hadrian was even obliged to pay them tribute. They are
mentioned as late as the 11th century. They fought with lances, and with
long swords wielded with both hands; and their armies were composed
chiefly of cavalry.

=Ribadoquin.= An ancient 1- or 1³⁄₄-pounder gun. Also, a powerful
cross-bow for throwing long darts.

=Ribaud= (_Fr._). A soldier of the foot-guards of Philip Augustus of
France; but afterwards this term was applied only to the most infamous
characters.

=Ribaudaille= (_Fr._). A term of reproach formerly applied to cowardly
soldiers. Philip of Valois thus called his Genoese mercenaries, who he
thought had betrayed him.

=Ribaudequin= (_Fr._). A warlike machine or instrument which the French
formerly used. It was made in the form of a bow, containing 12 or 15
feet in its curve, and was fixed upon the wall of a fortified town, for
the purpose of casting out a prodigious javelin, which sometimes killed
several men at once. According to Monstrelet, a French writer,
_ribaudequin_, or _ribauderin_, signified a sort of garment which was
worn by the soldiers when they took the field.

=Ribbon.= In heraldry, a diminutive of the ordinary called the _bend_,
of which it is one-eighth in width.

=Ribbon Cockades.= In the British service, the cockades which are given
to recruits, and are commonly called the _colors_.

=Richmond.= The capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the James
River, at the head of the tide-water, 150 miles from its mouth, and 100
miles south of Washington. In June, 1861, it was selected as the
Confederate capital, and from that period was the objective-point of a
series of formidable military expeditions for its capture, under Gens.
McDowell, McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Grant, and defended by
Gen. Lee with a large army and formidable lines of fortifications, until
the seizure of the lines of supply by Gens. Grant and Sheridan compelled
its evacuation after a series of sanguinary battles, April 3, 1865. A
considerable portion of the city was destroyed by the retreating
Confederates.

=Rickarees=, =Arickarees=, or =Rees=. A tribe of Indians of the Pawnee
stock living at Fort Berthold agency, on the Upper Missouri River; they
warred with the Dakota tribes for a number of years, and were hostile to
the whites; but were defeated and dispersed by U. S. troops in 1823;
made a treaty in 1825; were driven up the Platte Valley, 1831; returned
to the Missouri some years later. They numbered in 1876 about 700 souls.

=Ricochet.= In gunnery, the repeated rebounding of round-shot. By firing
at a slight elevation, with small charges, in a direction enfilading the
face of a work, shot are pitched over the parapet, and bound along the
rampart from end to end, with most destructive effect on the guns and
gunners occupying it.

=Ricochet Battery.= See BATTERY.

=Ricochet Firing.= See FIRE, RICOCHET.

=Rideau.= Is a rising ground, or eminence, commanding a plain, sometimes
almost parallel to the works of a place. It is a great disadvantage to
have rideaus near a fortification, which terminate on the counterscarp,
especially when the enemy fire from afar; they not only command the
place, but facilitate the enemy’s approaches.

=Rider.= In artillery carriages, a piece of wood, which has more height
than breadth; the length being equal to that of the body of the
axle-tree, upon which the side-pieces rest in a four-wheel carriage,
such as the ammunition-wagon, block-carriage, and sling-wagon.

=Ridge.= In fortification, is the highest part of the glacis proceeding
from the salient angle of the covered way.

=Riding-Master.= In the British service, in cavalry, artillery, and the
army service corps, is an officer whose duty it is to instruct the
officers and men in the management of their horses. He is most commonly
selected from the ranks. The riding-master has the relative rank of
lieutenant, and, after an aggregate service of thirty years, including
at least fifteen years as riding-master, he has the right to retire on
10 shillings a day, with the honorary rank of captain. He is assisted in
his duties by rough riders. (See ROUGH RIDER.)

=Riff, The.= A portion of the coast of Morocco which extends from
Tangier on the west, to near the western frontier of Algeria. The name
in the Berber language, which is that of the inhabitants, signifies a
mountainous and rugged coast. The inhabitants of the Riff were formerly
engaged in piracy. On account of the injuries inflicted by them on
merchant vessels, most of the maritime states of Europe agreed to pay an
annual sum of quit-money. However, in 1828, Austria declined further
payment of the tax. A Venetian vessel was seized by the pirates in the
harbor of Rabat, but the arrival of an Austrian fleet off the port
produced restitution of the ship and its cargo, as well as the formal
renunciation of all further claims. France followed the same course by
declaring war against the sultan of Morocco, and obtained compensation
in 1844, since which period piracy has much diminished. Its example was
followed by the Spaniards in 1859.

=Rifle.= A fire-arm having a number of spiral grooves cut into the
surface of its bore, for the purpose of giving the projectile a motion
about a line coinciding with the direction of its flight. See ORDNANCE,
SMALL-ARMS, MAGAZINE GUNS, and LYMAN’S MULTI-CHARGE GUN.

=Rifle Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Rifled Cannon=, or =Rifle-cannon=. A cannon of which the bore is
rifled.

=Rifled Musket.= A musket of which the bore is rifled.

=Riflemen.= A peculiar kind of light infantry, consisting of experienced
marksmen, armed with the most improved rifles. In the British army there
are two battalions of the rifle brigade and of the 60th Rifles, the
Ceylon Rifles, and the Cape Mounted Riflemen.

=Rifle-pit.= A pit dug for the shelter of sharpshooters.

=Rifling.= The yielding nature of lead renders the application of the
rifle principle of easy accomplishment in the case of rifle-muskets, but
such is not the case with rifle-cannon where the projectiles are made of
iron. The object of the most recent experiments is to determine the
safest and surest means of causing the projectile to follow the spiral
grooves as it passes along the bore of a rifled piece. For description
of the manner of doing this, see PROJECTILE.

_Form of Groove._--The form of a rifle groove is determined by the angle
which the tangent at any point makes with the corresponding element of
the bore. If the angles be equal at all points the groove is uniform.
If they increase from the breech to the muzzle, the grooves are called
increasing; if the reverse, decreasing. The inclination of a rifle
groove at any point is measured, accurately, by the tangent of the angle
which it makes with the axis of the bore, which is always equal to the
circumference of the bore divided by the length of a single revolution
of the spiral, measured in the direction of the axis. Grooves are of two
kinds,--_uniform_ and _variable_.

_Uniform Groove._--The comparative advantages of uniform and variable
grooves depend on the means used to connect them with the projectiles.
If the bearing of the projectile in the grooves be long, and the metal
of which it is made be unyielding, it will be unsafe, if not
impracticable, to employ variable grooves, and if the metal be partially
yielding, a portion of the force of the charge will be expended in
changing the form of that part of the projectile which projects into the
grooves, as it moves along the bore.

_Variable Groove._--The variable groove may be used to advantage when
the portion of the projectile in the grooves is so short that its form
will undergo but slight alteration; the variable groove diminishes the
friction of the projectile when it is first set in motion, and thereby
relieves the breech of the piece of a portion of the enormous strain
which is thrown upon it. If the twist be too rapid towards the muzzle
there will be danger of bursting the piece in the chase.

_Width of Groove._--The width of a groove depends on the diameter of the
bore and the peculiar manner in which the groove receives and holds the
projectile. Wide and shallow grooves are more easily filled by the
expanding portion of the projectile than those which are narrow and
deep; and the same holds true of circular-shaped grooves when compared
to those of angular form.

_Number of Grooves._--An increase in the number of grooves increases the
firmness with which a projectile is held, by adding to the number of
points which bear upon it. A large number of grooves, however, increase
the difficulties of loading. For expanding projectiles an odd number of
grooves is generally employed, for as this places a groove opposite to a
land, less expansion will be required to fill them.

_Inclination of Grooves._--Experience has shown that, as the velocity of
rotation depends upon the form and initial velocity of the projectile,
the causes which retard it, and the time of flight, there is a
particular inclination of grooves which is best suited to each caliber,
form of projectile, charge of powder, and angle of fire. The farther the
centre of gravity of a projectile is in rear of the centre of figure, or
resistance of the air, the greater must be the inclination of the
grooves to resist deviation. It therefore follows that a conical
projectile of the same length and diameter, requires a greater
inclination of grooves than a cylindrical projectile, and the same will
hold true for other forms as they approach one or the other of these
extreme cases. The friction of the projectile as it passes along the
grooves, increases with their inclination; its effect will be to
diminish the range and increase the strain on the piece, and the
inclination may be carried so far as to break the projectile, or rupture
the piece.

_Centring._--In consequence of the windage necessary in all
muzzle-loading guns, the axis of the projectile does not always coincide
with that of the bore in firing. This leads to inaccuracy of fire. A
projectile is said to be centred when the grooves of the rifling are so
constructed as to bring the axis of the projectile on a line with that
of the bore when the piece is fired. There are several ways of
accomplishing this, among them Armstrong’s method called “Shunt
rifling.” See ARMSTRONG GUN under ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, the KRUPP,
and others.

=Riga.= An important seaport of Russia, capital of Livonia, on the Düna,
312 miles southwest from St. Petersburg. Riga was founded in the
beginning of the 13th century. The Teutonic Knights possessed it in the
16th century. In 1621 it was taken by Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1710,
after a vigorous resistance, by Peter the Great. On the latter occasion
more than half of the town was destroyed. In 1812 a French force was
repulsed from the town.

=Rigodon= (_Fr._). Formerly a beat of drum while men who were shelled (a
French punishment, the severest next to death) were paraded up and down
the ranks previous to their being sent to their destination.

=Rimbases.= In gunnery, are short cylinders uniting the trunnions with
the body of the gun. The ends of the rimbases, or the _shoulders_ of the
trunnions, are planes perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions.
Rimbases are for the purpose of strengthening the trunnions at their
junction with the piece, and by forming shoulders, to prevent the piece
from moving sideways in the trunnion-beds.

=Rimer.= A palisade in fortification.

=Rimini= (anc. _Ariminum_). A city of Central Italy, on the Adriatic
Sea, about 28 miles east-southeast from Forli. It was founded by the
Umbri; was conquered by the Romans; sacked by Sulla; plundered and
destroyed several times by the barbarians; then given by Charlemagne to
the church.

=Rimnik.= A town of Wallachia, on the Rimnik, 66 miles northeast from
Bucharest. Here the Austrians and Russians, under Prince Coburg and Gen.
Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the Turks, September 22, 1789.

=Ring-armor.= Armor composed of rings of metal.

=Ringleader.= The leader of a ring; especially, the leader of an
association of men engaged in violation of law or an illegal enterprise,
as rioters, mutineers, and the like.

=Ring-mail.= A kind of mail composed of small rings of steel sewed
edgewise upon a strong garment of leather or of quilted cloth.

=Ring-wads.= See GROMMET.

=Rio Janeiro=, or =Rio de Janeiro=, often called simply Rio. The capital
of Brazil, and the largest and most important city of South America. The
harbor, which is strongly fortified, is one of the best in the world,
and large enough for all its navies. The city of Rio was founded by the
Portuguese in 1567. In 1831, it was the theatre of a revolution, in
which 6000 armed citizens were joined by the troops of the line in their
opposition to the government, and in consequence of which Dom Pedro
abdicated the throne in favor of his son Pedro II.

=Riot and Tumult.= Sedition, civil insurrection, disturbance, etc. A
breach of the peace committed by an assembled multitude. Some degree of
violence is incidental to a riot, and a degree of intimidation to the
neighborhood. According to law a riot cannot take place unless three
persons act in concert. When a riot becomes formidable, it is usual for
the authorities to take active measures to disperse it.

=Rioters.= Disturbers of the public peace; persons acting in open
violation of good order; raising or creating sedition, etc.

=Ripon.= An ancient town of England, in Yorkshire, 23 miles northwest of
York. It suffered much by the ravages of the Danes and the Normans
(1069), and the Scots (1319 and 1323).

=Risban= (_Fr._). In fortification, a flat piece of ground upon which a
fort is constructed for the defense and security of a port or harbor. It
likewise means the fort itself.

=Risberme= (_Fr._). A work composed of fascines, such as is sometimes
constructed at the bottom of a town-wall. A sort of glacis of
fascine-work used in jetties, the sides of which, towards the sea, are
so formed as to withstand its violence.

=Rise.= In a military sense, is to make hostile attack; as, the soldiers
rose against their officers. It also means to obtain promotion. _To rise
from the ranks_, is to obtain a commission by degrees, after having been
in the ranks as a private soldier.

=Rising.= In heraldry, a term applied to a bird when represented opening
his wings as if about to take flight.

=Riveting-plates.= In gun-carriages, are small, square, thin pieces of
iron, through which the ends of the bolts pass, and are riveted upon
them.

=Rivoli.= A town of Italy on the right of the river Dora, and 8 miles
west of Turin. It possesses a royal castle, which was sacked by the
French in 1690. In 1797 a battle was fought here between the French and
Austrians, in which the former were victorious.

=Rizamedar.= In the East Indies, is an officer commanding a small body
of horse.

=Roanoke.= A river of Virginia and North Carolina; empties into
Albemarle Sound. In 1861, Albemarle Island, at its mouth, and Plymouth
were taken by the Federal gunboats.

=Robinet.= An ancient military machine for throwing darts and stones.

=Rochelle, La.= A fortified seaport of France, capital of the department
of Charente-Inférieure, on an inlet of the Bay of Biscay, 300 miles
southwest of Paris by railway. It was taken from the English by the
troops of the French king Louis XIII. in 1224; was ceded to England at
the treaty of Bretigny in 1360; in the subsequent wars it was retaken by
France, under whose sway it has remained since 1372. As a stronghold of
the Huguenot party, it underwent various attacks and sieges during the
religious wars of the Henries, in the latter half of the 16th century;
and on its final and unconditional surrender to the royal troops in the
time of Louis XIII., its old fortifications were destroyed, and new
lines of defenses subsequently erected by the great Vauban.

=Rock Island.= An island in the Mississippi River, the southern
extremity of which is nearly opposite the town of Rock Island, Ill. This
island is about 3 miles in length, and presents a perpendicular front of
limestone 20 or 30 feet high. During the Blackhawk war a garrison was
kept on Rock Island, and a part of it was used during the late civil war
(1861-65) as a military prison. The U. S. government has a splendid
arsenal and armory here.

=Rocket.= A rocket is a projectile which is set in motion by a force
residing within itself; it therefore performs the twofold function of
piece and projectile. See PYROTECHNY.

_History._--Rockets were used in India and China for war purposes before
the discovery of gunpowder; some writers fix the date of their invention
about the close of the 9th century. Their inferior force and accuracy
limited the sphere of their operations to incendiary purposes, until the
year 1804, when Sir William Congreve turned his attention to their
improvement. This officer substituted sheet-iron cases for those made of
paper, which enabled him to use a more powerful composition; he made the
guide-stick shorter and lighter, and removed a source of inaccuracy of
flight by attaching the stick to the centre of the base instead of the
side of the case. The advantages claimed for rockets over cannon are,
unlimited size of projectile, portability, freedom from recoil, rapidity
of discharge, and the terror which their noise and fiery trail produce
on mounted troops.

_Structure._--A rocket is essentially composed of a strong case of paper
or wrought iron, inclosing a composition of nitre, charcoal, and
sulphur,--the same as gunpowder, except that the ingredients are
proportioned for a slower rate of combustion. If penetration and range
be required, its head is surmounted by a solid shot; if explosion and
incendiary effect, by a shell or spherical case-shot, to which is
attached a fuze, which is set on fire when it is reached by the flame
of the burning composition. The base is perforated by one or more vents
for the escape of the gas generated within, and sometimes with a
screw-hole to which a guide-stick is fastened.

_Motion._--A rocket is set in motion by the reaction of a rapid stream
of gas escaping through its vents. If it be surrounded by a resisting
medium, the atmosphere, for instance, the particles of gas as they issue
from the vent will impinge against and set in motion certain particles
of air, and the force expended on the inertia of these particles will
react and increase the propelling force of the rocket. It follows,
therefore, that, though a rocket will move _in vacuo_, its propelling
force will be increased by the presence of a resisting medium. Whether
the effect will be to accelerate the rocket depends upon the relation
between the resistance which the medium offers to the motion of the gas
and that which it offers to the motion of the rocket.

_Vent._--As the rate of combustion of the composition is independent of
the pressure of the gas in the bore, it follows, that if the size of the
vent be contracted, the flow of gas through it will be accelerated. The
strength of the case, and the friction of the gas, which increases as
the vent diminishes, alone limit the reduction of the size of the vent.
For vents of the same size, but of different shapes, that one which
allows the gas to escape most freely will be most favorable to the
flight of the rocket. A conical form of vent, with the larger orifice
next to the bore, will allow the gas to escape more rapidly than one of
cylindrical form.

_Bore._--As the composition of a rocket burns in parallel layers of
uniform thickness, the amount of gas generated in a given time, or the
velocity of its exit from the case, depends on the extent of the
inflamed surface. Experience shows that to obtain the required surface
of inflammation, it is necessary to form a long cavity in the mass of
the composition. This cavity is called the bore. In all rockets the bore
should be concentric with the case; its shape should be made conical to
diminish the strain on the case near its head, by reducing the amount of
surface where the pressure on the unit of surface is greatest.

_Nature of Movement._--Suppose the rocket in a state of rest, and the
composition ignited; the flame immediately spreads over the surface of
the bore, forming gas which issues from the vent. The escape is slow in
the first moments, as the density of the gas is slight; but as the
surface of inflammation is large compared to the size of the vent, the
gas accumulates rapidly, and its density is increased until the velocity
of the escape is sufficient to overcome the resistance which the rocket
offers to motion. These resistances are, inertia, friction, the
component of weight in the direction of motion, and, after motion takes
place, the resistance of the air. The constant pressure on the head of
the bore accelerates the motion of the rocket until the resistance of
the air equals the propelling force; after this, it will remain constant
until the burning surface is sensibly diminished. When the gas ceases to
flow, the rocket loses its distinctive character, and becomes, so far as
its movement is concerned, an ordinary projectile. The increase in the
surface of combustion whereby more gas is developed in the same time,
and the diminution in the weight of the remaining composition, cause the
point of maximum velocity to be reached with increased rapidity. If the
weight of the rocket be increased, the instant of maximum velocity will
be prolonged, but the amount will remain the same. A change in the form
of the rocket which increases the resistance of the air, will have the
effect to diminish the maximum velocity.

_Guiding Principle._--The propelling force of a rocket changes its
direction with the axis along which it acts; it follows, therefore, that
without some means of giving stability to this axis, the path described
will be very irregular, so much so, at times, as to fold upon itself;
and instances have been known where these projectiles have returned to
the point whence they started. The two means now used to give steadiness
to the flight of a rocket are, rotation, as in the case of a rifle-ball,
and the resistance of the air, as in an arrow.

_Hale’s System._--The first is exemplified in Hale’s rocket, where
rotation is produced around the long axis by the escape of the gas
through five small vents situated obliquely to it. In his first
arrangement, the inventor placed the small vents in the base,
surrounding the central vent, so that the resultant of the tangential
forces acted around the posterior extremity of the axis of rotation. In
1855, this arrangement was changed by reducing the number of the small
vents to three, and placing them at the base of the head of the rocket.
The rocket thus modified is the one now used by the U. S. government for
war purposes. A still later improvement in Hale’s rocket consists in
screwing a cast-iron piece into the bottom of the case, which is
perforated with three vents. A corresponding side of each vent is
surrounded with a fence, the opposite sides being open. The gas in its
efforts to expand after issuing from the vents, presses against the
fences and rotates the rocket around its long axis.

_Congreve’s System._--A Congreve rocket is guided by a long wooden stick
attached to its base. If any cause act to turn it from its proper
direction, it will be opposed by resistances equal to its moment of
inertia and the lateral action of the air against the stick. The effect
of these resistances will be increased by placing the centre of gravity
near the head of the rocket, and by increasing the surface of the stick.
In signal-rockets, where the case is made of paper, the stick is
attached to the side, and there is but one large vent, which is in the
centre of the case. In war-rockets the stick is attached to the centre
of the base, and the large central vent is replaced by several small
ones near its circumference. The former arrangement is not so favorable
to accuracy as the latter, inasmuch as rotation will be produced if the
force of propulsion and the resistance of the air do not act in the same
line.

_How Fired._--Rockets are generally fired from tubes or gutters; but
should occasion require it, they may be fired directly from the ground,
care being taken to raise the forward end by propping it up with a stick
or stone. As the motion is slow in the first moments of its flight, it
is more liable to be deviated from its proper direction at this time
than any other; for this reason the conducting-tube should be as long as
practicable.

_Form of Trajectory._--Take that portion of the trajectory where the
velocity is uniform. The weight of the rocket applied at its centre of
gravity, and acting in a vertical direction, and the propelling force
acting in the direction of its length, are two forces the oblique
resultant of which moves the rocket parallel to itself; but the
resistance of the air is oblique to this direction, and acting at the
centre of figure, a point situated between the centre of gravity and
extremity of the guide-stick, produces a rotation which raises the
stick, and thereby changes the direction in which the gas acts. As these
forces are constantly acting, it follows that each element of the
trajectory has less inclination to the horizon than the element of an
ordinary trajectory in which the velocity is equal. When the velocity is
not _uniform_, the position of the centre of gravity has a certain
influence on the form of the trajectory. To understand this, it is
necessary to consider that the component of the resistance of the air
which acts on the head of the rocket is greater than that which acts on
the side of the stick. It is also necessary to consider that the
pressure of the inflamed gas acts in a direction opposite to the
resistance of the air, that is to say, from the rear to the front, and
that the centre of gravity is near the rear extremity of the case. At
the beginning of the trajectory, when the motion of the rocket is
accelerated, its inertia is opposed to motion, and being applied at the
centre of gravity, which is in rear of the vent, the point of
application of the moving force, it acts to prevent the rocket from
turning over in its flight. But when the composition is consumed, the
centre of gravity is thrown farther to the rear, and the velocity of the
rocket is retarded, the inertia acts in the opposite direction, and the
effect will be, if the centre of gravity or inertia is sufficiently far
to the rear, to cause it to turn over in the direction of its length. If
the rocket be directed toward the earth, this turning over will be
counteracted by the acceleration of velocity due to the weight, and the
form of the trajectory will be preserved.

_Effect of Wind._--When the wind acts obliquely to the plane of fire,
its component perpendicular to this flame acting at the centre of figure
will cause the rocket to rotate around its centre of gravity. As the
centre of figure is situated in rear of the centre of gravity, the point
will be thrown toward the wind, and the propelling force acting always
in the direction of the axis, the rocket will be urged toward the
direction of the wind. To make an allowance for the wind in firing
rockets, they should be pointed toward the opposite side from which the
wind comes, or with the wind instead of against it. If the wind act in
the plane of fire from front to rear, it will have the effect to depress
the point, and with it the elements of the trajectory in the ascending
branch, and elevate them in the descending branch; as the latter is
shorter than the former, the effect of a front wind will be to diminish
the range. The converse will be true for a rear wind.

_Kind Used._--The two sizes of Hale’s rockets in use in the American
service are, the 2-inch (interior diameter of case), weighing 6 pounds,
and 3-inch (interior diameter of case), weighing 16 pounds. Under an
angle of from 4° to 5° the range of these rockets is from 500 to 600
yards. Under an angle of 47° the range of the former is 1760 yards, and
the latter 2200.

=Rocroy=, or =Rocroi=. A small town of France, in the department of
Ardennes, 15 miles northwest from Mézières. It is memorable for the
victory gained by the great Condé (then duke of Enghien) over the
Spaniards, May 19, 1643. The Spanish army was composed of veteran bands
of Walloons, Spaniards, and Italians, and their general, Don Francisco
de Mellos, was a commander worthy of his army. The French (22,000) were
also good troops, but their general, Condé, was a young and
inexperienced officer. At first the battle was unfavorable to the
French, but at last the Spaniards were thrown into irretrievable rout.
The Count of Fuentes, the commander of the redoubtable infantry, and
10,000 of his men were among the slain; and 5000 men, with all the
cannon, many standards, and the baton of the Count de Mellos, were
captured. But, far beyond all material losses, the renown of
invincibility, first acquired by the Spanish infantry on the field of
Pavia (1525), and confirmed at St. Quentin, Gravelines, and Prague, was
destroyed.

=Rodman Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Roermond.= An old town in the Netherlands, province of Limburg, at the
junction of the Roer and Maas. It has often endured the horrors of being
besieged and taken.

=Rogue River Indians.= See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES (Oregon).

=Rogue’s March.= Derisive music performed in driving away a person
under popular indignation, or when a soldier is drummed out of a
regiment.

=Rohilcund.= A region of Northeast India; was conquered by the Rohillas,
an Afghan tribe, who settled here about 1747. After aiding the sovereign
of Oude to overcome the Mahrattas, they were treated with much treachery
by him, and nearly exterminated. Rohilcund was ceded to the British in
1801. After the great mutiny Rohilcund was tranquillized in July, 1858.

=Rohillas.= An East Indian tribe of Afghans inhabiting the country north
of the Ganges, as far to the north as Oude.

=Roi d’Armes= (_Fr._). King-at-arms, an officer formerly of great
authority in armies; he directed the heralds, presided at their
chapters, and had the jurisdiction of armories.

=Roleia=, or =Rolica=. A village in Portugal, where on August 17, 1808,
a British force under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated a French army under
Gen. Laborde.

=Roll.= A term of varied signification in reference to military matters.
Thus, to _roll_ is to continue one uniform beat of the drum, without
variations for a certain length of time.

=Roll, Long.= A prolonged roll of the drums, as a signal of an attack by
the enemy, and for the troops to arrange themselves in line.

=Roll, Muster-.= See MUSTER-ROLL.

=Roll of Arms.= A heraldic record of arms, either verbally blazoned or
illuminated, or both, on a long strip of vellum, rolled up, instead of
being folded into leaves.

_Rolls of Arms_ are the most important and most authentic materials for
the history of early heraldry. In England they go back to the reign of
Henry III., the oldest being a copy of a roll of that reign, containing
a list of the arms borne by the sovereign, the princes of the blood, and
the principal barons and knights between 1216 and 1272, verbally
blazoned without drawings.

=Roll, Squad.= Is a list containing the names of each particular squad
in a company, etc.

=Roll, Size.= In the British service, is a list containing the names of
all the men belonging to a troop or company, with the height or stature
of each specifically marked.

=Roll-call.= The act or time of calling over a list of names; as, tattoo
roll-call. _To call the roll_, to call off or recite a list or roll of
names of soldiers belonging to a company or troop, in order to
ascertain, from the responses, who are present and who are absent.

=Rollers, Friction.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Rolling Barrels.= See CAKING.

=Rolling Fire.= A discharge of musketry by soldiers in line, in quick
succession, and in the order in which they stand. See FIRE.

=Rolling-hitch.= Pass the end of a rope round a piece of timber; take it
round a second time, riding the standing part; then carry it across and
up through the bight.

=Romagna.= A province of the Papal States, comprised in the legations of
Forli and Ravenna. It was conquered by the Lombards; but taken from them
by Pepin, and given to the pope, 753. Cæsar Borgia held it as a duchy in
1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 the Romagna threw off the temporal
authority of the pope, and declared itself subject to the king of
Sardinia, who accepted it in March, 1860. It now forms part of the
kingdom of Italy.

=Romainville and Belleville=. Heights near Paris, where Joseph
Bonaparte, Mortier, and Marmont were defeated by the allies after a
vigorous resistance, March 30, 1814. The next day Paris capitulated.

=Roman Candles.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Roman Walls.= One was erected by Agricola (79 to 85) to defend Britain
from the incursions of the Picts and Scots; the first wall extended from
the Tyne to the Solway Frith (80 miles); the second from the Frith of
Forth, near Edinburgh, to the Frith of Clyde, near Dumbarton (36 miles).
The former was renewed and strengthened by the emperor Adrian (121) and
by Septimus Severus (208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, and
ended at Wallsend, near Newcastle. It had battlements and towers to
contain soldiers. The more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many remains of these walls
still exist, particularly of the southern one.

=Romans.= See ROME.

=Rome= (anc. _Roma_). The most celebrated city of the world, either in
ancient or modern times, the capital of the Pontifical States, and the
ecclesiastical metropolis of Catholic Christendom, is situated on the
Tiber, 17 miles northeast of its mouth in the Mediterranean. Rome is
said to have been a colony from Alba Longa and to have been founded by
Romulus about 753 B.C.; it grew rapidly in size and power. Regal Rome
ruled the whole Latin coast, and the treaties made with powerful
Carthage, with Massilia, and with the Greeks of Southern Italy bear
witness to the respect it enjoyed abroad. Royalty was abolished, and an
aristocratical commonwealth established by the patricians, 509 B.C.; the
Latins and the Tarquins declared war against the republic, 501; were
defeated at the Lake Regillus, 496 B.C. Military tribunes were first
created in 444 B.C. Rome was engaged in war with the Tuscans, 434 B.C.;
the Æqui and Volsci were defeated by Tubertus, 431 B.C.; Veii was taken
by Camillus after ten years’ siege, 396 B.C. In 390 B.C. Rome was
captured and burned by the Gauls; the vigilance of Marcus Manlius saved
the Capitol. Again and again in the course of the 4th century B.C. the
Gallic hordes repeated their incursions, but never again returned
victorious. In 367 B.C. Camillus defeated them at Alba; in 360 B.C. they
were routed at the Colline Gate; in 358 B.C. by the dictator G.
Sulpicius Peticus; and in 350 B.C. by Lucius Furius Camillus. By the
middle of the 4th century B.C. the whole of Southern Etruria had
submitted to the supremacy of Rome, and was kept in check by a Roman
garrison; as was also the land of the Volsci. Becoming alarmed at the
increasing power of Rome, the Latins and Hernicans withdrew from their
league with Rome, and a severe and protracted struggle took place
between them and their former ally. Nearly thirty years elapsed before
the Romans succeeded in crushing the malcontents, and restoring the
league of Spurius Cassius. In the course of this war the old Latin
confederacy of the “Thirty Cities” was broken up, 384 B.C. Rome made a
treaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy, 348 B.C. Now commenced a
tremendous struggle between the Samnites and the Romans; the former
fighting heroically for the preservation of their national freedom,--the
latter warring with superb valor for dominion. The Samnite wars, of
which three are reckoned, extended over 53 years (343-290). The victory
of the Romans at Sentinum (295 B.C.) virtually ended the struggle. At
the close of the first Samnite war, an insurrection burst out among the
Latins and Volscians, but the defeat inflicted on the insurgents at
Trifanum (340 B.C.), by the Roman consul Titus Manlius Imperiosus
Torquatos, almost instantly crushed it, and in two years almost the last
spark of rebellion was extinguished. The famous Latin League was now
dissolved. A mighty coalition was formed against Rome, consisting of
Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, in the north, and of Lucanians,
Bruttians, and Samnites, in the south, with a sort of tacit
understanding on the part of the Tarentines that they would render
assistance by and by. In the course of a single year the whole north was
in arms, and once more the power and even the existence of Rome were in
deadly peril. An entire Roman army of 13,000 men was annihilated at
Arretium (284 B.C.); but Publius Cornelius Dolabella marched into the
country of the Senones at the head of a large force, and literally
extirpated the whole nation, which henceforth disappears from history.
Shortly afterwards, the bloody overthrow of the Etrusco-Boian horde at
Lake Vadimo (283 B.C.) shattered to pieces the northern confederacy. The
Lucanians were quickly overpowered (282 B.C.); Samnium, by its long and
luckless struggle, and overawed by the proximity of a Roman army, could
do nothing. The Tarentines invited Pyrrhus over from Epirus, and
appointed him commander of their mercenaries; he arrived in Italy with a
small army of his own, 280 B.C. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans,
which lasted only six years, ended in his being obliged to return to
Epirus without accomplishing anything; this war led to the complete
subjugation of Peninsular Italy by Rome. In 264 B.C. war was formally
declared between Rome and Carthage, and it was incomparably the most
terrible contest in which Rome was ever engaged. For details of the
Punic wars, see CARTHAGE, NUMIDIA, and PUNIC WARS. The leading feature
of the _first_ was the creation of a Roman navy, which, after repeated
and tremendous misfortune, finally wrested from Carthage the sovereignty
of the seas. A lapse of twenty-three years occurred before the _second_
Punic war, during which interval the Romans bullied their weak and
exhausted rival into surrendering Sardinia and Corsica. In addition they
had carried on a series of Gallic wars in Northern Italy (231-222 B.C.),
the result of which was the extension of Italy to the Alps. The Romans
vigorously suppressed Illyrian piracy, 219 B.C. The grand events of the
second Punic war were the crossing of the Alps by Hannibal, the terrible
disasters of the Romans at Lake Trasimene (see TRASIMENUS LACUS) and
Cannæ (which see), and the final overthrow of Hannibal at Zama (which
see), 202 B.C., by Scipio. The _second_ war virtually sealed the fate of
Carthage, and the _third_ displayed only the frantic heroism of despair.
The imperial supremacy of Rome was now as unconditional in the western
Mediterranean as on the mainland of Italy. During 201-196 B.C. the Celts
in the valley of the Po were thoroughly subjugated. The Boii were
finally extirpated about 193 B.C.; the Ligurians were subdued 180-177
B.C.; and the interior of Corsica and Sardinia about the same time. The
wars in Spain were troublesome and of longer duration, but they were not
at all serious. The Romans suffered frequent defeats, but in the end the
superior discipline of the legions always prevailed. The Romans felt it
necessary to hold Spain by military occupation, and hence arose the
first Roman standing armies. The most distinguished successes were those
achieved by Scipio himself, by Marcus Cato, by Lucius Æmilius Paulus, by
Caius Calpurnius, by Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, and by Tiberius Gracchus.
The Macedonian wars were owing immediately to the alliance formed by
Philip V. of Macedon with Hannibal after the battle of Cannæ. The
Macedonian wars were three in number. The _first_ (214-205 B.C.) was
barren in results; but the _second_ (200-197 B.C.) taught Philip that
another, not he, must rule in Greece. The battle of Cynoscephalæ was
followed by a treaty which compelled him to withdraw his garrisons from
the Greek cities, to surrender his fleet, and pay 1000 talents toward
the expenses of the war. A similar fate befell Antiochus of Syria. Next
the Ætolians were crushed, and a little later the quarrels between the
Achaians and Spartans led to a general Roman protectorate over the whole
of Greece. The _third_ and last Macedonian war began 172 B.C.; the
result of which, after four years’ fighting, was the utter destruction
of the Macedonian army at Pydna (168 B.C.), and the dismemberment of the
Macedonian empire. The last Greek and Punic wars came to an end in the
same year (146 B.C.). The former was virtually closed on the
destruction of Corinth by the consul Mummius. For the results of the
former, see CARTHAGE. The Celtiberian and Numantine war began 153 B.C.,
and ended in the final overthrow of the undisciplined and uncivilized
combatants, 133 B.C. Toward the conclusion of the Numantine war occurred
the first of those horrible Social outbreaks known as “servile” or
“slave” wars, which marked the later ages of the republic. The first
slave insurrection broke out in Sicily, 134 B.C. The slaves overran the
island, like demoniacs let loose, and routed one Roman army after
another. In 132 B.C., the consul Publius Rupilius restored order. After
a fierce struggle, the Romans obtained the kingdom of Pergamus, and
formed it into the province of Asia, 129 B.C. In Africa, the overthrow
of Jugurtha by the consul Marius added further to the renown and
strength of the republic. In 105 B.C. a Roman army of 80,000 was
annihilated at Arausio on the Rhone, by the Cimbri (see ARAUSIO and
CIMBRI). Marius nearly exterminated the Teutones at Aqua-Sextiæ (Aix, in
Dauphin), 102 B.C., and in 101 B.C. the Cimbri at the Campi Raudii near
Vercellæ. (See CIMBRI and TEUTONIC.) In the same year a second
insurrection of the slaves in Sicily was suppressed by the consul Marius
Aquillius. Now followed the Social war, 90-88 B.C. Then followed the
fearful years of the “civil wars” between the two chiefs, Sulla and
Marius. In 87 B.C. Rome was besieged by four armies (viz.: those of
Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken. In 88 B.C. broke out the
“Mithridatic wars,” which were three in number; begun by Sulla 88 B.C.,
they were brought to a successful close by Pompey, 65 B.C., although the
general that had really broken the power of Mithridates was Lucullus.
(See MITHRIDATIC WAR.) The result was the annexation of the sultanate of
Pontus, which was formed into a Roman province. Then Pompey conquered
Syria; reduced to a state of dependence Phœnicia, Cæle-Syria, and
Palestine, 63 B.C. In the same year the conspiracy of Catiline was
crushed by the consul Cicero. Then came the campaigns of Cæsar in Gaul
(58-50 B.C.), by which the whole of the country was reduced to
subjection; his rupture with Pompey; his defiance of the senate; the
civil wars; his victory, dictatorship, and assassination; the second
triumvirate, composed of Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian; the overthrow of
the oligarchy at Philippi; the struggle between Antony and Octavian; the
triumph of the latter, and his investment with absolute power for life
as Augustus Cæsar, which put an end at least to civil dissensions that
had raged so long. To keep the now enormous territory quiet which
contained so many different races, an army of forty-seven legions and as
many cohorts was maintained. The most notable incident during the reign
of Tiberius was probably the concentration of the Prætorian guards in
the vicinity of Rome, who, until their dissolution by Diocletian, were
the real sovereigns of the empire. In Nero’s time Armenia was wrested
from the Parthians; the Roman authority in England was likewise extended
as far north as the Trent, and a great rebellion in Gaul, against Nero,
headed by Julius Vindex, was crushed by T. Virginius Rufus, the
commander of the Germanic legions. The chief military events from the
days of Vespasian to those of Marcus Aurelius, are final conquests of
Britain by Agricola, the final conquest of the Dacian monarchy, the
victorious invasion of Parthia and Northern Arabia; and the conquest of
the valley of the Nile, as far south as Upper Nubia, by Trajan; the
chastisement of the Marcomanni, Quadi, Chatti, etc., by Marcus Aurelius.
The reign of Alexander Severus is marked by the downfall of the Parthian
dynasty of Persian kings, and the rise of the native Sassanidæ (which
see), which proved far more formidable enemies than the Parthian rulers.
After the assassination of Severus (235 A.D.) followed a period of
confusion, bloodshed, and general mismanagement. The names of Maximin,
Maximus, Balbinus, Gordianus, and Philip recall nothing but wretched
quarrels, often ending in assassination. Then followed the “beginning of
the end.” The whole of Europe beyond the Roman frontier--the mysterious
North--began to ferment. The Franks appeared on the Lower Rhine, the
Suabians on the Maine; while the Goths burst through Dacia, routed the
forces of Decius, slew the emperor himself at Mount Hæmus, crossed the
Euxine, and ravaged the whole northern coast of Asia Minor. A little
later--during the reigns of Valerian, Gallienus, and the so-called
Thirty Tyrants--the empire was nothing but a wild distracted chaos;
Franks, Alemanni, Goths, and Persians rushing from their respective
quarters like vultures scenting prey. The Goths swept over the whole of
Achaia, while the Asiatic hordes of Sapor committed even greater havoc
in Syria and Asia Minor. By Claudius Gothicus (268-270), and his
successors, Aurelian, Probus, and Carus, the barbarians of the north and
northwest, as well as the Persians in the East, were severely chastised.
The division of the empire into East and West by Diocletian led to those
labyrinthine confusions and civil wars, in which figure the names of
Maximian, Constantius, Galerius, Maxentius, Maximin, Licinius, and
Constantine, which were only brought to a close by the surpassing genius
of the last mentioned. Julian’s efforts to repel the incessant
incursions of the Franks and Alemanni displayed a fine valor and
generalship, and were crowned with success. But after the death of
Julian the signs of the approaching dissolution of the empire became
more unmistakable. Swarms of ferocious Huns drove the Goths out of
Dacia, and forced them to cross the Danube into the Roman territory,
where they devastated the whole East from the Adriatic to the Euxine.
They were subdued and disarmed by Theodosius. Hardly was Theodosius dead
when they rose again, under their chief Alaric, against Honorius,
emperor of the West. Three years earlier, hordes of Suevi, Burgundians,
Alemanni, Vandals, and Alans burst into Gaul, which led to the invasion
of Africa by Genseric. In the East the Huns had reduced vast regions to
an utter desert; for nearly fifty years, indeed, the little ferocious
demons had rioted in destruction. (See HUNS.) Eudoxia, the widow of
Valentinian, to be revenged on Valentinian’s murderer and successor,
Petronius Maximus, invited Genseric, the “scourge of God,” over from
Africa, and exposed Rome to the horrors of pillage for fourteen days.
Later, Odoacer, placing himself at the head of the barbarian mercenaries
of the empire, overthrew the last, and the most ridiculous, occupant of
the throne of the Cæsars (476), who, by a curious coincidence, bore the
same name as the founder of the city,--Romulus. Rome was recovered for
Justinian by Belisarius, 536; retaken by Totila the Goth, 546; recovered
by Belisarius, 547; seized by Totila, 549; recovered by Narses and
annexed to the Eastern empire, 553. Rome became independent under the
popes about 728; was taken by Arnulf and the Germans, 896; taken by the
emperor Henry IV., March, 1084. The pope removed to Avignon (1309-1377).
Rome was then virtually left without a government, the Guelphs and the
Ghibellines, Neapolitan and German armies, and the noble families of the
Orsini and the Colonna being alternately masters. Cola di Rienzi, a man
of the people, made himself master of Rome, 1347; it was captured and
pillaged by the Constable of Bourbon, 1527; it was harassed by the
French, German, and Spanish factions from the 16th to the 18th
centuries; the French proclaimed a Roman republic, March 20, 1798; was
recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, 1799; retaken by the French,
1800; was restored to Pope Pius VII., 1801, and annexed by Napoleon to
the kingdom of Italy, 1808. It was restored to the pope, January, 1814.
In 1848 the people rose in rebellion, drove out Pius IX., and
established a republic under the triumvirate of Mazzini, Armellini, and
Saffi. An appeal to France brought once more a French army to the gates
of the city, and the siege was begun. Rome was taken after a brave
resistance in July, 1849. For twenty years French troops garrisoned the
Eternal City, and when they were at last withdrawn (1870) Italy had
become one great nation. After a brief resistance from the foreign papal
troops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian troops under Cadorna
made a breach, and entered Rome amid enthusiastic acclamation of the
people, September 20, 1870.

=Rompu.= In heraldry, a term applied to a chevron when the upper part
is taken off, and remains above it in the field.

=Roncesvalles= (Fr. _Roncevaux_). A small Spanish village, province of
Navarre, in a narrow valley inclosed by lofty mountains, through which
one of the principal roads leads from France across the Pyrenees into
Spain. Here Charlemagne was attacked in 778 by the Basques, and his
whole rear-guard destroyed. In honor of those who had fallen he built a
chapel on the spot where the battle took place, and among the names
enumerated in the inscription was that of Roland. In the modern
French-Spanish wars, several bloody encounters (in 1793, 1794, and 1813)
occurred in the same valley, and in 1833, Don Carlos was first
proclaimed king here.

=Rondache= (_Fr._). In ancient armory, a circular shield carried by
foot-soldiers to protect the upper part of the person, having a slit in
the upper part for seeing through, and another at the side for the point
of the sword to pass through.

=Rondel.= In fortification, a round tower, sometimes erected at the foot
of a bastion.

=Rondelle= (_Fr._). A small round shield which was formerly used by
light-armed infantry.

=Rondellier= (_Fr._). Archer or pikeman who carried the _rondelle_.

=Rondells.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY
CARRIAGE.

=Ronfleurs= (_Fr._). Frederick the Great applied this name to some
12-pounders of 22 calibers, weighing 3200 pounds, which, before the
battle of Leuthen, he had drawn from the neighboring fortress of Glogau.
The charge for this gun was 5 pounds.

=Rope.= A large, stout, twisted cord, of not less, usually, than an inch
in circumference. It differs from _cord_, _line_, and _string_ only in
its size. Ropes are ranked under two descriptions, _cable-laid_ and
_hawser-laid_; the former composed of nine strands, or three great
strands, each consisting of three small ones; the latter made with three
strands, each composed of a certain number of rope-yarns.

=Rope, Drag-.= See DRAG-ROPE.

=Rope-ferries.= See PONTONS.

=Rose.= In heraldry, is drawn in a conventional form, and never with a
stalk, except when expressly directed by the words of blazon. Being
sometimes argent and sometimes gules, it cannot be designated proper;
but when blazoned “barbed and seeded proper,” it is meant that the barbs
are to be green, and the seeds gold and yellow. The rose gules was the
badge of the Plantagenets of the house of Lancaster, and the rose argent
of that of York. The York rose was sometimes surrounded with rays as of
the sun, and termed _rose en soleil_. As a mark of cadency, the rose has
been used as the difference of the seventh son.

=Roses, Wars of the.= A disastrous civil contest which desolated England
during thirty years, from 1455 to 1485, sacrificing 80 princes of the
blood, and the larger proportion of the ancient nobility of the country.
It was so called because the two factions into which the country was
divided upheld the two several claims to the houses of York and
Lancaster, whose badges were the white and red roses, respectively.
After the house of Lancaster had possessed the throne for three
generations (see PLANTAGENET), Richard, duke of York, whose title was
superior to that of Henry VI., began to advance, at first somewhat
covertly, his claim to the throne. In 1454, he was appointed protector
of the realm during Henry’s illness, and on the king’s recovery he
declined to give up his power, and levied an army to maintain it. The
accession of Henry VII. may be said to have terminated the “wars of the
roses,” although the reign of Henry was from time to time disturbed by
the pretensions of Yorkist impostors.

=Rosetta.= A seaport city of Egypt, near the mouth of a branch of the
Nile. It was built by one of the Saracen caliphs in the 9th century. In
1798 this place was taken by the French, and in 1807 it was besieged by
the British, who were repulsed by the Turks. The battle of the Nile was
fought near Rosetta, August 1, 1798.

=Rosettes.= Two small bunches of ribbons, that were attached to the
loops by which the gorget of an officer was suspended on his chest.

=Roslin.= A village of Scotland, 7 miles south of Edinburgh, on the Esk.
In this neighborhood the Scots gained three victories over the English
on the same day in 1302.

=Ross, New.= A town of Ireland, situated partly in the county of
Wexford, and partly in the county of Kilkenny, 27 miles northwest from
Wexford. New Ross was taken by Cromwell in 1649, and in 1798 a severe
battle was fought here between the king’s troops and the Irish
insurgents.

=Rossbach.= A village of Prussian Saxony, in the government of
Merseburg, celebrated for the victory here gained by the Prussians under
Frederick the Great over the allied French and Austrian armies, November
5, 1757. The Prussians lost (according to a French account) only 300
men, while the loss of the allies was more than 1200 slain, 6000
prisoners, among whom were 11 generals and 300 officers, and 72 cannon,
with many other trophies.

=Roster=, or =Rollster=. List of officers for duty. The principle which
governs details for duty is from the eldest down; longest off duty first
on duty. If an officer’s tour of duty for armed service, court-martial,
or fatigue, happen when he is upon either duty, he is credited
therewith. An officer returning from duty after sickness, takes the same
place he had on the post roster before reporting sick; that being sick
on the day of detail he gets the credit of the tour and awaits the
return of his day, when, if well, he is again detailed. An officer
returning from leave of absence is at once subject for detail.
Customarily, an officer who returns from detached service is placed at
the foot of the roster. The same rules should apply to non-commissioned
officers and privates. A regiment or detachment detailed for any duty,
receives credit for the duty when it marches off parade to perform the
duty, but not if it is dismissed on parade. Officers on inlying pickets
are subject to all details. In the British service, regiments proceed on
foreign service according to the roster.

=Rotterdam.= An important commercial city in Holland, in the province of
Southern Holland. Its importance dates from the 13th century; taken by
the Spaniards by stratagem in 1572, and cruelly treated. It suffered
much from the French revolutionary wars.

=Rouen.= A city in the north of France, the chief town of the department
of the Lower Seine, and formerly the capital of Normandy, 68 miles
northwest from Paris. It was held by the English till 1204; and was
retaken by Henry V., January 19, 1419. Joan of Arc was burnt here, May
30, 1431. It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449; and by the
Duke of Guise from the Huguenots, October, 1552, and in 1591.

=Rough Rider.= A non-commissioned officer in the British cavalry
regiments, whose business it is to break in refractory horses, and
assist the riding-master when required.

=Rouleaux.= Are round bundles of fascines, which are tied together. They
serve to cover men when the works are pushed close to a besieged town,
or to mask the head of a work.

=Round.= A general discharge of fire-arms by a body of troops, in which
each soldier fires once. _Round of cartridges_, one cartridge to each
man; as, to supply a regiment with a single round, or with twelve
rounds.

=Round, Gentleman of the.= A gentleman soldier, but of low rank, only
above the lance-pesade, whose office it was to visit and inspect the
sentinels and advanced guards; also, one of a number of disbanded
soldiers who had betaken themselves to the trade of begging.

=Round Robin.= This term is a corruption of _ruban rond_, which
signifies a round ribbon. It was usual among French officers, when they
signed a remonstrance, to write their names in a circular form, so that
it was impossible to ascertain who signed first. Hence to sign a round
robin against any person, was for any specific number of men to sign,
one and all, a remonstrance against him.

=Round Table, Knights of.= Known in early English history as knights
belonging to a celebrated order instituted by King Arthur, and whose
exploits and adventures form the subjects of many ballads, and much of
the early romantic poetry of England. The members of the order are said
to have been 40 in number, and to have derived their name from their
custom of sitting about a large, round, marble table, in order to avoid
all distinction of rank.

=Roundel=, or =Roundelle=. Was a shield used by the Norman soldiers. The
word is also applied to the semicircular bastions in early
fortification, as introduced by Albert Dürer. This bastion consisted of
a semicircle of masonry about 300 feet in diameter, containing roomy
casemates for the troops, and for artillery and musketry, with which the
ditch and curtains were flanked.

=Roundheads, The.= In English history, a nickname given, in the reign of
Charles I., to the Puritans, or Parliamentary party, who were accustomed
to wear their hair cut close to the head. They were so called in
opposition to the Cavaliers, or Royalists, who wore their hair in long
ringlets.

=Roundle=, or =Roundlet=. In heraldry, a general name given to charges
of a circular form, which in English heraldry have more special names
indicative of their tinctures. A roundle or is called a _Bezant_; a
roundle argent, a _Plate_; a roundle gules, a _Torteaux_; a roundle
azure, a _Hurt_; a roundle sable, an _Ogress_, or _Pellet_; a roundle
purpure, a _Golpe_; a roundle sanguine, a _Guze_; a roundle tenney, an
_Orange_. In the heraldry of Scotland and of the continent, it is, on
the other hand, usual to design all roundles of metal bezants, and those
of color, torteaux, adding the tincture. Thus the coat blazoned in
England azure three plates, would be in the Scottish mode of blazon,
azure three bezants argent.

=Rounds.= An officer or non-commissioned officer who, attended by one or
more men, visits the sentinels in barracks, in order to ascertain
whether they are vigilant. There are two sorts of rounds, _grand_ and
_visiting_. Grand rounds are the rounds which are gone by general
officers, commandants, or field-officers. When there are no officers of
the day, the officer of the main guard may go the grand rounds. The
grand rounds generally go at midnight; the visiting rounds at
intermediate periods, between sunset and reveille. The grand rounds
receive the parole, and all other rounds give it to the guards. In
officers’ rounds the officer guarding is preceded by a drummer carrying
a lantern, and followed by a sergeant and a file of men. Ordinary rounds
consist of a sergeant and a file of men. Both ordinary and officers’
rounds are termed visiting rounds. The design of _rounds_ is not only to
visit the guards, and keep the sentinels alert, but likewise to discover
what passes in the outworks, and beyond them.

=Rout.= The confusion created in an army or body of troops when defeated
or dispersed. _To put to the rout_, is to defeat and throw into
confusion. The term expresses more than a defeat, because it implies a
dispersion of the enemy’s forces; for a defeated enemy may retreat in
good order; but when routed, order and discipline are at an end.

=Route.= An open road; the course of march of troops. Instructions for
the march of detachments, specifying daily marches, means of supply,
etc., are given from the headquarters of an army in the field, and are
called marching routes.

=Route Step.= In tactics, is a style of march whereby the men carry
their arms at will, keeping the muzzles elevated; they are not required
to preserve silence, or to keep the step, but each man covers the file
in his front. The ranks preserve the distance of 32 inches from each
other. The route step is at the rate of from 2¹⁄₂ to 3 miles per hour.

=Routine.= This word has been adopted by us in the same sense that it is
familiarly used by the French. It signifies capacity, or the faculty of
arranging; a certain method in business, civil or military, which is as
much acquired by habit and practice as by regular study and rule. We say
familiarly the routine of business.

=Rowel.= The pointed part of a riding spur, which is made in a circular
form, with rays or points like a star.

=Royal.= A small mortar which carries a shell whose diameter is 5.5
inches. It is mounted on a bed the same as other mortars.

=Royal.= In England, one of the soldiers of the first regiment of foot,
called the _Royals_, and supposed to be the oldest regular corps in
Europe.

=Rubicon.= A small stream of Central Italy, falling into the Adriatic,
has obtained a proverbial celebrity from the well-known story of its
passage by Cæsar, who by crossing this river--which, at the outbreak of
the civil war between him and Pompey, formed the southern boundary of
his province--virtually declared war against the republic. Hence the
phrase to “cross the Rubicon” has come to mean, to take an irrevocable
step.

=Rudiments.= The first principles, the elements of any particular
science; as, the rudiments of war, which are the first principles or
elements of war; as, marching, facing, wheeling; the drill, manual, and
platoon exercises, manœuvres, etc.

=Ruffle.= Is a low vibrating sound, less loud than a roll, produced by
drummers. It is used as a compliment to general officers and at military
funerals.

=Rugen.= The largest of the islands of Germany, belongs to Prussia, and
lies in the Baltic, off the coast of Pomerania. In 1169 it was conquered
by the Danish king Waldemar I. By the peace of Westphalia it was ceded
to Sweden, but in 1815 it was transferred to Prussia.

=Rules and Articles of War.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Run.= The greatest degree of swiftness in marching. It is executed upon
the same principles as the _double-quick_, but with greater speed.

=Run the Gantlope.= See GANTLOPE.

=Running Fight.= A battle in which one party flees and the other
pursues, but the party fleeing keeps up the contest.

=Running Fire.= A constant fire of musketry or cannon.

=Rupture.= This word signifies the commencement of hostilities between
any two or more powers.

=Rusellæ= (_Rusellanus_; ruins near _Grosseto_). One of the most ancient
cities of Etruria. It was taken by the Romans in 294 B.C., when 2000 of
its inhabitants were slain, and as many more were made prisoners.

=Rush.= To move or drive forward with impetuosity, violence, and
tumultuous rapidity; as, armies rush to battle. Also, a driving forward
with eagerness and haste; as, a rush of troops.

=Russia.= The largest empire of the world, occupying about one-sixth of
the firm land of our globe, bounded north by the Arctic Ocean, east by
the Pacific, south by China, Independent Toorkistan, Persia, Asiatic
Turkey, the Black Sea, and Roumania, and west by Austria, Prussia, the
Baltic, and the Scandinavian peninsula. When the Greeks founded their
commercial stations along the northern coast of the Black Sea, in the
Crimea, and on the shores of the Sea of Azof, they found the interior
occupied by roving tribes of a fierce and savage character. They called
them Scythians and Sarmatians, and for about eight centuries these two
nations continued to be mentioned in the history of Greece and Rome as
inhabiting the same country, pursuing the same occupations, etc. Then
came, during the migration of nations beginning in the 4th century, the
Goths, Avars, Huns, Alans, etc., rolling over them wave after wave. In
the 6th century the name of the Slaves first appears. They founded Kiev
and Novgorod. The name of _Russians_ is first met with in the 9th
century. Rurik, a Varangian chief, came to Novgorod in 862, not as a
conqueror, but invited, and henceforth his family reigned in the country
till it became extinct, and the people received the name of Russians.
His successor, Oleg (879-912), conquered Kief, defeated the Khazars, and
even attacked the emperor of Constantinople. In the beginning of the
13th century, the Mongols under Genghis Khan broke in from Asia; the
Russians were unable to withstand them. Most of the princes were wholly
subdued. The brilliant victories of Demetrius Donski, prince of Moscow,
in 1378 and 1380, only caused the Mongols to return in larger hordes; in
1382, Moscow was burned to the ground and 24,000 of its inhabitants were
slain. Ivan III. the Great (1462-1505), who united Novgorod, Perm, and
Pskov to Moscow, refused to pay the tribute to the Mongols, defeated
them when they attempted to enforce their claim by arms, and commenced
extending the Russian power to the east, conquering Kazan in 1469, and
parts of Siberia in 1499. Ivan IV., the Terrible (1533-84), conquered
Astrakhan in 1554, the land of the Don Cossacks in 1570, Siberia in
1581, opened a road to Archangel in 1553, and organized in 1545 a
body-guard, the famous _Streltzi_. With his son Feodor I. (1584-98) the
house of Rurik ceased to exist, and after a protracted and
severe struggle between Boris Godunoff, Basil V., and the two
pseudo-Demetriuses, who were supported by the Poles, Michael
Feodorovitch Romanoff, the founder of the present dynasty, ascended the
throne in 1612. Some progress was made under each of his
successors,--Catharine I. (1725-27), Peter II. (1727-30), Anne
(1730-41), Elizabeth (1741-62). Catharine II. (1762-76) carried on
successful wars with Persia, Sweden, and Turkey, conquering the Crimea;
she also acquired Courland and half of Poland. (For history regarding
Poland, see POLAND.) Under Alexander I. (1801-25) Russia appears not
only as one of the great powers, but as the true arbiter in European
politics. In the Napoleonic wars he sided first with Austria, and was
beaten at Austerlitz; then with Prussia, and was beaten at Friedland. By
the peace of Frederikshamn (1809) he obtained Finland from Sweden; by
the peace of Bucharest (1812), Bessarabia and Moldavia from Turkey; and
the war with Persia was successfully progressing when his friendship
with Napoleon suddenly began to wane. A rupture took place, and now
followed with fearful rapidity the invasion of Russia by Western Europe,
the destruction of the grand army, and the overthrow of Napoleon. By the
peace of Paris (1856) Russia lost its supremacy in the Black Sea. (See
CRIMEA.) It only bided its time, however, and October 31, 1870, when
neither England, France, nor Turkey was able to resist, Prince
Gortschakoff informed the various cabinets that Russia felt compelled to
deviate from the stipulations of the treaty of Paris, and keep a fleet
of sufficient capacity in the Black Sea.

=Russo-German War.= The name given by German historians to the last
stage of the great European war against Napoleon, beginning with the
Russian campaign of 1812, and terminating on the field of Waterloo. For
important battles, etc., see appropriate headings.

=Russo-Turkish War.= The name applied to the war which took place
between Russia on one side, and Turkey, France, and Great Britain on the
other; it commenced in 1853 and terminated in 1856. For important events
of this war, see appropriate headings.

=Rustre.= In heraldry, one of the subordinaries, consisting of a
_lozenge_ with a circular opening pierced in its centre. Ancient armor
was sometimes composed of rustres sewed on cloth.

=Rustschuk.= A fortified town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, situated
at the influx of the Kara Lom into the Danube, 67 miles southwest from
Silitria. Giurgevo (which see) is almost immediately opposite. The
Russians took these towns in 1711 and 1810, but were defeated by the
Turks, before Giurgevo, in 1854.

=Rutuli.= An ancient people in Italy, inhabiting a narrow slip of
country on the east coast of Latium, a little to the south of the Tiber.
They were subdued at an early period by the Romans, and disappeared from
history.

=Ryswick.= A village in the province of South Holland, where the
celebrated treaty of peace was concluded between England, France, Spain,
and Holland, and was signed by their representatives, September 20, and
by the emperor of Germany, October 30, 1697.



S.


=Saalfeld.= A town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, on the
Saale, 23 miles south from Weimar. Here the Prussians under Prince Louis
Frederick of Prussia were defeated and their leader slain by the French
under Lannes, October 10, 1806.

=Saarbrück= (anc. _Augusti Mari_, or _Saræpons_). An open town on the
left bank of the Saar, in Rhenish Prussia. It was founded in the 10th
century, and was long subject to the bishops of Metz; it was afterwards
ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the house of Nassau about 1380. It
was captured by the French and retaken by the Germans, 1676; reunited to
France, 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, 1815. On August 2, 1870, it was
bombarded by the French under Frossard, and the Prussians in small force
were dislodged, and the town occupied by the French general Bataille.
The emperor Napoleon and his son were present during this bombardment.
On August 6, the Prussian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with the
first army, recaptured Saarbrück, after a sanguinary conflict at the
village of Spicheren. The heights taken by the French on the 2d are in
Germany, those taken by the Germans on the 6th are in France, and both
battles were fought between Saarbrück and the town of Forbach, which was
captured and has given a name to the second conflict. The loss was great
on both sides. The French general François was killed, and the 2d Corps
under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French retreated to Metz. They were
greatly superior in numbers at the beginning of the fight, but were
badly commanded.

=Sabander.= The familiar of _shah-bander_, an Eastern title for captain
or governor of a post.

=Sabantines.= Steel coverings for the feet; sometimes slippers or clogs.

=Sabbatons.= A round-toed armed covering for the feet, worn during a
part of the 16th century.

=Sabini.= An ancient people of Central Italy, were generally supposed to
have derived their name from Sabus, their chief tutelary deity. Their
antiquity was very great. They were the parent-stock of many of the
neighboring tribes, such as the Samnites, the Peligni, and the Picentes.
The Sabini inhabited the mountain region lying to the northeast of Rome.
They were a valiant warlike race, and at an early age of authentic
history they issued from their mountain fastness and began a system of
warlike aggression upon their neighbors. Gradually and by repeated
attacks, their invading hordes subdued the aborigines, and advanced
southward, occupying the land. At length, pushing their outposts to the
very gates of Rome, they commenced to interfere with the affairs of that
rising city. By victory or by compromise they gained admittance into the
state upon very advantageous terms. They were not satisfied, but
persisted in their encroachments upon the Roman territory, until
defeated by Tullus Hostilius and by Tarquinius Priscus; however, they
continued their raids until 449 B.C., when M. Horatius gave them a
defeat which kept them quiet for more than a century and a half. They
recovered in 290 B.C., only to be overthrown by Manlius Curius Dentatus
with greater completeness than ever. They finally became a part of the
Roman empire.

=Sable.= One of the tinctures in heraldry, implying black. In heraldic
engravings, it is represented by perpendicular and horizontal lines
crossing each other.

=Sabot.= Is a thick, circular disk of wood, to which, in fixed
ammunition, the cartridge-bag and projectile are attached. For a
spherical projectile, the sabot has a spherical cavity, and circular
groove to which the cartridge-bag is tied; in the canister-sabot, the
spherical cavity is omitted, and a circular offset is added. The effects
of a sabot are: (1) To prevent the formation of a _lodgment_ in the
bore. (2) To moderate the action of the powder on the projectile; and,
(3) To prevent the projectile from moving from its place. In consequence
of the scattering of the fragments, it is dangerous to use the sabot in
firing over the heads of one’s own men. The term is also applied to the
soft metal device attached to the base of rifled projectiles to take the
grooves of the bore.

=Sabre.= A long curved or straight cavalry sword, with a broad and heavy
blade, used for cutting and thrusting.

=Sabre.= To strike, cut, or kill with a sabre.

=Sabretache= (Ger. _Sabeltasche_, “sword-pocket”). A square pocket or
pouch suspended from the sword-belt on the left side, by three slings
to correspond with the belt. It is usually scolloped at the bottom, has
a device in the centre, and a broad lace round the edge. The color of it
always corresponds with that of the uniform. The sabretache is an
appointment or part of accoutrement of hussars in European armies.

=Sabreur= (_Fr._). A blood-thirsty soldier; brave soldier.

=Sabugal.= A town of Portugal, on the Spanish frontier, where an affair
took place between an English light division and the French, April 3,
1811, in which the latter were defeated.

=Sac and Fox Indians.= Two Algonkin tribes, who have always associated.
They formerly dwelt in Canada, but afterward occupied a large tract of
land on both sides of the Mississippi. The Sacs and Foxes often engaged
in wars with the English, French, and Indians. They were gradually
removed southwestward prior to 1849. There are now in the Indian
Territory about 400 Sacs and Foxes. There are also about 200 Sacs and
Foxes in Kansas, about 100 in Nebraska, and about 300 Sacs and Foxes in
Iowa. See FOX INDIANS.

=Sacæ.= One of the most numerous and powerful of the Scythian nomad
tribes, had their abodes in the steppes of Central Asia, which are now
peopled by the _Kirghiz Khasaks_. They were very warlike, and excelled
especially as cavalry, and as archers, both on horse and foot. Their
women shared in their military spirit; and according to Ælian, they had
the custom of settling before marriage whether the man or woman should
rule the house, by the result of a combat between them. In early times
they extended their predatory incursions as far west as Armenia and
Cappadocia. They were made tributary to the Persian empire, to the army
of which they furnished a large force of cavalry and archers, who were
among the best troops that the kings of Persia had.

=Saccatoo=, or =Socoto=. A kingdom of Soodan, in Central Africa. Its
inhabitants, the Fellatas, first made their appearance as conquerors,
coming from the west, apparently from the Senegal; they profess the
Mohammedan religion. Othman, or Danfodio, one of the Fellata chieftains,
marshaled his countrymen under his colors for a crusade against the
unbelievers. Though at first defeated in almost every encounter, yet the
warlike spirit of fanaticism grew so high that Othman obtained for
himself an extensive empire. Under Alin, who ascended the throne in
1837, great internal disturbance took place, which brought the country
into a wretched condition.

=Sachem.= A chief of a tribe of the American Indians; a sagamore. See
SAGAMORE.

=Sack.= The pillage or plunder, as of a town or city; the storm and
plunder of a town; devastation; ravage. Also, to plunder or pillage, as
a town or city; to devastate; to ravage.

=Sackage.= The act of taking by storm and pillage; sack.

=Sacker.= One who sacks; one who captures and plunders a town.

=Sackett’s Harbor.= A town in Jefferson Co., N. Y., on the south shore
of Black River Bay, 8 miles east of Lake Ontario and 170 miles
west-northwest of Albany, having a navy-yard, barracks, etc. In the war
of 1812-15 it was an important port, where the frigate “Superior,” of 66
guns, was built in eighty days, and the “Madison” in forty-five days,
from timber standing in the forest. It is a military post of the United
States named Madison Barracks, which is generally garrisoned by
artillery.

=Sacramento, St.= A Portuguese settlement in South America, claimed by
Spain in 1680; but relinquished in 1713; was several times seized; ceded
in 1777; acquired by Brazil in 1825.

=Sacramentum Militare= (_Lat._). The oath formerly taken by the Roman
soldiers when they were enrolled. This oath was pronounced at the head
of the legion, in an audible voice, by a soldier who was chosen by the
tribune for that purpose. He thereby pledged himself before the gods to
expose his life for the good and safety of the republic, to obey his
superior officers, and never to absent himself without leave. The
aggregate of the legion assented to the oath without going through the
formal declaration of it.

=Sacred Battalion.= A band of infantry composed of 300 young Thebans,
united in strict friendship and affection, who were engaged, under a
particular oath, never to fly, but to defend each other to the last drop
of their blood. At the famous battle of Leuctra, in which the Spartans
were signally defeated by Epaminondas, the Sacred Battalion was
commanded by Pelopidas, and mainly contributed to the success of the
day.

=Sacred Wars.= (1) Declared by the Amphictyons against Cirrha, near
Delphi, for robbery and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 B.C.
Cirrha was razed to the ground, 586 B.C. (2) Between the Phocians and
Delphians for the possession of the temple at Delphi, 448, 447 B.C. (3)
The Phocians, on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, seized
the temple, 357. They were conquered by Philip of Macedon, and their
cities depopulated, 346 B.C.

=Sacriportus.= A small place in Latium, of uncertain site, memorable for
the victory of Sulla over the younger Marius, 82 B.C.

=Sacs and Foxes.= See SAC AND FOX INDIANS.

=Saddle.= The seat which is put upon a horse for the accommodation of
the rider. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor
stirrups. Saddles were in use in the 3d century, and are mentioned as
made of leather in 304; they were known in England about 600. _Boots and
saddles_, is a sound on the trumpet which is the first signal for
mounted drill, and for all other formations mounted; it is also the
signal for the trumpeters to assemble.

=Saddle-bags.= Bags, usually of leather, united by straps, for
transportation on horseback, one bag being placed on each side. In the
U. S. service saddle-bags are issued to the cavalry as a part of the
horse equipments.

=Saddle-cloth.= In the military service is a cloth under a saddle, and
extending out behind; the housing.

=Saddler.= One whose occupation is to make and repair saddles. Each
company of cavalry in the U. S. service is allowed one saddler. Saddlers
are also employed in the cavalry service of European countries.

=Saddler Corporal.= In the British service, is a non-commissioned
officer who has charge of the saddlers in the Household Cavalry.

=Saddler Sergeant.= Is a sergeant in the cavalry who has charge of the
saddlers. In the U. S. service, saddler sergeants are non-commissioned
staff-officers, and one is allowed to each cavalry regiment.

=Saddle-Tree Maker.= An artificer in the cavalry who makes and repairs
saddle-trees.

=Sadowa.= A village of Bohemia, about 8 miles from Königgratz. Here, on
the morning of July 3, 1866, the Prussians attacked the Austrians, and
after a desperate struggle of seven hours, the latter were defeated and
driven from the village by the 7th division of the Prussian infantry.
This engagement formed the prelude to the decisive battle of Königgratz.

=Safe-conduct.= A passport granted, on honor, to a foe, enabling him to
pass where it would otherwise be impossible for him to go with impunity.
Safe-conducts are granted in war for the purposes of conference, etc.;
and to violate the provisions of such a pass has always been esteemed a
disgraceful breach of the laws of honor.

=Safeguard.= A protection granted by the general of an army for the
safety of an enemy’s lands or persons, to preserve them from being
insulted or plundered. For punishment of persons forcing a safeguard,
see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 57.

=Sagaie=, or =Zagie=. A dart or javelin used by the inhabitants of
Madagascar.

=Sagamore.= The head of a tribe among the American Indians,--generally
used as synonymous with _sachem_, but some writers distinguished between
them, making the _sachem_ a chief of the first rank, and a _sagamore_
one of the second rank.

=Sagette= (_Fr._). An arrow; a bolt used in ancient times.

=Sagittarii.= In the Roman army, under the emperors, were young men
armed with bows and arrows, who, together with the _funditores_, were
generally sent out to skirmish before the main body. They constituted no
part of the _velites_, but seem to have succeeded them at the time when
the Socii were admitted into the Roman legions; for at that period the
_velites_ were discontinued.

=Sagra.= A small river in Magna Græcia, on the southeast coast of
Bruttium, on the banks of which a memorable victory was gained by 10,000
Locrians over 120,000 Crotoniats. This victory appeared so extraordinary
that it gave rise to the proverbial expression, “It is truer than what
happened on the Sagra,” when a person wished to make any strong
asseveration.

=Sagum.= An ancient military garment or cloak, made of wool, without
sleeves, fastened by a girdle around the waist, and a buckle. It was
worn by the Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. The generals alone wore the
_paludamentum_, and all the Roman soldiers, even the centurions and
tribunes, used the _sagum_.

=Saguntum= (now _Murviedro_). A wealthy and warlike town of ancient
Spain, in Hispania Tarraconensis. It was besieged and destroyed by the
Carthaginians under Hannibal in 218 B.C. Having withstood the siege for
the greater part of a year, against an army of about 150,000 men, the
Saguntines, now most severely pressed by famine, concluded, with an act
of heroic defiance and self-sacrifice, a resistance that had been
characterized by the most brilliant valor. Heaping their valuable
effects into one vast pile, and placing their women and children around
it, the men issued forth for the last time against the enemy; and the
women, setting fire to the pile they had prepared, cast themselves upon
it with their children, and found in flames the fate their husbands met
in battle. The destruction of Saguntum directly led to the second Punic
war.

=Saikyr.= In the Middle Ages, was a species of cannon smaller than a
demiculverin, much employed in sieges. Like the falcon, it derived its
name from a species of hawk.

=Saint Augustine.= A city, port of entry, and capital of St. John’s Co.,
Fla., 160 miles south of Savannah. It has the distinction of being the
oldest town in the United States. The Spanish abandoned it in 1763, upon
its cession to the English. Sir Francis Drake destroyed it in 1586; and
it was besieged and burned by the governor of the Carolinas in 1702.
Saint Augustine was a British depot during the Revolutionary war. It was
of some importance as a military station during the Florida war,
1835-42.

=Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of.= See BARTHOLOMEW, ST.

=St. Bernard, Mount.= See BERNARD, ST., THE GREAT.

=Saint-Cloud.= A town of France, department of Seine-et-Oise, 5¹⁄₂ miles
west from Paris. Henry IV. was assassinated at Saint-Cloud by Jacques
Clément in 1589. Bonaparte here broke up the assembly of 500, and caused
himself to be proclaimed first consul on November 9, 1799; and here, in
July, 1830, Charles X. signed the _ordonnances_ which cost him his
throne.

=Saint-Dizier.= See DIZIER, ST.-.

=Saint Domingo.= See DOMINGO, SAN, and HAYTI.

=St. George, Grand Cross of.= A Russian military honor, conferred on
officers in the army and navy for distinguished bravery. It was
conferred on the officer who sunk the Turkish monitor in May, 1877.

=Saint-Germain-en-Laye.= A town of France, in the department of the
Seine-et-Oise, 14 miles west-northwest from Paris. The town, as well as
the royal chateau, was sacked by the English in 1346, in 1419, and in
1438.

=Saint Helena.= See HELENA, SAINT.

=Saint John of Jerusalem, The Order of the Knights Hospitallers of.=
Also called the Knights of Rhodes, and afterwards of Malta, the most
celebrated of all the military and religious orders of the Middle Ages.
It originated in 1048 in a hospital dedicated to St. John the Baptist,
which was built for the reception of the pilgrims from Europe who
visited the Holy Sepulchre. The nurses were at first known as the
Hospitaller Brothers of St. John the Baptist of Jerusalem. The Seljuk
(Seljook) Turks, who succeeded the Egyptian and Arabian Saracens in
Palestine, plundered the hospice, and on the conquest of Jerusalem by
the Crusaders under Geoffroy de Bouillon in 1099, the first superior,
Gérard, was found in prison. Released from durance, he resumed his
duties in the hospice, and was joined by several of the Crusaders, who
devoted themselves to the service of the poor pilgrims. By advice of
Gérard, the brethren took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience
before the Patriarch of Jerusalem. Pope Pascal II. gave his sanction to
the institution in 1113. After Gérard’s death in 1118, Raymond du Pay
succeeded as superior of the order, and to the former obligations of the
order he added those of fighting against the infidels and defending the
Holy Sepulchre. Various Hospices, called _commanderies_, were
established in different maritime towns of Europe. The order having
become military as well as religious, was recruited by persons of high
rank and influence, and wealth flowed in on it from all quarters. On the
conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187, the Hospitallers retired to
Margate, Phœnicia, whence the progress of infidel arms drove them first,
in 1285, to Acre, and afterwards, in 1291, to Limisso, where Henry II.,
king of Cyprus, assigned them a residence. By the statutes of Raymond,
the brethren consisted of three classes,--_knights_, _chaplains_, and
_serving brothers_; these last being fighting squires, who followed the
knights in their expeditions. The order was subsequently divided into
eight languages,--Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, England,
Germany, and Castile. Each nation possessed several Grand Priories,
under which were a number of commanderies. The chief establishment in
England was the Priory of Clerkenwell, whose head had a seat in the
upper house of Parliament, and was styled first baron of England. In
1310, the knights, under their grand master, Foulkes de Villaret, in
conjunction with a party of Crusaders from Italy, captured Rhodes and
seven adjacent islands from the Greek and Saracen pirates, by whom they
were then occupied, and carried on from thence a successful war against
the Saracens. In 1523, they were compelled to surrender Rhodes to the
sultan Solyman, and retired first to Candia, and afterward to Viterbo.
In 1530, Charles V. assigned them the island of Malta, with Tripolis and
Gozo. The knights continued for some time to be a powerful bulwark
against the Turks; but after the Reformation a moral degeneracy
overspread the order, and it rapidly declined in political importance;
and in 1798, through the treachery of some French knights and the
cowardice of the grand master, D’Hompesch, Malta was surrendered to the
French. The lands still belonging to the order were also about this time
confiscated in almost all the European states; but though extinct as a
sovereign body, the order has continued during the present century to
drag on a lingering existence in some parts of Italy, as well as in
Russia and Spain. Since 1801, the office of grand master has not been
filled up; a deputy grand master has instead been appointed, who has his
residence in Spain. The order at first wore a long black habit, with a
pointed hood adorned with a cross of white silk, of the form called
Maltese, on the left breast, as also a golden cross in the middle of the
breast. In their military capacity, they wore red surcoats with a silver
cross before and behind. The badge worn by all the knights is a Maltese
cross, enameled white, and edged with gold; it is suspended by a black
ribbon, and the embellishments attached to it differ in the different
countries where the order still exists.

=Saint Louis.= A city of St. Louis Co., Mo., which stands on the right
bank of the Mississippi, 18 miles below its confluence with the
Missouri, and 174 miles above the mouth of the Ohio. In 1764, Saint
Louis was the depot of the Louisiana Indian trading company; in 1768 it
was captured by a detachment of Spanish troops; and in 1804 was ceded
with the whole country west of the Mississippi to the United States.
During the civil war a hostile camp of State militia was captured near
the city, which enabled the Federals to secure the arsenal and a great
store of arms, and eventual possession of the State of Missouri.

=St. Lucia.= An island in the West Indies, taken from the French in
June, 1803, by the English troops under Gen. Greenfield.

=Saint-Malo.= See MALO, ST.

=Saint Petersburg.= See PETERSBURG, ST.

=Saint-Quentin.= A thriving town in the north of France, department of
Aisne, is situated on the Somme, about 80 miles northeast of Paris. A
battle was fought here August 10, 1557, between the Spaniards assisted
by a body of English troops, and the French, in which the latter were
severely defeated. A battle took place here between the French under
Faidherbe and the Germans under Von Goeben on January 19, 1871, in
which the former were defeated, and the latter occupied Saint-Quentin.

=Saint Regis.= Situated partly in Bombay township, Franklin Co., N. Y.,
and partly in St. Regis township, Huntingdon Co., Quebec, Canada, on the
St. Lawrence River, opposite Cornwall, with which it is connected by
ferry. It is inhabited by the St. Regis Indians, an Iroquois tribe
speaking the Mohawk dialect. They are divided into two parties, the
British and the American, and owe their allegiance not according to
residence, but according to descent in the female line. Their
reservation in the United States is 14,000 acres, and that in Canada
rather larger. Their ancestors settled here in 1760. The American party
number about 700 souls, and the British about 800.

=Saint Vincent, Cape.= See CAPE ST. VINCENT.

=Saintes.= A town of France, in the department of the Lower Charente,
situated on the left bank of the Charente. The English were defeated
here in 1242, by the French king Louis IX., afterwards Saint Louis.

=Saker= (Fr. _sacre_, _sacret_). An ancient 4- or 5-pounder of 13 feet,
weighing from 2500 to 2800 pounds. According to Tartaglia, the _sacre_,
in 1546, was a 12-pounder of 9 feet, and weighing 2150 pounds; it was
similar to the _aspic_, but longer.

=Salade= (_Fr._). Helmet or kind of iron hat with a grated, movable
visor, which was worn during the 15th century by foot-soldiers.

=Saladin.= At first the coat of arms was so called, because the
Christians who conquered Palestine assumed it in imitation of the Turks,
whose chief was at that time Saladin.

=Salahieh= (written also _Selahieh_). A town of Lower Egypt, 37 miles
northeast of Belbeys. It was taken by the French in 1798, and again in
1800.

=Salamanca= (anc. _Salmantica_). A famous town of Spain, capital of the
modern province of the same name, on the right bank of the Tormes, 50
miles east-northeast from Ciudad Rodrigo. It was taken by Hannibal. It
was almost totally destroyed by the French in 1812. In its vicinity was
won one of the most famous victories of the Peninsular war, by the
British under Wellington against the French under Marmont, July 22,
1812.

=Salapia= (_Salapinus_; now _Salpi_). An ancient town of Apulia, was
situated south of Sipontum. During the second Punic war it revolted to
Hannibal after the battle of Cannæ, but it subsequently surrendered to
the Romans and delivered to the latter the Carthaginian garrison.

=Salassi.= A brave and warlike people in Gallia Transpadana, in the
valley of the Duria, at the foot of the Graian and Pennine Alps. They
defended the passes of the Alps in their territory with such obstinacy
and courage that it was long before the Romans were able to subdue
them. At length in the reign of Augustus, the country was permanently
occupied by Terrentius Varro with a powerful Roman force; most of the
Salassi were destroyed in battle and the rest, amounting to 36,000, were
sold as slaves.

=Salenckemen.= On the Danube; here a victory was gained by the
Imperialists, under Prince Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by
the grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, August 19, 1691.

=Salentini=, or =Sallentini=. A people in the southern part of Calabria,
who dwelt around the promontory of Iapygium. They were subdued by the
Romans at the conclusion of their war with Pyrrhus, and having revolted
in the second Punic war, were again easily reduced to subjection.

=Salerno= (anc. _Salernum_). A town of Naples, capital of the province
of Principato Citra, 30 miles southeast from Naples. It was captured
during the Social war by the Samnite general Papius. After the fall of
the Western empire Salerno rose to its height. It passed first into the
hands of the Goths, then into those of the Lombards, from whom it was
taken by the Saracens in 905; but fifteen years after, it was recovered
by the Greek emperor, and subsequently reverted to the Lombards. In 1076
Salerno was taken, after a siege of eight months, by Robert Guiscard;
and thenceforward became the capital of the Norman possessions south of
the Apennines. In 1193 the town was destroyed by the emperor Henry VI.

=Salient.= In heraldry, an attitude of a lion or other beast, differing
but slightly from rampant. He is supposed to be in the act of springing
on his prey, and both paws are elevated. Two animals _counter-salient_
are represented as leaping in opposite directions.

=Salient Places of Arms.= In fortification, that part of the covered way
which is opposite a salient of a bastion or demi-lune.

=Sallet.= The same as salade (which see).

=Sally.= A sudden offensive movement by the garrison of a fortified
place, directed against the troops or works of the besiegers.

=Sally-port.= A gate or passage, by which the garrison of a fortress may
make a sally or sudden attack on the besiegers. The name is applied to
the postern leading from under the rampart into the ditch; but its more
modern application is to a cutting through the glacis, by which a sally
may be made from the covert way. When not in use, sally-ports are closed
by massive gates of timber and iron.

=Salsette.= An island on the west coast of Hindustan, formerly separated
from Bombay by a narrow channel 200 yards wide, across which a causeway
was carried in 1805. Salsette formed part of the province of Aurungabad
under the Mogul emperors; but fell into the hands of the Portuguese soon
after their settlement in India. In 1739 it was conquered by the
Mahrattas, and in 1774 it was taken by the British.

=Saltant.= In heraldry, in a leaping position, springing
forward;--applied especially to the squirrel, weasel, rat, and also to
the cat, greyhound, monkey, etc.

=Saltillo.= A city of Mexico, capital of the state of Coahuila, 250
miles west-southwest of Matamoras. Seven miles south is Buena Vista,
famous for the battle fought there, February, 1847, when the Mexican
forces were repulsed by an inferior U. S. army.

=Salting-boxes.= Were boxes of about 4 inches high, and 2¹⁄₂ inches in
diameter, for holding mealed powder, to sprinkle the fuzes of shells,
that they might take fire from the blast of the powder in the chamber.

=Saltire.= One of the ordinaries in heraldry. Its name is of uncertain
etymology, representing a bend sinister conjoined with a bend dexter, or
a cross placed transversely like the letter X. Like the other
ordinaries, it probably originated, as Planché suggests, in the clamps
and braces of the shield. The form of the saltire has been assigned to
the cross on which St. Andrew is said to have been crucified; hence the
frequency of this ordinary in Scotch heraldry. A saltire is subject to
the variations of being engrailed, invented, etc., and may be _couped_.
When two or more saltires are borne in a shield, they are couped, not at
right angles, but horizontally; and as they are always so treated, it is
considered superfluous to blazon them as couped. Charges disposed in the
form of a saltire are described as placed _saltireways_, or _in
saltire_. The former term is more properly applied to two long charges,
as swords or keys, placed across one another (in which case the rule is,
that the sword in bend sinister should be uppermost, unless otherwise
blazoned); and the latter to five charges placed two, one, and two.

=Saltpetre.= Nitre, or nitrate of potassa, is composed of 54 parts
nitric acid and 48 parts of potassa. It is spontaneously generated in
the soil, and is a necessary ingredient of powder. It has occasionally
been produced artificially in _nitre-beds_, formed of a mixture of
calcareous soil with animal matter; in these, nitrate of lime is slowly
formed, which is extracted by lixiviation and carbonate of potash added
to the solution, which gives rise to the formation of nitrate of potassa
and carbonate of lime; the latter is precipitated; the former remains in
solution and is obtained in crystals by evaporation. Its great use is in
the manufacture of gunpowder, and in the production of nitric acid. See
GUNPOWDER.

=Salute.= A discharge of artillery in compliment to some individual;
beating of drums and dropping of colors for the same purpose; or by
earning or presenting arms according to the rank and position of an
officer. A salute with cannon is a certain number of arms fired in
succession with blank cartridges, in honor of a person, to celebrate an
event, or to show respect to the flag of a country. The rapidity with
which the pieces are discharged depends upon their caliber. Field-guns
should have intervals of five seconds between discharges; siege-guns,
eight; and guns of heavier caliber, ten. The minimum number of pieces
with which salutes can be fired is 2 for field, 4 for siege, and 6 for
sea coast guns.

Personages entitled to salutes, if _passing_ a military post, as also
foreign ships of war, are saluted with guns of heavy caliber, the most
suitable being the 10-inch smooth-bore. The United States _national_
salute is one for each State composing the Union; and the
_international_ salute, or salute to the national flag, is 21 guns. The
President of the United States and the sovereign or chief magistrate of
a foreign state receive a salute of 21 guns, both upon arrival and final
departure from a military post. Members of the royal family,--_i.e._,
the heir-apparent and consort of the reigning sovereign of a foreign
state,--21 guns. The Vice-President of the United States receives a
salute of 19 guns. The following civil and diplomatic authorities
receive salutes as follows: members of the Cabinet, the chief justice,
the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the governors within their
respective States or Territories, a committee of Congress officially
visiting a military post or station, the viceroy, governor-general, or
governors of provinces belonging to foreign states, ambassadors
extraordinary and plenipotentiary, 17 guns; envoys extraordinary and
ministers plenipotentiary, 15 guns; ministers resident accredited to the
United States, 13 guns; chargés d’affaires, or subordinate diplomatic
agents left in charge of missions in the United States, 11 guns. A
general-in-chief, field-marshal, or admiral receives a salute of 17
guns; a lieutenant-general, or vice-admiral, 15 guns; a major-general,
or rear-admiral, 13 guns; a brigadier-general, or commodore, 11 guns.
The officers of volunteers and militia, when in the service of the
United States, receive the salute specified for their rank. Officers of
foreign services visiting any military post, are saluted in accordance
with their rank. Salutes are fired only between _sunrise_ and _sunset_,
and, as a rule, never on Sunday. A national salute is to be fired at
noon on the anniversary of the independence of the United States at each
military post and camp provided with artillery and ammunition. The
_international_ salute is the only salute that is returned, and this
should be done as soon as possible; foreign ships of war, in return for
a similar compliment, gun for gun on notice being officially received of
such intention. If there be several forts in sight of or within 6 miles
of each other, the principal only shall reciprocate compliments with
ships in passing. The President of the United States, the sovereign or
chief magistrate of a foreign country traveling in a public capacity, is
saluted when _passing_ in the vicinity of a military post. Personal
salutes at the same place and in compliment to the same person, whether
civil, diplomatic, military, or naval, are never to be fired oftener
than once in twelve months, unless such person has, in the mean time,
been advanced in rank.

=Salvo.= Is a concentrated fire from a greater or less number of pieces
of artillery. Against a body of men, a salvo is generally useless, as
the moral effect is greater in proportion to the area over which
devastation is spread; but with fortifications the case is otherwise.
For the purpose of breaching, the simultaneous concussion of a number of
cannon-balls on masonry, or even earthwork, produces a very destructive
result. The effect of a salvo of modern artillery, with its enormous
steel shot, against iron-plated ramparts, has never yet been tried in
actual war. The concentrated fire of a ship’s broadside forms a powerful
salvo.

=Samanide Dynasty.= Began with Ismail Samani, who overcame the army of
the Safferides, and established himself in the government of Persia,
902; his descendants ruled till 999.

=Samarcand=, or =Samarkand= (anc. _Mazacanda_). The most celebrated city
of Central Asia, khanate of Bokhara, but annexed to the dominions of the
czar in 1868. It is situated at the foot of Mount Chobanata, and is 145
miles nearly east by north from Bokhara. It was seized by the Arabs,
707, and from this time belonged either to the califate or to some of
the dynasties which were offshoots from it, till 1219, when it was taken
by Genghis Khan. In 1359 it was captured by Timour, and ten years
afterward became the capital of his empire. On the division of his
empire after his death, it continued the capital of Turkestan till 1468,
when the attacks of the Uzbeks put an end to its prosperity.

=Samaria.= Anciently a city of Palestine, the chief seat of the
Ephraimitic Baal-worship, and, from the seventh year of Omri’s reign,
the capital of the kingdom of Israel. It was twice besieged by the
Syrians (901 and 892 B.C.), under Ahab and Joram, on both occasions
unsuccessfully; but in 721 (720) B.C., it was stormed by Shalmaneser,
king of Assyria, after a three years’ siege, and the inhabitants carried
off into captivity. Their place was supplied by colonists from Babylon
and other places. It was subsequently captured by Alexander the Great,
when the “Samaritan” inhabitants were driven out, and their place
supplied by Syro-Macedonians. It was again taken (109 B.C.) by John
Hyrcanus, who completely destroyed it. Soon rebuilt, it remained for
fifty years in possession of the Jews; but Pompey, in his victorious
march, restored it to the descendants of the expelled Samaritans, who
had settled in the neighborhood, and it was re-fortified by Gabinius.
Its name was changed to Sebaste by Herod the Great. In the 3d century it
became a Roman colony; but its prosperity perished with the Mohammedan
conquest of Palestine, and is at present only a small village called
Sebustieh, an Arab corruption of Sebaste.

=Sambas.= A town on the west coast of Borneo. It was attacked in 1812
and 1813 by the British, who were repulsed in their first attempt, but
succeeded in capturing the town at the second attack.

=Sambre.= A river of French Flanders, which has been the scene of many
sanguinary conflicts at different periods. It arises in the Ardennes,
between La Capelle and Chateaux-Cambressis; runs from southwest to
northeast; washes Landrecy, a fortified town, which was taken by the
Imperialists in 1793. In its vicinity is Troisville, where, in 1794, the
French were defeated by the British under the Duke of York. Maubeuge is
situated in advance of the forest of Mormal. It was fortified by Vauban,
and has a manufactory of fire-arms, and a garrison of infantry and
cavalry. It was vainly besieged by the allies in 1814. Near it is
Wattignies, where Jourdan beat the Austrians in 1813, and compelled them
to raise the siege of Maubeuge. From hence the Sambre flows out of
France, and passing into Belgium, washes Charleroi, a fortified place,
captured by the French in 1672, 1677, 1693, 1736, 1792, and 1794. It
leaves upon the heights on its right bank, Fleurus, a place rendered
famous by four remarkable battles,--that of 1622, gained by the
Spaniards over the Protestants of Germany; that of 1690, gained by
Luxemburg over the Imperialists; the battle of 1794, gained by Jourdan
over the allies; and the battle of 1815 (also designated the battle of
Ligny), gained by Napoleon over the Prussians. The battle of 1794 was
preceded by the siege of Charleroi, during which the French had six
times crossed the Sambre in vain, and had been repulsed in six battles,
the most celebrated of which are those of Grandreng, of the Péchant, and
of Marchienne.

=Sambuque= (_Fr._) An ancient musical instrument of the wind kind,
resembling a flute. It was also the name of an ancient engine of war
used by Marcellus in besieging Syracuse. Plutarch relates that two ships
were required to carry it. A minute description of this engine may be
seen in Polybius.

=Same=, or =Samos= (anc. _Cephallenia_). A town situated on the eastern
coast, opposite Ithaca; was taken and destroyed by the Romans, 189 B.C.

=Samnites.= The people of ancient Samnium, a country of Central Italy.
They were an offshoot of the Sabines, who emigrated from their country
between the Nar and Tiber, and the Anio, before the foundation of Rome,
and settled in Samnium. This country was at the time of their migration
inhabited by Opicans, whom the Samnites conquered, and whose language
they adopted. The Samnites were distinguished for their bravery and love
of freedom. Issuing from their mountain fastnesses, they overran a
great part of Campania; and it was in consequence of Capua applying to
the Romans for assistance against the Samnites that war broke out
between the two nations in 343 B.C. The Romans found the Samnites the
most warlike and formidable enemies whom they had yet encountered in
Italy, and the war, which commenced in 343, was continued with few
interruptions for the space of fifty-three years. It was not until 290,
when all their bravest troops had fallen, and their country had been
repeatedly ravaged in every direction by the Roman legions, that the
Samnites sued for peace and submitted to the supremacy of Rome. They,
never, however, lost their love of freedom; and, accordingly, they not
only joined the other Italian allies in the war against Rome (90), but,
even after the other allies had submitted, they still continued in arms.
The civil war between Marius and Sulla gave them hopes of recovering
their independence; but they were defeated before the gates of Rome
(82), the greater part of their troops fell in battle, and the remainder
were put to death. Their towns were laid waste, the inhabitants sold as
slaves, and their place supplied by Roman colonists.

=Samos.= An island on the west coast of Asia Minor, which was colonized
by Ionians about 1043 B.C. Samos was taken by the Athenians, 440; and,
with Greece, became subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the Venetians,
1125; taken by the emperor Leo in the 13th century, and then
successively fell into the hands of the Venetians, Genoese, and Turks.
At the time of the Greek insurrection the Samians zealously embraced the
side of liberty. They expelled the Turks from the island, which they put
into a state of defense, establishing an independent government. Various
attempts were made by the Turks to regain the island, but they were all
foiled by the courage of the people and the vigilance of the Greek
fleet. In the treaty, however, which secured the independence and
defined the limits of Greece, Samos was still left to Turkey, and the
subsequent efforts that she has made have only secured a partial
freedom.

=San Antonio=, called also =San Antonio de Bexar=. A city of Texas,
U. S., is built near the sources of the San Antonio River, 110 miles
southwest of Austin. It is one of the oldest Spanish towns on the
continent, and in the Texan revolution of 1836 was the scene of the
massacre of the Alamo, when a garrison of 150 men, led by Col. Travis,
and including David Crockett, was surrounded by several thousand
Mexicans, and after a heroic resistance killed to the last man. It
contains a national arsenal.

=San Jacinto.= A small village of Harris Co., Texas, on Buffalo Bayou,
near its entrance into Galveston Bay, about 18 miles east of Houston. On
April 21, 1836, the main Texan army under Gen. Houston met the
Mexicans, who were double their number, near San Jacinto. Furiously the
Texans rushed to battle, with the cry, “Remember the Alamo!” They fought
at less than half-rifle distance, and in less than half an hour wholly
routed the Mexicans, killing and wounding a number greater than the
whole Texan force. Among the prisoners taken after the battle was Santa
Anna himself. The result of this battle was the undisputed independence
of Texas.

=San Salvador.= The smallest of the Central American republics, and
consists of a strip of territory stretching along between Honduras and
the Pacific, and bounded on the west by Guatemala, and on the east by
Fonseca Bay. It was conquered after a long and obstinate contest by
Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Cortez. In 1821 it threw off the
yoke, and joined the Mexican Confederation, from which, however, it
seceded in 1823. In 1863, a war broke out between San Salvador and
Guatemala, in which Honduras joined the former and Nicaragua the latter.
The result was the defeat of San Salvador.

=San Sebastian.= A seaport of Spain, capital of Guipuzcoa, one of the
Basque provinces, on the shore of the Bay of Biscay, 42 miles
north-northwest of Pampeluna. From its position and strength, it has
long been a place of much importance, and has sustained several sieges.
The most memorable of these was in 1813, when the British under
Wellington took it by storm.

=San Severo.= A town of Naples, capital of a district in the province of
Capitanata. The inhabitants in 1799 made a gallant but vain resistance
to the French under Duhesme, in revenge for which an indiscriminate
slaughter was begun, and the town was only saved from total destruction
by the heroism of the women, who threw themselves between the victorious
soldiery and their victims.

=Sandhurst Military College.= See MILITARY ACADEMIES (GREAT BRITAIN).

=Sangiac.= A situation or appointment of dignity in Turkey. The sangiacs
are governors of towns or cantons, and take rank immediately after the
_beglerbegs_. (See BEG.) The name is also applied to the banner which he
is authorized to display, and has been mistaken for Saint Jacques.

=Sanjak.= A Turkish word signifying “a standard,” is employed to denote
a subdivision of an _eyalet_, because the ruler of such a subdivision,
called _sanjak-beg_, is entitled to carry in war a standard of one
horse-tail. The sanjak is frequently called _liva_, and its ruler a
_mirmiram_.

=Sanjak-Sherif.= See FLAG OF THE PROPHET.

=Sansculottes= (_i.e._, “without breeches”). Was the name given in
scorn, at the beginning of the French revolution, by the court party to
the democratic “proletaires” of Paris. The latter accepted this
superfine reproach with sardonic pride, and the term soon became the
distinctive appellation of a “good patriot,” more especially as such a
one often made a point of showing his contempt for the rich by
neglecting his apparel, and cultivating rough and cynical manners.
Toward the close of the Convention, the name, connected as it had been
with all the sanguinary excesses of the period, naturally fell into bad
odor, and soon after totally disappeared.

=Santa Fé.= City and capital of the Territory of New Mexico, built among
the Rocky Mountains, on a plain 7047 feet above the sea. It is an old
Spanish Mexican town, about 20 miles east of the Rio Grande del Norte.
The Spaniards were driven out of Santa Fé in 1680 by the Pueblo Indians;
but it was recaptured by the former in 1694, and held by them till the
occupation by Americans in 1846. It was occupied by the Confederates for
several days in 1862.

=Santiago de Compostella.= An important and once famous city of Spain,
formerly the capital of Galicia. It was sacked by the Moors in 995, and
held by them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. It was taken
by the French in 1809, and held till 1814.

=Sap.= In military engineering, is a narrow ditch or trench, by which
approach is made from the foremost parallel towards the glacis or covert
way of a besieged place. The sap is usually made by four sappers, the
leading man of whom rolls a large gabion before him, and excavates as he
progresses, filling smaller gabions with the earth dug out, and erecting
them on one or both sides to form a parapet. The other sappers widen and
deepen the sap, throwing more earth on to the parapet. A sap is
considered to advance in average ground about 8 feet per hour. From the
nearness of the enemy’s works, running a sap is an extremely dangerous
operation. When possible, therefore, it is carried on at night; in any
case, the sappers are relieved at least every hour. When a sap is
enlarged to the dimensions of a trench, it bears that name. When the
fire of the enemy is slack, so that many gabions may be placed and
filled at the same time, it is called a _flying sap_. If two parapets,
one on each side of the trench, be formed, it is then called a _double
sap_.

=Sap.= To pierce with saps; to execute saps. Also, to proceed by mining
or secretly undermining.

=Sap-fagots.= Are fascines 3 feet long, placed vertically between two
gabions, for the protection of the sappers before the parapet is thrown
over.

=Sappers and Miners.= Are soldiers belonging to the engineer corps, and
now called engineers, whose business it is to make gabions, fascines,
hurdles, etc., to trace lines and trenches, to drive the various kinds
of saps, to descend into and pass the ditch, to destroy the enemy’s
obstacles, to drain the trenches, to put up the various kinds of
revetments, to post and superintend working parties, and to serve in
the mines when required. They are also taught to adjust and sod the
slopes, to erect palisades, fraises, etc., and to repair the defenses of
a place, as also to erect bridges, and throw pontons over rivers, to
plant torpedoes, and in fact to perform all the duties appertaining to
engineer soldiers. In marching near an enemy, every column should have
with its advance-guard a detachment of sappers, furnished with tools to
open the way or repair the road. Bonaparte considered the proper
proportion of engineer soldiers to an army to be 1 : 40; but now in
France it is 1 : 33; in England 1 : 34; in Prussia 1 : 36; and in the
United States 1 : 60.

=Sapping.= The art of excavating trenches of approach, under the
musketry-fire of the besieged.

=Sap-roller.= Consists of two large concentric gabions, 6 feet in
length, the outer one having a diameter of 4 feet, the inner one a
diameter of 2 feet 8 inches, the space between them being stuffed with
pickets or small billets of hard wood, to make them musket-shot proof.
Its use is to protect the squad of sappers in their approach from the
fire of the place.

=Saracens.= A name variously employed by mediæval writers to designate
the Mohammedans of Syria and Palestine, the Arabs generally, or the
Arab-Berber races of Northern Africa, who conquered Spain and Sicily,
and invaded France. At a later date it was employed as a synonym for all
infidel nations against which crusades were preached, and was thus
applied to the Seljuks of Iconium, the Turks, and even to the pagan
Prussians.

=Saracen’s Head.= A not unfrequent bearing in heraldry. It is
represented as the head of an old man with a savage countenance.

=Saragossa=, or =Zaragoza=. A city of Spain, the capital of a province
of the same name, and formerly of the kingdom of Aragon. It is situated
on the Ebro, which divides the city into two parts. It was a place of
importance under the Romans, but there are few remains of the Roman
city. It was taken by the Moors in the 8th century, and recovered from
them in 1118, after a siege of five years, during which a great part of
the inhabitants died of hunger. It was taken by the French in 1809,
after a siege of eight months, and one of the most heroic defenses
recorded in the history of modern warfare.

=Saratoga.= A township of Saratoga Co., N. Y., situated on the Hudson,
28 miles north from Albany. It is remarkable in American history as the
place where Burgoyne surrendered to the Americans in 1777. From
September 19 to October 7 frequent animated skirmishes occurred between
the British and the Americans, but on the latter date the battle of
Saratoga began. Gen. Gates drew up his army on the brow of a hill, near
the river, his camp being in the segment of a large circle, the convex
side towards the enemy. Gen. Burgoyne’s troops were drawn up with his
left resting on the river, his right extending at right angles to it
across the low grounds, about 200 yards, to a range of steep heights.
The Americans attacked the British along their whole line, when the
action became general. The efforts of the combatants were desperate.
Burgoyne and his officers fought like men who were defending, at the
last cast, their military reputation; Gates and his army like those who
were deciding whether themselves and their children should be freedmen
or slaves. The invading army gave way in the short space of fifty-two
minutes. The defenders of the soil followed them to their intrenchments,
forced the guard and killed its commander. The works of the British were
stormed, but darkness coming on, the Americans desisted, and rested on
their arms upon the field which they had so bravely won, determined to
pursue their victory with returning light. But Burgoyne, aware of the
advantage which the Americans had gained, effected with admirable order
a change of his ground. His entire camp was removed before morning to
the heights. Gates was too wise to attack his enemy in his new position,
but made arrangements to inclose them, which Burgoyne perceiving, put
his army in motion at 9 o’clock at night and removed to Saratoga, 6
miles up the river, abandoning his sick and wounded to the humanity of
the Americans. Burgoyne now made several efforts to effect a retreat;
but in every way he had been anticipated. He found himself in a foreign
and hostile country, hemmed in by a foe whose army, constantly
increasing, already amounted to four times his own wasted numbers. His
boats laden with supplies were taken, and his provisions were failing,
and when he found he could not hold out any longer, his troops being in
the utmost distress, he surrendered on October 17. The whole number
surrendered amounted to 5752 men, which, together with the troops lost
before by various disasters, made up the whole British loss to 9213 men.
There also fell into the hands of the Americans 35 field-pieces and 5000
muskets. It was stipulated that the British should pile their arms at
the word of command, given by their own officers, march out of their
camp with the honors of war, and have free passage across the Atlantic;
they, on their part, agreeing not to serve again in North America during
the war.

=Sarawak.= A town and province of Borneo, on the northeast coast of the
island. The Chinese inhabitants of this place rose in insurrection and
massacred a number of Europeans, February 17 and 18, 1857; the rajah,
Sir J. Brooke, raised a force and speedily chastised the insurgents, of
whom 2000 were killed.

=Sarbacane= (_Fr._). A blow-pipe, or long tube of wood or metal, through
which poisoned arrows were shot by blowing with the mouth.

=Sarceled.= In heraldry, cut through the middle.

=Sardar.= In the East Indies, a chief or leader is so called.

=Sardinia.= A former kingdom in the south of Europe, composed of the
island of Sardinia, Piedmont, Savoy, and the territories of Genoa and
Nice. It takes its name from the island of Sardinia, and was, in 1860,
merged in the new kingdom of Italy. From 1798 to 1814 the continental
part of Sardinia formed a portion of the French empire. In 1848, Charles
Albert, the reigning monarch, encouraged the inhabitants of the
Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, or Austrian Italy, in their attempts to throw
off the Austrian yoke, and marched to their assistance, when they broke
into open revolt. He gained many victories at first over the Austrians,
but he was subsequently defeated by Radetzky, and resigned his crown to
his son, Victor Emmanuel. In 1855 Sardinia took part with Britain and
France against Russia. In 1859 a war broke out between Austria on the
one hand, and France and Sardinia on the other, which resulted in the
defeat of the Austrians and the annexation of Lombardy to the Sardinian
crown.

=Sardinia, Island of.= The largest after Sicily, of the islands of the
Mediterranean, lies directly south of Corsica, from which it is
separated by the Strait of Bonefacio. It was called Sardo by the Romans,
and was colonized at a very early period. The first really historical
event is its conquest, about 480 B.C., by the Carthaginians. They were
forced to abandon it to the Romans (238 B.C.), who gradually subdued the
rebellious natives, and made it a province of the republic; but on three
several occasions, formidable outbreaks required the presence of a
consul with a large army to restore the authority of Rome. It fell into
the hands of the Vandals and other barbarians, and was recovered by the
Eastern empire in 534, but was finally separated from the Roman empire
by the Saracens. They were driven out in their turn by the Pisans. Pope
Boniface took upon him to transfer it to the king of Aragon, who subdued
the Genoese, Pisans, and the rest of the inhabitants, and annexed it to
his own dominions in 1324. It remained united to the crown of Spain till
the allies made a conquest of it in 1708. It was allotted to the emperor
of Germany at the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. The Spaniards recovered it
in 1717, but were obliged to abandon it two years after, when it was
conferred on the duke of Savoy in lieu of the kingdom of Sicily, in
1720. From 1798 to 1814 it was the only portion of the Sardinian
dominions left in the power of its sovereign, the French occupying the
other portion of the kingdom.

=Sardis=, or =Sardes=. Anciently the capital of Lydia, in Asia Minor,
stood at the foot of Mount Tmolus, now called Bozdag, about 50 miles
northeast from Smyrna; the citadel on a steep rock was almost
impregnable, being fortified by three walls. It was thus enabled to hold
out when the lower town was taken by the Cimmerians in the reign of
Ardys. During the Ionian revolt, 501 B.C., the insurgents, aided by the
Athenians, took the city. It was taken by the Turks in the 11th century,
and suffered a severe blow from Tamerlane, who almost entirely destroyed
it about 200 years later.

=Sarmatia.= The ancient name of the country in Asia and Europe, between
the Caspian Sea and the Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The
Sarmatæ, or Sauromatæ, troubled the early Roman empire by incursions;
after subduing the Scythians, they were subjugated by the Goths in the
3d and 4th centuries. They joined the Huns and other barbarians in
invading Western Europe in the 5th century.

=Sarno.= A city of Southern Italy, in the province of Principato Citra,
on the river of the same name, 13 miles northwest of Salerno. In the
plain near Sarno, Teias, king of the Goths, in a desperate battle with
the Greeks, commanded by Narses, in 553, was vanquished and slain, and
the reign of the Goths in Italy brought to a close.

=Sarrazine.= A rough portcullis.

=Sarre= (_Fr._). When artillery was first invented, this name was given
to a long gun, of smaller dimensions than the _bombarde_.

=Sasbach.= A village of Baden, 28 miles southwest from Carlsruhe.
Marshal Turenne was killed here by a random shot in 1675.

=Sash.= In the British army, is a military distinction worn on duty or
parade by officers and non-commissioned officers. For the former, it is
of crimson silk; for the latter, of crimson cotton. It is tied on the
right side by the cavalry, and on the left side by the infantry. In
Highland regiments, the sash is worn over the left shoulder and across
the body. The sashes for the Austrian army are of crimson and gold; the
Prussian army, black silk and silver; the Hanoverian wears yellow silk;
the Portuguese, crimson silk, with blue tassels; the French have their
sashes made of three colors,--white, pink, and light blue,--to
correspond with the national flag. In the U. S. army, all general
officers above the rank of brigadier-general may wear a sash of buff
silk and gold-thread worn across the body; and for brigadier-generals,
sashes of buff silk net, with silk bullion fringe ends, are worn around
the waist.

=Sassanidæ.= A famous dynasty of Persia, which reigned from 226 to 651.
They were the descendants of Artaxerxes or Ardishir, whose father,
Babek, was the son of Sassan. Ardishir revolted against Artabanus, king
of Parthia, and defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 226, and
re-established the Persian monarchy. The Roman armies could make no
impression on the Persians under the Sassanidæ; but from time to time
had to return defeated and humiliated from the Persian frontiers. Their
last monarch, Yezdejerd, was defeated and the dynasty expelled in 652.

=Satellites.= Were certain armed men, of whom mention is made in the
history of Philip Augustus, king of France. The satellites of Philip
Augustus were men selected from the militia of the country, who fought
on foot and horseback. The servants or batmen who attended the military
knights when they went into action were likewise called satellites, and
fought in their defense mounted or on foot.

=Sattara.= A town and capital of the province of the same name, in
British India, in the Presidency of Bombay. In 1700 its fort offered a
vigorous resistance for two months to Aurungzebe, who besieged it in
person, but it was reduced by blockade; and in 1818 a few bomb-shells
procured its surrender to the British.

=Saturn.= In heraldry, the black color in blazoning arms; sable.

=Saucisson=, or =Sausage=. Is a fascine of more than the usual length;
but the principal application of the term is to the apparatus for firing
a military mine. This consists of a long bag or pipe of linen, cloth, or
leather, from 1 inch to 1¹⁄₂ inch in diameter, and charged with
gunpowder. One end is laid in the mine to be exploded; the other is
conducted to the galleries to a place where the engineers can fire in
safety. The electric spark is now preferred to the saucisson.

=Saumur.= A town of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 28
miles southeast of Angers. A striking event in the history of the town
was its brilliant capture by Larochejaquelein and the Vendeans, June 10,
1793. In this action, the victors, with but a slight loss, captured 60
cannon, 10,000 muskets, and 11,000 republicans; it was a stronghold of
the Protestants during the reign of Henry IV.

=Savages=, or =Wild Men=. In heraldry, are of frequent occurrence as
supporters. They are represented naked, and also, particularly in the
later heraldry, are usually wreathed about the head and middle with
laurel, and often furnished with a club in the exterior hand. Savages
are especially prevalent in the heraldry of Scotland. In more than one
of the Douglas seals of the first half of the 15th century, the shield
is borne in one hand by a single savage, who acts as sole supporter.

=Savan Droog=, or =Savendroog=. A strong hill fort of India, in the
territory of Mysore, 19 miles west from Bangalore. It was stormed by the
British in 1791; and after the fall of Tippoo Sahib in 1799, it was
garrisoned by a native force.

=Savannah.= A city and port of Georgia, U. S., on the right bank of the
Savannah River, 18 miles from its mouth. The city is surrounded by
marshes and islands, and was defended by Fort Pulaski and Fort Jackson.
Savannah was founded in 1733, by the English general Oglethorpe. In 1776
a British fleet, attempting to take the town, was repulsed after a
severe action; but it was taken in 1778, and held in 1779 against the
combined French and American forces. In the war of Secession, after many
unsuccessful attacks by sea, it was taken by Gen. Sherman in February,
1865.

=Saverne= (anc. _Taberna_). A town of France, in the department of
Bas-Rhin, on the Zorn, 19 miles northwest of Strasburg. It is a very
ancient place, and was formerly fortified. It suffered very much during
the Thirty Years’ War; and its fortifications were destroyed in 1696.

=Savigliano.= A fortified town of Northern Italy, in Piedmont, 28 miles
south from Turin. The French defeated the Austrians here in 1799.

=Savona.= A maritime city of Northern Italy, in the province of Genoa,
and 25 miles southwest from the city of that name. It is a very ancient
city, and in the time of the Romans was called Sava; was destroyed by
Rotharis (639), rebuilt by Ludovic the Pious (981), and was afterwards
laid waste by the Saracens.

=Savoy.= Formerly a province in Northern Italy, east of Piedmont. It
became a Roman province about 118 B.C. The Alemanni seized it in 395,
and the Franks in 490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till
about 1048. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and made it a department
of France under the name of Mont Blanc in 1800; it was restored to the
king of Sardinia in 1814; but was once more annexed to France in 1860.

=Sawunt Warree.= A native state of India, in the Presidency of Bombay.
The first treaty between Sawunt Warree and the British took place in
1730, and had for its object to suppress the piracies of the Angria
family in the island of Kolabah. But the chieftains of Sawunt Warree,
being themselves addicted to piracy, drew upon them the hostility of the
British in 1765. A series of wars, treaties, and negotiations ensued,
which ended in the subjugation of the state in 1819 by a British force.
The sea-coast was then ceded to the British, and the native government
restored. Rebellions were raised against the chiefs in 1828, 1832, and
1838. The most important event that has since occurred, was the
dangerous rebellion which began in the autumn of 1844, and was put down
after some months of hard fighting by Lieut.-Col. Outram in the
beginning of the following year.

=Sawyer Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Saxons.= A German people whose name is usually derived from an old
German word, _sahs_, “a knife,” and are first mentioned by Ptolemy, who
makes them inhabit a district south of the Cimbrian Peninsula. They are
mentioned as brave and skillful sailors who often joined the Chauci in
piratical expeditions against the coast of Gaul. In the 3d century they
appear in England under Carausius, a Belgic admiral in the Roman
service, who made himself “Augustus” in Britain by their help. They had
firmly rooted themselves, at the beginning of the 5th century, in the
present Normandy, and they fought against Attila in the Catalaunian
Plain, 451. They also obtained a footing at the mouth of the Loire; but
all the Saxons who settled in France disappeared before the Franks, or
were probably incorporated with their more powerful kinsmen of Southern
Germany. Along with the Franks, they destroyed the kingdom of the
Thuringians in 531, and obtained possession of the land between the Harz
and the Unstrut; but this district was in turn forced to acknowledge the
Frankish sovereignty. From 719, wars between the Saxons and the Franks
became constant; but the latter, after 772, were generally successful,
in spite of the vigorous resistance offered by Wittekind, and in 804,
the Saxons were finally subjugated by the arms of Charlemagne.

=Saxony, Kingdom of.= The second in importance and population of the
minor German states, and a state of the new German empire. The earliest
inhabitants of Upper Saxony, since the Christian era, were the
Hermunduri; in the beginning of the 6th century their settlements were
taken possession of by the Sorbs, a Slavic race. The Carlovingian
rulers, dissatisfied with the ingress of those non-German tribes,
erected “marks” to bar their progress; and Duke Otho the Illustrious of
Saxony, and his celebrated son, Henry the Fowler, warred against them,
the latter--subduing the Heveller, the Daleminzer, and the
Miltzer--founded in their country the marks of Brandenburg Misnia
(Meissen), and Lusatia (Lausitz), and planted colonies of Germans among
the Sorbs. In 1090 the mark was bestowed on the house of Wettin, and was
confirmed as a hereditary possession to that family in 1127. Frederick
the Warlike (1381-1428) succeeded in uniting the severed portions of
Saxony, to which were added various districts in Franconia, and in 1423
the electorate of Saxony. The Saxon elector was now one of the most
powerful princes of Germany, but unfortunately the fatal practice of
subdividing the father’s territories among his sons still continued; and
during the reign of the elector, Frederick the Mild (1428-1464), a civil
war broke out and was carried on for years. By a separate treaty of
peace (1635), John George I. obtained Upper and Lower Lusatia,
acquisitions confirmed by the treaty of Westphalia (1648). The reign of
Frederick Augustus I. (1694-1733) well-nigh ruined the hitherto
prosperous electorate. Frederick Augustus had been chosen king of
Poland; and his attempt, in company with the czar and the king of
Denmark, to dismember Sweden, brought down upon him and his two states
the vengeance of the northern “fire-king.” Poland was utterly
devastated, and Saxony exhausted in money and troops; the king was
forced to sell many important portions of territory; Frederick Augustus
II. (1733-1763), also king of Poland, took part in the war of the
Austrian Succession against Maria Theresa, but finding the treaty of
Berlin (1742) not so satisfactory for himself as he expected, he joined
the empress in 1745. The country was atrociously ravaged during the
Seven Years’ War, and a long time elapsed before it recovered its
previous peaceful and prosperous state. In the conflict of 1866 the king
of Saxony took the side of Austria, and his army fought in the battle of
Königgratz, July 3. The Prussians entered Saxony June 18. Peace between
Prussia and Saxony was signed October 21 (subjecting the Saxon army to
Prussia), and the king returned to Dresden November 3. In 1870-71 the
Saxon soldiers fought under the leadership of the crown-prince,
afterward King Albert, as true allies by the side of the Prussians, and
the interior development of the country has not only kept pace with, but
in some respects even advanced beyond, that of the rest of Northern
Germany.

=Scabbard.= Is the sheath for a sword or bayonet, at once to render the
weapon harmless and to protect it from damp. It was usually made of
black leather, tipped, mouthed, and ringed with metal, but is now
generally made of bronzed steel. The cavalry wear scabbards of polished
steel. These better sustain the friction against the horses’
accoutrements, but are objectionable from their noisiness, and the
consequent impossibility of surprising an enemy. The sword-scabbard is
suspended to the belt by two rings; the bayonet-scabbard hooks into a
frog in connection with the waist-belt.

=Scalade= (from the Fr. _escalade_). A furious attack upon a wall or
rampart, contrary to form, and with no regularity, frequently carried on
with ladders, to insult the wall by open force.

=Scale.= To climb by a ladder, or as if by a ladder; to clamber up; as,
to scale the ramparts.

=Scale-armor.= Consisted of small plates of steel riveted together in a
manner resembling the scales of a fish. From the small size of the
plates, it possessed considerable pliability, and was therefore a
favorite protection for the neck, in the form of a curtain hanging from
the helmet. Scale-armor is now obsolete, except, perhaps, among some
Eastern potentates.

=Scaling.= Scaling a piece of artillery, is the flashing off of a small
quantity of powder to clean out the bore; about one-twelfth of the
shot’s weight. The practice is discontinued.

=Scaling-ladders= (Fr. _echelles de siege_). Are ladders used in scaling
when a place is to be taken by surprise. They are made several ways;
sometimes of flat staves, so as to move about their pins, and shut like
a parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying them.

=Scamper.= To run away precipitately; said of troops.

=Scandinavia.= The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and a great part of
Denmark, whence proceeded the Northmen, or Normans, who conquered
Normandy (about 900), and eventually England (1066). See NORMANS.

=Scarf.= In heraldry, a small ecclesiastical banner suspended from the
top of a crozier.

=Scarp, To.= To cut down a slope so as to render it inaccessible. See
COUNTERSCARP, and ESCARP.

=Scarpe.= In heraldry, a diminutive of the bend sinister, being half the
breadth of that ordinary.

=Sceptre.= Originally a staff or walking-stick, hence in course of time,
also a weapon of assault and of defense. At a very early period the
privilege of carrying it came to be connected with the idea of authority
and station. The sceptre of the kings of Rome, which was afterwards
borne by the consuls, was of ivory, and surmounted by an eagle. Since
that time there has been considerable variety in its form. The English
sceptre now in use dates from Charles II.’s time, and is cruciform.

=Schaife.= In the Middle Ages, a quiver or bundle of arrows was so
called.

=Schellenberg.= A village in the southeast of Upper Bavaria, 6 miles
southwest from the Austrian town of Salzburg, near which occurred the
first battle of the War of the Spanish Succession, in which the English
took part. Maximilian Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria, had fortified the
hill of Schellenberg to resist the progress of Marlborough; but on July
4, 1704, the work was attacked by the English, led on by Prince Ludwig,
of Baden, and carried by storm after a bloody fight.

=Schenkle Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Schierling.= A town of Germany, in Bavaria, 12 miles south from
Ratisbon. The Austrians were defeated by the French in its vicinity in
1809.

=Schleswig=, or =Sleswick=. Formerly a duchy of Denmark. Its history is
identical with that of Holstein (which see).

=Schliengen.= A town of Baden, 22 miles southwest from Mulheim. The
Archduke Charles of Austria defeated the French near this place in 1796.

=Schmalkald, League of.= The name given to the defensive alliance
concluded provisionally for nine years at Schmalkalden, February 27,
1531, between nine Protestant princes and eleven imperial cities, with
whom other five princes and ten imperial cities subsequently made common
cause; and the elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse were
appointed chiefs of the league, and empowered to manage its affairs. The
object of this formidable alliance, which included the whole of Northern
Germany, Denmark, Saxony, and Würtemberg, and portions of Bavaria and
Switzerland, was for the common defense of the religious and political
freedom of the Protestants against the emperor Charles V. and the
Catholic states. The league was not rendered superfluous by the
religious peace of Nürnberg in 1532, and on the rumor that the emperor
was meditating new hostile measures against the Protestants, another
meeting of the confederates was held December 24, 1535, which resolved
to raise a permanent army of 10,000 foot and 2000 cavalry, and to
prolong the league for ten years. The confederation was further
consolidated by articles of guarantee, which were drawn up by Luther at
Wittenberg in 1536, and being subscribed by the theologians present at
the meeting of the league at Schmalkalden in February, 1537, were called
the _Articles of Schmalkald_. Against the league the emperor, engaged as
he was at the time in contests with the Turks and French, found himself
unable to contend, though supported by the Holy League, a Catholic
confederation formed in 1538, in opposition to the Protestant one. But
impolitic management, mutual jealousies, and conflicting petty interests
dissipated their energies, and prevented united action. The “War of
Schmalkald” commenced by the advance of the army of the league, under
Sebastian Schartlin, in Suabia, to bar the approach of the imperial army
from Italy. Schartlin forced his way to the banks of the Danube, but the
miserable jealousy of the Saxon princes paralyzed his action. The
emperor, by a proclamation bearing date July 20, 1546, put the two
chiefs of the league under the ban of the empire; Maurice, duke of
Saxony, took possession of the electorate, by virtue of an imperial
decree; and the Protestant army was forced to retreat. The elector of
Saxony reconquered his electorate in the autumn of 1546, but meantime
the imperial army subdued the northern members of the League of
Schmalkald and advanced into Franconia to meet the combined armies of
Saxony and Hesse. The latter were totally routed at Mühlberg, April 24,
1547, and both chiefs fell into the emperor’s hands. This defeat, which
has been ascribed to treason, and was perhaps as much owing to this
cause as to weakness, finished the war. The object of the league, the
guarantee of the liberty of religion to the Protestants, was
subsequently effected by Maurice, now elector of Saxony, who, by a
brilliant feat of diplomacy and generalship, compelled the emperor to
grant the treaty of Passau, July 31, 1552, by which this freedom was
secured.

=Schoolmaster, Army.= In the English army, the schoolmaster is a
non-commissioned officer of the first class, ranking next to a
sergeant-major. His pay varies with length of service. He has an
advantage over other non-commissioned officers in quarters and certain
allowances. To become an army schoolmaster, it is necessary either to be
a certificated schoolmaster, or to have served the apprenticeship as a
pupil-teacher, and to pass through a course of training for one year at
the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea. After the completion of the
training, the candidate is required to enlist as a common soldier for
ten years’ general service, whereupon he is immediately promoted to the
rank of schoolmaster. A few of the most deserving schoolmasters are
promoted to be superintending schoolmasters, when they rank as ensigns.
The duties of the schoolmaster are to teach the soldiers and their
children the rudiments of general knowledge, to examine the girls’
school, and to deliver lectures to the soldiers. There were in 1865 214
army schoolmasters in the British service.

=Schoolmistress, Army.= In the British service, is a person attached to
each regiment or corps for the purpose of instructing the daughters of
soldiers and their sons, under eight years old, in the rudiments of
English and in plain needle-work. She must be a certified
schoolmistress, or a pupil-teacher who has served her apprenticeship.
After admission to the service, she is specially trained for six months
at one of four training institutions. This training is at the expense of
the government. Proper provision is made for the quarters and supplies
of the schoolmistress, whose somewhat anomalous position among rough men
calls for the most circumspect behavior on her part.

=Schools of Artillery.= See ARTILLERY, SCHOOLS OF.

=Schultz’s Powder.= A powder for fire-arms invented by Capt. Schultz of
the Prussian army, sometimes called _white gunpowder_, though this term
is also applied to other powder. It is made by treating grains of wood
with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, by means of which a low
form of nitro-cellulose is produced. The explosive power is heightened
by steeping the prepared grains in a solution of nitre. _Dittman’s
sporting powder_, manufactured in America, is believed to be a similar
powder.

=Schumla=, =Shoomla=, or =Shumla=. A large fortified town of Turkey in
Europe, in the province of Bulgaria, about 58 miles southwest from
Silistria. The Russians have made several unsuccessful attempts to take
it in their different wars with Turkey.

=Schuwalow Gun= (_Fr._). A gun named after the inventor, a Russian
general. It differed from a common gun in having an oval bore; the
greater diameter lay in a horizontal direction; it had also a long
cylindrical chamber.

=Schweidnitz.= A town of Prussian Silesia, on the left bank of the
Weistritz, 42 miles southeast of Liegnitz. It is in part fortified, and
was besieged and taken four times within fifty years, the last time by
the French in 1807, when the defenses were in great part destroyed.

=Schwytz.= One of the cantons of Switzerland. It was one of the three
original cantons that formed the Confederation in 1308 against the
Austrian power; and from its name the modern appellation of the entire
country has been derived.

=Sciathus= (now _Skiatho_). A small island in the Ægean Sea, east of the
Magnesian coast of Thessaly. It is frequently mentioned in the history
of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. It subsequently became one of the
subject allies of Athens. Its chief town was destroyed by the last
Philip of Macedonia.

=Science, Military.= See LOGISTICS, STRATAGEM, STRATEGY, TACTICS, and
WAR.

=Scillus.= A town of Elis, on the river Selinus, south of Olympia. It
was destroyed by the Eleans in the war which they carried on against the
Pisæans, whose cause had been espoused by the inhabitants of Scillus.
The Lacedæmonians subsequently took possession of the territory of
Scillus; they gave it to Xenophon after his banishment from Athens.

=Scimeter.= See CIMETER.

=Scio=, =Chio=, or =Khio= (anc. _Chios_). An island belonging to Asiatic
Turkey, lying in the Grecian Archipelago, off the coast of Asia Minor.
Chios became a member of the Ionian confederation of twelve states on
the Asiatic islands and coast. Its insular position protected it against
the Lydian, and for a time against the Persian power. But in the Ionian
revolt the Chians lent their assistance to their fellow-countrymen by
furnishing ships to the fleet, which was totally defeated by the
Persians off Miletus, 494 B.C. The conquerors in consequence landed on
the island, and ravaged it with fire and sword. The battle of Mycale, in
479, liberated Chios from the Persian yoke, but only to become a
dependency of Athens. To this power it remained faithful till after the
outbreak of the Peloponnesian war; but as that disastrous contest
proceeded, and the fortune of war began to prove adverse to Athens, the
Chians attempted to assert their liberty. They suffered several defeats
from the Athenians, who laid waste the island, but could not conquer the
capital. At a later period Chios was again subject to Athens, and again
revolted, and seems to have maintained its independence for some time.
It gave assistance to the Romans in their war with Antiochus, 190 B.C.;
and afterwards, when allied with Mithridates, that monarch, suspecting
the people of a bearing towards the Romans, sent a lieutenant, who
carried the inhabitants away from the island, 86 B.C. They were restored
by the Romans; and, in consideration of this calamity, the island was
made a free state and an ally of Rome. Early in the 14th century, the
Turks conquered the capital, and perpetrated a general massacre of its
inhabitants; but from 1346 to 1566 Scio was held by the Genoese. In the
latter year it was conquered by Solyman the Magnificent; and since that
time, with the exception of a short period when the Venetians possessed
it, the island has belonged to the Ottoman empire. In 1822, during the
Greek insurrection, a number of Samians landed in Scio, and persuaded or
forced its peaceful inhabitants to rise against the Turks. They did not
succeed in mastering the castle, and soon an army was landed from Asia,
who renewed the ancient calamities of the island. The plunder and
massacre that ensued was so unsparing that in a short time only 2000
Christians were left out of a population of 110,000.

=Scione.= The chief town in the Macedonian peninsula of Pallene, on the
western coast. It revolted from the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war,
but was retaken by Cleon, whereupon all the men were put to death, the
women and children sold as slaves, and the town given to the Platæans.

=Scirtis.= A wild and mountainous district in the north of Laconia, on
the borders of Arcadia, with a town called Scirus, which originally
belonged to Arcadia. Its inhabitants, the Sciritæ, formed a special
division of the Lacedæmonian army. This body, which, in the time of the
Peloponnesian war, was 600 in number, was stationed in battle at the
extreme left of the line, formed on march the vanguard, and was usually
employed on the most dangerous kinds of service.

=Sconce.= In fortification, is a term applied to any small redoubt or
fort, detached from the main works for some local object, as the defense
of a pass or fort, etc. The word is not now often used.

=Scopetin= (_Fr._). A rifleman was formerly so called who was armed with
the escopette.

=Scordisci.= A people in Pannonia Superior, who are sometimes classed
among the Illyrians, but were the remains of an ancient and powerful
Celtic tribe. They dwelt between the Savus and Dravus.

=Scorpion= (_Fr._). A small kind of catapult, or large cross-bow, which
threw heavy arrows by means of a steel bow, which was bent by a
double-handed roller turned by one man.

=Scorpion= (_Fr._). An ancient gun, whose dolphins represented the
scorpion. Also the name of an implement used by the ancients for laying
hold of the enemy’s battering ram.

=Scotch Brigade.= A brigade of Scotchmen, gentlemen, and others, who
served under the elector of Bavaria in the reign of James I., and
subsequently under Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years’ War.

=Scotland.= The northern division of the island of Great Britain. An
account has been given under the article Picts (which see) of the early
inhabitants of the country which has long been known by the name of
Scotland. The original Scotia, or Scotland, was Ireland, and the Scoti,
or Scots, at their first appearance in history were the people of
Ireland. The original seat of the Scots in Northern Britain was in
Argyle, which they acquired by colonization and conquest before the end
of the 5th century, and from whence they spread themselves along the
western coast from the Firth of Clyde to the modern Ross. The first
prince of the British Scots mentioned in authentic annals was Fergus,
son of Eric, who crossed over to Britain about the year 503. His
great-grandson, Conal, was king of the British Scots when Columba began
the conversion of the Northern Picts. His nephew, Aidan, who succeeded
him was a powerful prince, and more than once successfully invaded the
English border, but toward the end of his reign he received a severe
defeat from the Northumbrian sovereign Ethelfrid at the battle of
Degsestan. The history of Aidan’s successors is obscure. Their kingdom
was overshadowed by the more powerful monarchy of the Picts, with which,
as well as with its neighbors in the south,--the Britons of Cumbria,--it
was engaged in almost unceasing conflict. The Scots were for some time
under some sort of subjection to the English of Northumbria, but
recovered their independence on the defeat and death of King Egfried in
battle with the Picts at Nechtansmere in 685. In the middle of the 9th
century, the Scots acquired a predominance in Northern Britain. Kenneth,
son of Alpin, succeeded his father as king of the Scots. The Pictish
kingdom was weakened by civil dissensions and a disputed claim to the
crown. The Picts and Scots, each speaking a dialect of the Celtic
tongue, gradually coalesced into one people. The reign of Constantine,
son of Aodh, who succeeded in 904, was a remarkable one. Even before the
establishment of the kingdom of the Picts and Scots in the person of
Kenneth, Northern Britain had experienced the attacks of a new enemy,
the Scandinavian invaders, generally spoken of under the name of Danes.
Constantine resisted them bravely, but towards the end of his reign, he
entered into an alliance with them in opposition to the English. A
powerful army, composed of Scots, Picts, Britons, and Danes, disembarked
on the Humber, and was encountered at Brunanburgh by Athelstan, king of
England. A battle was fought there, the first of a series of unfortunate
combats by Scottish princes on English ground. The confederate army was
defeated, but Constantine escaped, and died 953. During the reign of
Malcolm I., a portion of the Cumbrian kingdom was bestowed by Edmund,
king of England, on the Scottish sovereign. The northern kingdom was
still further increased in the reign of Kenneth, son of Malcolm, by the
acquisition of Lothian and of Northern Cumbria, or Strathclyde.
Alexander III. employed the period of his reign well; by a treaty with
the king of Norway, he added to his kingdom Man and the other islands of
the Western Sea. The reigns of David II. and his successors, Robert II.
and Robert III., were the most wretched period of Scottish history. In
the year 1411, half of the kingdom would have become barbarous if the
invasion of the Lord of the Isles had not been repulsed at Harlaw (which
see). The vigorous rule of James I. had restored a tranquillity to which
his kingdom had long been unaccustomed; but strife and discord were
again brought back on his assassination. The reigns of Charles II. and
James VII. were more corrupt and oppressive than any which Scotland had
experienced since the regencies in the minority of James VI.; the
natural result was the revolution, which seated William and Mary on the
throne. Under James VI., who succeeded to the throne of England, the
kingdoms became united, from which period (1603) the annals of the two
kingdoms became almost identical, though they both retained their
independence, and continued to be ruled by separate titles till the Act
of Union in 1707.

=Scots Fusileer Guards.= See GUARDS.

=Scots Grays.= The 2d regiment of dragoons in the British service is so
named. They are considered a superior body of cavalry, and bear as their
motto “Second to None.”

=Scott Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Scotussa.= A very ancient town of Thessaly, in the district of
Pelasgiotis, near the source of the Cynoscephalæ, where Flamininus
gained his celebrated victory over Philip, 197 B.C.

=Scour, To.= This term is frequently used to express the act of
discharging ordnance or musketry, rapidly and heavily, for the purpose
of dislodging an enemy. Hence, to scour the rampart, or the covert way.
It likewise signifies to clear, to drive away; as, to scour the seas;
also to run about in a loose desultory manner; as, to scour the country.
_To scour a line_, is to flank it, so as to see directly along it, that
a musket-ball entering at one end may fly to the other, leaving no place
of security.

=Scout.= A person sent out in the front or on the flank of an army to
observe the force and movements of the enemy. He should be a keen
observer, and withal fleet of foot, or well mounted.

=Scout-master-General.= A person, formerly so called, under whose
direction all the scouts and army messengers were placed.

=Screw.= See ELEVATING SCREW.

=Screw-jack.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Scribe= (Heb. _Sofer_). Among the Jews, originally a kind of military
officer, whose business appears to have been the recruiting and
organizing of troops, the levying of war-taxes, and the like. At a later
period, especially at the time of Christ, it had come to designate a
learned man, a doctor of the law.

=Scutari.= A town of Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constantinople. It was
anciently called _Chrysopolis_, “golden city,” in consequence, it is
said, of the Persians having established a treasury here when they
attempted the conquest of Greece. Near here Constantine finally defeated
Licinius, 323. Scutari Hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded of
the Anglo-French army in 1854-55, whose sufferings were much alleviated
by the kind exertions of Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses
under her.

=Scutum.= A Roman buckler made of wood, the parts being joined together
with little plates of iron, and the whole covered with a bull’s hide. In
the middle was an _umbo_, or boss of iron, which jutted out, and was
useful to glance off stones or darts. The _scuta_, in general, were 4
feet long, and different in size from the _clypei_, which were less, and
quite round.

=Scythed.= Armed or furnished with scythes, as some of the ancient
chariots were.

=Scythia.= A name employed in ancient times to denote a vast,
indefinite, and almost unknown territory north and east of the Black
Sea, the Caspian, and the Sea of Aral. This country was inhabited by a
race of people who were called Scythæ, but who called themselves
Scoloti. Only two important events in Scythian history are mentioned by
Herodotus; the one is the invasion of Media by the Scythians, and the
other that of Scythia by Darius. In 624 B.C. the Scythians entered
Media, defeated Cyaxares, the reigning monarch, and occupied the land
for twenty-eight years before they were expelled. It was at least
ostensibly in revenge for this incursion that Darius Hystaspis
determined to invade Scythia about 513 B.C. He formed a bridge across
the Danube, and crossing that river obtained some advantages over the
Scythians. But he was unable to effect any real conquest over these
nomad tribes, and narrowly escaped having his retreat cut off by the
destruction of the bridge.

=Sea-coast Carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Sea-coast Artillery.= Is a species of artillery which is used for the
defense of the sea-coast. In the United States it consists of 15-inch
and 20-inch smooth-bores, 12-inch rifles, and 10-inch and 13-inch
mortars. (See ORDNANCE.) The 24-pounder flank-defense howitzer, although
no longer belonging to the system, is still employed in several of the
forts on the sea-board. Sea-coast pieces are mounted on barbette,
casemate, and flank-casemate carriages; and the carriage upon which the
mortar is mounted is called its _bed_. These carriages do not subserve
the purpose of transportation. The heaviest rifle-cannon should be
placed on the salients and flanks of a fortification, having an
enfilading fire on a channel. Heavy smooth-bore pieces should occupy the
curtains and faces which bear, directly on the channel. The 24-pounder
flank-defense howitzer is employed in the defense of ditches. Single- or
double-shotted canister should be fired from it. The Gatling gun has
been recommended as a desirable auxiliary in special cases. A 12-pounder
field-piece may be usefully employed to prevent a landing, or to fire in
close engagements at the rigging and boats of vessels. There are three
kinds of fire generally employed,--_direct_, _ricochet_, and _plunging_.
The first should be used when the surface of the water is rough, and the
accuracy of the rebound cannot be depended on. In aiming at a vessel
with _direct_ fire, the piece should be pointed at the water-line. The
effective range of _direct_ fire is about one mile and a quarter. The
intended effect of sea-coast mortars is to strike the decks of vessels,
penetrating to the bottom and causing them to sink.

=Sea-coast Howitzer.= See SEA-COAST ARTILLERY.

=Sea-horse.= In heraldry, a fabulous animal, consisting of the upper
part of a horse with webbed feet, united to the tail of a fish. A
scalloped fin is carried down the back. The arms of the town of
Cambridge are supported by two sea-horses, proper finned and maned or.

=Sea-lion.= In heraldry, a monster consisting of the upper part of a
lion combined with the tail of a fish.

=Sealkote.= A town in the Punjab, near the left bank of the Chenab, 65
miles north-northeast from Lahore. All the European troops had been
removed in July, 1857, to repress disturbances that had broken out
elsewhere, and on the 9th of that month the native troops fired on their
officers. A considerable number of Europeans were killed, and the
survivors suffered great privations until the Sepoys, having plundered
the station, started off in the direction of Delhi.

=Search a Country, To.= Is to examine minutely all the inlets and
outlets, woods, rivers, etc., of a country through which an army is to
advance.

=Searcher.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Seasoned Troops.= Are troops that have been accustomed to climate, and
are not so liable to become the victims of any endemical disorder as raw
men unavoidably are.

=Seat of War.= The country in which a war is being carried on.

=Sebastopol=, or =Sevastopol=. A Russian seaport, fortress, and arsenal
in the Crimea, in the government of Taurida. It is situated near the
southwest extremity of the Crimea, on the southern side of the
magnificent harbor or roadstead of Sebastopol, one of the finest natural
harbors in the world. The siege of Sebastopol by the allied English and
French armies will rank among the most famous sieges in history; it
lasted for eleven months, from October, 1854, to September, 1855.
Immediately after the battle of the Alma, September 20, 1854, the allied
army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position on the plateau
between it and Balaklava, and the grand attack and bombardment commenced
October 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters by
day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on
September 8, 1855, upon the Malakoff tower and the redans, the most
important fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded
in capturing and retaining the Malakoff. The attacks of the English on
the great redan and of the French upon the little redan were successful,
but the assailants were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle
with great loss of life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were
generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 wounded, and 1400
missing. The English lost 385 killed, 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. In
the night the Russians abandoned the southern and principal part of the
town and fortifications, after destroying as much as possible, and
crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the remainder of
their fleet. The allies found a very great amount of stores when they
entered the place, September 9. The works were utterly destroyed in
April, 1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in July.

=Second.= The next in order to the first; the next in place or station;
as, a second lieutenant of the artillery service.

=Second Covert Way.= In fortification, is that beyond the second ditch.

=Second Ditch.= In fortification, is that made on the outside of the
glacis, when the ground is low and there is plenty of water.

=Second Flank.= See FLANK, OBLIQUE.

=Second, To.= To aid or assist; to support.

=Secondary Bases.= The bases established at the beginning of a campaign
and from which the first advances are made, are known as _primary
bases_. An army carries with it ammunition only sufficient for one
battle, and but a few days’ supply of food. Other supplies of ammunition
and provisions must be brought from the base; and as an army advances,
the difficulty of keeping it supplied increases. Unless some additional
provision be made for its supply, the army cannot advance and is then
said to be “tied to its base.” As the necessary supplies cannot be
obtained in the theatre of operations in sufficient quantities for the
daily needs of an army, depots and magazines must be organized near the
army from which these supplies can be procured, and these together form
what is known as a _secondary base_.

=Seconding.= In Great Britain, is a temporary retirement to which
officers of Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers are subjected when they
accept civil employment under the crown. After six months of such
employment the officer is seconded, by which he loses military pay, but
retains his rank, seniority, and promotion in his corps. After being
seconded for ten years, he must elect to return to military duty or to
retire altogether.

=Secrecy.= In military economy this quality is peculiarly requisite. It
signifies fidelity to a secret; taciturnity inviolate; close silence.
Officers, in particular, should be well aware of the importance of it,
as the divulging of what has been confidentially intrusted to them,
especially on expeditions, might render the whole project abortive. The
slightest deviation from it is very justly considered a breach of honor,
as scandalous conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman. In official
matters the person so offending is liable to the severest punishment
and penalty.

=Secretary of War.= Is an officer of the executive department and member
of the Cabinet, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate,
and has charge of all duties connected with the army of the United
States, fortifications, etc., issues of commissions, movement of troops,
payment, commissary, etc., and engineering. The following is extracted
from the law of the United States:

“There shall be at the seat of government an executive department to be
known as the Department of War, and a Secretary of War, who shall be the
head thereof.

“The Secretary of War shall perform such duties as shall from time to
time be enjoined on or intrusted to him by the President relative to
military commissions, the military forces, the warlike stores of the
United States, or to other matters respecting military affairs, and he
shall conduct the business of the department in such manner as the
President shall direct.

“The Secretary of War shall have the custody and charge of all the
books, records, papers, furniture, fixtures, and other property
appertaining to the department.

“The Secretary of War shall from time to time cause to be collected and
transmitted to him, at the seat of government, all such flags,
standards, and colors as are taken by the army from enemies of the
United States.

“The Secretary of War shall from time to time define and prescribe the
kinds as well as the amount of supplies to be purchased by the
subsistence and quartermaster departments of the army, and the duties
and powers thereof respecting such purchases, and shall prescribe
general regulations for the transportation of the articles or supply
from the place of purchase to the several armies, garrisons, posts, and
recruiting-places, for the safe-keeping of such articles, and for the
distribution of an adequate and timely supply of the same to the
regimental quartermasters, and to such other officers as may by virtue
of such regulations be intrusted with the same, and shall fix and make
reasonable allowances for the store rent and storage necessary for the
safe-keeping of all military stores and supplies.

“The transportation of troops, munitions of war, equipments, military
property, and stores, throughout the United States, shall be under the
immediate control and supervision of the Secretary of War and such
agents as he may appoint.”

The British secretary of war was formerly a high officer of the British
ministry, having control of the financial arrangements of the army, and
being the responsible medium for parliamentary supervision in military
affairs. The formation of a war-office proper took place about 1620, the
secretary of state having previously performed its duties. It was,
however, limited to financial authority, neither the commander-in-chief
nor the muster-general of the ordnance being subject to it. During the
Russian war the evils of this divided authority led to the creation of a
secretary of state for war, to control all the military departments. The
secretaryship-at-war was merged in the superior office in 1855, and
abolished by act of Parliament in 1863. See MINISTER.

=Section.= A certain proportion of a battalion or company, when it is
told off for military movements and evolutions.

=Sector of Explosion.= At the moment that a gun is fired, there is a
sort of spherical sector of fire formed in front of the piece, whose
extremity presses against the bottom of the bore, while the external
portion of it terminates in the air, which this sector compresses and
drives in every direction; the air thus forming a support, the sector
reacts with its full force upon the bottom of the bore and causes the
recoil of the piece.

=Secure, To.= In a military sense, is to preserve, to keep, to make
certain; as, to secure a plan; to secure a conquest. In the management
of a musket, it signifies to bring it to a certain position, by which
the lock is secured against rain. Hence, _secure arms_ is a word of
command which is given to troops who are under arms in wet weather.

=Secuteur= (_Fr._). A gladiator who was armed with a helmet, shield, and
sword, or leaden club, and who fought with the _Retiaire_.

=Sedan.= A town of France, department of Ardennes, on the Meuse; it is
fortified, and contains an arsenal and several magazines. On July 6,
1641, a victory was gained at La Marfée, near Sedan, by the Count of
Soissons and the troops of Bouillon and other French princes over the
royal army supporting Richelieu. On August 29-31, 1870, a series of
desperate conflicts took place here between the French Army of the North
under MacMahon (about 150,000 men), and the greater part of the three
German armies, under the king and crown-prince of Prussia and the
crown-prince of Saxony (about 250,000 men), and was brought to a close
on September 1, 1870. The battle began with attacks on the French right
and left, about 5 A.M., and was very severe at 2 P.M. At 4 P.M. the
Germans remained masters of the field, and the crown-prince of Prussia
announced a complete victory, the chief part of the French army
retreating into Sedan. The emperor Napoleon was present during the
battle, and, it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for four
hours to the German grenades. The impossibility of further resistance
was then evident. The Germans had contracted their circle close around
Sedan; their formidable artillery held all the heights, from which they
could at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the army, and only 2000
men were in a condition to respond to their commander’s call, and to
make a supreme effort to break through the enemy with the emperor, and
escape to Montmédy. At first, Gen. de Wimpffen (called to the command
when MacMahon was wounded), indignantly rejected the terms offered by
the victor, and the emperor had a fruitless interview with Count
Bismarck to endeavor to mitigate them. On September 2, 1870, a
capitulation of Sedan and the whole army therein was signed by Gens. von
Moltke and de Wimpffen, at the chateau of Bellevue, near Frenois. The
conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, in which the
Germans had the advantage, not only in number (600 to 500), but also in
weight, range, and precision. The carnage was awful, and the field the
next day was a mass of shattered bones, torn flesh, and colored rags.
About 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, and 83,000
surrendered the next day, together with 70 mitrailleures, 400
field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. About 14,000 French wounded were
found lying in the neighborhood, and about 3000 escaped into Belgium and
laid down their arms. The great Army of the North ceased to exist. On
September 1, the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the Bavarians and
burnt, it was said, because the inhabitants fired on the ambulances;
many women and children perished. The French denied the provocation. The
place had been previously twice bombarded and stormed by the maddened
combatants.

=Sedgemoor.= A wild tract of England, in Somersetshire, between
Bridgewater and King’s Weston, where the Duke of Monmouth (the natural
son of Charles II. by Lucy Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the
accession of James II., was completely defeated by the royal army, July
6, 1685. The duke was made a prisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at
the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety.

=Sedition.= In a military sense, is to disobey orders, to cabal or form
factions against the officer or officers in command; to loosen
confidence; to resist or oppose orders, or to stir up mutiny. It is an
offense in military law of the most fatal character, and always punished
in a most exemplary manner.

=Sedusii.= A German people, forming part of the army of Ariovistus when
he invaded Gaul, 58 B.C.; they are not mentioned at a later period, and
consequently their site cannot be determined.

=See, To.= In a military sense, is to have practical knowledge of a
thing; as, to see service. _To have seen a shot fired_ is a figurative
expression in the British service, signifying to have been in action;
also, to have been under fire.

=Seetabuldee.= A strong military position in Hindostan, near Nagpore,
where a severe contest took place during the Mahratta war between the
Boosla rajah and a small number of the British troops, in which the
former were defeated.

=Segbans.= Are horsemen among the Turks who have care of the baggage
belonging to cavalry regiments.

=Segesta.= A town situated in the northwest of Sicily, near the coast,
between Panormus and Drepanum. Its inhabitants were constantly engaged
in hostilities with Selinus; and it was at their solicitation that the
Athenians were led to embark in their unfortunate expedition against
Sicily. The town was taken by Agathocles, who destroyed or sold as
slaves all its inhabitants, peopled the city with a body of deserters,
and changed its name into that of Dicæopolis; but after the death of
this tyrant, the remainder of the ancient inhabitants returned to the
city, and it resumed its former name.

=Seistan= (formerly called _Segestan_). A khanat or principality of
Asia, forming the southwest portion of Afghanistan. It was devastated by
Tamerlane in 1383.

=Sejant=, or =Assis=. In heraldry, is the term of blazon applied to a
beast in his usual sitting posture. A lion borne in full face, with his
forepaws extended sideways, is blazoned _sejant_ affronté, as in the
crest of Scotland.

=Sejour= (_Fr._). In a military sense, signifies a halting day.

=Selection.= The act of choosing in preference to others; hence,
selection of officers to act upon the staff, etc.; to select quarters,
etc. See QUARTERS, CHOICE OF.

=Seleucia ad Tigrin= (also called _Seleucia Babylonia_, _Seleucia
Assyriæ_, and _Seleucia Parthorum_). A great city on the confines of
Assyria and Babylonia, and for a long time the capital of Western Asia.
It commanded the navigation of the Tigris and Euphrates. It was burned
by Trajan in his Parthian expedition, and again by L. Verus, the
colleague of M. Aurelius Antoninus. It was again taken by Severus.

=Seleucia Pieria= (ruins, called _Seleukeh_, or _Kepse_, near
_Suadeiah_). A great city and fortress in Syria, founded by Seleucus in
April, 300 B.C. In the war with Egypt, which ensued upon the murder of
Antiochus II., Seleucia surrendered to Ptolemy III. Euergetes (246
B.C.). It was afterwards recovered by Antiochus the Great (219). In the
war between Antiochus VIII. and IX., the people of Seleucia made
themselves independent (109 or 108); afterwards they successfully
resisted the attacks of Tigranes for fourteen years (84-70). The city
had fallen entirely into decay by the 6th century of our era.

=Selictar.= A Turkish sabre.

=Seljuks=, or =Seljuk-Turks=. A small Turkish tribe which, at an early
date, took possession of Bokhara and the surrounding country. They
attracted the notice of Sultan Mahmoud, the founder of the dynasty of
the Ghuznevides, who had advanced into Bokhara with his army, and was so
impressed with the fine military qualities of their chief, that he
induced them to cross the Oxus and to occupy the country of Khorassan.
He had soon reason to repent of this fatal error. Like all those
wandering hordes, the Turkomans were shepherds or robbers. They either
molested the neighboring states by petty inroads, or, with the whole
united force of the nation, they practiced robbery on a great scale,
seizing on kingdoms and despoiling nations. The first migrations of
these Eastern Turkomans is generally fixed in the 10th century. They
became formidable to Mahmoud, and more especially to his successor,
Massoud, who, from inability to resist their progress, was forced to
grant them lands. He was afterwards defeated by them in a great battle;
and the victorious Turks, under their leader, Togrul Beg, whom they now
elected king, invaded Khorassan, and finally expelled the Ghuznevides,
the descendants of Mahmoud, from the eastern provinces of Persia. They
fled eastwards towards the Indus, and established the Ghuznian empire in
the northwestern provinces of India. This empire was maintained with
various success till about the year 1184, under the Ghuznian emperors,
when they were superseded by that of the Afghan or Patan emperors, who
completed the conquest of the greatest part of Hindustan Proper about
1210. Togrul Beg hastened to improve his victory over the Persian
monarch. Turning his arms to the west, he invaded Irak, in the centre of
Persia, and advancing westward of the Caspian Sea into Azerbijan, the
ancient Media, he made his first approaches to the confines of the Roman
empire. He afterwards proceeded to Bagdad, and by his conquest of that
place, gained possession of the caliph. His successors Alp Arslan and
Malek Shah extended the empire transmitted to them by Togrul Beg. They
subdued the fairest portions of Asia. Jerusalem and the Holy Land were
taken and pillaged by the Seljuks, and it was the vexation and rapine to
which the Christian pilgrims were exposed in their journey to Jerusalem,
that gave rise to those wild and warlike expeditions for the recovery of
the Holy Land, known under the name of the Crusades. The empire under
Malek Shah extended from the Mediterranean to the Chinese frontier, and
from the Caspian to the Arabian Sea. Upon the death of Malek Shah the
empire was divided up into petty sultanates, which finally caused the
overthrow of the Seljuk empire. The Turkish dynasty of the Seljuks
continued for 215 years, and with the overthrow of its dynasty in 1299,
and on its ruins, arose the Turkish empire.

=Selkirkshire= (formerly called the _Ettrick Forest_). A small inland
county of Scotland, in the Lowlands. Among the interesting historical
scenes this county contains is the field of Philiphaugh, where the great
Marquis of Montrose was defeated by the Covenanters under Gen. Leslie.

=Sell Out.= In the British service, was a term generally used when an
officer was permitted to retire from the service, selling or disposing
of his commission or commissions. It was the correlative word to _buy
in_. Officers who purchased commissions were usually allowed to sell
out.

=Sellasia.= A town in Laconia, north of Sparta, situated near the River
Œnus, and commanded one of the principal passes leading to Sparta. Here
the celebrated battle was fought between Cleomenes III. and Antigonus
Doson, 221 B.C., in which the former was defeated.

=Selling Ammunition.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 16.

=Selymbria=, or =Selybria= (now _Selivria_). An important town in
Thrace, on the Propontis. It was a colony of the Megarians. It was
conquered by Philip, father of Alexander.

=Semaphore.= A machine for facilitating the internal communications of
the country by means of telegraphic signals, especially between the
government and the military or naval functionaries of the outposts; but
its use has been entirely superseded by the introduction of the railways
and the electric telegraph.

=Semé.= In heraldry, when a charge is repeated an indefinite number of
times so as to produce the appearance of a pattern, the term semé
(sometimes _aspersed_ or _powdered_) is applied to it. When a field is
semé, it is treated as if it were cut out of a larger extent of surface,
some of the charges being divided by the outline of the shield. The term
_crusilly_ denotes semé of cross crosslets, and _billetty_ semé of
billets.

=Semendria.= A frontier fortress of the principality of Servia, on the
right bank of the Danube, 28 miles southeast of Belgrade. It has
frequently been stormed by the nations who have contended for the Danube
from the Middle Ages to the present century.

=Seminara.= A town of Naples, province of Calabria Ultra II. Near here
Gonsalvo de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated by the French, in
1495; but defeated them April 21, 1503.

=Seminoles.= A tribe of Indians who formerly inhabited Central Florida,
but now located on a reservation in the Indian Territory. During the
time they were in Florida they became allies of the British in their
incursions into Georgia during the Revolutionary war. They commenced a
series of border-forays in 1794, when their numbers were largely
increased by fugitive slaves and negroes; their force was also augmented
by the Creeks in 1808. They invaded the frontiers of Georgia in 1812 and
1817, when they massacred a number of persons; but were speedily
punished by Gen. Gaines and subsequently by Gen. Jackson. Florida was
purchased by the United States in 1819, and the Seminoles made treaties
with the United States a few years afterwards. The government resolved
to move the Seminoles to a reservation beyond the Mississippi, in
conformity with a treaty signed in 1832, but the Indians, headed by
Osceola, their chief, resisted, which gave rise to a prolonged bloody
war, which began in December, 1835. This war cost the U. S. government
$10,000,000 and 1500 lives. The greater portion of the Seminoles were
subdued and transported beyond the Mississippi in 1842, only about 300
remaining in the Everglades of Florida, under their chief, Billy
Bowlegs. The Seminoles on their new reservation in Indian Territory were
divided in their sentiments during the civil war, some of them taking up
arms for the South; a civil contest ensued, in which those remaining
loyal to the Union were defeated with great slaughter in December, 1861.
After the civil war the two bands were reunited and purchased a
reservation from the Creeks, where they are now industrious and
prosperous. In 1870 they numbered 2553.

=Semi-steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, STEEL.

=Sempach.= A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Lucerne,
situated on the eastern shore of the Lake of Sempach. It was one of the
outposts of the confederate cantons against their Suabian and Austrian
assailants in the 14th century. Under the walls of Sempach took place
the second great conflict of the confederate Swiss cantons with Austria,
in which the nobles of Austria, in spite of their valor and overwhelming
numbers, were slaughtered like sheep by the Swiss. The Swiss lost but
200 men, while the loss of the Austrians was ten times as great. The
anniversary of this great victory is still celebrated by prayer and
thanksgiving on the field of battle.

=Sena.= A town on the coast of Umbria, at the mouth of the small river
Sena, was founded by the Senones, a Gallic people, and was made a colony
by the Romans after the conquest of the Senones, 283 B.C. In the civil
war it espoused the Marian party, and was taken and sacked by Pompey.

=Seneca Indians.= One of the tribes of the Six Nations, and the most
numerous and warlike of that confederation. When they first became known
they were located in the region between the Lakes of Cayuga, Seneca,
Canandaigua, and Ontario. In the 17th century they waged successful wars
against the Hurons and other tribes to the westward, and finally the
defeated tribes were adopted by the Senecas, who by this means of
recruiting their ranks became a powerful people. They were firm allies
of the English, as was attested in several battles against the French,
and took a valiant part in the memorable battle wherein Gen. Braddock
was killed; they again suffered severely in the campaign led by Gen.
Sullivan in 1779. They removed to Lake Erie in 1784. The Senecas were
allies of the Americans in the war of 1812-14. In 1870 there were 240
Senecas on a reservation in Indian Territory, and 3017 on a reservation
in the State of New York.

=Seneffe=, or =Senef=. A town in the province of Hainault, Belgium,
about 11 miles northwest of Charleroi. Seneffe is notable for its
proximity to the battle-field on which William of Orange (III. of
England), at the head of the forces of the coalition against France,
fought the French army under the great Condé, August 11, 1674. In
William’s army there were four lieutenants,--Montecuculi, Duke Charles
of Lorraine, the Prince of Waldeck, and the Prince of Vaudemont, the
first three of whom subsequently attained prominence as military
commanders. Of the allied forces of 60,000 men, the Dutch lost from 5000
to 6000 men, the Spaniards 3000, and the Imperialists 600; while the
French army, which entered into the conflict 30,000 strong, could
scarcely muster 20,000 after the battle. Under the walls of Seneffe,
Moreau, in 1794, defeated the Austrians.

=Senegal.= French colonies on the river of that name in Senegambia, West
Africa, settled about 1626; several times taken by the British, but
recovered by the French, to whom they were finally restored in 1814.

=Seneschal.= In the origin of the office, probably an attendant of the
servile class, who had the superintendence of the household of the
Frankish kings. In the course of time, however, the seneschalship rose
to be a position of dignity, held no longer by persons of servile race,
but by military commanders, who were also invested with judicial
authority. The lieutenants of the great feudatories often took the title
of seneschal. A similar office in England and Scotland was designated
steward.

=Seniority.= Priority of rank and standing in the army. As regards
regiments, this precedence is regulated by the number of the corps;
among individuals, it is decided by the date of the commission. Where
commissions of the same date interfere, reference is to be had to the
dates of former commissions.

=Senones.= A powerful people in Gallia Lugdunensis, dwelt along the
upper course of the Sequana (now _Seine_). A portion of this people
crossed the Alps about 40 B.C., in order to settle in Italy; but the
greater part of Upper Italy being already occupied by other Celtic
tribes, the Senones were obliged to penetrate a considerable distance to
the south, and took up their abode on the Adriatic Sea, between the
modern Ravenna and Ancona. They extended their ravages into Etruria; and
it was in consequence of the interference of the Romans while they were
laying siege to Clusium, that they marched against Rome and took the
city, 390 B.C. They were defeated by Camillus, 367 B.C. They defeated
Metellus, the consul, at Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by
Dolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279; were defeated by Antigonus
Gonatus, 278, and sued for peace. See ROME.

=Sent to the Front.= A term applied to bodies of troops or individual
soldiers when ordered from camp or garrison to the scene of active
hostilities.

=Sent to the Rear.= A term applied to bodies of troops or individual
soldiers when ordered from the immediate scene of active hostilities to
the rear of the command in which they are serving, so as to be out of
immediate danger.

=Sentence.= Decision, determination, final judgment. There is an appeal
allowed from the sentence of a regimental court-martial to the opinion
of a general one.

=Sentinel=, or =Sentry= (from the Lat. _sentire_, “to feel or perceive,”
through the Ital. _sentinella_). A private soldier, marine, or sailor,
posted at a point of trust, with the duty of watching the approach of an
enemy, or any person suspected of hostile intentions. Sentinels mount
guard over dépots of arms, the tents of commanding officers, etc. During
the night, each sentinel is intrusted with the “word,” or countersign;
and no person, however exalted in position, may attempt to approach or
pass him without giving that as a signal. In such case, the sentinel is
bound to arrest the intruder, and if necessary to shoot him. It has
happened before now that the commander-in-chief of an army has been
prisoner in the hands of one of his own sentinels. When an army is in
the field, the sentinels are its eyes, for they guard the approaches in
every direction some distance in front of the main body of troops. In
the event of an attack, they give the alarm, and retire slowly on their
supports. There is usually an agreement, tacit or expressed, between
commanders that their outlying sentinels shall not fire upon one
another, which would only be productive of useless bloodshed. Under
martial law, death is the penalty to a sentinel sleeping on post.
Sentinels will present arms to general and field-officers, to the
officer of the day, and the commanding officer of a post; to all other
officers they will carry arms. Staff-officers above the rank of captain
are entitled to the same compliments from sentinels as are given to
field-officers.

=Sentinum, Battle of.= See ROME.

=Sentry.= The same as sentinel. “Sentry go,” is the warning given by the
sentry at the guard-room or tent that it is time to relieve sentries.

=Sentry-box.= A box to cover a sentinel at his post, and shelter him
from the weather.

=Sepadar.= Is an East Indian term for an officer of the rank of
brigadier-general.

=Sepahi.= An East Indian term for a feudatory chief, or military tenant;
a soldier.

=Sepoy.= Corrupted from the Indian word _sipahi_, “a soldier.” This word
sipahi, in its more familiar form of _spahis_, is known in most Eastern
armies; and is itself derived from _sip_, “a bow and arrow,” the
ordinary armament of an Indian soldier in ancient times. The word Sepoy
now denotes a native Hindoo soldier in the British army in India. The
Sepoys consist of Mohammedans, Rajpoots, Brahmans, and men of other
castes, besides Sikhs, Ghoorkas, and men of various hill-tribes. They
are generally officered by Europeans.

=Septembrizers.= In the French revolution a dreadful massacre took
place in Paris, September 2-5, 1792. The prisons were broken open and
the prisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and nearly 100
non-juring priests. Some accounts state the number of persons slain at
1200, others at 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named
Septembrizers.

=Sepulchre, Knights of the Holy.= A military order, established in
Palestine about the year 1114. Those of this class chose Philip II.,
king of Spain, for their master, in 1558, and afterwards his son; but
the grand master of the order of Malta prevailed on him to resign; and
when afterwards the Duke de Nevers assumed the same quality in France,
the same grand master, by his interest and credit, procured a like
renunciation by him, and a confirmation of the union of this order to
that of Malta.

=Sequani.= A Celtic nation of ancient Gaul. Before the conquest of Gaul
by Cæsar, the Arverni and Ædui, the two most powerful nations of that
country, were in a state of hostility; and the Sequani allied themselves
with the former. In order more effectually to crush their enemies, these
two nations hired a large body of Germans, under Ariovistus, from over
the Rhine. With their assistance they totally defeated the Ædui; but the
Germans seized for themselves a third part of the territory of the
Sequani, and would have made further encroachments, had not Cæsar
defeated them, and expelled them from the land.

=Serakhur, Serang.= In the East Indies are non-commissioned officers who
are employed in the artillery and on board ships of war. In the
artillery the former title answers to that of sergeant; in the naval
service the latter to that of boatswain.

=Seraphim, or Jesus, Order of The.= An ancient Swedish order of
knighthood, instituted in 1334; but dormant from the period of the
Reformation until 1748. The number of knights, besides the king and
members of the royal family, is limited to 24.

=Seraskier=, or =Seri-Asker= (_Pers._ “head of the army”). The name
given by the Turks to every general having the command of a separate
army, and, in particular, to the commander-in-chief or minister of war.
The seraskier, in the latter sense, possesses most extensive authority,
being subordinate only to the sultan and grand vizier. He is selected by
the monarch from among the pashas of two or three tails.

=Seraskur= (_Ind._). This word is sometimes written _seraskier_, and
signifies the commander-in-chief of a Turkish army.

=Serdans.= Colonels in the Turkish service are so called.

=Seregno.= A town in the province of Milan, Italy, 13 miles north from
Milan. It is noted for the heroic resistance which the women of the city
made against the conscription, and which ultimately induced Bonaparte
to rescind his order for the bombardment of the place. The Austrians, in
1848, severely chastised Seregno for its patriotism.

=Sergeant.= A non-commissioned officer in a company, battery, or troop,
usually selected from among the corporals on account of his general
intelligence and good conduct. He is vested with the command of small
detachments, and sometimes with his company in the absence of his
superior officers.

=Sergeant, Armorer-.= In the British service, is a trained artificer who
repairs the arms of a corps.

=Sergeant, Band-.= In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer
who is responsible for the discipline of the band, as is the bandmaster
for instruction. In the United States service a principal musician
performs this duty.

=Sergeant, Color-.= See COLOR-SERGEANT.

=Sergeant, Cook.= In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer
who superintends the cooking for the corps.

=Sergeant, Covering.= Is a non-commissioned officer, who, during the
exercise of a battalion, regularly stands or moves behind each officer
commanding or acting with a platoon or company.

=Sergeant d’Armes= (sergeant of arms), Fr. Philip Augustus, fearing to
be assassinated on the instigation of the sheik of the mountain, during
his stay in Palestine, organized for the protection of his person a
corps of _sergeants d’armes_, consisting of gentlemen, which he armed
with bronze war-clubs, and bows and arrows, whose duty it was to
accompany him everywhere.

=Sergeant, Drill-.= See DRILL-SERGEANT.

=Sergeant, Hospital.= In the British service, is a non-commissioned
officer who carries out the orders of the surgeon as regards discipline
in a hospital.

=Sergeant Instructor in Fencing.= In the British service, is a sergeant
who performs the duties implied by his title in regiments of cavalry.

=Sergeant Instructor in Gunnery.= A sergeant of artillery who aids the
officer instructor in teaching gunnery.

=Sergeant, Lance-.= Is a corporal who acts as a sergeant in a company,
but only receives the pay of a corporal.

=Sergeant-Major.= The chief non-commissioned officer in a regiment, and,
from the nature of his duties, in a great degree an assistant to the
adjutant. He must be master of every point connected with the drill,
interior economy, and discipline of a regiment. It is his duty, on
receiving the orders from the adjutant, to assemble the orderly
sergeants, and issue the orders and details correctly. He is to keep a
regular duty roster of the sergeants and corporals, and to proportion
the number of men to be furnished for duty according to the strength of
their respective companies. Finally, it is always expected that he
should set an example to the non-commissioned officers by his activity,
zeal, and personal appearance. In the British cavalry service this
non-commissioned officer is termed regimental sergeant-major, the chief
non-commissioned officer of a troop being styled troop sergeant-major.
Similarly in the artillery there are the brigade sergeant-major and the
battery sergeant-major.

=Sergeant, Orderly.= See ORDERLY SERGEANT.

=Sergeant, Pay-.= See PAY-SERGEANT.

=Sergeant, Paymaster-.= See PAYMASTER-SERGEANT.

=Sergeant, Pioneer.= See PIONEER SERGEANT.

=Sergeant, Quartermaster.= See QUARTERMASTER SERGEANT.

=Sergeant, White.= Is a term of ridicule in the British service, applied
to those ladies who, taking advantage of the weakness of their husbands,
neglect their domestic concerns to interfere in military matters.

=Seringapatam= (anc. _Sri-Rungaputtun_, “City of Vishnu”). A celebrated
fortress of South India, and under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sahib, the
capital of Mysore, at the west angle of the island of the Cavery
(Kaveri). Seringapatam was besieged by Lord Cornwallis in 1791, and
again in 1792, when Tippoo purchased a peace by ceding half his
dominions and paying 330 lacs of rupees to the British and their allies.
It was again besieged in 1799 and taken by storm on May 3 (4), on which
occasion Tippoo was killed, and the dynasty of Hyder terminated; the
ancient Rajpoot line being restored to the sovereignty of Mysore.

=Serjeant.= See SERGEANT.

=Serpenteau= (_Fr._). A round iron circle, with small spikes, and squibs
attached to them. It is frequently used in the attack and defense of a
breach. It likewise means a fusee, which is filled with gunpowder, and
is bent in such a manner, that when it takes fire, it obtains a circular
rapid motion, and throws out sparks of light in various directions.

=Serpentine= (_Fr._). An ancient wall-piece, with a matchlock, carrying
an 8-ounce leaden ball, with a charge of 4 ounces of powder. It was 6 or
7 feet long, and weighed from one to two hundred-weight.

=Serpentix= (_Fr._). Cock of the ancient matchlock, also the lock
itself. Also, an ancient 24-pounder gun, of 13 feet, weighing 4360
pounds, whose dolphins represented the figures of serpents.

=Serre-demi File= (_Fr._). That rank in a battalion which determines the
half of its depth, and which marches before the demi-file. Thus a
battalion standing six deep, has its _serre-demi file_ in the third
rank, which determines its depth.

=Serre-file= (_Fr._). The last rank of a battalion, by which its depth
is ascertained, and which always forms its rear. When ranks are doubled,
the battalion resumes its natural formation by means of the
serre-files. _Serre-file_ literally signifies a “bringer up.”

=Servans d’Armes=, or =Chevaliers Servans= (_Fr._). Were persons
belonging to the third class of the order of Malta. They were not
noblemen, although they wore the sword and the cross.

=Servants.= In the British service, regimental and staff officers are
allowed the indulgence of a steady and well-drilled soldier for a
servant; and field-officers, keeping horses, two each. These soldiers
are to take their share of any duty on which the officer to whom they
are attached is employed, and they must fall in with their respective
troops and companies at all reviews, inspections, and field-days. In the
U. S. service, officers are not permitted to employ soldiers as
servants.

=Serve.= To be in service; to do duty; to discharge the requirements of
an office or employment; and, specifically, to act as a soldier, seaman,
etc. _To serve a piece_, in the artillery, is to load and fire with
promptitude and correctness. _To serve the vent_, to stop it with the
thumb.

=Servia.= One of the Danubian principalities, nominally included in the
Ottoman empire, but in reality only tributary to that power. It is
bounded on the north by Austria, on the east by Wallachia and Bulgaria,
on the south by Rumli and Bosnia, and on the west by Bosnia. In the
earliest times of which we have any record, Servia was inhabited by
Thracian or Illyrian races; shortly before Christ it was subjugated by
the Romans, and formed part of the province of Illyricum, whose fortunes
it shared during the vicissitudes of the empire. Overrun successively by
the Huns, Ostrogoths, Longobards, etc., it reverted to the Byzantine
rulers about the middle of the 6th century, but was wrested from them by
the Avars in the 7th century, who in turn were routed by the Serbs, and
compelled to give up the country. They were converted to Christianity in
the 9th century, but this did not in the least abate their ardor for
battle, and for nearly 200 years they were almost constantly at war with
the neighboring Bulgarians,--the inveterate enemies of their Byzantine
liege lord. In 1043, however, the royal governors were expelled, and
they became an independent kingdom. For the next 100 years the Serbs had
to fight hard to maintain their independence, and the struggle
terminated in their favor; and in 1165, Stephen Nemanja founded a
dynasty which lasted for two centuries, during which period the kingdom
of Servia attained the acmé of its power and prosperity. Eventually the
progress of the Turks, however, was fatal to its welfare, and in 1389
King Lazar fell in the disastrous battle at Kossovapolje. Sultan Bajazet
divided the country between Lazar’s son and son-in-law, compelled them
to pay tribute and follow him in war. Gradually the Serbs sunk more and
more under the Turkish yoke, until, in 1459, Servia was thoroughly
subjugated by the sultan Mahmoud. It was uniformly the theatre of the
bloody wars between Hungary and Turkey, and frequently suffered the
uttermost horrors of devastation. Prince Eugène’s brilliant successes
for a moment flashed a ray of hope into the miserable hearts of the
long-suffering Serbs, and by the treaty of Passarowitz (1718), a
considerable portion of the country was made over to Austria; but in
1739 it reverted to Turkey, and for the next sixty years the cruelty and
oppressions of the pashas and their Janissaries surpass all belief. At
length the unhappy people could endure the tyranny of their foreign
masters no longer, and in 1801 an insurrection broke out, headed by
George Czerny, which, by the help of Russia, ended in the triumph of the
patriots, and in the election of Czerny by the people as prince of
Servia. The invasion of Russia by France, however, left the Serbs at the
mercy of their late rulers and the war again broke out. Czerny was
forced to flee, and the tyranny of the Turks became more ferocious than
ever. Again the people flew to arms under the leadership of Milosch
Obrenovitch, and were a second time successful in winning back their
liberties. Milosch ruled as prince of Servia until 1839, when he was
forced to abdicate; but in 1858 he was restored to his former dignity.
In the war between Russia and Turkey in 1876, the Servians took the side
of the former, but were not actively engaged.

=Service.= In a military sense is the art of serving the state in war.
All studies, acts, and efforts of the profession of arms have this end
in view. To belong to the army and to belong to the land service, are
the same thing. In a more restricted sense, service is the performance
of military duty. In its general sense, service embraces all details of
the military art. But in its restricted sense, actual service is the
exercise of military functions. _To see service_, is a common expression
denoting actual collision with an enemy. _To retire from service_, to
quit the army, or resign.

=Service, Foreign.= See FOREIGN SERVICE.

=Service, Home.= See HOME SERVICE.

=Service, Secret.= Any service performed by an individual in a
clandestine secret manner. It likewise means intelligence or
information, given by spies when countries are engaged in war, for which
they receive pecuniary compensation.

=Serviceable.= Capable of performing all military duty, or of being used
in the military service.

=Servile or Slave War.= See ROME.

=Session.= The actual sitting of a court, council, etc., or the actual
assembly of the members of such a body for the transaction of business.
Hence, also the time, period, or term during which a court, council, and
the like, meet daily for business; or the space of time between the
first meeting and prorogation or adjournment.

=Sestus.= A town in Thrace, situated at the narrowest part of the
Hellespont, opposite Abydos in Asia, from which it was only seven stadia
distant. It was always reckoned a place of importance in consequence of
its commanding, to a great extent, the passage of the Hellespont. It was
for some time in possession of the Persians, but was retaken by the
Greeks, 478 B.C., after a long siege. It subsequently formed part of the
Athenian empire.

=Set.= A word used in a military sense in various combinations; as, to
set a sentinel, is to place a soldier at any particular spot for its
security. To _set on_, is to attack. To _set at defiance_, is to defy,
to dare to combat, etc. To _set up_, is to make a man fit for military
movements and parade.

=Seteef=, or =Setif= (anc. _Sitipha_, or _Sitifi_). A town of Algeria,
distinguished by the obstinate resistance it made against the Saracens,
when Northern Africa was overrun by that fierce and warlike people. The
old city is now in ruins.

=Setendy.= In the East Indies, the militia is so called.

=Setia.= An ancient town of Latium, in the east of the Pontine Marshes;
originally belonged to the Volscian confederacy, but was subsequently
taken by the Romans and colonized. It was here that the Romans kept the
Carthaginian hostages.

=Setter.= In gunnery, a round stick, to drive fuzes, or any other
compositions, into cases of paper.

=Sevastopol.= See SEBASTOPOL.

=Seven Weeks’ War.= The war declared by Prussia, on June 18, 1866, which
ended in the total defeat of Austria and her allies. See PRUSSIA.

=Seven Years’ War.= This was the third, last, and by far the longest and
most terrible of the contests for the possession of Silesia. This long
and desperate war was maintained by Frederick II. of Prussia against
Austria, Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763. It made no change in the
territorial distribution of Europe, but it increased tenfold the moral
power of Prussia, and gave its army a prestige it retained till the
battle of Jena. It cost Europe 1,000,000 lives, and prostrated the
strength of almost all the powers who had engaged in it.

=Seville=, or =Sevilla= (anc. _Hispalis_, or _Hispal_). A famous city of
Spain, capital of the province of the same name, on the left bank of the
Guadalquiver, 60 miles north-northeast of Cadiz. It was captured by
Julius Cæsar, 45 B.C. It surrendered to the Moors at once, after the
defeat of Don Roderick on the Guadalete, and it continued its allegiance
to the caliph of Damascus until 756; it surrendered to Ferdinand III. of
Castile on November 23, 1248, when 300,000 Moors left for Granada and
Africa. In 1810 it was taken and ravaged by Soult. It was taken by
assault by the British and Spaniards, August 27, 1812. It capitulated to
Espartero in 1843. The peace of Seville between England, France, and
Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, was
signed November 9, 1729.

=Sevir.= A captain of cavalry among the Romans was so called.

=Sextant.= An instrument of reflection for measuring angular distances
between objects. It is constructed on the same optical principle as
Hadley’s quadrant, but usually of metal, with a nicer graduation,
telescopic sight, and its arc the sixth, and sometimes the third part of
a circle.

=Seymeny-bassy.= Appellation given to the lieutenant-general of
Janissaries in the Turkish service.

=Shabrack=, or =Shabraque.= A Hungarian term, generally used among
cavalry officers, to signify the cloth furniture of a troop-horse.

=Shaft.= A body of a long, cylindrical shape; a stem, stalk, trunk, or
the like. Hence, the stem of an arrow, upon which the feather and head
are inserted; hence, an arrow; a missile weapon. Also, the handle of a
weapon; as, the shaft of a spear. It likewise means a perpendicular
excavation into the earth for the purpose of mining.

=Shafted.= In heraldry, borne on a shaft;--applied to a spear-head.

=Shaftesbury.= A town of England, in Dorsetshire, 95 miles southwest of
London. It was destroyed by the Danes both before and after 888, but
each time it was afterwards restored.

=Shag-bush.= An old term for a hand-gun.

=Shahporee=, or =Shapuree.= An island of British Burmah, lying off the
coast of Aracan. The capture of this island by the Burmese led to the
first British war with that nation, in 1824.

=Sham.= False; counterfeit; pretended; as, a sham fight.

=Shamaka=, =Shamachi=, or =Shemakha=. A town of Russia in Asia,
Transcaucasia, 207 miles east-southeast from Tiflis. It was taken and
sacked by Nadir Shah in 1734.

=Shambrie.= In the manège, is a long thong of leather, made fast to the
end of a cane or stick, for the purpose of animating a horse, or of
punishing him if he refuses to obey the rider.

=Shang-hae=, or =Shanghai=. A seaport city of China, in the province of
Kiangsu, on the river Woo-sung, one of the five ports opened for
European commerce. It was captured by the British, June 19, 1842, by the
Taeping rebels, September, 1853; retaken by the imperialists, 1855. The
rebels were defeated near here by the English and French, allies of the
emperor, March 1, 1862.

=Sharp.= Fierce; ardent; fiery; violent; impetuous. “In sharp contest of
battle.”

=Sharps Rifle.= One of the oldest of successful breech-loading rifles.
The chamber of this piece is fixed, and the barrel closed by a vertical
sliding breech-piece, which moves nearly at right angles to the axis of
the piece. The fire-arm is loaded by depressing the lever, or
trigger-guard, which withdraws the slide and opens the breech for the
insertion of the cartridge. Originally a paper cartridge was used, the
rear end of which was broken open by the breech-piece in closing; this
was superseded by a linen cloth cylinder to contain the powder, one end
of which overlaps and is gummed to the base of the bullet; the other is
closed with a layer of thin bank-note paper. The flame of the
percussion-cap penetrates through this paper and ignites the powder. The
linen case is carried out with the bullet and drops to the ground a
short distance in front of the piece. A metallic cartridge is now used.

=Sharpsburg.= See ANTIETAM CREEK.

=Sharpshooters.= An old term applied in the army to riflemen.

=Sharp-shooting.= A shooting with great precision and effect.

=Shawnees.= A tribe of American Indians, which were first known on the
banks of Fox River, Wisconsin, in 1648. They were a warlike tribe, and
waged war with the Iroquois. The Shawnees eventually became a scattered
race, and dispersed to several parts of the country; we find a part of
them afterwards taking part with the French in their wars in America;
joined in Pontiac’s conspiracy, but were subdued by Col. Boquet. They
took a prominent part in the Western wars, especially against the
expeditions of Harmer, Wayne, etc.; but made peace at Greenville in
1795. They afterwards effected an alliance with some tribes of
Northwestern Indians, and under their celebrated leader Tecumseh gave
battle to the whites under Gen. Harrison, at Tippecanoe, but were
defeated. Tecumseh, with a band of Shawnees, proceeded to Canada at the
outbreak of the war of 1812, and made an alliance with the English, who
gave him a brigadier-general’s commission; he was killed while leading
the right wing at the battle of the Thames in 1813. Since then the
Shawnees have again reunited and are now upon reservations in Indian
Territory, and numbered in 1870 about 800.

=Sheaf.= A bundle of arrows.

=Sheathe.= To put into a sheath, case, or scabbard; to inclose or cover
with a sheath or case. _To sheathe the sword_, to put an end to war or
enmity; to make peace.

=Sheeting.= The term sheeting is applied to the coarse hempen cloth used
for making tarpaulins.

=Sheffield.= A large town of England in the West Riding of Yorkshire, at
the confluence of the Sheaf and Don, 43 miles southwest from York.
During the civil wars in the time of Charles I., the castle sustained a
long siege for the king, but scarcely a vestige of it can now be
discerned.

=Shell.= To throw shells or bombs upon; to bombard; as, to shell a town.

=Shell Extractor.= An instrument for extracting headless cartridge-cases
from breech-loading small-arms.

=Shell-hooks.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Shelling.= The act of bombarding a fort, town, or position.

=Shell-jacket.= An undress military jacket.

=Shell-plug Screw.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Shell-proof.= Capable of resisting bomb-shells.

=Shells.= Hollow projectiles; also, the cases of metallic cartridges for
use in small-arms. See PROJECTILES.

=Shelter.= In a military sense, that which protects the troops in the
field. There are various means resorted to for this purpose. A common
arrangement is as follows: A cross-bar is supported by two uprights;
against this cross-bar a number of poles are made to lean; on the back
of the poles abundance of fir branches are laid horizontally; and
lastly, on the back of the fir branches is another set of leaning poles,
in order to make all secure by their weight. A cloth of any kind is made
use of to give shelter by an arrangement of this kind. The corners of
the cloth should be secured by a simple hitch in the rope, and not by a
knot. The former is sufficient for all purposes of security, but the
latter will jam, and you may have to injure both cloth and string to get
it loose again. It is convenient to pin a skewer in the middle of the
sides of the cloth, round the ropes.

_Shelter-tents_ affording an excellent protection for 6 soldiers may be
made as follows: Three tent-sticks are fixed into the ground, whose tops
are notched; a light cord is then passed round their tops, and fastened
into the ground with a peg at each end. Two sheets are then buttoned
together and thrown over the cord, then two others, which are buttoned
to the previous ones. Lastly, another sheet is thrown over each of the
slanting cords, and buttoned to the others. The sides of the tent are,
of course, pegged to the ground. There are many modifications in the way
of pitching these tents. For want of sticks muskets can be used.

_Huts_ are also frequently used as a means of protection by troops, as
there is scarcely any place which does not furnish materials for their
construction.

_Walls._--Those principally in use are as follows: Skins, canvas, felt,
tarpaulin, bark, reed mats, reed walls, straw walls, wattle-and-dab, log
huts, fascines or fagots, boards, etc., fastened by malay-hitch, brick,
sunburnt or baked, turf, stones, gabions, bags or mats filled with sand
or shingle, snow huts, underground huts, tents over holes in earth.

_Roofs._--Many of the above list would be perfectly suitable for roofs;
in addition may be mentioned slating with flat stones, thatch, sea-weed,
and wood shingles.

_Straw walls_ of the following kind are very effective, and they have
the advantage of requiring a minimum of string (or substitute for
string) in their manufacture. The straw or herbage of almost any
description is simply nipped between two pairs of long sticks, which are
respectively tied together at the two ends, and at a sufficient number
of intermediate places. The whole is neatly squared and trimmed. A few
of these would help in finishing the roof or walls of a house. They can
be made movable so as to suit the wind, shade, and aspect. Even the hut
door can be made on this principle.

_Malay hitch_ is the name given to a wonderfully simple way of attaching
together wisps of straw, rods, laths, reeds, planks, poles, or anything
of the kind into a secure and flexible mat; the sails used in the far
East are made in this way, and the movable decks are made of bamboos
joined together with a similar but rather more complicated stitch.

=Shenandoah.= A river of Virginia, United States, the largest tributary
to the Potomac, drains the beautiful and fertile valley between the Blue
Ridge and the principal range of the Alleghanies. In the war of 1861-65,
this valley was the scene of numerous conflicts, was successively
occupied by the opposing armies, and finally laid waste by Gen. Sheridan
in the autumn of 1864.

=Shield.= A piece of defensive armor, borne on the left arm, to ward off
the strokes of the sword and of missiles. It has been constantly used
from ancient times, through the Middle Ages, till the invention of
fire-arms. The large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans (_clipeus_)
was circular, and often ornamented with devices. Another form of shield
(_scutum_) was used by the Roman heavy-armed infantry, square, but bent
to encircle the body. The early shield or knightly escutcheon of the
Middle Ages was circular in outline, and convex, with a boss in the
centre; the body generally of wood, and the rim of metal. There were
many other kinds of shields, made of leather, wood, basket-work, etc.,
employed up to the introduction of fire-arms, when they became
practically useless, although some savage nations employ shields at the
present time.

=Shield.= To cover, as with a shield; to cover from danger; to defend;
to protect; to secure from assault or injury.

=Shift.= In a military sense, to change place or station. Hence, to
shift quarters.

=Shiloh.= A locality in Tennessee, a few miles from Pittsburg Landing,
situated on the Tennessee River. Here on April 6-7, 1862, a great battle
was fought between the Union troops under Grant and the Confederate army
under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The Confederates began the
attack, taking the Union forces by surprise, who, after a brave
resistance during the first day, were compelled to retire before the
victorious Confederates, who, however, lost their gallant chief, Gen.
Johnston. The Federals having been reinforced during the night,
commenced the attack on the 7th, along the whole of the rebel line,
which was resisted gallantly, and the field was stubbornly contested
until about 4 o’clock in the afternoon, when the Union army regained
their lines of the day before, and drove the enemy off the field. The
Confederates retreated to Corinth. The loss of the Confederates was 1735
killed, about 8000 wounded, and 960 missing. Grant’s loss was estimated
at something under this number.

=Shirvan=, or =Shirwan=. A province of Russia in Asia, in the country of
the Caucasus. Shirvan formed until the 6th century a part of the
monarchy of Armenia; but was afterwards conquered by the Persians, and
made a part of that empire under Khosroo Nooshirvan, who called this
country after his name. The rulers of Shirvan carried on many wars with
Persia, over which country they repeatedly gained great advantages.
Finally, in the end of the 15th century, it was completely brought under
Persian sway. The Russians gradually invaded the country, and it was
ceded to them in 1812.

=Sholapore.= Capital of the collectorate of the same name, in British
India, in the Presidency of Bombay. It is strongly fortified, and was
taken by escalade by a British force under Gen. Pritzter.

=Shoomla.= See SCHUMLA.

=Shoot.= To let fly or cause to be driven with force, as an arrow or
bullet;--followed by a word denoting the missile, as an object. Also, to
discharge, causing a missile to be driven forth;--said of the weapon or
instrument, as an object; as, to shoot a gun and the like.

=Shooter.= One who shoots; an archer; a gunner; a shot. Also, that which
shoots; as, a five-shooter.

=Shooting-iron.= A fire-arm is sometimes so called.

=Shoshones=, or =Snakes=. A tribe of North American Indians inhabiting
the country between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains, and from
Idaho southward into Utah. They have generally been peaceable; but they
collided with the whites on several occasions, which resulted
disastrously for them, several of their bands being almost annihilated.
Treaties were formed with them on several occasions between 1863 and
1868, and attempts have been made to place them upon reservations. All
the property of a dead Shoshone is buried with him, and formerly his
favorite wife and horse were killed over the corpse. In 1870 they
numbered about 4000 souls.

=Shot.= See PROJECTILE.

=Shot.= The act of shooting; discharge of a missile weapon. Also, the
flight of a missile weapon, or the distance which it passes from the
engine; as, a cannon-shot; a musket-shot, etc. Also, a marksman; one who
practices shooting; as, an excellent shot.

=Shot.= To load with shot over a cartridge; as, to shot the guns.

=Shot, Canister-.= See CANISTER-SHOT.

=Shot, Case-.= See CASE-SHOT.

=Shot, Chain-.= See CHAIN-SHOT.

=Shot, Grape-.= See GRAPE-SHOT.

=Shot-belt.= A belt having a pouch for carrying shot.

=Shot-gauge.= An instrument for measuring the diameter of round-shot.

=Shot-tower.= A lofty tower for making shot, by dropping from its summit
melted lead, which cools in the descent, and is received into water or
other liquid.

=Shoulder.= The upper part of a blade of a sword. Also, the salient
angle of the flank of a bastion. _To shoulder_, to lay on the shoulder,
or to rest anything against it. Hence, to shoulder arms, a word of
command in the manual exercise.

=Shoulder-belt.= See BELTS.

=Shoulder-knot.= An ornamental knot of gold cord on cloth of the same
color as the facings of the arm to which the officer belongs, with
insignia of rank and number of regiment embroidered on the cloth ground.
They are worn on the shoulder by commissioned officers of the army, and
are sometimes embroidered. A kind of epaulette.

=Shoulder-strap.= A narrow strap, 1³⁄₈ inches wide by 4 inches long,
bordered with an embroidery of gold ¹⁄₄ inch wide. It is worn on the
shoulder of a commissioned officer in the army, indicating by a suitable
device the rank he holds in the service. See RANK, INSIGNIA OF.

=Shrapnel.= See PROJECTILE, SMOOTH-BORE PROJECTILES.

=Shrewsbury.= An ancient town of England, in Shropshire, on the Severn.
It was the scene of many military events, the inhabitants always taking
an active share in the various contests of the most turbulent period of
English history, from the conquest to the civil war. It was taken by
Llewellyn the Great, prince of North Wales, in 1215, during the
disturbances between King John and the barons. The famous battle of
Shrewsbury, in which Henry IV., then prince of Wales, first
distinguished himself in the field, and the fiery Hotspur was slain, was
fought in 1403.

=Shropshire, Battle of.= In which the Britons were completely
subjugated, and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became,
through the treachery of the queen of the Brigantes, a prisoner to the
Romans.

=Shunt Gun.= A rifled fire-arm having two sets of grooves, down one of
which the shot is passed in loading, and along the other of which it
passes out when fired, having been shunted from one set to the other,
when at the bottom, by turning upon its axis.

=Shuternaul.= In the East Indies, is a sort of arquebuse, which is fixed
upon the back of a camel.

=Siberia=, or =Siberi=. A vast territory in Northern Asia, belonging to
Russia, and including all the Russian possessions in that continent,
with the exception of the Transcaucasian and Armenian provinces. Siberia
seems to have been first made known to the Russians by a merchant named
Anika Stroganoff; and soon after the conquest of West Siberia was
effected by the Cossack Vassili Yermak, an absconded criminal, at the
head of a numerous band of wild followers. After Yermak’s death, in
1554, the Russians pursued their conquests eastward, founding Tomsk in
1604, and though they often experienced serious reverses, their progress
was rapid, the Sea of Okhotsk being reached in 1639, and Irkutsk founded
in 1661. Frequent disturbances have occurred between the Russians and
the Chinese and Tartars, which have resulted in the extension southward
of the Siberian boundary into Manchuria and Turkestan.

=Sicarii= (_i.e._, _Assassins_). The name given by the Romans to certain
savage mountain tribes of the Lebanon, who were, like the _Thugs_ of
India, avowed murderers by profession. In the same mountains there
existed, at the time of the Crusades, a branch of the fanatic sect
called “Assassins,” whose habits resembled those of the Sicarii, and
whose name the Crusaders imported into Europe; but these were of Arabian
origin.

=Sicilian Vespers.= The name given to the massacre of the French in
Sicily, on the day after Easter (March 30), 1822, the signal for the
commencement of which was to be the first stroke of the vesper-bell. On
the evening of Easter Monday, the inhabitants of Palermo, enraged
(according to the common story) at a gross outrage which was perpetrated
by a French soldier on a young Sicilian bride, suddenly rose against
their oppressors, the French, and put to the sword every man, woman, and
child, and did not even spare those Italians and Sicilians who had
married Frenchmen. This example was followed by Messina and other towns,
and the massacre soon became general over the island. The French were
hunted like wild beasts, and dragged even from the churches, where they
vainly thought themselves secure. More than 8000 of them were slain by
the Palermitans alone. This event was the final overthrow of Charles of
Anjou’s domination in Sicily.

=Sicily= (anc. _Sicilia_). The largest island in the Mediterranean Sea,
situated between Italy and the coast of Africa, and separated on the
northeast from Naples by the Strait of Messina; it is a province of the
kingdom of Italy. It was successively occupied by the Phœnicians,
Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. For history of the Carthaginians in
Sicily, see CARTHAGE. The western part of Sicily was made a Roman
province in 241 B.C.; but after the revolt of Syracuse in the second
Punic war, and the conquest of that city by Marcellus, the whole island
was made a Roman province. On the downfall of the Roman empire, Sicily
formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths; but it was taken from them
by Belisarius in 536, and annexed to the Byzantine empire. In the 8th
and 9th centuries the Saracens succeeded in conquering it. The Normans
conquered the island in the 11th century under Roger Guiscard, duke of
Apulia. It passed successively into the hands of France (see SICILIAN
VESPERS), Germany, and Spain. By the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, it was
given to the Duke of Savoy; was added to the kingdom of Naples in 1720.
The war of 1734, however, carried on by France and Spain against
Austria, transferred the crown of Naples, or, as it was subsequently
termed, of the Two Sicilies, to a branch of the royal family of Spain;
it remained in their hands until the French revolution led, in 1799, to
the expulsion of the royal family from Naples. In 1815, Ferdinand IV. of
Naples assumed the title of Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies. In 1847,
1848, and 1849, the Sicilians made several attempts, in common with the
Neapolitans, to rid themselves of their obnoxious monarch, Ferdinand
II., but without success. The Bourbons were, however, driven from the
throne by Garibaldi in 1860, and in the same year Sicily was united to
the new kingdom of Italy. See NAPLES.

=Sick and Hurt.= A board so called, to which the agents, commissaries,
etc., belonging to the several military hospitals in Great Britain were
responsible.

=Sick Call.= A military call which is sounded on the drum, bugle, or
trumpet, whereby the sick men are warned to attend the hospital.

=Sick-flag.= The yellow quarantine flag hoisted to prevent
communication; whence the term of the yellow flag and yellow admirals.
There are two others,--one with a black ball, the other with a square in
the centre,--denoting plague or actual diseases.

=Sick Report Book.= A book in which the names of the men who are sick in
a company, troop, etc., are entered, also the names of their diseases,
and probable cause of same. This book is signed by one of the company
officers to which the men belong, and the attending surgeon.

=Sicyonia.= A small district in the northeast of Peloponnesus. Its chief
town was _Sicyon_, which was destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes. In the
Persian war the Sicyonians sent fifteen ships to the battle of Salamis,
and 300 hoplites to the battle of Plætæ. In the interval between the
Persian and Peloponnesian wars the Sicyonians were twice defeated and
their country laid waste by the Athenians,--first under Tolmides in 456
B.C., and again under Pericles in 454 B.C. In the Peloponnesian war they
took part with the Spartans.

=Side-arms.= Such arms as are suspended by the side and attached to the
person, such as a bayonet or sword.

=Sidon=, or =Zidon= (now _Saida_, or _Seida_). For a long time the most
powerful, and probably the most ancient, of the cities of Phœnice. It
was the chief seat of the maritime power of Phœnice until eclipsed by
its own colony, Tyre. It submitted to Shalmanezer at the time of the
Assyrian conquest of Syria. In the expedition of Xerxes against Greece
the Sidonians furnished the best ships in the whole fleet. Sidon
received the great blow to her prosperity in the reign of Artaxerxes
III. (Ochus), when the Sidonians, having taken part in the revolt of
Phœnice and Cyprus, and being betrayed to Ochus by their own king
Tennes, burned themselves with their city, 351 B.C. It was rebuilt. On
September 27, 1840, the town was taken from the pasha of Egypt by the
troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships of the
British squadron, under Admiral Sir Robert Stopford and Commodore
Charles Napier.

=Siege= (Fr. _siege_, “a seat, a sitting down”). Is the sitting of an
army before a hostile town or fortress with the intention of capturing
it. With certain elements, the success of a siege is beyond doubt; the
result being merely a question of time. These elements are: First, the
force of the besiegers shall be sufficient to overcome the besieged in
actual combat, man to man. If this be not the case, the besieged, by a
sortie, might destroy the opposing works and drive away the besiegers.
The second element is, that the place must be thoroughly invested, so
that no provisions, reinforcements, or other aliment of war can enter.
The third element is, that the besiegers be undisturbed from without.
For this it is essential that there shall not be a hostile army in the
neighborhood; or if there be, that the operations of the besiegers be
protected by a covering army able to cope with the enemy’s force in the
field. The ancients executed gigantic works to produce these effects. To
complete the investment they built a high and strong wall around the
whole fortress; and to render themselves secure from without they built
a similar wall, facing outwards, beyond their own position. The first
was circumvallation, the second contravallation. It was thus that Cæsar
fortified himself while besieging Alexia, and maintained 60,000 men
within his ring. In modern warfare it is considered preferable to
establish strong posts here and there round the place, and merely
sentinels and videttes between. Let us now assume that a fortress of
great strength has to be reduced, and that the force of the enemy in the
vicinity has been either subdued or held in check by a covering army. By
rapid movements the place is at once invested on all sides. This step
constitutes merely a blockade; and if time be of little importance, it
is a sufficient operation, for hunger must sooner or later cause the
fortress to surrender; but if more energetic measures are required, the
actual siege must be prosecuted. Advantage is taken of any hidden ground
to establish the park of artillery and the engineer’s park; or, if there
be none, these parks have to be placed out of range. The besieging force
is now encamped just beyond the reach of the guns of the fortress; and
their object is to get over the intervening ground and into the works
without being torn to pieces by the concentrated fire of the numerous
pieces which the defenders can bring to bear on every part. With this
view, the place is approached by a series of zigzag trenches so pointed
that they cannot be enfiladed by any guns in the fortress. In order to
accommodate the forces necessary to protect the workers, the trenches at
certain intervals are cut laterally for a great length, partly
encircling the place, and affording safe room for a large force with
ample battering material. These are called _parallels_, and they are
generally three in number. The distance of the first parallel will
increase as small-arms become more deadly; but with smooth-bore muskets
it has been usual to break ground at 600 yards from the covered way of
the fortress, while in the case of Sebastopol, ground was broken at 2000
yards. The engineers having, by reconnoissances, decided the locality of
the parallel, and taken advantage of any inequalities of surface, a
strong body of men is sent to the spot soon after nightfall. The
attention of the garrison is distracted by false alarms in other
directions. Half the men are armed _cap-a-pie_, and lie down before the
proposed parallel; while the other half, bearing each a pick and shovel,
and two empty gabions, prepare for work. Each man deposits the gabions
where the parapet of the trench should be. He then digs down behind
them, filling the gabions with the earth dug out, and after they are
filled, throwing it over them, to widen and heighten the parapet. Before
daylight the working party is expected to have formed sufficient cover
to conceal themselves and the troops protecting them. During the day,
they--being concealed from the garrison--widen and complete their
parallel, making it of dimensions sufficient to allow of wagons and
bodies of troops with guns passing along. During the same night other
parties will have been at work at zigzags of approach from the depots
out of range to the first parallel, which zigzags will be probably not
less than 1000 yards in length. As a rule, the defenders will not expend
ammunition on the first parallel, for its extent (often several miles)
will render the probability of doing material damage extremely small.
For this reason also, the dimensions of the parapet and its solidity are
of far less importance in the first parallel than in the more advanced
works of attack. The first parallel being completed, the engineers
select points near its extremities, at which they erect breastworks to
cover bodies of cavalry, who are kept at hand to resist sorties from the
garrison. The length of the parallel is usually made sufficient to
embrace all the works of two bastions at least. Sites are then chosen
for batteries, which are built up of fascines, gabions, sand-bags, and
earth. They are placed at points in the parallel formed by the
prolongation of the several faces of the bastions, ravelins, and other
works of the fortress, which faces the batteries are severally intended
to enfilade by a ricochet fire. Other batteries will be formed for a
vertical fire of mortars. By these means it is hoped that the traverses
on the hostile ramparts will be destroyed, the guns dismounted, and the
defenders dispersed, before the final approaches bring the assailants to
the covered way. The sappers will now commence their advance towards the
points, or salient angles, of the two bastions to be attacked. If,
however, the trench were cut straight towards the fortress, its guns
could easily destroy the workmen, and enfilade the approach. To prevent
this, it is cut into short zigzags, the direction always being to a
point a few yards beyond the outmost flanking-works of the garrison. The
side of each trench nearest the fortress is protected by gabions and
sand-bags, as in the case of the parallel. At intervals short spurs of
trench, incipient parallels, are cut, to contain infantry, to act as
guards to the sappers. The second parallel is about 300 yards from the
enemy’s works, and has to be more strongly formed than the first. It
often terminates in a redoubt to hold some light artillery, and a strong
force of infantry, who could assail any sortie in flank; or it may run
into the first parallel, giving easier access for troops than through
the zigzags. The second parallel is revetted with sand-bags, in which
loop-holes are left for musketry. After passing the second parallel, the
angles of the zigzags become more acute, to prevent enfilading. At about
150 yards, certain demi-parallels are cut, and armed with
howitzer-batteries to clear the covered way, while riflemen also act
from it. The third parallel is at the foot of the glacis. Thence the
place, after being sufficiently battered, is taken by a storming party,
who make their way over the glacis; or the covered way is topped by the
double sap, which is a safer plan for the array generally, though much
more deadly to the sappers. When the crest of the covered way has thus
been reached, batteries of heavy artillery will be there established,
for the purpose of breaching the walls of the ravelin and bastion; while
at the same time miners will first seek to destroy the defenders’
countermines (which would otherwise be likely to send these batteries
into the air), and then will excavate a tunnel to the ditch at the foot
of the counterscarp. If the breach becomes practicable, a storming party
will emerge from this tunnel or gallery, and seek to carry the opposite
work by hard fighting. If inner works still subsist, which would tear
assailants to pieces, the double sap may be continued across the ditch,
if a dry ditch, right up the breach, that counter-batteries may be
formed. If the ditch be wet, means must be adopted for a causeway or a
bridge. By these means, however obstinate may be the defense, if the
besieging force be sufficiently strong, and aid do not arrive from
without, the ultimate success of the attack becomes certain. Vauban
raised attack to a superiority above defense, first by the introduction
of ricochet fire, which sweeps a whole line; and secondly by
originating parallels. Before his time, the whole attack was conducted
by zigzag approaches, in which the troops actually in front could be but
few, and were therefore unable to withstand strong sorties of the
garrison, who, in consequence, frequently broke out and destroyed the
works of the besiegers, rendering a siege an operation of the most
uncertain character.

=Siege and Sea-coast Ammunition.= See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR.

=Siege Artillery.= Is heavy ordnance used for battering purposes, and of
too weighty a character to take the field. A siege-train of guns and
their ponderous ammunition is usually maintained in the rear of an army,
ready to be brought up for use when required. See ARTILLERY.

=Siege Carriages.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Siege-train.= The number and kind of pieces composing a siege-train
must altogether depend on circumstances; but the following general
principles may be observed in assigning the proportion of different
kinds and calibers, and the relative quantity of other supplies, for a
train of 100 pieces:

_Guns_, about three-fifths the whole number (60); _howitzers_,
one-fourth (25); _mortars_, 10-inch siege, one-eighth (12), 8-inch
siege, 3; _Coehorn mortars_, in addition to the 100 pieces, 6. Total
number of guns, 106.

_Carriages_, for guns and howitzers, one-fifth spare, 102; for 10-inch
mortars, one-sixth spare, 14; for 8-inch mortars, 4.

_Mortar-wagons_, one for each 10-inch mortar and bed, and for three
8-inch mortars and beds, 14.

_Wagons_, for transporting implements, intrenching and miners’ tools,
laboratory tools and utensils, and other stores, each loaded with about
2700 pounds,--say 140.

_Carts_, carrying balls, etc., on the march, 50.

_Park battery-wagons_, fully equipped, 28.

_Park forges_, fully equipped, 8.

_Sling-carts_, large, 5.

_Sling-carts_, hand, 4.

Total number of carriages, 369.

_Draught-horses_, for each gun and howitzer, with its carriage, 8; for
each spare gun-carriage, 6; for each mortar-wagon, 8; for each
battery-wagon, 6; for each forge, 6; for each cart, 2; for each
sling-cart, large, 2; spare horses, one-tenth. Total, about 1900 horses.

=Siemens-Martin Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, STEEL.

=Siena=, or =Sienna=. A city of Central Italy, about 30 miles southeast
from Florence. In the Middle Ages, Siena became one of the powerful city
republics of Italy. It embraced the Ghibelline cause, and in conjunction
with the forces of Pisa, defeated the Tuscan Guelfs, in the memorable
battle of Monte Aperto (1206). Through intestine quarrels it was
subjugated by the emperor Charles V., and given to his son in 1555, who
ceded it to Cosmo of Tuscany, 1557. It was incorporated with France,
1808-14.

=Sierra Leone.= A district of Western Africa, situated on the Atlantic.
The British settlement of Sierra Leone was established in 1787, when 400
negroes, with 60 wives, mostly women of bad character, were removed to
it from London. The settlement was attacked by the French in September,
1794, and by the natives in February, 1802.

=Sight.= A small piece of brass or iron fixed to a cannon or a musket,
to serve as a point of direction, and to assist the eye in aiming the
piece.

=Sight.= To give the proper elevation and direction to by means of a
sight; as, to sight a rifle or cannon. _To take sight_, to take aim; to
look for the purpose of directing a piece of artillery, or the like.

=Sight, Angle of.= See POINTING.

=Sight, Breech-.= See BREECH-SIGHT.

=Sight, Buckhorn-.= A form of rear-sight much used in sporting rifles,
which takes its name from the curved form of the notch used. This form
of notch is now attached to the Springfield rifle in use by U. S.
troops.

=Sight, Coarse.= An aim of a piece in which a considerable portion of
the front-sight covers the object.

=Sight, Elevating.= The rear-sight of a small-arm, arranged to give
varying heights of sight for different ranges. There are a variety of
forms. The _leaf-sight_ has a number of hinged leaves of different
lengths. The one now used in the U. S. army has one hinged leaf. Up to
500 yards, the elevation is given by moving the sighting-piece up a
curved incline. Above 500 yards, the leaf is turned up to the
perpendicular.

=Sight, Fine.= An aim in which only the summit of the front-sight is
used to get the line of sight.

=Sight, Front-.= The sight nearest the muzzle of a cannon or small-arm.
In military arms, it is set on a short projection which is used also as
the bayonet-stud. In cannon of old model, using the _tangent scale_, or
pendulum hausse, the height of the front-sight is made equal to the
dispart, making the _natural line of sight_ parallel to the axis of the
piece. See DISPART.

=Sight, Line of.= See POINTING.

=Sight, Peep-.= A form of rear-sight for small-arms in which the
marksman looks through a small hole.

=Sight, Plane of.= See POINTING.

=Sight, Quarter-.= The quarter-sights of a cannon are divisions marked
on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be
intersected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent to
the upper surface of the trunnions; used for giving elevations up to
three degrees, and especially for pointing at a less elevation than the
natural angle of sight. Now obsolete.

=Sight, Rear-.= The sight nearest the breech of a cannon or small-arm.
The term is specially applied to small-arms.

=Sight, Telescopic.= An apparatus for sighting a cannon or small-arm,
consisting of a telescope so mounted as to give varying angles of sight;
used especially for long ranges. Rifles with such an attachment are
sometimes called telescopic rifles.

=Sight, Trunnion.= A front-sight fixed on or near the trunnions of a
gun.

=Sign.= An indication or token. In astronomy, one of the twelve
divisions of the zodiac.

=Sign.= To affix a signature; to subscribe.

=Sign Language.= A pantomimic system of communicating ideas, extensively
used by North American Indians. The range of its use is not exactly
known, but it is common among all the tribes of the plains and many of
those beyond the Rocky Mountains. It is in one sense the court language
of the Indians, being the only means of communication between tribes not
speaking a common dialect. According to Gen. Marcy, it is accurately
used and perfectly understood by all the Indians from the Gila to the
Columbia. The same author tells a remarkable story, which seems to show
that the system is very nearly, if not exactly, the same as that used in
teaching mutes in deaf and dumb asylums.

=Signal.= Any sign made for marching, fighting, etc. Signals are
likewise given by the drum, bugle, and trumpet, during the exercise of a
battalion. See SIGNAL SERVICE.

=Signal Code.= See SIGNALING.

=Signal Equipments.= See EQUIPMENTS, SIGNAL.

=Signal Service.= In the U. S. army there is one chief signal-officer of
the army, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of a brigadier-general, and
400 enlisted men. The chief signal-officer is assisted in his duties by
commissioned officers detailed from the line for that purpose. In war
times the Signal Service of the U. S. army is equipped to maintain
communications by telegraph, signals, etc., between different sections
of an army or armies, or between land and sea forces. The enlisted men
are thoroughly drilled in the art of field telegraphy. In peace times
the Signal Service has a corps of observers stationed in large towns,
and important commercial centres, to give timely warning of the approach
of storms, rise of rivers, and all other important weather news for the
guidance of merchants and others.

=Signaling.= Is of remote origin. A rude code of signals addressed to
the eye is common among the savage races of the present day, and
doubtless existed from the earliest times among the historical races.
The Indians of the great plains of North America avail themselves for
night-signals of fires lighted on elevated points, and of dense clouds
of smoke made by suddenly heaping green brush upon a fire for
day-signals. Gen. Marcy, in his “Army Life on the Border,” shows that
similar signals can be used in this region with great advantage by
troops engaged in Indian campaigning. Messages exchanged in this way
must be preconcerted. This method of signaling dates from a remote
antiquity. Alphabetical signaling--a system in which a written language
is conveyed by means of its elements--is first described by Polybius,
about 260 B.C., and seems to have been devised, or at least greatly
improved by him. He formed a code by arranging the letters of the Greek
alphabet in several columns. A given letter was represented by a number
of lanterns or torches or other signals, which gave the number of the
column, and a second set of signals giving the number of the letter in
the column. Capt. John Smith, of Virginia fame, is said to have used the
system of Polybius during the siege of Vienna. Alphabetical signaling
thus early adopted remained without improvement, and too cumbersome for
general application till recent times. _Message signaling_ by torches,
flags, and rockets has been generally used, especially at sea, where it
has a wide application both in war and commerce. The signals usually
represented numbers, which were referred to printed codes. The invention
of the magnetic telegraph led to the Morse alphabet, which crystallized
the hitherto vague idea of representing letters by the combination and
arrangement of a few simple elements. In the _general service code_ of
the United States, there are used two elements. These can readily be
represented by sounds, motions, numbers, colors, etc. The ordinary
method of signaling is by waving a flag by day and a torch at night. See
also TELEGRAPH, FIELD.

=Sikh Wars.= Two brief but desperate contests waged between the British
power in India and the Sikhs in 1845-46, 1848-49, which resulted in the
destruction of the latter as an independent nation. The first had its
origin in the dissensions which convulsed the Sikh country after the
death of Runjeet Singh, and which necessitated the exercise of wary
regard on the part of the Calcutta authorities. At length an army of
Sikhs, flushed with their triumph over all lawful authority in their own
country, crossed the Sutlej, and extended their ravages over British
territory; but their advanced guard was met by Sir Henry Hardinge, the
governor-general, at the head of four regiments of infantry and one of
dragoons, and routed at Mudki with heavy loss. Three days after, the
main body, which had in the mean time crossed the river and intrenched
itself at Feroze-Shah, was attacked by a larger force of British under
Gough and Hardinge, and after a bloody conflict, which lasted two days,
also routed. Still undismayed by these reverses, they again intrenched
themselves at Sobraon; but a fresh body which had just crossed the
Sutlej at Aliwal 19,000 strong with 68 pieces of cannon, was wholly
routed and driven across the river by Sir Harry Smith, at the head of
7000 men, with 32 guns; and their main body was soon after similarly
dispersed at Sobraon (which see). The British then crossed the river,
took Lahore, and restored the authority of the young Maharajah from
whom they took the territory between the Beas and the Sutlej; the treaty
confirming this settlement being made at Lahore, March 9, 1846. But the
internal disturbances in the kingdom of Lahore soon became as active as
before, and induced the Maharajah’s prime minister to put the country
under the Company’s protection; and a residency with a guard of regular
troops was then established in the capital. On April 20, 1848, two
British officers were murdered by a Sikh chief, the dewan of Moolraj of
Multan; and as it was found to be but a premonitory symptom of a general
outbreak, a small force of British under Lieut. Edwardes, aided by a
body of Sikhs, under the rajah of Bhawalpur, gallantly attacked the army
of Moolraj, which, after a desperate conflict of nine hours, they
defeated on June 18, and, both sides in the mean time having received
reinforcements, again on July 1; Multan was then laid siege to, but the
defection of 5000 auxiliary Sikhs under Shere Singh (the son of the
Sirdar Chuttur Singh, the governor of Hazara, who had been for some time
in revolt, and had driven the British from his district), compelled the
British to retreat. For some time, the British authorities in the Punjab
were hampered by a want of military force, and though the Maharajah and
much of his army still opposed the Sikh rebels, little reliance could be
placed upon most of it. Shere Singh now succeeded in raising his army to
40,000, but was defeated by Lord Gough at Ramnuggur (November 22). The
inconsiderate haste of Gough at Chillianwalla, January 13, nearly lost
him that great battle, which was saved only by the extreme valor of his
soldiers; but amends for this fault were made at Gujerat, where the
power of Shere Singh and his allies was completely broken. Meanwhile,
the fortress of Multan had, after a protracted bombardment, been
captured, and the Company, seeing no other mode of protecting their
territories from annoyance by these warlike fanatics, annexed the
Punjab, March 29, 1849, and thus terminated the existence of the Sikhs
as an independent nation.

=Sikhs.= The term Sikh, a corruption of the Sanscrit _s’ishya_,
signifying “disciple,” is applied to a community of which the Punjab, in
Northern India, constitutes, substantially, the confines. Less commonly,
even among themselves, the members of this community are also known as
Sinhs (vulgarly Singhs), that is, “Lions,” a title given them by Govind,
the last and most influential of their hierarchs. Every name of a Sikh
male now terminates with the word Sinh. Originally a body of mere
religionists, the Sikhs, from the energy which they developed under
repression, and the inducements which they offered as proselytizers,
grew by degrees, in strength and numbers, and ended in a formidable
nationality. Their originator, Nanak, was born in 1469, in the vicinity
of Lahore, and died in 1539, not far from the place of his nativity.

=Silence.= To cause to cease firing by a vigorous cannonade; as, to
silence the batteries of an enemy.

=Silesia.= A province of the kingdom of Prussia, included in the limits
of the new German empire, lies south of the provinces of Brandenburg and
Posen. Formerly a province of Poland; was invaded by John of Bohemia in
1325; ceded to him, 1355. In 1740, Frederick II. of Prussia, taking
advantage of the helpless condition of Maria Theresa of Austria, laid
claims to certain portions of Silesia; and without declaring war,
marched into and took possession of the province, maintaining his hold
despite the utmost efforts of Austria in 1740-1742, and 1744-1745,
called the _first_ and _second_ Silesian wars. After the _third_
Silesian war, better known as the _Seven Years’ War_ (which see), it was
finally ceded (1763) to Prussia. It was overrun by the French in 1807.

=Silistria.= A strongly fortified town of Bulgaria, in Turkey in Europe,
on the right bank of the Danube. Here in 971, the Byzantine emperor,
John Zimisces, routed the Russians under Sviatoslav. It was taken by the
Russians, June 30, 1829, and held some years by them as a pledge for the
payment of a large sum of money by the Porte, but was eventually
returned. In 1854 it was again besieged by the Russians (30,000 strong),
under Prince Paskewitsch, and many assaults were made. The Russian
general was compelled to return in consequence of a dangerous contusion.
On June 2, Mussa Pasha, the brave and skillful commander of the
garrison, was killed. On June 9, the Russians stormed two forts, which
were retaken. A grand assault took place on June 13, under Prince
Gortschakoff and Gen. Schilders, which was vigorously repelled. On the
15th, the garrison assumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated
the Russians, and destroyed the siege-works. The siege was thus raised,
and the Russians commenced their retreat as Omar Pasha was drawing near.
The garrison was ably assisted by two British officers, Capt. Butler and
Lieut. Nasmyth, the former of whom, after being wounded, died of
exhaustion. They were highly praised by Omar Pasha and Lord Hardinge,
and Lieut. Nasmyth made a major.

=Sill.= In fortification, the inner edge of an embrasure.

=Silladar Horse.= Indian irregular cavalry, raised and maintained on the
principle of every man furnishing and maintaining his own horse, arms,
equipments, etc., in return for his pay.

=Sillon.= In fortification, a work raised in the middle of a ditch, to
defend it when it is too wide. It has no particular form, and is
sometimes made with little bastions, half-moons, and redans, which are
lower than the works of the place, but higher than the covert way. It
is more frequently called an _envelope_.

=Silures.= A powerful people in Britain, inhabiting South Wales, who
long offered a formidable resistance to the Romans, and were the only
people in the island who at a later time maintained their independence
against the Saxons.

=Silver Stick.= Is the title given to a field-officer of the Life
Guards, when on duty at the palace. The _silver stick_ is in waiting for
a week, during which period all reports are made through him to the
_gold stick_ (which see), and orders from the _gold stick_ pass through
to the brigade. In the absence of the _gold stick_ on levees, and
drawing-room days, he goes to the royal closet for the parole.

=Simancas.= A town of Spain, province of Valladolid. Near it Ramirez II.
of Leon and Fernando of Castile gained a victory over Abderahman, the
Moorish king of Cordova, August 6, 938. The archives of Castile are kept
in the fortress of this place, and many valuable documents and records
were burnt by the French troops quartered in the town in 1809.

=Simonoseki.= A town of Japan, at the southwestern extremity of the
island of Nipon, and at the entrance of the island sea Suonada. In 1863
three vessels belonging to the American, Dutch, and French governments
were fired into from batteries on the shore of Simonoseki Strait; this
assault was subsequently returned by French and American war-vessels. In
1864 a combined fleet of Great Britain, France, Holland, and the U. S.
men-of-war bombarded and destroyed Simonoseki. The Japanese government
had to pay an indemnity of $3,000,000.

=Simulation.= The vice of counterfeiting illness or defect, for the
purpose of being invalided.

=Sinalunga.= A town of Central Italy, in the province of Sienna. Here
Garibaldi was arrested in 1867, whilst attempting to cross into the
Papal territory to take command of the volunteers who intended to march
upon Rome.

=Sinde=, or =Scinde=. (Called also _Sindh_, or _Sindia_, and _Sinday_,
from _sindhoo_, or _sindhu_, “a collection of waters.”) An extensive
territory of British India, included in the presidency of Bombay,
comprising the lower course and delta of the Indus. It was traversed by
the Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C.; conquered by the Persian
Mohammedans in the 8th century; tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in
the 11th century; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted to the empire
of Delhi after his death, 1747. After various changes of rulers, Sinde
was conquered by the English. Sir Charles James Napier, the British
envoy, at the head of a considerable military force, marched against the
enemy, totally routed them at Meeanee (February 17, 1843), and by
defeating the ameers of Mirpur, at Dubba, near Hyderabad (March 24),
completed the subjugation of Sinde. For two years afterwards, Napier was
actively employed in reducing the marauding tribes of the west, who
pillaged the province; and so successful was the “Sheitanka bhai”
(Devil’s Brother), as the robber tribes named him, that they were
completely rooted out of their fastnesses, and most of them transported
to distant regions.

=Sine Die= (“without day”). When the court or other body rise at the end
of a session or term they adjourn _sine die_. In law this does not
preclude further proceedings by the same court.

=Single Combat.= A contest in which no more than two are engaged.

=Single-stick.= A cudgel used in fencing or fighting. Also, a game at
cudgels, in which he who first brings blood from his adversary’s head is
pronounced victor.

=Sinister.= In heraldry, the left-hand side of a shield. As shields are
supposed to be carried in front of the person, the sinister side is that
which covers the bearer’s left side, and therefore, lies to the
spectator’s right. See POINTS OF THE ESCUTCHEON.

=Sinopé= (Turk. _Sinub_). A town of Asiatic Turkey, province of
Anatolia, on the southern side of a little promontory running eastward
into the Black Sea, 80 miles northwest of Samsun. Ancient Sinopé was the
most important of all the Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine.
Having been destroyed in the invasion of Asia by the Cimmerians, it was
restored by a new colony from Miletus, 632 B.C. It remained an
independent state till it was taken by Pharnaces I., king of Pontus.
After an obstinate resistance to the Romans under Lucullus, it was taken
and plundered, and proclaimed a free city. The bay of Sinopé, which
affords the finest anchorage for ships along the whole northern coast of
Asiatic Turkey, was the scene of a bloody naval engagement, or rather
massacre, November 30, 1853, when a Turkish squadron of 13 ships was
suddenly attacked and destroyed (except one vessel which conveyed the
tidings to Constantinople) by a Russian fleet of 6 sail of the line, 2
sailing-vessels, and 3 steamers; 4000 lives were lost by fire or
drowning, and Osman Pasha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of
his wounds. In consequence of this event, the Anglo-French fleet entered
the Black Sea, January 3, 1854.

=Sinople.= In heraldry, the same as _Vert_ (which see).

=Sinuessa.= An ancient town of Italy, on the shore of the Mediterranean,
near the confines of Latium and Campania. It was colonized by the Romans
in 296 B.C. It suffered much during the invasion of Hannibal, who, in
217, carried his devastations up to the very gates.

=Sioux Indians.= See DAKOTA INDIANS.

=Sir.= The title of a knight or baronet, which, for distinction’s sake,
is always prefixed to the knight’s or baronet’s Christian name, either
in speaking or in writing to him.

=Siraceni=, =Siraci=, or =Siraces=. A powerful people of Sarmatia
Asiatica, dwelt in the district of Siracene, east of Palus Mæotis, as
far as the river Rha (now Volga). The Romans were engaged in a war with
them in 50.

=Sirmium= (now _Mitroviz_). An important city in Pannonia Inferior, was
situated on the left bank of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci,
and under the Romans became the capital of Pannonia, and the
headquarters of all their operations in their wars against the Dacians
and the neighboring barbarians. It contained a large manufactory of
arms, a spacious forum, an imperial palace, etc. It was the residence of
the admiral of the first Flavian fleet on the Danube, and the birthplace
of the emperor Probus.

=Siscia.= An important town in Pannonia Superior, situated upon an
island formed by the rivers Savus Colapis and Odra. It was a
strongly-fortified place, and was conquered by Tiberius in the reign of
Augustus, from which time it became the most important town in all
Pannonia.

=Sissopoli=, or =Sizeboli=. A town of Turkey in Europe, 80 miles
northeast from Adrianople. It was taken by the Russians in 1829.

=Sistova=, or =Schistab=, called also =Shtab=. A town of Turkey in
Europe, in Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 24 miles
east-southeast from Nicopolis. A treaty of peace (“peace of Sistova”)
was signed here between Austria and Turkey in 1791.

=Sit.= In a military sense, to take a stationary position; as, _to sit
before a fortification_, to lie encamped for the purpose of besieging
it.

=Sitka.= Called by the Russians New Archangel, is the most important
settlement in Alaska. It is situated on the west side of Baranoff
Island, in lat. 57° 3′. The population is mainly composed of Indians and
Russian half-breeds. A census taken in 1875 made the total number,
excluding Indians, 502. For many years Sitka was the headquarters of the
Russian American Company. Upon the transfer of the Territory, in 1867,
to the United States, Sitka became the headquarters of the military
department of Alaska. It remained an army post till 1877, when the
garrison was withdrawn. The inhabitants are at present protected from
the Indians by a naval vessel.

=Sixain.= In the Middle Ages, was an order of battle, wherein six
battalions being ranged in one line, the second and fifth were made to
advance, to form the vanguard; the first and sixth to retire, to form
the rear-guard; the third and fourth remaining on the spot, to form the
corps or body of the battle.

=Six-shooter.= A pistol with six barrels, or capable of firing six shots
in quick succession; especially a six-barreled or six-chambered
revolver.

=Size, To.= In a military sense, to take the height of men for the
purpose of placing them in military array, and of rendering their
relative statures more effective.

=Skalitz.= A small town of Austria, in the northwest of Hungary, near
the borders of Moravia, on the left bank of the March. It was stormed by
the Prussian general Steinmetz, June 28, 1866; whereby the junction of
the divisions of the Prussians was greatly facilitated.

=Skean=, =Skeen=, or =Skeine=. A Celtic word which signifies a knife. It
was a weapon in the shape of a small sword or knife, which was worn by
the Irish in ancient times.

=Skedaddle.= To betake one’s self to flight; to run away with
precipitation, as if in a panic; to withdraw, as an army, or part of an
army, from the presence of an enemy, especially in a hasty or secret
manner.

=Skeleton.= A word applied to regiments that have become reduced in
their number of men.

=Sketch, Military.= The delineation of a small portion of ground for
military purposes. The scale is generally larger than that of a map.

=Skid.= In military language, is any timber which is used as a base to
keep one object from resting on another. Thus, a row of cannon in store
will be kept from the ground by skids. The term is also applied to the
drag which is put on the wheels of carriages in going up hills, to
prevent rolling backwards.

=Skierniwice.= A town of Russia, situated on the Bzura, 38 miles
southwest from Warsaw. The French were defeated here, in 1809, by the
Russians.

=Skinners.= A name assumed by a predatory band in the Revolutionary war,
who, professing allegiance to the American cause, but influenced by a
desire to plunder, roamed over the “neutral ground” lying between the
hostile armies, robbing those who refused to take the oath of fidelity.

=Skipton.= A town of England in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 38 miles
west of York. The old castle of Skipton was founded in the time of
William the Conqueror; it was a place of great strength in the 17th
century, and held out for three years against the Parliamentary forces.
In 1649 it was dismantled, but subsequently rebuilt by the Countess of
Pembroke.

=Skirmish.= A slight fight in war; a light combat between detachments
from armies which are yet at a considerable distance from each other, or
between detached and small parties.

=Skirmish.= To fight slightly or in small parties; to engage in a
skirmish; to act as skirmishers.

=Skirmisher.= One who skirmishes; one of such troops as are sent forward
in advance, or move deployed in loose order on the flanks of a marching
column, to discover and intercept hostile forces.

=Skiver.= A dirk to stab with.

=Skottefer.= Formerly a name applied to an archer.

=Sky-rocket.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Slash.= A cut; a wound; also, a cut in cloth. It was formerly used to
express the pieces of tape or worsted lace which were placed upon the
arms of non-commissioned officers, in order to distinguish them from
privates.

=Slash.= To strike violently and at random with an edged instrument; to
lay about one indiscriminately with blows.

=Slashed.= Cut in stripes or lines. Hence, slashed sleeves and pockets,
which are peculiar to the British cavalry, when the officers or men wear
long coats.

=Slaughter.= The extensive and unnecessary destruction of human life;
carnage. Also, to visit with great destruction of life; to kill; to slay
in battle.

=Slavonia=, or =Sclavonia= (called by the native _Slavonska_). A
territory or province of the Austrian empire, formerly incorporated with
Hungary, but now forming part of the kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia.
The country anciently formed part of the province of Pannonia. During
the barbarian migrations, the land was overrun, now by one and now by
another tribe, and at length remained in the possession of the Avars.
These, however, were conquered about the end of the 8th century by
Charlemagne, who settled in their place a tribe of Slavonians from
Dalmatia. When, in the 10th century, the Hungarians conquered Pannonia,
they also made themselves masters of the whole of Slavonia, except
Syrmia, which still remained subject to the Eastern emperors. It was,
however, the object of contention, and the scene of bloody conflicts
between the Greeks and the Hungarians, until, after various
vicissitudes, it was finally ceded to the latter in 1165. From 1526,
when it was conquered by the Turks, Slavonia remained in their
possession till it was restored to Hungary by the peace of Carlowitz in
1699. In 1734 its size was diminished by the formation of the Military
Frontier, and in 1848 it was separated from Hungary.

=Slavonians=, or =Slaves= (native name _Slowene_, or _Slowane_). The
general name of a group of nations belonging to the Aryan family, whose
settlements extend from the Elbe to Kamtschatka, and from the Frozen Sea
to Ragusa on the Adriatic, the whole of Eastern Europe being almost
exclusively occupied by them. The original names of the Slavic tribes
seem to have been Winds, or Wends (_Venedi_), and Serbs. The latter of
these names is spoken of by Procopius as the ancient name common to the
whole Slavic stock. The Slavonians proper are a handsome, tall, and
slender race.

=Sleepers.= Small joists of timber, which form the foundation for the
platform of a battery, and upon which the boards for the flooring are
laid. Also, the undermost timbers of a gun or mortar.

=Sleets.= The parts of a mortar extending from the chamber to the
trunnions, to strengthen that part.

=Sleeves, Gunner’s.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Sliding-rings.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY
CARRIAGE.

=Sligo.= A maritime county in the northwest of Ireland, and the province
of Connaught. It formed part of the kingdom of Connaught previously to
the arrival of the English, in the reign of Henry II. Subsequently it
came into the possession of one of the family of the O’Connors, kings of
Connaught, who was called O’Connor Sligo. After a protracted struggle
between the natives and the English, it fell into the hands of the De
Burgos, who either by force or treaties had made themselves masters of
the greater part of the ancient kingdom of Connaught. It became the
theatre of several conflicts in the war against O’Neil, chieftain of
Tyrone, in the latter part of Elizabeth’s reign. The most remarkable of
these was that with Sir Conyers Clifford, who in attempting to pass into
the country from Roscommon with a body of from 1500 to 2000 men, in
order to relieve Belleek, was attacked in a defile of the Curlew
Mountains by O’Roark, chieftain of Breffney, was himself killed and his
troops were driven back with considerable loss. During the civil wars of
1641, the Irish kept possession of the open country until nearly its
close, when they were reduced to submission by the Parliamentary forces
under Ireton. In the subsequent war of 1688 this country was held by the
forces of King James for some time, but ultimately yielded to the
victorious arms of William III. The French force which landed at
Killalla under Gen. Humbert in 1798, had a severe skirmish at Coloony
with the Limerick militia, commanded by Col. Vereker, afterwards
Viscount Gort, which ended in the retreat of the latter.

=Sligo.= The chief town of the above county, and a seaport, situated on
the mouth of the river Garrogue. In 1641, it was taken without
opposition, by the Parliamentarians, under Sir Charles Coote, who was
afterwards attacked by a force collected by the Roman Catholic
archbishop of Tuam, which retreated in consequence of an alarm being
spread that a large force was approaching to relieve the town. When
retiring they were attacked by the Parliamentarian forces, the
archbishop killed, and on his person was found the important document
exposing the secret communications which took place between Charles I.
and the Irish Catholics. Coote subsequently evacuated the town, which
thence continued in possession of the royalists till the termination of
the war. In 1688 it was taken for King William by the Enniskilleners,
who, in turn, were driven out by Gen. Sarsfield; but the place
ultimately surrendered to the Earl of Granard.

=Sling.= A weapon much in use before the introduction of fire-arms,
consisted of a piece of leather, with a round hole in the middle, and
two cords of about a yard in length. A round pebble being hung in the
leather by cords, the latter were held firmly in the right hand, and
swung rapidly round. When the stone had attained great speed, one string
was disengaged, on which the stone flew off at a tangent, its initial
velocity being the same as it had at the last moment of revolution. This
velocity gives far greater range and force than could be imparted in
mere throwing. The men who used this weapon were called _slingers_.

=Sling.= A leather strap attached to a musket, serving to support it
across the soldier’s back, as occasion may require.

=Sling-cart.= See HAND SLING-CART.

=Slingers.= See SLING.

=Slope Arms.= A word of command in the British service, for placing the
musket upon the shoulder with the butt advanced. In marches, soldiers
are almost invariably permitted to slope arms.

=Slope, Interior.= See INTERIOR SLOPE.

=Slopes.= The approaches to the crest of heights are by slopes, which
may be either gentle or steep. When these slopes are gentle, the fire
from the crest can be made an effective one by reason of its “grazing
action.” Especially will it be so with artillery fire when properly
directed. When slopes are quite steep, the fire will be a plunging one,
and will be apt to pass over the heads of the attacking troops.
Especially will this be the case with the fire of artillery.

=Sloping Swords.= In the British service, is a position of the sword
among cavalry, when the back of the blade rests on the hollow of the
right shoulder, the hilt advanced.

=Slow Time.= The same as common time, by which troops on foot march at
the rate of ninety steps per minute.

=Slow-match.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Slugs.= Cylindrical or cubical pieces of metal, discharged from a gun.

=Slur-bow.= A species of cross-bow formerly used for discharging fire
and arrows.

=Smalcald.= See SCHMALKALD, LEAGUE OF.

=Small-arms.= Are portable fire-arms known as muskets, rifles, carbines,
pistols, etc., and were first invented about the middle of the 14th
century. At first they consisted simply of a tube of iron or copper,
fired from a stand or support. They were loaded with leaden balls, and
were touched off by a lighted match held in the hand. They weighed from
25 to 75 pounds, and consequently two men were required to serve them.
The difficulty of loading these weapons, and the uncertainty of their
effects, as regards range and accuracy, prevented them from coming
rapidly into use, and the cross-bow was for a long time retained as the
principal projectile weapon for infantry. The difficulty of aiming
hand-cannon, arising from their great weight, was in a measure overcome
by making them shorter, and supporting them on a tripod, by means of
trunnions which rested on forks. This arm was called an _arquebuse_
(which see). The next improvement in the arquebuse was to make it
lighter, and inclose it in a piece of wood called the _stock_, the butt
of which was pressed against the left shoulder, while the right hand
applied the match to the vent. It was still very heavy, and in aiming,
the muzzle rested in the crotch of a fork placed in the ground. To give
steadiness to the aim while applying the match to the priming, a species
of lock was next devised, which consisted of a lever holding at its
extremity a lighted match. In firing, the lever was pressed down with
the finger until the lighted end of the match touched the priming. This
apparatus, known as the _serpentine_, continued in use until it was
replaced by the _wheel-lock_, which was invented in Nuremburg, in 1517.
(See WHEEL-LOCK.) The _petronel_ was a wheel-lock arquebuse of larger
caliber and lighter weight than its predecessors. See PETRONEL.

_Musket._--The musket was first introduced by the Spaniards, under
Charles V. The original caliber of the musket was such that 8 round
bullets weighed a pound; the piece was, consequently, so heavy that it
was necessary to fire it from a forked rest inserted in the ground. The
size of the bore was finally reduced to 18 bullets to the pound; and
from this arm was derived the late smooth-bored rifle.

_Rifle._--It is generally stated that the rifle was invented by Gaspard
Zoller, of Vienna, and that it first made its appearance at a
target-practice at Leipsic, in 1498. The first rifle-grooves were made
parallel to the axis of the bore, for the purpose of diminishing the
friction of loading forced or tightly-fitting bullets. It was
accidentally discovered, however, that spiral grooves gave greater
accuracy to the flight of the projectile, but the science of the day was
unable to assign a reason for this superiority, and the form, number,
and twist of the grooves depended on the caprice of individual
gunmakers. About 1600, the rifle began to be used as a military weapon
for firing spherical bullets. In 1729, it was found that good results
could be attained by using oblong projectiles of elliptical form. The
great difficulty, however, of loading the rifle, which was ordinarily
accomplished by the blows of a mallet on a stout iron ramrod, prevented
it from being generally used in regular warfare. The improvements which
have been made of late years have entirely overcome this difficulty, and
rifles have now superseded the smooth-bored arms.

_Muzzle-loading Guns._--The following are among the most prominent
muzzle-loading guns in use prior to 1860:

_The Lancaster Elliptic Rifle._--So called, although the elliptical
rifle is very old. The bore in this rifle is slightly oblate; the twist
found, by experience, to be most advantageous is one turn in 52 inches,
the approved diameter of the bore .498 inch, the length of the barrel
being 32 inches. An eccentricity of .01 inch in half an inch is found
sufficient to make the bullet spin on its axis to the extreme verge of
its flight. The length of the bullet found to answer best with these
rifles is 2¹⁄₄ diameters in length, with a windage of four- or
five-thousandths of an inch.

_Nuthall’s Rifle._--In the ordinary mode of grooving rifles, sharp
angles are left between the groove and “land” (those parts of the
smooth-bore left in their original state after the process of grooving
has been completed). These create great friction with the projectile,
both in loading and discharging. Maj. Nuthall removes these objections
by rounding off the “lands” into the grooves, that is, making them a
series of convex and concave curves, the bore assuming a beautiful
appearance to the eye, for the smoothness and evenness with which the
lands and grooves blend into each other.

_Enfield Rifle._--This rifle has three grooves, taking one complete turn
in 78 inches, firing a bullet resembling the Minié, except that a wooden
cup was substituted for one of iron. Its diameter is .577 of an inch,
its bullet weighs 530 grains, and ranges with great accuracy for 800
yards, and fairly up to 1100. There are also Gen. Boileau’s rifle, and
some others which our space will not admit of our noticing. The
extraordinary efficacy of the breech-loading principles, especially in
combination, have, however, only been very prominent during the wars of
the last few years, and notably in the Prussian campaign of 1864 against
Denmark, and of 1866 against Austria. The successes of the Prussian arms
were attributed in no small degree to the rapidity with which their
troops could fire as compared with the enemy. They had in greater or
less numbers borne these same rifles since 1835, but these were the
first opportunities of using them in warfare. To all other powers, whose
men still carried muzzle-loading rifles, and who had debated, without
practical result, for years past the question of armament with
breech-loaders, soldiers thus armed appeared irresistible. From July,
1866, to the present moment, the hammer and the anvil have been busy
throughout the civilized world in making the weapons of death yet more
deadly. Scarcely two countries seem to have adopted the same plan: each
nation has elaborated a system from among its own inventors. Those
possessing no great reserve of rifles have prepared new arms, but the
majority of governments have been content, in the first instance, to
convert their existing stock into needle-firing breech-loaders of as
good a construction as circumstances would permit. The advantage of
breech-loading is obvious: to be able to insert the charge at the head
of the barrel instead of at its mouth, is to save time and avoid
exposure to hostile fire during the operation of loading and ramming
home, which of necessity involves considerable outstretching of the
limbs. The great condition of success is, that the bullet shall be
propelled with equal force and with equal safety to the rifleman, as
from the muzzle-loader. When a charge is ignited the constituents of the
gunpowder, assuming a gaseous condition under the heat engendered,
expand into a volume of light gas many times greater in bulk than the
powder before occupied. On the amount of this expansion, and its sudden
action on the projectile, the force of the shot depends. Any joint in
the breech-piece through which a portion of this gas can escape, without
having imparted its thrust to the ball, tends, therefore, to lessen the
range and penetration; while the shock of the explosion falling more
severely on this than on any other part of the barrel, tends yet more to
dislocate the breech-piece and diminish the closeness of the joint’s
fit. In weapons which do not call for a long range, as revolvers and
pistols, a perceptible interval is left between the chamber and barrel,
through which much gas escapes; but in rifles, which have range and
penetration as principal objects, there is _prima facie_ ground for
preferring a muzzle-loader. The gas, however, is far from pure as
generated in the barrel, for much water is produced and held in
suspension, while there is also a solid residuum consisting of unburned
materials of the powder. In the muzzle-loader, these clog (or,
technically, foul) the barrel, filling the grooves and rendering the
ramming home of succeeding charges more and more difficult. The effect
is, that a solid mass of unburned matter is gradually forced by ramming
into the head of the barrel, destroying the accuracy and usefulness of
the weapon. In the breech-loader, this solid deposit must be provided
against both ways. The backward throw on firing (for, of course, the
charge explodes with equal power in every direction) tends to force it
into the mechanism of the joints, preventing their proper fit, and
continually augmenting the escape of gas. On the other hand, the deposit
is prevented from accumulating in the barrel by the fact that succeeding
charges are inserted behind it, and, by their explosion, force the solid
matters out at the muzzle. Thus, in the matter of fouling, if the gases
can be prevented from blocking up the breech-apparatus, the
breech-loader has a great advantage over the muzzle-loader. This
protection of the breech-apparatus is the problem which inventors have
had to solve. The following are the most notable among breech-loading
arms:

The American _Springfield_, model of 1873. The barrel is of “low steel,”
caliber .45 inch, rifled with three concentric grooves of equal widths
with the lands, and of the uniform depth of .005 of an inch, and uniform
twist of one complete turn in 22 inches. The _lock-plate_ is 0.175 inch
thick, and let in flush. The exterior metal-work is browned. An open
swivel is attached to the upper band, for stacking arms, instead of
locking bayonets, us heretofore; also a “trowel bayonet” and
“intrenching tool.” Length of rifle-barrel including receiver, 36
inches; carbine, 25.4 inches. Length of rifle-bayonet, 18 inches; crook
of stock, 2¹⁄₂ inches, and distance from butt to trigger, 13¹⁄₂ inches.
Total length of rifle, without bayonet, 51.9; of carbine, 41.3 inches;
weight of rifle without bayonet, 8.38 pounds; of carbine, 6.87 pounds.
Trigger adjusted to pull at 6 to 8 pounds.

_Remington._--This is a magazine-gun, and belongs to that system in
which a fixed chamber is closed by a bolt, by direct action, and in
which the lock is concealed. The magazine is in the tip-stock, and
carries 8 cartridges, which are brought into the chamber by the action
of the trigger; the mechanism is so arranged that no more than one
cartridge can enter the chamber at the same time. The magazine is loaded
from below, and in any position of the bolt.

_Sharps._--See SHARPS RIFLE.

_Spencer._--A magazine-gun, holding 7 cartridges which are brought one
by one into the chamber by a movement of the trigger-guard as a lever,
which at the same time throws out the shell of the exploded cartridge. A
new magazine can be inserted whenever the cartridges have been
exhausted, or the magazine may be shut off and the rifle used as a
single breech-loader.

_Winchester._--Same pattern as the Spencer.

_Snider Rifle._--So called from its inventor, the essential features of
which are that the breech-block revolves around an axis on the right of
and parallel to the axis of the bore, and the firing-pin passes
obliquely from the nose of the hammer, through the breech-block, to the
centre of the base of the cartridge. This was the first form of
breech-loaders adopted by the British government, which in 1866 directed
that the old Enfield muzzle-loaders should be altered to breech-loaders
upon this system.

_Martini-Henry._--Adopted by the British government, has a
breech-loading apparatus on the Martini system united to a barrel rifled
on the system of Henry, a gunmaker of Scotland. Martini, a Swiss,
derived his system of breech-loading from the Peabody system of the
United States by dispensing with the independent outside lock and
substituting therefor a spiral-spring firing-bolt or striker, inclosed
in the breech-block; the number of grooves is seven; in shape they are
flat at the bottom; the lands are narrow, having the appearance of sharp
ribs, which are designed to take a firm hold of the bullet. It is
understood that these grooves are made somewhat deeper at the breech
than at the muzzle. The twist is one turn in 22 inches. There is a brass
collar around the head of the ramrod to prevent injury to the bore in
wiping out. The weight of the rifle is 8¹⁄₂ pounds; of bayonet 14¹⁄₂
ounces. The weight of rifle with bayonet attached 9 pounds 11 ounces.

_Mauser Rifle._--This rifle is used in Prussia, and is a modification
of the Chassépot system, by which it is adapted to the use of the
metallic gas-check cartridge. It was invented in 1871. The mechanism of
this gun is much simpler than the needle-gun, and has a longer range.

_Chassépot Rifle._--The Chassépot rifle is used in France, and was
introduced shortly after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. In its
principal features it resembled the Prussian needle-gun, inasmuch as the
breech was closed with a sliding-bolt, and it fired a self-primed
paper-case cartridge, which was ignited by a needle impelled by a spiral
spring. Unlike the needle-gun, however, it was provided with a
gas-check, which was of the form of a thick india-rubber disk or
packing, attached to the end of the breech-bolt, and it possessed the
modern improvements of reduced caliber and rapid twist of the
rifle-grooves for obtaining great range and accuracy of fire. The
Chassépot was the principal arm used by the French army during the
German war. Since that time efforts have been made to adapt it to fire
the modern metallic-case cartridge. The plan of alteration to this end
adopted by the French authorities is that submitted by Capt. Gras of the
French artillery committee. The length of the bore, including the
chamber, is 32.28 inches; the length of the complete arm, without
sabre-bayonet, is 50.8 inches; and with the bayonet it is about 72.0
inches. The weight with the bayonet is 10.3 pounds; without the bayonet,
8.9 pounds. The grooves are four in number, and of a width equal to that
of the lands; the depth of the grooves is 0.0118 inch; the twist is one
turn in 21.6 inches, and is from right to left instead of from left to
right, according to the usual practice. The pull on the trigger is
thought to disturb the aim by carrying the muzzle of the arm slightly to
the right; the object of grooving the barrel to the left is to correct
this disturbance by the drift which follows the direction of the twist.
The initial velocity is stated to be 420 metres (about 1377 feet), and
the effective range extends to 1700 yards, about one mile. The rapidity
of fire is 15 times per minute. The Russian army is armed with two
patterns of _Berdan_ breech-loaders. One lot of 30,000, in which the
breech-block swings upward and forward, was manufactured by the Colt’s
Patent Fire-Arms Company, Hartford, Conn., and a second lot of 30,000 on
a sliding breech-bolt system made in Birmingham, England. The
latter-named arm was adopted for the entire Russian army. The following
are the principal dimensions: Diameter of bore (caliber), 0.42 inch;
length of barrel, 30.43 inches; total length of arm without bayonet,
50.38 inches; length of arm with bayonet, 70.38 inches; number of
grooves, 6; twist, one turn in 20 inches; weight of arm with bayonet,
9.75 pounds.

_Vetterlin Rifle._--Is a repeating rifle used in the Swiss service, and
is a Swiss invention, the peculiarity of which is the union of a
cartridge magazine with a sliding-bolt-breech system. The following are
the principal dimensions: Caliber, 0.41 inch; number of grooves, 4;
depth of grooves, 0.0086 inch; width of grooves, 0.0177 inch; twist of
grooves, 26 inches; length of barrel, 33.14 inches; length of arm
without bayonet, 51.18 inches; length of arm with bayonet, 70.08 inches;
weight of arm without bayonet, 10.14 pounds; with bayonet, 11.02; weight
of rifle with magazine filled, 12.12 pounds; initial velocity, 1341
feet.

_Werndl Rifle._--Adopted in the Austrian service in place of the
alteration of Wanzl, is the invention of Joseph Werndl, a gun
manufacturer of Styria, and is applied to muskets, carbines, and
pistols. The breech-block in this system vibrates around an axis
parallel to and below the axis of the bore prolonged to the rear of the
chamber. The barrel of the musket is made of cast steel. Its length is
33.14 inches, including the chamber, which is 2.07 inches. Its weight is
3.83 pounds. The rifle-grooves are six in number, and their depth is
0.007 inch. The lands are 0.07 inch wide, and the grooves 0.15 inch. The
twist is one turn in 28.5 inches. The total length of arm, including
sabre-bayonet, 73.0 inches, while its weight, including the bayonet, is
about 11.5 pounds; without the bayonet the length is 50.5 inches, and
the weight 9.85 pounds. The barrel, bands, and sights are browned.

_Werder Rifle._--Adopted in 1869 for the Bavarian army, is the invention
of J. L. Werder of Nuremberg, and is known as the Werder system. It
belongs to the class of falling breech-blocks, of which the Peabody may
be considered the exponent in this country. It differs, however, from
this and most other guns of this class, as the breech-block is opened
and closed by the hammer instead of the lever-guard, giving, as claimed,
greater safety and ease of manipulation, especially when the soldier
loads lying on the ground. The rifle-grooves are four in number, their
depth is 0.0075, and twist is one turn in 22 inches. The diameter of the
bore is 0.435; the length of the barrel, including chamber, but
exclusive of breech-frame, is 35.0; the weight of the arm without
bayonet, 9.75 pounds. The breech-loaders with and without the
needle-arrangement are too numerous to mention, but the most notable are
given above. See MAGAZINE GUNS, and LYMAN’S MULTI-CHARGE GUN.

_Revolver._--In fire-arms, is a weapon which, by means of a revolving
breech, or revolving barrels, can be made to fire more than once without
reloading. The invention is very far from new, specimens, with even the
present system of rotation, being still in existence, which were
manufactured at the beginning of the 17th century. Probably the first
revolver to suggest itself was one in which several barrels were mounted
on an axis, and made to revolve by the action of the trigger, so that
their powder-pans came successively under the action of the lock. This
principle was never entirely abandoned, and in the reign of George IV.
was produced a pistol called the “Mariette,” which had from 4 to 24
small barrels bored in a solid mass of metal, made to revolve as the
trigger was drawn back. At close quarters, such a pistol would doubtless
have been useful; but its great weight and cumbrous mechanism rendered
aim extremely unsteady. Contemporaneously from the first with the
revolving barrels, went the formation of a revolving chamber or breech,
pierced with several cylindrical apertures to receive the charges. Being
made to revolve, each motion brought a chamber into line with the one
barrel, common to all, whereupon the weapon was ready for use. Numerous
patents for this principle have been taken out, including one by the
celebrated Marquis of Worcester in 1661. Various improvements were made,
especially in the mode of causing revolution; an American patented such
a weapon in the United States and England about 1818. In 1835, Col.
Samuel Colt brought to a conclusion experiments of some years’ standing,
and patented his world-renowned Colt’s revolver, which was a great
advance on all previous attempts, and is substantially still in use. The
fame attached to Colt’s revolvers renders them so well known as to
require but little introduction necessary. This make is now extensively
used in the United States, and indeed in almost every country of the
world, and seems not to lose favor anywhere. The barrel is rifle-bored.
The lever-ramrod renders wadding or patch unnecessary, and secures the
charge against moisture, or becoming loose by rough handling or hard
riding. The hammer, when at full cock, forms the sight by which to take
aim, and is readily raised at full cock by the thumb, with one hand. The
movements of the revolving chamber and hammer are ingeniously arranged
and combined. The breech, containing six cylindrical cells for holding
the powder and ball, moves one-sixth of a revolution at a time; it can
only be fired when the chamber and the barrel are in a direct line. The
base of the cylinder being cut externally into a circular ratchet of six
teeth (the lever which moves the ratchet being attached to the hammer);
as the hammer is raised in the act of cocking, the cylinder is made to
revolve, and to revolve in one direction only; while the hammer is
falling the chamber is firmly held in position by a lever fitted for the
purpose; when the hammer is raised the lever is removed, and the chamber
is released. So long as the hammer remains at half-cock, the chamber is
free and can be loaded at pleasure. Col. Colt has improved on this
patent. Revolvers made by Remington, Smith & Wesson, Daw, Adams & Dean,
and others, are mostly on the same principle as the Colt.

=Smart-money.= In England, the money which was paid by the person who
had taken the enlisting money, in order to get released from an
engagement entered into previous to a regular enlistment. Also, money
allowed to soldiers or sailors in the British service for wounds or
injuries received.

=Smite.= To destroy the life of by beating, or by weapons of any kind;
to slay by a blow; to kill; as, to smite one with the sword, or with an
arrow or other weapon. Also, to beat or put to rout in battle; to
destroy or overthrow by war.

=Smoke-ball.= Is a hollow sphere similar to a light-ball, and filled
with a composition which emits a dense, nauseous smoke; it is employed
to suffocate the enemy’s miners when at work, or to conceal one’s own
operations; it burns from 25 to 30 minutes.

=Smolensk.= A fortified town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, 250 miles west-southwest from Moscow. The French in a most
sanguinary engagement here were three times repulsed, but ultimately
succeeded in entering Smolensk, and found the city which had been
bombarded burning and partly in ruins, August 16-17, 1812. Barclay de
Tolly, the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the
emperor Alexander because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff
succeeded to the command.

=Smooth-bore Projectile.= See PROJECTILE, SPHERICAL PROJECTILES.

=Smyrna.= One of the most ancient and important cities of Asia Minor,
and the only one of the Greek cities on the western coast which has
retained its name and importance to the present day. At an early period
it fell into the hands of the Ionians of Colophon; it became a member of
the Panionic Confederacy. Its early history is obscure; but thus much is
clear, however, that at some period the old city of Smyrna, which stood
on the northeast side of the Hermaean Gulf (now the Gulf of Smyrna), was
abandoned, and that it was succeeded by a new city, on the southeast
side of the same gulf (the present site), which is said to have been
built by Antigonus. It had a magnificent harbor, the largest ships could
lie alongside the quays. In the civil wars it was taken and partly
destroyed by Dolabella, but it soon recovered. In the successive wars
under the Eastern empire it was frequently much injured, but always
recovered. After various vicissitudes during the Middle Ages, the city
fell finally into the hands of the Turks, in whose possession it has
since remained.

=Snaffle-bit.= A kind of slender bit, having a joint in the part to be
placed in the mouth.

=Snaphance.= An old musket of the 17th and first half of the 18th
centuries, called also _asnaphan_. See GUN.

=Snare-drum.= The smaller, common military drum, as distinguished from
the bass-drum;--so called because (in order to render it more resonant)
there is stretched across its lower head a catgut string, or collection
of strings.

=Snick and Snee.= A combat with knives such as the Dutch carry.

=Snider Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Soanes.= A powerful people of the Caucasus, governed by a king who
could bring 200,000 soldiers into the field. They are also called Suani
and Suanocolchi.

=Sobraon.= A town of Northwest India, on the left bank of the Sutlej, 25
miles east-northeast of Ferozpur (or Ferozepoore), near which, on
February 10, 1846, a most obstinate battle was fought between the
British army under Sir Hugh Gough and a Sikh force numbering about
35,000. The Sikhs were strongly intrenched, and vigorously resisted the
attacks of their opponents, but the courage and perseverance of the
latter ultimately gave them the mastery; the various earthworks were
captured in succession, and the Sikhs driven across the Sutlej, with a
loss in killed, wounded, and drowned of 13,000. Gough immediately
followed up his victory by crossing into the Punjab in pursuit of the
fleeing enemy.

=Social War.= A celebrated contest between the Socii of Italy and the
city of Rome, which lasted from 91 B.C. till 89, and was the most
formidable war ever carried on in Italy during the dominion of the
Romans. It arose from the desire of the Italians to be placed on a
footing of equality with the Romans. Nearly 300,000 lives were
sacrificed in the contest, and numerous towns destroyed. The senate of
Rome were at length compelled to grant the franchise and all other
privileges, which they at first absolutely refused to the Italians.

=Socket.= Generally means any hollow pipe that receives something
inserted.

=Socket of a Bayonet.= The round hollow near the bent or heel of a
bayonet, into which the muzzle of a fire-arm is received when the
bayonet is fixed.

=Sogdiana.= The northeastern province of the ancient Persian empire,
separated on the south from Bactriana and Margiana by the upper course
of the Oxus; on the east and north from Scythia by the Sogdii Comedarum
and Oxii Mountains, and by the upper course of the Iaxartes, and bounded
on the northwest by the great deserts east of the Sea of Aral. It was
conquered by Cyrus, and afterwards by Alexander. After the Macedonian
conquest it was subject to the kings, first of Syria and then of
Bactria, till it was overrun by the barbarians. The natives of the
country were a wild, warlike people of the great Arian race, resembling
the Bactrians in their character and customs.

=Soissons= (anc. _Noviodunum_, subsequently _Augusta Suessonum_). A town
of France, in the department of Aisne, on the banks of the river Aisne,
about 65 miles northeast of Paris. It was subdued by Julius Cæsar, 57
B.C.; held by Syagrius, after his father Ægidius, till his defeat by
Clovis, 486.

=Solaks.= Were bowmen or archers belonging to the personal guard of the
grand seignor. They were always selected from the most expert bowmen
that were among the Janissaries. Their only arms were the sabre, bow,
and arrows.

=Soldan.= The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which
they bore in their provinces and armies. These officers afterwards made
themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of King Noureddin
of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1165,
after having killed the caliph Caym.

=Soldier.= Is one who enters into an obligation to some chieftain or
government to devote for a specified period his whole energies, and even
if necessary his life itself, to the furtherance of the policy of that
chief or government. The consideration may be immediate pay, or
prospective reward; or the contract may be merely an act of loyal
devotion. The acknowledgment of the service by the employer constitutes
the man a recognized soldier, and empowers him to take life in open
warfare, without being liable to the penalties of an assassin and a
robber. The fact of being mercenary--that is, of receiving wages for
killing and being killed--does not render a soldier’s trade less
honorable. He bears arms that others may be able to do without them; he
is precluded by the exigencies of military training from maintaining
himself by peaceful occupation; and it is therefore but fair that those
whom he protects should support him, and give him, over and above actual
maintenance, reasonable wages for the continual risk of his life. If a
man willingly enlist himself as a soldier in what he believes to be an
unrighteous cause, it is an act of moral turpitude; but when once
enlisted, the soldier ceases to be morally responsible for the justice
or iniquity of the war he wages; that rests with his employer.
Obedience, implicit and entire, is his sole virtue. The maxim is, “The
military force never deliberates, but always obeys.” _Brother soldier_
is a term of affection which is commonly used by one who serves under
the same banners, and fights for the same cause, with another. In a more
extensive signification, it means any military man with respect to
another.

=Soldier of Fortune.= During the frequent wars which occurred in Italy,
before the military profession became so generally prevalent in Europe,
it was usual for men of enterprise and reputation to offer their
services to the different states that were engaged. They were originally
called _condottieri_, or leaders of reputation. They afterwards extended
their sphere of action, and under the title of _soldiers of fortune_,
sought for employment in every country or state that would pay them.

=Soldiering.= The estate of being a soldier; the occupation of a
soldier.

=Soldierly.= Like, or becoming, a real soldier; brave; martial; heroic;
honorable.

=Soldiers’ Friend.= A term in the military service which is generally
applied to such officers as pay the strictest attention to their men;
granting them reasonable indulgences without injuring the service;
seeing their wants relieved; and, above all things, enforcing just
dealings and the most prompt settlements. There is much confidence in
the multitude when they are justly dealt by, and every soldier fights
well under the guidance of a soldiers’ friend.

=Soldiers’ Homes.= In the United States, are homes of a permanent
character established by the general government for the benefit of old
soldiers, or men who were disabled in the military service of their
country. The “Soldiers’ Home,” which is situated about 3¹⁄₂ miles from
the Capitol of Washington, was founded in compliance with provisions of
act of Congress dated March 3, 1851. It contains about 470 acres, some
of which is cultivated for garden produce, flowers, etc., and the
remainder forms a magnificent park. In 1848, Gen. Scott forwarded to the
Secretary of War the sum of $118,791.19, levied on Mexico during the war
with that country, for the benefit of the soldiers of the U. S. army,
and he requested that this amount might be set aside for the
construction of an army asylum. The following funds are also set apart
for the maintenance of the “Soldiers’ Home”: All stoppages or fines
adjudged against soldiers by sentence of courts-martial, over and above
any amount that may be due for the reimbursement of government or
individuals; all forfeitures on account of desertion; and all moneys
belonging to the estate of deceased soldiers, which are now or may
hereafter be unclaimed for the period of three years subsequent to the
death of said soldier or soldiers, to be repaid by the commissioners of
the institution, upon the demand of the heirs or legal representatives
of the deceased; also the sum of 12¹⁄₂ cents per month is stopped from
every non-commissioned officer, musician, artificer, and private of the
U. S. army. The following persons, members of the “Soldiers’ Home,” are
entitled to the rights and benefits of the institution, viz.: Every
soldier of the army of the United States who has served, or may serve,
honestly and faithfully, twenty years in the same, and every discharged
soldier, who has suffered by reason of disease or wounds incurred in the
service and in the line of his duty, rendering him incapable of further
military service, if such disability has not been occasioned by his own
misconduct. No deserter, mutineer, or habitual drunkard is received into
the institution without such evidence of subsequent service, good
conduct, and reformation of character as the commissioners may deem
sufficient to authorize his admission. There are three commissioners
designated to administer the affairs of the asylum, namely, the
commissary-general of subsistence, the surgeon-general, and the
adjutant-general, whose duty it is to examine and audit the accounts of
the treasurer quarter-yearly, and to visit and inspect the “Home” at
least once in every month. The officers of the institution consist of a
governor, a deputy governor, and a secretary and treasurer, who, with a
medical officer, are detailed from the active or retired list of the
army. Inmates of this institution receive a small allowance of
pocket-money per month, and they are also paid for any labor they can
perform. About $8 per month is allowed to old soldiers, who, having
families, are permitted to live elsewhere than at the “Home.” There was
also incorporated by the act of Congress dated March 3, 1865, “the
National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers,” which consists of the
central asylum, at Dayton, Ohio, the eastern branch at Augusta, Me., and
the northwestern branch at Milwaukee, Wis. This asylum is kept up by
annual appropriations of Congress. There are similar institutions for
old and disabled soldiers in Europe. See ASYLUM, ROYAL MILITARY, and
HÔTEL DES INVALIDES.

=Soldiers’ Thigh.= When tight breeches were worn in the British army,
the term had its peculiar military application, from the notorious
poverty of army men. _Soldiers’ thigh_ figuratively meant an empty
purse; or speaking familiarly, a pair of breeches that sit close and
look smooth, because the pockets have nothing in them.

=Soldiership.= A term which is rarely used; it means military qualities;
military character or state; martial skill; behavior becoming a soldier.

=Soldiery.= A body of soldiers collectively considered; the military. “A
camp of faithful soldiery.”

=Solduriers= (_Fr._). A term anciently used among the French, to signify
those persons who attached themselves to some particular general or
military knight, whose fortunes they followed, in consequence of being
paid and supported by him.

=Sole.= The bottom or lower surface of an embrasure.

=Solferino.= A village of Northern Italy, province of Brescia, 20 miles
northeast from Mantua. Here, in 1796, the French conquered the
Austrians, and on June 24, 1859, it was again the scene of an
overwhelming victory obtained by the French and Italians over the
Austrians.

=Soli.= An ancient town of Asia Minor, on the coast of Cilicia. In the
war between Mithridates and the Romans, Soli was destroyed by Tigranes,
but subsequently rebuilt by Pompey, who settled there many of the
pirates whom he had captured, and called the town after himself,
Pompeiapolis.

=Solicinium.= A town in Roman Germany, on the mountain Pirus, where
Valentinian gained a victory over the Alemanni in 369, probably in the
neighborhood of the modern Heidelberg.

=Solid Shot.= See PROJECTILE.

=Solid Square.= A square body of troops; a body in which the ranks and
files are equal.

=Sollerets= (_Fr._). Armor for the feet.

=Somma.= A town of Italy, Lombardy, not far from the Tecino, near the
foot of Lake Maggiore, 27 miles northwest of Milan. It was near Somma
that Hannibal gained his first victory on Italian ground, completely
defeating the Romans under Scipio, 218 B.C.

=Somnauth=, or =Somnath-Putten=. A town of Guzerat, in Hindostan, is
situated on the southwest coast of the peninsula of Kattywar. In 1024,
Mahmud of Ghizni, the zealous idol-destroyer, appeared before Somnauth,
drove its defenders to take refuge in the temple, where they defended
themselves with such valor that Mahmud’s army was forced to retreat; but
the subsequent rout of two Hindu armies which had advanced to the aid of
the sacred city so dispirited the defenders, that Somnauth was
immediately surrendered, the idol destroyed, and the enormous wealth of
the temple carried off, along with the gates of the temple.

=Songhay.= A former kingdom of Africa. In 1468-1469 the ruler of Songhay
marched upon Timbuctoo, and conquered the town and surrounding state.
Under Háj Mohammed Askia, who came into power at the end of the 15th
century, and who was perhaps the greatest sovereign that ever ruled over
Negroland, the Songhay empire extended from Hausa almost to the shores
of the Atlantic, and from lat. 12° N. to the confines of Morocco. After
many years of revolution and civil war, this great empire became a
province of Morocco in 1607.

=Sonthals.= A tribe of Northern India, brought to Bengal about 1830,
where they prospered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic,
and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, they broke out into
rebellion in July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages. They were quite
subdued early in 1856, and many were removed to the newly-conquered
province of Pegu.

=Sooloo=, or =Suluk Islands=. A group of the East Indian Archipelago.
The sultan of Sooloo and his subordinate chiefs were formerly notorious
for their piracy, and kept up a large fleet for that purpose; but their
power was entirely broken by the Spaniards in 1851.

=Sora.= A town of Naples, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, 15 miles
east-northeast from Frosinone. Sora was originally a Volscian city; was
seized by the Romans in 345 B.C., and subsequently made a colony; but in
315 the inhabitants rose against the Romans, and joined their enemies,
the Samnites. It was not finally secured as a Roman colony till the end
of the second Samnite war in 303.

=Sorn.= Formerly a servile tenure in Scotland, by which a chieftain
might, with his followers, live upon his tenants at free quarters.

=Sorties= (Fr. _sortir_). In a siege, parties who sally out of a town
secretly to annoy the besiegers, and retard their operations.

=Sottiates=, or =Sotiates=. A powerful and warlike people in Gallia
Aquitanica, on the frontiers of Gallia Narbonensis, were subdued by P.
Crassus, Cæsar’s legate, after a hard-fought battle. The modern _Sos_
probably represents the ancient town of this people.

=Sound.= The velocity of sound in the air, at the temperature of 32°
Fahr., is about 1090 feet in a second. It is increased or diminished
1.07 feet for each degree of temperature above or below 32°. The
distance of an object can be ascertained by the report of fire-arms, by
observing the number of seconds that elapse between the flash and the
report of a gun, and multiplying the number by the velocity of sound in
air.

=Sound, To.= To betoken or direct by a sound; as, to sound the retreat;
sound the assembly, etc.

=Sourabaya=, =Soerabaya=, =Soorabaya=, or =Surabaya=. A large seaport
town of Java, on the northeast coast. When the French had possession of
Java, the French government resolved to make Sourabaya a port of
consequence. Gen. Daendels expended large sums in the construction of
works for the defense of the harbor, and was proceeding in his plans
when the island was taken by the British.

=South Carolina.= An Atlantic State of the American Union, of a
triangular form, with North Carolina and Georgia on its inland sides. It
is said to have been discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De
Leon in 1512, and to be permanently settled by the English about 1660.
The province was divided into North and South in 1729. The Carolinas
were slave States. Great excitement prevailed in them in November, 1860,
on account of Mr. Abraham Lincoln’s election to the presidency of the
United States, he being strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina
began the secession from the United States December 20, 1861. The State
was restored to the Union in June, 1868. This State took an active part
in the civil war (1861-65), on the Confederate side. See CHARLESTON,
COLUMBIA, MORRIS ISLAND, MOULTRIE, FORT SUMTER, etc.

=Southern Confederacy.= See CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA.

=Sow.= A kind of covered shed, formerly used by besiegers in filling up
and passing the ditch of a besieged place, sapping or mining the wall,
and the like. It had its name from its being used for rooting up the
earth like swine, or because the soldiers therein were like pigs under a
sow.

=Sowar.= A trooper in an Indian cavalry regiment.

=Space.= A quantity or portion of extension; the interval between any
two or more objects; as, the space between ranks.

=Spadroon.= A sword much lighter than a broadsword, and made both to cut
and thrust.

=Spahis.= Were the cavaliers furnished by the holders of military fiefs
to the Turkish army, and formed the _élite_ of its cavalry. The Spahis
along with the Janissaries owe their organization primarily to Orchan,
the second of the Ottoman sultans, finally to Sultan Amurath I., and
when levied _en masse_ could number 140,000, but such a levy was very
seldom called for. In the field they were divided into two classes,
distinguished by the color (red and yellow) of their standards. One
class had pistols and carbines, the other bows and arrows, and both
carried a sabre, lance, and _jerid_, or javelin. They were excellent
irregular troops; but when European organization was introduced into the
Turkish army, they were replaced (1826) by regular horse. At the present
time the French have numerous regiments of Spahis, raised from among the
native tribes of Algeria and from France in about equal proportions; the
dress, especially of the indigenous soldiers, partakes very much of the
Arab character. The natives are allowed to rise to any grade below that
of captain; but all the superior officers are of French descent.

=Spain.= A kingdom of Europe, occupying the larger portion of the great
peninsula which forms the southwestern corner of the European continent,
reaching farther south than any other European country, and farther west
than any except Portugal. Spain, the _Spania_, _Hispania_, and _Iberia_
of the Greeks, and known to the Romans by the same names, was inhabited
at the period at which it first receives historical mention, by a people
deriving their origin from different races. It is supposed to have been
originally inhabited by a distinct race called Iberians; upon whom,
however, a host of Celts are supposed to have descended from the
Pyrenees. In the earliest times of which we have any record, these two
races had already coalesced and formed the mixed nation of the
Celtiberians. The Phœnicians and Carthaginians successively planted
colonies on the coasts of Spain about 360 B.C.; and the Romans conquered
the whole country, 206 B.C., which they erected into a Roman province,
consisting of two political divisions,--_Hispania Citerior_ (Hither
Spain) and _Hispania Ulterior_ (Farther Spain). From the time of the
complete supremacy of the Romans till the death of Constantine, the
condition of Spain was eminently prosperous. In 409, hordes of
barbarians, Alans, Vandals, and Suevi, crossed the Pyrenees, and swept
over and desolated the peninsula; about 412, the Visigoths invaded the
country, and their king, Athaulf, who acknowledged a nominal dependence
on the Roman emperor, established the Gothic monarchy in Catalonia. The
battle of Xerxes in 711 gave the Moors almost undisputed mastery of
nearly the whole of Spain, as well as of the outlying Gothic province of
Septimania (Languedoc) in Franco. The Moors held Spain, for the first
few years of their rule, as a dependency of the province of North
Africa; but, after the downfall of Muza and his son Abd-el-aziz, who had
been the deputy-governor of Spain, the country was governed (1717) by
emirs appointed by the caliph of Damascus. The favorite scheme pursued
by the Spanish emirs was the extension of their conquests into Gaul, to
the neglect of the rising power of the Goths in Asturias; they also took
the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica, and part of Apulia and
Calabria; but their northward progress was signally checked on the plain
of Tours by Charles Martel. Anarchy and bloodshed were prominent
features of the first forty years of Mohammedan rule in Spain. Within
this period of forty years, no fewer than twenty emirs had been called
to the direction of affairs; but a revolution at Damascus, which
unseated the Ommiades, and placed the Abbasides in possession of the
caliphate, put an end to this state of misrule in Spain. The Moors at
length suffered a great defeat at Tarifa, by Alfonso XI. of Castile in
1340, and nearly the whole Christian dominions of Spain were united in
one monarchy in 1479; but the power of the Moors was not finally
extirpated until 1492, when Spain was consolidated into one empire from
the Pyrenees to the Strait of Gibraltar. But the expulsion of the Moors
and Jews was productive of the direst results, and the decline of the
splendid Spanish empire may be said to have had its origin in the event
which raised the country to the height of its magnificence. In the reign
of Charles I., Mexico and Peru were added to the possessions of Spain.
Philip II., by his enormous war expenditure and maladministration, laid
a sure foundation for the decline of the country; and the reigns of
Philip III. and Philip IV. witnessed a fearful acceleration in the
decline of Spain by the contests with the Dutch, and with the German
Protestants in the Thirty Years’ War, the intermeddling in the affairs
of Northern Italy, the rebellion of the Catalans, the wars with France,
and the rebellion of Portugal (1640), which had been united to Spain by
Philip II. That of Charles II. was still more unfortunate, and the death
of the latter was the occasion of the War of the Spanish Succession.
(See SUCCESSION WARS.) During the inglorious reign of Charles IV.
(1788-1808), a war broke out with Britain, which was productive of
nothing but disaster to the Spaniards, and by the pressure of the French
another arose in 1804, and was attended with similar ill success.
Charles abdicated in favor of his eldest son, the prince of the
Asturias, who ascended the throne as Ferdinand VII. Forced by Napoleon
to resign all claims to the Spanish throne, Ferdinand became a prisoner
of the French in the year of his accession, and in the same year Joseph,
the brother of the French emperor, was declared king of Spain. But an
armed resistance was organized throughout the whole country, and the
supreme junta, that of Seville, declared war against Napoleon and France
on June 6, 1808. In July, England, on solicitation, made peace with
Spain, recognized Ferdinand VII. as king, and sent an army to aid the
Spanish insurrection. This war lasted until the beginning of 1814, when
the allied armies of England, Spain, and Portugal were thoroughly
victorious. For important events which took place during this war, see
appropriate headings in this work. Ferdinand VII. treated the subjects
who had shown him devoted loyalty with infamous ingratitude, and
subsequently obtained the aid of France to establish despotism. The
reign of his daughter Isabella II. was disturbed by the Carlist
rebellion in 1834-39, in which the British aided the queen with an army
under Sir De Lacy Evans. The next events of importance were the contest
between Espartero, the regent, and Queen-dowager Christina, for the
supreme power during the minority of the queen; Espartero’s flight
before O’Donnell and Narvaez (1843); his restoration in 1847; banishment
of Queen Christina (1854); formation of the O’Donnell ministry (1858);
war with Morocco and annexation of St. Domingo (1861); war with Peru and
Chili (1864-65), and permanent truce in 1871; Prince Amadeus of Savoy
declared king in December, 1870; abdication, February, 1873;
insurrection of Don Carlos, 1873-76, when Prince Alfonso, son of Queen
Isabella, became king. For more specific history of provinces and cities
of Spain, see appropriate headings.

=Spancelled.= In heraldry, a term applied to a horse, two of whose legs
are fettered by a log of wood.

=Spandau.= A fortified town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg,
7 miles west from Berlin. It was taken by the Swedes in 1631, and by the
French in 1806.

=Spanish Fury, The.= A name given, in history, to the attack upon
Antwerp by the Spaniards, November 4, 1576, which resulted in the
pillage and burning of the place, and a monstrous massacre of the
inhabitants.

=Spanish War of Succession.= See SUCCESSION WARS.

=Spare-pole.= See ORDNANCE.

=Spare-pole Key.= See ORDNANCE.

=Spare-pole Ring.= See ORDNANCE.

=Spare-wheel Axle.= See ORDNANCE.

=Sparta.= Also called Lacedæmon, the capital of Laconia and the chief
city of Peloponnesus, was situated on the right bank of the Eurotas (now
_Iri_), about 20 miles from the sea. Sparta was never surrounded by
walls, since the bravery of its citizens and the difficulty of access to
it were supposed to render such defense needless. In the mythical
period, Argos was the chief city in Peloponnesus, and Sparta is
represented as subject to it. The Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus,
which, according to tradition, took place eighty years after the Trojan
war, made Sparta the capital of the country. The oldest inhabitants of
the country maintained themselves at Amyclæ, which was not conquered for
a long time. From various causes the Spartans became distracted by
intestine quarrels, till at length Lycurgus gave a new constitution to
the state. This constitution laid the foundation of Sparta’s greatness.
She soon became aggressive, and gradually extended her sway over the
greater part of Peloponnesus. In 743 B.C. the Spartans attacked
Messenia, and after a war of twenty years subdued this country. In 685
the Messenians again took up arms, but at the end of seventeen years
were again completely subdued, and their country from this time forward
became an integral part of Laconia. After the close of the second
Messenian war, the Spartans continued their conquests in Peloponnesus.
They defeated the Tegeans, and wrested the district of Thyreæ from the
Argives. At the time of the Persian invasion they were confessedly the
first people in Greece; and to them was granted by unanimous consent the
chief command in war. But after the final defeat of the Persians, the
haughtiness of Pausanias, king of Sparta, disgusted most of the Greek
states, and led them to transfer the supremacy to Athens (477). From
this time the power of Athens steadily increased, and Sparta possessed
little influence outside of the Peloponnesus. The Spartans made several
attempts to check the rising greatness of Athens, and their jealousy of
the latter led at length to the Peloponnesian war (431). This war ended
in the overthrow of Athens, and the restoration of the supremacy of
Sparta over the rest of Greece (404). But the Spartans did not retain
this supremacy more than thirty years. Their decisive defeat by the
Thebans, under Epaminondas, at the battle of Leuctra (371), gave the
Spartan power a shock from which it never recovered; and the restoration
of the Messenians to their country two years afterward completed the
humiliation of Sparta. Thrice was the Spartan territory invaded by the
Thebans, and the Spartan women saw for the first time the watch-fires of
an enemy’s camp. The Spartans now finally lost their supremacy over
Greece; and about thirty years afterward the greater part of Greece was
obliged to yield to Philip of Macedon. The Spartans, however, kept
haughtily aloof from the Macedonian conqueror, and refused to take part
in the Asiatic expedition of his son, Alexander the Great. The power of
Sparta continued to decline until the beginning of the reign of
Cleomenes III. (236), whose reforms for a time infused new blood into
the state, and for a short time he carried on war with success against
the Achæans. But Aratus, the general of the Achæans, called in the
assistance of Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, who defeated Cleomenes
at the decisive battle of Sellasia (221), and followed up his success by
the capture of Sparta. Sparta now sank into insignificance, and was
ruled by a succession of native tyrants, till at length it was compelled
to abolish its peculiar institutions, and to join the Achæan League.
Shortly afterward it fell, with the rest of Greece, under the Roman
power. The Spartans were a race of stern, cruel, resolute, rude, and
narrow-minded warriors, capable of a momentary self-sacrificing
patriotism, but utterly destitute of the capacity for adopting or
appreciating a permanently noble and wise policy.

=Spartans.= See SPARTA.

=Sparthe.= An Anglo-Saxon term for a halbert or battle-axe.

=Sparum.= A kind of dart, which was used by the ancients in war, and was
shot out of a cross-bow. The wound it occasioned was extremely
dangerous, as its point was triangular. Several of these darts were
discharged in a volley.

=Spatterdashes.= Were a kind of covering for the legs of soldiers, made
of cloth, or coarse linen waxed over, and buttoned tight, by which the
wet was kept off.

=Spatts.= Were a kind of spatterdashes, that reached only a little above
the ankle.

=Spayade.= In heraldry, a stag in his third year; a spay.

=Spear.= A lance or long weapon with a sharp point, formerly used as a
manual or missile weapon. Pliny ascribes the invention of the spear to
the Etolians. The spear of the Greeks was generally of ash, with a
leaf-shaped head of metal, and furnished with a pointed ferrule at the
butt, with which it was stuck in the ground; a method used, according to
Homer, when the troops rested on their arms, or slept upon their
shields. The cross spear-heads of the Britons were all pyramidal,
narrowing at the base. The heads of the Anglo-Saxon spears were
exceedingly long, and sometimes dreadfully barbed.

=Spear-hand.= The hand in which a horseman holds a spear; the right
hand.

=Spear-head.= The pointed end of a spear.

=Spearman.= One who is armed with a spear.

=Special Duty.= Soldiers may be employed on duties not strictly
military, when the exigencies of the service require it, for the reason
that they are incident to the operations of an army; as, mechanics,
laborers, cooks, and attendants in hospitals, clerks, scouts, etc.
Soldiers when detailed on these duties are generally reported on special
or extra duty, but are required to attend the regular inspections and
musters, and if not proficient in drill, should be required to attend
drills until they know their duties as soldiers. Officers when placed on
duty which temporarily relieves them from duty with their companies, as
acting commissaries and quartermasters, or on court-martial duty, etc.,
are reported on special duty.

=Special Orders.= See ORDERS, SPECIAL.

=Specific Gravity.= See GRAVITY.

=Specification.= The designation of particulars; particular mention; as,
the specification of a charge against a military officer. A written
statement containing a minute description or enumeration of particulars,
as of charges against officers or soldiers.

=Speen.= A parish of England, in Berkshire, 2 miles from Newbury, in
which the second battle of Newbury was fought, October 27, 1646.

=Spencer Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS, and MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Spend.= This term is sometimes used in military matters to express the
consumption of anything; as, to spend all your ammunition.

=Spent Ball.= A ball shot from a fire-arm, which reaches an object
without having sufficient force to penetrate it.

=Speyer=, also =Speier=. The capital of Rhenish Bavaria (the former
Palatinate), and one of the oldest towns in Germany, stands at the
influx of the Speyerbach in the Rhine 23 miles north of Carlsruhe.
During the Orleans Succession war--well called by the Germans the
_Mordbrenner Krieg_--the whole Palatinate was savagely wasted, Speyer
was taken by the French, its inhabitants driven out, and the city blown
up with gunpowder and burned to the ground. Only the cathedral resisted
the barbarous efforts to mine it. In 1794, it was wasted by the French
under Custine, and has never recovered from these calamities.

=Spherical Bullets.= See PROJECTILE.

=Spherical Case-Shot.= A spherical case-shot consists of a thin shell of
cast iron, containing a number of musket-balls, and a charge of powder
sufficient to burst it; a fuze is fixed to it as in an ordinary shell,
by which the charge is ignited and the shell burst at any particular
instant. A spherical case-shot, when loaded ready for use, has about the
same specific gravity as a solid shot, and therefore, when fixed with
the service charge of powder, its range, and its velocity at any point
in its range, is about equal to that of a solid shot of the same
caliber. The spherical case mostly used for field service is the
12-pounder, and contains, when loaded, 90 bullets. Its bursting charge
is 1 ounce of powder, and it weighs 11.75 pounds. Its rupture may be
made to take place at any point in its flight, and it is therefore
superior to grape or canister. The attrition of the balls with which it
is loaded, formerly endangered the firing of the bursting charge. This
is now obviated, in making one mass of the balls, by pouring in melted
sulphur. It is also prevented by Capt. Boxer’s improved spherical
case-shot, of which there are two forms. In one form the bursting charge
of powder is contained in a cylindrical tin box, attached to a brass
socket which receives the fuze, and which is screwed into the shell. In
the other, the part of the shell containing the bursting charge is
separated from that containing the bullets by a diaphragm of sheet-iron,
cast into the shell (_i.e._, the shell is cast on to the diaphragm which
is inserted into the core). The bullets are introduced into the shell by
a second orifice, and are kept in their places by a composition
afterwards poured in. The present 12-pounder spherical case-shot, fixed
with a charge of 2¹⁄₂ pounds of powder, is effective at 1500 yards. The
proper position of the point of rupture varies from 50 to 130 yards in
front of, and from 15 to 20 feet above, the object. The mean number of
destructive pieces from a 12-pounder spherical case-shot, which may
strike a target 9 feet high and 54 feet long, at a distance of 800
yards, is 30. The spherical case-shot from rifle-cannon is said to be
effective at over 2000 yards. Spherical case should not be used at a
less distance than 500 yards.

=Spicheren=, or =Speicheren=. See SAARBRUCK.

=Spike Cannon, To.= Is to drive into the vent a jagged and hardened
steel spike with a soft point, or a nail without a head; break it off
flush with the outer surface and clinch the point inside by means of a
rammer. A gun may be unspiked if the spike is not screwed in or
clinched, and the bore is not impeded, by putting in a charge of powder
one-third of the weight of the shot, and ramming junk-wads over it;
laying on the bottom of the bore a slip of wood, with a groove on the
under side containing a strand of quick-match, by which fire is
communicated to the charge. In a brass gun, take out some of the metal
at the upper orifice of the vent, and pour sulphuric acid into the
groove, and let it stand some hours before firing. If this method,
several times repeated, is not successful, unscrew the vent-piece if it
be a brass gun; and if an iron one, drill out the spike, or drill a new
vent.

Artillery can be rendered unserviceable by other methods besides
spiking, as follows: (1) Wedge a shot in the bottom of the bore by
wrapping it with felt, or by means of iron wedges, using the rammer or a
bar of iron to drive them in. (2) Cause shells to burst in the bore of
bronze guns. (3) Fire broken shot from them with large charges. (4) Fill
the piece with sand over the charge, to burst it. (5) Fire a piece
against another, muzzle to muzzle, or the muzzle of one to the chase of
the other. (6) Light a fire under the chase of a bronze gun, and strike
on it with a sledge, to bend it. (7) Break off the trunnions of iron
guns; or burst them by firing them at a high elevation, with heavy
charges and full of shot.

To drive out a shot wedged in the bore: unscrew the vent-piece if there
be one, and drive in wedges so as to start the shot forward; then ram it
back again in order to seize the wedge with a hook; or pour in powder,
and fire it after replacing the vent-piece. In the last resort, bore a
hole in the bottom of the breech, drive out the shot, and stop the hole
with a screw. When a shot is jammed in a gun and cannot be rammed home
to the cartridge, destroy the charge by pouring water down the vent and
muzzle until the ingredients are dissolved, and cleared out of the bore;
then introduce a small quantity of powder through the vent and blow out
the shot.

=Spin Hay, To.= Is to twist it up in ropes, very hard, for an
expedition; by which means it is less bulky, and less troublesome for
the cavalry to carry behind them. An expert horseman can spin five days’
forage into a very narrow compass.

=Spingard.= A kind of small cannon.

=Splay.= The divergence outwards from the line of fire of the lines
which mark the bottom of the sides of an embrasure.

=Splinter-bar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Splinter-proof.= Strong enough to resist the splinters of bursting
shells.

=Spoils.= Whatever is taken from the enemy in time of war. Among the
ancient Greeks, the spoils were divided among the whole army, only the
share given to the general was the largest; but among the Romans the
spoils belonged to the republic.

=Spoleto= (anc. _Spoletium_). A city of Central Italy, province of
Umbria, is situated on a rocky hill, 61 miles north-northwest of Rome.
During the second Punic war, Hannibal is said to have been repulsed by
the colonists in an assault which he made on the town (217 B.C.), after
the battle of Thrasymene. In 1860 it was taken by the Italians from a
body of Irish mercenaries in the service of the pope, and now forms part
of the kingdom of Italy.

=Sponge.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Sponge and Rammer-stop.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Sponge-bucket.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Sponge-chain.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Sponge-hook.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Spontoon.= A weapon bearing resemblance to a halberd, which, prior to
1787, was borne instead of a half-pike by officers of British infantry.
It was a medium for signaling orders to the regiment. The spontoon
planted in the ground commanded a halt; pointed backwards or forwards,
advance or retreat; and so on.

=Sporting Powder.= Gunpowder used in sporting arms,--usually finer
grained than that for military arms.

=Sporting Rifle.= A rifle made especially for hunting. There is no
invariable feature distinguishing it from other rifles. Ordinarily the
rear sight is not elevating.

=Spottsylvania Court-house.= A village in Spottsylvania Co., Va.,
situated on the river Po, 65 miles north from Richmond. A series of
desperate battles took place in the neighborhood of this village between
the Federals and Confederates, from May 8 to 21, 1864, in which the
former compelled the latter, after much carnage, to retreat to the North
Anna River, which ultimately resulted in the battle of Cold Harbor
(which see).

=Spread-eagle.= In heraldry, an eagle, or the figure of an eagle, with
its wings elevated and its legs extended;--often met as a device in
heraldry, upon military ornaments, and the like.

=Springfield.= A post-town, capital of Greene Co., Mo., 130 miles
southwest of Jefferson City. Near here was fought the desperate battle
of Wilson’s Creek, in which the Federals had the advantage over the
Confederates, but lost their brave general, Nathaniel Lyon, August 10,
1861.

=Springfield.= A city of Massachusetts, on the east bank of the
Connecticut River, 98 miles west by south of Boston. The national armory
is located here, which repaired and altered in 1869 upwards of 25,000
rifles and muskets. The present U. S. breech-loader, model of 1873, is
made here.

=Springfield Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Sprue.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, MOLDING.

=Spur.= An apparatus fastened to the heel of a horseman, for goading the
horse. It is much less used than formerly. All cavalry soldiers wear
spurs; but their use, except in the heat of an actual charge, is
discouraged as much as possible. In the days of chivalry, the use of the
spur was limited to knights, and it was among the emblems of knighthood.
To win his spurs, was for a young man to earn knighthood by gallant
conduct. The degradation of a knight involved the hacking off of his
spurs; and the serving before a knight of a pair of spurs on a dish, was
a strong hint by his host that he had outstayed his welcome.

=Spurs, Battle of the.= See COURTRAI.

=Spy.= In war, is a useful but not highly honored auxiliary, employed to
ascertain the state of an enemy’s affairs, and of his intended
operations. Spies have been used in all wars from the time when Moses
sent Joshua on such a purpose to the present time. Their employment is
quite recognized by the law of nations as interpreted by Grotius,
Vattel, and Martens; nor is it held to be any dishonor to a general to
avail himself of their services. On the other hand, the spy himself is
looked upon as an outlaw, and one devoid of honor. If taken by the
enemy, he is put to death ignominiously and without mercy. As, however,
the calling is so dangerous, and so little redounds to honor, it is
never permissible for a general to compel by threats any person, whether
of his own or the hostile party, to act as a spy; but he is at liberty
to accept all such services when proffered. A spy is well paid, lest he
betray his employer. In the British army, spies are usually controlled
by the quartermaster-general. Martial law, though distinct enough in
ordering the death of a spy, is not clear in defining what constitutes a
spy. A man--not of the enemy--within the enemy’s lines, and in the
enemy’s uniform, would presumably be a spy. If in civil dress, and
unable to give a good account of himself, his chance of hanging would be
considerable; but if found in one camp in the uniform of the opposite
side, he may not be treated otherwise than as a prisoner of war, or at
least as a deserter from the enemy. Both as regards honor and penalties,
it would seem that spies ought in fairness to be divided into two
classes,--first, those who betray their own country to an enemy;
secondly, those who, being enemies, contrive surreptitiously to obtain
information by penetrating into the opposing army. The first class are
traitors of a deep dye, for whom no ignominious death is too bad; but
the second class are often brave men, who dare much in the service of
their country. It is unfair to accord them the same treatment as the
traitors.

=Squad.= A small portion of a company, troop, or battery, placed in the
especial charge of an officer or non-commissioned officer for purposes
of inspection and supervision. In the infantry it corresponds with a
section. It also signifies a small number of men drilled together. The
term _awkward squad_ is applied to those soldiers who, on account of
clumsiness or want of attention, are sent back to the lowest squad to be
re-drilled.

=Squad Book.= In the British service, is the roll of a squad,
containing, besides the names, the trades and other particulars of the
men.

=Squad-bags.= In the British service, are black canvas bags, which are
issued at the rate of one to every 25 men, and are intended to contain
those articles of a man’s kit which are not comprised in the “service
kit.” They are only used when a regiment is in the field or on the line
of march. In India, where knapsacks are never carried, a small squad-bag
is issued to each soldier.

=Squadron.= In military language, denotes two troops of cavalry. It is
the unit by which the force of cavalry with an army is always computed.
Three or four squadrons constitute a regiment. The actual strength of a
squadron ranges from 120 to 200 sabres.

=Squall.= A sudden and violent gust of wind, often attended with rain or
snow. _Black squall_, a squall attended with dark, heavy clouds. _Thick
squall_, a black squall accompanied by rain, hail, sleet, etc. _White
squall_, a squall which comes unexpectedly, without being marked in its
approach by the clouds.

=Square.= In military evolutions, is the forming of a body of men into a
rectangular figure, with several ranks or rows of men facing on each
side. With men of ordinary firmness, a square should resist the charges
of the heaviest horse. The formation is not new, for a Grecian
_Syntagma_ was a solid square of 16 men in every direction; but in
modern warfare, the solid square having been found cumbrous, has been
abandoned for the hollow square, with officers, horses, colors, etc., in
the centre. The front rank kneels, and the two next stoop, which enables
five ranks of men to maintain a rolling fire upon an advancing enemy, or
to pour in a murderous volley at close quarters.

=Square-pierced.= In heraldry, a term used to designate a charge
perforated with a square opening, so as to show the field. A cross
square-pierced is often improperly confounded with a cross
quarter-pierced, where the intersecting part of the cross is not merely
perforated, but entirely removed.

=Squire.= An attendant on a warrior was formerly so called.

=Stab.= To pierce with a pointed weapon; as, to be stabbed by a bayonet,
dagger, etc.

=Stabiæ= (now _Castella Mare di Stabia_). An ancient town in Campania,
between Pompeii and Surrentum; was destroyed by Sulla in the Social war.

=Stable Guard.= In each squadron, the stable guard generally consists of
a corporal and one man for every 20 horses. It is their duty to feed the
horses, watch over their safety during the night, and attend to the
general police of the stables, being assisted by an additional detail at
the hours of stable call.

=Stable Horse.= A name formerly applied to that part of the Tippoo
Sahib’s cavalry which was best armed, accoutred, and most regularly
disciplined.

=Stack Arms.= To set up muskets or rifles together, with the bayonets
crossing one another, and forming a sort of conical pile.

=Stack of Arms.= A number of muskets or rifles set up together, with the
bayonets crossing one another, forming a sort of conical pile.

=Stacket.= A stockade.

=Stadia.= A very simple aid in estimating distances, consists of a small
stick, held vertically in the hand at arm’s length, and bringing the top
of a man’s head in line with the top of the stick, noting where a line
in the eye of the observer to the feet of the man cuts the stick or
_stadia_, as it is called. To graduate the stadia, a man of the ordinary
height of a foot-soldier, say 5 feet 8 inches, is placed at a known
distance, say 50 yards, and the distance on the stick covered by him
when it is held at arm’s length is marked and divided into eight equal
parts. If the distance is now increased until the man covers only one of
these divisions, we know he is at a distance equal to 50 × 8 = 400
yards. This instrument is not very accurate, except for short distances.
A much more accurate stadia is constructed by making use of a metal
plate having a slit in it in the form of an isosceles triangle, the base
of which, held at a certain distance from the edge, subtends a man (5
feet 8 inches), say at the distance of 100 yards. A slider moves along
the triangle, being always parallel to the base, and the length of it
comprised between the two sides of the triangle represents the height of
men at different distances, which are marked in yards on the side of the
triangle, above or below, according as the object looked at is a
foot-soldier or horseman. In order to keep the stadia always at the same
distance from the eye, a string is attached to the slider, the opposite
end having a knot tied in it, which is held between the teeth while
using the instrument, which is held in the right hand, the slider being
moved with the left-hand finger. The string should always be kept
stretched when the instrument is used, and the line in a vertical
position. It must be graduated experimentally by noting the positions in
which the slider represents the height of the object. The instrument
used is not, however, reliable. Its uncertainty increases in an equal
ratio with the distance of the object observed. At the extreme ranges it
is quite useless. At the school for firing, at Vincennes, therefore,
they rely entirely on the eye alone for the judgment of distances, and
great pains by careful practice and instruction is taken to perfect that
judgment. A simple instrument by which distances can be determined is,
therefore, still a great desideratum.

=Staff.= The staff of an army consists of a body of skilled officers
whose duty it is to combine and give vitality to the movements and
mechanical action of the several regiments and drilled bodies composing
the force. The distinction between an officer on the staff of an army
and a regimental officer is that the latter is concerned with his own
regiment alone, while the former deals with his army (of course under
the orders of his commanding officer), or section of an army, and
regulates the combined action of the several arms and bodies of men. A
good staff is all-important to the success of a military enterprise. In
the British service the _general staff_ of an army comprises the general
in actual command, with the subordinate generals commanding the several
divisions and brigades; as assistants to these the officers of the
adjutant-general’s department,--_i.e._, the adjutant-general,
his deputy, assistants, and deputy-assistants, if the army be
large enough to require them all. Similarly, the officers of the
quartermaster-general’s department; the brigade-major; the
provost-marshal, and the judge-advocate.

In the U. S. service the general staff consists of the officers of the
several military bureaux, such as of the adjutant-general’s department,
the quartermaster’s department, etc. For the officers comprising these
corps, see appropriate headings throughout this work.

The _general staff_ of the British army consists at present of a
field-marshal commanding-in-chief, whose headquarters are at London;
under him, of a lieutenant-general commanding-in-chief in Ireland. This
command includes, of course, the general officer commanding in each
military district of the United Kingdom and in each colony; each of
these generals having the usual subordinate staff subject to his orders.
India forms a nearly independent command, under a commander-in-chief,
whose headquarters are at Bengal. There are subordinate
commanders-in-chief in Bombay and Madras; and in each presidency there
are several military divisions.

The _personal staff_ consists of the aides-de-camp and military
secretaries to the respective general officers. These officers, who are
treated of separately in this work, are appointed within certain limits
by the generals whom they serve, and their appointments expire on those
generals ceasing to command.

The _garrison staff_ consists of the officers governing in fortresses
and garrisons; as commandants, fort-majors, town-majors, fort-adjutants,
and garrison-adjutants.

The _civil_ or _department staff_ includes those non-combatant officers
who have to provide for the daily requirements of the troops. These are
the commissaries, barracks, medical, chaplains, purveyors, store, and
veterinary departments.

The _recruiting staff_ consists of inspecting field-officers, district
paymasters, district adjutants, and superintending officers.

The _pensioner staff_ includes only the staff-officers of the enrolled
force.

_Regimental Staff._--(See OFFICERS, STAFF-.) Staff-officers should carry
in their heads all general information regarding the army with which
they are serving; the composition and distribution of corps, divisions,
brigades, etc.; they should remember as accurately as possible the
strength of each battalion in their immediate division, and the names of
the respective commanding officers. Officers of the headquarters staff
should know the position of every division or detachment each night;
their composition and strength, and the names of their commanders, etc.

In communicating orders to others, staff-officers must speak and write
in the name of their generals. They must remember that they have no
power of themselves to confer favors, and that all patronage rests with
the general. In theory they are merely his agents, and, although, in
practice, officers of importance have much in their power, they should
be careful to prevent its being generally known. Their commander must
never be ignored, even when they know him to be a fool. It is not that
you injure an individual by slighting him, but that by doing so you
deprive of that general confidence which for the public good it is
essential he should possess.

In delivering verbal orders, and in their dealings with superior
officers, the staff should be most respectful. A staff-officer should
feel bound by his position, if not by his breeding, to treat every one
with the courtesy due from one gentleman to another. The motto for the
staff should be “affability and reticence.”

=Staff, Cylinder.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Stafford.= A town of England, in Staffordshire, 123 miles northwest by
west from London. In the civil war of the 17th century, it was occupied
by the king’s forces, after the capture of Lichfield by their
adversaries. An indecisive battle was fought at Hopton Heath, in the
vicinity, in 1643, and at a later period the town was taken by the
Roundheads, under Sir William Brereton. The castle was also taken
shortly after, and at the close of the war was entirely demolished.

=Stakes, Pointing-.= See POINTING-STAKES.

=Stalwart.= Brave; bold; strong; redoubted; daring.

=Stamford.= An ancient town of England, in Lincolnshire, 12 miles
northwest from Peterborough. The Britons and Saxons here defeated the
Picts and Scots in 449. Many of the Jews of Stamford were slain, and the
whole community plundered in 1190 by those who had enlisted for the
Crusade.

=Stand.= The act of opposing. Thus, troops that do not yield or give
way, are said to make a stand.

=Stand, To.= To _stand one’s ground_, to keep the ground or station one
has taken; to maintain one’s position; as, raw troops are not able to
stand their ground against veteran soldiers. _To stand fire_, to receive
the fire of arms from an enemy without giving way. _To make a stand_, to
halt for the purpose of offering resistance to a pursuing enemy.

=Stand at Ease.= In the British service, is to be allowed, when in the
ranks, a certain indulgence with regard to bodily position, with or
without arms.

=Stand Fast.= Is the term used as a caution to some particular part of a
line or column, to remain quiescent while the rest are moving.

=Stand of Arms.= See ARMS, STAND OF.

=Stand of Ammunition.= See AMMUNITION, STAND OF.

=Stand of Colors.= A single color, or flag.

=Stand to the Guns.= Is to prepare for action, by taking one’s station
at the guns.

=Stand to your Arms.= Is a cautionary command, when soldiers are put
upon the alert.

=Standard.= A measure by which men enlisted into the army have the
regulated height ascertained.

=Standard.= In its widest sense, a standard is a flag or ensign under
which men are united together for some common purpose. The use of the
standard as a rallying-point in battle takes us back to remote ages. The
Jewish army was marshaled with the aid of standards belonging to the
four tribes of Judah, Reuben, Ephraim, and Dan; and the Egyptians had
ensigns with representations of their favorite animals. The flag of
Persia was white, and, according to Xenophon, bore in his time a golden
eagle with expanded wings; it was fixed on a chariot, and thus conveyed
to the field of battle. Æschylus, in enumerating the six chiefs who,
headed by Polynices, set themselves in battle array against Thebes,
describes the device on the standard of each. In the earliest era of
Roman history, a bundle of hay or fern is said to have been used as a
military standard, which was succeeded by bronze or silver figures of
animals attached to a staff, of which Pliny enumerates five,--the eagle,
the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar. In the second
consulship of Marius, 104 B.C., the other animals were laid aside, and
only the eagle retained, and down to the time of the later emperors, the
eagle, often with a representation of the emperor’s head beneath it,
continued to be carried with the legion. On the top of the staff was
often a figure of Victory or Mars. Each cohort had also an ensign of its
own, consisting of a serpent or dragon woven on a square piece of cloth,
and elevated on a gilt staff with a cross-bar. Under the Christian
emperors, the _Labarum_ was substituted for the imperial standard.
Standards or ensigns among the Greeks were of different kinds; some had
the representations of different animals, bearing some relation to the
cities they belonged to. Among the earlier Greeks the standard was a
piece of armor at the end of a spear; though Agamemnon, in Homer, uses a
purple vail to rally his men, etc. Afterwards the Athenians bore the
olive and owl; the Thebans, a sphinx; the other nations, the effigies of
their tutelary gods, or their particular symbols, at the end of a spear.
The Corinthians carried a pegasus, the Messenians their initial Μ, and
the Lacedæmonians Λ. But the most frequent ensign among the Greeks was a
purple coat upon the top of a spear. The flag or standard elevated was a
signal to begin the battle, and the standard depressed was a signal to
desist. The Anglo-Saxon ensign was splendid. It had on it the white
horse, the Danish being distinguished by the raven. Various standards of
great celebrity occur in mediæval history, among which may be enumerated
the Flag of the Prophet (which see); the standard taken from the Danes
by Alfred of England; and the Oriflamme, originally belonging to the
Abbey of St. Denis, and borne by the counts of Vexin, which eventually
became the standard of the French kingdom. In the Middle Ages the
ensigns of the army were the banderols, banners, guidons, pencels, and
pennons, for which see appropriate headings. In strict language, the
term standard is applied exclusively to a particular kind of flag, long
in proportion to its depth, tapering towards the fly, and, except when
belonging to princes of the blood royal, slit at the end. Each baron,
knight, or other commander in feudal times, had a recognized standard,
which was distributed among his followers. The length of the standard
varied according to the rank of the bearer. A king’s standard was from 8
to 9 yards in length; a duke’s, 7 yards; a marquis’s, 6¹⁄₂ yards; an
earl’s, 6 yards; a viscount’s, 5¹⁄₂ yards; a baron’s, 5 yards; a
banneret’s, 4¹⁄₂ yards; and a knight’s, 4 yards. There was never a
complete coat of arms on the standard; it generally exhibited the crest
or supporter with a device or badge of the owner, and every English
standard of the Tudor era had the cross of St. George at the head.
Standards were registered by the heralds, and the charges on them
selected and authorized by an officer-of-arms.

=Standard, Battle of the.= See NORTHALLERTON.

=Standard Hill.= A hill in England, so called because William the
Conqueror upon it set his standard, before he gave battle to Harold.

=Standard-bearer.= An officer of an army, company, or troop, who bears a
standard; an ensign of infantry or a cornet of horse.

=Standard-rule.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Standing.= Settled, established, not temporary. _Standing army_, is an
army which is kept up by a country, and is liable to every species of
duty, without any limitations being fixed to its service.

=Standing.= Rank; condition. It likewise signifies length of time; as,
such an officer is of very old standing in the army.

=Stanford Bridge.= In Yorkshire, England. In 1066, Tostig, brother of
Harold II., rebelled against his brother, and joined the invading army
of Harold Hardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the northern earls and
took York, but were defeated at Stanford Bridge by Harold, September 25,
and both were slain.

=Stang-ball.= A projectile consisting of two half-balls united by a bar;
a bar-shot.

=Stanislaus, Saint.= A Polish order of knighthood, founded by
Stanislaus, king of Poland, in 1765; renewed by the emperor Alexander in
1815.

=Star.= In heraldry, the star is of frequent occurrence; it sometimes
represents the heavenly body so called, and sometimes the rowel of a
spur. In the latter case it is blazoned a _Mullet_. Stars of more than
five points should have the number of points designated, and the points
may be wavy. The star, or _estoile_, with wavy points, is often
designated a blazing star; and when the points are more than six in
number, it is usual to represent only every second point as waved. The
star is a well-known ensign of knightly rank. A star of some specified
form constitutes part of the insignia of every order of knighthood.

=Star Fort.= An inclosed field-work, in shape like the heraldic
representation of a star.

=Star, Order of the.= An order of knighthood formerly existing in
France, founded by John II in 1350, in imitation of the then recently
instituted order of the Garter in England. The ceremony of installation
was originally performed on the festival of the Epiphany, and the name
of the order is supposed to have been allusive to the Star of the Magi.

=Star of India, The Order of the.= An order of knighthood instituted by
Queen Victoria in June, 1861, with the view of affording the princes,
chiefs, and people of the Indian empire a testimony of her majesty’s
regard, commemorating her majesty’s resolution to take on herself the
government of India and rendering honor to merit and loyalty. The order
consists of the sovereign, a grand master, who is to be the
governor-general of India for the time being, and 25 knights, together
with such extra and honorary knights as the crown may appoint. The
members of the order are to be military, naval, and civil officers who
have rendered important service to the Indian empire, and such native
princes and chiefs of India as have entitled themselves to her majesty’s
favor. The insignia consists of a collar, badge, and star. The collar of
the order is composed of the heraldic rose of England, two palm branches
in saltire tied with a ribbon, and a lotus-flower alternating with each
other, all of gold enameled, and connected by a double golden chain.
From an imperial crown, intervening between two lotus-leaves, depends
the _badge_, consisting of a brilliant star of five points, and hanging
from it an oval medallion, with an onyx cameo profile bust of Queen
Victoria, encircled by the motto, “Heaven’s light our Guide,” in gold
letters, on an enriched border of light-blue enamel. The _investment
badge_ is similar to the collar-badge, but with the star, the setting of
the cameo, and the motto all of diamonds; it is worn pendent from a
ribbon of pale blue with white borders. The _star_ of the order is a
five-pointed star or mullet of diamonds on an irradiated field of gold.
Around it, on an azure fillet bordered with gold, is the same motto in
diamonds, the whole encircled by wavy rays of gold.

=Star-gauge.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Statant.= In heraldry, a term applied to an animal standing still, with
all the feet touching the ground. If the face be turned to the spectator
it is said to be _statant gardant_, or in the case of a stag, at gaze.

=State.= In the British service, is a statement of the number of
officers and men of any body of troops, distinguishing those present,
those employed, absent, or sick, and the different ranks under separate
headings.

=States of the Church.= See PAPAL STATES.

=Station.= To place; to set; or to appoint to the occupation of a post,
place, or office; as, to station troops on the right or left of an army;
to station a sentinel on a rampart.

=Station, Military.= A place calculated for the rendezvous of troops, or
for the distribution of them; also, a spot well calculated for offensive
or defensive measures. The name of _stationes_, or stations, was given
by the Romans to the guard which was kept in the daytime at the gates of
the camp, and at the intrenchments. The _statio agraria_ was an advanced
post to prevent surprise, insure the safety of prisoners, etc. The chief
use was to keep the military sway secure from hostile incursions, whence
we find them at the concurrence of roads. The word is also extensively
applied to the old military stations of the Romans, when encampments of
towns existed. The _statira castra_ were encampments for a short time;
the _æstiva castra_ were the same, but might be occupied only for one
night. The _hyberna castra_, or winter camps, were elaborately
fortified, even with stone walls, houses within, etc., so that many
towns grew out of them.

=Status in Quo=, or =Status Quo= (_Lat._). A treaty between
belligerents, which leaves each party _in statu quo ante bellum_,--that
is, in the state in which it was before the war.

=Stays.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Steam-gun.= A machine or contrivance by which balls or other
projectiles may be driven by the force of steam.

=Steed.= A horse either for state or war.

=Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Steel Punches.= See INSPECTION OF PROJECTILES.

=Steenkerke=, or =Steenkerque=. A village of Belgium, province of
Hainaut, 15 miles north-northeast of Mons. The allies, commanded by
William III. of England, were here defeated by the French, July 24,
1692.

=Step.= Progression by one removal of the foot. It likewise signifies
pace. _To step_, to move forward or backward by a single change of the
place of the foot. _To step out_, is to lengthen the step, without
altering the cadence. _To step short_, is to diminish or slacken the
pace, according to the tactics. These phrases are frequently used in
military movements when it is found necessary to gain ground in front,
or to give the rear of a column, etc., time to acquire its proper
distance. _To step off_, is to take a prescribed step from a halted
position, in common or quick time, in conformity to some given word of
command or signal. _Balance-step_, is so called from the body being
balanced upon one leg, in order to render it firm and steady in military
movements, etc. Step is likewise figuratively used to signify promotion;
as, the next step from a lieutenancy is a captaincy, from a captaincy a
majority, etc.

=Stettin.= A fortified town of Prussia, capital of the province of
Pomerania, on the left bank of the Oder, 78 miles northeast from Berlin.
In 1121, Boleslas, duke of Poland, gained possession of it. The peace of
Westphalia gave it to the Swedes. From them it passed to the Prussians,
with whom, though not without some interruptions, it has since remained.
In 1171 it was besieged by the Danes; in 1677 by the elector of
Brandenburg; in 1713 by the Prussians; and from 1806 to 1813 it was
occupied by the French.

=Steward, Hospital.= See HOSPITAL STEWARD.

=Stick, Gold.= See GOLD STICK.

=Stick, Silver.= See SILVER STICK.

=Stickler.= A sidesman to fencers, or second to a duelist.

=Sticklestadt= (Norway). Here Olaf II., aided by the Swedes, was
defeated and slain in his endeavors to recover his kingdom from Canute,
king of Denmark, July 29, 1030.

=Stiletto.= A small dagger with a round pointed blade.

=Stillwater.= A township of the United States, on the Hudson River and
on Saratoga Lake. The township includes the incorporated village of
Mechanicsville and the post-village of Bemis’s Heights, notable for the
two battles of September 19 and October 7, 1777 (sometimes called the
battles of Stillwater), which led to the surrender of Burgoyne.

=Stink-pot.= Is a shell, often of earthenware, charged with
combustibles, which, on bursting, emit a foul smell and a suffocating
smoke. It is useful in sieges for driving the garrison from their
defenses; also in boarding a ship, for effecting a diversion while the
assailants gain the deck. The stink-pot is a favorite weapon of the
Chinese. Under the more elegant title of _asphyxiated shell_, the French
and other modern nations have experimented considerably on this mode of
harassing an enemy.

=Stipendium.= The amount of pay for soldiers, a term in general use
among the Romans.

=Stirling.= An ancient town of Scotland, the chief town of
Stirlingshire, 31 miles northwest from Edinburgh. During the Danish
invasion in 1009, it was the headquarters of the Scottish army. In the
vicinity was fought the battle of Stirling in 1297. The town was taken
by Edward I., after a siege of three months, in 1304. It was held by the
English for ten years, until it was retaken by Robert Bruce after the
battle of Bannockburn. In 1651, after the battle of Dunbar, the castle
was taken by Gen. Monk; and it withstood a siege by the Highlanders in
1745.

=Stirrup.= A kind of ring, or bent piece of metal, leather, etc.,
horizontal in one part for receiving the foot of the rider, and attached
to a strap which is fastened to the saddle,--used to assist persons in
mounting a horse, and to enable them to sit steadily in riding, as well
as to relieve them by supporting a part of the weight of the body.

=Stirrup-cover= (Sp. _tapadéra_). A hood made of leather attached to a
stirrup to protect the foot of a mounted soldier.

=Stoccade.= To fortify with sharpened posts. See STOCKADE.

=Stoccado.= A push or thrust with a rapier.

=Stock.= The whole of the wooden part of a musket or pistol. Also, the
neck-gear of a soldier, generally of black leather, answering the double
purpose of keeping the cold out and the soldier’s head up.

=Stock.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, CAISSON.

=Stockach.= A town of Germany, in the southeast of Baden, 15 miles
northwest of Constance. Near here the Austrians under the Archduke
Charles defeated the French, March 25, 1799.

=Stockade.= A work in which a palisade; of strong and closely-planted
timbers constitutes the principal defense. The stockades or picket-works
usually employed against Indians are composed of rough trunks of young
trees cut into lengths of 12 or 14 feet, and averaging 10 or 12 inches
in diameter. They should be firmly planted close together. A banquette
or step will generally be required, and the loop-holes so arranged that
they cannot be used from the outside. If necessary, such a work can be
strengthened by ditch and abatis, and flanked by block-houses.

=Stockholm.= The capital of Sweden, situated at the junction of the Lake
Malar with an inlet of the Baltic, 320 miles northeast from Copenhagen.
Stockholm sustained several sieges. One of the most memorable of these
took place in 1501 and 1502, when it was held for nearly six months by
Queen Christina of Denmark against the Swedish insurgents, but was at
last surrendered after the garrison had been reduced from about 1000 to
80 in number. A still more noble defense of the city was made in 1520,
by Christina Gyllenstierna against Christian II. of Denmark. It was
surrendered after a siege of four months; but the terms of the surrender
were violated soon after by the conqueror ordering the execution of all
the most distinguished Swedes in the town. This and similar acts of
treachery and cruelty led to the final expulsion of the Danes by
Gustavus Vasa. A peace was concluded here, between the king of Great
Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which the former acquired the
duchies of Bremen and Verden as elector of Brunswick, November 20, 1719.
A treaty took place here, between Sweden and Russia, in favor of the
Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, March 24, 1724; another between England and
Sweden on March 3, 1813; and between England, France, and Sweden,
November 21, 1855.

=Stockport.= A town of England, in Cheshire, on the borders of
Lancashire, at the confluence of the Mersey and the Tame, 5 miles
southeast of Manchester. The castle, which has now entirely disappeared,
was held in 1173, by Geoffrey de Constantin against Henry II. During the
civil war of the 17th century, Stockport was the scene of some fighting;
it was taken from the Parliamentarians by Rupert in 1644, but retaken by
Lesley in the following year. In 1745, the town was occupied by Prince
Charles Edward. At this place the Manchester Blanketeers (which see)
were dispersed, March 11, 1817.

=Stock-purse.= In the British service, is a certain saving which is made
in a corps for regimental purposes.

=Stockton-on-Tees.= A town of England, in Durham, on the left bank of
the Tees, 11 miles east-northeast of Darlington. It was plundered by the
Scotch in 1325; taken for the Parliament in 1644, and totally destroyed
by the Roundheads in 1652.

=Stœni.= A Ligurian people in the Maritime Alps, conquered by Q. Marcius
Rex, 118 B.C., before he founded the colony of Narbo Martius.

=Stoke, East.= A parish of England, county of Notts, 4 miles southwest
of Newark. Near here, on June 16, 1487, the adherents of Lambert Simnel,
who personated Edward, earl of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were
defeated by Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of Lincoln, and most of
the leaders were slain; and Simnel, whose life was spared, was
afterwards employed in the king’s household.

=Stone Arabia.= See _Palatine_.

=Stone Fougass=. See _Fougass, Stone_.

=Stone River, Battle of.= See MURFREESBORO’.

=Stone-bow.= A cross-bow formerly used or designed for throwing stones.

=Stone-mortar.= Was a mortar which was used to throw stones a short
distance, from 150 to 250 yards; and also 6-pounder shells from 50 to
150 yards. The stones which were used in this mortar were put into a
basket fitted to the bore, and placed on a wooden bottom which covers
the mouth of the chamber.

=Stony Point.= A village in Orange Co., N. Y., on the west bank of the
Hudson River, at the head of Haverstraw Bay, 42 miles north of New York.
The capture of the fort at this place by Gen. Wayne, on July 16, 1779,
is justly considered one of the most brilliant exploits performed during
the Revolutionary war. The fortifications were destroyed and abandoned
on July 18.

=Stoppage of Pay.= Where pay is stopped on account of arrears to the
United States, the party whose pay is stopped may demand a suit, and the
agent of the treasury is required to institute a suit within sixty days
thereafter.

=Stoppages.= In the British service, are the deductions from a soldier’s
pay, the better to provide him with necessaries, etc.; also stoppage for
the subsistence of the sick.

=Store-keeper, Military.= An officer specially appointed for the care of
military stores. The law discontinues this grade in the U. S. service by
casualties.

=Stores, Military.= The arms, ammunition, clothing, provisions, etc.,
pertaining to an army, is so called. In the United States all public
stores taken in the enemy’s camp, towns, forts, or magazines, shall be
secured for the service of the United States; for the neglect of which
the commanding officer is to be answerable.

=Storm.= A violent assault on a fortified place; a furious attempt of
troops to enter and take a fortified place by scaling the walls, forcing
the gates, and the like. Also, to assault; to attack and attempt to take
by scaling the walls, forcing gates or breaches, and the like; as, to
storm a fortified town.

=Storming-party.= A party assigned to the duty of first entering the
breach in storming a fortress.

=Stourton=, or =Stour Head=. A village of England, in Wiltshire, about
23 miles west from Salisbury. The Britons were defeated here in 658 by
the Saxons, and in 1010 and 1025 the Danes also encountered the Saxons
near this place.

=Stragglers.= Are individuals who wander from the line of march; and it
is the duty of the rear-guard to pick up all such stragglers.

=Strains.= See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

=Stralsund.= A fortified town and seaport of Prussia, province of
Pomerania, on a narrow strait called Strela Sunda, which divides the
mainland from the island of Rügen. It was founded in 1209 by Prince
Jaromar of Rügen, became a member of the Hanse, and rapidly rose into
importance. During the Thirty Years’ War, it was unsuccessfully besieged
(1628) by Wallenstein; and after being, with some alternations of
fortune, in the possession of Sweden for about 200 years, it finally
passed to Prussia in 1815.

=Strappado.= A punishment formerly inflicted upon foreign soldiers by
hoisting them up with their arms tied behind them, and then suddenly
letting them down within a certain distance of the earth.

=Strapped Ammunition.= See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR.

=Straps.= Are decorations made of worsted, silk, gold, or silver, and
worn upon the shoulders, without epaulette.

=Strasbourg=, or =Strassburg=. Formerly a fortified town of France, and
capital of the department of Bas-Rhin, but in 1871 ceded to Germany, and
capital of the province of Alsace, not far from the left bank of the
Rhine, 312 miles east from Paris by railway. During the Middle Ages it
was subject to the German emperors, and was the capital of Alsace, but
along with that province it was ceded to Louis XIV. in 1681.
Subsequently its defenses were greatly improved under the direction of
Vauban. Strasbourg was invested by the Germans, principally from Baden,
during the Franco-Prussian war, August 10, 1870. Gen. von Werder assumed
the command of the besiegers, and the bombardment began August 14, and a
vigorous sally was repulsed August 16. Gen. Uhrich, the commander,
declared that he would not surrender except upon a heap of ashes. After
a heroic resistance, and when a breach had been made and an assault was
impending, notice was given September 27, and the place surrendered at 2
A.M., September 28; at 8 A.M. 17,150 men and 400 officers laid down
their arms. The German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 43 were
officers. The Germans entered Strasbourg, September 30, the anniversary
of its surrender to the French in 1681 by a surprise. Uhrich received
the grand cross of the Legion of Honor, October, 1870. About 400 houses
and the invaluable library were destroyed, the cathedral injured, and
8000 persons rendered homeless.

=Stratagem.= In war, is any scheme or plan for the deceiving and
surprising an army, or any body of men.

=Stratarithmetry.= The art of drawing up an army, or any given number of
men, in any geometrical figure, or of estimating or expressing the
number of men in such a figure.

=Strategetics.= The science of military movements; generalship.

=Strategic=, or =Strategical=. Pertaining to strategy; effected by
artifice.

=Strategic Point.= Any point or region in the theatre of warlike
operations which affords to its possessor an advantage over his
opponent.

=Strategical Fronts.= The portion of the theatre of war in front of any
position occupied by an army as it advances, is termed the _front of
operations_. That part which is directly in front of an army, or which
can be reached in two or three days, forms simply a _front_. When the
whole extent lying between the two hostile armies is considered, the
term _strategical front_ is applied.

=Strategical Lines.= See LINES, STRATEGICAL.

=Strategical Points.= Every point of the theatre of war, the possession
of which is of great importance to an army in its military operations,
is a _strategical point_. These are points which an army acting on the
offensive strives to gain and the army on the defensive strives to
retain.

=Strategist.= One skilled in strategy, or the science of directing great
military movements.

=Strategos= (invented by Lieut. C. A. L. Totten, 4th U. S. Artillery).
The American “game of war,” which takes its name from the Greek word
_strategos_, the title of an Athenian general officer, derived in turn
from _stratos_, “an army,” and _ago_, “I lead;” the secondary meaning of
this term being a board or council of ten Athenians chosen annually to
conduct the war department at home. The game of _strategos_ is divided
into six separate ones, or studies, of gradually increasing importance,
and is far more comprehensive than the foreign war games, which have
little in common with the subaltern and the student, and are so
complicated as to excite interest only among the most profound and
advanced scholars of military science. The six parts of _strategos_ are:
(1) The “minor tactical game,” which embraces all the details of the
tactics of each of the three arms. (2) “Grand tactics,” embracing the
topographical and strategical game, for the general elucidation of the
grand principles of this branch of military science. (3) The “historical
game,” for the study of historical battles and campaigns. (4) “Text-book
illustration.” (5) A “battle game,” based upon military principles and
precepts, which is calculated to instruct as well as interest without
fatiguing that large class of students whose patience would not stand
the close application required in a more advanced game. (6) The
“advanced game,” which affords to the professional military student
every opportunity for pursuing studies commenced in more elementary
fields to their legitimate termination. It is only in the “advanced
game” that _strategos_ solves the same problem attempted by the Germans
in _kriegspiel_, and other military nations in various alterations and
improvements upon the great original. War games are by no means of such
modern invention as may at first appear; chess is a very ancient “battle
game,” and checkers one in which decisive concentration plays a most
important part. During the last century two games, the _jeu de la
guerre_ and the _jeu de la fortification_, appeared in France and were
played with cards. These games differ, however, entirely from the modern
ones. Kriegspiel, the father of modern war games, was the invention of a
civilian, Herr von Reitwitz, the details of which his son, a Prussian
artillery officer, carefully improved. It rapidly grew into military
favor, and since 1824, when it was first mentioned by officers of note,
has undergone many modifications except as to its underlying principles.
Von Moltke himself some twenty years ago was the president of a society
whose special object was to play this game, and the great skill of
Prussian officers and their success in their late wars is in no small
degree to be attributed to this game, familiarity with which has become
a sort of necessary step in advancement in the Prussian army. The
American game possesses all the valuable features of kriegspiel, and
some noticeable improvements thereon as to method, men, tables, etc.,
while it possesses the peculiar advantages of having elementary games of
special interest to all classes of military men. The cost of this game
is about $50.

=Strategus= (_Strategos_). Any Athenian general officer was so called.

=Strategy.= Is defined by military writers to be the science of
manœuvring an army out of fire of the enemy, as tactics is the art of
managing it in battle or under fire. Strategy is the greater science, as
including all those vast combinations which lead to the subsequent
available displays of tactics.

A movement of the army is said to be _strategical_ when by its means
there are concentrated at a given point troops superior in numbers to
those of the enemy; or, at this point, there is gained a position by
which the enemy’s communications with his base are cut or threatened
while those of the army are secure; or, a position is gained by which
the forces of the enemy are separated, or are prevented from acting in
concert. Strategical operations are directed to attain one or more of
these objects; and the line followed by an army in an operation of this
kind is called a _strategical line_. The area of country or territory in
any part of which the hostile forces can come into collision is termed
the _theatre of war_.

There may be employed in a given theatre of war several armies or only
one. If there are several armies, but each acting independently of the
others, or if there is only one, the particular portion of the territory
in which each act is termed the _theatre of operations_ for that army.

A theatre of operations of an army may be defined to be all the
territory it may desire to invade, and all that it may have to defend.
Where several armies are employed, acting in concert, the theatre of
operations of each army depends upon the movements of the other armies,
and the theatres of operations of each army in this case are usually
designated as _zones of operations_; although this term is also applied
to those three divisions of a theatre of operations lying directly in
advance of the centre and flanks of a front of operations. Whatever is
true for a theatre of operations of an army acting alone is equally true
for the theatre of operations of several armies acting separately, and
is also applicable to the whole theatre of war.

To make the above statements definite, suppose a single army acting in
an independent theatre of operations. A general with such an army under
his command proposing an advance towards the enemy will have three
things to consider, viz.: (1) The place from which the army is to start;
(2) The point to which the army is to go; (3) The roads or routes by
which the army is to move in order to reach this point. The first, or
place of starting, is termed the _base of operations_. The second, the
point to be reached, is called the _objective-point_, or simply the
_objective_. The third, the roads or routes used by the army in reaching
the objective-point, is termed the _line of operations_. The portion of
the theatre of operations occupied by the army as it advances is known
as the _front of operations_.

=Stratton-Hill, Battle of.= In Cornwall, England, May 16, 1643, between
the royal army under Sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the Parliament
under the Earl of Stamford. The victory was gained over the
Parliamentarians, who lost heavily in killed and wounded.

=Strelitz=, or properly =Streltzi= (“arquebuzziers”). The ancient
Russian militia-guard, first raised by Ivan Vatsilevitch the Terrible,
in the second half of the 16th century. At that time and for long
afterwards, they were the only standing army in Russia, and at times
amounted to between 40,000 and 50,000 men. They were located at Moscow
in time of peace, in a quarter of the Capitol which was set apart for
them, and being the bravest and most trustworthy troops in the army,
were made objects of special favor and distinctions. But like all such
petted corps, the Roman _Prætorians_, the Turkish Janissaries, and the
Egyptian Mamelukes, their general turbulence, frequent revolts against
the government (notably during the Demetrian insurrections), and
incessant conspiracies, rendered them more formidable to the Russian
government than to external enemies. The Strelitz having, at the
instigation of the Grand Duchess Sophia and the chiefs of the Old
Muscovite party, revolted against Peter the Great, that iron-handed
ruler caused them to be decimated (1698) in the great square of Moscow,
and the remainder to be banished to Astrakhan. The feeble remnant still
manifesting their characteristic turbulence and disloyalty, Peter
exterminated them almost completely in 1705. Few Russian families at
present can claim kindred with the old Strelitz, but to this the family
of Orloff forms a prominent exception, being descended from a Strelitz
who was pardoned by Peter the Great while the axe was being raised over
him.

=Strength.= This word may be variously understood in military matters.
It means fortification; strongholds, etc. It likewise signifies
armament; power; force. In all returns which are made of corps,
_strength_ implies the number of men that are borne upon the
establishment, in contradistinction to _effective force_, which means
the number fit for service.

=Stretcher.= A litter or frame for carrying sick, wounded, or dead
persons.

=Strict.= Exact, severe, rigorous; the contrary to mild, indulgent.
Hence, a strict officer. It is sometimes used in a bad sense, to signify
a petulant, troublesome commander.

=Striegau.= A town of Prussia in Silesia, 29 miles southwest from
Breslau. The Austrians were defeated by the Prussians under Frederick
the Great near this town in 1745.

=Strife.= Contention in battle;, contest; struggle for victory; quarrel
of war.

=Strike.= This word is variously used in military phraseology; as, to
_strike a tent_, is to loosen the cords of a tent which has been
regularly pitched, and to have it ready, in a few minutes, to throw upon
a baggage-wagon. _To strike terror into an enemy_, is to cause alarm and
apprehension in him; to make him dread the effects of superior skill and
valor. _To strike a blow_, to make some decisive effort.

=Stripes.= The chevrons on the coats of non-commissioned officers are
sometimes so called.

=Strong.= Well fortified; able to sustain attacks; not easily subdued or
taken; as, a strong fortress or town. Having great military or naval
force; powerful; as, a strong army or fleet; a nation strong at sea.

=Stronghold.= A fastness; a fort or fortress; a fortified place; a place
of security.

=Struggle, To.= To make extraordinary exertion in direct contest with an
enemy, or against superior forces.

=Stuhlweissenburg.= A town of Austria, in Hungary, 37 miles southwest
from Buda-Pesth. It was besieged and taken from the Turks by the
Austrians under the Duke of Mercoeur, in September, 1601; was besieged
and captured by the Turks in August, 1602; and was besieged and taken by
assault by the Austrians on September 6, 1688.

=Stuhm.= A town of West Prussia, 13 miles north-northeast of
Marienwerder. Here a battle was fought between the Swedes under Gustavus
Adolphus and the Poles under Gen. Koniecpolski, June 17, 1629.

=Stuttgart=, or =Stutgard=. The capital of Würtemberg, Germany, 38 miles
east-southeast from Carlsruhe. During the wars of Louis XIV., Stuttgart
was thrice taken; and again in 1796, 1800, and 1801.

=Stylet.= A small poniard or dagger; a stiletto.

=Styra= (now _Stura_). A town in Eubœa, on the southwest coast, nearly
opposite Marathon in Attica. The inhabitants took an active part in the
Persian war, and fought at Artemisium, Salamis, and Platææ. They
afterwards became subject to the Athenians. The town was destroyed in
the Lamian war by the Athenian general Phædrus, and its territory was
annexed to Eretia.

=Suabia=, =Swabia=, or =Suevia= (Ger. _Schwaben_). An ancient duchy in
the southwest of Germany, so named from a horde of Suevi, who spread
over it in the 5th century; was a great duchy of the Frank empire till
the 8th century. In 918, it was acknowledged a ducal fief of the empire;
and after changing hands several times, it was bestowed upon Count
Frederick of Hohenstaufen, the founder of the illustrious house of that
name, also known as the house of Suabia. Under the rule of this prince,
Suabia became the most rich, civilized, and powerful country of Germany;
but the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and the quarrel with the
French respecting Naples, put an end to the dynasty in 1268. The ducal
vassals of Suabia rendered themselves almost independent, and professed
to acknowledge no lord but the emperor. During these dissensions arose
the lordships of Würtemberg and Baden, with numerous lesser states,
holding direct of the crown, and opposed to them the cities, which
strove also for an equal independence, and obtained, in 1347, great
additional privileges. A number of them united to make common cause
against the neighboring feudal lords in 1376 (known as the “First
Suabian League”); an opposite league was formed between Würtemberg,
Baden, and seventeen towns in 1405, called the “League of Marbach”; and
both took part in the war of Swiss independence, the former in support
of the Swiss, the latter of the Austrians. At last the towns, which had
been increasing in power, decided at Ulm, in 1449, to form a standing
army, and a permanent military commission, for the forcible
preservation, if necessary, of peace and order; and the Count of
Würtemberg, the most powerful of the opposite party, having joined them,
was appointed military chief of the league, which ultimately grew up
into the “Great Suabian League,” which effectively repressed feudal
quarrels. In 1512, Suabia became one of the ten circles into which
Germany was now divided, received its complete organization in 1563, and
retained it almost without change till the dissolution of the empire in
1806. But during this period, the wars of the towns with Würtemberg, the
Peasants’ war, of which Suabia was one of the foci, the Thirty Years’
War, and those between France and the empire, destroyed the democratic
constitution of the towns, and with it their energy, and then their
prosperity disappeared, leaving now no relic which could suggest their
former great importance.

=Subadar.= A native officer in a native East Indian infantry regiment
holding a rank corresponding to that of captain.

=Subadar-Major.= In the East Indies, is the native commandant of a
native infantry regiment.

=Subaltern.= A commissioned officer below the rank of captain. But
strictly speaking every officer is a subaltern to the grades above him,
as the captain is subaltern to the major, and so upward.

=Sub-Brigadier.= An officer in the Horse Guards who ranks as cornet.

=Subdivision.= The parts of a regiment on parade distinguished by a
second division. Thus, a company divided forms two subdivisions.

=Subdue.= To bring under; to conquer by force or the exertion of
superior power, and bring into permanent subjection; to reduce under
dominion. To overpower so as to disable from further resistance; to
crush.

=Subdur.= In the East Indies signifies a chief.

=Subjugate.= To subdue and bring under the yoke of power or dominion; to
conquer by force, and compel to submit to the government or absolute
control of another.

=Sub-Lieutenant.= In the British service, is the lowest commissioned
rank in infantry and cavalry.

=Subordinary=, or =Subordinate Ordinary=. In heraldry, a name given to a
certain class of charges mostly formed of straight or curved lines.
Heralds vary a little in their enumeration, but the following are
generally held to come within this category: the Bordure, the Orle, the
Tressure, the Flanche, the Pile, the Pall, the Quarter, the Canton, the
Gyron, the Fret, the Inescutcheon, the Lozenge, the Fusil, and the
Mascle. Some heraldic writers account the Pile an ordinary, and the
diminutives of the ordinaries are sometimes ranked as subordinaries.

=Subordination.= A perfect submission to the orders of superiors; a
perfect dependence, regulated by the rights and duties of every military
man, from the soldier to the general. Subordination should show the
spirit of the chief in all the members; and this single idea, which is
manifest to the dullest apprehension, suffices to show its importance.
Without subordination it is impossible that a corps can support itself;
that its motions can be directed, order established, or the service
carried on. In effect, it is subordination that gives a soul and harmony
to the service; it adds strength to authority, and merit to obedience;
and while it secures the efficacy of command, reflects honor upon its
execution. It is subordination which prevents every disorder, and
procures every advantage to an army.

=Subsidy.= A stipulated sum of money, paid by one prince to another in
pursuance of a treaty of alliance for offensive or defensive war.
_Subsidiary troops_, are the troops of a nation assisting those of
another, for a given sum or subsidy.

=Subsist.= To support with provisions; to feed; to maintain.

=Subsistence.= This word may be divided into two sorts, namely, that
species of subsistence which is found in an adjacent country, such as
forage, and frequently corn; and that which is provided at a distance,
and regularly supplied by means of a well-conducted commissary. The
latter consists chiefly of meat, bread, etc. To these may be added wood
or coals, and straw; which are always wanted in an army.

=Subsistence Department.= A department which provides subsistence stores
for the army, either by contract or purchase. The U. S. subsistence
department consists of 1 brigadier-general, 2 colonels, 3
lieutenant-colonels, 8 majors, and 12 captains. See COMMISSARIAT.

=Substitute, Military.= In nations where conscription is resorted to for
the supply of soldiers for the army, the lot often falls on those
unwilling to serve in person. In such a case, the state agrees to accept
the services of a substitute,--that is, of a person of equally good
physique. Unless the levy be very extensive, or the term of military
service very long, substitutes are readily found among military men who
have already served their prescribed period. Of course, the substitute
must be paid for the risk he runs. His price depends, like all other
salable articles, on the demand and supply.

=Succeedant.= In heraldry, succeeding one another, following.

=Success of Arms.= The good luck, or fortune, which attends military
operations, and upon which the fate of a nation frequently depends.
Success is indispensable to the reputation of a general. It often
hallows rash and unauthorized measures.

=Succession of Rank.= Relative gradation according to the dates of
commission.

=Succession Wars.= These wars were of frequent occurrence in Europe,
between the middle of the 17th and the middle of the 18th centuries, on
the occasion of the failure of a sovereign house. The most important of
these was that of the Orleans succession to the Palatinate (1686-97),
closed by the peace of Ryswick; of the Spanish succession (1700-13),
which was distinguished by the achievements of the Duke of Marlborough
and the Earl of Peterborough, and their unprofitable results, arose on
the question whether an Austrian prince or a French prince should
succeed to the throne of Spain; of the Polish succession (1733-38),
closed by the peace of Vienna; of the Austrian succession (1740-48); and
of the Bavarian succession (1777-79), called, in ridicule, the Potato
war. Of these, the second and fourth were by far the most important.

=Successive Pontons.= See PONTONS.

=Sudbury.= A town in Middlesex Co., Mass., 20 miles west by north from
Boston. A battle was fought here on April 18, 1776, in which Capt. S.
Wadsworth and two-thirds of his men were killed by the Indians, in King
Philip’s war.

=Suessiones=, or =Suessones=. A powerful people in Gallia Belgica, who
were reckoned the bravest of all the Belgic Gauls after the Bellovaci,
and who could bring 50,000 men into the field in Cæsar’s time. Their
king Divitiacus, shortly before Cæsar’s arrival in the country, was
reckoned the most powerful chief in all Gaul, and had extended his
sovereignty even over Britain. The Suessiones dwelt in an extensive and
fertile country east of the Bellovaci, south of the Veromandui, and west
of the Remi. They possessed twelve towns, of which the capital was
Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta Suessonum, or Suessones.

=Suevi.= One of the greatest and most powerful races of Germany, or,
more properly speaking, the collective name of a great number of German
tribes, who were grouped together on account of their migratory mode of
life, and spoken of in opposition to the more settled tribes, who went
under the general name of Ingævones. The Suevi are described by all the
ancient writers as occupying the greater half of all Germany; but the
accounts vary respecting the part of the country which they inhabited.
At a later time the collective name of the Suevi gradually disappeared.
In the second half of the 2d century, however, we again find a people
called Suevi, dwelling between the mouth of the Main and the Black
Forest, whose name is still preserved in the modern Suabia; but this
people was only a body of bold adventurers from various German tribes,
who assumed the celebrated name of the Suevi in consequence of their not
possessing any distinguishing appellation.

=Suisses= (_Fr._). The Swiss soldiers who were in the pay of France
previous to August 10, 1792, were generally so called. It was also a
general term to signify stipendiary troops.

=Suliots.= A people in and around the valley of Acheron, the southern
corner of the pashalic of Janina (_Epirus_), in Turkey in Europe, are a
mixed race, being partly of Hellenic and partly of Albanian origin. They
are the descendants of a number of families who fled from the Turkish
oppressors to the mountains of Suli (whence they derive their name)
during the 17th century. In this obscure corner of the Turkish empire
they prospered, and towards the close of the 18th century numbered 560
families. For about fifteen years they heroically resisted the
encroachments of Ali Pasha of Janina upon their independence, the very
women taking part in the strife. Vanquished in 1803, they retreated to
Parga, and afterwards to the Ionian Islands, where they remained till
1820, when their old oppressor, Ali Pasha, finding himself hard pressed
by the Turks, invoked their aid. Eager to return to their cherished
home, they accepted his terms, and under Marcos Bozzaris maintained a
long and desperate conflict with the Turks, but were ultimately forced
again to flee from their country, and take refuge to the number of 3000
in Cephalonia, though a large remnant preferred to skulk in the
neighboring mountains. Though, after this, they took an active and
glorious part in the war of Greek independence, their country was not
included by the treaty of 1829 within the Greek boundary-line, but many
of them, as Bozzaris (son of Marcos) and Tzavellas, have since been
raised to important political offices in the new kingdom of Greece.

=Sulphur.= A simple mineral substance, of a yellow color, brittle,
insoluble in water, easily fusible and inflammable;--called also
_brimstone_,--that is, _burn-stone_, from its great combustibility. It
burns with a blue flame and a peculiar suffocating odor. It is an
ingredient of gunpowder (which see).

=Sultan=, or =Sultaun=. An Arabic word signifying the “mighty man,” and
evidently closely connected with the Hebrew word _shalal_, “to rule,” is
in the East an ordinary title of Mohammedan princes. It is given, _par
excellence_, to the supreme head of the Ottoman empire. It is applied in
Egypt to the ruler of that country, and is also retained by the heir of
the former reigning line of the Crim-Tartars. _Sultana_ is the title of
the wife of a sultan.

=Sumatra.= The most westerly of the Sunda Islands, lies southwest of the
Malay peninsula, from which it is separated by the Strait of Malacca.
When the Portuguese landed here, in 1509, they found that the ancient
Malay kingdom of Menangcabau had been dissolved; but there was a
powerful monarch ruling over Acheen, who endeavored to exclude the
strangers from his country. In 1575, the Portuguese shipping in the
harbor of Acheen was destroyed by the natives, and in 1582, an attempt
which they made to gain possession of the town proved quite
unsuccessful. In 1600, the Dutch established a factory at Pulo Chinko,
on the west coast. The kingdom of Acheen had by this time begun to
decline in power, being distracted by internal wars and discords: The
Dutch rapidly increased the number of their factories and settlements,
founding one at Padang in 1649, at Palembang in 1664. The English
followed the Dutch in this island, and founded a colony at Bencoolen in
1685. In 1811, the Dutch settlements in the East Indies fell into the
hands of the British, but were restored to the Dutch by the peace of
1816. A singular war which took place in Sumatra led to a material
extension of the Dutch possession. It was occasioned by a religious sect
called Padries. About 1815 a society of this sect was formed for the
purpose of spreading their doctrines and practices by force; and this
speedily roused resistance and opposition. The Malays and Battas made
common cause against the Padries, and for a long time a fierce struggle
was carried on, which devastated Menangcabau and the neighboring
regions. At length, with the assistance of the Dutch, the sect was
entirely put down. The indirect results of this war were the annexation
of Menangcabau to the Dutch possessions in 1835, and the opening up to
them of the Batta country, from which foreigners had previously been
excluded. In 1865, an expedition was sent to force the king of Asahan,
one of the small states on the northeast coast, to submit to the Dutch
authority. In 1871 these settlements were sold to Great Britain.

=Summon.= To call upon to surrender; as, to summon a fort.

=Summons.= A call or invitation to surrender.

=Sumpit.= An arrow blown from the _sumpitan_ in Borneo. The sumpitan is
about 7 feet long; the arrow has been driven with some force at 130
yards. Some suppose it to be poison.

=Sumter, Fort.= See FORT SUMTER.

=Suncion, Treaty of.= Between Gen. Urquiza, director of the Argentine
Confederation, and C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Paraguay,
recognizing the independence of Paraguay, July 15, 1852.

=Superannuated.= Incapacitated for service, either from age or
infirmity, and placed on a pension.

=Supercharge.= In heraldry, a bearing or figure placed upon another.

=Superintendent.= One who has the oversight and charge of something,
with the power of direction; as the superintendent of recruiting
service; superintendent of national cemeteries, etc.

=Superior Officer.= Any officer of higher rank, or who has priority in
the same rank, by the date of his commission, etc.

=Superior Slope.= The upper surface of a parapet.

=Supernumerary.= Officers or men in excess of the establishment, but
borne on the rolls of the corps till absorbed. _Supernumeraries_, or
_supernumerary rank_, also signifies the officers and non-commissioned
officers in the infantry, cavalry, etc., who are not included among rank
and file, and stand in the third rank on parade, when the troops are
drawn up in double ranks.

=Supersede.= Is to deprive an officer of rank and pay for any offense or
neglect, or to place one officer over the head of another, who may or
may not be more deserving.

=Supply.= Relief of want; making up deficiencies. A fresh supply of
troops, ammunition, etc. _To supply_, to make up deficiencies. To aid;
to assist; to relieve with something wanted. To fill any room made
vacant. Thus, covering sergeants supply the places of officers when they
step out of the ranks, or are killed in action.

=Support.= To aid, to assist; it likewise signifies to preserve
untarnished; as, to support the ancient character of a corps. _Well
supported_, is well aided or assisted. It likewise signifies well kept
up; as, a well supported fire from the batteries; a well supported fire
of musketry.

=Support Arms.= Is to hold the musket vertically on the left shoulder,
supported by having the hammer rest on the left forearm, which is passed
across the breast.

=Supporters.= In heraldry, figures placed on each side of an armorial
shield, as it were to support it. They seem to have been, in their
origin, a purely decorative invention of mediæval seal-engravers, often,
however, bearing allusion to the arms or descent of the bearer; but in
the course of time their use came to be regulated by authority, and they
were considered indicative that the bearer was the head of a family of
eminence or distinction. The most usual supporters are animals, real or
fabulous; but men in armor are also frequent, and savages, or naked men,
often represented with clubs, and wreathed about the head and middle.
There are occasional instances of inanimate supporters. On early seals,
a single supporter is not unfrequent, and instances are particularly
common of the escutcheon being placed on the breast of an eagle
displayed. The common rule, however, has been to have a supporter on
each side of the shield. The dexter supporter is very often repeated on
the sinister side; but the two supporters are in many cases different;
when the bearer represents two different families, it is not unusual for
a supporter to be adopted from the achievement of each.

=Suppress.= To overpower and crush; to subdue; to put down; to quell; to
destroy; as, the troops suppressed the rebellion.

=Surat.= A large but declining city of British India, 150 miles north of
the city of Bombay, on the south shore of the Tapti, and 8 miles from
its mouth in the Gulf of Cambay. Surat was sacked in 1512 by the
Portuguese soon after their arrival in India. In 1612 an English force
arrived here in two vessels, under the command of Capt. Best, who
defeated the Portuguese, and obtained a _firman_ from the Mogul emperor,
authorizing the residence of a British minister, and established a
factory. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee on the British factory
was defeated by Sir George Oxenden, 1664. The English were again
attacked in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The East India
Company, in 1759, fitted out an armament which dispossessed the admiral
of the castle (the Great Mogul had here an officer who was styled his
admiral); and, soon after, the possession of this castle was confirmed
to them by the court of Delhi. Surat was vested in the British by treaty
in 1800 and 1803.

=Surcingle.= A belt, band, or girth, which passes over a saddle, or over
anything laid on a horse’s back, to bind it fast.

=Surcoat.= A short coat worn over the other garments; especially the
long and flowing drapery of knights, anterior to the introduction of
plate-armor, and which was frequently emblazoned with the arms of a
family.

=Surface.= In fortification, that part of the side which is terminated
by the flank prolonged, and the angle of the nearest bastion; the double
of this line with the curtain is equal to the exterior side.

=Surgeon.= A staff-officer of the medical department. He has the rank of
major, but “shall not in virtue of such rank be entitled to command in
the line or other staff departments of the army.”

=Surgeon-General.= The chief of the medical department, with the rank of
brigadier-general, but subject to the same restriction of command as
other officers of the medical department.

=Surgeons, Acting Assistant-= (Contract). In the U. S. army, are
physicians employed from civil life, at a certain compensation, to
perform the duties required of commissioned medical officers, when the
number of the latter is insufficient. While they have no rank they still
have the allowances of an assistant-surgeon (first lieutenant). A
physician so employed cannot displace a commissioned officer by choice
of quarters; but to obviate being displaced by a commissioned officer,
the commanding officer of a post may assign him an allowance of first
lieutenant’s quarters near the hospital, under the provisions
authorizing the commanding officer to assign quarters to officers
convenient to their troops. Acting assistant-surgeons are entitled to
the same protection and respectful conduct from enlisted men as
commissioned officers are, so far as relates to their duties as
surgeons. A contract physician in the army is regarded as a
“quasi-officer.”

=Surgery, Military.= Restricted to its rigorous signification, military
surgery is the surgical practice in armies; but in its broad and
ordinary acceptation embraces many other branches of art comprehending
the practice of medicine, sanitary precautions, hospital administration,
ambulances, etc. The military surgeon must not only be a skillful
physician and surgeon, but he must have a constitution sufficiently
strong to resist the fatigues of war, and all inclemencies of weather; a
solid judgment and a generous activity in giving prompt assistance to
the wounded without distinction of rank or grade, and without even
excluding enemies. He must have the courage to face dangers without the
power, in all cases, of combating them; he must have great coolness in
order to act and operate in the most difficult positions, whether amidst
the movement of troops, the shock of arms, the cries of the wounded when
crowded together, in a charge, in a retreat, in intrenchments, under the
ramparts of a besieged place, or at a breach. He must have inventive
ingenuity which will supply the wants of the wounded in extreme cases,
and a compassionate heart, with strength of will which will inspire
confidence in those with whom he is brought so closely in contact. The
military surgeon, with his flying ambulance, throws himself into the
field of battle, through the mêlée, under the fire of the enemy, runs
the risk of being taken prisoner, being wounded, or being killed, and is
worthy of all the honors that should be bestowed on bravery and skill in
the performance of his high functions. Additional grades, as
hospital-surgeons, surgeons of divisions, surgeons-in-chief, and
inspector-generals of hospitals, etc., are required for every army in
the field.

=Surinam=, or =Dutch Guiana=. A Dutch colony in South America, situated
between English and French Guiana. The factories established here by the
English in 1640, were occupied by the Portuguese in 1643; by the Dutch,
1654; captured by the English in 1804; and restored to the Dutch in
1814.

=Surmounted.= In heraldry, a term used to indicate that one charge is to
be placed over another of different color or metal, which may
respectively be blazoned: _sable_, a pile argent surmounted by a chevron
gules; and, _argent_, a cross gules surmounted by another or.

=Surprise.= In war, to fall on an enemy unexpectedly, in marching
through narrow and difficult passes, when one part of an army has
passed, and is not able to come at once to the succor of the other; as
in the passage of woods, rivers, inclosures, etc. A place is surprised
by drains, casements, or the issues of rivers or canals; by encumbering
the bridge or gate, or by wagons meeting and stopping each other; or by
sending soldiers into the place, under pretense of being deserters, who,
on entering, _surprise_ the guard, being sustained by troops at hand in
ambush, to whom they give entrance, and thereby seize the place.
Military history abounds with instances of successful surprises.

=Surrender.= To lay down your arms, and give yourself up as a prisoner
of war. Also, the act of giving up, as the surrender of a town or
garrison.

=Surrey.= One of the smallest of the English counties, has the Thames
for its northern boundary, Berkshire and Hampshire on the west, Sussex
on the south, and Kent on the east. Before the Roman era, Surrey formed
a portion of the dominions of a Celtic tribe, named by Ptolemy the
_Regni_, and after the Roman conquest was merged into the province of
Britannica Prima, though, for many years, it retained its native
princes, or _subreguli_. Eventually it was swallowed up in the
territory of the South Saxons, and reduced by Kenulf, king of Wessex,
about 760, into that progressive kingdom which Alfred brought into
constitutional harmony and national completeness. From the period of the
Norman conquest, Surrey can claim no separate annals. At Kingston,
Surrey, in 1642, took place the first military movement of the great
civil war; a body of royalists unsuccessfully attempting to seize upon
its magazine of arms. And there, on July 7, 1648, Lord Francis Villiers
(Dryden’s “Zimri”), met his death in the skirmish which closed the
famous struggle.

=Surround.= In sieges, to invest; in tactics, to outflank and cut off
the means of retreating.

=Surrounded.= Inclosed; invested. A town is said to be surrounded when
its principal outlets are blocked up; and an army, when its flanks are
turned, and its retreat cut off.

=Surtout= (_Fr._). In fortification, is the elevation of the parapet of
a work at the angles to protect from enfilade fire.

=Survey, Boards of.= See BOARDS OF SURVEY.

=Susa= (in the Old Testament _Shushan_; ruins at _Shus_). The winter
residence of the Persian kings, stood in the district Cissia of the
province of Susiana, on the eastern bank of the river Choaspes. It was
conquered by Antigonus in 315 B.C. It was once more attacked by Molo in
his rebellion against Antiochus the Great; and during the Arabian
conquest of Persia it held out bravely for a long time, defended by
Hormuzan.

=Suspend.= To delay, to protract; hence, to suspend hostilities. It is
likewise used to express the act of temporarily depriving an officer of
rank and pay, in consequence of some offense. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF
WAR, 101.

=Suspension of Arms.= A short truce which contending parties agree upon,
in order to bury their dead without danger or molestation, to wait for
succors, or to receive instructions from a superior authority.
_Suspension of hostilities_, to cease attacking one another.

=Sussex.= A maritime county in the south of England. Ælla and his sons
were the first Saxons who landed on the Sussex coast, 477. They
assaulted and captured Wittering, near Chichester, spreading afterwards
through the vast _Andredsleas_ with fire and sword, and finally
establishing the South-Sexe, or Sussex kingdom. The sea-board of Sussex
suffered terribly from the ravages of the Danish jarls. Within its
limits was fought (October 14, 1066) the memorable battle which
overthrew the Saxon dynasty, and eventually resulted in that union of
Saxon solidity and Norman enterprise now recognized as distinctive of
the English character. See LEWES for important battle in 1264. The
French fleet, under D’Annebaut, made an attack on Brighton in 1545, and
landed a body of troops, who were stoutly resisted by the natives, and
compelled to retire. In 1643, the Parliamentarian forces, under Sir
William Waller, besieged Chichester, which after ten days surrendered.
The same leader, later in the year, beleaguered Arundel Castle for
seventeen days, and reduced it to a heap of ruins. For naval combat off
the Sussex coast, see BEACHY HEAD.

=Sustain.= To sustain is to aid, succor, or support, any body of men in
action or defense.

=Sutherland.= A county in the extreme north of Scotland. Sutherland
received its name from the Northmen, who frequently descended upon and
pillaged it prior to the 12th century, and called it the Southern Land,
as being the limit on the south of their settlements.

=Sutler.= A camp-follower, who sells drink and provisions to the troops.
See CANTEEN, and POST-TRADER.

=Swad=, or =Swadkin=. A newly-raised soldier.

=Swaddie.= A discharged soldier.

=Swallow’s-tail.= In fortification, an outwork, differing from a single
tenaille, as its sides are not parallel, like those of a tenaille; but
if prolonged, would meet and form an angle on the middle of the curtain;
and its head, or front, composed of faces, forming a re-entering angle.

=Sway.= The swing or sweep of a weapon. “To strike with huge two-handed
sway.”

=Sweaborg=, or =Sveaborg=. A great Russian fortress and seaport, in
Finland, government of Viborg, sometimes called “the Gibraltar of the
North.” In 1789 it was taken from Sweden by Russia. During the Crimean
war it was bombarded by the Anglo-French fleet in the Baltic (on August
9-10, 1855). Twenty-one mortar-vessels were towed to within about 2
miles (3400 metres) of the centre of the Russian arsenal, while the
gunboats of the squadron, keeping in constant motion, approached to a
distance of 2000 or 3000 metres. The fire was maintained forty-five
hours, during which 4150 projectiles (2828 of which were mortar-shells)
were thrown into the place, killing and wounding 2000 men, and
destroying magazines, supplies, and shipping.

=Sweden.= A kingdom in the north of Europe, and forming with Norway
(with which it is now united under one monarchy), the whole of the
peninsula known by the name of Scandinavia. The earliest traditions of
Sweden, like those of most other countries, present only a mass of
fables. The dawn of Swedish history (properly so called) now begins, and
we find the Swedes constantly at war with their neighbors of Norway and
Denmark, and busily engaged in piratical enterprises against the eastern
shores of the Baltic. In 1155, Eric, surnamed the Saint, undertook a
crusade against the pagan Finns, compelled them to submit, established
Swedish settlements among them, and laid the foundation of the closer
union of Finland with Sweden. Eric’s defeat and murder, in 1161, by the
ambitious young Danish prince Magnus Henriksen, who had made an
unprovoked attack upon the Swedish king, was the beginning of a long
series of troubles, and during the following 200 years, one short and
stormy reign was brought to a violent end by murder or civil war, only
to be succeeded by another equally short and disturbed; until, at
length, the throne was offered by the Swedish nobles to Margaret, queen
of Denmark and Norway, who threw an army into Sweden, defeated the
Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, and by the union of Calmar, in
1397, brought Sweden under one joint sceptre with Denmark and Norway.
Sweden emancipated itself from the union with Denmark in 1523. Gustavus
I. (Gustaf Vasa) on his death, in 1560, left to his successor a
hereditary and well-organized kingdom, a full exchequer, a standing
army, and a well-appointed navy. John, brother of Eric XIV., ascended
the throne in 1568, which he occupied for nearly a quarter of a century,
dying in 1592, after a stormy reign, stained by the cruel murder of his
unfortunate brother Eric, and distracted by the internal dissensions
arising from his attempts to force Catholicism on the people, and the
disastrous wars with the Danes, Poles, and Russians. John’s son and
successor, Sigismund, after a stormy reign of eight years, was compelled
to resign the throne. The deposition of Sigismund gave rise to the
Swedo-Polish war of succession, which continued from 1604 to 1660; and
on the death of Charles IX. in 1611, his son and successor, the great
Gustavus Adolphus, found himself involved in hostilities with Russia,
Poland, and Denmark. With Charles XII. the male line of the Vasas
expired, and his sister and her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, were
called to the throne by election, but were the mere puppets of the
nobles, whose rivalries and party dissensions plunged the country into
calamitous wars and almost equally disastrous treaties of peace.
Gustavus IV. lacked the ability to cope with the difficulties of the
times, and after suffering in turn for his alliance with France,
England, and Russia, was forcibly deposed in 1809, and his successor,
Charles XIII., saw himself compelled at once to conclude a humiliating
peace with Russia by a cession of nearly a fourth part of the Swedish
territories, with 1,500,000 inhabitants; Gen. Bernadotte was elected to
the rank of crown-prince, and he assumed the reins of the government,
and by his steady support of the allies against the French emperor,
secured to Sweden, at the congress of Vienna, the possession of Norway,
when that country was separated from Denmark. Under the able
administration of Bernadotte, who, in 1818, succeeded to the throne as
Charles XIV., the united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway made great
advances in material prosperity and political and intellectual
progress.

=Sweep.= To clear or brush away; as, the cannon swept everything before
it.

=Swell of the Muzzle.= In gunnery, is the largest part of the gun in
front of the neck. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, MOLDING.

=Swiss Guards.= See GARDES SUISSES.

=Switzerland.= A federal republic in Central Europe; bounded on the
north by Baden, northeast by Würtemberg and Bavaria, east by the
principality of Liechtenstein and the Tyrol, south by Piedmont and
Savoy, and west and northwest by France. Switzerland was in Roman times
inhabited by two races,--the Helvetii on the northwest, and the Rhætians
on the southeast. When the invasions took place, the Burgundians settled
in Western Switzerland, while the Alemanni took possession of the
country east of the Aar. The Goths entered the country from Italy, and
took possession of the country of the Rhætians. Switzerland in the early
part of the Middle Ages formed part of the German empire, and feudalism
sprang up in the Swiss highlands even more vigorously than elsewhere.
During the 11th and 12th centuries, the greater part of Switzerland was
ruled on behalf of the emperors by the lords of Zahringen, who did much
to check civil wars. They, however, became extinct in 1218, and then the
country was distracted by wars, which broke out among the leading
families. The great towns united in self-defense, and many of them
obtained imperial charters. Rudolph of Habsburg, who became emperor in
1273, favored the independence of the towns; but his son Albert I. took
another course. He attacked the great towns, and was defeated. The
leading men of the Forest Cantons met on the Rütli meadow, on November
7, 1307, and resolved to expel the Austrian bailiffs or landvögte. A war
ensued which terminated in favor of the Swiss at Morgarten (which see)
in 1315. Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, with Lucerne, Zürich, Glarus,
Zug, and Bern, eight cantons in all, in 1352, entered into a perpetual
league, which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. Other wars
with Austria followed, which terminated favorably for the confederates
at Nafels (which see) and Sempach (which see). In 1415, the people of
the cantons became the aggressors. They invaded Aargau and Thurgau,
parts of the Austrian territory, and annexed them; three years later,
they crossed the Alps, and annexed Ticino, and constituted all three
subject states. The Swiss were next engaged in a struggle on the French
frontier with Charles the Bold of Burgundy. They entered the field with
34,000 men, to oppose an army of 60,000, and yet they were successful,
gaining the famous battles of Granson and Morat (see MORAT) in 1476. In
1499, the emperor Maximilian I. made a final attempt to bring
Switzerland once more within the bounds of the empire. He sought to draw
men and supplies from the inhabitants for his Turkish war, but in vain.
He was defeated in six desperate engagements. Basel and Schaffhausen
(1501), and Appenzell (1513), were then received into the confederation,
and its true independence began. New troubles sprang up with the
Reformation. War broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and
Protestants, and the former were successful at Cappel (which see), where
Zwingli was slain. This victory to some extent settled the boundaries of
the two creeds; in 1536, however, Bern wrested the Pays de Vaud from the
dukes of Savoy. During the Thirty Years’ War, Bern and Zürich contrived
to maintain with great skill the neutrality of Switzerland, and in the
treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, it was acknowledged by the great powers
as a separate and independent state. At this period, the Swiss, in
immense numbers, were employed as soldiers in foreign service, and the
record of their exploits gives ample evidence of their courage and
hardihood. In 1798, Switzerland was seized by the French. At the peace
of 1815, its independence was again acknowledged. In 1839, at Zürich, a
mob of peasants, headed by the Protestant clergy, overturned the
government. In Valais, where universal suffrage had put power into the
hands of the reactionary party, a war took place in which the latter
were victorious. In 1844, a proposal was made in the Diet to expel the
Jesuits; but that body declined to act. The radical party then organized
bodies of armed men, called the Free Corps, which invaded the Catholic
cantons; but they were defeated. The Catholic cantons then formed a
league, named the Sonderbund, for defense against the Free Corps. A
majority in the Diet, in 1847, declared the illegality of the
Sonderbund, and decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits. In the war which
ensued between the federal army and the forces of the Sonderbund, the
former were victorious at Freiburg and Lucerne. The leagued cantons were
made liable in all the expenses of the war, the Jesuits were expelled,
and the monasteries were suppressed. Since then, the most important
event which has occurred was a rebellion against the king of Prussia, as
prince of Neufchâtel. The canton was declared a republic, with a
constitution similar to that of the other Swiss states.

=Swivel.= A small piece of ordnance, turning on a point or swivel.

=Sword.= A well-known weapon of war, the introduction of which dates
beyond the ken of history. It may be defined as a blade of steel, having
one or two edges, set in a hilt, and used with a motion of the whole
arm. Damascus and Toledo blades have been brought to such perfection,
that the point can be made to touch the hilt and to fly back to its
former position. In the last century every gentleman wore a sword; now
the use of the weapon is almost confined to purposes of war. Among the
forms of the sword are the rapier, cutlass, broadsword, scimiter, sabre,
etc.

=Sword Law.= When a thing is enforced, without a due regard being paid
to established rules and regulations, it is said to be carried by sword
law, or by the will of the strongest.

=Sword, Order of the.= A Swedish military order of knighthood,
instituted by Gustavus Vasa.

=Sword-arm.= The right arm.

=Sword-bayonet.= Short arms, as carbines, are sometimes furnished with a
bayonet made in the form of a sword. The back of the handle has a
groove, which fits upon a stud upon the barrel, and the cross-piece has
a hole which fits the barrel. The bayonet is prevented from slipping off
by a spring-catch. The sword-bayonet is ordinarily carried as a
side-arm, for which purpose it is well adapted, having a curved cutting
edge as well as sharp point.

=Sword-bearer.= In monarchical countries, is the title given to the
public officer who bears the sword of state.

=Sword-bearers, Knights.= A community similar to, though much less
distinguished than, the Teutonic Knights.

=Sword-belt.= A belt made of leather, that hung over the right shoulder
of an officer, by which his sword was suspended on the left side. This
belt is no longer used, as the sword is now suspended from the
waist-belt.

=Sword-blade.= The blade or cutting part of a sword.

=Sword-cane.= A cane containing a sword.

=Sword-cutler.= One who makes swords.

=Sworded.= Girded with a sword.

=Sword-fight.= Fencing; a combat or trial of skill with swords.

=Sword-knot.= A ribbon tied to the hilt of a sword. In the United
States, all general officers wear a gold cord with acorn ends, and all
other officers, a gold lace strap, with gold bullion tassel; the
enlisted men of cavalry wear a leathern strap with a bullion tassel of
the same material.

=Sword-player.= A fencer; a gladiator; one who exhibits his skill in the
use of the sword.

=Swordsman.= A soldier; a fighting man. One skilled in the use of the
sword; a professor of the science of fencing.

=Swordsmanship.= The state of being a swordsman; skilled in the use of
the sword.

=Sybaris.= A celebrated Greek town in Lucania, was situated between the
rivers Sybaris and Crathis, and a short distance from the Tarentine
Gulf, and near the confines of Bruttium. It was founded by Achæans and
Trœzenians in 720 B.C., and soon attained an extraordinary degree of
prosperity and wealth, exercising dominion over twenty-five towns, and,
it is said, was able to bring 300,000 men into the field. But its
prosperity was of short duration. The Achæans having expelled the
Trœzenian part of the population, the latter took refuge at the
neighboring city of Croton, the inhabitants of which espoused their
cause. In the war which ensued between the two states, the Sybarites
were completely conquered by the Crotoniats, who followed up their
victory by the capture of Sybaris, which they destroyed by turning the
waters of the river Crathis against the town, 510 B.C.

=Syef= (_Ind._). A long sword.

=Syef-ul Mulk= (_Ind._). The sword of the kingdom.

=Sygambri=, =Sugambri=, =Sigambri=, =Sycambri=, or =Sicambri=. One of
the most powerful tribes of Germany at an early time, belonged to the
Istævones, and dwelt originally north of the Ubii on the Rhine, whence
they spread toward the north as far as the Lippe. The territory of the
Sygambri was invaded by Cæsar. They were conquered by Tiberius in the
reign of Augustus, and a large number of them were transplanted to Gaul,
where they received settlements between the Maas and the Rhine as Roman
subjects. At a later period we find them forming an important part of
the confederacy known under the name of Franci.

=Symbol.= In a military sense, a badge. Every regiment in the British
service has its badge.

=Syracuse= (It. _Siracusa_). Anciently the most famous and powerful city
of Sicily, situated on the southeast coast of the island, 80 miles
south-southwest from Messina; was founded by a body of Corinthian
settlers under Archias, one of the Bacchiadæ, 734 B.C. In 486 a
revolution took place and the oligarchic families--_Geomori_, or
_Gamori_, “land-owners”--were expelled, and the sovereign power was
transferred to the citizens at large. Before a year passed, however,
Gelon, “despot” of Gela, had restored the exiles, and at the same time
made himself master of Syracuse. Hieron, brother of Gelon, raised
Syracuse to an unexampled degree of prosperity. Hieron died in 467, and
was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus; but the rapacity and cruelty
of the latter soon provoked a revolt among his subjects, which led to
his deposition and the establishment of a democratical form of
government. The next most important event in the history of Syracuse was
the siege of the city by the Athenians, which ended in the total
destruction of the great Athenian armament in 413; and Syracuse’s renown
at once spread over the whole Greek world. Dionysius restored the
“tyranny” of Gelon, and his fierce and victorious war with Carthage (397
B.C.) raised the renown of Syracuse still higher. On the death of Hieron
II., his grandson Hieronymus, who succeeded him, espoused the side of
the Carthaginians. A Roman army under Marcellus was sent against
Syracuse, and after a siege of two years, during which Archimedes
assisted his fellow-citizens by the construction of various engines of
war, the city was taken by Marcellus in 212. Under the Romans, Syracuse
slowly but surely declined. Captured, pillaged, and burned by the
Saracens (878) it sunk into complete decay, so that very few traces of
its ancient grandeur are now to be seen. It was taken by Count Roger,
the Norman, 1088; in the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the
Neapolitan troops, April 8, 1849.

=Syria.= At present, forming together with Palestine, a division of
Asiatic Turkey; extends between lat. 31° and 37° 20′ N. along the
Mediterranean from the Gulf of Iskanderoon to the Isthmus of Suez. The
oldest inhabitants of Syria were all of Shemitic descent; the
Canaanites, like the Jews themselves, and the Phœnicians (who inhabited
the coast-regions) were Shemites. So were also the Aramæans, who
occupied Damascus and extended eastward towards the Euphrates. This
territory, Syria proper, became subject to the Hebrew monarchy in the
time of David; but after Solomon’s death Rezin made himself independent
in Damascus, and while the Jewish empire was divided into two kingdoms,
the Aramæan kings of Damascus conquered and incorporated the whole
northern and central part of the country. In 740 B.C. the Assyrian king,
Tiglath-Pileser, conquered Damascus, and in 720 B.C. the kingdom of
Israel. In 587 B.C. the kingdom of Judah was conquered by
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and Syria, with Palestine, was now
successively handed over from the Assyrians to the Babylonians, from the
Babylonians to the Medes, and from the Medes to the Persians. After the
battle of the Issus (333 B.C.) Alexander the Great conquered the
country, and with him came the Greeks. After his death they formed here
a flourishing empire under the Seleucidæ, who reigned from 312 to 64
B.C. After the victories over Antigonus at Ipsus in 301 B.C., and over
Lysimachus at Cyropedion in 282 B.C., the empire of Seleucus I. actually
comprised the whole empire of Alexander with the exception of Egypt. But
his son, Antiochus I., Soter (281-260), lost Pergamum, and failed in his
attempts against the Gauls who invaded Asia Minor, and Antiochus II.,
Theos (260-247), lost Parthia and Bactria. Antiochus the Great (223-187)
conquered Palestine, which by the division of Alexander’s empire had
fallen to the Ptolemies of Egypt; but under Antiochus Epiphanes
(174-164) the Jews revolted, and after a contest of twenty-five years
they made themselves independent. Under Antiochus XIII. (69-64) Pompey
conquered the country and made it a Roman province, governed by a Roman
proconsul. After the conquest of Jerusalem (70) Palestine was added to
this province. By the division of the Roman empire Syria fell to the
Eastern or Byzantine part. In 638 the country was conquered by the
Saracens. In 654 Damascus was made the capital of Syria, and in 661 of
the whole Mohammedan empire. When the Abbassides removed their residence
to Bagdad, Syria sank into a mere province. In the 11th century the
Seljuk Turks conquered the country. The establishment of the Latin
kingdom by the Crusaders in 1099 was of short duration and of little
advantage. They held Jerusalem till 1187, Acre till 1291, but they
proved more rapacious and more cruel than the Turks. When in 1291 the
Mameluke rulers of Egypt finally drove the Christian knights out of the
country, its cities were in ruins, its fields devastated, and its
population degraded. Still worse things were in waiting,--the invasion
of Tamerlane and his successors, which actually transformed large
regions into deserts and the inhabitants into savages. In 1517, Sultan
Selim I. conquered the country, and since that time it has formed part
of the Turkish empire, with the exception of the short period from 1832
to 1841, when Ibrahim Pasha (who defeated the army of the grand seignior
at Konieh, December 21, 1832) governed it under the authority of his
father, Mehemet Ali (who had captured Acre, and overrun the whole of
Syria). The Druses are said to have destroyed 151 Christian villages and
killed 1000 persons, May 29 to July 1, 1860. The Mahommedans massacred
Christians at Damascus; about 3300 were slain, but many were saved by
Abd-el-Kader, July, 1860; the French and English governments intervened;
4000 French soldiers under Gen. Hautpoul landed at Beyrout, August 22,
1860. The French and Turks advanced against Lebanon, and fourteen emirs
surrendered, October, 1860. The pacification of the country was
effected, November, 1860; and the French occupation ceased June 5, 1861.
The insurrection of Joseph Karaman, a Maronite, in Lebanon, was
suppressed, March, 1866; another was suppressed, and Karaman fled to
Algeria, January 31, 1867.

=System.= In fortification, is a particular arrangement and mode of
constructing the different works surrounding a fortified place. The
principal systems now studied are those of Marshal Vauban, and the
improved method invented by Cormontaigne, the celebrated French
engineer.

=System.= A scheme which reduces many things to regular dependence or
co-operation. This word is frequently applied to some particular mode of
drilling and exercising men to fit them for manœuvres and evolutions.
Hence, the Prussian system, the Austrian system, etc.

=System, Military.= Specific rules and regulations for the government of
an army in the field or in quarters, etc.

=Systems of Artillery.= The character and arrangement of the material of
artillery, as adopted by a nation at any particular epoch. The American
systems of field and siege artillery are chiefly derived from those of
France. The principal qualities sought to be observed in establishing a
system of artillery are, simplicity, mobility, and power. The first
system adopted in France was about the middle of the 16th century, at
which time the various guns of the French artillery were reduced to six.
The weights of the balls corresponding to these calibers ranging from
33¹⁄₄ to ³⁄₄ pounds. This range of calibers was thought to be necessary,
for the reason that it required guns of large caliber to destroy
resisting objects, while guns of small caliber were necessary to keep up
with the movement of troops. Each of the five principal calibers was
mounted on a different carriage, and the ammunition, stores, and tools
were carried on different store-carts. Three kinds of powder were used,
viz.: large-grain, small-grain, and priming, which were carried in
barrels of three sizes. The axle-trees, which were of wood, varied for
the different wheels, as well as for the different guns. The
gun-carriages were without limbers, and had only two wheels, the shafts
being attached to the trails, which often dragged along the ground. No
spare wheels were used, except for pieces of large caliber; and for
facility of transportation these were put on an axle-tree, so as to form
a carriage. With the exception of replacing injured wheels, all repairs
were made on the spot, from the resources of the country, and no spare
articles were carried with the train. There was no established charge of
powder for the guns; although a weight equal to that of the shot was
generally used. Such was the character of the artillery which
accompanied the French armies up to the middle of the 17th century. In
the reign of Louis XIV., the calibers of cannon were gradually changed
by the introduction of several foreign pieces. There were 48-, 32-, 24-,
16-, 12-, 8-, and 4-pounders; and those of the same caliber varied in
weight, length, and shape. Uniformity existed in general in each
district commanded by a lieutenant-general of artillery, but the cannon
of one district differed from another. Each district had (for the six
kinds of cannon) six carriages, with different wheels, and three kinds
of limbers, with different wheels, making nine patterns of wheels,
without counting those for the platform-wagons used to transport heavy
guns, the ammunition-carts, the trucks, and the wagons for small stores
and tools. Spare carriages were carried into the field, but those of one
district would not fit the guns of another. There was but one kind of
powder, and this was carried in barrels. The charge was usually
two-thirds the weight of the projectile, roughly measured. Besides this,
the powder often varied in strength according to the district from which
it came.

_Valière’s System._--In 1735, Gen. Valière abolished the 32-pounder, as
being heavy and useless, and gave uniformity to the five remaining
calibers. Towards the end of the 18th century, mortars, or Dutch
howitzers, were sometimes attached to the field-trains; for the latter,
a small charge, and caliber of 8 inches, were adopted. There were also
light 4-pounder guns attached to each regiment. Up to that time an army
always carried with it heavy guns (24-pounders), and light guns
(4-pounders), which were combined in the same park. Valière established
a system of uniformity for cannon throughout France; but such was not
the case with the carriages and wagons used with them. Great exactness
was not then sought for, and there existed as many plans for
constructing gun-carriages as there were arsenals of construction. The
axle-trees were of wood, the limbers were very low, and the horses were
attached in single file.

_Gribeauval’s System._--In 1765, Gen. Gribeauval founded a new system,
by separating the field from the siege artillery. He diminished the
charge of field-guns from a half to a third the weight of the shot, but
as he diminished the windage of the projectile at the same time, he was
enabled to shorten them and render them lighter, without sensibly
diminishing their range. Field artillery then consisted of 12-, 8-, and
4-pounder guns, to which was added a 6-inch howitzer, still retaining a
small charge, but larger in proportion to that before used. For draught,
the horses were disposed in double files, which was much more favorable
to rapid gaits. Iron axle-trees, higher limbers, and traveling
trunnion-holes rendered the draught easier. The adoption of cartridges,
elevating screws, and tangent scales, increased the rapidity and
regularity of the fire. Stronger carriages were made for the lighter
guns, and the different parts of all were made with more care, and
strengthened with ironwork. Uniformity was established in all the new
constructions, by compelling all the arsenals to make every part of the
carriages, wagons, and limbers according to certain fixed dimensions. By
this exact correspondence of all the parts of a carriage, spare parts
could be carried into the field ready made, to refit. Thus an equipment
was obtained which could be easily repaired, and could be moved with a
facility hitherto unknown. In order to reduce the number of spare
articles necessary for repairs, Gribeauval gave, as far as practicable,
the same dimensions to those things which were of the same nature. The
excellence of this system was tested in the wars of the French republic
and empire, in which it played an important part. In 1827, the system of
Gribeauval was changed by introducing the 24- and 32-pounder howitzers,
lengthened to correspond with the 8- and 12-pounder guns, and abolishing
the 4-pounder gun and 6-inch howitzer. Afterwards some important
improvements were made in the carriages, chiefly copied from the English
system; the number for all field-cannon was reduced to two, the wheels
of the carriage and limber were made of the same size; the weight of
the limber was reduced, and an ammunition-chest placed on it; the method
of connecting the carriage and limber was simplified, and the operations
of limbering and unlimbering greatly facilitated; and the two flasks
which formed the trail were replaced by a single piece called the
_stock_, which arrangement allowed the new pieces to turn in a smaller
space than that required by the old ones.

_Louis Napoleon’s System._--In 1850, Louis Napoleon, emperor of the
French, caused a series of experiments to be made at the principal
artillery schools of France to test the merits of a new system of field
artillery proposed by himself. The principal idea involved in this
system was, to substitute a single gun of medium weight and caliber,
capable of firing shot and shells, for the 8- and 12-pounder guns, and
24- and 32-pounder howitzers, then in use. The caliber selected was the
12-pounder. The favorable results of all these experiments, and the
simplicity of the system, led to the adoption of this, the Napoleon gun,
as it is sometimes called, into the French service; and others of
similar principle were introduced into various European services, and
also into our own. As this piece unites the properties of gun and
howitzer, it is called _canon-obusier_, or gun-howitzer.

At no time since the discovery of gunpowder have such important
improvements been made in fire-arms as within the past few years. These
improvements may be summed up as follows, viz.: (1) Improvement in the
quality of cast iron, and the consequent increase in the caliber of
sea-coast cannon. In 1820, the heaviest gun mounted in the United States
on sea-coast batteries was the 24-pounder; at present the heaviest is a
20-inch gun, carrying a shell weighing 1080 pounds. (2) The use of
wrought and chilled iron and steel as a material for fortress carriages,
and for covering ships of war. (3) The extensive introduction of shells
in sea-coast defenses and naval warfare; and spherical case-shot into
the field service. (4) The introduction of rifling for both small-arms
and cannon. (5) The successful application of the breech-loading
principle to cannon and small-arms of every description, and the great
improvement made of late in steel, as well as the power to manipulate
masses sufficiently large for the construction of the immense cannon now
employed in naval warfare and for sea-coast defense.

=Szegedin.= The second largest town in Hungary, situated on the right
bank of the Theiss. Szegedin is fortified, and here, on August 3, 1849,
the Austrians defeated the Hungarians.



T.


=Tab.= The arming of an archer’s gauntlet or glove.

=Tabard.= A military garment in general use in the latter half of the
15th, and beginning of the 16th century, which succeeded the _jupon_ and
_cyclas_. It fitted closely to the body, was open at the sides, had wide
sleeves or flaps reaching to the elbow, and displayed the armorial
ensigns of the wearer on the back and front, as well as on the sleeves.
About the middle of the 16th century the tabard ceased to be used except
by the officers-of-arms, who have down to the present time continued to
wear tabards embroidered with the arms of the sovereign.

=Table-money.= In the British army and navy, is an allowance sometimes
made to officers over and above their pay, for table expenses.

=Tablette.= Is a flat coping-stone, generally 2 feet wide and 8 inches
thick, placed at the top of the revetment of the escarp, for the purpose
of protecting the masonry from the effects of the weather, and also to
serve as an obstacle to the besiegers when applying the scaling-ladders.
It is always considered a matter of importance that the tablette should
be concealed from the enemy’s view, as he would otherwise be able to
direct his artillery against it; therefore, the escarp of all the works
inclosed within the covered way is submitted at least 6 inches to the
crest of the glacis.

=Tabor.= A fortified town of Bohemia, 48 miles south-southeast of
Prague. Its castle was originally built in 774, destroyed in 1268, but
restored in 1420, when the Hussites under Ziska took possession of the
town.

=Taborite.= A Roman soldier armed with a double-edged axe.

=Tabors= (_Fr._). Intrenchment of baggage for defense against cavalry.

=Tabour.= A small drum, played with one stick, in combination with a
fife. It was formerly used in war, but has now given place to the
kettle-drum.

=Tabriz=, or =Tabreez= (written also _Tauris_ and _Tebriz_). A city of
North Persia, capital of the province of Azerbaijan. It was taken and
sacked by Timur in 1392, and was soon after seized by the Turkomans,
from whom it was taken by the Persians in 1500. It has been several
times in the hands of the Turks, but was finally taken from them by
Nadir Shah in 1730.

=Tactician.= One versed in tactics.

=Tactics, Grand.= See TACTICS, MILITARY.

=Tactics, Military.= Is the science and art of disposing military
forces in order for battle, and performing military evolutions in the
presence of an enemy. It is divided into _grand tactics_, or the tactics
of battle, and _elementary tactics_, or the tactics of instruction.
Tactics is the strategy of the battle-field; the science of manœuvring
and combining those military units which drill, discipline, and the
regimental system have brought to the perfection of machines. It was
admirably described by Napoleon as _the art of being the
stronger_,--that is, of bringing an overwhelming force to bear on any
given point, whatever may be the relative strength of the entire armies
opposed. The earliest records of battles are those of mere single
combats, in which the chiefs, fighting either on foot or in chariots,
performed great deeds; and the commonalty, who apparently were without
discipline, were held in profound contempt. With the growth of democracy
arose the organization of the _phalanx_ (which see), the advance of
which was irresistible, and its firmness equally so, if charged in
front. It, however, changed front with great difficulty; was much
deranged by broken ground, and failed entirely in pursuit, or if
attacked in flank. Far lighter and more mobile was the Roman _legion_.
(See LEGION.) Among Roman tactics was also the admirable intrenchment,
which they scarcely ever omitted as an additional source of strength for
their position. “Events reproduce themselves in cycles;” and with the
decay of Roman civilization came again the mail-clad heroes and
cavaliers--mounted this time on horses--who monopolized the honors of
battle, while the undisciplined footmen had an undue share of the
dangers. Later in the feudal period, this disparity between knight and
footman was diminished by the employment of bodies of archers, whose
shafts carried instant death. The adoption of gunpowder for small-arms
altogether neutralized the superiority of the armored knight. This
change brought infantry into the front place in battle, and threw
cavalry into the status of an auxiliary. The French revolutionary wars
tended much to the development of artillery as a field-weapon, and
Napoleon employed this terrible weapon to its fullest extent, a practice
followed by the best modern generals, who never risk a man where a
cannon-ball can do the work. Frederick the Great was considered an
innovator for fighting with infantry four deep. During the French war,
the formation of three deep became general, and still obtains in several
European armies. Before the battle of Waterloo, the British leaders had
acquired sufficient confidence in their troops to marshal them in a
double line. It is doubtful whether the advance in arms of precision
will not soon necessitate the formation in a single line, or even in a
single line in open order. We will now notice briefly a few of the more
important principles, as our space will not permit us to go into that
intricate science, modern tactics. As to _the art of being stronger_,
which is undoubtedly the highest recommendation in a general, we may
cite the example of the battle of Rivoli. In 1796, Napoleon was
besieging Mantua with a small force, while a very much smaller army of
observation watched the Austrians. The Austrian commander had collected
at Trent a force powerful enough to crush completely the French army,
with which he was marching south. Parallel with his course lay the Lake
of Garda, and to prevent the enemy escaping up one side as he marched
down the other, the Austrian leader divided his army into two powerful
corps, and marched one down each side of the lake. The instant the young
French general knew of this division he abandoned the siege of Mantua,
collected every available man, and marched against one body of the
enemy. Though far inferior on the whole, he was thus superior at the
point of attack, and the victory of Rivoli decided virtually the whole
campaign. This corresponded in principle with Napoleon’s general plan in
battle. He formed his attack into column, tried to break through the
centre of the enemy’s line; and if he succeeded, then doubled back to
one side, so as to concentrate the whole of his own force against
one-half of the enemy’s, which was usually routed before the other half
of the line could come up to the rescue.

Taken collectively, the tactics of the three arms may thus be
summarized: The infantry form the line of battle, and probably decide
the day by a general advance over the enemy’s ground. The cavalry seek
to break the opposing infantry by frequent charges in front, or on any
flank which may be left exposed. If a part of the line wavers, a charge
of horse should complete the disarray. When the rout commences, the
cavalry should turn it by furious onslaught into utter discomfiture. The
province of the artillery is to cannonade any portion of the line where
men are massed, or where a charge is about to be made; to demoralize
cavalry, and generally to carry destruction wherever it can best
disconcert the enemy. Adverting now very briefly to the tactics of the
several arms individually, we have--

_Infantry._--This force has four formations,--skirmishers, line, column,
and square. The skirmishers precede and flank an advancing line or
column, picking off the enemy, whose masses offer good mark, while their
own extended order gives them comparative impunity. If resistance be
encountered in force, the skirmishers retreat behind their massed
supports. The line is a double or treble line of men, firing or
charging. For musketry purposes, it is the most formidable formation,
and is the favorite English tactic in every case where the officers can
depend on the steadiness of their men. For bursting through a line, the
deep column is the most effective. It is the favorite French formation,
and during the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, the British and
Russians alone succeeded in resisting it. The column is the best
formation on a march; and the line, when in actual collision with the
enemy. The formation in _echelon_ to a great extent combines these
advantages.

_Cavalry._--The function of heavy cavalry is limited to the charge in
line. The light cavalry form in small sections, to scour the country,
collect supplies, and cut off stragglers.

_Artillery._--No distinct tactics exist for this arm beyond the fact
that a concentrated fire is vastly the most effective, and that the
artillery should always have a support of infantry at hand, to protect
it from a sudden incursion of hostile cavalry.

_Tactics of position_ depend on the moral energy of the
commander-in-chief. Few would dare, as Cæsar did, an invasion in which
there was no retreat if defeated. It is a military maxim not to fight
with the rear on a river, unless many bridges be provided for retreat,
in case of disaster. A convex front is better than a concave front,
because internal communication is more easy. The flank should be
protected by cavalry, or preferably by natural obstacles. In battle, a
long march from one position to another, which exposes the flank to the
enemy, is a fatal error. By such, the French won Austerlitz, and lost
Talavera. In a pursuit, a parallel line is better than the immediate
route the retreating enemy has taken, as supplies will be more readily
procured, and he may by celerity be attacked in flank. This was
strikingly exemplified in the Russian pursuit of Napoleon’s army
retreating from Moscow.

=Tae-pings=, or =Tai-pings=. The name given to the Chinese rebels who
made their appearance in 1850, and desolated some of the best provinces
of China. Peking was taken by the English and French on October 12,
1860. Its capture was followed by the ratification of the treaty of
Tien-tsin, which, granting important privileges to European merchants,
made it the direct interest of the English, French, and American
governments to re-establish order in China. The repulse of the rebels at
Shanghai in August, 1860, had been followed by several engagements
between them and the imperialists, in which they were defeated. Ward, an
American, who had taken service under the emperor, and who showed a
remarkable talent for organizing irregular troops, had wrought a
wonderful improvement in the imperialist army, and he was the chief
means of their success. In the beginning of 1862, the Tae-pings again
advanced on Shanghai, and were twice defeated. In the autumn of the same
year, Ward was killed; Ward’s force was handed over to an English
officer, and took the name of Gordon’s brigade. Gordon’s brigade
rendered essential service to the imperial government. The rebels were
defeated in upwards of sixteen engagements; and in 1864, almost every
important city was taken from them. The conduct of the imperial
authorities at Su-chow, where a horrible massacre took place, led to the
withdrawal of the English military force; but the rebellion had been
effectually checked. Toward the end of 1864, the Tae-pings, however,
still offered an opposition to the imperialists in Kiang-tsu, all the
more formidable in consequence of the prevalence of brigandage and
insurrectionary movements in parts of the empire not affected by the
Tae-ping rebellion. In January, 1865, the Mohammedan Tartars of
Songaria, on the Siberian frontier, assisted by the free Kirghis tribes,
took the town of Tarbagatai, and afterwards Kouldja. In the following
June, a still more serious insurrection broke out in China proper, that
of the Nien-fei, or rebels of the north, whose special object was to
overturn the reigning dynasty. One body of them, in the beginning of
1866, caused serious alarm in Hankow, and would have attacked the
European settlement but for the arrival of some English gunboats. It is
believed that the last embers of the Tae-ping rebellion were trodden out
in February, 1866, when from 30,000 to 50,000 rebels were routed by the
imperial army at Kia-ying-chou in Kwan-tung. The victorious general then
set out to attack the Nien-fei, or northern rebels, at Hankow, and the
imperial troops were several times defeated by them in 1867; but late in
1868, their operations became unimportant.

=Taganrog.= A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of
Ekaterinoslav, near the northwest extremity of the Sea of Azov, 172
miles northeast from Kertch. The town was bombarded by a fleet of French
and British gunboats in 1855.

=Tagliacozzo.= A town of Southern Italy, in the Aleruzzi Mountains,
where on August 23, 1268, Charles of Anjou, the usurping king of Naples,
defeated and made prisoner the rightful monarch, young Conradin, who had
been invited into Italy by the Ghibelline party; their opponents, the
Guelphs, or papal party, supporting Charles.

=Tagliamento.= A river in Lombardy, Northern Italy, near which the
Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, March
16, 1797.

=Tail of the Trenches.= The post where the besiegers begin to break
ground, and cover themselves from the fire of the place, in advancing
the lines of approach.

=Taishes.= Armor for the thighs.

=Take.= To lay hold of; to seize. To obtain possession of by force or
artifice; to capture; to make prisoner. To attack; to seize; as, to
take an army, a city, or a ship. _To take aim_, to direct the eye or
weapon; to aim. _To take arms_, to commence war or hostilities. _To take
advantage of_, to avail one’s self of any peculiar event or opening,
whereby an army may be overcome. _To take ground to the right or left_,
is to extend a line, or to move troops in either of those directions.
_To take down_, is to commit to paper that which is spoken by another.
_To take on_, an expression in familiar use among soldiers that have
enlisted for a limited period, to signify an extension of service by
re-enlisting. _To take the field_, is to encamp, to commence the
operations of a campaign. _To take up_, to seize; to catch; to arrest;
as, to take up a deserter. _To take up quarters_, to occupy locally; to
go into cantonments, barracks, etc.; to become stationary for more or
less time. _To take up the gauntlet_, is to accept a challenge.

=Takel= (_Anglo-Saxon_). The arrows which used to be supplied to the
fleet.

=Talavera de la Reyna.= A town of Spain in New Castile, in the modern
province of Toledo, on the Tagus, 75 miles southwest from Madrid. Here
on July 27 and 28, 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley, with 19,000 English and
German troops, and about 34,000 Spaniards, who, however, with very
trifling exceptions, were not engaged, defeated upwards of 50,000
veteran French troops under Joseph Bonaparte and Marshals Jourdan and
Victor.

=Talk.= Among the Indians of North America, a public conference, as
respecting peace or war, negotiation, and the like; or an official
verbal communication made from them to another nation or its agents, or
made to them by the same.

=Talus.= The old word in fortification for a slope.

=Tambour.= In fortification, is a small work, usually a timber stockade,
about 6 feet high, and loop-holed. Its object is to defend a gateway,
the road into a village, or to afford flanking fire on a bridge, etc.
The tambour on the covered way is the traverse which closes an entrance
from the glacis.

=Tampion=, or =Tompion=. The wooden plug placed in the mouth of a piece
of ordnance to preserve it from dust and damp. In naval gunnery, the
tampion is the wooden bottom for a charge of grape-shot.

=Tam-tam= (Hind. _tom-tom_). A drum used by the Hindoos, made of an
alloy of copper and tin, and very sonorous.

=Tanagra= (now _Grimadha_, or _Grimada_). A celebrated town of Bœotia,
on the left bank of the Asopus, 200 stadia from Platææ, in the district
Tanagræa. Being near the frontiers of Attica, it was frequently exposed
to the attacks of the Athenians; near it the Spartans defeated the
Athenians, 457 B.C., but were defeated by them in 426, when Agis II.
headed the Spartans, and Nicias the Athenians.

=Tang.= The tang of the breech of a musket, is the projecting part by
which the barrel is secured to the stock. Also, that part of a
sword-blade to which the hilt is riveted.

=Tangent Scale.= In gunnery, a brass plate, the lower edge of which is
cut to fit the base-ring or base-line of the piece, and the upper edge
cut into notches for each one-fourth degree elevation. It is used in
pointing, by placing the lower edge on the base-ring, or base-line, with
the radius of the notch corresponding with the highest point of the
base-ring or line; and sighting over the centre of the notch; and the
highest point of the muzzle, or top of the muzzle-sight.

=Tangier.= A seaport of Morocco, on a small bay or inlet of the Strait
of Gibraltar. Tangier was taken by the Portuguese in 1471, and ceded to
the English in 1662, and held by them for twenty-two years. It was
bombarded by the French in 1844.

=Tanjore.= A town of British India, capital of a district of the same
name, in the presidency of Madras. In 1678 Tanjore was conquered by the
Mahratta chief, Vencajeo, brother of Sevajee. In the reign of the rajah
Tooljajee, the nabob of Arcot, supported by the Madras government, laid
claim to tribute from Tanjore, and the rajah was deposed, but was
subsequently restored.

=Tannadar.= In the East Indies, a commander of a small fort or
custom-house.

=Tannenberg= (East Prussia). Here Ladislaus V., Jagellon of Poland,
defeated the Teutonic Knights with great slaughter, the grand master
being among the slain, July 15, 1410. The order never recovered from
this calamity.

=Tap.= A gentle blow on the drum.

=Taps.= A sound of drum or trumpet which takes place usually about a
quarter of an hour after tattoo, and is an indication that all lights in
the soldiers’ quarters will be extinguished, and the men retire to bed.

=Tapuri.= A powerful people, apparently of Scythian origin, who dwelt in
Media, on the borders of Parthia, south of Mount Coronus. They also
extended into Margiana, and probably farther north on the eastern side
of the Caspian, where their original abodes seem to have been in the
mountains called by their name.

=Tara.= A hill in Meath, Ireland, where it is said a conference was held
between the English and Irish in 1173. Near here, on May 26, 1798, the
royalist troops, 400 in number, defeated the insurgent Irish 4000
strong.

=Taranto= (anc. _Tarentum_). A town of Southern Italy, province of Terra
d’Otranto, is situated on a rocky islet formerly an isthmus between the
Mare Piccolo (Little Sea), and the Mare Grande (Great Sea), or Gulf of
Taranto, on the west. Ancient Tarentum was a far more splendid city than
its modern representative. Its greatness dates from 708 B.C., when the
original inhabitants were expelled, and the town was taken possession of
by a strong body of Lacedæmonian Partheniæ under the guidance of
Phalanthus. It soon became the most powerful city in the whole of Magna
Græcia, and exercised a kind of supremacy over the other Greek cities in
Italy. It possessed a considerable fleet of ships of war, and was able
to bring into the field, with the assistance of its allies, an army of
30,000 foot and 3000 horse. The people of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus,
king of Epirus, supported a war which had been undertaken in 281 B.C. by
the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their
ships when near their harbors; it was terminated after ten years;
300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome.
Except the citadel, Tarentum was captured by the Carthaginians, 212, but
recovered by Fabius, 209 B.C. Tarentum has shared in the revolutions of
Southern Italy.

=Tarazona.= A town of Spain, in the province of Zaragoza, on the
Queyles, a tributary of the Ebro. It is the ancient _Turiaso_, and here
a few Roman troops routed a Celtiberian army. It became a _municipium_
under the Romans.

=Tarbes.= A town of France, in the department of Hautes Pyrenees, on the
left bank of the Adour. For a long time it belonged to the English
monarchs, and it was the residence of the Black Prince. On March 20,
1814, a combat took place here between the British under Wellington and
the French under Soult, in which the former gained the victory.

=Tar-bucket.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Tard-venus=, or =Malandrins= (_Fr._). Freebooters, banditti, who
elected their own chief, and appeared first in France in 1360.

=Tarentum.= See TARANTO.

=Target.= In its modern sense, is the mark for aiming at in practicing
with the cannon, rifle, or bow and arrow. In its more ancient meaning, a
target, or _targe_, was a shield, circular in form, cut out of ox-hide,
mounted on light but strong wood, and strengthened by bosses, spikes,
etc. Of modern targets, the simplest is that used for archery. With
regard to rifle-targets, the numerous rifle-matches have caused ranges
to be constructed over the whole country. The necessities are: a butt,
artificially constructed or cut in the face of a hill, to prevent wide
balls from scattering; a marker’s shot-proof cell, near the targets; and
a range of such length as can be procured. The targets used at the
Creedmoor range on Long Island, and by the U. S. army, are divided into
three classes and are of the following sizes: The _third class_, to be
used at all distances up to and including 300 yards, is a rectangle 6
feet high and 4 feet wide. Three concentric circles are described, with
the middle point as a centre and radii of 4, 13, and 23 inches
respectively. The inner circle is black, and so are the lines marking
the circumference of the middle and outer circles; the rest of the
target is white. The _second class_ is a square, 6 feet high. Three
concentric circles are drawn, with the middle point as a centre and
radii of 11, 19, and 27 inches respectively. The inner circle is black,
as well as the circumferences of the other circles; the rest of the
target is white. This target is used at all distances over 300, to, and
including, 600 yards. The _first class_, to be used at all distances
over 600 yards, is a rectangle, 6 feet high and 12 feet wide. It has two
concentric circles, described with a radii of 18 and 27 inches
respectively, the centre being at the middle point of the target, and
two lines drawn parallel to, and 3 feet from, each end (leaving the
_inner_, square, 6 feet by 6 feet). The target is white, except the
lines just indicated and the inner circle, which are black. The smallest
circle, always painted black, is called the _bull’s-eye_, and when
struck, counts 5 for the marksman; the ring embraced between the
bull’s-eye and the circumference of the next larger circle is called the
_centre_, which counts 4; and the ring between the second and third
circles is called the _inner_, which scores 3; and the space outside of
the larger circle is called the _outer_, and scores 2. In the
first-class target the space between the second circle and the vertical
lines is the _inner_, and the space outside the vertical lines is the
_outer_.

In artillery practice, targets of considerable size are used at long
ranges. The usual practice is over the sea; targets are then painted on
the sides of old vessels, or are floated by buoys. For trying the power
of ordnance, solid targets are constructed to resemble the sides of
iron-plated ships, portions of fortification, etc.

=Targeted.= Furnished or armed with a target.

=Targeteer=, or =Targetier=. One armed with a target or shield.

=Tariere= (_Fr._). A machine of war similar to the battering-ram (which
it preceded), excepting that the head was pointed. It made the first
opening in the wall, which was increased by the _belier_.

=Tarifa.= A seaport town of Spain, 20 miles southwest from Gibraltar. It
was successfully defended in 1811 by Col. Gough, with a body of 2500
British and Spanish troops against a French force of 10,000 men, under
Victor and Laval.

=Tarquinii.= An ancient city of Etruria, on the left bank of the Marta,
about 4 miles from the Mediterranean. In 398 B.C., while the Romans were
at war with the Veii, they were attacked by the Tarquinians, who seem
from this time to have been frequently united with the other Etruscan
cities against Rome. War was carried on with varying success and some
intermissions till 351, when a truce of forty years was agreed upon.
After its expiration, hostilities were again for a short time renewed;
but in 309 another truce was concluded, in the course of which Tarquinii
seems to have gradually become subject to Rome. It continued to be a
flourishing town under the empire, and after its fall, until it was
destroyed by the Saracens.

=Tarragona= (anc. _Tarraco_). A seaport city of Spain, capital of the
province of the same name, at the mouth of the Francoli, in the
Mediterranean, 52 miles west-southwest from Barcelona. The ancient
Tarraco was originally a Phœnician settlement; it afterwards became the
capital of the Roman province called by its name. After the fall of the
empire, it was taken by the Goths; and at a later period was laid in
ruins by the Moors. In the 11th century the modern town was founded on
the site of the former. In 1705, it was captured by the English, but was
afterwards abandoned; and in 1811 it was taken and sacked by the French
under Suchet.

=Tarred-links.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Tarsus= (now _Tersus_). Anciently the chief city of Cilicia, and one of
the most important in all Asia Minor, situated on both sides of the
navigable river Cydnus, about 18 miles from the sea. In the time of
Xenophon, who gives us the first historical notice of Tarsus, it was
taken by Cyrus. At the time of the Macedonian invasion, it was held by
the Persian troops, who were prevented from burning it by Alexander’s
arrival. It played an important part as a military post in the wars of
the successors of Alexander, and under the Syrian kings. As the power of
the Seleucidæ declined, it suffered much from the oppression of its
governors, and from the wars between the members of the royal family. At
the time of the Mithridatic war, it suffered, on the one hand, from
Tigranes, who overran Cilicia, and, on the other, from the pirates, who
had their strongholds in the mountains of Cilicia Aspera, and made
frequent incursions into the level country. From both these enemies it
was rescued by Pompey, 66 B.C. In the civil war it took part with Cæsar.
For this the inhabitants were severely punished by Cassius, but were
recompensed by Antony, who made Tarsus a free city. It was the scene of
important events in the wars with the Persians, the Arabs, and the
Turks, and also in the Crusades.

=Tartares= (_Fr._). A word used in the French army to distinguish
officers’ servants and batmen from the soldiers who serve in the ranks.
_Tartare_ likewise means a groom.

=Tartary= (properly _Tatary_). Is the name under which, in the Middle
Ages, was comprised the whole central belt of Central Asia and Eastern
Europe, from the Sea of Japan to the Dnieper, including Mantchuria,
Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, Independent Turkestan, the Kalmuck and the
Kirghis steppes, and the old khanates of Kasan, Astrakhan, and the
Crimea, and even the Cossack countries; and hence arose a distinction of
Tartary into European and Asiatic. But latterly the name Tartary had a
much more limited signification, including only that tract bounded on
the north by Siberia, and on the south by China and Thibet, along with
Independent Turkestan; and at the present day, many writers apply it as
a synonym for Turkestan. The Tartars (or, more properly, Tatars) was
originally a name of the Mongolic races, but came to be extended to all
the tribes brought under Mongolic sway by Genghis Khan and his
successors, including Tungusic and Turkic races. The term is therefore
not to be considered as ethnological, though all, or almost all, the
peoples included under it, in its widest sense, belong to the Turanian
family, but is rather to be understood in the same sense as the term
“Franks” used by the Mohammedans. During the decline of the Roman
empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile regions; and the first
who reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the
modern Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country
was the famous Genghis Khan. His empire by the conquest of China,
Persia, and all Central Asia (1206-27), became one of the most
formidable ever established; but it was split into parts in a few
reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, broke the power of
the Turks in Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul dynasty in
India, which began with Baber in 1525, and formed the most splendid
court in Asia, till the close of the 18th century. The Calmucks, a
branch of the Tartars, expelled from China, settled on the banks of the
Volga in 1672, but returned in 1771, and thousands perished on the
journey.

=Tasa.= In the East Indies, a kind of drum, formed of a hemisphere of
copper, hollowed out and covered with goat-skin. It is hung before from
the shoulders, and beat with two rattans.

=Taslet.= A piece of armor formerly worn on the thigh.

=Tasse.= Formerly a piece of armor for the thighs; an appendage to the
ancient corselet, consisting of skirts of iron that covered the thighs,
fastened to the cuirass with hooks.

=Tattoo.= The evening sound of drum or trumpet, after which the roll is
called, and all soldiers not on leave of absence should be in their
quarters.

=Tau, Cross.= In heraldry, a cross of a form somewhat resembling the
Greek letter _Tau_. St. Anthony is generally represented with a cross of
this description, embroidered on the left side of his garment.

=Taulantii.= A people of Illyria, in the neighborhood of Epidamnus. One
of their most powerful kings was Glaucias, who fought against Alexander
the Great.

=Taunton.= A town of England, county of Somerset, on the river Tone. It
was taken by Perkin Warbeck, September, 1497; and here he was
surrendered to Henry VII. October 5 following. The Duke of Monmouth was
proclaimed king of Taunton, June 20, 1685; and it was the scene of the
“bloody assize” held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August.

=Taupins=, or =Francs-Taupins= (_Fr._). A name which was formerly given
to a body of free-arches, or francs-archers, in France. This body
consisted chiefly of countrymen and rustics.

=Tauromenium.= An ancient Greek city in Sicily, on the east coast of the
island, about half-way between Messina and Catania. In 394, Dionysius
besieged the new city, and spent the greater part of a winter in an
unsuccessful effort to take it. A peace was concluded in 392, in terms
of which Tauromenium became subject to Dionysius, who immediately
expelled the former inhabitants, and supplied their place by mercenaries
of his own. In 358, Andromachus collected the survivors of the original
inhabitants of Naxos, and settled them at Tauromenium. Under Andromachus
the city made rapid progress. He assisted Timoleon in his expedition to
Sicily. At a later period the city was conquered by Hiero of Syracuse,
and it remained subject to that city until, with the whole of Sicily, it
passed into the power of the Romans. In the Servile war in Sicily
(134-32 B.C.), it was captured by the insurgent slaves, and held by them
till the last extremity, suffering the utmost calamities, until the
citadel was betrayed to the Romans. It was taken and destroyed by the
Saracens after a siege of two years, in 906.

=Taxiarchs.= In the Athenian army, were ten in number (every tribe
having the privilege of electing one), and commanded next under the
_strategeoi_. Their business was to marshal the army, give orders for
their marches, and appoint what provisions each soldier should furnish
himself with. They had also power to cashier any of the common soldiers,
if convicted of a misdemeanor; but their jurisdiction was only over the
foot.

=Tchernaya.= A river in the Crimea. On August 16, 1855, the lines of the
allied army at this place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under Prince
Gortschakoff without success, being repulsed with the loss of 3329
slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The brunt of the attack was
borne by two French regiments under Gen. d’Herbillon. The loss of the
allies was about 1200; 200 of these were from the Sardinian contingent,
which behaved with great gallantry, under the command of Gen. La
Marmora. The Russian general Read, and the Sardinian general
Montevecchio, were killed. The object of the attack was the relief of
Sebastopol, then closely besieged by the English and French.

=Tearless Victory.= In 367 B.C. Archidamus, king of Sparta, defeated the
Arcadians and Argives in the “Tearless Battle,” so called because he had
won it without losing a man.

=Tebet= (_Fr._). A kind of axe which the Turks carry at their saddle-bow
during war.

=Teepe.= See WIGWAM.

=Teflis=, or =Tiflis=. A city of Russia in Asia, in Transcaucasia,
capital of the province of Georgia. It was founded about the middle of
the 5th century, by a powerful monarch called Waktang; and afterwards
rose to great importance. It was taken by Genghis Khan in the 12th
century, and by Mustapha Pasha, 1576. In 1723 it was taken by the Turks,
in 1734 by Kouli Khan, and it was destroyed by Aga Mohammed in 1795. It
came into the possession of the Russians in 1801. A treaty of peace was
concluded here between Russia and Persia, October 12, 1813.

=Tefterdar Effendi.= The commissary-general is so called among the
Turks.

=Tegea.= An ancient city of Greece, forming one of the most powerful
states in Arcadia. The Tegeatæ long resisted the supremacy of Sparta,
and it was not till the Spartans discovered the bones of Orestes that
they were enabled to conquer this people. The Tegeatæ sent 3000 men to
the battle of Platææ, in which they were distinguished for their
bravery. They remained faithful to Sparta in the Peloponnesian war; but
after the battle of Leuctra they joined the rest of the Arcadians in
establishing their independence. During the wars of the Achæan league,
Tegea was taken both by Cleomenes, king of Sparta, and Antigonus Doson,
king of Macedonia, and the ally of the Achæans.

=Tekrit= (anc. _Birtha_). A town situated on the Euphrates, in
Mesopotamia. It was unsuccessfully besieged by Sapor I., king of Persia,
in 260.

=Telegraph, Field= or =Flying=. During the civil war (1861-65) in the
United States a signal corps was organized, whose duties extended to the
management of field telegraphs, and light lines, when the formation of
the country was such that aerial signals could not be used, or it was
for any reason desirable that short electric lines be extended. It has
been demonstrated that electric instruments may be of the most simple
construction; and electric lines can be set up, and be utilized in
places where a few years ago it was deemed impracticable to employ them;
and can be worked without other skilled labor than that of the soldiers
attached to the posts, and with no apparatus but such as can be had at a
trivial expense. There is no reason why, with properly drilled parties,
electric lines may not be thrown out in the moments which precede, or
even during the progress of, a battle, and be so worked as to lessen
infinitely that difficulty of rapid communication which has so often
caused disaster. With a corps well organized and well equipped, the
connection between the corps of an army, and between the corps
headquarters and general headquarters, ought to be perfected in a very
few hours after the halt of the army. The field lines of the Signal
Corps consist of rolls of wire carried in light-wheeled vehicles, and
light “lance poles,” us they are called, on which the wire is stretched
when necessary. The wire made for the purpose is of small strands of
iron and copper twisted, to give it strength and flexibility. It is
insulated with prepared india-rubber, or other material, and wound on
reels which, in an emergency, can be carried anywhere by hand, while the
wire reeling out can be raised upon fences, fastened to trees, or laid
along the ground. The instruments used at first were of a kind known as
the Beardslee instrument. These instruments are worked without
batteries, the electric current being generated by revolving magnets.
They were “indicating,” an index upon a dial pointing, at the receiving
station, to whatever letter was designated by the index handle upon a
similar dial at the sending station. There were as advantages attaching
to this instrument, that it was portable and compact, could be set at
work anywhere, required no batteries, acids, or fluids; and what was
thought of importance in the early days of the civil war, and while the
corps was a temporary organization, it could be worked by soldiers
without skill as operators. The defects were, that messages could not be
sent as rapidly or as far as by some other instruments. Nor could
several instruments work easily upon a single circuit. For some uses on
the field of battle, or under fire, where the attention of the reader is
disturbed, it is, perhaps, as good an instrument as has been devised.
With a permanent corps, or at secure stations, it gives place to some of
the forms of signal or of sound instruments. The instruments upon field
lines may be of very simple structure. The signal instruments, either
the needle or the letter instruments, can be used in actual conflict, if
the reports of heavy guns or other disturbances of action render reading
by sound unreliable. The manufacture of both instruments and batteries
has been improved, until there is now no trouble in carrying either in
the field in the roughest campaigns. The difficulty in reading from
telegraphic instruments by sound, which has been the greatest obstacle
to their use, can be almost done away with by using them with codes of
easy signals. In the Prussian army, also, the electric telegraph is
applied for field purposes. Morse’s system is used. Each headquarters of
an army and each army corps, has a telegraphic division of 3 officers,
137 men, 73 horses, and 10 wagons. Two of the latter are fitted up as
operating-rooms, and the other 8 are used for carrying poles and other
material, including 5 miles of wire to each wagon, which can be reeled
off by the moving of the vehicle. Of the whole 40 miles, 5 are
insulated, and can be run along the ground. It will be seen that each
army corps can put out 40 miles of line without recourse to other wires,
but use is always made of lines found in the country, in case they will
answer. Single poles of light material are used, without joints, and
about 10 feet long, and only every third pole is put in the ground. The
_personnel_ is brought into the army from the civil telegraphic service
at home. While in the field, the operators assume military rank, and,
like agents of the Post-office Department, are known as “military
officials,” not as “military officers.” The men are on a footing with
train-soldiers. The operating-wagons are a little larger than the Rucker
ambulances of the U. S. service, but much heavier. Just in the rear of
the driver is a partition shutting off the rear portion of the carriage.
At his back, and under his seat, is a capacious box, in which are
carried tools, and the material necessary in telegraphing. On one side
of the rear closed portion is a neat table with a compact operating
instrument on it, and a battery under it; and on the opposite side is
the operator’s bench, the space underneath it being also economized. On
the outside near the table are sockets, with thumb-screws connected with
the battery, to receive the wires. During the Franco-Prussian war,
besides keeping the king in telegraphic communication with his
ministers, lines were run from Gen. von Moltke’s headquarters to all the
different corps in the field. The telegraph corps always evinced
admirable promptness in keeping the lines closed up as the army moved
forward. In Great Britain, the system of military telegraphy forms part
of the duties of the Royal Engineers.

=Telemeter.= An instrument for determining long distances. (See
RANGE-FINDER.) One of the best-known telemeters is the invention of
Capt. A. Gautier of the French army. It consists of a short tube
containing two mirrors set at an angle of 45° with each other, one of
which is fixed; the other admits of a slight rotation. A hole in the
side of the tube allows the image of a secondary distant object on the
prolongation of the base-line to be brought in line with that of the
distant object whose distance is to be measured. An observation is next
taken from the other end of the short base-line, and the image of the
secondary object again brought in contact with that of the principal
object by rotating a ring on the front of the tube. The extent of this
rotation (as denoted by a scale), gives a factor which, multiplied by
the base-line, gives the required distance.

The Boulongè telemeter is an instrument devised for ascertaining the
distance to a point by means of sound proceeding from the point to the
place of observation. The one used for artillery consists of a glass
tube about 6 inches in length, filled with a transparent liquid that
does not freeze except with intense cold. In the liquid is a metallic
disk, which moves freely from one end of the tube to the other. It is so
adjusted that the motion will be uniform and comparatively slow. The
tube is inclosed in a brass case, to which is attached a scale, after
the fashion of a thermometer. This scale is marked for each hundred
yards up to 4000. The divisions on the scale show the distance, in
yards, through which sound will travel in air during the time required
for the disk to descend over the space on the scale marked by the
corresponding number of yards. The instrument must be held vertically,
or as nearly so as possible. To arrest the motion of the disk at any
point, the instrument is quickly turned to a horizontal position.

To use it for determining the time of flight of shells it is held in the
right hand, back of the hand up, with the zero of the instrument to the
left; a turn of the wrist to the right brings the instrument vertical,
with the zero end uppermost; the disk then descends, and a turn of the
wrist to the left arrests its motion. The observer, holding the
instrument as described, watches for the flash of the shell, and upon
seeing it instantly brings the instrument to a vertical position; upon
hearing the report from the shell he instantly turns it back again. The
position of the disk indicates the number of yards from the observer to
where the shell exploded.

To ascertain the distance to an enemy’s battery, the instrument is held
and turned in the same manner. The observer watches for the flash of a
gun; observing which, he turns the instrument, and when he hears the
report turns it back and reads off the distance. Each hundred yards on
the scale is subdivided into quarters.

The telemeter invented by Capt. A. Gautier of the French army is an
instrument for measuring, with a great degree of approximation, any
difference, not exceeding three degrees, which may be exhibited in the
bearing of a distant object by viewing it from different points of a
base-line transverse to its general direction from the observer. The
instrument, in its simplicity, accuracy, and portability, recommends
itself in all cases where a knowledge of distances is desired at any
moment and with the least possible delay; such, for instance, as
range-finding, river-crossing, reconnoitring, and the like. A slight
acquaintance with its use on such occasions enables the observer to
estimate, with more than ordinary promptitude and precision, the
distance which it might be all-important to obtain.

The instrument resembles in shape and size one barrel of an ordinary
reconnoitring- or field-glass. The case in which it is carried is
fashioned so as to answer as a handle for holding the instrument when
making observations. Within the barrel of the instrument are placed two
mirrors at an angle of 45° with each other; this angle can be varied
within certain limits by means of a milled-headed screw acting on one of
them. The mirrors are thus made to operate upon the principle of the
sextant. A slot on one side of the barrel permits the rays of light from
an object to fall upon one of the mirrors, from whence they are
reflected upon the other mirror, and the image is seen through the
eye-glass at the small end of the instrument. At the front or large end
is fixed, in a ring surrounding the barrel, a prism, whose displacement
modifies the direction of an object seen through it. At the rear of the
instrument is a small eye-glass, by means of which the observer sees,
_over_ the mirrors and through the prism, the object which is before
him, and by double reflection in the mirrors the object to the side of
him.

The American general Berdan has invented a large telemeter for garrison
and sea-coast service which has been tested in Germany in 1875 and 1876
and found to be very exact in the determination of distances. He has
also constructed a new model for field and mountain artillery which can
be packed up and transported on horseback.

=Telephone.= An instrument for reproducing sounds, especially articulate
speech, at a distance, by the aid of electricity or electro-magnetism.
It consists essentially of a device by which currents of electricity,
produced by the sounds, and exactly corresponding in duration and
intensity to the vibrations of the air which attend them, are
transmitted to a distant station, and there, acting on suitable
mechanism, reproduce similar sounds by repeating the vibrations.
Telephones were recently used by Sir Garnet Wolseley in the war in
Zululand, and are being rapidly adopted in European armies.

=Tell Off.= A military term, expressing the dividing and practicing a
regiment or company in the several formations, preparatory to marching
to the general parade for field exercise.

=Tellenon= (_Fr._). An ancient machine used at sieges. See TOLENON.

=Tellevas= (_Fr._). A large shield formerly used, similar to the
_pavois_.

=Tembu=, =Abatempu=, or =Tambookie=. Is the name of an important tribe
of Kaffirs, occupying the region east of the present boundary of the
Cape Colony. In the earlier Kaffir wars, and even in the great one of
1835-36, the Tambookie Kaffirs remained neutral, and even friendly to
the colonists; but in the war of 1848-49, they were induced to join the
other tribes, and were defeated with great loss by a small colonial
force. In the war of 1851, they were much broken and scattered; but
eventually submitting to the British authority, they have quietly
located themselves in the unoccupied country east of the White Kei and
Tsomo Rivers.

=Temesvar=, or =Temeswar=. A town of the Austrian empire, capital of a
circle of the same name, and of the crownland of Banat. It is strongly
fortified with walls, moats, and outworks. Temesvar has played an
important part in modern history. It was in the hands of the Turks from
its capture in 1552 till 1718, when it was regained by Prince Eugène,
and strongly fortified. In 1849, it was besieged for 107 days by the
Hungarian insurgents, but it held out until it was relieved by Gen.
Haynau.

=Templar, Knights.= A celebrated religious and military order, founded
at Jerusalem in the beginning of the 12th century, by Hugues de
Paganes, Geoffroy de St. Omer, and seven other French knights, for the
protection of the Holy Sepulchre and of pilgrims resorting thither. The
knights were bound by their rule to hear the holy office every day, or
if prevented by their military duties, to say a certain number of
paternosters instead, and were compelled to abstain from certain
articles of food on certain days of the week. They might have three
horses and an esquire each, but were forbidden to hunt or fowl. After
the conquest of Jerusalem by the Saracens, the Templars spread over
Europe; their valor became everywhere celebrated; immense donations in
money and land were showered on them, and members of the most
distinguished families thought themselves honored by enrollment in the
order. As the power and prosperity of the Templars increased, so did
their luxury, arrogance, and other vices, which gave the French kings a
pretext for endeavoring to suppress them, and lay hold of their
possessions. Their principal enemy was Philippe IV. of France, who
induced Pope Clement V. to accede to a scheme by which the whole members
of the order were seized and imprisoned, their lands confiscated, and
many of them tried, convicted, and executed for capital crimes. The
English Templars were arrested by command of Edward II. In 1312, the
whole order throughout Europe was suppressed by the Council of Vienne,
and its property bestowed on the Knights of St. John. The habit of the
Templars was white, with a red cross of eight points of the Maltese form
worn on the left shoulder. Their war-cry was “Beau séant”; and their
banner, which bore the same name, was parted per fess sable and argent.
They also displayed above their lances a white banner charged with the
cross of the order. Their badges were the _Agnus Dei_, and a
representation of two knights mounted on one horse,--indicative of the
original poverty of the order.

=Ten Thousand, Retreat of the.= See RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND GREEKS.

=Tenable.= Such as may be maintained against opposition; such as may be
held against attack.

=Tenaille.= In fortification, is a low work, constructed in the main
ditch, upon the lines of defense, between the bastions, before the
curtain, composed of two faces, and sometimes of two flanks and a small
curtain.

=Tenaillons.= In fortification, are works sometimes found constructed in
an old fortress, on each side of the ravelin,--the short faces being
traced, on the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin, from the
counterscarp of its ditch; the long faces are directed for flanking
defense, to about the middle of the faces of the bastions.

_Demi-tenaillons_ are very similar to tenaillons, excepting that their
short faces are directed, perpendicular to the faces of the ravelin,
about one-third or one-half down from the flanked angle.

=Tencteri=, or =Tenctheri=. A people of Germany, dwelling on the Rhine
between the Ruhr and Sieg, south of the Usipetes, in conjunction with
whom their name usually occurs. They crossed the Rhine together with the
Usipetes, with the intention of settling in Gaul; but they were defeated
by Cæsar with great slaughter, and those who escaped took refuge in the
territories of their southern neighbors, the Sygambri. The Tencteri
afterward belonged to the league of the Cherusci, and at a still later
period they are mentioned as a portion of the confederacy of the Franks.

=Tenedos.= A small island belonging to Turkey, in the northeast of the
Ægean Sea, off the coast of the Troad. It appears in the legend of the
Trojan war, as the station to which the Greeks withdrew their fleet in
order to induce the Trojans to think they had departed, and to receive
the wooden horse. In the Persian war it was used by Xerxes as a naval
station. It afterward became a tributary ally of Athens, and adhered to
her during the whole of the Peloponnesian war, and down to the peace of
Antalcidas, by which it was surrendered to the Persians. At the
Macedonian conquest, the Tenedians regained their liberty. In the war
against Philip III., Attalus and the Romans used Tenedos as a naval
station, and in the Mithridatic war, Lucullus gained a naval victory
over Mithridates off the island. About this time the Tenedians placed
themselves under the protection of Alexandrea Troas.

=Tennessee.= A Central State of the American Union, and third admitted
under the Federal Constitution. It is bounded on the north by Kentucky
and Virginia, and on the south by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. The
early settlers of Tennessee were slaughtered by Cherokee Indians in
1754; but in 1756 a settlement was formed near Knoxville, then a part of
North Carolina. Nashville was settled near the close of the Revolution;
in 1790, Tennessee was organized as a Territory with Kentucky, and in
1796 was admitted into the Union as a separate State. In January, 1861,
a proposal to secede from the Union was defeated, but in June it was
carried by a majority of 57,667. In ten months the State raised 50
regiments for the Confederacy; 5 or 6 were also raised for the Union.
The State was the scene, at Knoxville and Chattanooga, of some of the
most important operations of the war, and eventually almost the whole
State became a battle-ground. The State was readmitted into the Union in
1866.

=Tenney.= In heraldry, orange color, one of the tinctures enumerated by
heralds, but not of frequent occurrence in coat-armor. It is indicated
in engravings by lines in bend sinister, crossed by others barways.

=Tent= (Lat. _tentorium_, from _tentus_, “stretched”). A pavilion or
portable lodge consisting of canvas or other coarse cloth, stretched and
sustained by poles; used for sheltering persons from the weather,
especially soldiers in camp. The early Greek, and afterward the
Macedonian tents, were small coverings of skin, under each of which two
soldiers slept. Alexander the Great is said to have had a pavilion of
extraordinary magnificence, which could contain 100 beds. The Roman
soldiers seem to have used two sorts of tents,--one, a tent proper, of
canvas or some analogous material, and constructed with two solid
upright poles, and a roof-piece between them; the other more resembling
a light hut, of a wooden skeleton, covered by bark, hides, mud, straw,
or any material which afforded warmth. The Roman tent held 10 soldiers,
with their _decanus_, or corporal. Modern military tents are all made of
linen or cotton canvas, supported by one or more poles, according to
shape, and held extended by pegs driven into the ground. The tents used
in the military service of the United States comprise the following:

_Common_, or _A tent_, for the use of enlisted men, is 6 feet 10 inches
in height, 8 feet 4 inches in width, and 6 feet 10 inches long; it holds
6 men.

The officers’ tents are somewhat larger than the common tents, and are
supplied with low side-walls of canvas; they are generally called
_wall-tents_.

The _tente-d’abri_, which was introduced into the American from the
French service, with some modifications, consists of a tissue of
cotton-cloth impregnated with caoutchouc, and thus made water-proof.
Every man carries a square of this cloth, with buttons and button-holes
around, by which it is attached to the squares carried by his comrades;
3 men generally sleep together in a tent made of those pieces.

The _Sibley tent_ (invented by Maj. Sibley, 2d Dragoons) is conical,
light, easily pitched, erected on a tripod holding a single pole, and
will comfortably accommodate 12 soldiers with their accoutrements. A
fire can be made in the centre of this tent, and all soldiers sleep with
their feet to the fire. This tent is hardly ever used.

There is also a _hospital tent_, which is made of heavy cotton-duck. In
length it is 14 feet; in width, 15 feet; in height (centre), 11 feet;
with a wall 4¹⁄₂ feet, and a “fly” of appropriate size; the ridge-pole
is made in two sections, and measures 14 feet when joined. This tent
accommodates from 8 to 10 persons comfortably.

=Tent.= To cover with tents; to pitch tents upon; as, a tented plain.

=Tent, Laboratory.= In artillery, is a large tent, which is sometimes
carried to the field for the conveniences of the laboratory men.

=Tent-bedstead.= See CAMP-BEDSTEAD.

=Tentful.= As much or as many as a tent will hold.

=Tent-pins.= Are pieces of wood, which are indented at the top, and made
sharp at the bottom, to keep the cords of a tent firm to the earth.

=Tent-poles.= The poles upon which a tent is supported.

=Teramo= (anc. _Interamma_). A town of Southern Italy, in the province
of Abruzzo Ultra I., at the junction of the Tordina and Vezzola, 28
miles northeast of Aquila. In the plain below Teramo took place, July
27, 1460, between the army of John, duke of Anjou, and the Milanese
allies of Ferdinand I. of Aragon, one of the most sanguinary battles
ever fought in Italy. After the contest at Castelfidardo (1860), Teramo
was the first Neapolitan city that opened its gates and gave joyful
welcome to King Victor Emmanuel.

=Termini= (anc. _Thermæ Himærenses_). A seaport town on the north coast
of Sicily, 21 miles east-southeast from Palermo, at the mouth of the
river Termini. The ancient _Thermæ_ was founded 408 B.C. Here the
Carthaginians defeated the Romans with heavy loss (260 B.C.) during the
first Punic war.

=Ternate.= The northernmost of a chain of islands, on the west coast of
Gilolo, and formerly the seat of sovereignty over all the adjacent
Molucca Islands. It was taken from the Dutch by the English in 1797, but
it was restored at the peace of Amiens. It was again taken in August,
1810, and once more restored to the Dutch, with their other possessions
in India and the East, by the treaty of Paris in 1814.

=Terre-plein.= In field fortification, the plane of site or level
country around a work. The terre-plein of the rampart in permanent
fortification, is the broad surface which remains after constructing the
parapet and banquette.

=Terror, Reign of.= See REIGN OF TERROR.

=Tertiate.= In gunnery, is to examine the thickness of the metal of a
piece of artillery, in order to judge of its strength. This is usually
done with a pair of caliper compasses. To _tertiate_ a piece of
ordnance, is to examine the thickness of the metal, in order to judge of
its strength, the position of the trunnions, etc.

=Teschen.= A town of Austrian Silesia, on the right bank of the Olsa, 38
miles east-southeast of Troppau. Here, in 1779, a treaty of peace was
concluded between Maria Theresa and Frederick II., by which the dispute
of the Bavarian Succession was brought to an end.

=Testri= (Northern France). Pepin d’Heristal, invited by malcontents,
here defeated and captured Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and
established himself as duke, 687.

=Testudo= (_Testude_). In ancient warfare, was a defensive arrangement
of the shields, by means of which a body of men advancing against a wall
for assault or mining, sought to protect themselves from the darts and
weapons of the defenders. The men standing in close order, joined their
shields above their heads, the edges overlapping, until the whole
resembled the shell of a tortoise (_testudo_). The name was also applied
to a machine moving on wheels, and roofed over, under which soldiers
worked in undermining or otherwise destroying the walls in a siege.

=Tête-de-pont= (_Fr._). A field fortification in front of a bridge, to
cover the retreat of an army across a river. They are generally formed
in the shape of a redan, a system of crémaillères, horn- or crown-works,
or portions of star-and-bastioned forts. In order to add to the defense
of _tétes-de-pont_, reduits have been constructed within them, and the
dimensions of their parapets are in general made larger than those of
any other field-work, on account of their great importance. Sometimes
the area inclosed by a _tête-de-pont_ is temporarily made use of as a
depot for the stores necessary for the troops, in which case its tracing
should present a strong point of defense, well provided with artillery,
and affording in several points egress. The tracing which has been found
the best for the passage of extensive trains of wagons and artillery, as
well as columns of troops, is formed of crémaillères, extending in such
a manner as to inclose a large area, and leaving behind each a passage
well guarded and secured by second crémaillères, fronting the passage,
and forming a second line. Additional strength will be given to _têtes_
of every kind by constructing small redans or batteries on the opposite
side of the river, the fire from which may defend the ground in front of
the salient, and flank the faces of the _tête-de-pont_.

=Tettenhall= (Staffordshire). It was probably at this place, then named
Testenheal, that the Danes were defeated by the Anglo-Saxons sent
against them by Edward the Elder, August 6, 910.

=Tetuan.= A seaport town on the north coast of Africa, 22 miles south of
Ceuta. It was taken by the Spaniards under O’Donnell, February, 1860;
and the treaty of Madrid, by which the city was evacuated in favor of
the Spaniards, was concluded October 30, 1861.

=Teutoburg Forest.= Probably situated between Detmold and Paderborn, in
North Germany, where Hermann, or Arminius, and the Germans defeated the
Romans under Varus with great slaughter in the year 9. This defeat was
regarded at Rome as a national calamity.

=Teutonic.= A term applied to a group of nations, as well as languages,
forming an important division or stem of the Aryan family. Of the
various tribes and nations spoken of as inhabiting Northern Europe in
ancient times, it is often difficult to determine which were really of
Germanic race, and which Celtic or Slavic. Of undoubted German nations
who took part in the destruction of the Roman empire the most prominent
were the Goths (which see), Lombards (which see), Vandals (which see),
and Franks (which see). The term Teutonic is derived from _Teutones_,
the name of a nation or tribe first mentioned by Pytheas, who wrote
about 320 B.C., as then inhabiting a part of the Cimbric Chersonesus, or
Jutland. For the next 200 years there is no further mention of the
Teutones, that is, not until 113 B.C., when they appear in history as
ravaging Gaul, and in conjunction with the Cimbri and Ambrones,
threatening the very existence of the Roman republic. The Cimbri having
gone into Spain, the Teutones and Ambrones were at length defeated by C.
Marius in a great battle at Aqua Sextiæ, in Gaul, 102 B.C. A similar
victory was gained by Marius in the following year over the Cimbri in
the plains of Lombardy.

=Teutonic Knights.= One of the more celebrated of the military and
religious orders to which the Crusades gave birth. The sufferings of the
Christian soldiers at the siege of Acre excited the sympathy of certain
merchants of Bremen and Lübeck, who rendered such important services by
the erection of hospitals and otherwise, that Duke Frederick of Suabia,
with the sanction of Pope Clement III. and the emperor Henry VI.,
enrolled them in an order of knighthood. The habit of the order was a
white mantle with a black cross; and the knights took vows of poverty
and chastity, which in later times were not very strictly interpreted.
In the course of the 13th century, they were, with the sanction of the
pope, engaged in a bloody war to enforce Christianity on the heathen
nations inhabiting the southern shores of the Baltic, which resulted in
the acquisition by the order of Prussia, Livonia, Courland, and other
adjoining territories. Warriors from all parts of Europe in that and the
following century joined their standard, including Henry IV. of England,
accompanied by 300 attendant knights and men-at-arms. The conquests of
the order raised it to the rank of a sovereign order, with a territory
extending from the Oder to the Baltic, and embracing a population of
between 2,000,000, and 3,000,000, the grand master having his seat at
Marienburg, Prussia. The decline of the order began in the 15th century,
and its fall was brought about partly by internal dissensions, and
partly by the attacks of neighboring states. At the peace of Presburg in
1805, the emperor of Austria obtained the rights and revenues of the
grand master, but in 1809 the order was abolished by Napoleon, its lands
passing to the sovereigns in whose dominions they lay. The Teutonic
order, however, still continues to preserve a titular existence in
Austria.

=Tewkesbury.= A town of England, in Gloucestershire, on the Avon, and
near its confluence with the Severn, 10 miles northeast from Gloucester.
It is a very ancient town. Within a mile of it was fought (May 14, 1471)
the famous battle of Tewkesbury, in which the Yorkists under Edward IV.
and Richard III. inflicted a signal defeat on the Lancastrians.

=Texas.= One of the southwestern of the United States of America, is
bounded on the southwest by Mexico, from which it is separated by the
Rio Grande, and on the east by Arkansas and Louisiana. La Salle, the
French explorer, erected a fort on Matagorda Bay, 1687. A Spanish
settlement and mission was formed in 1690, but soon abandoned. In 1715,
the country was settled by the Spaniards under the name of New
Philippines, and several missions established; but the Camanche and
Apache Indians, among the most warlike in America, and still the terror
of the border settlements, hindered the progress of the country. In
1803, when Louisiana was ceded by France to the United States, Texas,
claimed by both Spain and the United States, became a disputed
territory. From 1806 to 1816, settlements were formed, and several
attempts made to wrest the country from Spain. In one of these, in 1813,
2500 Americans and Mexicans and 700 inhabitants of San Antonio were
killed. Mina, a Spanish refugee, gained some successes, but was defeated
and shot. Lafitte, a Gulf pirate, made a settlement at Galveston in
1815, but it was broken up in 1821. In 1820, Moses Austin, an American,
got a large tract of land from the Mexican government, and began a
settlement, which rapidly increased; but many of the settlers were of so
lawless a character, that in 1830 the government forbade any more
Americans coming into Texas. In 1833, a convention of settlers, 20,000
in number, made an unsuccessful attempt to form an independent Mexican
state; and in 1835 a provisional government was formed, Sam Houston
chosen commander-in-chief, and the Mexicans driven out of Texas. Santa
Anna, president of Mexico, invaded the country with an army of 7500, but
after some successes was entirely routed at San Jacinto, April 21, and
Texas became an independent republic, acknowledged in 1837 by the United
States, and in 1840 by England, France, and Belgium. In December, 1845,
Texas was annexed to the United States, but was invaded by Mexico, which
had never acknowledged its independence. A war followed (1846-48) in
which Mexico was defeated. In February, 1861, Texas joined the
Secession, and furnished many soldiers and immense supplies to the
Confederate armies. In February, 1866, the ordinance of secession was
annulled, and in 1870 the reconstruction was completed, and regular
civil government restored.

=Thanks.= Public acknowledgments for gallant actions.

=Thapsus= (ruins at _Demas_). A city on the east coast of Bycazena, in
Africa Propria, where Cæsar finally defeated the Pompeian army, and
finished the civil war, 46 B.C.

=Thasos= (now _Thaso_, or _Tasso_). An island in the Grecian
Archipelago, belonging to Turkey, off the coast of Roumelia, 30 miles
north-northeast of Mount Athos. It was at a very early period taken
possession of by the Phœnicians on account of its gold mines. Thasos
was afterwards colonized by the Parians, 708 B.C. Before the Persian
conquest, the Thasians were one of the richest and most powerful tribes
in the north of the Ægean. They were subdued by the Persians under
Mardonius, and subsequently became part of the Athenian maritime empire.
They revolted, however, from Athens in 465 B.C., and after sustaining a
siege of three years were subdued by Cimon in 463. They were obliged to
surrender to the Athenians all their possessions in Thrace, to destroy
their fortifications, to give up their ships, and to pay a large tribute
for the future. They again revolted from Athens in 411, and called in
the Spartans, but the island was again restored to the Athenians by
Thrasybulus in 407.

=Thaulache= (_Fr._). Armor and weapons of the ancient French, consisting
of small shields (_rondelles_), and halberd or spear.

=Theatre of Operations.= See STRATEGY.

=Theatre of War.= The term for any extent of country in which war is
carried on. It is synonymous with “seat of war.”

=Theban Legion.= According to tradition, was totally composed of
Christians, and consequently submitted to martyrdom rather than attack
their brethren during the persecution of the emperor Maximin, or
sacrifice to the gods, about 286. Their leader was canonized.

=Thebes.= The name of a celebrated city; it was formerly the capital of
Upper Egypt; it is now in ruins. It revolted against Ptolemy Lathyrus,
and was captured after a siege of three years, in 82 B.C.

=Thebes= (now _Theba_). The chief city of Bœotia, in ancient Greece, was
situated in a plain southeast of the Lake Helice, and northeast of
Platææ. The territory of Thebes was called _Thebais_, and extended
eastward as far as the Eubœan Sea. It was the scene of one of the most
celebrated wars in the mythical annals of Greece. Polynices, who had
been expelled from Thebes by his brother Eteocles, induced six other
heroes to espouse his cause, and marched against the city; but they were
all defeated and slain by the Thebans. This is usually called the war of
the “Seven against Thebes.” A few years afterward, “the Epigoni,” or
descendants of the seven heroes, marched against Thebes to revenge their
fathers’ death; they took the city and razed it to the ground. It
appears, however, at the earliest historical period as a large and
flourishing city. The Thebans were from an early period inveterate
enemies of their neighbors, the Athenians. Their hatred of the latter
people was probably one of the reasons which induced them to desert the
cause of Grecian liberty in the great struggle against the Persian
power. In the Peloponnesian war the Thebans naturally espoused the
Spartan side, and contributed not a little to the downfall of Athens;
but they joined the confederacy formed against Sparta in 394 B.C. The
peace of Antalcidas in 387 put an end to hostilities in Greece; but the
treacherous seizure of the Cadmea by the Lacedæmonian general Phœbidas
in 382, and its recovery by the Theban exiles in 379, led to a war
between Thebes and Sparta, in which the former not only recovered its
independence, but forever destroyed the Lacedæmonian supremacy. This was
the most glorious period in the Theban annals; and the decisive defeat
of the Spartans at the battle of Leuctra in 371 made Thebes the first
power in Greece. Her greatness, however, was mainly due to the
pre-eminent abilities of her citizens, Epaminondas and Pelopidas; and
with the death of the former at the battle of Mantinea in 362, she lost
the supremacy which she had so recently gained. The Thebans joined the
Athenians in protecting the liberties of Greece; but their united forces
were defeated by Philip of Macedon, at the battle of Chæronea, in 338.
Soon after the death of Philip and the accession of Alexander, the
Thebans made a last attempt to recover their liberty, but were cruelly
punished by the young king. The city was taken by Alexander in 336, and
was almost entirely destroyed; 6000 inhabitants were slain, and 30,000
sold as slaves. In 316 the city was rebuilt by Cassander, with the
assistance of the Athenians. In 290 it was taken by Demetrius
Poliorcetes, and again suffered greatly.

=Theodolite.= An instrument, variously constructed, used, especially in
trigonometrical surveying, for the accurate measurement of horizontal
angles, and also usually of vertical angles. The theodolite consists
principally of a telescope, with cross-wires in its focus, mounted so as
to turn both on vertical and horizontal axes, the former carrying a
horizontal vernier-plate over a graduated plate or circle for aximuthal
angles, and the latter a vertical, graduated arc or semicircle for
altitudes,--the whole furnished with leveling-screws and levels for
adjusting to the horizon, and mounted on a tripod. It is usually so
constructed that a horizontal angle may be repeated indefinitely around
the limb, and thus a large number of repetitions added mechanically, to
secure greater accuracy in the resulting mean.

=Thermidor= (_i.e._, the “Hot Month”). Formed in the calendar of the
first French republic the eleventh month, and lasted from July 19 to
August 18. The 9th Thermidor of the Republican year 2 (July 27, 1794) is
memorable as the date of Robespierre’s fall, and the termination of the
“Reign of Terror.” The name of Thermidorians was given to all those who
took part in this fortunate _coup d’état_, but more particularly to
those who were desirous of restoring the monarchy.

=Thermopylæ= (literally, “the hot gates”). A famous pass leading from
Thessaly into Locris, and the only road by which an invading army can
penetrate from Northern into Southern Greece. Leonidas, at the head of
300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, at this pass withstood the whole force
of the Persians during three days, August 7, 8, and 9, 480 B.C., when
Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path
up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus
placed between two assailants, perished gloriously on heaps of their
slaughtered foes. One Greek only returned home, and he was received with
reproaches for having fled. Here also, Antiochus the Great, king of
Syria, was defeated by the Romans, 191 B.C.

=Thermum=, =Thermus=, or =Therma=. A strong city, the acropolis of
Ætolia, Northern Greece, was captured and ravaged by Philip V. of
Macedon, 218 and 206 B.C., on account of its favoring the Romans.

=Thespiæ.= A city of Bœotia, Northern Greece; 700 of its citizens
perished with Leonidas at Thermopylæ, August, 480 B.C. It suffered much
through the jealousy of the Thebans, who destroyed its walls in 372 B.C.

=Thessalonica= (now _Saloniki_, more anciently _Therma_). An ancient
city of Macedonia, situated at the northeast extremity of the Sinus
Thermaicus. It was taken and occupied by the Athenians a short time
before the commencement of the Peloponnesian war (432 B.C.), but was
soon afterward restored by them to Perdiccas. At a later time, it became
the capital of the Illyrian provinces. It is celebrated at this period
on account of the fearful massacre of its inhabitants by order of
Theodosius, in consequence of a riot in which some of the Roman officers
had been assassinated by the populace.

=Thessaly.= The largest division of ancient Greece, lay to the south of
Macedonia, and to the east of Epirus. Thessaly was originally inhabited
by Æolians, who, however, were either expelled or reduced to slavery by
immigrants from Epirus about 1000 B.C. The inhabitants of Thessaly have
been divided into three classes: (1) There were the Epirote conquerors;
(2) those descendants of the original inhabitants, who, although
dependent on the nobles, yet possessed a few privileges; and (3) the
Penestæ, or those of the original inhabitants who had been reduced to
serfdom. Thessaly never played an important part in Grecian history; it
was only after the Peloponnesian war it exercised any influence on the
affairs of Greece. The Penestæ frequently rebelled against their
masters, who were very frequently at war among themselves. Jason caused
himself to be elected Tagus of all Thessaly about 374 B.C.; was
assassinated in 370 B.C. The rule of Jason’s successors became so
unbearable that, in 353 B.C., the old families called in the aid of
Philip of Macedon, who, in 344, subjected the country to Macedonia. In
197 B.C., it was restored to freedom under the protection of Rome.

=Thetford.= A town of England, in Norfolk, 95 miles north-northeast of
London. It was taken and sacked by the Danes in 870.

=Thin, To.= To make less numerous; as, to thin the ranks by a heavy
discharge of musketry.

=Thionville.= A fortified town of France, in the department of the
Moselle, situated on the Moselle, which is crossed here by a splendid
bridge. This place was a residence of the Merovingian and Carlovingian
kings, and was repeatedly besieged during the various wars between
Austria and France. It was invested by the Germans in August, 1870, and
after bombardment, being in flames, surrendered November 24 following.

=Thirty, Battle of= (Fr. _Combat des Trentes_). A name given, in English
and French history, to a celebrated engagement which took place at a
spot known as Midway Oak, half-way between the castles of Josselin and
Ploermel, France, March 27, 1351. The French general Beaumanoir,
commanding the former post, being enraged at the depredations committed
by Bemborough, the English general, challenged him to fight. Upon this
it was agreed that thirty knights of each party should meet and decide
the contest. The two chiefs presented themselves at the head of their
best soldiers and the battle began in earnest. At the first onset the
English were successful; but Bemborough having been killed, the French
renewed the struggle with redoubled courage and finally won the victory.
This was one of the most heroic exploits of the age, and gained such
popularity that more than one hundred years later, when speaking of a
hard contest, it was usual to say, “There never was such hard fighting
since the battle of the Thirty.”

=Thirty Tyrants.= A body of thirty magistrates in Athens (404-403 B.C.).
They were appointed from the aristocratic party, by the Spartans,
victorious in the Peloponnesian war. The “tyrants” were guilty of the
most cruel and shameless acts, and after one year were expelled by
Thrasybulus.

=Thirty Tyrants of Rome.= A set of military adventurers who from 253 to
268 attempted to establish their own power in various parts of the
empire during the reigns of Valerianus and Gallienus. The number thirty
is borrowed from that of the famous Athenian tyrants. The names of only
nineteen of these adventurers have come down to us.

=Thirty Years’ War.= Was not properly one war, but rather an
uninterrupted succession of wars (1618-1648) in Germany, in which
Austria, the most of the Catholic princes of Germany, and Spain, were
engaged on one side throughout, but against different antagonists. This
long-continued strife had its origin in the quarrels between the
Catholics and Protestants of Germany, and the attempts of the former,
who were the more powerful body, to deprive the latter of what liberty
of worship they had obtained. The severe measures taken by the emperor,
the head of the Catholic party, against the Protestant religion, led
also to strictures on their civil rights; and it was to protect their
political as well as their religious liberties, that the Protestants
formed a union, May 4, 1608, with Frederick IV., the Elector Palatinate,
at its head. The rival union of the Catholic powers, under the
leadership of the Duke of Bavaria, followed July 11, 1609. In Bohemia,
the immense preponderance in numbers (two out of three) and influence of
the Protestants, had forced from their Austrian king an edict of
toleration (July 11, 1609), which was at first faithfully observed; but
during the reign of Matthias, sundry violations of it were made with
impunity; and as the influence of Ferdinand of Styria, his successor,
began to be felt in more flagrant partiality to the Catholics, the
kingdom became a scene of wild excitement; three of the Catholic party
were thrown from the window of the Bohemian council-chamber at Prague,
and ultimately Ferdinand was deposed, and Frederick V., the Elector
Palatinate, chosen in his stead (1619); and Count Thurn, at the head of
an insurgent army, repeatedly routed the imperial troops, and actually
besieged the emperor in Vienna. The Catholic princes, though as
apprehensive as their opponents of the encroaching policy of Austria,
crowded to the emperor’s aid; and while the Protestant union and James
I. of Great Britain held aloof from Frederick, whose sole allies were
Bohemians (under Thurn), Moravians, Hungarians, and a Piedmontese
contingent of 3000 (under Count Mansfield), a well-appointed army of
30,000, under Duke Maximilian, advanced to support the Austrians, and
totally routed Frederick’s motley array at Weissenberg (November 8,
1620), near Prague, afterwards reducing the Upper, while an army of
Spaniards under Spinola ravaged the Lower, Palatinate, and the Saxons
(in alliance with the emperor) occupied Lusatia. The Bohemians were now
subjected to the most frightful tyranny and persecution; a similar
policy, though of a more modern character, was adopted towards the
people of the Palatinate,--the Protestant union standing aloof, and
subsequently dissolving, through sheer terror. But the indomitable
pertinacity and excellent leadership of Count Mansfield and Christian of
Brunswick, two famous partisan leaders, who ravaged the territories of
the Catholic league, and the forced cession to Bethlem Gabor of large
portions of Hungary and Transylvania, did much to equalize the success
of the antagonistic parties. Here the war might have ended; but the
fearful tyranny of Ferdinand over all the Protestants in his dominions
(Hungary excepted) drove them to despair, and the war advanced to its
second phase. Christian IV. of Denmark, smarting under some injuries
inflicted on him by the emperor, and aided by a British subsidy, came to
the aid of his German co-religionists in 1624, and being joined by
Mansfield and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into Lower Saxony, while
the emperor, hampered by the political jealousy of the Catholic league,
was unable to oppose him. But when, by the aid of Wallenstein, a
powerful and effective army had been obtained, and the leaguers under
Tilly, in co-operation with it, had marched northwards, the rout of the
Danes by Tilly at Lutter (August 17, 1626), and of Mansfield by
Wallenstein at Dessau (April 1, 11, and 25, 1626), again prostrated the
Protestants’ hopes in the dust; yet a gleam of comfort was obtained from
the victorious raid of Mansfield through Silesia, Moravia, and Hungary,
though his scheme for an insurrection in Hungary failed, and his death
soon after, at Zara, freed the emperor from a formidable and
irreconcilable enemy. The combined Imperialists and leaguers mean time
had overrun North Germany and continental Denmark, and ultimately
compelled King Christian to conclude the humiliating peace of Lübeck
(May 12, 1629). This second great success seems to have turned
Ferdinand’s head, for, not content with still more rigorous treatment of
the Protestants, and the promulgation of the _Restitution Edict_, which
seriously offended even the Catholics, he stirred up Poland against
Sweden, and insulted Gustavus Adolphus, both personally and in the
persons of his ambassadors,--insolent impertinences which he soon saw
bitter reason to regret. The Catholic league now forced him to reduce
his army, and supplant Wallenstein by Tilly; while France was inciting
Gustavus to the willing task of aiding the Protestants in Germany. The
war entered its third phase by the landing of the Swedes at Usedom
(June, 1630), and their conquest of Pomerania and Mecklenburg. Gustavus,
by the exercise of a little wholesome pressure, induced the elector of
Brandenburg to aid him; and though unable to save Magdeburg, he marched
to join the Saxons, completely routed by Tilly at Breitenfeld (September
17, 1631); victoriously traversed the Main and Rhine valleys; again
routed Tilly on the Lech (April 5, 1632), and entered Munich. By the
judicious strategy of Wallenstein, he was compelled to return to Saxony,
where he gained the great victory of Lützen; but his death, depriving
the Protestants of the only man who could force the confederate powers
to preserve unity of action, was a severe blow to their cause; though
the genius and indefatigable zeal of his chancellor, Oxenstiern, and the
brilliant talents of the Swedish generals, preserved the advantages they
had gained, till the crushing defeat of Bernard of Weimar at Nordlingen
(September 6, 1634) again restored to the emperor a preponderating
influence in Germany. Saxony now made peace at Prague (May 30, 1635),
obtaining such satisfactory terms for the Lutherans that the treaty was
within three months adhered to by all the German princes of that sect,
and the Calvinists were left to their fate. Final success now appeared
to demand only one more strenuous effort on the part of Austria; but
Oxenstiern resolved to preserve to Sweden her German acquisitions,
propitiated Richelieu, by resigning to him the direction of the war, and
the conflict advanced into its final and most extended phase. The
emperor, allied for offense and defense with the Lutherans, was now also
assailed through his ally, Spain, who was attacked on her own frontier,
in the Netherlands, and in Italy; Bernard of Weimar fighting
independently, with the view of obtaining Alsace for himself, opposed
the leaguers; while the Swedes under Banér held North Germany, and by
frequent flying marches into Silesia and Bohemia distracted their
opponents, and prevented them, after successes over Duke Bernard, from
proceeding with the invasion of France. The great victory of Banér over
the Austrians and Saxons at Wittstock (October 4, 1636) restored to
Sweden the victor’s wreath she had lost two years before; and from this
time, especially under Torstenson and Konigsmark, the Swedes were always
successful, adding a second victory of Breitenfeld (November 2, 1642),
one at Yankowitz (February 14, 1645), and numberless ones of less note,
to their already long list of successes, carrying devastation and ruin
into the hereditary territories, even to the gates of Vienna, defeating
the best generals of the empire, till, from a profound feeling of
inability to check them, the Austrians hardly dared appear to the north
of the Danube. On the Rhine, the leaguers at first had great
success,--the Weimar troops, now in French pay, were almost exterminated
at Duttlingen (November 24, 1643); but after the Spanish power had been
thoroughly broken in the Netherlands by Condé, the French were
reinforced on the Rhine, and under Condé and Turenne, rolled back the
leaguers through the Palatinate and Bavaria, and revenged at Nordlingen
(August 3, 1645) the former defeat of the Swedes. The emperor was now
deserted by all his allies except the Duke of Bavaria, whose territories
were already mostly in the hands of Turenne and Wrangel; and a combined
invasion of Austria from the west and north was on the point of being
executed, when, after seven years of diplomatic shuffling, with an eye
to the changing fortunes of the contest, the peace of Westphalia put an
end to this terrible struggle.

=Thistle, Order of the.= See ANDREW, ST.

=Thomas, St.= The principal of the Virgin Islands in the West Indies,
belonging to Denmark. In March, 1801, it was taken by the British, but
given up at the peace of Amiens; it was again taken in the course of the
subsequent war, and restored to Denmark at the peace of Paris in 1814.

=Thorn.= A fortified town of the kingdom of Prussia, in the province of
West Prussia, on the right bank of the Vistula. It is defended by walls,
bastions, and two forts. This town was founded by the Teutonic Knights
in 1232, and admitted into the Hanseatic League in the beginning of the
14th century. It was taken by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1703, after a
siege of four months.

=Thrace.= Anciently the name of an extensive country bounded on the
north by the Danube, on the east by the Euxine, on the south by the
Ægean and Macedonia, and on the west by Macedonia and Illyria. War and
robbery were the only honorable occupations of the Thracians. They lived
to steal, either from each other or from neighboring peoples. When not
fighting or plundering, they spent their days in savage idleness, or in
quarreling over their cups. Courageous, or rather ferocious, after the
fashion of barbarous peoples, they yet lacked the steady valor and
endurance of disciplined troops; at all times, their warfare displayed
more fierceness and impetuosity than fortitude. In 513 B.C., Darius,
king of Persia, marched through Thrace on his way to punish the European
Scythians, and on his return left Megabazus with 80,000 men to subdue
the country. In this he partially succeeded, but new disturbances and
complications arose between the Persians and Greeks, which resulted (480
B.C.) in the famous expedition of Xerxes. The consequence of the
expulsion of the Persians from Europe was the resumption of liberty and
the revival of prosperity among the Greek colonies in Thrace. Shortly
before the Peloponnesian war, a native Thracian state--the Odrysian--had
attained to great power and eminence under a ruler named Sitalces, who
joined the Athenian alliance, but could not, in spite of his resources,
prevent the triumph of Sparta in the north as well as in the south. The
rise of the Macedonian kingdom, under Philip II. (359 B.C.), destroyed
the independence of a great part of Thrace. Under the government of
Lysimachus, the subjugation of Thrace became complete. On the fall of
the Macedonian kingdom (168 B.C.) it passed into the hands of the
Romans, and subsequently shared the vicissitudes of the Roman empire. In
334 a colony of Sarmatians, and in 376 another of Goths, was planted in
Thrace. In 395 it was overrun by Alaric, and in 447 by Attila. In 1353,
Amurath obtained possession of all its fortresses, except
Constantinople, and it has ever since remained in the possession of the
Turks.

=Thrasimenus Lacus.= See TRASIMENUS LACUS.

=Throw, To.= To force anything from one place to another; thus,
artillerists say, to throw a shot or shell, or so many shells were
thrown.

=Thrust.= Hostile attack with any pointed weapon, as in fencing. When
one party makes a push with his sword to wound his adversary with the
point, it is called a thrust.

=Thud.= The sound of a bullet on hitting the intended object.

=Thug.= One of an association of robbers and murderers in India, who
practiced murder not by open assault, but by stealthy approaches, and
from religious motives. They have been nearly exterminated by the
British government.

=Thumb-stall.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Thunderbolt.= In heraldry, a bearing borrowed from classical mythology,
which may be described as a twisted bar in pale inflamed at each end
surmounting two jagged darts in saltire between two wings displayed with
streams of fire.

=Thundering Legion.= During a contest with the invading Marcomanni, the
prayers of some Christians in a Roman legion are said to have been
followed by a storm of thunder, lightning, and rain, which tended
greatly to discomfit the enemy; and hence the legion received the name
in 174.

=Thurii=, or =Thurium=. A Greek city in the south of Italy, on the north
shore of the Tarentine Gulf, was founded in 452 B.C., by a body of
Sybarite exiles, near the spot where their ancient city had stood till
it was destroyed by the Crotonians fifty-eight years before. The rise of
a new colony re-awakened the anger of the Crotonians, and after five
years they expelled the Sybarites. These after an unsuccessful appeal to
Sparta for assistance, applied to the Athenians, who resolved to send
out a colony along with the persecuted Sybarites. The leaders of this
colony were Lampon and Xenocritus. A war subsequently occurred between
Thurii and Tarentum, but was terminated by a compromise. In 390 B.C. the
city received a severe blow from a total defeat of their army by the
Lucanians. From this period it began to decline, and was at length
obliged to submit to the Roman power, in order to escape the continued
attacks of the Lucanians.

=Thuringia.= An early Gothic kingdom in Central Germany, was overrun by
Attila and the Huns, 451; the last king, Hermanfried, was defeated and
slain by Thierry, king of the Franks, who annexed it to his dominions,
530. It was after various changes and many conflicts, absorbed in Saxony
in the 15th century. In 1815 it was surrendered to Prussia.

=Thyatira.= In Asia Minor; was the place assigned for the battle at
which the rebel Procopius was defeated by the army of the emperor Valens
in 366.

=Thymbra.= In Asia Minor, where Cyrus the Great defeated the confederate
army aiding Crœsus, and obtained supremacy in Asia, 548.

=Tiberias.= A city in Palestine, built by Herod Antipas, and named after
the emperor Tiberias in 39. Near it Guy de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem,
and the Crusaders, were defeated by Saladin; and Jerusalem fell into his
hands, 1187.

=Ticino=, or =Tessin=. A Swiss canton south of the Alps; it was
conquered by the Swiss early in the 16th century, and made a separate
canton in 1815. It suffered by internal disputes in 1839 and 1841.

=Ticinus= (now _Tessino_). An important river in Northern Italy. It was
upon the bank of this river that Hannibal gained his first victory over
the Romans by the defeat of P. Scipio, 218 B.C.

=Ticonderoga.= A town in Essex Co., N. Y., 95 miles north by east of
Albany. Two or three miles below this village are the ruins of old Fort
Ticonderoga, on the west shore of Lake Champlain. The fort was surprised
by Col. Ethan Allen in the Revolutionary war.

=Tien Tsin.= A city of China, situated 70 miles southeast from Pekin. A
treaty of amity and commerce was signed here between the French and
English on the one hand, and the Chinese on the other, in 1858. The
violation of this treaty, which was favorable to British interests in
China, by the Chinese, was the cause of the subsequent Chinese war.

=Tierce.= A thrust in fencing, delivered at the outside of the body over
the arm.

=Tierce=, =Tiercé=. In heraldry, a term of blazon used to indicate that
the field is divided by lines into three equal parts. A shield may be
tierce in pale, in fess, in bend, in bend sinister, or in pall; all
which, with other arrangements in tierce, are common in French heraldry.
Tierce in pale, in English heraldry, is an occasional mode of marshaling
three coats in one escutcheon under special circumstances.

=Tier-shot.= Grape-shot is sometimes so called.

=Tiflis.= See TEFLIS.

=Tige-arms.= Sometimes called pillar breech-arms. Arms with a stem of
steel, screwed into the middle of the breech-pin, around which the
charge of powder is placed. The ball enters free and rests upon the top
of the pin, which is tempered, and a few blows with a heavy ramrod force
the ball to fill the grooves of the rifled arm. This invention was an
improvement by Capt. Thouvenin on Delvignes’ plan of having a chamber
for the powder smaller than the bore. Capt. Minié’s invention superseded
the tige-arms, by means of a bullet which is forced to fill the grooves
by the action of the charge itself at the instant of the explosion.

=Tigranocerta= (ruins at _Sert_). The later capital of Armenia, built by
Tigranes. It was taken by Lucullus and the Romans, after a great victory
over Tigranes, in 69 B.C.

=Tigurini.= A tribe of the Helvetii, who joined the Cimbri in invading
the country of the Allobroges in Gaul, where they defeated the consul L.
Cassius Longinus, 107 B.C. They formed in the time of Cæsar the most
important of the four cantons into which the Helvetii were divided.

=Tilsit.= A town of East Prussia, on the left bank of the Niemen, or
Memel, 60 miles northeast from Königsberg. Tilsit will be ever memorable
in history for the treaties which were there signed between France and
Russia on July 7, and France and Prussia on July 9, 1807. By the former
of these Napoleon agreed to restore to the king of Prussia a great
portion of his dominions, his Polish acquisitions being joined to
Saxony, and his possessions west of the Elbe formed into the nucleus of
the new kingdom of Westphalia; Danzig was declared an independent city;
the Prussian province of Bialystock was ceded to Russia; the dukes of
Oldenberg and Mecklenburg, the czar’s relatives, were reinstated by
Napoleon, and in return the Bonapartist kings of Naples and Holland were
recognized by the czar, etc. By the latter, the king of Prussia
recognized the kings of Holland, Naples, and Westphalia, and the
Confederation of the Rhine; agreed to the cessions laid down in the
Russian treaty, and to other minor alienations and concessions to
Saxony, amounting in all to nearly one-half of his dominions; to the
exclusion from his harbors of the commerce of Great Britain, and to the
occupation of the Prussian fortresses by the French, till the payment of
an enormous ransom. The weighty importance of the alterations effected
by this treaty is, however, dwarfed before the startling magnitude of
the _secret provisions_ signed between France and Russia. By these were
arranged the resignation of the empire of the East to Russia, Roumelia
and Constantinople being specially excepted by Napoleon, and the
acquisition of the Spanish peninsula by France; the two powers were to
make common cause against Great Britain, and were to force the three
courts of Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Lisbon to join them; and Napoleon
agreed to increase no further the power of the duchy of Warsaw, and to
do nothing which might lead to the re-establishment of the Polish
monarchy. By a further agreement, not put formally into writing, the
mouths of the Cattaro, the Ionian Isles, Sicily, Malta, Egypt, and the
papal dominions were to be taken by France; and Greece, Macedonia,
Dalmatia, and the Adriatic coasts, as the portion of Turkey; while on
the other hand, Russia was to obtain the rest of Turkey, and was allowed
to seize Finland. These secret articles are given on most excellent
authority, and their correctness is further vouched for by the conduct
of France and Russia for the next few years.

=Tilt.= A thrust, or fight with rapiers; also, an old military game.

=Tilted Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, STEEL.

=Tilter.= One who fights or contests in a tournament.

=Tilting-helmet.= A helmet of large size often worn over another at
tilts.

=Tilt-yard.= Formerly a place or yard for tilting.

=Timariot.= A Turkish cavalry soldier who has a certain allowance made
him, for which he is not only obliged to arm, clothe, and accoutre
himself, but he must likewise provide a certain number of militia-men.
The allowance is called _timar_.

=Timars.= Certain revenues, in Turkey, growing out of lands which
originally belonged to Christian clergy and nobility, and which the
sultans seized when they conquered the countries they inhabited. By this
means the sultan is enabled to support the _timariots_.

=Timber.= In heraldry, a rank or row, as of ermine, in a nobleman’s
coat; also a crest. This word is also written _timbre_.

=Timber Rafts.= See RAFTS, TIMBER.

=Timbuctoo.= A celebrated city in the interior of Africa, on the slope
of a hill about 8 miles south of the Niger. It is said to have been
built by Mansa Suleiman, a Mohammedan, about 1214, and was frequently
subjugated by the sovereigns of Morocco. Since 1727 it has been
partially independent.

=Time.= The measure of duration by which soldiers regulate the cadence
of the march. _Common time_, the ordinary time of marching, in which 90
steps, each 28 inches in length, are taken in one minute. See
DOUBLE-QUICK, and QUICK TIME.

=Time.= That necessary interval between each motion in the manual
exercise, as well as in every movement the army or any body of men may
make. In fencing there are three kinds of time: that of the sword, that
of the foot, and that of the whole body.

=Time.= A particular period or part of duration, whether past, present,
or future.

_Apparent time_, the time of day reckoned by the sun, or so that 12
o’clock at the place is the instant of the transit of the sun’s centre
over the meridian.

_Mean solar time_, or _mean time_, time regulated by the average, or
mean, instead of the unequal or apparent, motion of the sun; time as
indicated by a uniformly-going clock, once rightly adjusted, and
differing from apparent time at any instant by a small quantity called
the _equation of time_.

_Sidereal time_, time regulated by the transit, over the meridian of a
place, of the first point of Aries, or vernal equinox, and chiefly used
in astronomical observations.

_Solar time._ See MEAN SOLAR TIME.

=Time of Flight.= See FLIGHT.

=Time Thrust.= In fencing, a thrust given upon any opening which may
occur by an inaccurate or wide motion of your adversary, when changing
his guard, etc.

=Time-fuze.= See FUZE, TIME-.

=Timing.= In fencing, is the accurate and critical throwing in of a cut
or thrust upon any opening that may occur as your adversary changes his
position.

=Tin-case Shot.= See CANISTER-SHOT.

=Tinchebrai.= A town of France, department of the Arne, 34 miles
northwest from Alençon. Here Robert of Normandy was finally defeated by
his brother, Henry I. of England, on September 28, 1106, and Normandy
was annexed to the crown of England.

=Tincture.= In heraldry, one of the metals, colors, or furs used in
armory.

=Tindal.= An attendant on the army in India.

=Tinker.= A small mortar formerly used on the end of a staff, now
superseded by the Coehorn.

=Tippecanoe.= A river of Indiana, United States, which rises in a lake
of the same name in the northern part of the State. It is famous for the
battle fought on its banks, November 5, 1811, in which the Indians,
under Tecumseh’s brother, the Prophet, were defeated by Gen. Harrison.

=Tipperary.= An inland county in the province of Munster, Ireland.
Subsequently to the year 1172, Henry II. obtained possession of it after
several sanguinary contests. The county suffered greatly during the
civil wars of 1641, in the course of which the town of Clonmel, after a
gallant resistance, obtained honorable terms from Cromwell, who
conducted the siege in person.

=Tipperary.= A town of the county of the same name, on the river Arra,
111 miles southwest from Dublin. The town is of very ancient foundation,
and soon after the invasion was occupied as a strong place by the
English, who built a castle in it during the Irish expedition of King
John. This castle, however, fell soon afterward into the hands of the
Irish under the Prince of Thomond.

=Tippermuir=, or =Tibbermore=. A town of Scotland, near Perth. Here the
Marquis of Montrose defeated the Covenanters under Lord Elcho, September
1, 1644.

=Tirailleur.= A skirmisher, often put in front of the line to annoy the
enemy, and draw off his attention; or they are left behind to amuse and
stop his progress in the pursuit; a rifleman.

=Tire.= Are great guns, shot, shells, etc., placed in a regular form.

=Tirlemont.= A town of Belgium, province of Brabant, 25 miles east of
Brussels. It was taken by the French in 1635; was ravaged by Marlborough
in 1705; taken by the French in 1792; here the French, under Dumouriez,
defeated the Austrians in 1793; taken by the French in 1794. Its
fortifications were dismantled in 1804.

=Tiryns.= An ancient town of Argolis, southeast of Argos, and one of the
most ancient in all Greece. Homer represents Tiryns as subject to Argos;
the town was at a later time destroyed by the Argives, and most of the
inhabitants were removed to Argos.

=Titles, Military.= See military titles under appropriate headings
throughout this volume.

=Tivoli.= A town of Central Italy, on the left bank of the Teverone, 18
miles east-northeast from Rome. In the Middle Ages, Tivoli was an
imperial city, independent of Rome, and was the occasion of many
contentions between the emperors and the popes; in the course of which
it was frequently taken and retaken as either party gained the
ascendant.

=Tlemsen=, or =Tlemecen=. A town of Algeria, in the province of Oran, 67
miles southwest from Oran. It was once an important place; but in
consequence of a revolt of the inhabitants against his authority,
Hassan, the dey of Algiers, laid it in ruins. It was occupied by the
French in 1836 and 1842.

=Tobago.= One of the British islands in the West Indies, belonging to
the Windward group. This island was first colonized by the Dutch, who
were expelled by the Spaniards. It was then settled by the English, to
whom it was ceded by the peace of 1763. In 1781 it was taken by the
French, and in 1793 was retaken by the British, by whom it was retained
at the peace of Amiens.

=Tobitschau= (Moravia). In a sharp action, on July 15, 1866, the
Austrians were defeated by the army of the crown-prince of Prussia, with
the loss of 500 killed and wounded, and 500 prisoners and 17 guns.

=Tocsin.= An alarm-drum; a bell. It was formerly used in an army as a
signal for charging, on the approach of an enemy.

=Toga Picta.= Was an outer garment, worn by Roman generals in triumphs,
by consuls under the empire, and by prætors when they celebrated games;
and was embellished with Phrygian embroidery. In war the toga was laid
aside for the _sagum_ or _paludatogatus_, or some less cumbrous style of
attire.

=Toggle and Chain.= See ORDNANCE.

=Toise.= A measure derived from the French, containing 6 feet, and a
term of frequent use in fortification and military surveying.

=Toison d’Or= (_Fr._). See GOLDEN FLEECE.

=Toledo= (anc. _Toletum_). A city of Spain, capital of the province of
the same name, on the north bank of the Tagus, 55 miles south-southwest
from Madrid. It was conquered by the Romans under M. Fulvius, 192 B.C.
(193 B.C.); was captured by the Goths, 467; possessed by the Moors from
714 to 1085. Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon recovered it from the
Moors.

=Toledo.= An esteemed Spanish sword, so called from the place of
manufacture.

=Tolenon= (_Fr._). An ancient machine of war, having a long lever moving
on a pivot, suspended from an upright higher than the rampart, having at
one end a box to contain 20 men, who, by drawing down the other end,
might be raised high enough to fire into the loop-holes, or even to get
upon the wall.

=Tolentino.= A town of Italy, province of Macerata, 12 miles from
Macerata. It was here, in February, 1797, that the pope ceded the
Romagna to the French republic by treaty, and in May, 1815, Murat
retired to this place with his troops before the Austrians, and was
defeated.

=Tolosa.= A town of Spain, province of Guipuzcoa, on the Oria, 35 miles
southwest from Bayonne. Near here, Alfonso, king of Castile, aided by
the kings of Aragon and Navarre, gained a great victory over the Moors,
July 16, 1212. This conflict is sometimes termed the battle of Muradal.
It was occupied by the French from 1808 till 1813.

=Tomahawk.= A light war-hatchet of the North American Indians. The early
ones were rudely made of stone, ingeniously fastened to their handles by
animal sinews, or cords of skin. Traders supplied hatchets of steel, the
heads of which were made hollow, for a tobacco-pipe; the handle of ash,
with the pith removed, being the stem. These hatchets are used in the
chase and in battle, not only in close combat, but by being thrown with
a wonderful skill, so as always to strike the object aimed at with the
edge of the instrument. The handles are curiously ornamented. In the
figurative language of the Indians, to make peace, is to bury the
tomahawk; to make war, is to dig it up.

=Toman.= In the East Indies, signifies 10,000 men.

=Tom-tom.= A large, flat drum, used by the Hindoos; a tam-tam.

=Tongue.= The pole of an ox-cart (local).

=Tongue of a Sword.= That part of the blade on which the gripe, shell,
and pummel are fixed. The bayonet is figuratively called a triangular
tongue, from its shape.

=Tonnelon= (_Fr._). An ancient drawbridge, used nearly in the same
manner and for similar purposes as the _harpe_ and _exostre_.

=Tonquin=, or =Tonkin=. The northernmost province of Anam, Southeast
Asia. Tonquin was conquered by the Chinese in 1406, and by the Anamese
in 1790.

=Tooksowars= (_Ind._). The vizier’s body of cavalry.

=Topekhana= (_Ind._). The place where guns are kept; the arsenal.

=Topeys=, or =Topgis=. Turkish artillerymen or gunners.

=Topgi-Bachi.= Master-general of the Turkish artillery.

=Topikhannah= (_Ind._). A house for keeping guns; an arsenal; an armory.

=Töplitz.= A town of Bohemia. Here were signed, in 1813, two
treaties,--one between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, September 9; and
one between Great Britain and Austria, October 3.

=Topographical Engineers.= The duties of this corps consist in surveys
for the defense of the frontiers and of positions for fortifications; in
reconnoissances of the country through which an army has to pass, or in
which it has to operate; in the examination of all routes of
communication by land or by water, both for supplies and military
movements; in the construction of military roads and permanent bridges
connected with them; and the charge of the construction of all civil
works authorized by acts of Congress, not specially assigned by law to
some other branch of the service. The U. S. Corps of Topographical
Engineers was merged into the Corps of Engineers in 1863.

=Topography.= Is the art of representing and describing in all its
details the physical constitution, natural or artificial, of any
determined portion of a country; in making maps and giving a descriptive
memoir. Military topography differs from geography in seeking to imitate
sinuosities of ground: it represents graphically and describes
technically commanding heights, water-courses, preferable sites for
camps, different kinds of roads, the position of fords, and extent of
woods. It enumerates the resources that a country offers to troops and
the difficulties which are interposed. By means of colored maps and
other conventional signs, military topography presents before the eyes
of a general much that is necessary to guide his operations.

=Torce=, or =Wreath=. In heraldry, a garland of twisted silk, by which
the crest is joined to the helmet. A crest is always understood to be
placed on a torce, unless where it is expressly stated to issue out of a
coronet or chapeau.

=Torches.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Tordesillas.= A town of Spain, province of Valladolid. Here was signed,
in 1494, a treaty modifying the boundary-line which Pope Alexander VI.
had assigned, in 1493, in his division of the New World between Spain
and Portugal.

=Torgau.= A fortified town of Prussian Saxony, on the left hank of the
Elbe, 70 miles south-southwest from Berlin. Here a battle was fought
between Frederick II. of Prussia and the Austrians, in which the former
obtained a signal victory, the Austrian general, Count Daun, a renowned
warrior, being wounded, November 3, 1760. It was besieged and taken by
the allied Prussians and Saxons in January, 1814; the besieged lost
about 30,000 men.

=Tormentum.= A pistol; a gun; a piece of ordnance.

=Tormes.= A river of Spain, falls into the Douro, on the borders of
Portugal. Its banks were the scene of many conflicts between the French
and Spaniards during the Peninsular war, from 1808 to 1814.

=Toro.= A city of Spain, province of Leon, on the Douro, 20 miles east
from Zamora. Ferdinand the Catholic defeated Alonzo V. of Portugal near
this place in 1476, and gained the kingdom of Castile for himself and
his wife Isabella.

=Toronto.= The capital of the province of Ontario, Canada, on the north
shore of Lake Ontario, 165 miles from Kingston, and 323 miles from
Montreal. Its harbor or bay is capable of accommodating the largest
vessels that navigate the lakes, and is defended at the entrance by a
fort, which was thoroughly repaired in 1864 by the imperial government,
and mounted with the most efficient modern ordnance. The town was
founded in 1794, by Gov. Simcoe. It was burned by the Americans in 1813,
and suffered severely in the insurrection of 1837, on which occasion it
was the headquarters of the rebellion.

=Torpedo.= During the war between Great Britain and the United States
in 1812-14, this name was applied to certain mysterious boats invented
by Fulton and other Americans for the purpose of navigating beneath the
surface of the water, and injuring the bottom of hostile vessels. In
those days of hand-to-hand naval war, these designs (which, by the way,
were failures) were looked upon as little less than diabolical. The
progress of destructive weapons during half a century has removed this
aversion, and nations do not scruple now to employ similar unseen agents
for offense and defense. The modern torpedo is really a stationary
bomb-shell, intended to explode under the bottom of an enemy’s ship. The
weapon was first used by the Russians in the Baltic in 1854; and in the
American war of Secession, 1861-65, it was employed extensively, and
often successfully. The damage effected by a torpedo exploding beneath a
ship is very great; and although the failures are frequent by the
explosion happening at a wrong moment, the danger from torpedoes is
considerable in fact, and far more in apprehension, for sailors
naturally dread navigating waters where destruction lurks at unknown
points concealed from view. There are several varieties of torpedoes,
but they may be divided into two classes,--those which are
self-explosive on a ship touching them, and those which are dependent on
an electric current supplied from the shore. The second are the safest
for friendly vessels; but they are rather uncertain in action, and can
only be employed at a moderate distance from the shore. The first are
more certain in action, as they can only explode on a ship, being
somewhere in contact, but they attack indiscriminately friend and foe.

=Torque= (_Fr._). A metal collar formerly bestowed upon a Roman soldier
who had killed his adversary in a single combat.

=Torqued.= In heraldry, twisted; bent;--said of a dolphin haurient,
which forms a figure like the letter _S_.

=Torre di Mare.= A village of Naples, at the mouth of the Bassento, in
the Gulf of Taranto. Its prosperity received a fearful blow when, after
the battle of the Metaurus (207 B.C.), Hannibal was compelled to give up
this part of Italy, and carried with him all the citizens of Megapontum,
in order to defend them from the vengeance of the Romans. In the time of
Cicero the city still existed, but in a state of rapid decay.

=Torres-Vedras.= A town of Estremadura, kingdom of Portugal, on the left
bank of the Sizandro, about 30 miles north of Lisbon. It derives its
reputation solely from having given name to those famous lines of
defense within which Wellington took refuge in 1810, when he found it
impossible to defend the frontier of Portugal against the French armies;
and from which, in the year following, he issued on that career of slow
and hard-won victory which ended in the expulsion of the French from the
Peninsula. The _first_, or outermost of these lines, extending from
Alhandra, on the Tagus, to the mouth of the Sizandro, on the sea-coast,
and following the windings of the hills, was 29 miles long; the _second_
(and by far the most formidable) lay from 6 to 10 miles behind the
first, stretching from Quintella, on the Tagus, to the mouth of the St.
Lorenza, a distance of 24 miles; the _third_, situated to the southwest
of Lisbon, at the very mouth of the Tagus, was very short, being
intended to cover a forced embarkation, if that had become necessary.
The entire ground thus fortified was equal to 500 square miles.

=Torrington.= A town of England, county of Devon, 10 miles
south-southwest of Barnstaple. The name of Torrington emerges frequently
during the great civil war; and the capture of the town by Fairfax in
1646, on which occasion the church, with 200 prisoners, and those who
guarded them, were blown into the air by gunpowder, proved fatal to the
king’s cause in the west.

=Torse=, or =Torce=. In heraldry, a wreath.

=Tortona.= A town of Italy, province of Alessandria, on a hill nearly
900 feet above the sea. Tortona was once a strongly fortified city, but
its last defenses were destroyed by order of Napoleon, after the battle
of Marengo.

=Tortosa.= A town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the Ebro, 42 miles
southwest from Tarragona. It was taken by the French under Suchet in
1811.

=Tortu d’Hommes= (_Fr._). A particular formation which was formerly
adopted by the besieged when they made a sortie.

=Tory.= The word tory first occurs in English history in 1679, during
the struggle in Parliament occasioned by the introduction of the bill
for the exclusion of the Duke of York from the line of succession, and
was applied by the advocates of the bill to its opponents as a title of
obloquy or contempt. The name has, however, ceased to designate any
existing party; the political successors of the tories are now commonly
known as conservatives. In the Revolutionary war of the United States,
the loyalists were called _tories_.

=Touch-box.= A box containing lighted tinder, formerly carried by
soldiers who used matchlocks, to kindle the match.

=Touch-hole.= The vent of a cannon or other species of fire-arms, by
which fire is communicated to the powder of the charge.

=Toula=, or =Tula=. An important town of Great Russia, capital of the
government of the same name, on the Upa, 110 miles south of Moscow. It
is an ancient town, and has suffered severely from Tartar invasion, and
during the wars of the commencement of the 17th century. The Russian
army is largely supplied with muskets and small-arms from the works of
this town.

=Toulon.= A great seaport and naval arsenal of France, department of
Var. It stands at the head of a deeply-penetrating inlet of the
Mediterranean. It is a fortress of immense strength, and is surrounded
by a double rampart, and by a wide and deep fosse. Toulon was destroyed
by the Saracens in 889, and again by them about the close of the 12th
century. It was only at the end of the 16th century that Toulon came to
be important as a naval and military stronghold. In 1707, it was
assailed without success by the Duke of Savoy by land, and the English
and Dutch by sea. It was taken by the English and Spaniards in 1793; but
the allies were obliged to evacuate the town in December of the same
year, after being fiercely attacked by the republicans, whose guns were
commanded by Napoleon,--then a simple officer of artillery,--who here
evinced for the first time his genius and self-reliance.

=Toulouse= (anc. _Tolosa_). An important city of France, capital of the
department of Haute-Garonne, on the right bank of the river Garonne, 160
miles southeast of Bordeaux. The ancient _Tolosa_ and its temple were
plundered by the consul Q. Servilius Cæpio in 106 B.C. It was ravaged by
the Visigoths and Franks, who successively overran and possessed the
country. A battle was fought here in 1814, between Wellington and Soult,
in which the latter was defeated, and obliged to evacuate the town.

=Tour=, or =Turn=. That which is done by succession. _Tour of duty_,
turn to go on duty.

=Tourbillon.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Tournament=, or =Tournay=. A military sport of the Middle Ages, in
which combatants engaged one another with the object of exhibiting their
courage, prowess, and skill in the use of arms, or for the honor of the
ladies attending. According to Ducange, the difference between a
tournament and a _joust_ is, that the latter is a single combat, while
in the former a troop of combatants encounter each other on either side.
But this distinction has not been always observed.

=Tournay= (anc. _Tornacum_, or _Turris Nerviorum_, “Fort of the
Nervii”). A fortified town of Belgium, province of Hainault, on both
sides of the Scheldt, near the French frontier. It was in the 5th and
beginning of the 6th centuries the seat of the Merovingian kings,
subsequently belonged to France, but at the peace of Madrid was included
in the Spanish Netherlands. Subsequently it was oftener than once taken
by France, but again restored by treaty. During the month of May, 1794,
it was the scene of several hotly contested fights between the French
and Austro-English armies, the most important of which was that of May
19, in which Pichegru heat the Duke of York.

=Tours.= A city of France, capital of the department of Indre-et-Loire,
146 miles southwest from Paris. Near it Charles Martel gained a great
victory over the Saracens, and saved Europe, October 10, 732. This
conflict was also called the battle of Poitiers. The church was pillaged
by the Huguenots and utterly destroyed, with the exception of two
towers, at the revolution.

=Tower.= A citadel; a fortress; hence, a defender.

=Tower Bastion.= In fortification, is one which is constructed of
masonry, at the angles of the interior polygon of some works; and has
usually vaults or casemates under its terre-plein, to contain artillery,
stores, etc.

=Tower of London.= In feudal days, a powerful fortress; then, and long
after, a state prison of gloomy memories; now a government store-house
and armory, and still in some sense a stronghold; is an irregular
quadrilateral collection of buildings on rising ground adjoining the
Thames, and immediately to the east of the city of London. The kings
frequently resided there, holding their courts, and not unfrequently
sustaining sieges and blockades from their rebellious subjects. At
present, the Tower of London is a great military store-house in charge
of the war department, containing arms and accoutrements for the
complete equipment of a large army. It is needless to say that, viewed
as a fortress, the Tower would be useless against modern arms. The
government is vested in a constable, who has great privileges, and is
usually a military officer of long service and distinguished mark; the
deputy-constable, also a general officer of repute, is the actual
governor. He has a small staff under him, and the corps of Yeomen of the
Guard, more commonly known as Beef-eaters.

=Towered.= Adorned or defended by towers.

=Towers, Movable.= The _purgi_ of the Greeks, and the _turres mobiles_
of the Romans, consisted of several stories, furnished with engines,
ladders, casting-bridges, etc., and moving on wheels, for the purpose of
being brought near the walls. They were usually of a round form, though
sometimes square or polygonal. Before the invention of guns, they used
to fortify places with towers, and to attack them with movable towers of
wood, mounted on wheels, to set the besiegers on a level with the walls,
and drive the besieged from under the same. These towers were sometimes
20 stories, and 30 fathoms high. They were covered with raw skins, and
100 men were employed to move them.

=Tow-hooks.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Town-Adjutant=, =Town-Major=. In Great Britain, officers on the staff
of a garrison. They are often veteran officers, too much worn for field
service. The pay depends on the magnitude of the trust. The town-major
ranks as a captain; the adjutant as a lieutenant. The duties of these
officers consist in maintaining discipline, and looking after the
finding of the batteries, etc.

=Towton.= A township of England, county of York, West Riding. Here a
sanguinary battle was fought, March 29, 1461, between the houses of York
(Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter of whom it was
fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued orders to
give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made
prisoner, and confined in the Tower; his queen, Margaret, fled to
Flanders.

=Traband.= A trusty brave soldier in the Swiss infantry, whose
particular duty was to guard the colors and the captain who led them. He
was armed with a sword and a halbert, the blade of which was sharpened
like a pertuisan. He generally wore the colonel’s livery, and was
excused from all the duties of a sentinel.

=Tracing=, or =Outline=. Is the succession of lines that show the figure
of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive masses
are laid out, in order to obtain a proper defense.

=Tracing-pickets.= These are short pickets, 18 inches long, and about 1
inch in diameter, which are useful in marking out the details of
field-works. They are made rather more expeditiously than
fascine-pickets, and should be tied up in bundles of 25 each. Every
bundle weighs about 8 pounds when the wood is dry.

=Track.= In gunnery, by track is understood the distance between the
furrows formed by the wheels of artillery carriages in the ground. It is
important that the track should be the same for all carriages likely to
travel the same road, in order that the wheels of one carriage may
follow in the furrows formed by those of its predecessor, and thereby
prevent a loss of tractile force. The track of artillery carriages is 5
feet, and the extreme length of the axle-tree is 6¹⁄₂ feet for field-,
and 6³⁄₄ feet for siege-carriages.

=Trail.= In tactics, to carry, as a fire-arm, with the butt near the
ground, and the muzzle inclined forward, the piece being held by the
right hand near the middle.

=Trail.= In gunnery, the end of a traveling-carriage, opposite to the
wheels, and upon which the carriage slides when unlimbered. See
ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Trail Hand-spike.= See HAND-SPIKE.

=Trail-handles.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Trail-plate.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Trail-bridge.= See PONTONS.

=Train.= To teach and form by practice; to exercise; to discipline; as,
to train the militia to the manual exercise; to train soldiers to the
use of arms.

=Train.= A line of gunpowder, laid to lead fire to a charge, or to a
quantity intended for execution.

=Train, Artillery-.= See ARTILLERY-TRAIN.

=Train, Ponton-.= See PONTONS, BRIDGE EQUIPAGE.

=Train-Bands= (or more properly, _Trained Bands_). A force of militia,
and not differing essentially from that force substituted by James I.
for the old English Fyrd, or national militia. The train-bands of London
were chiefly composed of apprentices; and their unruly doings formed
the subject for many facetious plays and tales. In the civil wars, the
train-bands sided with the Parliament; and Charles II. restored the
militia on its old local footing.

=Trainer.= In the United States, a militia-man when called out for
exercise or discipline.

=Training-day.= In the United States, a day on which a military company
assembles for drill, especially in public.

=Traitor.= One who violates his allegiance and betrays his country; one
guilty of treason; one who, in breach of trust, delivers his country to
its enemy, or any fort or place intrusted to its defense, or who
surrenders an army or body of troops to the enemy, unless when
vanquished; or one who takes arms and levies war against his country; or
one who aids an enemy in conquering his country.

=Traitorous.= Guilty of treason; treacherous; perfidious; faithless; as,
a traitorous officer or subject. Also, consisting of treason; partaking
of treason; implying breach of allegiance; as, a traitorous scheme or
conspiracy.

=Trajan’s Wall.= A line of fortifications stretching across the
Dobrudscha from Czernavoda, where the Danube bends northwards, to a
point of the Black Sea coast near Kustendji. It consists of a double,
and in some places a triple, line of ramparts of earth, from 8³⁄₄ to 11
feet in height on the average (though occasionally it attains an
altitude of 19¹⁄₂ feet), bounded along its north side by a valley, which
being generally marshy, and abounding in small lakes and pools, serves
admirably the purpose of a fosse. During the war of 1854, Trajan’s wall
became an important line of defense on the invasion of the Dobrudscha by
the Russians, and the invaders were twice defeated in their attempts to
pass it,--at Kostelli, (April 10), and Czernavoda (April 20-22).

=Trajectory.= The increasing curve described by a projectile in its
flight through the air. See PROJECTILE, PROJECTILES, THEORY OF.

=Tralee.= A town of Ireland, chief town of the county of Kerry, on the
river Lea, 59 miles northwest from Cork. Tralee was destroyed in the
rebellion of 1641.

=Trani.= A maritime city of Southern Italy, in the province of Terra di
Bari, 25 miles northwest of the town of Bari. Trani submitted to the
Normans in 1053. It was then the chief town of a vast country, and was
an important harbor in the time of the crusades.

=Transfers.= Soldiers taken out of one troop, or company, and placed in
another are so called. Non-commissioned officers or soldiers will not be
transferred from one regiment to another without the authority of the
commanding general. The colonel of a regiment may, upon the application
of the captains, transfer a non-commissioned officer or soldier from
one company to another of his regiment,--with consent of the department
commander in case of a change of post. The transfer of officers from one
regiment or corps to another will be made only by the war department, on
the mutual application of the parties desiring the exchange.

=Transfixed.= An ancient term used to express the state of being
desperately wounded by some pointed instrument, as being run through by
a spear, javelin, or bayonet; pierced through so that the weapon is
fixed in another body.

=Transfluent.= In heraldry, passing or flowing through a bridge,--said
of water.

=Transfuge.= A turncoat, a deserter, a runaway; one who abandons his
party in time of war, and goes over to the enemy.

=Transit-compass.= A species of theodolite, consisting of a telescope
revolving in a vertical plane on a horizontal axis, as in a
transit-instrument, combined with a compass, a graduated horizontal
limb, etc., used for running lines, observing bearings, horizontal
angles, and the like; called also _surveyor’s transit_.

=Transoms.= In gunnery, are pieces of wood or iron which join the cheeks
of gun-carriages and hold them together; they are known as the front and
rear transoms.

=Transportation.= The act of transporting, carrying, or conveying from
one place to another; as, the transportation of troops, munitions of
war, etc.

=Transportation of Artillery.= In transporting artillery by sea, divide
the total quantity to be transported among the vessels, and place in
each vessel everything necessary for the service required at the moment
of disembarkation, so that there will be no inconvenience should other
vessels be delayed. If a siege is to be undertaken, place in each vessel
with each piece of artillery its implements, ammunition, and the
carriages necessary to transport the whole or a part; the platforms,
tools, instruments, and materials for constructing batteries; skids,
rollers, scantling, and plank. If a particular caliber of gun is
necessary for any operation, do not place all of one kind in one vessel,
to avoid being entirely deprived of them by accident. Dismount the
carriages, wagons, and limbers, by taking off the wheels and boxes, and,
if absolutely necessary, the axle-trees. Place in the boxes the
linch-pins, washers, etc., with the tools required for putting the
carriages together again. Number each carriage, and mark each detached
article with the number of the carriage to which it belongs. The
contents of each box, barrel, or bundle, should be marked distinctly
upon it. The boxes should be made small for the convenience of handling,
and have rope handles to lift them by. Place the heaviest articles
below, beginning with the shot and shells (empty), then the guns,
platforms, carriages, wagons, limbers, ammunition, boxes, etc.; boxes of
small-arms and ammunition in the dryest and least exposed part of the
vessel. Articles required to be disembarked first should be put in last,
or so placed that they can be readily got at. If the disembarkation is
to be performed in front of the enemy, some of the field-pieces should
be so placed that they can be disembarked immediately, with their
carriages, implements, and ammunition; also the tools and materials for
throwing up temporary intrenchments on landing. Some vessels should be
laden solely with such powder and ammunition as may not be required for
the immediate service of the pieces. On a smooth sandy beach, heavy
pieces, etc., may be landed by rolling them overboard as soon as the
boats ground, and hauling them up with sling-carts.

=Transylvania.= Is the most easterly crownland of Austria, and is
bounded on the north by Hungary and Galicia, east by Bukovina and
Moldavia, south by Wallachia, and west by the Military Frontier, the
Banat, and Hungary. Transylvania is little noticed in history till the
Christian era, when part of it was occupied by the warlike Dacians, soon
after whom the Sarmatian tribes of the Jazyges and Carpi settled in it.
The conquest of the Dacians by Trajan, however, did not include that of
the other two peoples, who proved very troublesome to the Roman settlers
along the Danube, till they were conquered by Diocletian, and the Carpi
carried away to Pannonia and other districts. In the middle of the 4th
century, the Goths overran the country, defeating the Sarmatians in a
great battle on the Maros, in which the monarch and the chief of his
nobility perished; and they in their turn were forced in 375 to retire
before the Huns and their confederates. The Gepidæ next took possession
of Transylvania, till their almost complete extirpation, in 566, by the
Lombards and Avars. It was conquered by the Hungarians about 1000, and
was governed by woivodes till 1526, when the death of the Hungarian
monarch at Mohacs prepared the way for the union of the two countries
under the woivode John Zapolya; but the war which thence arose with the
Austrians caused their complete severance, and Zapolya’s sway was, in
1535, confined to Transylvania, of which he became sovereign lord, under
the protection of the Turks. The Saxons were summoned by the Hungarian
monarchs to act as a counterpoise to the increasing power of the nobles;
the firm protection and generous treatment accorded to the Saxons by the
Hungarian monarchs were rewarded by steadfast loyalty and succor in men
and money whenever required. During the rest of the 16th century the
country was distracted by the bitter strife between the Catholic party,
who were supported by Austria, and the Protestant party, who were allied
with the Turks; the latter party, headed successively by princes of the
houses of Zapolya and Bathory, generally maintaining the superiority.
The next chief of the Protestant party was the celebrated Botskay,
whose successes against Austria extorted from the emperor an
acknowledgment of the independence of Transylvania in 1606. To him
succeeded Bethlem Gabor, the determined foe of Catholicism and Austria,
who did important service during the Thirty Years’ War. Between his son
and successor, Stephen, and Ragotski arose a contest for the crown, in
which the latter prevailed; but on Ragotski’s death, the civil war was
resumed, till the complete rout of the Austrians by the Turks, under
Kiupruli, placed the sceptre in the hands of Michael Abaffi, who reigned
till his death, in 1690, as a vassal of the Porte. The Austrians now
again possessed themselves of Transylvania, despite the heroic
resistance of Ragotski; and though Tekeli succeeded for a brief period
in rolling back the invaders, the peace of Carlowitz, in 1699, again put
them in possession; and in 1713 Transylvania was completely incorporated
with Hungary. During the insurrection in 1848 the Hungarians and
Szeklers (one of the races inhabiting Transylvania) joined the
insurgents and forced Transylvania to reunite with Hungary, despite the
opposition of the Saxons; and the Wallachs, still little better than a
horde of savages, were let loose over the land, to burn, plunder, and
murder indiscriminately; the prostration of the country being completed
in the following year during the bloody conflict which took place here
between Bem and the Russian troops. In the same year Transylvania was
again separated from its turbulent neighbor and made a crownland, the
portions of it which had, in 1835, been annexed to Hungary being
restored, as well as the Transylvanian Military Frontier, in 1851.

=Trapani.= See DREPANUM.

=Trapezus= (now _Tarabosan_, _Trabezun_, or _Trebizond_). A colony of
Sinope, at almost the extreme east of the northern shore of Asia Minor.
It was strongly fortified. It was taken by the Goths in the reign of
Valerian.

=Trappings.= See HOUSING.

=Trasimenus Lacus.= The ancient name of an Italian lake (_Lago
Trasimeno_, or _Lago di Perugia_), lying between the towns of Cortona
and Perugia. Trasimenus Lacus is memorable chiefly for the great victory
obtained by Hannibal in 217 B.C., during the second Punic war, over the
Romans, under their consul, C. Flaminius. Hannibal leaving Tæsulæ passed
close by the camp of Flaminius at Arretium, laying waste the country as
he proceeded in the direction of Rome. This, as the Carthaginian general
intended, induced the consul to break up his encampment and follow in
pursuit, Hannibal in the mean time taking up a strong position on the
hills on the north side of the lake, along which he was passing. The
consul, coming up early next morning, when the whole place was enveloped
in mist, saw only the troops in front on the hill of _Tuoro_, with whom
he was preparing to engage, when he found himself surrounded and
attacked on all sides. The Carthaginians thus had the Romans completely
in their power, and took such advantage of the opportunity, that 16,000
Roman troops are said to have been either massacred or drowned in the
lake; Flaminius himself being among the first who fell; 6000 troops who
had forced their way through the enemy, surrendered next day to
Maharbal. It is said both by Livy and Pliny that the fury on both sides
was so great as to render the combatants unconscious of the shock of an
earthquake which occurred during the battle.

=Trautenau.= A town of Bohemia, 25 miles north-northeast from
Königgratz. On June 27, 1866, the 1st Corps of the army of the
crown-prince of Prussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and repulsed
by the Austrians under Gablenz; on the 28th, the Prussians defeated the
Austrians with great loss.

=Traveling Allowance.= Is an allowance made to officers when traveling
under proper orders. An officer who travels not less than 10 miles from
his station, without troops, escort of military stores, and under
special orders in the case from a superior, or summons to attend a
military court, shall receive 8 cents per mile. Whenever a soldier shall
be discharged from the service, except by way of punishment for any
offense, or on his own application, or for disability prior to three
months’ service, he shall be allowed his pay and rations, or an
equivalent in money, for such term of time as shall be sufficient for
him to travel from the place of his discharge to the place of his
residence, computing at the rate of twenty miles to a day.

=Traveling Forge.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Traveling Kitchen.= Marshal Saxe, it is believed, first suggested the
idea of cooking while marching, so as to economize the strength of
soldiers, have their food well cooked in all weather, and avoid the
numerous diseases caused by bad cooking and want of rest. Col. Cavalli,
of the Sardinian artillery, has with the same laudable motive embraced a
kitchen-cart in the improvements suggested by him to replace the wagons
now in use, and an attempt is here made to elaborate the same idea of a
_traveling-kitchen_, designed for baking, making soup, and other
cooking, while on a march. The cart is 12¹⁄₂ feet long, mounted on two
6-feet wheels covered with a very light canvas roof with leather-cloth
curtains. A large range or stove forms the body of the vehicle; its
grate is below the floor, its doors opening on a level with it. A
_Papin’s digester_ is inclosed above the grate, in a flue whence the
heat may pass around the double oven in the rear, or straight up the
chimney, as regulated by dampers. At the side of the digester, over the
grate, is a range, suited to various cooking vessels. The top of the
oven forms a table nearly 5 feet square, at which three cooks may work,
standing upon the rear platform. A foot-board passes from this platform
to the front platform, where the driver and cook may stand. Stores may
be placed in the lockers at the side of the range, and under the rear
foot-board. The chimney may be turned down above the roof, to pass under
trees, etc., and may be of any height to secure a good draught. By
bending the axle like that of an omnibus, the vehicle may be hung
without danger of top-heaviness. Cooking vessels more bulky than heavy
may be suspended from the roof, over the range, when not in use. The
digester may have a capacity of 100 gallons, and an oven of 60 to 75
cubic feet would be quite adequate to the cooking for 250 men; or the
dimensions of the cart may be smaller, and each company of 100 men might
have its own traveling-kitchen, which would also furnish oven and
cooking utensils for a camp.

=Traveling Trunnion-beds.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SIEGE-CARRIAGES.

=Traverse.= The turning a gun so as to make it point in any desired
direction.

=Traverse Circles.= In gunnery, are circular plates of iron, fastened to
a bed of solid masonry, on which the traverse wheels, which support the
chassis, roll.

=Traverses.= In fortifications, are mounds of earth, above the height of
a man, and 18 feet thick, placed at frequent intervals on a rampart, to
stop shot which may enfilade the face of such rampart. A fire of this
nature, in the absence of traverses, would dismount the guns, and prove
altogether ruinous. The traverses also give means of disputing the
progress of an assailant who has gained a footing on the wall, for each
traverse becomes a defensible parapet, only to be taken by storm.

=Traversing-plates.= In gun-carriages, are two thin iron plates, nailed
on the hind part of a truck-carriage of guns, where the hand-spike is
used to traverse the gun.

=Traversing-platform.= An elevation on which the guns are mounted for
the defense of the coast, and generally for all sea-batteries, as
affording greater facility of traversing the gun, so as to follow,
without loss of time, any quick-moving object on the water.

=Travois.= A rude but efficient mode of transportation for conveying the
wounded over a level or rolling country, when ambulances are not at
hand. It consists of two poles about 16 feet long and 4 inches in
diameter; two stretcher bars or poles, 2¹⁄₂ inches in diameter and 3
feet long; and a canvas or rawhide bottom, 5¹⁄₂ feet long and 2¹⁄₂ feet
broad; and if of canvas, with eyelet-holes at the sides and ends, which
are to be lashed to the poles with rope. The rear ends of the
travois-poles rest on the ground, while the front ends are attached to
each side of a mule, which draws the travois. The _litter_ is better
adapted to a rough country. (See LITTER.) The ordinary teepe-poles with
which the Indians pitch their tents when in villages are also used in
constructing the travois. The Dakota and Montana Sioux, who use
mountain-pine or ash-poles, select straight, well-proportioned saplings
of those woods, trim them down to the proper size and taper, and lay
them aside to season. The dressed poles are about 30 feet long, 2 to
2¹⁄₂ inches at the butt, and 1¹⁄₂ inches at the other extremity. The
couch is oval, and the rim is made exclusively of ash, bent into the
desired shape when the wood is green. A net-work of rawhide is
afterwards lashed to the rim and completes the bed. The bed is 3¹⁄₂ to 4
feet in its transverse, and 2¹⁄₂ to 3 feet in its conjugate diameter.
Two or three of the teepe-poles are lashed together, butts to butts,
with rawhide, and then lashed to the pack-saddle on the mule, the small
ends of the poles trailing the ground. The bed with the longer diameter
is then laid transversely on the poles and lashed about 1 foot in rear
of the animal. A blanket, piece of canvas, or buffalo-robe lashed to the
lower half of the oval rim of the bed completes the outfit. This latter
travois is claimed by some officers of the army to be well adapted for
transporting wounded even over a rough country.

=Tread.= In fortification, the tread of a banquette is the upper and
flat surface on which the soldier stands whilst firing over the parapet.

=Treason.= A general appellation to denote not only offenses against the
king and government, but also that accumulation of guilt which arises
whenever a superior reposes confidence in a subject or inferior, between
whom and himself there subsists a natural, a civil, or even a spiritual
relation; and the inferior so abuses that confidence, so forgets the
obligations of duty, subjection, and allegiance, as to destroy the life
of any such superior or lord. It is, according to English law, a general
name, in short, for treachery against the sovereign or liege lord. High
treason (the _crimen læsæ majestatis_ of the Romans) is an offense
committed against the security of the king or kingdom, whether by
imagination, word, or deed. In the United States, treason is confined to
the actual levying of war against the United States; or an adhering to
their enemies, giving them aid and comfort.

=Treaty.= An agreement, league, or contract, between two or more nations
or sovereigns, formally signed by commissioners properly authorized, and
solemnly ratified by the several sovereigns or the supreme power of each
state; an agreement between two or more independent states.

_A treaty of guaranty_ is an engagement by which one state promises to
aid another when it is disturbed, or threatened to be disturbed, in the
peaceable enjoyments of its rights by a third power. Treaties of
alliance may be offensive or defensive; in the former the ally engages
generally to co-operate in hostilities against a specified power, or
against any power with which the other may be at war; in the latter, the
engagements of the ally extend only to a war of aggression commenced
against the other contracting party. The execution of a treaty is
occasionally secured by hostages; as at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in
1748, when several peers were sent to Paris as hostages for the
restoration of Cape Breton by Great Britain to France. For celebrated
treaties, see appropriate headings in this work.

=Trebbia.= A small but famous stream of Northern Italy, which joins the
Po 2 miles west of Piacenza. On its banks Hannibal decisively defeated
the Roman consul Sempronius, 218 B.C.; the French were also defeated
here by Suwarrow in 1799.

=Trebuchet=, or =Trebucket=. A machine used in the Middle Ages for
throwing stones, etc., acting by means of a great weight fastened to the
short arm of a lever, which, being let fall, raised the end of the long
arm with great velocity, and hurled stones with much force.

=Trefle= (_Trefoil_). A term used in mining, from the similarity of the
figure to trefoil. The simple trefle has only two lodgments; the double
trefle, four; and the triple one, six.

=Trefoil.= In heraldry, is a frequent charge, representing the
clover-leaf, and is always depicted as _slipped_,--_i.e._, furnished
with a stalk.

=Trench-cavalier.= In fortification, an elevation constructed, by a
besieger, of gabions, fascines, earth, and the like, about half-way up
the glacis, in order to discover and enfilade the covert way.

=Trenches.= The communications, boyaux, or zigzags, as well as the
parallels or places of arms opened by besiegers against a fortification
are trenches. They are from 6 to 10 feet wide and about 3 feet deep.
(See PARALLELS, and SIEGE.) _To mount the trenches_, is to mount guard
in the trenches, which is generally done in the night. _To relieve the
trenches_, is to relieve the guard of the trenches. _To scour the
trenches_, is to make a vigorous sally upon the guard of the trenches,
force them to give way, and quit their ground, drive away the workmen,
break down the parapet, till up the trenches, and spike their cannon.

=Trenches, Opening of.= See OPENING OF TRENCHES.

=Trench-shelter.= A trench hastily thrown up to give cover to troops on
a field of battle. It is always 1 foot 3 inches deep, and the parapet is
from 1¹⁄₄ to 1¹⁄₂ feet high. A trench 2 feet broad can be made in from
10 to 20 minutes; one 4 feet wide in from 20 to 40 minutes; and one 7
feet broad in from 30 to 60 minutes. There are also small trenches in
rear for the supernumeraries.

=Trenton.= The capital city of the State of New Jersey, on the left bank
of the Delaware River, at the confluence of Assunpink Creek. In the war
of the Revolution, Trenton was the scene of a night attack by
Washington upon the British troops--chiefly Hessians--whom he surprised
by crossing the Delaware, when the floating ice was supposed to have
rendered it impassable, on the night of December 25 and morning of the
26th, 1776.

=Trepied.= In ancient times, a ballista was so called when supported on
three legs.

=Tressure.= In heraldry, a subordinary, generally said to be half the
breadth of the orle, and usually borne double, and flowered and
counterflowered with fleurs-de-lis. It forms part of the royal insignia
of Scotland. The tressure is held in great honor in Scottish heraldry.

=Trestles.= A trestle is composed of a cap about 15 feet by 9 inches by
9 inches, of four legs, of two upper and two lower traverses, and of
four braces. The cap is notched 18 inches from the end, to receive the
legs; the notch is 5 inches wide and 1 deep. The legs should be from 5
to 6 inches square; a shoulder is made to tit the notch in the cap; the
spread is quarter the height. The inclination in the other direction
about one-sixteenth. The leg is spiked, pinned, or bolted to the cap.
The lower traverse is 5 inches by 1¹⁄₂ inches, and is dovetailed into
the legs at about one-quarter their height from the ground. The upper
traverse, which is nailed on the outside of the legs and against the
cap, is 6 inches wide and 1¹⁄₂ inches thick. The braces are 4 inches
wide by 1¹⁄₂ inches thick, and are spiked to the cap and legs. When
trestles are to be placed on a soft bottom, a flat sill may be spiked
under the legs of each side.

_Trestle Bridge._--When the water is less than 4 feet deep, the trestles
may be carried to their places by men wading in the stream; an abutment
is formed as for an ordinary bridge; the trestles are placed with their
caps parallel to the abutment sill and about 13 feet apart. When the
water is too deep or too cold to allow this method to be pursued, the
bridge may be constructed as follows:

The abutment sill being placed, the first trestle can usually be placed
by hand; the balks are laid and covered with chesses to within 1 foot of
the trestle, a roller is laid on the bridge; on this are laid two beams,
from 30 to 40 feet long and 6 or 7 inches square. The trestle is placed
upright, with its cap resting on these beams, to which it is firmly
lashed. The pontoniers bear down on the other ends of the beams, at the
same time pushing until the trestle is rolled out to the proper
distance; then they suddenly release the beams, dropping the trestle
into its place. The flooring balks are slid out on the two beams,
adjusted, and covered with chesses.

When a boat or raft can be procured, the trestles are placed with much
less labor. The boat is brought alongside the last trestle placed; two
balks are laid from the bridge, resting on a saddle, or the outer
gunwale of the boat; the side of the trestle-cap is laid on the balks,
the legs extending over the outer gunwale of the boat. The boat is
pushed off by means of the balks until it arrives at the proper position
for placing the trestle, which is then righted. If it has not good
bearing on the bottom, it is hauled into the boat and the legs are cut
to the proper length.

The bridge may be entirely built of round timber. The caps should be
from 10 to 12 inches in diameter, the legs at least 6 inches, the balks
7 or 8 inches, and faced on the lower side where they rest on the
trestles, so as to bring their upper surfaces on the same plane. The
covering may be of strong hurdles.

=Treves=, or =Trier= (anc. _Augusta Trevirorum_). A town of Rhenish
Prussia, on the right bank of the Moselle, 65 miles southwest from
Coblentz. Treves derives its name from the _Treviri_, or _Treveri_
(which see). Their capital, _Augusta Trevirorum_, became a Roman colony
in the time of Augustus, and ultimately became the headquarters of the
Roman commanders on the Rhine, and a frequent residence of the emperors.
Under the Franks, into whose hands it fell in 463, it continued to
flourish. In 843 it passed to Lorraine; in 870 to Germany; in 895 back
to Lorraine, and finally was united to Germany by the emperor Henry I.
Since 1814, Treves has belonged to Prussia.

=Treviri=, or =Treveri=. A powerful people in Gallia Belgica, who were
faithful allies of the Romans, and whose cavalry was the best in all
Gaul.

=Treviso.= A fortified town of Italy, in Venice, 17 miles northwest from
Venice. Treviso, the ancient _Trevisium_, was a free town under the
Romans; and after the fall of the empire was conquered in turn by the
Huns, Ostrogoths, and Lombards. Thereafter it was for a time
independent, and at length, in 1344, voluntarily submitted itself to the
republic of Venice.

=Tria Juncta in Uno= (three joined in one). The motto of the knights of
the military order of the Bath, signifying “faith, hope, and charity.”

=Trial.= The formal examination of the matter in issue in a cause before
a competent tribunal; the mode of determining a question of fact in a
court of law; the examination, in legal form, of the facts in issue in a
cause pending before a competent tribunal, for the purpose of
determining such issue. Military trials shall be carried on only between
the hours of eight in the morning and three in the afternoon, except in
cases which, in the opinion of the officer ordering the court, require
immediate example (Art. 94). No officer, non-commissioned officer, or
soldier shall be tried a second time for the same offense (Art. 102);
and no person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general
court-martial for any offense which shall appear to have been committed
more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial,
unless the person, by reason of having absented himself, or some other
manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that
period (Art. 103). All trials before courts-martial, like those in civil
courts, are conducted publicly; and in order that this publicity may in
no case be attended with tumult or indecorum of any kind, the court is
authorized, by the Rules and Articles of War, to punish, at its
discretion, all riotous and disorderly proceedings or menacing words,
signs, or gestures, used in its presence (Art. 86). The day and place of
meeting of a general court-martial having been published in orders, the
officers appointed as members, and parties and witnesses, must attend
accordingly. The judge-advocate, at the opening, calls over the names of
the members, who arrange themselves on the right or left of the
president, according to rank. The members of the court having taken
their seats and disposed of any preliminary matter, the prisoner,
prosecutor, and witnesses are called into court. The prisoner is
attended by a guard, or by an officer, as his rank or the nature of the
charge may dictate; but during the trial should be unfettered and free
from any bonds or shackles, unless there be danger of escape or rescue.
Accommodation is usually afforded at detached tables for the prosecutor
and prisoner; also for any friend or legal adviser of the prisoner or
prosecutor, whose assistance has been desired during the trial; but the
prisoner only can address the court, it being an admitted maxim, that
counsel are not to interfere in the proceedings, or to offer the
slightest remark, much less to plead or argue. The judge-advocate, by
direction of the president, first reads, in an audible voice, the order
for holding the court. He then calls over the names of the members,
commencing with the president, who is always the highest in rank. He
then demands of the prisoner whether he has any exception or cause of
challenge against any of the members present, and if he have, he is
required to state his cause of challenge, confining his challenge to one
member at a time (Art. 88). After hearing the prisoner’s objections, the
president must order the court to be cleared, when the members will
deliberate on and determine the relevancy or validity of the objection;
the member challenged retiring during the discussion. When the prisoner
and prosecutor decline to challenge any of the members, or where the
causes of challenge have been disallowed, the judge-advocate proceeds to
administer to the members of the court the oath prescribed by the 84th
Article of War. The oath is taken by each member holding up his right
hand and repeating the words after the judge-advocate. After the oath
has been administered to all the members, the president administers to
the judge-advocate the particular oath of secrecy to be observed by
him, as prescribed by the 85th Article of War. No sentence of a general
court-martial is complete or final until it has been duly approved.
Until that period it is, strictly speaking, no more than an opinion,
which is subject to alteration or revisal. In this interval, the
communication of that opinion could answer no ends of justice, but
might, in many cases, tend to frustrate them. The obligation to
perpetual secrecy, with regard to the votes or opinions of the
particular members of the court, is likewise founded on the
wisest policy. The officers who compose a military tribunal are,
in a great degree, dependent for their preferment on the President.
They are even, in some measure, under the influence of their
commander-in-chief,--considerations which might impair justice. This
danger is, therefore, best obviated by the confidence and security which
every member possesses, that his particular opinion is never to be
divulged. Another reason is, that the individual members of the court
may not be exposed to the resentment of parties and their connections,
which can hardly fail to be excited by these sentences which
courts-martial are obliged to award. It may be necessary for officers,
in the course of their duty, daily, to associate and frequently to be
sent on the same command or service, with a person against whom they
have given an unfavorable vote or opinion on a court-martial. The
publicity of these votes or opinions would create the most dangerous
animosities, equally fatal to the peace and security of individuals, and
prejudicial to the public service. The court being regularly
constituted, and every preliminary form gone through, the
judge-advocate, as prosecutor for the United States, desires the
prisoner to listen to the charge or charges brought against him, which
he reads with an audible voice, and then the prisoner is asked whether
he is guilty or not guilty of the matter of accusation. The charge being
sufficient, or not objected to, the prisoner must plead either: (1st)
Guilty; or (2d) Specially to the jurisdiction, or in bar; or (3d) The
general plea of _not guilty_, which is the usual course where the
prisoner makes a defense. If from obstinacy and design the prisoner
stands mute, or answer foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to
trial and judgment, as if the prisoner had regularly pleaded _not
guilty_ (Art. 89); but if the prisoner plead _guilty_, the court will
proceed to determine what punishment shall be awarded, and to pronounce
sentence thereon. Preparatory to this, in all cases where the punishment
of the offense charged is discretionary, and especially where the
discretion includes a wide range and great variety of punishment, and
the specifications do not show all the circumstances attending the
offense, the court should receive and report, in its proceedings, any
evidence the judge-advocate may offer, for the purpose of illustrating
the actual character of the offense, notwithstanding the party accused
may have pleaded guilty; such evidence being necessary to an enlightened
exercise of the discretion of the court, in measuring the punishment, as
well as for the approving authority. If there be any exception to this
rule, it is where the specification is so full and precise as to
disclose all the circumstances of mitigation or aggravation which
accompany the offense. When that is the case, or when the punishment is
fixed, and no discretion is allowed, explanatory testimony cannot be
needed. Special pleas are either to the jurisdiction of the court or in
bar of the charge. If an officer or soldier be arraigned by a court not
legally constituted, either as to the authority by which it is
assembled, or as to the number and rank of its members, or other similar
causes, a prisoner may except to the jurisdiction of the court-martial.
Special pleas in bar go to the merits of the case, and set forth a
reason why, even admitting the charge to be true, it should be
dismissed, and the prisoner discharged. A former acquittal or conviction
of the same offense would obviously be a valid bar, except in case of
appeal from a regimental to a general court-martial. Though the facts in
issue should be charged to have happened more than two years prior to
the date of the order for the assembling of the court-martial, yet it is
not the province of the court, unless objection be made, to inquire into
the cause of the impediment in the outset. It would be to presume the
illegality of the court, whereas the court should assume that manifest
impediment to earlier trial did exist, and leave the facts to be
developed by witnesses in the ordinary course. A pardon may be pleaded
in bar. If full, it at once destroys the end and purpose of the charge,
by remitting that punishment which the prosecution seeks to inflict; if
conditional, the performance of the condition must be known; thus a
soldier arraigned for desertion, must plead a general pardon, and prove
that he surrendered himself within the stipulated period. No officer or
soldier, being acquitted or convicted of an offense, is liable to be
tried a second time for the same. But this provision applies solely to
trials for the same incidental act and crime, and to such persons as
have, in the first instance, been legally tried. If any irregularity
take place on the trial rendering it illegal and void, the prisoner must
be discharged, and be regarded as standing in the same situation as
before the commencement of these illegal proceedings. The same charge
may, therefore, be again preferred against the prisoner who cannot plead
the previous illegal trial in bar. A prisoner cannot plead in bar that
he has not been furnished with a copy of the charges, or that the copy
furnished him differed from that on which he had been arraigned. It is
customary and proper to furnish him with a correct copy, but the
omission shall not make void, though it may postpone the trial. If the
special plea in bar be such that, if true, the charge should be
dismissed and the prisoner discharged, the judge-advocate should be
called on to answer it. If he does not admit it to be true, the prisoner
must produce evidence to the points alleged therein; and if, on
deliberation, the plea be found true, the facts being recorded, the
court will adjourn and the president submit the proceedings to the
officer by whose order the court was convened, with a view to the
immediate discharge of the prisoner. The ordinary plea is _not guilty_,
in which case the trial proceeds. The judge-advocate cautions all
witnesses on the trial to withdraw, and to return to court only on being
called. He then proceeds to the examination of witnesses, and to the
reading and proof of any written evidence he may have to bring forward.
After a prisoner has been arraigned on specific charges, it is irregular
for a court-martial to admit any additional charge against him, even
though he may not have entered on his defense. The trial on the charges
first preferred must be regularly concluded, when, if necessary, the
prisoner may be tried on any further accusation brought against him. On
the trial of cases not capital, before courts-martial, the deposition of
witnesses not in the line or staff of the army may be taken before some
justice of the peace, and read in evidence, provided the prosecutor and
person accused are present at the same, or are duly notified thereof.
The examination of witnesses is invariably in the presence of the court;
because the countenance, looks, and gestures of a witness add to, or
take away from, the weight of his testimony. It is usually by
interrogation, sometimes by narration; in either case, the
judge-advocate records the evidence, as nearly as possible, in the
express words of the witness. All evidence, whatever, should be recorded
on the proceedings, in the order in which it is received by the court. A
question to a witness is registered before enunciation; when once
entered, it cannot be expunged, except by the consent of the parties
before the court; if not permitted to be put to the witness, it still
appears on the proceedings accompanied by the decision of the court. The
examination-in-chief of each particular witness being ended, the
cross-examination usually follows, though it is optional with the
prisoner to defer it to the final close of the examination-in-chief. The
re-examination by the prosecutor, on such new points as the prisoner may
have made, succeeds the cross-examination, and finally, the court puts
such questions as in its judgment may tend to elicit the truth. It is
customary, when deemed necessary by the court, or desired by a witness,
to read over to him, immediately before he leaves the court, the record
of his evidence, which he is desired to correct if erroneous, and, with
this view, any remark or explanation is entered upon the proceedings. No
erasure or obliteration is, however, admitted, as it is essentially
necessary that the authority which has to review the sentence should
have the most ample means of judging, not only of any discrepancy in the
statements of a witness, but of any incident which may be made the
subject of remark, by either party in addressing the court. Although a
list of witnesses, summoned by the judge-advocate, is furnished to the
court on assembling, it is not held imperative on the prosecutor to
examine such witnesses; if he should not do so, however, the prisoner
has a right to call any of them. Should the prisoner, having closed his
cross-examination, think proper subsequently to recall a prosecutor’s
witness in his defense, the examination is held to be in chief, and the
witness is subject to cross-examination by the prosecutor. Although
either party may have concluded his case, or the regular examination of
a witness, yet should a material question have been omitted, it is
usually submitted by the party to the president, for the consideration
of the court, which generally permits it to be put. The prisoner being
placed on his defense, may proceed at once to the examination of
witnesses: firstly, to meet the charge; and, secondly, to speak as to
character, reserving his address to the court until the conclusion of
such examination. The prisoner having finished the examination-in-chief
of each witness, the prosecution cross-examines; the prisoner
re-examines to the extent allowed to the prosecutor, that is, on such
new points as the cross-examination may have touched on, and the court
puts any questions deemed necessary. The prisoner having finally closed
his examination of witnesses, and selecting this period to address the
court, offers such statement or argument as he may deem conducive to
weaken the force of the prosecution, by placing his conduct in the most
favorable light, accounting for or palliating facts, confuting or
removing any imputation as to motives; answering the arguments of the
prosecutor, contrasting, comparing, and commenting on any contradictory
evidence; summing up the evidence on both sides where the result
promises to favor the defense, and finally, presenting his deductions
therefrom. The utmost liberty consistent with the interest of parties
not before the court and with the respect due to the court itself
should, at all times, be allowed a prisoner. As he has an undoubted
right to impeach, by evidence, the character of the witnesses brought
against him, so he is justified in contrasting and remarking on their
testimony, and on the motives by which they, or the prosecutor, may have
been influenced. All coarse and insulting language is, however, to be
avoided, nor ought invective to be indulged in, as the most pointed
evidence may be couched in the most decorous language. The court will
prevent the prisoner from adverting to parties not before the court, or
only alluded to in evidence, further than may be actually necessary to
his own exculpation. It may sometimes happen that the party accused may
find it absolutely necessary, in defense of himself, to throw blame and
even criminality on others, who are no parties to the trial; nor can a
prisoner be refused that liberty, which is essential to his own
justification. It is sufficient for the party aggrieved that the law can
furnish ample redress against all calumnious or unjust accusations. The
court is bound to hear whatever address, in his defense, the accused may
think fit to offer, not being in itself contemptuous or disrespectful.
It is competent to a court, if it think proper, to caution the prisoner
as he proceeds, that, in its opinion, such a line of defense as he may
be pursuing would probably not weigh with the court, nor operate in his
favor; but, to decide against hearing him state arguments, which,
notwithstanding such caution, he might persist in putting forward, as
grounds of justification, or extenuation (such arguments not being
illegal in themselves), is going beyond what any court would be
warranted in doing. It occasionally happens that, on presenting to the
court a written address, the prisoner is unequal to the task of reading
it, from indisposition or nervous excitement; on such occasions, the
judge-advocate is sometimes requested by the president to read it; but,
as the impression which might be anticipated to be made by it may, in
the judgment of the prisoner, be effected more or less by the manner of
its delivery, courts-martial generally feel disposed to concede to the
accused the indulgence of permitting it to be read by any friend named
by him, particularly if that friend be a military man, or if the
judge-advocate be the actual prosecutor. Courts-martial are particularly
guarded in adhering to the custom of resisting every attempt on the part
of counsel to address them. A lawyer is not recognized by a
court-martial, though his presence is tolerated, as a friend of the
prisoner, to assist him by advice in preparing questions for witnesses,
in taking notes and shaping his defense. The prisoner having closed his
defense, the prosecutor is entitled to reply, when witnesses have been
examined on the defense, or where new facts are opened in the address.
Thus, though no evidence may be brought forward by the prisoner, yet
should he advert to any case, and, by drawing a parallel, attempt to
draw his justification from it, the prosecutor will be permitted to
observe on the case so cited. When the court allows the prosecutor to
reply, it generally grants him a reasonable time to prepare it; and,
upon his reading it, the trial ceases. Should the prisoner have examined
witnesses to points not touched on in the prosecution, or should he have
entered on an examination impeaching the credibility of the prosecutor’s
evidence, the prosecutor is allowed to examine witnesses to the new
matter; the court being careful to confine him within the limits of this
rule, which extends to the re-establishing the character of his
witnesses, to impeaching those of the defense, and to rebutting the new
matter brought forward by the prisoner, supported by evidence. He cannot
be allowed to examine on any points which, in their nature, he might
have foreseen previously to the defense of the prisoner. The prosecutor
will not be permitted to bring forward evidence to rebut or counteract
the effect of matter elicited by his own cross-examination; but is
strictly confined to new matter introduced by the prisoner, and
supported by his examination-in-chief. A defense resting on motives, or
qualifying the imputation attaching to facts, generally lets in evidence
in reply; as, in such cases, the prisoner usually adverts, by evidence,
to matter which it would have been impossible for the prosecutor to
anticipate. The admissibility of evidence, in reply, may generally be
determined by the answer to the questions: Could the prosecutor have
foreseen this? Is it evidently new matter? Is the object of the further
inquiry to re-establish the character of the witnesses impeached by
evidence (not by declamation) in the course of the defense, or is it to
impeach the character of the prisoner’s witnesses? Cross-examination of
such new witnesses, to an extent limited by the examination-in-chief,
that is, confined to such points or matter as the prosecutor shall have
examined on, is allowed on the part of the prisoner.

=Triangles.= A wooden instrument consisting of three poles so fastened
at the top that they may spread at bottom in a triangular form, and by
means of spikes affixed to each pole, remain firm in the earth. An iron
bar, breast-high, goes across one side of the triangle. The triangles
were used in some regiments for the purpose of inflicting military
punishment when corporeal chastisement was much in vogue.

=Triarii.= In the Roman legions, consisted of veteran soldiers, who
formed the third line in the order of battle.

=Triballi.= A powerful people in Thrace, a branch of the Getæ dwelling
along the Danube, who were defeated by Alexander the Great in 335 B.C.,
and obliged to sue for peace.

=Tribune.= In Roman antiquity, an officer or magistrate chosen by the
people, to protect them from the oppression of the patricians or nobles,
and to defend their liberties against any attempts that might be made
upon them by the senate and consuls. The tribunes were at first two, but
their number was increased ultimately to ten. There were also military
tribunes, officers of the army, of whom there were from four to six in
each legion.

=Tribute.= An annual or stated sum of money or other valuable thing,
paid by one prince or nation to another, either as an acknowledgment of
submission, or as the price of peace and protection, or by virtue of
some treaty; as the Romans made their conquered countries pay tribute.

=Trichinopoly.= Capital of the district of the same name, of British
India; in the presidency of Madras. It is pretty strongly fortified by
walls about 2 miles in circuit, lofty, thick, and in some places double.
There is also a fort built on a sienite rock about 600 feet high. Two or
3 miles southwest of the town is a large cantonment, containing barracks
for a large number of troops. Trichinopoly was subject to a Hindoo rajah
until 1732, when the nabob of Arcot gained possession of it; and in 1741
he was in turn dispossessed by the Mahrattas. During the wars between
the French and English, the place was much contested; and in 1757, when
besieged by the former, it was relieved by the rapid march of an English
force under Capt. Calliaud.

=Trick.= A term used in heraldry to denote a mode of representing arms
by sketching them in outline, and appending letters to express the
tinctures, and sometimes numerals to indicate the repetition of changes.

=Trident.= In Roman antiquity, a three-pronged spear used in the
contests of gladiators by the retiarius.

=Triest=, or =Trieste= (anc. _Tergeste_, or _Tergestum_). The principal
seaport city of the Austrian empire, in Illyria, on the Gulf of Triest
at the northeast extremity of the Adriatic Sea, 73 miles east-northeast
of Venice. The ancient _Tergeste_ first received historical mention in
51 B.C., when it was overrun and plundered by neighboring tribes. It
owes its prosperity chiefly to the emperor Charles VI., who constituted
it a free port, and to Maria Theresa. In 1797 and in 1805, it was taken
by the French.

=Trigger.= A steel catch, which being pulled disengages the
cock of a gunlock, and causes the hammer to strike the nipple in
percussion-muskets, and the firing-pin in breech-loaders. The difference
between a hair and common trigger is this: the hair-trigger, when set,
lets off the cock at the slightest touch, whereas the common trigger
requires a greater degree of force, and consequently its operation is
retarded.

=Trim.= The chief town of the county of Meath, Ireland, on the Boyne, 27
miles northwest from Dublin. It was taken by Cromwell in 1649.

=Trincomalee.= A seaport town and magnificent harbor on the northeast
coast of Ceylon. It is a place of great antiquity; it was here that the
Malabar invaders of Ceylon built one of their most sacred shrines,--the
“Temple of a Thousand Columns,” which was demolished by the Portuguese,
who fortified the heights with the materials derived from its
destruction, 1622. It was next held by the Dutch; but in 1672, during
the rupture between Louis XIV. and the United Provinces, the French took
Trincomalee, which was abandoned by the Dutch in a panic. In 1782, the
French admiral Suffrein, in the absence of the British commander, took
possession of the fort, and the English garrison retired to Madras. It
was restored to the Dutch in the following year, and they retained it
till the capture of Ceylon by the British in 1795. It was finally ceded
to Great Britain, by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802.

=Trinidad.= An island belonging to Great Britain, and the most southerly
of the West India Islands. It is separated from the mainland (Venezuela)
by the Gulf of Paria. Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1498; and
first colonized by the Spaniards, in 1588. In 1676, the French possessed
it for a short time, but it was speedily restored to Spain; and in 1797,
it was captured by the British, who have retained it ever since.

=Trinobantes.= A British tribe, which occupied Middlesex and Essex, and
joined in opposing the invasion of Julius Cæsar, 54 B.C.; but they soon
came to terms with the Romans.

=Trinomalee.= A town and fortress of India, in the Carnatic, where Col.
Smith greatly distinguished himself against the united forces of Hyder
Ali and Nizam Ali, subahdars of the Deccan, with an army of 43,000 horse
and 28,000 foot; while the British commander had only 10,000 foot and
1000 horse. The result of this victory was that the Nizam detached
himself from Hyder, and in February, 1768, concluded a treaty with the
British.

=Triparted.= In heraldry, parted in three pieces; having three parts or
pieces; as, a cross triparted.

=Tripartite.= Being of three parts, or three parties being concerned;
hence, tripartite alliance, or treaty.

=Triple Alliance.= The name by which two different treaties are known in
history, viz.: (1) A treaty concluded in 1668 at the Hague, between
England, Holland, and Sweden, having for its object the protection of
the Spanish Netherlands, and the checking of the conquests of Louis XIV.
(2) An alliance concluded in 1717 between Britain, France, and Holland,
against Spain, which included among its stipulations that the Pretender
should quit France, and that the treaty of Utrecht should be carried
into effect as regards the demolition of Dunkirk. The Protestant
succession was guaranteed by this treaty in England, and that of the
Duke of Orleans in France.

=Tripoli=, or =Tripolis= (in its modern Arabic form, _Tarabulus_). A
seaport and one of the chief commercial towns of Syria, near the coast
of the Mediterranean, on both sides of the river Kadisha. On the left
side stands the castle built by Count Raymond of Toulouse, in the 12th
century, when the city was taken by the Crusaders. It was conquered by
the Egyptians in 1832; restored to the Porte, 1835, and it surrendered
to the British in 1841.

=Tripoli.= A regency of the Ottoman empire, and the most easterly of the
Barbary States, North Africa. The governor-general has the title, rank,
and authority of a pasha of the Ottoman empire. The military force of
the country consists of a body of Turkish soldiers, some 10,000 in
number, whose business is to keep down insurrections, but who were
formerly wont to vary it by creating them. In ancient times, Tripoli
seems to have been tributary to the Cyrenæans, from whom, however, it
was wrested by the Carthaginians. It next passed to the Romans. Like the
rest of Northern Africa, it was conquered by the Arabs, and the feeble
Christianity of the natives was supplanted by a vigorous and fanatical
Mohammedanism. In 1552 (1551), the Turks got possession of it, and have
ever since been the rulers of the country, though the authority of the
sultan, up till 1835, had been virtually at zero for more than a
century. In that year, however, an expedition was dispatched from
Constantinople; the ruling dey, Karamanli, was overthrown and
imprisoned; a new Turkish pasha, with viceregal powers, was appointed,
and the state made an eyalet of the Ottoman empire. Several rebellions
have since taken place (notably in 1842 and 1844), but they have always
been suppressed.

=Tripolitza= (“three cities”). A town of Greece under the Turkish rule,
39 miles southwest from Corinth. In 1821 it was stormed by the Greek
insurgents; and in 1828 razed to the ground by the troops of Ibrahim
Pasha; it has since, however, been rebuilt.

=Tripping.= In heraldry, having the right fore foot lifted, the others
remaining on the ground, as if he were trotting;--said of an animal, as
a hart, buck, and the like, represented in an escutcheon.

=Triumph= (Lat. _triumphus_). Was the name given in ancient Rome to the
public honor bestowed on a general who had been successful in war. It
consisted in a solemn procession along the _Via Sacra_ up to the
Capitol, where sacrifice was offered Jupiter. The victor sat in a
chariot, drawn by four horses,--his captives marching before, his troops
following behind. Certain conditions had to be fulfilled before a
triumph could be enjoyed, and it was the business of the senate to see
that these were enforced. Under the empire, generals serving abroad were
considered to be the emperor’s lieutenants, and therefore, however
successful in their wars, they had no claim to a triumph. They received
instead _triumphal decorations_, and other rewards. The oration, or
lesser triumph, differs from the greater chiefly in these respects; that
the imperator entered the city on foot, clad in the simple _toga
prætexta_ of a magistrate, that he bore no sceptre, was not preceded by
the senate and a flourish of trumpets, nor followed by victorious
troops, but only by the equites and the populace, and that the
ceremonies were concluded by the sacrifice of a sheep instead of a bull.
The _ovation_, it is scarcely necessary to add, was granted when the
success, though considerable, did not fulfill the conditions specified
for a triumph.

=Triumph.= To obtain victory; to meet with success.

=Triumphal.= Of or pertaining to triumph; used in triumph; indicating,
or in honor of, a triumph or victory; as, a triumphal crown; a triumphal
arch.

=Triumphal Column.= See COLUMN, TRIUMPHAL.

=Triumphal Crown.= See CROWN, TRIUMPHAL.

=Triumphant.= Celebrating victory; expressive of joy for success; as, a
triumphant song.

=Triumpher.= One who was honored with a triumph in ancient Rome. One who
triumphs or rejoices for victory; one who vanquishes.

=Trojæ Ludus.= Among the Romans was a species of mock fight, similar to
the tournaments of the Middle Ages, performed by young noblemen on
horseback, who were furnished with arms suitable to their age.

=Trojan War.= In classical history, a celebrated epoch, which occurred
nearly thirteen centuries before the Christian era, and which has formed
the subject of the two finest poems in the world,--Homer’s “Iliad” and
Virgil’s “Æneid.” This war was undertaken by the states of Greece to
recover Helen, whom Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, had carried
away from the house of Menelaus. (See TROY.)

=Tromblon.= A fire-arm which was formerly fired from a rest, and from
which several balls and slugs were discharged. An ancient wall-piece.

=Trombone.= Formerly a species of blunderbuss for boat-service, taking
its name from its unseemly trumpet mouth.

=Troop.= A company of cavalry. It is the same, with respect to
formation, as a company in the infantry.

=Troop Corporal-Major.= The chief non-commissioned officer of a troop in
the British Household Cavalry.

=Troop Sergeant-Major.= In the British service, is the chief sergeant of
a troop.

=Trooper.= A private or soldier in a body of cavalry; a horse-soldier.

=Trooping the Colors.= Is a ceremony performed in the British service,
at the public mounting of garrison guards.

=Troop-ship.= A merchant ship “taken up,” as it is called, for the
conveyance of soldiers by sea.

=Trophy.= Was a memorial of victory erected on the spot where the enemy
had turned to flight. Among the Greeks (with the exception of the
Macedonians, who erected no trophies) one or two shields and helmets of
the routed enemy placed upon the trunk of a tree served as the sign and
memorial of victory. After a sea-fight the trophy consisted of the beaks
and stern-ornaments of the captured vessels, set up on the nearest
coast. It was considered wrong to destroy such a trophy, and equally
wrong to repair it when it had fallen down through time, for animosity
ought not to be perpetual. In early times the Romans never erected
trophies on the field, but decorated the buildings at Rome with the
spoils of the vanquished. In later times pillars and triumphal arches
were employed to commemorate victories. Besides these, in modern times,
the humiliation of an enemy is rendered lasting by such devices as the
bridge of Jena, of Waterloo, and by the distribution of captured cannon.
Morally considered, this practice is no improvement upon the simple and
perishable trophies of the ancient Greeks.

=Trophy-money.= Was certain money formerly raised in the several
counties of the kingdom of Great Britain, towards providing harness and
maintaining the militia.

=Trossulum= (now _Trusso_). A town in Etruria, 9 miles from Volsinii,
which is said to have been taken by some Roman equites without the aid
of foot-soldiers; whence the Roman equites obtained the name of
Trossuli. Some writers identify this town with Troilium, which was taken
by the Romans 293 B.C.; but they appear to have been different places.

=Trou de Loup= (Wolf-hole). In field fortification, is a round hole,
about 6 feet deep, and pointed at the bottom, like an inverted cone,
with a stake placed in the middle. _Trous de loup_ are frequently dug
round a redoubt to obstruct the enemy’s approach. They are circular at
the top, of about 4¹⁄₂ feet in diameter.

=Trou de Rat= (_Fr._). Literally, a rat-hole, or rat-catch;
figuratively, any disadvantageous position into which troops are rashly
driven.

=Trowel Bayonet.= So called from its shape. A bayonet intended to serve
also as an intrenching tool; invented by Lieut. Rice, 5th U. S.
Infantry. It is used by part of the U. S. troops at the present time
(1880).

=Troy.= The earliest traditions of the Greek people represent the
country on both sides of the Ægean as peopled by various races, either
of genuine Hellenic, or of closely affiliated tribes. Among those who
peopled the eastern Asiatic coast were the Trojans. The story of the
Trojan war is extremely simple. The Trojans, in the person of Paris, or
Alexander, the son of the reigning monarch, Priam, are represented as
having had certain dealings with the Achæans, or Greeks of the
Peloponnesus, in the course of which the gay young prince carries off
from the palace of Menelaus, king of Sparta, his spouse Helen, the
greatest beauty of her age. To revenge this insult, the Greeks banded
themselves together and sailed against Troy with a large fleet. The most
notable of the tribes who took part in this expedition were the Argives,
or Achæans, the Spartans, the Bœotians, and the Thessalians. Of the
Thessalians, the most prominent captain was Achilles; and the general
command of the whole expedition was committed to Agamemnon, king of
Mycenæ. This well-appointed European army is represented as having spent
nine years in besieging the god-built walls of the city of Priam
without making any impression on its strength. A violent quarrel between
Achilles and Agamemnon, breaking out in the tenth year, so weakened the
invading force that the Trojans, under Hector, pushed the Greeks back to
the very verge of the sea, and almost set their ships on fire. At the
critical moment, however, the Thessalian captain was reconciled to the
head of the expedition; and with his return to the field the fortune of
war changed; Hector, the champion of Troy, fell, and the impending doom
of the city was darkly foreshadowed; it was finally captured and sacked,
1184 B.C. (the date generally accepted).

=Troyes.= A town of France, capital of the department of Aube, on the
left bank of the Seine. It occupies the site of the ancient Augustobono,
the chief town of the Tricasses. It suffered severely in the civil wars
of the 15th century, and was taken by Joan of Arc in 1429. A treaty was
concluded here between England, France, and Burgundy, May 21, 1420,
whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter
of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of
Charles should inherit the crown. Troyes was taken by the allied armies
February 7; retaken by Napoleon February 23; and again taken by the
allies March 4, 1814.

=Truce.= An agreement between belligerent parties, by which they
mutually engage to forbear all acts of hostility against each other for
some time, the war still continuing. Truces are of several kinds:
_general_, extending to all the territories and dominions of both
parties; and _particularly_, restrained to particular places; as, for
example, by sea, and not by land. They are also _absolute_,
_indeterminate_, and _general_; or _limited and determined_ to certain
things, for example, to bury the dead. During a truce, it is
dishonorable to occupy more advanced ground, or to resort to any act
which would confer advantage. A truce requires ordinarily to be
confirmed by the commander-in-chief to become binding. It is lawful to
break it before the prescribed period, on notice previously agreed on
being given to the opposite party. This is called denouncing a truce.

=Truce, Flag of.= See FLAG OF TRUCE.

=Truce of God.= A suspension of arms, which occasionally took place in
the Middle Ages, putting a stop to private hostilities, at or within
certain periods.

=Truck.= Wooden-wheels for the carriage of cannon, etc. The trucks of
garrison-carriages are generally made of cast iron. Trucks of a
ship-carriage are wheels made of one piece of wood, from 12 to 19 inches
in diameter, and their thickness is always equal to the caliber of the
gun.

=Truck, Casemate.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Trumpet=, or =Trump=. A wind instrument, made of brass or silver, used
in the cavalry and mounted artillery.

=Trumpet-call.= A call by the sound of the trumpet.

=Trumpeter.= A soldier whose duty it is to sound the trumpet.

=Trumpet-Major.= The non-commissioned officer in charge of the
trumpeters of a regiment of cavalry.

=Truncheon.= A club; a cudgel; also, a staff of command. The truncheon
was for several ages the sign of office. Generals were presented with
the truncheon as the sign of investiture with command; and all those
officers who belonged to the suite of the general, and were not attached
to regiments, carried a truncheon, or staff, whence the name of officers
of the staff.

=Trunnion-gauge.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Trunnion-plate.= In gunnery, is a plate in the carriage of a gun,
mortar, or howitzer, which covers the upper part of the cheek, and goes
under the trunnion.

=Trunnions.= In gunnery, are two cylinders at or near the centre of
gravity of a gun, by which it is supported on its carriage. The axes are
in a line perpendicular to the axis of the bore, and, in our guns, in
the same plane with that axis. By means of the trunnions the piece is
attached to its carriage; and by being placed at or near the centre of
gravity, it is easily elevated or depressed.

=Trunnion-square.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Truxillo.= A town of the republic of Venezuela, capital of a province
of the same name. Though now a poor, mean place, it is said to have
been, previously to 1678, when it was pillaged by the buccaneer
Grammont, one of the finest and wealthiest cities of America.

=Tubantes.= A people of Germany, allies of the Cherusci, originally
dwelt between the Rhine and the Yssel. They are subsequently mentioned
as a part of the great league of the Franci.

=Tube-pouch.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Tuberated.= In heraldry, knotted or swelled out.

=Tuck.= A long, narrow sword.

=Tudela= (anc. _Tutella_). A city of Spain, province of Navarre, on the
right bank of the Ebro, 52 miles northwest from Saragossa. Here the
French under Marshal Lannes totally defeated the Spaniards, on November
23, 1808.

=Tugenbund= (“League of Virtue”). This league was formed in Prussia soon
after the peace of Tilsit, June, 1807, for relieving the sufferers by
the late wars, and for the revival of morality and patriotism, gradually
became a formidable secret political society, opposed to the French
predominance in Germany. It excited the jealousy of Napoleon, who
demanded its suppression in 1809. It was dissolved at the peace in 1815.

=Tuileries, Palace and Gardens of the.= Are situated in the middle of
Paris, on the right bank of the Seine. In 1793, the National Convention
held its sittings in the Tuileries; and when Bonaparte became First
Consul, he chose it for his official residence. It was the imperial
residence of Napoleon III.; but was burned down by the Commune in 1871.

=Tulwar.= In the East Indies means a sword.

=Tumbril.= A covered cart on two wheels, for the carriage of ammunition,
tools, etc., belonging to the artillery. The name obtained a melancholy
celebrity from being applied to the carts which served to carry the
unfortunate victims of the French revolution to the guillotine.

=Tunic.= A close-fitting coat, with short sleeves, worn in ancient times
by the Romans. This sort of clothing was prevalent among the French
after their return from the Crusades to the Holy Land. They adopted it
from the Saracens, and seemed ambitious of appearing in a garb which
bore testimony to their feats of valor. These tunics, which were
converted into a sort of uniform, obtained the name of _saladines_ among
the French, in compliment to the emperor Saladin.

=Tunis.= One of the Barbary States forming a considerable territory or
regency of the Ottoman empire, in Northern Africa. Its history is nearly
identical with the city of the same name (which see).

=Tunis.= A fortified city of Africa, and the capital of the country of
that name, at the mouth of the Mejerdah, 400 miles east by north from
Algiers. Tunis is situated about 3 miles to the southwest of the ruins
of ancient Carthage, and it is itself a place of great antiquity. During
the Punic wars it was repeatedly taken and retaken. In 439 it fell into
the hands of the Vandals, but having been wrested from them about a
century thereafter by Belisarius, it continued to be subject to the
Greek empire till the end of the 7th century, when Northern Africa was
overrun by the victorious armies of the Saracens and became a dependency
of the caliphs of Bagdad. In 1286 Tunis became an absolute sovereignty
under Aboo-Ferez, who soon added the greater part of Algiers and
Tripoli. About this time it became notorious for its piracies, and in
1270, Louis IX. of France, in a chivalrous attempt to suppress them,
lost both his army and his life. It remained under African kings till
taken by Barbarossa, for Solyman the Magnificent. It was taken with
great slaughter, and Barbarossa expelled, by the emperor Charles V.,
when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The country was
subjugated by the Turks (1574), who at first governed it by a Turkish
pasha and divan, with a body of Janissaries sent from Constantinople,
but were ultimately obliged to allow the Moors to elect their own bey,
only reserving to themselves the power of confirming the election and
exacting a tribute. The piracies of the Tunisians subjected them to
severe chastisement, first from the British under Admiral Blake, who
reduced it, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British captives,
1655; and afterwards from France and Holland. During the 18th century it
became tributary to Algiers. About the beginning of the 19th century,
Hamuda Pasha threw off the Algerian yoke, subdued the Turkish militia,
and created a native Tunisian army; in consequence of which Tunis
virtually attained independence. An insurrection broke out April
18,1864, and in May, the European powers sent ships of war to protect
their subjects.

=Turin.= A large city of Italy, capital of Piedmont, at the confluence
of the Dora-Susina with the Po, 79 miles west-southwest from Milan. The
foundation of Turin is generally attributed to a colony of Transalpine
origin called Taurini, or Taurisci. Shortly after Hannibal crossed the
Alps, he made himself master of the territory in which it is situated;
but after his expulsion from Italy, the Romans resumed possession and
converted Turin into a colony, which took the name of _Colonia Julia_.
This name was afterwards changed into that of _Augusta Taurinorum_. It
was taken and sacked by the Goths under Alaric. To ward off similar
disasters, it was shortly after surrounded by walls, but did not escape
the ravages of the Longobards. Charlemagne, into whose hands it
subsequently passed, bestowed it as feudal tenure on its bishops. In
1418 (1416) it was declared by Amadeo V. the capital of the states of
Savoy, and ultimately rose to be the capital of the whole Sardinian
states. The French besieged this city; but Prince Eugène defeated their
army, and compelled them to raise the siege, September 7, 1706. In 1798,
the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the
strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his
family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799 the French were
driven out by the Austrians and Russians; but shortly afterwards the
city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was
delivered up to the allies, who restored it to the king of Sardinia.

=Turkey.= Or the Ottoman empire, called by the Turks _Osmanli Vilayeti_,
includes large portions of the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa,
and consists of Turkey Proper, which is under the direct rule of the
sultan, and of numerous dependent and tributary states, governed by
their own princes. The existing Turkish empire dates only from the end
of the 13th century, when it was founded by Osman, or Othman, a Turk of
noble family, who had been driven westward from Khorasan by the invasion
of Genghis Khan. Osman first invaded the Greek territory of Nicomedia on
July 27, 1299; but the true era of the empire may be dated from the
conquest of the city of Prusa, the capital of Bithynia, which
surrendered to his son Orchan in 1326. Murad I. (Amurath) subdued,
without resistance, the whole of Thrace from the Hellespont to Mount
Hæmus, and made Adrianople the seat of vice-royalty. Murad was succeeded
by his son Bajazet (Byazid), whose reign forms one of the most splendid
epochs in the Turkish annals. His armies were victorious in every
country that he undertook to conquer, until at last he encountered the
famous Mogul chief, Tamerlane, who defeated the Turkish army and took
Bajazet captive. After the death of Tamerlane, Solyman, the son of
Bajazet, obtained the European dominions of his father and eventually
assumed the title of sultan. At his death in 1421 he bequeathed an
undivided empire to his successor, Amurath II., in whose reign the
Turkish empire rose in splendor and opulence. He enlarged the empire by
conquests, and was succeeded in 1451 by Mohammed II., the conqueror of
Constantinople. Mohammed laid siege to Belgrade, three years after the
taking of Constantinople, from which, after an obstinate resistance, he
was at length repulsed with the loss of his large ordnance and 40,000 of
his best troops. Abandoning his attempts upon Hungary, the sultan
undertook an expedition into Greece, and about 1460 succeeded in
subduing the whole of the Morea. Mohammed continued to overrun Europe
with his victorious armies, until death stopped his triumphant career in
1481. A series of domestic broils continued to take place until Selim
ascended the throne in 1512. He was a successful prince, and during his
short reign conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, and
Gaza, and defeated the Persians. On the death of Selim, Solyman the
Magnificent ascended the Ottoman throne, and like several of the
preceding monarchs he continued to humiliate his enemies and add new
territory to his dominions. His dominions extended from Algiers to the
river Euphrates, and from the farther end of the Black Sea to the
extremity of Greece and Epirus. The latter years of his reign were
embittered by domestic dissensions and cruelties. He died while
besieging Sigeth, a city of Hungary, in 1566. His son and successor,
Selim II., besieged and took Cyprus; but in the famous sea-fight at
Lepanto, in 1571, the Turkish fleet was utterly destroyed by Don John of
Austria. Selim afterwards invested and took Tunis by storm. On his death
Amurath III. ascended the throne, and extended his dominions. His son,
Mohammed III., ascended the throne in 1595, but he was involved in a
series of wars which proved disastrous to the Turkish arms, and the
country continued to decline, although each successive monarch continued
to wage war with the neighboring provinces, which nearly always ended
disastrously to the Turkish arms; the country was also torn asunder by
internal strife. The downward course of Turkey was for a time stayed by
Mustapha II., who succeeded to the throne in 1695; he commanded his
troops in person, and passed the Danube at the head of 50,000 men,
carried Lippa by assault, and closed a campaign against the Austrians
with success. But two years afterwards he was defeated by Prince Eugène,
in the bloody battle of Zenta, where the Turks left 20,000 dead on the
field, and 10,000 were drowned in their attempt to escape. Shortly after
this disaster Mustapha was dethroned. During the reign of Mustapha III.,
in 1769, a destructive war broke out with Russia which lasted till 1774,
when the Turks were compelled to make the dishonorable treaty of
Kainargi. Another disastrous war broke out between Russia and Turkey in
the autumn of 1787, in which Austria took sides with the former. This
war, which was concluded in 1792, was a series of terrible conflicts, in
which much desperate valor was displayed on the one side, and many brave
actions were performed on the other; but in which Turkey lost much
territory. Turkey was drawn into the French revolutionary war by the
invasion of Egypt by the French, and in 1807 she was convulsed by a
sanguinary insurrection, which cost Selim his throne, and raised Mahmoud
to it. During the event of this insurrection, a war which had been going
on with Russia had languished; but on the accession of Mahmoud, the
armies on both sides were augmented, and the contest was carried on with
great ferocity. The campaign of 1811 was short, but disastrous to the
Porte, the main body of the Ottoman army having surrendered as prisoners
of war. In 1821 began that celebrated insurrection which, after a bloody
war of eight years, terminated in the complete emancipation of the
Greeks from the Turkish yoke. In 1828 war again broke out between Turkey
and Russia. The first campaign was unfavorable to Turkey, but not
completely decisive; it ended with the loss of Varna; but, in 1829, the
Russians having crossed the Balkans, a treaty of peace was concluded,
which was both humiliating and injurious. Shortly after occurred that
rupture between the sultan and Mehemet Ali, the pasha of Egypt, which
shook the Ottoman empire to its foundation. In every conflict the
Turkish troops were overthrown. The battle of Homs decided the fate of
Syria, and the victory at Konieh placed the sceptre almost within the
grasp of the ambitious pasha. In this extremity the sultan was reduced
to apply to Russia for aid. A peace was concluded by which the pasha
augmented his territory. In 1839 the Turks were again defeated in
several battles by the Egyptians; but the latter were reduced to
subjection by the allied powers, Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia,
and compelled to pay an annual tribute to Turkey. In October, 1858, the
Porte declared war against Russia, and in 1854 the French and English
entered into the contest as allies of Turkey. In the latter part of this
war, Sardinia also sent an army to co-operate with those of the allies.
The result of this war, which was virtually ended by the treaty of Paris
signed on March 30, 1856, was, that Turkey gained some territory, and
took her place as a member of the European confederation of states. A
revolution took place in Constantinople in 1876, which resulted in the
deposition of Abd-ul-Aziz, and the accession to the throne of Murad V.,
who in his turn was superseded by Hamid II. For important battles, etc.,
which occurred in Turkey, see names of towns, places, etc., under
separate headings in this work.

=Turks.= The name of a numerous, important, and widely-spread family of
the human race, members of which are to be found as well on the banks of
the Lena in Siberia, as on those of the Danube and the shores of the
Adriatic in Europe. They consist of many different tribes, but speak
very nearly the same language. For history of the Turks, see TURKEY and
other countries inhabited by them.

=Turma.= In the Roman cavalry, a troop consisting of 30 horsemen. There
were 10 _turmæ_ in every legion, and 3 _decuriæ_ in every _turma_.

=Turn.= To give another direction, tendency, or inclination; to direct
otherwise; to deflect. _To turn a hostile army_, to turn the enemy’s
flank, and the like, to pass round and take a position behind it, or
upon the side of it. _To turn tail_, to retreat ignominiously.

=Turn Out, To.= To bring forward, to exhibit; as, to turn out the guard;
to turn out so many men for service. To _turn in_, to withdraw; to order
under cover; as, to turn in the guard.

=Turnau= (Boh. _Turnov_). A walled town of Bohemia, circle of
Jung-Bunzlau, on the east bank of the Iser, 50 miles northeast from
Prague. Here was fought, in July, 1866, a battle between the Prussians
and Austrians, in which the former were victorious.

=Turnhout.= A well-built town of Belgium, province of Antwerp, 34 miles
east-northeast from the city of Antwerp. Turnhout is historically
noteworthy as the scene of two battles, the first won January 22, 1597,
by the Netherlands, under Maurice, prince of Orange, over the Spaniards;
and the second October 27, 1789, by the patriots, under Van der Mersch,
over the Austrians.

=Turning.= In tactics, a manœuvre by which an enemy or position is
turned.

=Turning and Boring.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Turret.= In military antiquity, a movable building, of a square form,
consisting of 10 or even 20 stories, sometimes 120 cubits high, usually
moved on wheels, and employed in approaches to a fortified place, for
carrying soldiers, engines, ladders, casting bridges, and other
necessaries.

=Turtukai=, or =Tortokan=. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria,
situated on the Danube. It is opposite Oltenitza, where the Russians
were defeated by the Turks in a series of battles which extended over
three days, in November, 1853.

=Tuscany= (Ital. _Toscana_). A former grand duchy of Italy, hounded on
the north by the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the Papal States; east
and south by the Papal States; west by the Mediterranean. Tuscany
embraces the far greater part of ancient Etruria, shared the common fate
of all the other Italian states, and fell under the Romans about 280
B.C. From the Romans it passed first to the Goths, next to the Lombards,
and then to Charlemagne, who governed it by counts. After numerous
vicissitudes, the whole of Tuscany became united, in 1557, under the
Medici family. In 1737 the Medici became extinct and the grand duchy
passed to the Duke of Lorraine. It was declared by Napoleon I. an
integral part of the French empire; but, on his downfall in 1814, it was
restored to the Archduke Ferdinand. On August 20, 1860, the National
Assembly at Florence unanimously voted its annexation to and it now
forms part of the new kingdom of Italy.

=Tuscaroras.= A tribe of North American Indians, who at the settlement
of North Carolina had fifteen towns on the Tar and Neuse Rivers, and
1200 warriors. In 1711, they began a war with the settlers, and after a
series of savage encounters were defeated, and joined the Iroquois in
New York, where they became the allies of the English. About 400 of them
still reside on a reservation in the western part of the State of New
York.

=Tusculum.= An ancient city of Latium, on a western prolongation of the
Alban hills, about 15 miles east-southeast of Rome. It was one of the
most strongly fortified places in all Italy, both by nature and art.
After the expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, Octavius Mamilius, the
chief man in Tusculum, is said to have supported their cause, and led an
army against the Romans; but he was totally defeated and slain at the
small lake Regillus, near Tusculum. Thereupon an alliance was formed
between Tusculum and Rome, which lasted unbroken for 140 years, until,
in 357 B.C., the whole of the Latin cities, and Tusculum among the rest,
joined in a war with Rome, which ended in their entire and final
subjection to that power. The ancient city continued to exist amid all
the vicissitudes of the times till near the end of the 12th century,
when it was demolished by the Romans, and the town of Frascati rose in
the vicinity.

=Tuttlingen.= A town of Würtemberg, on the right bank of the Danube, 20
miles west-southwest from Sigmaringen. Tuttlingen is historically
notable as the scene of a battle in 1643, during the Thirty Years’ War,
in which an Austrian Bavarian force under Hatzfeld and Mercy defeated
the French.

=Twist.= This term is employed by gun-makers to express the inclination
of a groove at any point, and is measured by the tangent of the angle
made by the groove with the axis of the bore.

=Two-handed.= Used with both hands; as, a two-handed sword.

=Tyana= (ruins at _Kiz Hisar_). A city of Asia Minor, stood in the south
of Cappadocia, at the northern foot of Mount Taurus, on the high road to
the Cicilian Gates. It was a position of great natural strength, which
was improved by fortifications. Under Caracalla it was made a Roman
colony. It was taken in 272 B.C. by Aurelian, in the war with Zenobia,
to whose territory it then belonged.

=Tycocktow Island.= An island in the Canton River, China, 8 miles long
and 6 miles broad. It is situated at the entrance of the Bocca Tigris, a
few miles below Canton. The British took the fort on this island in
1841.

=Tykoczin.= A town of Russia in Europe, situated on the Narew, 17 miles
northwest from Bialystock. A battle was fought between the Russians and
Poles here in 1831.

=Tyler’s Insurrection.= Arose in opposition of the poll-tax imposed on
all persons above fifteen, November 5, 1380. One of the collectors
acting with indecent rudeness to Wat Tyler’s daughter, the father struck
him dead, June, 1381. His neighbors took arms to defend him, and in a
short time almost the whole of the population of the southern and
eastern counties were in a state of insurrection, extorting freedom from
their lords, and plundering. On June 12, 1381, they gathered upon
Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. On June 14, they murdered Simon
of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, and Sir Robert Hales, the royal
treasurer. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley, which took
place on the 15th at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in
a menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. On this the
mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the
king’s knights dispatched him. Richard temporized with the multitude by
promising them a charter, and thus led them out of the city, when Sir R.
Knollys and a band of knights attacked and dispersed them with much
slaughter. The insurrection in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the
bishop of Norwich, and 1500 of the rebels were executed.

=Tympanum.= A drum, a musical instrument which the ancients used, and
which consisted of a thin piece of leather or skin, stretched upon a
circle of wood or iron, and beat with the hand. Hence the origin of our
drum.

=Tyrant.= A name given in modern times to an arbitrary and oppressive
ruler, but originally applied, not necessarily to one who exercised
power badly, but merely to one who had obtained it illegally, and
therefore equivalent to our word usurper. If the one who thus rose to
power as a “tyrant” happened to be a man of sense, and wisdom, and
generosity, his “tyranny” might prove a blessing to a state torn by the
animosities of selfish oligarchs, and be the theme of praise in
after-ages, as was the case with the “tyrannies” of Pesistratos, Gelon,
and others; but if he was insolent, rapacious, and cruel, then he
sought to reduce the citizens to a worse than Egyptian bondage, and his
name became infamous to all time. Such has been the fate of most of the
“Thirty Tyrants of Athens.” It was the method of exercising authority
pursued by these and similar usurpers that latterly, even in ancient
times, gave the word tyrant that evil significance it has ever since
uninterruptedly retained.

=Tyre= (ruins at _Sur_). One of the greatest and most famous cities of
the ancient world, stood on the coast of Phœnice, about 20 miles south
of Sidon. The Assyrian king Shalmanezer laid siege to Tyre for five
years (713 B.C.), but without success. It was again besieged for
thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar, and there is a tradition that he took
it (572 B.C.), but the matter is not quite certain. At the period when
the Greeks began to be well acquainted with the city, its old site had
been abandoned, and a new city erected on a small island about half a
mile from the shore, and a mile in length, and a little north of the
remains of the former city, which was now called Old Tyre. In 322 B.C.
the Tyrians refused to open their gates to Alexander, who laid siege to
the city for seven months, and united the island on which it stood to
the main land by a mole constructed chiefly of the ruins of Old Tyre.
After its capture and sack by Alexander, Tyre never regained its former
consequence. It recovered, however, sufficiently to be mentioned as a
strong fortress and flourishing port under the early Roman emperors; it
even took an active part (193) in the contest between Septimius Severus
and Pescennius Niger, which, resulting in the success of the former,
brought back to it some of its ancient distinction. In St. Jerome’s time
it was again one of the noblest and most prosperous cities of the whole
East. In the 7th century it came under the dominion of the Saracens; and
so remained until taken by the Crusaders. On February 11, 1124, the
Christian army encamped before it, and on June 15 it fell into their
hands. The strength of its fortifications, the splendor of its houses,
and the excellence of its harbor, excited their admiration. On the
evening of the day on which Acre was taken by the Mohammedans (May 19,
1291), Tyre was abandoned by the Crusaders, and the Saracens entered it
the following morning. It was captured by the French, April 3, 1799; and
by the allied fleet, during the war against Mehemet Ali, 1841.

=Tyrol.= The most western province of the Austrian empire, is bounded on
the north by Bavaria, on the east by Salzburg, Carinthia, and Venetia,
on the south by Italy, and on the west by Switzerland and Italy. In
early times Tyrol formed part of Rhætia, was conquered by the Romans, 15
B.C. Subsequently it was overrun by various German tribes; still later
the southern valley fell to the share of the Lombards, and the northern
valleys to the Bavarians. The dukes of Austria acquired possession of it
in 1363. The French conquered Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria,
much to the discontent of the population; but in 1809 an insurrection
broke out, headed by Andreas Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the
Bavarians out of the Tyrol, and thoroughly defeated some French
detachments, but was overpowered at last by reinforcements sent from
France. The Tyrolese riflemen were very effective in the Italian war in
1859.

=Tyrone.= An inland county of the province of Ulster, in Ireland.
According to some authorities the Erdini, and to others the Scoti, were
the earliest known inhabitants of this district. The chief town of
Tyrone was Dungannon, which, though several times taken and sacked by
the English forces in their attempts to reduce the country to obedience
to the royal authority, continued to be of importance until the close of
the reign of Elizabeth, when it was burned by Hugh O’Neill, earl of
Tyrone, to prevent its falling into the hands of the English. The
insurrection of 1641 may be said to have had its commencement in this
county, by the capture of Charlemont Fort and Dungannon by Sir Phelim
O’Neill; and in 1646 the Parliamentary forces under Gen. Munroe received
a signal defeat from Hugh Roe O’Neill at Benburb. During the greater
part of the war between King William and King James, this county was in
the possession of the forces of the latter, and suffered much from the
partisan warfare carried on chiefly by the townsmen of Enniskillen.



U.


=Ucles.= A fortified town of Spain, in the province of Cuenca, 40 miles
southwest from the town of that name. It stands at the foot of a hill
crowned by a famous monastery which belonged to the military order of
Santiago or St. James of Spain. It was taken by the French in 1809.

=Uglitch.= A town of European Russia, in the government and 60 miles
west-southwest from Jaroslav, on the right bank of the Volga. It was
destroyed by the Lithuanians in 1607.

=Uhlans= (a Tartar word signifying “brave”). Light cavalry of Asiatic
origin, were introduced into the north of Europe along with the colonies
of Tartars, who established themselves in Poland and Lithuania. They
were mounted on light active Tartar horses, and armed with sabre, lance,
and latterly with pistols. Their lance was from 5¹⁄₂ to 6¹⁄₂ feet in
length, and, like that of the modern lancers, was attached to a stout
leather thong or cord, which was fastened to the left shoulder and
passed round behind the back, so as to allow the lance to be couched
under the right arm. Immediately below its point was attached a strip of
gaudy-colored cloth, the fluttering of which was designed to frighten
the enemies’ horses. The early dress was similar to that of the Turks,
and the regiments, or _polks_, were distinguished from each other by the
red, green, yellow, or blue color of their uniforms. The Austrians and
Prussians were the first to borrow this species of cavalry from the
Poles. In 1734, an attempt was made by Marshal Saxe to introduce uhlans
into France, and a “polk” of 1000 men was formed; but it was disbanded
at the author’s death. At the present time, Russia, Prussia, and Austria
are the only powers which possess uhlan regiments. In the British army,
the place of the uhlans is occupied by hussars.

=Ukraine.= The name given in Poland first to the frontiers towards the
Tartars and other nomads, and then to the fertile regions lying on both
sides of the middle Dnieper, without any very definite limits. The
Ukraine was long a bone of contention between Poland and Russia. It was
ceded to the Cossacks by Poland in 1672, and was obtained by Russia
about 1682. The country was divided, Poland having the west side of the
Dnieper, and Russia the east. The whole country was assigned to Russia
by the treaty of partition in 1795. See POLAND.

=Ulans.= See UHLANS.

=Ulm.= The second city of Würtemberg; was, till the war in 1866, a
stronghold of the Germanic Confederation. Here a peace was signed, July
3, 1620, by which Frederick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it
previously). Ulm was taken by the French in 1796. After a battle between
the French and Austrians, in which the latter under Gen. Mack were
defeated with dreadful loss by Marshal Ney, Ulm surrendered with 28,000
men, the flower of the Austrian army, October 17-20, 1805.

=Ulster.= A province of Ireland, the most northern of the four into
which that kingdom is divided. The northeast portion, the present county
of Down, was, early after the invasion, overrun by the English under De
Courcy, and was subsequently held by Hugh De Lacy. Although various
efforts were made by the English to effect a permanent settlement in the
north and northwest, their success was little more than nominal until
the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., when the well-known plantation of
Ulster was attempted.

=Ulster Badge.= On the institution of the order of Baronets in England
by James I., a sinister hand, erect, open, and couped at the wrist
gules, the armorial ensign of the province of Ulster, was made their
distinguishing badge, in respect of the order having been intended for
the encouragement of plantations in the province of Ulster. This badge
is sometimes borne in a canton, sometimes on an escutcheon, the latter
placed either in the fess point or in the middle chief point, so as to
interfere as little as possible with the charges of the shield.

=Ulster King-of-Arms.= The king-of-arms or chief heraldic officer of
Ireland. A king-of-arms called Ireland existed in the time of Richard
II., but the office seems to have fallen into abeyance in the following
century. Ulster was created to supply his place in 1552. Ulster holds
his appointment from the crown, and acts under the immediate direction
of the lord-lieutenant of Ireland; the professional staff under him
consists of 2 heralds, 4 pursuivants, 1 registrar, and 1 clerk of
records. The official arms of Ulster king-of-arms are: Argent, St.
George’s cross gules, on a chief of the last a lion passant gardant
between a harp and a portcullis or.

=Ultimatum.= A term used in military negotiations, to express the final
conditions upon which any proposition or treaty can be ratified.

=Umbon= (_Fr._). The pointed boss or prominent part in the centre of a
shield or buckler.

=Umbria.= A district of Italy, the chief towns of which were Arminum,
Fanum, Fortunæ, Mevania, Tuder, Narnia, and Spoletium. Under Augustus,
it formed the sixth Regio of Italy. Its inhabitants, the Umbri, were one
of the most ancient races of Italy, and were connected with the Opicans,
Sabines, and those other tribes whose languages were akin to the Greek.
The Umbri were at a very early period the most powerful people in
Central Italy, and extended across the peninsula from the Adriatic to
the Tyrrhene seas. They were afterwards deprived of their possessions
west of the Tiber by the Etruscans, and confined to the country between
this river and the Adriatic. Their territories were still further
diminished by the Senones, a Gallic people, who took possession of the
whole country on the coast, from Arminum to the Æsis. The Umbri were
subdued by the Romans, 307 B.C., and after the conquest of the Senones
by the Romans in 283, they again obtained possession of the country on
the coast of the Adriatic. This district, however, continued to be
called _Ager Gallicus_ down to a late period.

=Umbriere.= The visor of a helmet, a projection like the peak of a cap,
to which a face-guard was sometimes attached, which moved freely upon
the helmet, and could be raised like a beaver.

=Unarm.= To strip of armor or arms; to disarm.

=Unbreech.= To free the breech of, as a cannon, from its fastenings or
coverings.

=Uncase, To.= To display or exhibit the colors of a regiment.

=Uncock.= To let down the cock of, as a gun.

=Unconditional.= At discretion; not limited by any terms or
stipulations; as, an unconditional surrender.

=Unconquered.= Not subdued or defeated; in opposition to conquered or
defeated.

=Uncover, To.= When troops deploy, the different leading companies or
divisions, etc., successively uncover those in their rear, by marching
out from the right or left of the column.

=Undaunted.= Not appalled by fear; valiant.

=Under.= A preposition of varied military application, in combination
with other words. Thus troops are said to be _under arms_, when
assembled in a state of military array, and having the necessary weapons
of offense and defense, as rifles, swords, etc. To be _under command_ is
being liable to be ordered on any particular duty. To be _under cover_
is to be shielded or protected. To be _under contribution_ is being
liable to give, in money or kind, what may be authoritatively called
for. Countries are sometimes put under contribution for the support of
an army. To be _under fire_ or be _cool_ is not being disconcerted by
the apprehension of death in battle. To be _under sentence_ is the
liability to punishment, according to sentence passed; as, under the
sentence of a general court-martial; under sentence of death.

=Under Canvas.= In a military sense, it is to be lying in tents.

=Undermine.= To dig an excavation under any fort, house, or other
building, so as to cause it to fall down or to blow it up with powder.

=Under-officer.= An inferior officer, one in a subordinate situation.

=Undisciplined.= Not yet trained to regularity or order; not perfect in
exercise or manœuvres.

=Undress.= In the military service, is the authorized habitual dress of
officers and soldiers when not in full uniform.

=Unfix, To.= To take off; as, to unfix bayonets, on which the soldier
disengages the bayonet from his musket, and returns it to the scabbard.

=Unfortified.= Not strengthened or secured by any walls, bulwarks, or
fortifications.

=Unfortunate Peace, The.= A name given by historians to the peace of
Chateau Cambresis (April 2, 1559), negotiated by England, France, and
Spain. By this treaty Henry II. of France renounced all claim to Genoa,
Corsica, and Naples, agreed to restore Calais to the English within
eight years, and to give security for 500,000 crowns in case of failure.

=Unfurled.= A standard or color when expanded and displayed, is said to
be unfurled.

=Ungentlemanlike or Unofficerlike=. Not like a gentleman or officer.
Conduct unbecoming the character of either is so called. This clause,
which will be always found to depend on the state of morals and manners,
affords a vast latitude to a military court, which, after all, is not
more free from prejudice or influence than any other tribunal, though
they are both jurors and judges. Officers convicted thereof are to be
dismissed from the service. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60, 61.

=Unguled.= In heraldry, a term applied to the tincture of the hoofs of
an animal; _e.g._, Azure, a stag trippant or, attired and unguled gules,
the arms of the family of Strachan in Scotland.

=Unharnessed.= Disarmed; divested of armor or weapons of defense.

=Unhelmed.= Divested of the helmet or helm.

=Unhorsed.= Thrown from the saddle; dismounted.

=Unicorn= (Lat. _unum cornu_, “one horn”). An animal, probably fabulous,
mentioned by ancient Grecian and Roman authors as a native of India, and
described as being of the size of a horse, or larger, the body
resembling that of a horse, and with one horn of a cubit and a half or
two cubits long on the forehead, the horn straight, its base white, the
middle black, the tip red. The body of the animal was also said to be
white, its head red, its eyes blue. It was said to be so swift that no
horse could overtake it. The unicorn is perhaps best known as a heraldic
charge or supporter. Two unicorns were borne as supporters of the
Scottish royal arms for about a century before the union of the crowns;
and the sinister supporter of the insignia of the United Kingdom is a
unicorn argent, armed crined, and unguled or, gorged with a coronet
composed of crosses patée and fleurs-de-lis, with a chain affixed,
passing between the fore legs, and reflexed over the back, of the last.

=Unicorn.= The old name for the howitzer, as improved from the licorn,
borrowed from the Turks during the last century by the Russians, and
from the latter by Europe generally.

=Uniform= (one form). In its military sense, means the particular dress
and equipment assigned by proper authority to each grade of officers and
men. The clothing consists of one prevailing color, variously ornamented
and “faced” according to the rank and corps. _In full uniform_, wearing
the whole of the prescribed uniform; not in undress.

=Uniform Sword.= An officer’s sword of the regulation pattern prescribed
for the army or navy.

=Union.= The national colors are called the _union_. When there is a
blue field with white stripes, quartered in the angle of the American
colors, that is, of the colors composed of red and white stripes, that
blue field is called the _union_; and a small color of blue with white
stars is called a _union-jack_.

=United States Military Academy.= See MILITARY ACADEMIES, and WEST
POINT.

=United States Sea-coast Fuze.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=United States, The.= A Federal republic, composed of thirty-eight
sovereign states and eleven territorial governments, occupying the
temperate portion of North America. It is bounded on the north by
British North America, east by New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ocean,
south by the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, and west by the Pacific Ocean.
Its greatest length from the Atlantic to the Pacific, on the parallel of
42°, is 2768 miles, and its greatest breadth, from Point Isabel, Texas,
to the northern boundary near Pembina, is 1601¹⁄₂ miles. The northern
frontier is upward of 3350 miles in length, the Mexican 1500. The ocean
coast, including the larger indentation, is estimated at 22,609 miles,
of which 6861 are on the Atlantic, 3461 on the Gulf of Mexico, 2281 in
California, 8000 on the coast of Alaska, and about 2000 on the Arctic
Sea. This area has been obtained by successive annexations of territory,
either by purchase, right of discovery, or conquest. In 1783, the
territory ceded by Great Britain was confined to the country east of the
Mississippi River, and north of Florida, having an area of 815,615
square miles. To this Louisiana was added by purchase from France in
1803; Florida, ceded by Spain, in 1821; Texas, annexed in 1845; Oregon,
as settled by the treaty of 1846; California, etc., conquered from
Mexico, 1847; New Mexico, etc., by treaty with Mexico, 1854; and Alaska,
by purchase from Russia, 1867. For full description of the States and
Territories, and histories appertaining thereto, see the articles
respectively.

=Unkiar-Skelessi.= A small town on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus,
in the neighborhood of Scutari, gives its name to a treaty concluded
between Turkey and Russia, July 8, 1833. This treaty, which consisted of
six articles, was one of mutual defensive alliance; but a separate and
secret article was subjoined, by which the sultan, in place of the
military or naval aid which, by the first article of the treaty, he was
bound to furnish to Russia, agreed to close the Strait of the
Dardanelles, allowing no foreign vessels of war to enter it under any
pretext whatever. In consequence of this treaty, Russia landed 15,000
men at Scutari, and stopped the victorious career of Ibrahim Pasha. The
secret article was soon after divulged to Britain and France, both of
whom regarded the treaty with dislike; and by the terms of that
concluded at London, July 13, 1841, the stipulations of Unkiar-Skelessi
were annulled.

=Unload.= To take the powder and ball out of a piece of ordnance or a
musket.

=Unmilitary.= Contrary to rules of discipline; unworthy of a soldier.

=Unsheathe.= To draw from the sheath or scabbard, as a sword; hence, to
unsheathe the sword, sometimes signifies to commence or make war.

=Unshot.= To remove the shot from, as a piece of ordnance; to take out
the shot of.

=Unsling.= To take off the slings; to release from the slings; unsling
knapsacks, etc.

=Unspike.= To remove a spike from, as from the vent of a cannon.

=Untenable.= Not to be held in possession; incapable of being defended.

=Untrained.= Not disciplined to exercise or manœuvre.

=Unvanquished.= Not conquered or defeated.

=Unwarlike.= Not fit for or used to war.

=Upbraid.= Any officer or soldier who shall upbraid another for refusing
a challenge, shall himself be punished as a challenger. See APPENDIX,
ARTICLES OF WAR, 28.

=Upon.= Denoting assumption; as, he took the office of
commander-in-chief upon him. Also, to incur responsibility; as, the
general took everything upon himself.

=Up-sar-o-ca.= See ABSOROKAS.

=Uruguay=, or =Banda Oriental del Uruguay=. A republic of South America,
bounded north and northeast by Brazil, east by the Atlantic, south by
the Rio de la Plata, and west by the Uruguay. Banda Oriental was, during
the Spanish rule, the name of that portion of the vice-royalty of Buenos
Ayres which lay to the east of the river Uruguay, and comprehended the
present Uruguay and the territory formerly known as the Seven Missions.
When Buenos Ayres declared itself independent of Spain, Banda Oriental
formed a part of the new republic. In 1821, however, it was taken
possession of by Brazil, and united with that state under the name of
Provincia Cisplatina. By the treaty of 1828 between La Plata and Brazil,
the southern and larger portion of Banda Oriental was formed into the
republic of Uruguay. A civil war broke out in consequence of the
invasion of the ex-president, Gen. Venancio Florès, June 26, 1863; Gen.
Florès marched towards the capital in June; in February, 1865, Florès
became provisional president. During an insurrection of the Blanco party
(headed by Berro), at Montevideo, Gen. Florès was assassinated. The
troops remained faithful. The insurrection was soon suppressed, and
Berro shot, February 19, 1868.

=Usages of War.= See WAR.

=Usbegs=, or =Usbeks=. A people of Turkish race, who, at the close of
the 15th century, invaded and conquered the numerous principalities into
which Turkestan was at that time divided, and have ever since maintained
dominion over the country. At the present day, they are for the most
part a settled people, and are scattered over both Independent and
Chinese Turkestan.

=Usher of the Black Rod.= See BLACK ROD.

=Usher of the Green Rod.= One of the officers of the order of the
Thistle, whose duties consist in attendance on the sovereign and knights
when assembled in chapter, and at other solemnities of the order. The
rod from which the title is taken is of green enamel, 3 feet in length,
ornamented with gold, having on the top a unicorn of silver, holding
before him an escutcheon charged with the cross of St. Andrew.

=Usipetes=, or =Usipii=. A German people, who, being driven out of their
abodes by the Suevi, crossed the Rhine and penetrated into Gaul; but
they were defeated by Cæsar, and compelled to recross the river. They
were now received by the Sygambri, and allowed to dwell on the northern
bank of the Lippe; but we afterwards find them south of the Lippe; still
later they became lost under the general name of Alemanni.

=Utah.= A Territory of the United States, which is bounded on the north
by Idaho and Wyoming, east by Colorado, south by Arizona, and west by
Nevada. Utah is an immense basin, from 4000 to 6000 feet above the level
of the sea, surrounded by mountains, which at some points reach the
altitude of 8000 to 13,000 feet. Utah was acquired by the United States
from Mexico by the treaty of 1848, and was erected into a Territory in
1850. There have been serious difficulties between the U. S. government
and the Mormons, who first arrived in the Great Salt Lake Valley in
1847. A terrible massacre of settlers took place at Mountain Meadows,
Utah, by Indians, who it is said were instigated to commit the terrible
atrocity by the Mormons. In order to put an end to all the disturbances
in Utah, the President dispatched, in 1857, an expedition against
Brigham Young, who was treated as an open rebel. Owing to the
inclemency of the weather and other causes, the expedition did not
arrive in Utah until May, 1858, when the governor, Cumming, reported to
the President that Brigham Young had given up all hopes of resistance.
The Territory has remained quiet ever since.

=Utahs=, or =Utes=. A tribe of North American Indians, who inhabit Utah,
Nevada, part of Colorado, and New Mexico. They are at present peaceable,
but do not engage in agriculture. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Utensil.= That which is used; an implement; an instrument; especially,
an instrument or vessel used in a kitchen, or in domestic use. Utensils
for camp and garrison are styled camp and garrison equipage, and are
furnished by the quartermaster’s department.

=Utica= (ruins at _Bow-Shater_). The greatest city of ancient Africa,
supposed to be older than Carthage. Like others of the very ancient
Phœnician colonies in the territory of Carthage, Utica maintained a
comparative independence, even during the height of the Punic power, and
was rather the ally of Carthage than her subject. It stood on the shore
of the northern part of the Carthaginian Gulf, a little west of the
mouth of the Bagrades, and 27 Roman miles northwest of Carthage; but its
site is now inland in consequence of the changes effected by the
Bagrades in the coast-line. In the third Punic war, Utica took part with
the Romans against Carthage, and was rewarded with the greatest part of
the Carthaginian territory. It afterwards became renowned to all future
time as the scene of the last stand made by the Pompeian party against
Cæsar, and of the glorious, though mistaken, self-sacrifice of the
younger Cato. It fell into the hands of the Vandals in 439; but its
final destruction is due to the Saracens, who twice captured the town.

=Utrecht= (the Roman _Trajectum ad Rhenum_). A town of Holland, capital
of a province of the same name, on the old Rhine. The union of the Seven
United Provinces began here in 1579. The treaty of Utrecht, which
terminated the wars of Queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great
Britain and France, and all the other allies, except the ministers of
the empire, April 11, 1713. This treaty secured the Protestant
succession in England, the separation of the French and Spanish crowns,
the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and
plantations in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the
allies. Utrecht surrendered to the Prussians May 9, 1787; was acquired
by the French January 18, 1795, and restored at the peace.

=Uxii.= A warlike people, of predatory habits, who had their strongholds
in Mount Parachoathras, on the northern border of Persia, in the
district called Uxia, but who also extended over a considerable tract of
country in Media.



V.


=Vacancy.= The state of an office or commission to which no one is
appointed.

=Vacant Companies.= Companies to the permanent command of which no
person is appointed for the time being.

=Vacate.= To annul; to make void; to deprive of force; to make of no
authority or validity; as, to vacate a commission.

=Vacca=, =Vaga=, or =Vaba= (now _Beja_). A city of Zeugitana, in
Northern Africa, on the borders of Numidia, a good day’s journey south
of Utica. It was destroyed by Metellus in the Jugurthine war, but was
restored and colonized by the Romans. Its fortifications were renewed by
Justinian, who named it Theodorias, in honor of his wife.

=Vadimonis Lacus= (now _Lago di Bassano_). A small lake of Etruria. It
is celebrated in history for the defeat of the Etruscans in two great
battles, first by the dictator Papirius Cursor in 309 B.C., from the
effects of which the Etruscans never recovered; and again in 283, when
the allied forces of the Etruscans and Gauls were routed by the consul
Cornelius Dolabella.

=Værfvade.= The standing army of Sweden, recruited by voluntary
enlistment. They receive pay, and serve from three to six years. They
form the foot- and horse-guards, the artillery and engineers.

=Vair.= In heraldry, tinctures are either of metal, color strictly so
called, or fur. The furs were originally but two,--ermine and vair. Vair
is said to have been taken from the fur of a squirrel, bluish-gray on
the back, and white on the belly, is expressed by blue and white
shields, or bells in horizontal rows, the bases of the white resting on
the bases of the blue. If the vair is of any other colors than white and
blue, they must be specified. Various modifications of these furs were
afterwards introduced, among others: _counter-vair_, or vair with the
bells of one tincture placed base to base, and _potent counter-potent_,
vair with crutch-shaped figures instead of bells.

=Vaivode= (_Fr._). An old Sclavonian word, which signifies prince or
general. This title was formerly given to the sovereign princes of
Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania.

=Valais= (Ger. _Wallis_). A frontier canton of Switzerland, bounded on
the north by the cantons of Vaud and Bern, and on the south by Italy. At
the period of the struggle of the Swiss with the Duke of Burgundy, the
Upper Valais took possession of the Lower Valais, and reduced it to the
position of a vassal state; and in this condition it remained until
1798, the period of the French conquest, when the distinction was set
aside.

=Valdivia.= A town of Chili, capital of the province of the same name,
on the river Valdivia, or Calle, 210 miles south from Concepcion. It was
founded in 1551 by the conqueror Pedro de Valdivia. In 1590 it was taken
and plundered by the Araucanians, the native inhabitants of the country.

=Valencia= (anc. _Valentia_). An ancient city of Spain, capital of the
ancient kingdom and modern province of the same name, on the Turia,
about 2 miles from the sea, and 190 miles east-southeast from Madrid.
Valencia is a very ancient city. It was destroyed by Pompey, and rebuilt
by Sertorius. It was taken by the Goths in 413, from whom it was
captured by the Moors in 714. From the Moorish sway it was rescued in
1094 by the Cid, from whom it is sometimes called _Valentia del Cid_.
The Moors once more got possession of it in 1101, but were compelled
finally to relinquish it in 1238. It was taken by the Earl of
Peterborough in 1705, but submitted to the Bourbons after the
unfortunate battle of Almanza, in 1707. It resisted the attempts made on
it by Marshal Moncey, but was taken from the Spaniards with a garrison
of more than 16,000 men, and immense stores, by the French under Suchet,
January 9, 1812; and held by them till 1813.

=Valenciennes.= A fortified town of France, in the department of the
North, 27 miles southeast from Lille, at the confluence of the Rhonelle
and the Scheldt. The town is defended by a citadel constructed by
Vauban. The city was besieged from May 23 to July 28, 1793, when the
French garrison surrendered to the allied English and Austrian armies,
under the Duke of York. It was retaken by the French, August 27-30,
1794; on capitulation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants were made
prisoners, with immense stores.

=Valenciennes.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Valenza= (anc. _Valentia Valentinum Forum_). A city of Northern Italy,
on an elevated plain on the right bank of the Po, 8 miles north of
Alessandria. It is a very ancient town, belonged to the Liguri, and was
conquered by Marcus Fulvius, the proconsul. In 1635 it was besieged for
fifty days by the armies of France, Savoy, and Parma, and taken. In 1707
it came into the possession of Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy; in
1805 the French destroyed its gates and fortifications; and in 1815,
after the fall of Napoleon’s empire, it reverted to the king of
Sardinia.

=Valetta=, or =La Valetta=. An important city and capital of the island
of Malta, on the northeast side of which it is situated. The town and
harbors are defended by a series of fortifications of great strength.
They are mostly hewn out of the solid rock, and, mounted with the most
powerful artillery, are considered impregnable. The city was founded by
La Valette, grand master of the Knights of St. John, in 1566. Its
history is identical with that of Malta (which see).

=Valetudinarium.= An infirmary or hospital for the sick. Among the
Romans, _valetudinarium_, or hospital, was only established in time of
war, when their armies marched beyond the boundaries of the republic.

=Valiant.= Personally brave, fearless of danger in war, etc.

=Valladolid.= A famous city of Spain, capital of the province of the
same name, on the left bank of the Pisuerga, 150 miles northwest from
Madrid. It is the Roman _Pincia_ and the Moorish _Belad Walid_; was
recovered for the Christians by Ordogno II., the first king of Leon,
914-23. It was captured from the French by the English, June 4, 1813.

=Vallary Crown.= A crown bestowed by the ancient Romans as an honorary
reward on the soldier who first surmounted the outworks, and broke into
the enemy’s camp. It is in form a circle of gold with palisades
attached. The crown vallary occasionally occurs as a heraldic bearing.

=Valls.= A town of Spain, in the province of Tarragona, 9 miles north
from Tarragona. The French here defeated the Spaniards in 1809, and
afterwards sacked the town; but they suffered a defeat themselves near
the same place, in 1811, by some Spanish troops under Sarsfield.

=Vallum.= Among the Romans, the parapet which fortified their
encampments. It consisted of two parts,--the _agger_ and the _sudes_;
the agger was the earth thrown up from the vallum, and the sudes were a
sort of wooden stakes to secure and strengthen it. _Vallus_ was the name
of the stake which served as a palisade in the Roman intrenchment. Every
soldier carried one of these _valli_, and on some occasions three or
four bound together like a fagot.

=Valmy.= A village of France, department of Marne, 20 miles northeast
from Chalons. This village is celebrated as the place where the
republican armies of France under Kellerman, in 1792, defeated for the
first time the allied armies under the Duke of Brunswick.

=Valor.= Strength of mind in regard to danger; that quality which
enables a man to encounter danger with firmness; personal bravery;
warlike courage; intrepidity; bravery.

=Valparaiso.= The principal seaport of Chili, South America, on the bay
of the same name, about 80 miles west-northwest of Santiago. The bay is
sheltered from all quarters except the north; and is defended by three
forts and a water-battery. Valparaiso was bombarded by the Spanish
fleet, March 31, 1866. Few lives were lost, but buildings and other
property, the value of which was estimated at from $9,000,000 to
$20,000,000, were destroyed.

=Valtelline=, or =Valtellina= (Northern Italy). A district near the
Rhætian Alps, seized by the Grison league in 1512, and ceded to it in
1530. At the instigation of Spain, the Catholics rose and massacred the
Protestants, July 19-21, 1620. After much contention between the French
and Austrians, the neutrality of the Valtelline was assured in 1639. It
was annexed to the Cisalpine republic in 1797; to Italy, 1807; to
Austria, 1814; to Italy, 1860.

=Vambrace.= In ancient armor, the piece designed to protect the arm
below the elbow.

=Vambraced= (Fr. _avant-bras_, “fore-arm”). A term applied to an arm
clothed in armor, as in the subjoined crest; a dexter embowed arm
vambraced proper, the gauntlet holding a sword below the hilt in bend
sinister, point downwards, argent, hilt and pommel or.

=Vamplate.= A round piece of iron on a tilting-spear, used to protect
the hand.

=Van.= The front of an army, the first line, or leading column.

=Vancouver’s Island.= Now, jointly with British Columbia, one of the
colonies of Great Britain, forms a part of British North America.
Settlements were made here by the English in 1781, which were seized by
the Spaniards in 1789, but restored. By a treaty between the British
government and that of the United States in 1846, this island was
secured to the former.

=Vandals= (_Vandalii_, or _Vindalii_). A confederacy of German nations,
probably of the great Suevic race, to which the Burgundiones, Gothones,
Gepidæ, and Rugii belonged. They dwelt originally on the northern coast
of Germany, but were afterward settled north of the Marcomanni, in the
Riesengebirge, which are hence called Vandalici Montes. They
subsequently appear for a short time in Dacia and Pannonia; but at the
beginning of the 5th century (409) they traversed Germany and Gaul, and
invaded Spain. In this country they subjugated the Alani, and founded a
powerful kingdom, the name of which is still preserved in Andalusia
(Vandalusia). In 429 they crossed over into Africa, under their king
Genseric, and conquered all the Roman dominions in that country.
Genseric subsequently invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome in 455.
The Vandals continued masters of Africa till 535, when their kingdom was
destroyed by Belisarius, and annexed to the Byzantine empire.

=Van-foss.= In fortification, a ditch dug without the counterscarp, and
running all along the glacis, usually full of water.

=Vanguard.= That part of the army which marches in front.

=Vanquish.= To conquer; to overcome; to subdue in battle, as an enemy.

=Vant-bras.= Armor for the arm.

=Variation of the Needle.= Is the angle included between the true and
magnetic meridians of a place; the deviation of a magnetic needle from
the true north or south points of the horizon;--called also _declination
of the needle_.

=Varna.= An important fortified seaport of European Turkey, in Bulgaria,
on the northern side of a semicircular bay, an inlet of the Black Sea,
180 miles north-northwest from Constantinople. A great battle was fought
near this place, November 10, 1444, between the Turks under Amurath II.
and the Hungarians under their king Ladislaus, and John Hunniades. The
latter were defeated with great slaughter; the king was killed, and
Hunniades made prisoner. The Christians had previously broken the truce
for ten years, recently made at Szegedin. The emperor Nicholas of Russia
arrived before Varna, the headquarters of his army, then besieging the
place, August 5, 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous attack on
the besiegers, August 7, and another on August 21, but were repulsed.
Varna surrendered, after a sanguinary conflict, to the Russian arms,
October 11, 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829; its
fortifications were dismantled, but have since been restored. The allied
armies disembarked at Varna, May 29, 1854, and remained there till they
sailed for the Crimea, September 3, following. While at Varna they
suffered severely from cholera.

=Varveled.= In heraldry, when the leather thongs which tie on the bells
to the legs of hawks are borne flotant with rings at the end, the
bearing is termed _jessed_, _belled_, and _varveled_.

=Vascones.= A powerful people on the northern coast of Hispania
Tarraconensis, between the Iberus and the Pyrenees, in the modern
Navarre and Guipuzco. Their chief towns were Pompelon and Calagurris.
They were a brave people, and fought in battle bare-headed. Under the
empire they were regarded as skillful diviners and prophets. Their name
is still retained in that of the modern Basques.

=Vassy.= A town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne, 29
miles northwest from Chaumont. The massacre of the Protestants at this
place by the Duke of Guise on March 1, 1562, led to the civil wars which
desolated France to the end of the century.

=Vaud.= A canton which forms the western corner of Switzerland between
the Jura and the Bernese Alps. After having been successively held by
the Franks, kings of Burgundy, emperors of Germany, dukes of Zahringen,
and dukes of Savoy, it was conquered by the Bernese, January, 1536, and
annexed, 1554. Vaud was made independent in 1798, and joined the
Confederation in 1815.

=Vaunt-mure.= In fortification, a false wall; a work raised in front of
the main wall. This word is written also _vaimure_ and _vamure_.

=Vectis=, or =Vecta= (now _Isle of Wight_). An island off the southern
coast of Britain. It was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of
Claudius.

=Vedettes=, or =Videttes=. Mounted sentinels stationed at the outposts
of an army or encampment, and so posted at all the avenues and rising
grounds, that they can best observe the approach of an enemy, and
communicate by signal to their respective posts, as well as with each
other, when any danger is to be apprehended.

=Veii= (now _Isola Farnese_). One of the most ancient and powerful
cities of Etruria, situated on the river Crimera, about 12 miles from
Rome. It possessed a strongly-fortified citadel, built on a hill rising
precipitously from the deep glens which bound it, save at the single
point where a narrow ridge unites it to the city. The Veientes were
engaged in almost unceasing hostilities with Rome for more than three
centuries and a half, and we have records of fourteen distinct wars
between the two nations. Veii was at last taken by the dictator
Camillus, after a siege of ten years, 396 B.C. The city fell into his
hands, according to the common story, by means of a _cuniculus_, or
mine, which was carried by Camillus from the Roman camp under the city
into the citadel of Veii. The citizens were massacred or sold as slaves,
and the land confiscated.

=Vekilchares.= A word used among the Turks, which signifies the same as
_fourrier_ in the French and corresponds with quartermaster.

=Velez-Malaga.= A fortified town in the south of Spain, in the province
of Malaga, 16 miles east from the city of that name. The town was taken
from the Moors, by Ferdinand the Catholic, after a long siege.

=Velish.= A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of Vitepsk,
situated on the Dwina. This place, which was founded by the Russians in
1536, was taken by the Poles in 1580, but in 1772 it again reverted to
Russia.

=Velites.= In the Roman armies, the name of the light-armed troops, who
were first instituted during the second Punic war, and were remarkable
for their agility.

=Velletri= (anc. _Velitræ_). A town of the Papal States, in the Comarca,
and 21 miles southeast from Rome. The ancient _Velitræ_ was an important
Volscian city destroyed by the Romans, but afterwards rebuilt. In 1734,
Carlo Borbone, king of Naples, gained, near Velletri, a decisive victory
over the Austrians, which secured the kingdom of the two Sicilies to the
Spanish Bourbons.

=Vellore.= A town and fortress of British India, in the presidency of
Madras, situated on the river Palar, 80 miles southwest from Madras. It
is very strongly fortified. After the capture of Seringapatam, in 1799,
Vellore was fixed on for the place of confinement or residence of the
family of Tippoo Sahib. In July, 1806, a very serious mutiny took place
among the garrison, composed principally of native troops. It was
speedily suppressed by the gallant conduct of Col. Gillespie of the 19th
Dragoons.

=Velocimeter.= An instrument for obtaining initial velocity, invented by
Col. Benton, U. S. Ordnance Department. See CHRONOSCOPE.

=Velocity.= Is rate of motion; the relation of motion to time, measured
by the number of units of space passed over by the moving body in a unit
of time, usually the number of feet in a second. The velocity of a
projectile, at any point of its flight, is the space in _feet_ passed
over in a _second_ of time, with a continuous, uniform motion. _Initial
velocity_ is the velocity at the muzzle of the piece; _remaining
velocity_ is the velocity at any point of the flight; _terminal
velocity_ is the velocity with which it strikes its object; and _final
velocity_ of descent in air, is the uniform velocity with which a
projectile moves, when the resistance of the air becomes equal to the
accelerating force of gravity. The initial velocity of a projectile may
be determined by the principles of mechanics which govern the action of
the powder, the resistance of the projectile, etc., or by direct
experiment.

The instant that the charge of a fire-arm is converted into gas, it
exerts an expansive effort which acts to drive the projectile out of the
bore. If the gaseous mass be divided into elementary sections
perpendicular to its length, it will be seen that, in their efforts to
expand, each section has not only to overcome its own inertia, but the
inertia of the piece and projectile, as well as the inertia of the
sections which precede it. The tension of each section, therefore,
increases from the extremities of the charge to some intermediate point
where it is a maximum. The pressure on all sides of the section of
maximum density being equal, it will remain at rest, while all the
others will move in opposite directions, constantly pressing against the
projectile and piece, and accelerating their velocities. As the
projectile moves in the bore, the space in which the gases expand is
increased, while their density is diminished; it follows that the force
which sets a projectile in motion in a fire-arm varies from several
causes: (1st) It varies as the space behind the projectile increases, or
as the velocity regarded as a function of the time; (2d) It varies
throughout the column of gas for the same instant of time; and (3d) It
varies from the increasing quantities of gas developed in the successive
instants of the combustion of the powder. See INITIAL VELOCITY.

The motion of a body falling through the air will be accelerated by its
weight, and retarded by the buoyant effort of the air, and the
resistance which the air offers to motion. As the resistance of the air
increases more rapidly than the velocity, it follows that there is a
point where the retarding and accelerating forces will be equal, and
that beyond this the body will move with a uniform velocity, equal to
that which it had acquired down to this point. The buoyant effort of the
air is equal to the weight of the volume displaced, or

     (_d_)
  _P_(---);
     (_D_)

in which _P_ is the weight and _D_ the density of the projectile, and
_d_ the density of the air. When the projectile meets with a resistance
equal to its weight, we shall have,

     (    _d_)              (    _v_)
  _P_(1 - ---) = _A_{p}R²v²_(1 + ---); (15)
     (    _D_)              (    _r_)

in which the weight of the displaced air is transferred to the first
member of the equation. As the density of the air is very slight
compared to that of lead or iron, the materials of which projectiles are
made, _d_/_D_ may be neglected. Making this change, and substituting for
_P_, _⁴⁄₃_{p}R^{3}D_, the expression for the _final velocity_ reduces to

      (    _v_)      _RD_
  _v_²(1 + ---) = ⁴⁄₃-----. (16)
      (    _r_)      _A_

The resistance on the entire projectile for a velocity of 1 foot, is
_A_{p}R²_; dividing this by _P_/_g_, or the mass, we get the resistance
on a unit of mass. Calling this 1/(2_c_) we have,

    1    _A_{p}R²_               _P_
  ---- = ---------, or 2_gc_ = --------.
  2_c_      _P_                _A_{p}R²_
            ---
            _g_

Substituting for _P_ its value in the equation of vertical descent, we
have,

              (    _v_)
  2_gc_ = _v_²(1 + ---);
              (    _r_)

from which we see that _v_ depends only on _c_; but

           _RD_
  _c_ = ²⁄₃----- (17)
           _gA_

hence, the _final velocity_ of a projectile falling through the air is
directly proportional to the product of its diameter and density, and
inversely proportional to the density of the air, which is a factor of
_A_. The expression for the value of _c_ shows that the retarding effect
of the air is less on the larger and denser projectiles. To adapt it to
an oblong projectile of the pointed form, the value of _D_ should be
increased (inasmuch as its weight is increased in proportion to its
cross-section), while that of _A_ should be diminished. It follows,
therefore, that for the same caliber an oblong projectile will be less
retarded by the air than one of spherical form, and consequently with an
equal and perhaps less initial velocity, its range will be greater.

=Velocity of Light.= See LIGHT, VELOCITY OF.

=Velocity of Sound.= See SOUND.

=Vendée, La.= A department in the west of France. The _wars of La
Vendée_ denote the armed opposition to the religious and political
changes in France, which burst out into a species of partisan warfare in
1793, 1794, 1795, 1799, and 1815.

=Venezuela.= A republic in the northwest of South America. The east
coast of Venezuela was discovered by Columbus in 1498; Ojeda and
Vespucci followed in 1499. The first settlement was made at Cumana in
1520, by the Spaniards; and Venezuela remained subject to Spain till it
claimed independence in 1811. In 1812, it returned to allegiance to
Spain, but again revolted in 1813, and, forming with New Granada and
Ecuador the republic of Colombia, it was declared independent in 1819.
In 1831, the states separated. During the ten years from 1861-1871,
upwards of 60,000 persons were killed in the civil wars. The revolution
triumphed, and Guzman Blanco attempted to establish a government at
Caraccas, which was captured by revolutionists, April, 1870.

=Venice.= A fortified city of Northern Italy, one of the noblest, most
famous, and singular cities in the world, is built upon a crowded
cluster of islets, in the lagoon of the same name, on the northwest
fringe of the Adriatic Sea, 23 miles east of Padua. It was founded by
families from Aquileia and Padua fleeing from Attila, about 452. Under
their third doge (720-737) the Venetians entered upon that career of
enterprise in which their prudence and valor were almost always
conspicuous, and which they continued to pursue to the last. Venice
after a series of enterprises which covered a period of 700 years, and
in which she was nearly always successful, gaining territory and
prestige, entered into a war with the Turks in 1461, which lasted until
1477, and in which she lost many of her Eastern possessions. The
Venetians took Cyprus in 1475, and helped to overcome Charles VIII. of
France in 1495; they excited the Turks against Charles V. in 1504, and
were nearly ruined by the league of Cambray in 1508. They also assisted
in defeating the Turks at Lepanto in 1571, but lost Cyprus to the Turks
in the same year. The Venetians gained several important naval victories
over the Turks at Scio in 1651, and in the Dardanelles in 1655, but lost
Candia, one of their possessions, in 1669; recovered part of the Morea
in 1683-99, but lost it again in 1715-39. Venice was occupied by
Bonaparte in 1797, who, by the treaty of Campo Formio, gave part of its
territory to Austria, and annexed the remainder to the Cisalpine
republic. In 1805 the whole of Venice was annexed to the kingdom of
Italy by the treaty of Presburg; but was transferred to the empire of
Austria in 1814, and the city declared a free port in 1830. An
insurrection began in Venice on March 22, 1848, and the city, which was
defended by Daniele Manin, surrendered to the Austrians after a long
siege on August 22, 1849. It was transferred to Italy, October 17, 1866,
by the treaty of Vienna.

=Venlo.= A small but strongly fortified town in the Netherlands,
province of Limburg, situated on the right bank of the Maas, 45 miles
north-northeast from Maastricht. Venlo was walled by Duke Reynold of
Gelder in 1343. It has many a time felt the horrors of a siege, and has
been taken and retaken, the last time by the Belgians in 1830, in whose
hands it remained till the conference of London, June 22, 1839, when it
returned to the Dutch.

=Vennones.= A people of Rhætia, and, according to Strabo, the most
savage of the Rhætian tribes, inhabiting the Alps near the sources of
the Athesis.

=Vent.= In gunnery, is the aperture through which fire is communicated
to the charge. It should be as small as the use of the priming-wire and
tube will allow. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, INTERIOR FORM OF CANNON.

=Ventail.= That part of a helmet which is made to lift up.

=Vent-gauges.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Vent-piece.= In some ordnance is a piece of copper containing the vent,
and screwed in at the proper position.

=Vent-punch.= See IMPLEMENTS, EQUIPMENTS AND MACHINES.

=Vent-searcher.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Vera Cruz.= An ancient city on the east coast of Mexico, about 185
miles east of the city of Mexico. The castle of Ulloa and the city were
bombarded and taken by the Americans in 1847, and the city was taken by
the allies, December 17, 1861. Vera Cruz was retaken by the liberals,
under Juarez, June 27, 1867.

=Verat= (_Fr._). A 12-pounder gun of 17 calibers, weighing 2300 pounds,
having a charge of 8 pounds.

=Verbal Orders.= Instructions given by word of mouth, which, when
communicated through an official channel, are to be considered as
equally binding with written ones.

=Vercelli= (anc. _Vercellæ_). A town of the kingdom of Sardinia, capital
of a province of the same name. Near this place Varus defeated the
Cimbri, 101 B.C. It was the seat of a republic in the 13th and 14th
centuries. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1630; by the French in 1704;
and allies, 1706; it subsequently partook of the fortunes of Piedmont.

=Verden.= A town in Hanover, Germany, on the right bank of the Aller.
Here Charlemagne massacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled and
relapsed into idolatry, 782.

=Verdict.= See FINDING.

=Verdoy.= In heraldry, a term indicating that a bordure is charged with
flowers, leaves, or vegetable charges. Thus a bordure argent verdoy of
oak-leaves proper, is equivalent to a bordure argent charged with eight
oak-leaves proper.

=Verdun= (anc. _Verodunum_). A fortified town of France in the
department of Meuse, on the right bank of the river of that name, about
150 miles (direct line) east-northeast from Paris, it was fortified by
Vauban, and its defenses consist of a wall with bastions and a citadel.
It was acquired by the Franks in the 6th century, and formed part of the
dominions of Lothaire by the treaty of Verdun, 543, when the empire was
divided between the sons of Louis I. It was taken and annexed to the
empire of Otho I. about 939. It surrendered to France in 1552, and was
formally ceded in 1648. It was taken and held by the Prussians
forty-three days, September-October, 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, the
commandant, committed suicide before the surrender, and fourteen ladies
were executed in 1794, for going to the king of Prussia to solicit his
clemency for the town. Verdun surrendered to the Germans, November 8,
1870, after a brave defense, two vigorous sallies being made October 28.
Above 4000 men and 108 cannon were captured, and much arms and
ammunition.

=Vere, de.= The name of an ancient and noble family of England,
descended from a Norman knight who had a high command at the battle of
Hastings. His son became earl of Oxford, and minister of Henry I. The
third earl was one of the barons who extorted the Magna Charta from King
John. John de Vere, seventh earl, was a famous commander, and fought at
Crécy and Poitiers (1356). The thirteenth earl was a leader of the
Lancastrian party in the war of the Roses, and commanded the van of the
army of Henry VII. at Bosworth (1485). The twentieth earl was Aubrey de
Vere, who fought for Charles I. in the civil war, and after the
restoration became lord-lieutenant of Essex.

=Vergette= (_Fr._). In heraldry, a pallet or small pale; hence, a shield
divided by pallets or pales.

=Vermeuil.= A town of France, in the department of the Eure, situated on
the Arve. It was the scene of a battle between the Burgundians and
English, under the Duke of Bedford, and the French, assisted by the
Scots, commanded by the Count de Narbonne and the Earls of Douglas and
Buchan, etc. The French at first were successful; but some Lombard
auxiliaries, who had taken the English camp, commenced pillaging. Two
thousand English archers then came fresh to the attack; and the French
and Scots were totally defeated, and their leaders killed.

=Vermont.= One of the United States of America, and one of the five New
England States; it was the first State received after the adoption of
the Federal Constitution. Vermont is bounded on the north by Canada, on
the east by the Connecticut River, which separates it from New
Hampshire, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by New York,
from which it is separated for 100 miles by Lake Champlain. The first
settlement made in this State was in 1724, when it was claimed as a part
of the New Hampshire grants. In 1763, it was claimed by New York, under
grants of Charles II. to the Duke of York. For ten years the New York
officers were resisted, and sometimes tied to trees and whipped by the
lawless settlers. These contests were stopped by the Revolution, but
this State, a refuge for settlers from the other States, remained eight
years out of the Union. It was chiefly the Vermont militia that gained
the victory of Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, in 1812; and the Green
Mountain State contributed largely to the Union forces in the war of the
Rebellion.

=Verolamium=, or =Verulamium= (now _Old Verulam_, near St. Alban’s). The
chief town of the Catuellani in Britain, probably the residence of the
king Cassivellaunus, which was conquered by Cæsar. It was subsequently
made a Roman _municipium_. It was destroyed by the Britons under
Boadicea, in their insurrection against the Romans, but was rebuilt, and
continued to be an important place.

=Verona.= An ancient city of Northern Italy, in Venetia, 72 miles west
of Venice by railway. Verona is a fortress of the first rank, a member
of the famous Quadrilateral (which see), and has always been considered
a place of strength since it was surrounded with walls by the emperor
Gallienus, 265. Its modern fortifications are among the most
extraordinary works of military engineering in Europe. After passing
into the hands of the Austrians, in 1815, it was greatly strengthened;
and since 1849 every effort has been made to render it impregnable. The
early history of Verona is involved in obscurity. It fell into the hands
of the Romans, and under the empire became one of the most flourishing
cities in the north of Italy. Constantine took it by assault in 312;
Stilicho defeated the Goths here in 402; and on September 27, 489,
Theodoric defeated Odoacer, king of Italy. Charlemagne took it in 774,
and made it the royal residence of his son, King Pepin. In 1405 the city
gave itself over to Venice, in order to free itself from its tyrants,
who were alternately of the Scala, the Visconti, or the Carrara
families. It was held by Venice till its capture by the French general
Masséna, June 3, 1796. Near here Charles Albert of Sardinia defeated the
Austrians, May 6, 1848. It was surrendered to the Italian government,
October 16, 1866.

=Versailles.= A celebrated city of France, and long the residence of the
French court, capital of the department of Seine-et-Oise, 11 miles
southwest from Paris. Here was signed the treaty (September 3, 1783), at
which England recognized the independence of the United States of
America. On the same day a treaty was signed here between Great
Britain, France, and Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other
possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and Trincomalee restored
to the Dutch. Here was held the military festival of the royal guards,
October 1, 1789, which was immediately followed (on the 5th and 6th) by
the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards and brought the king
back to Paris. Versailles, with the troops there, surrendered to the
Germans September 19, 1870, and the crown-prince of Prussia entered the
next day. On September 26, he awarded the iron cross to above thirty
soldiers at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace was
converted into a hospital. The royal headquarters were removed here from
Ferrières, October 5.

=Vert.= In heraldry, coats of arms are distinguished from one another
not only by the charges or objects borne on them, but by the color of
these charges, and of the field on which they are placed. _Vert_ (green)
is indicated in uncolored heraldic engravings by diagonal lines from
dexter chief to sinister base.

=Vertical Fire.= See FIRE, VERTICAL.

=Vervels=, or =Varvels=. Small rings attached to the ends of the jesses
of a hawk, through which a string was passed to fasten them to its leg.
They occur as a heraldic charge.

=Vervins.= A town of France, in the department of the Aisne, 23 miles
northeast from Laon. A treaty of peace was concluded here in 1598
between Philip II. of Spain and Henry IV. of France.

=Veseronce.= In Southeast France, near Vienne. Here Gondemar, king of
the Burgundians, defeated and killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and
revenged the murder of his brother Sigismond and his family, 524. This
conflict is also called the battle of Voiron.

=Vespers, Sicilian.= See SICILIAN VESPERS.

=Vestini.= A Sabellian people in Central Italy, lying between the
Apennines and the Adriatic Sea. They are mentioned in connection with
the Marsi, Marrucini, and Peligni; but they subsequently separated from
these tribes, and joined the Samnites in their war against Rome. They
were conquered by the Romans, 328 B.C., and from this time appear as the
allies of Rome. They joined the other allies in the Marsic war, and were
conquered by Pompeius Strabo in 89.

=Veteran.= Long exercised in anything, especially in military life and
the duties of a soldier; long practiced or experienced; as, a veteran
officer or soldier.

=Veteran.= One who has been long exercised in any service or art,
particularly in war; one who has grown old in service, and has had much
experience.

=Veteran Corps.= Are among the military reserves of all nations. They
consist of old soldiers past the prime of active manhood, and incapable
of taking the field. Their discipline and steadiness, however,
admirably fit them for garrisons or fortresses, and for the instruction
of young troops. During the civil war in America (1861-65), a
veteran reserve corps was established under the command of the
provost-marshal-general. The men admitted into this corps were drawn
from three sources, viz.: (1) By taking officers and men still in the
field, who had been disabled by wounds or by disease contracted in the
line of duty; (2) By taking officers and men who were absent sick in
hospitals or convalescent camps; and (3) By accepting officers and men
who had been honorably discharged on account of wounds or disease
contracted in the line of duty, and who desired to re-enter the service.
This corps was divided into companies, battalions, and regiments, and
was employed to enforce the enrolling and drafting of men for active
service, for arresting deserters, stragglers, etc., and as a garrison
for permanent barracks, etc. Upon the reduction of the army in 1869, the
corps was discontinued.

=Veterinary.= Of or pertaining to the art of healing or treating the
diseases of domestic animals, as horses, etc. In England and some other
European countries, a veterinary surgeon is a commissioned officer, who
has medical charge of horses used in the military service. In the U. S.
service there is one veterinary surgeon allowed to each of the regiments
of cavalry, and the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th regiments of cavalry have an
additional veterinary surgeon. These veterinary surgeons are recognized
as civilians.

=Vetterlin Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Vexilla.= Flags or streamers, given to the Roman soldiers who
distinguished themselves. They were embroidered in silk, and fixed on
the top of a spear. _Vexillum roseum_ was a red flag, which the general,
on any sudden tumult or unforeseen danger, brought out of the Capitol,
and encouraged the people to flock to it as recruits for infantry.

=Viazma.= A town of European Russia, on the river of the same name, in
the government and 100 miles east-northeast from Smolensk. The French
were defeated here by the Russians, October 22, 1812, when a great part
of the town was destroyed by fire.

=Vibo= (now _Bivona_). The Roman form of the Greek town Hipponium,
situated on the southwestern coast of Bruttium. It was destroyed by the
elder Dionysius, who transplanted its inhabitants to Syracuse. It was
afterwards destroyed, and at a later time it fell into the hands of the
Bruttii by the Romans, who colonized it 194 B.C., and called it Vibo
Valentia.

=Vicenza.= A city of Northern Italy, in the province of Venice, 39 miles
west from Venice. Vicenza was a Roman station, and suffered greatly on
the irruption of the northern tribes. It was successively pillaged by
Alaric, Attila, the Lombards, and the emperor Frederick II. In the
early part of the 15th century it came into the possession of the
Venetians, who held it till 1796, when it became the scene of sanguinary
conflicts between the French and Austrians.

=Vicksburg.= A city and port of Mississippi, on the Mississippi River,
408 miles north of New Orleans, and is the chief town between Memphis
and New Orleans. It was strongly fortified in 1861, and provided with a
large garrison. In January, 1862, it was attacked by the Federal naval
forces from Memphis and New Orleans, but without success. In April,
1863, a naval attack was combined with the land forces under Gen. Grant,
who defeated Gen. Pemberton near Jackson, cut off supplies and
reinforcements from the garrison, and with a close siege and continual
assaults, compelled a surrender, July 4, 1863, with 30,000 prisoners of
war, 200 cannon, and 70,000 stand of arms.

=Victor.= The winner in a contest; one who gets the better of another in
any struggle; especially, one who conquers in war; a vanquisher; one who
defeats an enemy in battle.

=Victoria Cross.= The peculiarities of this decoration, which was
instituted on the termination of the Crimean campaign in 1856, are, that
it may be granted to a soldier of any rank, and for a single act of
valor. The Cross of the Legion of Honor, as was felt during the Crimean
campaign, served a purpose in the French army which was served by none
of the British decorations, and it was in imitation of it that the
Victoria Cross was founded, with the inscription “For Valor,” and which
can be given to none but those who have performed, in presence of the
enemy, some signal act of valor or devotion to their country. The
general distribution of the crosses earned in the Crimean war took place
in Hyde Park on June 26, 1857. The recipients were 62 in number. The
Victoria Cross is in the form of a Maltese cross, formed from the cannon
captured at Sebastopol. In the centre is the royal crown, surmounted by
the lion, and below, on a scroll, the words, “For Valor.” The ribbon is
blue for the navy, and red for the army. On the clasp are two branches
of laurel, and from it the cross hangs, supported by the initial “_V_.”
The decoration is accompanied by a pension of £10 a year.

=Victorious.= Belonging or relating to victory, or a victor; having
conquered in battle or contest; having overcome an enemy; conquering;
winning; triumphant; as, a victorious general; victorious troops;
victorious army. Producing conquest; as, a victorious day. Emblematic of
conquest, indicating victory. “Brows bound with victorious wreaths.”

=Victory.= The defeat of an enemy in battle, or of an antagonist in
contest; a gaining of the superiority in war, struggle, or combat;
conquest; triumph.

=Victuals.= Food or sustenance allowed to the troops, under certain
regulations, whether on shore or embarked in transports. Relieving the
enemy with money, victuals, etc., is punishable by court-martial. See
APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 45.

=Vienna.= A celebrated city of Europe, capital of the Austrian empire,
is situated about 2 miles from the main stream of the Danube, 251 miles
southeast of Prague by railway. Vienna was the Roman _Vindobona_. On the
decline of the Roman empire it experienced the common fate, and was
pillaged by the Goths and Huns. In the 13th century Vienna was subjected
to a six weeks’ siege, in consequence of the refusal of Ottokar of
Bohemia (who was then in possession of Vienna) to acknowledge the
election of the emperor Rudolph. It was besieged by the Turks under
Solyman the Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men; but the defense,
though conducted by only about 16,000 regular troops, and 4000 citizens,
was so valiant that the Turks were forced to retire with the loss of
70,000 of their best troops. In July, 1683, it was again besieged by the
Turks, headed by the grand vizier Kara-Mustapha. The defense was most
valiantly conducted by Count Rudiger of Starhemberg, but had become
almost hopeless, when John Sobieski, king of Poland, suddenly appeared
with an army, and the Turkish host was almost annihilated, September 12,
1683. Vienna was taken by the French under Prince Murat, November 14,
1805; evacuated January, 1806; was again captured by the French, May 13,
1809; but was restored on the conclusion of peace, October 14, 1809. The
revolt in Hungary induced an insurrection in Vienna, March 13, 1848. A
second insurrection broke out, barricades were raised, and Count Latour,
the war minister, was murdered, October 6, 1848; the emperor took
flight, October 7; and the city was bombarded by Windischgratz and
Jeliachich, October 28; it surrendered to the imperial troops on October
30, having suffered considerably from the bombardment. The
fortifications were demolished, and the city enlarged and beautified,
1857-58. The Prussians encamped near Vienna, and a state of siege was
proclaimed, July, 1866. The following treaties were concluded in Vienna:
(1) The treaty between the emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by
which they confirmed to each other such parts of the Spanish dominions
as they were respectively possessed of; and by a private treaty the
emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the restoration of
Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender on the
throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, April
30, 1725. (2) Treaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, Charles
VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and the states of Holland, by
which the Pragmatic Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the
Spanish succession terminated (Spain acceded to the treaty on July 22).
This treaty was signed March 16, 1731. (3) Treaty of peace between the
emperor Charles VI. of Germany and the king of France, Louis XV., by
which the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and
Lorraine was ceded to France. Signed November 18, 1738. (4) Treaty
between Napoleon I. and Francis (II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which
Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories,
which were shortly afterwards declared to be united to France under the
title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaged to adhere to the
prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, October
14, 1809. (5) Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and
Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by the treaty
of Chaumont, March 1, 1814. Signed March 23, 1815. (6) Treaty between
the king of the Netherlands on the one part and Great Britain, Russia,
Austria, and Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement of the
Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the house of Orange,
May 31, 1815. (7) Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania and
Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg, June 4, 1815. (8)
Commercial treaty for twelve years signed between Austria and Prussia.
Signed at Vienna, February 19, 1853. (9) Treaty for the maintenance of
Turkey, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, and
Russia. Signed April 9, 1854. (10) Treaty between Austria, Prussia, and
Denmark, by which Denmark ceded the duchies, October 30, 1864. (11)
Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy; Venetia given up to Italy,
October 3, 1866.

=View of a Place.= A reconnoissance of a fortified town, its situation,
the nature of the country about it, as hills, valleys, rivers, marshes,
woods, hedges, etc.; taken in order to judge of the most convenient
place for opening the trenches, and carrying out the approaches; to find
out proper places for encamping the army, and for the park of artillery.

=Vigne= (_Fr._). In ancient times, a shed, or gallery with a roof and
sides, made of double hurdles, 18 or 20 feet long, and 7 or 8 feet wide,
upon wheels. Vignes were used to establish a covered communication
between the towers, testudos, etc., of the besiegers.

=Vigo.= A seaport town of Spain, in Galicia, situated on an inlet of the
Atlantic called the Ria de Vigo, 78 miles southwest from Corunna. Vigo
was attacked and burned by the English under Drake and Norris in 1589.
Vigo was taken by Lord Cobham in 1719, but relinquished after raising
contributions. It was again taken by the British, March 27, 1809.

=Vikings.= Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, Danes, and Norsemen, who in the
4th century migrated eastward, to the countries beyond the Baltic, and
westward and southward, chiefly to the British Isles.

=Villafranca.= A town of Austrian Italy, in the delegation and 9 miles
southwest from Verona, on the Tartaro. This place is remarkable for the
personal interview which took place here between the emperors of France
and Austria, July 11, 1859, and the peace in consequence concluded, by
which Lombardy was given to Sardinia.

=Villages.= Cavalry, the better to preserve their horses, should occupy
villages whenever the distance of the enemy, and the time necessary to
repair to its posts in battle, will permit. Their quarters should be
preferably farm-houses or taverns having large stables. Posts are
established by the colonel or commanding officer, and the squadrons
conducted to their quarters by their respective captains. Where in an
exceptional case regular distributions are not made, the resources which
the household assigned as quarters presents are equally divided. About
two hours after their arrival, the squadrons in succession water their
horses and then give forage. Cavalry, and infantry also, should,
wherever thus cantoned near an enemy, occupy, when it can be done,
houses which will hold an entire company or some constituent fraction of
a company, and at break of day stand to their arms. When in the same
cantonment, cavalry should watch over the safety of the cantonment by
day and the infantry by night; and in the presence of an enemy they
should be protected by an advance guard and natural or artificial
obstacles.

=Villa Viciosa.= A village of Spain, in New Castile, in the province of
Guadalajara. Here, in 1710, was fought the battle which closed the War
of Succession, and placed Philip V. upon the Spanish throne.

=Villa Vicosa.= A town of Portugal, province of Alemtejo. Here the
Portuguese under the French general Schomberg defeated the Spaniards,
1665.

=Villeta.= In Paraguay, South America, where Lopez and the Paraguayans
were totally defeated by the Brazilians and their allies, December 11,
1868.

=Vimeira.= A village of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, 7
miles north from Torres Vedras. At this place the British under Sir
Arthur Wellesley defeated the French and Spanish forces under Marshal
Junot, August 21, 1808. The attack made by the French with great bravery
was gallantly repulsed; it was repeated by Kellerman at the head of the
French reserve, which was also repulsed, and the French being charged
with the bayonet, withdrew on all points in confusion, leaving many
prisoners.

=Vincennes.= A town of France, department of Seine, 5 miles
east-southeast from the Louvre in Paris. In reality, the town is merely
a great fortress and barracks, and is famous for its arsenal, and for
its school for the practice of shooting. At the latter the Chasseurs de
Vincennes, and all the best marksmen of the army, are trained. Among the
famous men who have been confined in this fortress may be mentioned
Henry IV., the Prince of Condé, Cardinal de Retz, Mirabeau, and the Duc
d’Enghein, who was shot in the moat of the castle by order of Bonaparte.

=Vincent, St.= An island in the West Indies; it was long neutral, but at
the peace of 1703 the French agreed that the right to it should be
vested in the English. The latter soon after engaged in a war against
the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to
consent to a peace. In 1779 the Caribs greatly contributed to the
reduction of this island by the French, who, however, restored it in
1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the
Caribs to insurrection, which was not subdued for several months.

=Vincible.= Capable of being overcome or subdued; conquerable.

=Vindelicia.= A Roman province south of the Danube, bounded on the north
by the Danube which separated it from Germany, on the west by the
territory of the Helveti in Gaul, on the south by Rhætia, and on the
east by the river Œnus (now _Inn_). It was originally part of the
province of Rhætia, and was conquered by Tiberius in the reign of
Augustus. The southern portion of this province was inhabited by the
Vindelici, a warlike people. The other tribes in Vindelicia were the
Brigantii, the Licatii, and the Brunii. Vindelicia fell into the hands
of the Alemanni in the 4th century, and from this time the population of
the country appears to have been entirely Germanized.

=Vinegar.= In transportation by water vinegar is essential to the
comfort of horses, and should be freely used by sponging their mouths
and noses repeatedly, and also their mangers. A small portion of vinegar
drank with water supplies the waste of perspiration of men in the field.
It is better than rum or whisky; it allays thirst, and men who use it
avoid the danger of drinking cold water when heated, and are not fevered
as they are too apt to be by the use of spirituous liquors.

=Vinegar-Hill.= Near Enniscorthy, in Wexford, Southeast Ireland. Here
the Irish rebels encamped and committed many outrages in the surrounding
country. They were gradually surrounded by the British troops, commanded
by Lake, June 21, 1798, and after a fierce struggle, with much
slaughter, totally dispersed.

=Violence.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 21 and 56.

=Vireton= (_Fr._). An arrow formerly made very long, light, and so
feathered as to revolve round its own axis; also called vire.

=Virginia.= One of the thirteen original United States of America, and
is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia,
east by Maryland and the Atlantic Ocean, south by North Carolina and
Tennessee, and west by Kentucky and West Virginia. The shores of
Virginia were first explored by Sebastian Cabot, 1498, and again under
the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in
whose honor it was named; was first settled by an English colony, on the
James River, May 13, 1607, which consisted mostly of gentlemen of
fortune, and persons of no occupation. The friendly Indians sold them
land and provisions; but the diseases of a damp climate swept off half
the settlers the first autumn. The energy of Capt. John Smith saved the
colony from destruction; and in 1609 it was reinforced by 500 persons,
who were reduced by sickness and starvation to 60. They had embarked to
abandon the settlement, when Lord Delaware came with emigrants and
supplies. In 1622 the colony was reduced by wars and massacres from 4000
to 2500; but in 1624 it became a crown colony, and increased, so that in
1649 there were 15,000 English and 300 negroes in it. In 1754, the
colonial militia took part in the French war; and Maj. George Washington
took part in Gen. Braddock’s campaign. In 1769, Thomas Jefferson, a
member of the House of Burgesses, asserted for the colony the right of
self-taxation, denying the right of Parliament to tax the colonies. In
1773, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, and Richard Henry Lee were
appointed a committee to confer with the other colonies, and urged upon
their delegates the Declaration of Independence. Virginia, the earliest
settled, largest, and most populous of the thirteen original States,
called the Old Dominion, was the first to propose the confederacy and
the Constitution. On April 17, 1861, this State passed the ordinance of
secession. The Confederate government was invited to Richmond, which
became the centre of military operations. Virginia was occupied by the
Federal troops during the whole of the civil war, and a great many
hotly-contested battles were fought on her soil. The State was restored
to the Union, January 26, 1870.

=Virginia, West.= A new State of the American Union, and separated from
the above, because antagonistic in political interests; it was organized
in August, 1861, and admitted into the Union by act of Congress,
December 31, 1862, taking effect June 20, 1863. The State comprises 52
counties, lying west of the Alleghanies.

=Virole.= In heraldry, the hoop, ring, or mouth-piece of a bugle or
hunting-horn.

=Viroled.= In heraldry, furnished with a virole or viroles.

=Visigoths.= See GOTHS.

=Visit, To.= To go to any place, as guard quarters, barracks, hospital,
etc., for the purpose of noticing whether the orders or regulations
which have been issued respecting it are observed.

=Visiting Officer.= He whose duty it is to visit the guards, barracks,
messes, hospital, etc. The same as orderly officer.

=Visor.= That part of the helmet which covers the face.

=Vitrified Forts.= The name given to certain remarkable stone inclosures
bearing traces of the action of fire, about 50 of which exist in
various parts of Scotland. They are generally situated on a small hill,
overlooking a considerable valley, and consist of a wall, which may have
originally been about 12 feet in height, inclosing a level area on the
summit of a hill. The most remarkable feature of these structures is,
that the wall is always more or less consolidated by the action of
fire,--in some cases only giving a glassy coating to its inner side,
while in other instances the vitrification has been most complete, the
ruins assuming the character of vast masses of coarse glass.

=Vittoria.= A town of Spain, the chief town of the province of Alava, 30
miles southeast from Bilboa. This place is the site of a brilliant
victory obtained by Wellington over the French army commanded by Joseph
Bonaparte, king of Spain, and Marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813. The
hostile armies were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. After a
long and fearful battle, the French were driven, towards evening,
through the town of Vittoria, and in their retreat were thrown into
irretrievable confusion. The British loss was 22 officers and 479 men
killed; 167 officers and 2640 men wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 151
pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions,
cattle, and treasure, with his baton as marshal of France. Continuing
the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington took Jourdan’s only remaining gun.

=Vivandière.= In continental armies, and especially that of France, a
female attendant in a regiment, who sells spirits and other comforts,
ministers to the sick, marches with the corps, and contrives to be a
universal favorite. Although a familiar friend to all, these women
contrive to maintain themselves respectable, and generally respected;
and a corps is usually extremely jealous of the slightest discourtesy
being shown to its vivandière. The woman wears the uniform of the
regiment, short petticoats taking the place of the man’s tunic.

=Vlissingen=, or =Flushing=. See FLUSHING.

=Vocontii.= A powerful and important people in Gallia Narbonensis,
inhabiting the southeastern part of Dauphiné, and a part of Provence.
They were allowed by the Romans to live under their own laws, and,
though in a Roman province, they were the allies and not the subjects of
Rome.

=Voided.= In heraldry, having the inner part cut away or left vacant, a
narrower border being left at the sides, the color of the field being
seen in the vacant space;--said of a charge or ordinary.

=Voider.= In heraldry, one of the ordinaries, whose figure is much like
that of the flanch or flasque.

=Volant.= In heraldry, flying. A bird volant is represented flying
bendways towards the dexter side of the shield; and its position may be
distinguished from that of a bird rising, by the legs being drawn up
towards the body.

=Volant.= A piece of steel on a helmet, presenting an acute angle to the
front.

=Volcæ.= A powerful Celtic people in Gallia Narbonensis, divided into
the two tribes of the Volcæ Tectosages and the Volcæ Arecomici,
extending from the Pyrenees and the frontiers of Aquitania along the
coast as far as the Rhone. They lived under their own laws, without
being subject to the Roman governor of the province, and they also
possessed the Jus Latii. The Tectosages inhabited the western part of
the country from the Pyrenees as far as Narbo, and the Arecomici the
eastern part from Narbo to the Rhone. A portion of the Tectosages left
their native country under Brennus, and were one of the three great
tribes into which the Galatians in Asia Minor were divided.

=Volhynia.= A frontier government of West Russia, bounded on the
southwest by Galicia, and on the west by Poland, from which it is
separated by the river Bug. Volhynia in early times belonged to the
ancient Russians, but was conquered by the Lithuanians and Poles in
1320, and remained in their hands till its annexation to Russia in 1798.

=Volley.= The simultaneous discharge of a number of fire-arms.

=Volokolamsk.= A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of Moscow,
60 miles northwest from Moscow. It has suffered many misfortunes, having
been twice plundered and almost destroyed by the Tartars, and taken by
the Poles in 1613.

=Volsci.= An ancient people in Latium, but originally distinct from the
Latins, dwelt on both sides of the river Liris, and extended down to the
Tyrrhene Sea. Their language was nearly allied to the Umbrian. They were
from an early period engaged in almost unceasing hostilities with the
Romans, and were not completely subdued by the latter till 338 B.C.,
from which time they disappear from history.

=Volsinii=, or =Vulsinii= (now _Bolsena_). Called _Velsina_, or
_Velsuna_, by the Etruscans, one of the most ancient and most powerful
of the twelve cities of the Etruscan Confederation, was situated on a
lofty hill on the northeastern extremity of the lake called after it,
_Lacus Volsiniensis_ and _Vulsiniensis_ (now Lago di Bolsena). Volsinii
is first mentioned in 392 B.C., when its inhabitants invaded Roman
territory, but were easily defeated by the Romans, and were glad to
purchase a twenty years’ truce on humiliating terms. The Volsiniensis
also carried on war with the Romans in 311, 294, and 280, but were on
each occasion defeated, and in the last of these years appear to have
been finally subdued. On their final subjugation their city was razed to
the ground by the Romans, and its inhabitants were compelled to settle
on a less defensible site in the plain.

=Voltigeurs.= Are picked companies of irregular riflemen in the French
regiments. They are selected for courage, great activity, and small
stature. It is their privilege to lead the attack.

=Volturno.= A river of Naples, which rises in the province of Sannio or
Molise, and, after a course of 90 miles, falls into the Gulf of Gaeta 20
miles from Naples. A great battle was fought on the banks of this river
in 1800, between the troops of Francis II., king of Naples, and the
followers of Garibaldi.

=Volunteers.= See MILITIA.

=Vorant.= In heraldry, a term applied to an animal represented as
swallowing another; as, sable, a dolphin naiant, vorant a fish proper.

=Vossem, Peace of.= Between the elector of Brandenburg and Louis XIV. of
France; the latter engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector;
signed June 6, 1673.

=Votes.= See FINDING.

=Vougle=, or =Vouillé= (Southwest France; near Poitiers). Here Alaric,
king of the Visigoths, was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France,
507. Clovis immediately after subdued the whole country from the Loire
to the Pyrenees, and thus his kingdom became firmly established. A peace
followed between the Franks and the Visigoths, who had been settled
above one hundred years in that part of Gaul called Septimania.

=Vulned.= A heraldic term, applied to an animal, or part of an
animal,--as, for example, a human heart, wounded, and with the blood
dropping from it.

=Vulnerable.= Susceptive of wounds; liable to external injuries; capable
of being taken; as, the town is extremely vulnerable in such a quarter.
It is also applied to military dispositions; as, the army was vulnerable
in the centre, etc. An assemblage of men without arms, or with arms but
without discipline, or having discipline and arms, without officers, are
vulnerable.



W.


=Wad.= To insert or crowd a wad into; as, to wad a gun.

=Wad.= See GROMMET, and JUNK-WADS.

=Wad-hook.= A screw or hook to draw wadding out from a gun.

=Wage Battle, To.= To give gage or security for joining in the
_duellum_, or combat.

=Wager of Battle.= In ancient law, the giving of gage or pledge for
trying a cause by single combat, formerly allowed in military, criminal,
and civil causes. In writs of right, where the trial was by champions,
the tenant produced his champion, who, by throwing down his glove as a
gage or pledge, thus waged or stipulated battle with the champion of the
demandant, who, by taking up the glove, accepted the challenge. The
wager of battle, which has long been in disuse, was abolished in England
in 1820.

=Wagon.= A vehicle for the conveyance of goods or passengers, is mounted
on four wheels, but varies considerably in the construction of its other
parts, according to the species of traffic in which it is employed. They
are used by armies for the transportation of subsistence, other military
stores, baggage, ammunition, sick and wounded. The following wagon has
been adopted for use in the service of the U. S. army: The body to be
straight, 3 feet 6 inches wide, 1 foot 9 inches deep, 9 feet 6 inches
long at the bottom, and 10 feet at the top, sloping equally at each end,
all in the clear or inside; the floor 9 feet 10¹⁄₂ inches long, 3 feet 6
inches wide, and 7¹⁄₈ inches thick. Top sides 6 inches wide, 7¹⁄₈ inches
thick, 10 feet 2 inches long on the bottom edge, sloping the same as the
lower side boards. Six bows of good ash or oak, 2 inches wide, ¹⁄₂ inch
thick, with three staples to confine the ridge-pole to its place; one
ridge-pole 11 feet 3 inches long, 1³⁄₄ inches wide, ⁵⁄₈ inch thick;
seat-boards 3 feet 6 inches long, 1 foot wide, ⁷⁄₈ inch thick to rest on
top edge of sides on upright spiral springs, so arranged as to be used
with or without the top sides; two plates 7 inches long, 1¹⁄₂ inches
wide, ³⁄₄ inch thick, with two bolts in each, for the front wheels to
strike against in turning the wagon. The tongue to be 10 feet 6 inches
long, 4 inches wide, 2¹⁄₄ inches deep at front end of hounds, 1³⁄₄
inches wide, and 2¹⁄₄ inches deep at point or front end, and so arranged
as to lift up the front end of it to hang within 2 feet 6 inches of the
ground when the wagon is standing at rest on a level surface; front
hounds 6 feet long, 2¹⁄₄ inches deep, 3¹⁄₂ inches wide over axle, and to
retain that width to the back end of tongue; jaws of hounds 1 foot 6
inches long and 2¹⁄₄ inches square at the front end. Axle-stock 4 feet
¹⁄₂ inch long, 3¹⁄₂ inches wide, 3¹⁄₄ inches deep. Hind hounds 4 feet 11
inches long, 2¹⁄₄ inches deep, and 2³⁄₄ inches wide back, and 2¹⁄₂
inches wide front; jaws 10 inches long and 4 inches wide at the end
where they rest on coupling-pole. Coupling-pole 8 feet 9 inches long,
3¹⁄₂ inches wide, 2³⁄₈ inches deep, with a rivet through front end.
Wheels 3 feet 8 inches and 4 feet 8 inches high; sixteen spokes 2 inches
wide and 2 inches thick at hub, and 2 inches wide and 1¹⁄₂ inches thick
at felloes; eight felloes 2 inches wide, 2³⁄₈ inches deep; hubs 9 inches
diameter at flanges, 3¹⁄₂ inches diameter at front, 4 inches diameter at
back end, 12 inches long; tires 2 inches wide, ¹⁄₂ inch thick, fastened
with 8 screw-bolts, one in each felloe. Distance from the centre of
king-bolt hole to centre of back axle, 5 feet 9¹⁄₂ inches; and from
centre of king-bolt hole to the centre of bolt in jaw of hind hounds, 1
foot 10 inches; distance from the centre of hind axle to centre of bolt
in jaw of hind hounds, 3 feet 11¹⁄₂ inches, and from the centre of
king-bolt to centre of slider 2 feet 2¹⁄₂ inches; distance between the
inside of front and hind standards, 5 feet 8¹⁄₂ inches,--to receive the
body, which is 5 feet 8 inches from outside to outside of cleats of
sides. Weight of model wagon, 1325 pounds, complete, for four horses or
mules. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, TRAVELING KITCHEN, and TRAVELING
FORGE.

=Wagon-body, Ponton.= See PONTONS, WAGON-BODY PONTONS.

=Wagoner.= One who conducts a wagon; a wagon-driver. The number of
master-wagoners and wagoners allowed in the quartermaster’s department
U. S. army is limited only by the exigencies of the service.

=Wagon-master.= A person in charge of one or more wagons, especially of
those used for transporting freight, as the supplies of an army, and the
like. The quartermaster-general is authorized to employ from time to
time as many forage-masters and wagon-masters as he may deem necessary
for the service, not exceeding 20 in the whole, who shall be entitled to
receive $40 per month and three rations a day, and forage for one horse;
and neither of whom shall be interested or concerned directly or
indirectly in any wagon or other means of transport employed by the
United States, nor in the purchase or sale of any property procured for
or belonging to the United States, except as an agent of the United
States.

=Wagon-train.= An indispensable companion of an army under this or some
other title. It serves to convey the ammunition, provisions, sick,
wounded, camp equipage, etc. Wagons in convoy travel at a rate of from 1
to 2 miles an hour, according to the state of the roads, and other
circumstances; and a mile may be said to contain 100 wagons. A great
object in the march of a convoy, is to preserve the draught animals as
much as possible from fatigue. For this purpose, if the convoy amount to
many hundred wagons, they must be formed into divisions of not more than
500 each. Should it consist of thousands, it will be advisable to form
them into grand divisions, and then again into subdivisions of 500 each.
By this means, and by calculating the time of departure, each division
may remain at rest until just before its time of movement, and the
necessity will thus be prevented of the latter part of a large convoy
being harassed for a considerable time before its turn to move. The
different divisions of the convoy should be numbered, and obliged each
day to change the order of their marching. Whenever the progress of a
wagon-train is arrested by the breaking down of one of the wagons, or
other delay, all the wagons in rear of the stoppage should immediately
drive up into the first open space, to as great a number as it will
hold. This will keep the convoy together, and better under the care of
the escort. The escort should be divided into front, centre, and rear
guards; besides the divisions in the flanks, which should never be more
than 400 yards from each other.

=Wagram.= A village of Lower Austria, on the left bank of the Rossbach,
11 miles northeast from Vienna. It is the site of a battle between the
French under Napoleon, Davoust, Masséna, and Macdonald, and the
Austrians under the Archduke Charles, in which the former were
victorious, July 5-6, 1809. The Austrians retreated in the most orderly
manner, carrying with them about 5000 prisoners, and leaving about
25,000 dead or wounded on the field of battle,--the French loss being
about equal; the latter claim to have taken 20,000 prisoners.

=Wahabees=, =Wahabis=, or =Wahabites=. A warlike Mohammedan reforming
sect, considering themselves the only true followers of the Prophet,
arose in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of Abd-el-Nahab
(Ibn-abdul-Wahab). His grandson Savoud (Saud, or Saood), in 1801,
defeated an expedition headed by the caliph of Bagdad. The conquest of
Hejaz was next undertaken by the Wahabees. In 1803, Saoud collected a
large army, defeated Ghaleb, the ruler of Mecca, in several battles,
laid siege to Mecca, which, after a resistance of two or three months,
surrendered at discretion. Not the slightest excess was committed, but
the people had to become Wahabees. Failing to take Jiddah, into which
Ghaleb had thrown himself, the Wahabi forces went northwards, and, in
1804, took Medina, where they stripped the tomb of Mohammed of its
accumulated treasures, and prohibited the approach to it of all but
Wahabees. For several years after the conquest of Hejaz, Saoud continued
to extend and consolidate his power. Plundering incursions were made to
the very vicinity of Bagdad, Aleppo, and Damascus. On the east, Saoud
took the island of Bahrein, and annexed a part of the Persian coast, on
the east side of the Gulf, and exacted tribute from the sultan of Oman.
This brought him into conflict with Great Britain, which sent (1808) a
force and severely chastised the Wahabi pirates that infested the
commerce of the Persian Gulf. Saoud’s son, Abdallah, long resisted
Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, but in 1818 he was defeated and taken
prisoner by Ibrahim Pasha, who sent him to Constantinople, where he was
put to death. Ibrahim continued some months in Arabia, consolidating his
conquests throughout Nejed and the adjoining provinces. But soon an
insurrection broke out, and the Egyptians had to retire to Kasim, and
Turki, a son of Abdallah, was proclaimed sultan of Nejed. Renewed
expeditions were undertaken by the Egyptian commanders, driving, first,
Turki from his capital for a time and then his son and successor,
Feysul. But soon after the death of Mehemet Ali (1849) the Egyptians
gave up the struggle; Feysul was recalled from exile; and under him and
his son Abdallah II., who unites in a high degree the fanaticism and
ferocity of the Wahabi, with great skill in military tactics, the Wahabi
sway, according to the accounts of Palgrave in 1863, and of Col. Pelly
in 1865, had become more powerful and extensive, and threatens to
swallow up the entire peninsula.

=Wahlstatt.= See KATSBACH.

=Wait.= Ambush. _To lay wait_, to lie in ambush; to prepare an
ambuscade. _To lie in wait_, to lie in ambush; to be secreted in order
to fall by surprise on an enemy.

=Waiting, In.= This term is used in the British service, to mark out the
person whose turn is next for duty; as, an officer in waiting.
_Field-officer in waiting_, is the term applied to the monthly duty
taken by the field-officers of the three regiments of Foot Guards, who
attend the sovereign on court-days, to present the detail of his corps,
and receive the parole or other orders from her personally, which are
afterwards given to the guards in orders. The field-officer in waiting
commands all the troops on duty, and has the immediate care of the
sovereign’s person within-doors, as the gold stick has of it while in
court. The latter also receives the parole from the sovereign.

=Waiving Amain.= A salutation of defiance, as by brandishing weapons,
etc.

=Waiwode=, or =Waywode=. In the Turkish empire, the governor of a small
province or town; a general.

=Wakefield.= A town of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 26
miles from York. Near it is the site of a battle between Margaret, the
queen of Henry VI., and the Duke of York, in which the latter was slain,
and 3000 Yorkists fell upon the field, December 31, 1460. The death of
the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to fix the good fortune of
Margaret; but the Earl of Warwick espoused the cause of the duke’s son,
the Earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war was
continued.

=Walcheren.= An island of Holland, in the province of Zealand, in the
German Ocean, at the mouth of the Scheldt. The unfortunate expedition of
the British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships of the line, and
200 smaller vessels, principally transports, and 40,000 land forces, the
latter under the command of the Earl of Chatham, and the fleet under Sir
Richard Strachan. For a long time the destination of the expedition
remained secret; but before July 28, 1809, when it set sail, the French
journals had announced that Walcheren was the point of attack. Perhaps
a more powerful and better appointed armament had never previously left
the British ports, or ever more completely disappointed public
expectation. The plan was to send the fleet and army up the Scheldt, and
attack Antwerp (the principal naval station and arsenal in the north of
France), whose fortifications, though formidable, were much in need of
repair, and whose garrison at the time only numbered about 2000 invalids
and coast-guards; while there were not more than 10,000 French soldiers
in Holland. The expedition, after numberless needless delays, at last
sailed on July 28, and reached the Dutch coast on the following day.
But, instead of obeying the orders of the minister of war, Lord
Castlereagh, to _advance at once in force against Antwerp_, the
commander-in-chief, Lord Chatham, frittered away his time in the
reduction of Vlissingen (Flushing), which was not effected till August
16, by which time the garrison of Antwerp had been reinforced by King
Louis Bonaparte with the troops at his command (about 6000), and by
detachments sent from France, which swelled the garrison, by August 20,
to 15,000 men. About the end of August, Chatham, who, as a general, was
a methodical incapable, “found himself prepared” to march upon Antwerp,
but by this time 30,000 men, under Bernadotte, were gathered to its
defense, and the English army was decimated by marsh-fever, so that
success was not to be hoped for. However, it was judged right to hold
possession of Walcheren, in order to compel the French to keep a strong
force on the watch in Belgium, and, accordingly, 15,000 men remained to
garrison the island, the rest returned to England; but the malaria
proved too fatal in its ravages, and as peace had been concluded between
Austria and France, this force was also recalled. Thus an excellently
devised scheme, through utter stupidity of the agent chosen by royalty
to carry it out, failed in every point of consequence, and ended in the
loss of 7000 men dead, and the permanent disablement of half the
remainder. The House of Commons instituted an inquiry, and Lord Chatham
resigned his post of master-general of the ordnance, to prevent greater
disgrace; but the policy of the ministers in planning the expedition
was, nevertheless, approved.

=Wales= (anc. _Britannia Secunda_). A principality in the southwest part
of Great Britain. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain,
Vortigern was elected king of South Britain. He invited over the Saxons
to defend his country against the Picts and Scots; but the Saxons
perfidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and
Angles, by which they made themselves masters of South Britain. Many of
the Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the
Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, about 447. In this state Wales
remained unconquered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157; and in
1282, Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to
its independence, by the death of Llewelyn, the last prince. The Welsh,
however, were not entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen
gave birth to a son at Caernarvon in 1284, whom Edward styled prince of
Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne
almost ever since. For further history of Wales, see separate articles
in this work.

=Walk About.= A military expression used by British officers when they
approach a sentinel, and think proper to waive the ceremony of being
saluted.

=Wall.= A series of brick, stone, or other materials, carried upward and
cemented with mortar. When used in the plural number, wall signifies
fortification; works built for defense. _To be driven to the wall_, a
figurative term, signifying to be so pressed that you can neither
advance nor retreat.

=Wallachia.= One of the Danubian principalities, in the northeast of
Turkey in Europe. This country formed part of the ancient Dacia of the
Romans, and was subsequently brought under the dominion of the Goths and
Huns. During the two centuries which preceded the fall of the empire of
the East, it was sometimes subject to the Greek emperors, and sometimes
to the monarchs of Hungary. It was conquered by the Turks in the 14th
century, but the inhabitants struggled to assert their independence
until 1536, when it became a province of the Ottoman empire. In 1829 it
was placed under the protection of Russia, though it was still
considered a dependency of Turkey. See MOLDAVIA.

=Walloon Guard.= The body-guard of the Spanish monarch;--so called
because formerly consisting of Walloons.

=Wall-piece.= A small cannon (or, in ancient times, an arquebuse)
mounted on a swivel, on the wall of a fortress, for the purpose of being
fired at short range on assailants in the ditch or on the covert way.
There are distinct evidences that the great wall of China was originally
constructed for the reception of wall-pieces.

=Wandewash.= A town on the Coromandel coast, about 30 miles south of
Madras. In 1739, when M. de Lally, the French governor in the East
Indies, threatened with utter subjection the English settlements in the
Carnatic, he was opposed most gallantly by Col. Coote, upon the
Coromandel coast. Coote reduced the French settlements of Masulipatam
and Conjeveram, and made a vigorous attack upon Wandewash, which he
captured. Lally, in the autumn of 1739, made a bold attempt to regain
possession of the disputed settlement, but his force was utterly broken;
he lost 600 men, and was happy to save the wreck of his army by
abandoning his camp to the victor.

=Wapinschaw.= A periodical gathering of the people, instituted by
various Scots statutes, for the purpose of exhibiting their arms, these
statutes directing each individual to be armed on a scale proportionate
to his property. There are numerous Scots acts of the 15th and 16th
centuries regulating the subject of wapinschaws. In the time of war or
rebellion, proclamations were issued charging all sheriffs and
magistrates of burghs to direct the attendants of the respective
wapinschawings to join the king’s host. During the reign of the later
Stuarts, attendance on the wapinschaws was enforced with considerable
strictness; and in addition to military exercises, sports and pastimes
were carried on by authority at these gatherings. The Covenanters, in
consequence of this sport being of a kind disapproved by them, did what
they could to discourage attendance on the wapinschaws.

=War.= A contest between nations or states, carried on by force, either
for defense or for revenging insults and redressing wrongs, for the
extension of commerce or acquisition of territory, or for obtaining and
establishing the superiority and dominion of one over the other. It is
the armed conflicts of sovereign powers, declared and open hostilities.
Wars are various in their occasions and objects; but in all cases, the
aim of each contending party is to weaken and overthrow the opposing
party. At one time, the art of war was supposed to consist very much in
wearing out the enemy by a slow process of exhaustion, and thus wars
were much protracted. But more recently, the greatest generals have
adopted the method of rather endeavoring to strike sudden and terrible
blows, by which the war is sooner brought to a termination, and this
method, although it may often have been adopted without regard to
considerations of humanity, is, in all probability, less productive of
suffering to mankind than the other. Among rude nations, wars are
conducted by tumultuary hosts, suddenly congregated, and in general,
either after defeat or victory, soon dispersed. But the wars of the more
civilized and powerful nations have long been conducted by armies
carefully trained and disciplined; and in the case of maritime powers,
by means of fleets at sea as well as of armies on land. Preparation for
war among such nations requires not only the forming and training of the
army, but vast provision in many various ways of the means and
_matériel_ of war. Much science and skill are also applied to the
conduct of military operations, and the principles upon which they ought
to be conducted have been carefully investigated and theories tested by
an examination of the history of the most important campaigns. See
STRATEGY and TACTICS.

Wars are classified in various ways. They are classified from the nature
of the military operations employed in their prosecution; into
_offensive_ or _defensive_ wars: from the end to be attained; into wars
of _conquest_, wars of _independence_, etc.: from the causes producing
the war; into wars of _insurrection_, _religious_ wars, etc.: from the
general locality in which they are waged; into _American_, _African_,
_European_, etc. Other classifications than these are also used, being
based on the nature and object of the war. War is both a _science_ and
_an art_. All investigations which have for their object the
determination of the great principles which should govern a general in
conducting his military operations; all analyses which are made to show
the important and essential features which characterize a campaign or
battle, and comparisons made with other campaigns and battles; all
deductions and formations of rules which are to be used in military
operations; all these belong to the _science_ of war. The practical
application of these great principles and rules belongs to the _art_ of
war. In the science of war as well as in the other physical sciences,
the facts must precede theory; and although the number of known facts is
steadily increasing, the number of general principles upon which the
theories of the science are based is constant, if not decreasing. These
general principles are deduced by a close and critical examination of
such methods of waging war as have been adopted by those great generals
who are known as eminent in their profession. It is evident, then, that
an intimate connection exists between military history and the science
of war. Napoleon said, “Alexander made eight campaigns; Hannibal,
seventeen,--one in Spain, fifteen in Italy, and one in Africa; Cæsar,
thirteen, of which eight were against the Gauls and five against the
legions of Pompey; Gustavus Adolphus, three; Turenne, eighteen; Prince
Eugène of Savoy, thirteen; Frederick, eleven, in Bohemia, Silesia, and
on the banks of the Elbe. The history of these eighty-four campaigns,
written with care, would be a complete treatise on the art of war. From
this source, the principles which ought to be followed, in offensive as
well as defensive warfare, could at once be obtained.” To these
campaigns are to be added the battles and campaigns of Napoleon. Jomini,
an eminent writer on military art, says, “Correct theories, founded upon
right principles, sustained by actual events of war, and added to
accurate military history, will form a true school of instruction for
generals.” If these means do not produce great men, they will at least
produce generals of sufficient skill to take rank next after the
“natural masters of the art of war.” The sources of all treatises on the
“Art and Science of War,” are to be found in the military histories
narrating the events and results of the battles and campaigns just
enumerated.

In the progress of society, certain _usages of war_ have come to be
generally recognized. These, of course, have varied at different times,
and in different parts of the world, according to the state of
civilization and the prevalent feelings of the time. They are also
subject to modification from causes less general. But the changes which
have taken place in them during the lapse of ages have been in general
favorable to the interests of humanity. Prisoners of war are no longer
put to death, nor are they reduced to slavery, as was once very
frequently the case, but their treatment has become generally more and
more mild and kind. It is a well-understood rule, however, that a
prisoner of war obtaining his liberty by exchange or otherwise, with the
condition of not serving again during a fixed period against the same
power, forfeits his life, if he is found so serving, and is again taken
prisoner. Among all civilized nations, quarter is granted in battle
whenever it is sought; and there are certain usages universally
prevalent with regard to the capitulation of fortified places, and of
bodies of troops hopelessly hemmed in by superior forces, etc.

=War, Articles of.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=War, Auxiliary.= Is that in which a nation succors its neighbors,
either in consequence of alliances or engagements entered into with
them; or sometimes to prevent their falling under the power of an
ambitious prince.

=War, Civil.= A war between different sections or parties of the same
country or nation.

=War, Council of.= See COUNCIL OF WAR.

=War, Defensive.= Is a war undertaken to repel invasion or the attacks
of an enemy. Defensive war may be divided into three kinds. It is either
a war sustained by a nation, which is suddenly attacked by another who
is superior in troops and in means; or a nation makes this sort of war
by choice on one side of its frontiers, while it carries on offensive
war elsewhere; or it is a war become defensive by the loss of a battle.

=War Department.= See DEPARTMENT OF WAR.

=War Establishment.= See ESTABLISHMENT.

=War, Game of.= See STRATEGOS.

=War, Holy.= A crusade; a war undertaken to deliver the Holy Land, or
Judea, from infidels. See CRUSADE.

=War Minister.= See MINISTER, and SECRETARY OF WAR.

=War, Offensive.= See OFFENSIVE WAR.

=War Office.= The immediate office of the British secretary of state for
war, and the centre on which pivots the entire administration of the
army. It is subdivided into a number of departments, each under a chief
officer, who is at the head of that section of the labor, and is
directly responsible to the secretary of state. The last named high
officer is aided by two under-secretaries of state, an assistant
under-secretary, and a military assistant. Under these and the heads of
departments there are about 450 clerks, with 50 messengers, etc.

=War of Succession.= See SUCCESSION WARS.

=War, Religious.= Is a war maintained in a state on account of religion,
one of the parties refusing to tolerate the other.

=Warasdins.= A kind of Sclavonian soldiers, clothed like the Turks, with
a sugar-loaf bonnet instead of a hat.

=War-beat=, or =War-beaten=. Worn down in service.

=Warburg= (Northern Germany). Here the French were defeated by the Duke
of Brunswick and the allies, July 31, 1760.

=War-cry.= A cry or signal used in war. For mutual recognition and
encouragement in battle, war-cries have always been common, each rude
nation or tribe having its own. The ancient war-cry of the English was
_Saint George!_ that of the Spaniards, _San Jago!_ and that of the
French, _Montjoie Saint-Denis!_ that of the dukes of Burgundy, _Montjoie
Saint-André!_ and that of the dukes of Bourbon, _Montjoie Notre-Dame!_.
In the feuds of the Middle Ages, each party, or the retainers of each
noble family, had a distinctive war-cry. Sometimes the war-cry was the
name of the family. Thus, in Scotland, the retainers of the noble houses
of Douglas and of Home rushed into battle with the cry of _A Douglas! a
Douglas!_ or _A Home! a Home!_ The French armies under Napoleon were
accustomed to charge with shouts of _Vive l’Empereur!_

=Ward.= Watch, the act of guarding. A garrison or party stationed for
defense of any place; a position of defense or guard made by a weapon in
fencing. Also, to guard; to watch; to defend; to parry an attack.

=Ward-Burton Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=War-dance.= A dance among savages preliminary to going to war. Among
the North American Indians, it is begun by some distinguished chief, and
whoever joins in it thereby enlists as one of the party engaged in a
warlike excursion. The war-dance is also indulged in upon the close of
any successful expedition, as well as for pleasure.

=Warden.= An officer appointed for the naval or military protection of
some particular district of country. In order to keep the districts of
England adjoining to Scotland and Wales in an attitude of defense, great
officers, called _lord wardens_ of the marches, were appointed, to whom
the duty of protecting the frontier was committed. From this source
originated the name _ward_, applied to the subdivisions of the counties
of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham,--a term afterwards extended to
divisions of a city, town, or burgh adopted for municipal purposes. The
custodier of Dover Castle was created by William the Conqueror warden of
the Cinque Ports, and guardian of the adjacent coast, an office
comprising extensive jurisdiction, civil, naval, and military, the
greater part of which was taken away by 18 and 19 Vict., c. 48.

=Warder.= A truncheon, or staff of command, carried by a king or any
commander-in-chief, the throwing down of which seems to have been a
solemn act of prohibition to stay proceedings.

=Warfare.= Military service; military life; war; hostilities; contest
carried on by enemies.

=Warfarer.= One engaged in warfare; a military man; a soldier.

=War-field.= A field of war or battle.

=War-horse.= A horse used in war; the horse of a cavalry soldier;
especially, a strong, powerful, spirited horse for military service; a
charger.

=Warlike.= Fit for war; disposed for war; as, a warlike state. Belonging
or relating to war; military; martial.

=Warlike Virtues.= Are love of our country, courage, valor, prudence,
intrepidity, temperance, disinterestedness, obedience, wisdom,
vigilance, and patience. In the celebration of the anniversary of the
destruction of the Bastile, which took place at Paris July 14, 1789, the
French characterized these eleven virtues by the following emblems: a
pelican, a lion, a horse, a stag, a wolf, an elephant, a dog, a yoked
ox, an owl, a cock, and a camel.

=Warned.= Admonished of some duty to be performed at a given time or
place. Thus, officers and soldiers are warned for guard, etc.

=War-paint.= Paint put on the face and other parts of the body by
savages, as a token of going to war.

=War-path.= The route taken by a party going on a warlike
expedition,--usually applied to hostile Indians.

=War-proof.= Valor tried by war.

=Warrant.= A certificate of rank issued by commissioned officers. See
OFFICERS, WARRANT-.

=Warrant.= In Great Britain, is a royal ordinance on any matter relating
to the army.

=Warrington.= A town of England, in Lancashire, on the river Mersey, 17
miles east by south from Liverpool. As the best passage of the river, it
was the scene of frequent conflicts during the civil war in the reign of
Charles I. In 1643 the town was twice taken by storm by the
Parliamentary forces. In 1648 the Scottish army made a stand here, but
were defeated by Gen. Lambert, who also here repulsed the troops under
Charles II. on his way to Worcester in 1651; and in 1745 the centre
arches of the bridge, over the Mersey, were broken down to impede the
progress of the Highlanders under the Pretender.

=Warrior.= A man engaged in war or military life; a soldier; a man noted
for valor and prowess; a champion.

=Warsaw.= Formerly the capital of Poland, now capital of the Russian, or
rather Russianized, government of Warsaw, on the left bank of the
Vistula, about 300 miles east of Berlin by railway. The Poles were
defeated in a three days’ battle by the Swedes, July 28-30, 1656. An
alliance was formed here, between Austria and Poland against Turkey, in
pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna
(see VIENNA), March 31, 1683. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII., 1703.
A treaty was concluded here between Russia and Poland, February 24,
1768. The Russians, placed here in 1794, were expelled by the citizens
with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 30 pieces of cannon,
April 17, 1794; the Poles were defeated, by the Russians at Maciejovice,
near Warsaw, October 4, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw, July,
1794; was compelled to raise the siege in September; but it was taken by
the Russians, November, 1794. On November 4, 1794, the Russian general
Suwarrow, after the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered
30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in cold blood. In August,
1807, Warsaw was constituted a duchy, and annexed to the house of
Saxony. In 1813 the duchy was overrun by the Russians, and Warsaw made
the residence of a Russian viceroy. A Polish revolution commenced at
Warsaw, November 29, 1830. The subsequent principal events in the
history of this city being intimately connected with that of the state
of which it was the capital, are narrated in the article Poland.

=War-scot.= A contribution for the supply of arms and armor, in the time
of the Saxons.

=War-song.= A song exciting to war; especially, among the American
Indians, a song at the war-dance, full of incitements to military ardor.

=War-traitor.= A person who betrays to the enemy anything concerning the
condition, safety, operation, or plans of the troops holding or
occupying a place. The punishment is usually death.

=War-whoop.= The cry or shout uttered by Indians in war.

=Warwickshire.= A county occupying almost the very heart of England, and
the centre and highest point of the great district of midland
table-land. At the time of the Roman invasion the county was inhabited
partly by the Cornavii, and partly by the Wigantes, or Wiccii. Under the
Romans it formed part of the province of Flavia Cæsariensis. Under the
Saxons, the county was included in the kingdom of Mercia, whose rulers
occasionally resided at Warwick, Tamworth, and Kingsbury. After the
Conquest, the powerful families, the Newburghs, Beauchamps, and
Nevilles, who held the earldom of Warwick, involved the county in all
the great civil wars recorded in English history. In the troubles in
Henry III.’s reign, Kenilworth stood a long siege by the royal forces;
in the wars of the Roses, the city of Coventry warmly embraced the
Lancastrian, and the town of Warwick the Yorkist cause; and in the war
between Charles I. and his Parliament, Warwickshire was torn by the
contending factions, who made special head in the neighborhood of
Birmingham. Charles slept at Aston Hall, near that town, on his march
through Warwickshire in 1642, and two days afterwards the first great
battle of the civil war was fought on the borders of the county at Edge
Hill. Swords and other weapons, used in the battle, are still
occasionally plowed up. Maxstoke Castle (inhabited) is externally a
remarkably perfect specimen of the fortified residences of the period of
the 14th century.

=Warwolf.= In ancient military history, an engine for throwing stones
and other great masses.

=War-worn.= Worn with military service; as, a war-worn soldier.

=Washington City.= The seat of the government of the United States of
America, is in the District of Columbia, on the left bank of the Potomac
River, between Anacostia River and Rock Creek, which separates it from
Georgetown, 39 miles southwest from Baltimore, and 120 miles northeast
from Richmond. This city was commenced in 1793, but operations were
subsequently suspended in consequence of the war, and much that had been
done was destroyed by the British in 1814, so that the whole edifice was
recommenced in 1815, and was not entirely finished till 1828. During the
civil war (1861-65), from its exposed position, it was threatened with
capture, and was surrounded with fortifications, and converted into an
intrenched camp.

=Washington Territory.= A Territory of the United States; bounded north
by British Columbia, east by the Territory of Idaho, south by the
Columbia River, which separates it from Oregon, and west by the Pacific
Ocean. This Territory was discovered by Juan de Fuca, a Greek, in 1592;
visited by a Spanish navigator in 1775, and three years after by Capt.
Cook. In 1787, Berkeley, an Englishman, re-discovered the Strait of
Fuca, which had been missed by the others. Settlements were made in this
Territory by the Hudson Bay Company in 1828; in 1845, American settlers
entered the Territory, then a part of Oregon. Wars with the Indians, in
1855 and 1858, retarded immigration, but in the latter year, 15,000
persons were attracted by gold discoveries. This Territory was organized
in 1853.

=Wat Tyler’s Insurrection.= See TYLER’S INSURRECTION.

=Watch.= The non-commissioned officers and men on board of transports
are divided into three watches, one of which is constantly to be on
deck, with at least one subaltern officer in charge of the watch.

=Watch and Ward.= The charge or care of certain officers to keep a watch
by night and a guard by day in towns, cities, and other districts, for
the preservation of the public peace.

=Watch-tower.= A tower on which a sentinel is placed to watch for
enemies or the approach of danger.

=Watch-word.= See PAROLE.

=Water.= In calculating the quantity of water required per man for
drinking and cooking, it may be put down at 6 pints in temperate, and 8
pints in tropical climates. A similar amount will just allow men to wash
their bodies. In stationary camps, however, the minimum daily allowance
per man should be 5 gallons for all purposes, washing clothes included.
Horses not doing work will thrive well on 6 gallons a day, but require
from 8 to 12 when at work, according to their condition and the nature
of the work. A couple of gallons extra should, under all circumstances,
be allowed for washing them. Oxen require about 6 or 7 gallons daily.

In selecting positions, particularly those that are likely to be of a
permanent character, a careful analysis of the water should be made by a
medical man. A fair opinion can be formed as to whether it is wholesome
or not, by the appearance of the inhabitants, and by tasting the water
oneself. “It should be transparent, colorless, without odor, and
tasteless; well aërated, cool, and pleasant to drink; it must have no
deposit; vegetables should be easily cooked in it.” Shallow water is
always to be examined with suspicion. The water of some rivers at
certain seasons is thick and muddy; in some, it is always so. To examine
it without the aid of chemical tests, fill a long tumbler or other glass
vessel with it. If the water has been drawn in a bucket or other vessel,
shake it up and stir it well before pouring it into the tumbler or glass
cylinder; let it stand for a day, or as many hours as possible; draw off
the water without disturbing the sediment, which should then be
carefully examined through a microscope. Vegetable decompositions and
iron are the chief substances that give color to water. When water is
very bad it should be boiled before drinking; after boiling it should be
placed in shallow vessels, and poured from a height from one into
another. Very muddy water when placed in barrels or other vessels, can
be cleaned by immersing the hand containing a lump of alum in it, and
moving it about for a few seconds. All the coloring matter will sink to
the bottom. The longer the time that elapses between the operation and
drinking, the better. Growing vegetable substances may not be always
injurious, but dead vegetable matter is so without doubt. At the maximum
density (39.8° Fahr.), the barometer being at 30 inches, a gallon of
distilled water weighs 8.33888 avoirdupois pounds or 58,373 grains.

=Water-battery.= One nearly on a level with the water.

=Water-bucket.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Water-budget.= A heraldic bearing, in the form of a yoke with two
pouches of leather appended to it, originally intended to represent the
bags used by the Crusaders to convey water across the desert, which
were slung on a pole, and carried across the shoulders. The Trusbuts,
barons of Wartre in Holderness, bore _Trois boutz d’eau_, “_three
water-budgets_,” symbolizing at once their family name and baronial
estate; and by the marriage of the heiress, similar arms came to be
assumed by the family of De Ros, who bear gules, three water-budgets
argent.

=Water-deck.= A covering of painted canvas for the saddle, bridle, and
the like, of a dragoon’s horse.

=Waterford.= A maritime county of the province of Munster, in Ireland.
In the time of Ptolemy, it was inhabited by the tribe of the Brigantes.
It was afterwards peopled by the Desii, who are supposed to have
migrated from a tribe of the same name in Meath; and having spread
themselves also over the plain country of Tipperary; those settled in
Waterford were distinguished by the name of South Desii, and the others
by that of North Desii. Here the Danes established a permanent
settlement in the 9th century, making the city of Waterford their chief
seat of government; and though frequently involved in wars with the
surrounding natives, they retained possession of the city and district
until their subjugation by the English, who, in 1170, under Strongbow,
stormed Waterford, took their chieftain or prince prisoner, and brought
the whole of the Desiis into the possession of the English. Shortly
after, Henry II. granted the greater part of the county to Robert le
Poer, and the remainder, with that of Cork, then a petty kingdom, to
Milo de Cogan, two of his followers. King John landed at Waterford in
1211, and personally visited many parts of the country. The next king of
England who visited Ireland, Richard II., landed at Waterford in 1394,
with an army of 4000 men-at-arms, and 30,000 archers. The county
suffered severely in the reign of Elizabeth, through the rebellion of
the Earl of Desmond, and the Spanish invasion; and also in the wars of
1641, during the first years of which, its possession was the subject of
continued sanguinary contention between the English and Irish forces,
until it was ultimately reduced under the authority of the English
Parliament by Cromwell. During the war of the Revolution, it took part
with King James, and was reduced by King William’s forces, under Gen.
Kirk, after the decisive battle of the Boyne.

=Watering-bucket.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Watering-call.= A trumpet sounding, on which the cavalry assemble to
water their horses.

=Waterloo.= A village of Belgium, province of South Brabant, on the
highway from Charleroi to Brussels; which was the scene of the greatest
and most decisive battle of modern times. This battle was fought on June
18, 1815, between the French army of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under
Napoleon, and the allies, commanded by the Duke of Wellington; the
latter with 67,661 men and 156 guns, resisted the various attacks of the
enemy from 10 o’clock in the morning until 5 o’clock in the afternoon.
About that time 16,000 Prussians reached the field of battle; and by 7
o’clock, the force under Blücher amounted to above 50,000 men, with 104
guns. Wellington then moved forward his whole army, and in every point
this attack succeeded. The French were forced from their positions, and
fled in the utmost confusion, leaving 227 pieces of artillery in the
hands of the victors. The pursuit was kept up with great energy
throughout the whole night by the Prussian troopers, who seemed bent
upon at once avenging the defeats of Jena, Auerstadt, and Ligny, and
glutted their fierce animosity by an indiscriminate slaughter. The total
loss in this battle was, from the obstinacy and determination with which
it was contested, necessarily large; the figures are: British and
Hanoverians, 11,678; Brunswickers, 687; Nassauers, 643; Netherlanders,
3178; a total of 16,186; which added to 6999 Prussians, gives the
aggregate allied loss, 23,185. The French had 18,500 killed and wounded,
and 7800 prisoners (some French accounts raise the total list of _hors
de combat_ to 32,000). Napoleon, quitting the wreck of his flying army,
returned to Paris; and, finding it impossible to raise another,
abdicated the throne of France.

=Wattignies.= A village of France, department of Nord, where Jourdan and
the French republicans defeated the Austrians under the Prince of
Coburg, and raised the siege of Maubeuge, October 14-16, 1793.

=Waver.= A body of troops is said to waver when it becomes unsteady if
at the halt, or to hesitate and lose its order if on the march, under
the fire of the enemy.

=Wavre.= A town in the province of South Brabant, Belgium. It is known
as the scene of a desperate and protracted conflict between the French
and Prussians, on June 18-19, 1815. The former under Grouchy, Gérard,
and Vandamme, advanced against the Prussians at the same time as
Napoleon directed the troops under his immediate orders against
Wellington at Waterloo, and being much superior in number (32,000 to
15,200), drove the Prussians under Thielman into Wavre, where they
defended themselves with desperate firmness, repulsing thirteen
different assaults in the course of the 18th. On the following morning,
Thielman, who had heard of the victory at Waterloo, attacked Grouchy,
but was repulsed with vigor, though the urgent orders of Napoleon forced
the latter to retreat to Laon, instead of following up his success.

=Wawz=, or =Wawer= (Poland). The Poles under Skrzynecki attacked the
Russians at Wawz, and after two days’ hard fighting, all the Russian
positions were carried by storm, and they retreated with the loss of
12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, March 31, 1831. The loss of the Poles
was small, but their triumph was soon followed by defeat and ruin.

=Way, Covert.= See COVERT WAY.

=Way of the Rounds.= In fortification, a space left for the passage of
the rounds between the rampart and the wall of a fortified town.

=Waywode.= A Slavic word meaning “leader in war,” was first applied
simply to the military commanders, but afterward also to the governors
of the provinces, and used in Poland, Hungary, Transylvania, Moldavia,
and Wallachia. It has been superseded by another title, also of Slavic
origin,--_hospodar_.

=Weapon.= An instrument of offensive or defensive combat; something to
fight with; anything used, or designed to be used, in destroying or
annoying an enemy.

=Weaponed.= Furnished with weapons or arms; armed; equipped.

=Weaponless.= Having no weapons; unarmed.

=Wear and Tear.= Said of military stores which have been worn out in
service; as, the equipments were rendered useless by the wear and tear
of service.

=Wednesfield.= A parish of England, in Staffordshire. Edward the Elder
gained a victory over the Danes near this place in the beginning of the
10th century.

=Well.= A depth which the miner sinks under ground, with branches or
galleries running out from it, either to prepare a mine, or to discover
the enemy’s mine.

=Well Found.= Fully equipped.

=Werder Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Werndl Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Westmorland=, or =Westmoreland=. One of the lake counties of England,
bounded by Cumberland on the northwest and north, by Durham and
Yorkshire on the east, and by Lancashire on the south and west. Its
earliest inhabitants, as far as any traces remain, were principally,
though not exclusively, Celts of the Cambrian division. Early in the 2d
century this part of England was overrun by the Romans, who established
their power by means of numerous forts and well-constructed roads. From
the withdrawal of the Romans to the coming in of the Angles and the
Danes the history of Westmorland is a complete blank. The invasion of
the former people, who appear to have penetrated along the lines of the
Roman roads, probably commenced about the close of the 7th century, and
soon after the Northmen, when driven from the other parts of England,
took refuge in this country. Westmorland, with other northern counties,
was either held or claimed during some centuries by Scotland, and thus
continued for a long time a cause of contention between the two
countries; but in 1237 the king of Scotland was induced to give up his
claim to it. From this time to the period of the civil war of the reign
of Charles I. Westmorland enjoyed comparative tranquillity. In 1648,
Sir Marmaduke Langdale raised a force of upwards of 4000 men, chiefly in
Cumberland and Westmorland. They were joined by the Scots, who remained
in the latter county until they were compelled to remove out of it for
want of provisions; and during their stay, and until the final retreat
of the royalists, this district was reduced to extreme distress. In 1715
the adherents of the Stuart family passed through Westmorland on their
way to Preston. And again in 1745, Prince Charles, with his Highland
followers, marched through the county in his invasion of England. During
the retreat of this ill-fated expedition, in December of the same year,
the rear of the Highlanders was overtaken by the Duke of Cumberland’s
horse on Clifton Moor, when a sharp skirmish ensued, which checked the
advance of the English for the moment, and hastened the retreat of the
rebels.

=Westphalia=, or =Munster, Peace of=. Was signed at Munster and at
Osnaburg, between France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the
war against France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in
Europe was first recognized; Alsace given to France, and part of
Pomerania and some other districts to Sweden; the elector palatine
restored to the Lower Palatinate; the religious and political rights of
the German states established; and the independence of the Swiss
Confederation recognized by Germany, October 24, 1648.

=West Point.= Site of the United States Military Academy, and of a
fortress erected during the war of Independence, on the right bank of
the Hudson River, 52 miles north of the city of New York. The Military
Academy is on a plain 160 to 180 feet above the river, surrounded by the
bold scenery of one of the finest river-passes in the world. The forts
and a river-chain were taken by the British in 1777, but abandoned after
Burgoyne’s surrender, and stronger forts were built, which Gen. Arnold
bargained to betray,--a plot foiled by the arrest of Maj. André. For
history of the Military Academy at West Point, see MILITARY ACADEMIES.

=West Virginia.= See VIRGINIA, WEST.

=Wexford.= A maritime county of the province of Leinster, Ireland. The
maritime position of Wexford laid it open early to the incursions of the
Danes, to whom the name Wexford, or Weisford, is traced by antiquaries.
It was the first landing-place of the English in the invasion, and
formed part of the tract granted by MacMurrough to the English
adventurers whose assistance he had invoked. During the civil wars which
followed 1641, Wexford was the scene of frequent contests; and in the
more recent insurrection of 1798, it formed the theatre of the only
formidable conflicts of the peasantry with the regular troops.

=Wheel.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Wheel, To.= In tactics, to move forward or backward in a circular
manner, round some given point. Wheeling is one of the most essential
and important operations of the company, necessary in many changes of
position, and in the formation of column and of the line.

=Wheelings.= Different circular motions made by horse and foot, either
to the right or left, forward and backward, etc.

=Wheel-lock.= A sort of lock anciently used on arquebuses. It consisted
of a roughened steel wheel, with chain and spring, which, when wound up
like a watch, revolved rapidly, and struck fire against a flint held in
the cock.

=Whinyard.= A sword, or hanger, so called by Butler in his “Hudibras.”

=Whipping.= See FLOGGING.

=White Eagle, Order of the.= An order of knighthood in Poland,
instituted by Vladislaus V. in 1325; revived by Frederick Augustus I. in
1705.

=White Feather.= A mark of cowardice. _To show the white feather_, to
give indications of cowardice.

=White Gunpowder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=White Plains.= A village of Westchester Co., N. Y., 25 miles
north-northeast of New York. A noted battle of the Revolution was fought
in the vicinity, October 28, 1776, between the Americans and the
British, in which the former were worsted.

=Whiteboys.= A body of ruffians in Ireland, so called on account of
their wearing linen frocks over their coats. They committed dreadful
outrages in 1761, but were suppressed by a military force, and their
ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose into insurrection again and were
suppressed 1786-87. Whiteboys have appeared at various times since,
committing the most frightful crimes. The insurrection act was passed on
their account in 1822.

=Whitworth Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Whiz.= To make a humming or hissing sound, like an arrow or ball flying
through the air.

=Who Comes There?= The night challenge of a sentinel on post.

=Whoop.= A shout; a loud noise which soldiers make in charging. It is a
natural though a barbarous habit, and has been preserved in civilized
armies from a prevailing custom among savages, particularly the wild
Indians of America.

=Wicket.= A small door in the gate of a fortified place, affording a
free passage to the people without opening the great gate.

=Wicklow.= A maritime county in the province of Leinster, in Ireland.
According to Ptolemy the geographer, the northern part of the county was
the residence of the tribe of the Cauci, and the southern that of the
Menapii. It was afterwards occupied by the Irish septs of the Byrnes and
O’Tooles, who, though the district was claimed by the English after
their settlement, maintained their independence, and carried on an
almost continual war against the new settlers until the end of the reign
of Elizabeth. The inhabitants adhered to the royal cause during the war
of 1641, until the arrival of Cromwell, to whose superior force they
submitted without opposition. No other occurrences of historical
importance took place until 1798, when several bands of insurgents
sought refuge in the mountain fastnesses after the dispersion of their
main body in Wexford, and continued to harass the neighboring counties
until tranquillity was restored, partly by making terms with the
leaders, and partly by establishing military posts in the interior of
the country.

=Widdin=, or =Widin=. A fortified town of European Turkey. It is
surrounded on the land side by morasses, and is defended by a strong
citadel, by walls, and by a fortified island in the Danube. For
centuries it has been a strong post in all the contests between the
Turks and their northern neighbors, and it is called by the Turks the
Virgin Fort, from its never having been taken.

=Wield.= To use with full command or power, as a thing not heavy for the
holder; to manage; to handle; as, to wield a sword.

=Wiesbaden.= A town of Prussia, formerly capital of the independent
duchy of Nassau. The Romans built a station here, and erected a fort on
a hill on the northwest side of the town, still known as the Römerberg,
and which was garrisoned by the 22d Roman legion. The _Mattiaci_, a
subdivision of the German tribe called the _Catti_, allied themselves
with the Romans; but in the 3d century, the barbarian Germans rose
against the Romans, and destroyed their forts, including Wiesbaden.

=Wigan.= A town of England, in Lancashire, situated near the small river
Douglas. In the civil war the king’s troops, commanded by the Earl of
Derby, were defeated and driven out of the town in 1643 by the
Parliamentary forces under Sir John Smeaton. The earl was again defeated
by Ashton, who razed the fortifications of Wigan to the ground in the
same year; and once more by a greatly superior force commanded by Col.
Lilburne, 1651.

=Wight, Isle of= (anc. _Vecta_, or _Vectis_). An island in the English
Channel, lying off the coast of Hampshire, from which it is separated by
the Solent. It was originally peopled by the Celts, who were afterwards
expelled or subdued by the Belgæ and these, in their turn, were
compelled to submit, in 43, to the Roman legions under Vespasian. The
Saxon kings of Wessex conquered it about 530, after a sanguinary action
at Wiht-garasbyrig, supposed to be the modern Carisbrooke. In 661, it
was subdued by Wulfhere, son of Penda, king of Mercia. The Danes invaded
the Wight in 787, 897, 981, 998, and again in 1003, when they destroyed
the town of Waltham, supposed to be identical with the modern Werror.
The French landed on the island, but were repulsed in 1340. In 1377,
the French burnt the towns of Yarmouth, Newtown, and Newport, but were
defeated in an attack which they hazarded upon Carisbrooke Castle. In
1545, the French forces, which had assembled under Claude d’Annebault,
and fought an indecisive action with Lord Lisle at Spithead, threw
themselves upon the island in four detachments at Sea View, Bembridge,
Shanklin, and Bonchurch, but were repulsed with signal loss.

=Wigwam= (sometimes written _weekwam_). An Indian cabin or hut. The
wigwam, or Indian house, of a circular or oval shape, was made of bark
or mats laid over a framework of branches of trees stuck in the ground
in such a manner as to converge at the top, where was a central aperture
for the escape of smoke from the fire beneath. The better sort had also
a lining of mats. For entrance and egress two low openings were left on
opposite sides, one or the other of which was closed with bark or mats,
according to the direction of the wind.

=Wilderness, Battles of the.= Were fought between the Federal and
Confederate armies in Virginia, in May, 1864. They consisted of a series
of sanguinary battles, having for their object the capture of Richmond.
The plan of Gen. Grant, commander-in-chief of the Union forces, was to
follow a line nearly corresponding to the route of the Fredericksburg
and Richmond Railroad, making his base at Acquia Creek. For this purpose
he moved down the right of the position of Gen. Lee, who commanded the
Confederate army, and was prepared either to accept a battle from him on
the Rapidan, or to continue his march to Spottsylvania Court-house. Gen.
Lee would not consent to be outflanked, and thereby endanger his
railroad communication with Richmond. He therefore prepared to resist
the progress of Grant, and commenced a rapid movement of his forces
parallel with the course of the river. Gen. Hill’s and Ewell’s forces
arrived in front of Gen. Grant’s forces on Thursday, May 5, 1864.

Early on the morning of the 5th, Grant’s command began to move. The 5th
Corps (Warren’s) advanced from its position near Wilderness Tavern,
along the roads leading to Orange Court-house, 5 miles to Parker’s
store. This point is in Spottsylvania County, about 8 miles above
Chancellorsville. The whole face of the country in that neighborhood is
thickly covered with an undergrowth of field-pines, cedars, and
scrub-oaks, and therefore utterly unfit for the use of cavalry or
artillery. The 6th Corps (Sedgwick’s) was to follow, and the 2d Corps
(Hancock’s) was to stretch southwesterly from Chancellorsville toward
Shady Grove Church. Sheridan covered the extreme left, with the object
of finding the enemy’s cavalry under Stuart. This line extended nearly 5
miles, with the centre thrown forward, when the action commenced. The
5th Corps and the advance of the enemy under Ewell met, when a fierce
encounter ensued, the Federals losing about 1000 men. At different
periods during the afternoon other portions of the opposing armies came
in contact, and the contest became exceedingly bloody. Such was the
nature of the undergrowth that there was little opportunity to use
artillery. The fire of the enemy’s musketry was furious, and continued
until late in the night, but the Federal line was substantially as it
had been when the battle commenced; both armies were still face to face,
ready to attack at dawn on the morrow.

The battle of the Wilderness was renewed on May 6, and consisted of a
succession of fierce attacks made by each side. Both had more or less
intrenched their positions by felling timber and covering it with earth,
or slight earthworks. The interval of ground between the opposing lines
was fought over in some places as many as four or five times, the
combatants driving each other in turn from the opposite lines of
rifle-pits, and the battle continued with unabated fury until darkness
set in, each army holding substantially the same position that they had
on the evening of the 5th. After dark, the enemy made a feeble attempt
to turn our right flank, but the promptness of Gen. Sedgwick, who was
personally present and commanding that part of the line, frustrated
their object. During these two days, the total loss was estimated at
15,000. On the morning of the 7th, reconnoissances showed that the enemy
had fallen behind his intrenched lines, with pickets to the front,
covering a part of the battle-field. Gen. Grant determined to move by
his right flank, and put his whole force between Lee’s forces and
Richmond.

On the night of the 7th the march was commenced toward Spottsylvania
Courthouse, the 5th Corps moving on the most direct road. But Lee having
been apprised of the movement, and having the shorter line, was enabled
to reach there first, and the battles of Spottsylvania followed, which
are given below.

On the 8th, Gen. Warren met a force of the enemy, which had been sent
out to oppose and delay his advance, to gain time to fortify the line
taken up at Spottsylvania. This force was steadily driven back on the
main force, within the recently-constructed works, after considerable
fighting, resulting in severe loss to both sides. On the morning of the
9th Gen. Sheridan started on a raid against the enemy’s lines of
communication with Richmond.

The 9th, 10th, and 11th were spent in manœuvring and fighting without
decisive results. Among the killed on the 9th was that able and
distinguished soldier, Gen. Sedgwick, commander of the 6th Corps, of
which Gen. H. G. Wright succeeded to the command. Early on the morning
of the 12th a general attack was made on the enemy in position. The 2d
Corps (Hancock’s) carried a salient of his line, capturing most of
Johnston’s division of Ewell’s corps and 20 pieces of artillery. But the
resistance was so obstinate that the advantage gained did not prove
decisive.

From the 13th to the 18th was consumed in manœuvring and awaiting the
arrival of recruits from Washington. Deeming it impracticable to make
any further attack upon the enemy at Spottsylvania Courthouse, orders
were issued on the 18th with a view to a movement to the North Anna, to
commence on the 19th, but owing to an attack of the Confederates the
movement was delayed until the night of the 21st. The enemy again having
the short line, and being in possession of the main roads, was enabled
to reach North Anna in advance of the Federals, and took position behind
it, where the battles were again renewed.

_Battles of North Anna._--The 5th Corps reached the North Anna on the
afternoon of the 23d, closely followed by the 6th Corps; the 2d and 9th
got up about the same time. Gen. Warren effected a crossing the same
afternoon and got into position. Soon after getting into position he was
violently attacked, but repulsed the enemy with great slaughter. Hancock
also effected a crossing after some fighting. The 6th Corps crossed on
the 24th and took up a position. The attempt of the Federals on the
Confederate centre was repulsed, and finding the enemy’s position on the
North Anna stronger than either of his previous ones, Gen. Grant
withdrew on the night of the 26th to the north bank, and moved to turn
the enemy’s position by his right. The battle of Cold Harbor (which see)
was the next serious engagement. The loss of the Federals, not including
Burnside’s corps, from May 5 to 31 was about 41,400. The Confederate
loss is not known.

=Williamsburg.= A city, capital of James City Co., Va., 60 miles east of
Richmond, and 68 miles northwest of Norfolk. It is situated on a level
plain between James and York Rivers, 6 miles from each. It was first
settled in 1632, is the oldest incorporated town in the State, and was
the colonial and State capital till 1779. A battle was fought here
between Gen. McClellan and the Confederates on May 5, 1862, which
resulted in victory to the former.

=Wilmington.= A city and port of North Carolina, in New Hanover County,
and situated on the Cape Fear River. It was captured by the Union forces
in February, 1865, Fort Fisher, its principal defense, having been taken
by storm on the 15th of the month preceding.

=Wiltshire=, or =Wiltonshire=. An inland county of England. When Cæsar
invaded England, Wiltshire was occupied by the Belgæ; and the Wansdyke
is pointed to as a portion of the defenses which they constructed. It
was afterwards included in the province of Britannia Prima, and
important Roman stations were established, of which the chief was
placed at Sorbiodunum (Old Sarum). The Saxons under Cedric were defeated
by Arthur and his famous knights, but conquered the country when led by
Cynric, and annexed it to the kingdom of Wessex. It became the
battle-field between Saxon and Dane for many long years of warfare. A
great council was held at Sarum in 1086, by William the Conqueror, which
firmly fixed upon the conquered land the feudal system of the Normans.
During the civil war, many important engagements took place in various
parts of the county, and especially at Devizes and Malmesbury, between
Roundheads and Cavaliers.

=Winch.= An axle turned by a crank-handle for raising weights, as from
mines and the like; a windlass.

=Winchelsea.= A town of England, in Sussex, 37 miles northeast from
Brighton. It is a place of great antiquity, and was twice pillaged,
first by the French and again by the Spaniards, who landed near Farley
Head.

=Winchester= (Rom. _Venta Belgarum_). A town of England, capital of
Hampshire. It is a very ancient town, whose erection may reasonably be
ascribed to the Celtic Britons. It was taken by the Saxons in 495, and
by the Danes in 871-73; and was ravaged by Sweyn in 1013. Winchester was
several times taken and retaken between 1641 and 1643; it was taken by
Cromwell, and the castle dismantled in 1645.

=Winchester.= A city and capital of Frederick Co., Va., in the valley of
the Shenandoah, 150 miles north-northwest of Richmond, 71 miles west by
north from Washington. On March 12, 1862, it was occupied by the Federal
general Banks, and during the war was the scene of frequent conflicts,
and occupied in turn by the Federal and Confederate armies.

=Winchester Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS, and MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Windage.= Is the space left between the bore of a piece and its
projectile, and is measured by the difference of their diameters. The
objects of windage are to facilitate loading, and to diminish the danger
of bursting the piece; it is rendered necessary by the mechanical
impossibility of making every projectile of the proper size and shape,
by the unyielding nature of the material of which large projectiles are
made, by the foulness which collects in the bore after each discharge,
and by the use of hot and strapped shot. The _true windaqe_, which is
the difference between the true diameters of the bore and projectile,
increases slightly with the size of the bore, and is greater for solid
shot, which are sometimes fired hot, than for hollow projectiles, which
are never heated.

_Loss of Force._--The ordinary windage of smooth-bore cannon, used in
the U. S. service, is about ¹⁄₄₀ of the diameter of the bore, and the
loss of force arising from the escape of gas through this windage
amounts to a very considerable portion of the entire charge. The amount
of loss in any case depends on: (1) The degree of windage; (2) The
caliber of the gun; (3) The length of the bore; (4) The kind of powder;
(5) The charge of powder; (6) The weight or density of the ball. It is
probable that the influence which some of these causes exert on the
force of the charge is very slight. It has been determined by
experiment, that the loss of velocity by windage is proportional to the
windage. It may be stated that the loss of velocity by a given windage
is directly as the windage, and inversely as the diameter of the bore,
very nearly.

=Wind-gauge.= In a military sense, is an attachment to the sight (either
front- or rear-sight) of a fire-arm by which an allowance for the effect
of wind on the projectile can be made in aiming. Though usually called
_wind-gauge_, it is also used to counteract _drift_ or any other
deviation which can be anticipated. In the old model target-rifles, the
front-sight is capable of a slight movement. Some of the more recent
military arms have a wind-gauge attached to the rear-sight. In the
_peep-sights_, the sight-piece is moved by a screw. In the present U. S.
service rifle the sight-piece is moved by hand. It has graduations to
guide the marksman. The wind-gauge is frequently attached to
breech-sights of cannon in Europe. In this country the Parrott gun is
similarly equipped.

=Wind-gun.= A gun discharged by the force of compressed air; an air-gun.

=Windlace.= Formerly an apparatus for bending the bow of an arblast or
cross-gun.

=Windlass.= An axis, or roller of wood, square at each end, through
which are either cross-holes for handspikes, or staves across, to turn
it round, by which operation it draws a rope, one end of which is
attached to a weight, which is thus raised from any depth.

=Windsor, Knights of.= See KNIGHTS, MILITARY.

=Wing.= The right or left division of an army, regiment, and the like.
The word is sometimes used to denote the large sides of horn-works,
tenailles, and other outworks.

=Wing.= An ornament worn on the shoulder;--a small imitation epaulette
or shoulder-knot.

=Winged.= In heraldry, represented with wings, or having wings, of a
different color from the body.

=Winnebagoes.= A tribe of Indians who lived around Lake Winnebago in
1639, and were engaged in the war of Pontiac against the English in
1762. In 1794 they were severely defeated by Gen. Wayne, and were
engaged in the Black Hawk war of 1831. They were removed to Minnesota in
1848, from thence to Dakota in 1863, and in the following year to
Nebraska. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Winter-quarters.= The quarters of an army during the winter; a winter
residence or station.

=Wire-cartridge.= A cartridge strengthened by wire ligaments.

=Wires, Pointing-.= See POINTING-WIRES.

=Wisby.= A once famous seaport of the Swedish island of Gothland,
capital of the island, and situated on its west coast, about 130 miles
south of Stockholm. In 1361, Valdemar III. of Denmark took this town by
storm, and, plundering it, obtained an immense booty.

=Wisconsin.= One of the Northwestern States of the United States of
America; it is 302 miles from north to south, and 258 from east to west.
Wisconsin is bounded on the north by Lake Superior and the State of
Michigan, east by Lake Michigan, south by Illinois, and west by Iowa and
Minnesota, from which it is separated by the Mississippi and St. Croix
Rivers. This State was explored by French missionaries in the latter
part of the 17th century, and Indian trading-posts were also
established. It was organized as a Territory in 1836, and admitted into
the Union as a State in 1848. During the late civil war it filled its
quotas cheerfully for the Union cause.

=Wissembourg=, or =Weissenbourg=. A small fortified town of Alsace, in
what was formerly the French department of Bas-Rhin, situated on the
Lauter. It was formerly an imperial city, was seized by Louis XIV. in
1673, and annexed to France by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697. The “lines”
of Wissembourg, erected by Villars, in 1705, were taken by the Austrians
and retaken by the French, 1793, after Hoche’s victory at Geisberg. On
August 4, 1870, the crown-prince of Prussia crossed the Lauter and
gained a brilliant but bloody victory over the French (a part of
MacMahon’s division), storming the lines and the Geisberg. Gen. Abel
Douay was mortally wounded, and about 500 prisoners were made. The
killed and wounded on both sides appear to have been nearly equal. The
German army, composed of Prussians, Bavarians, and Würtembergers, were,
it is said, about 40,000, against about 10,000 French, who fought with
desperate bravery.

=Witepsk=, or =Vitepsk=. A city of Russia in Europe, where a battle was
fought between the French under Marshal Victor, duke of Belluno, and the
Russians commanded by Gen. Wittgenstein. The French were defeated after
a desperate engagement, with the loss of 3000 men, November 14, 1812.

=Withstand.= To oppose; to resist; as, to withstand the attack of
troops.

=Witness.= One who testifies in a cause, or gives evidence before a
judicial tribunal; one who gives testimony. Every judge-advocate of a
court-martial or court of inquiry has power to issue the like process,
to compel witnesses to appear and testify, which courts of criminal
jurisdiction within the State, Territory, or District where such
military courts are ordered to sit may lawfully issue. For oath
administered to witnesses, depositions, etc., see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF
WAR, 91, 92, and 118.

=Wittenberg.= A fortified town of Prussian Saxony, capital of a circle
of the same name in the government of Merseburg, on the Elbe. It has
suffered several times from sieges, particularly in 1756 and 1814,
having on the latter occasion been taken by storm from the French after
a siege of ten months.

=Wolf-hole.= See TROU DE LOUP.

=Wolgast.= A seaport of Prussia, in Pomerania, situated on the Peene,
about 10 miles from its entrance into the Baltic. It is a very old town,
and was strongly fortified as early as the 12th century. It was taken
and retaken five times between 1628 and 1675; the Russians plundered and
burned it in 1713, and the Swedes retook it in 1715.

=Women and Domestic Relations, Protection of.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF
WAR, 58.

=Wood.= The most useful timbers in the United States are: the hickory,
which is very tough and inflexible; white oak, tough and pliable; white
ash, tough and elastic; black walnut, hard and fine-grained; white
poplar, soft, light, fine-grained wood; white pine and other pines, for
building; cypress, soft, light, straight-grained, and grows to a large
size; dogwood, hard and fine-grained. The timber growing in the centre
of a forest is best.

=Wooden Fuze.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Woolwich.= A town of England, in Kent, and is the most ancient military
and naval arsenal in England. It is celebrated for its royal dock-yard,
where men of war have been built so early as the reign of Henry VIII.,
1512. The royal arsenal was formed about 1720; it contains vast
magazines of great guns, mortars, shells, powder, and other warlike
stores; a foundry with several furnaces for casting ordnance; and a
laboratory where fireworks, cartridges, grenades, etc., are made for
public service. There is also a royal artillery barracks here which can
accommodate nearly 4000 men. About 10,000 persons are employed in
Woolwich Arsenal.

=Woolwich Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Woordie-Major.= The native adjutant of an Indian irregular cavalry
regiment.

=Worcester.= The capital of Worcestershire, England, situated on the
left bank of the Severn. It is one of the most ancient cities of the
kingdom, and was formerly strongly fortified, as it had to resist
frequent attacks from the Welsh, and in turbulent periods of English
history was often the object of assault by contending parties. In the
civil war the final great battle between the Puritans and the cavaliers
took place here. This battle, which Cromwell called his “crowning
mercy,” was fought on September 3, 1651, between the Parliamentary
troops, commanded by Cromwell in person, and the Scotch army of Charles
II. The battle lasted several hours, and at its close the Scotch were
utterly routed, nearly all of them being killed or made prisoners.

=Worcestershire.= An inland county of England, forming part of the west
midland division. Its early history cannot be determined with accuracy.
Under the Saxons the county was included in the kingdom of Mercia. It
shared in all the great civil wars of England; it was frequently the
scene of contests between the Saxons and the Danes; the great battle
which decided the fate of Simon de Montfort was fought in the vale of
Evesham; and during the civil war Worcestershire was disturbed by
frequent skirmishes. The battle which settled Cromwell in possession of
the government was fought under the walls of the chief city. See
WORCESTER.

=Words of Command.= Are certain terms which have been adopted for the
exercise and movement of military bodies, according to the nature of
each particular service. Words of command are classed under two
principal heads, and consist of those which are given by the chief or
commander of a brigade, or division, and of those which are uttered by
the subordinate officers of troops or companies, etc. _Cautionary
words_, are certain leading instructions which are given to designate
any particular manœuvre. The cautionary words precede the words of
command. See COMMANDS.

=Working Party.= A body of soldiers told off, by command, to perform
certain work or labor foreign to their ordinary duties. The men
generally receive additional pay while performing this labor.

=Works.= Are the fortifications about the body of a place. This word is
also used to signify the approaches of the besiegers, and the several
lines, trenches, etc., made round a place, an army, or the like, for its
security.

=Works, Advanced.= See ADVANCED WORKS.

=Works, Detached.= See DETACHED WORKS.

=Works, Field-.= See FIELD-WORKS.

=Worm.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Worm a Gun, To.= To take out the charge of a fire-arm by means of a
worm.

=Worms.= A city of Western Germany, grand duchy of Hesse, near the left
bank of the Rhine, 26 miles southeast of Mayence. This is one of the
oldest, and in the early history of Germany was one of the most
important, towns in the country. After its destruction by Attila the Hun
about the middle of the 5th century, it was rebuilt by Clovis in 496. It
afterwards became the seat of many Frankish and Carlovingian kings.
Worms was also the seat of many imperial diets, the best known of which
is that of 1521, when Luther appeared before the emperor Charles V. In
1689 it was burned by order of Louis XIV.; and was taken by the French
under Custine, October 4, 1792. Here, in 1743, an offensive and
defensive alliance was entered into by Great Britain and Austria with
Sardinia.

=Worst, To.= To defeat; to overthrow; to put to the rout.

=Wörth.= A village of Alsace, at the junction of the Sulzbach und the
Sauerbach, is noted as the point where the first decisive encounter took
place between the French and German armies, August 6, 1870. After
storming Wissenbourg on August 4, 1870, the crown-prince of Prussia with
the 3d army (about 120,000) marched rapidly forward and surprised part
of the French army under Marshal MacMahon, including the corps of
Canrobert and Failly (about 47,000), and defeated it in a long,
desperate, and sanguinary engagement near this place. The battle lasted
from 7 A.M. till 4 P.M. The chief struggles occurred in the country
around Reichshoffen and in the village of Frœschweiller; the French are
said to have charged the German line eleven times, each time breaking
it, but always finding a fresh mass behind. The ridge on which Wörth
stands was not captured until the French were taken in flank by the
Bavarians and Würtembergers. Nearly all MacMahon’s staff were killed,
and the marshal himself unhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which
he was rescued by a soldier. He then, on foot, directed the retreat
towards Saverne, to cover the passes of the Vosges. The victory is
attributed to the very great numerical superiority of the Germans (about
130,000) as well as to their excellent strategy. The French loss has
been estimated at 20,000 killed and wounded, and about 6000 prisoners, 2
eagles, 6 mitrailleures, 30 cannon, and much baggage. The Germans are
stated to have had above 8000 men put _hors de combat_. It was admitted
that MacMahon had acted as an able and brave commander.

=Wounded, The.= All the individuals belonging to an army who may have
been maimed, or otherwise hurt in battle.

=Wreath=, =Wreathed=. In heraldry, a wreath is a twisted garland of silk
of different colors, otherwise called a torce, on which it has, since
the 14th century, been usual to place the crest. The side-view of a
wreath exhibits six divisions, which are generally tinctured with the
living colors,--that is, the principal metal and color of the shield.
Every crest is now understood to be placed upon a wreath, except when it
is expressly stated to issue out of a _chapeau_ or _coronet_. A wreath,
when represented alone, shows its circular form. A Moor’s head is
sometimes encircled with a heraldic wreath. A wreath is always
understood to be the twisted garland of silk above explained, unless
otherwise specified; but wreaths of laurel, oak, ivy, etc., sometimes
occur, and savages used as supporters are often wreathed about the head
and middle with laurel. Ordinaries are occasionally wreathed, otherwise
called _tortille_, in which case they are represented as if composed of
two colors, twisted as in the heraldic wreath; as in the coat of
Carmichael, argent, a fess wreathed azure and gules.

=Wright-fuze.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Wrong.= To guard against injustice and oppression in the army, the
Articles of War (see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR) clearly point out the
mode of redress to every individual in the service, who considers
himself wronged by his superiors.

=Wrought Iron.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Würtemberg=, or =Wirtemberg, Kingdom of=. A state in the southwest of
Germany, which was erected into a kingdom in 1806. It was originally
part of Suabia, and was made a county for Ulric I., about 1265, and a
duchy in 1495. Würtemberg has been repeatedly traversed by hostile
armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau made his
celebrated retreat October 23, 1796. This kingdom opposed Prussia in the
war of 1866, but made peace on August 31, following. On November 5,
1870, it joined the other German states in the formation of the German
empire.

=Wyandot Indians.= See HURON INDIANS.

=Wyoming.= A Territory of the United States, organized July 25, 1868,
from a region attached to Dakota, but formerly included in Idaho, and
still earlier known as part of Nebraska. Its average length from east to
west is 355 miles, and its breadth 276 miles. This Territory has been
overrun several times by hostile Indians, but under the strong hand of
the military the country is becoming rapidly settled.

=Wyoming Valley.= A beautiful fertile valley on the Susquehanna River,
in Pennsylvania. It is 21 miles long by 3 wide, and surrounded by
mountains 1000 feet high. It was purchased about 1765 by a Connecticut
company from the Delaware Indians; but the settlers were soon dispersed
by hostile savages. In 1769, forty families came from Connecticut, but
found a party of Pennsylvanians in possession, and for several years
there were continual contests of the settlers with the Indians, and with
each other. In 1776, the settlers armed for their own defense against
the English and their Indian allies; but in 1778 most of their troops
were called to join the army under Washington. On June 30, a force of
400 British provincials, or “Tories,” and 700 Seneca Indians, led by
Col. John Butler, entered the valley, and were opposed by 300 men, under
Col. Zebulon Butler. On July 3, the settlers were driven to the shelter
of Fort Forty (so called from the original number of families), with the
loss of two-thirds of their number, many soldiers and inhabitants being
murdered. On the 5th, the remnant of the troops surrendered, and they
and the inhabitants were either massacred or driven from the valley,
which was left a smoking solitude.

=Wyvern.= A fictitious monster of the Middle Ages, of frequent
occurrence in heraldry. It resembles a dragon, but has only two legs and
feet, which are like those of the eagle.



X.


=Xanthica.= A military festival observed by the Macedonians in the month
called Xanthicus (our April), instituted about 392 B.C.

=Xanthus.= The most famous city of Lycia, stood on the western bank of
the river of the same name, 60 stadia from its mouth. Twice in the
course of its history it sustained sieges, which terminated in the
self-destruction of the inhabitants with their property, first against
the Persians under Harpagus, and long afterward against the Romans under
Brutus. The city was never restored after its destruction by the latter.

=Xeres de la Frontera.= A town in the southwest of Spain, in the
province of Cadiz, 14 miles northeast from Cadiz. At the battle of
Xeres, July 19-26, 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign of Spain, was
defeated and slain by the Saracens, commanded by Tarik and Muza.

=Ximena= (Southern Spain). The site of a battle between the Spanish army
under the command of Gen. Ballasteros, and the French corps commanded by
Gen. Regnier, September 10, 1811. The Spaniards defeated their
adversaries; the loss was great on both sides.



Y.


=Yager.= One belonging to a body of light infantry armed with rifles.
Written also _jager_.

=Yankton Indians.= See DAKOTA INDIANS.

=Yataghan.= A Turkish poniard having a Damascus blade, straight or
crooked. It has a double edge, and sharp point, with a ridge in the
middle of its whole length; the handle and scabbard are generally highly
ornamented and costly.

=Yeomanry.= A volunteer force of cavalry in Great Britain, numbering
about 14,000 men, and costing the country annually about £85,000. It was
originally formed during the wars of the French revolution, and then
comprised infantry as well as cavalry; but the whole of the infantry
corps, and many of the cavalry, were disbanded after the peace of 1814.
The organization of the corps is by counties, under the
lords-lieutenant. The men provide their own horses and uniform, in
consideration of which they receive annually a clothing and contingent
allowance of £2 a man, are exempt from taxation in respect to the horses
employed on yeomanry duty, and draw during the annual training 2_s._ a
day for forage, besides a subsistence allowance of 7_s._ a day. If
called out for permanent duty they receive cavalry pay, with forage
allowance. The yeomanry are available in aid of the civil power; and in
time of invasion, or apprehended invasion, the sovereign may embody them
for service in any part of Great Britain, under the provisions of the
Mutiny Act and Articles of War.

=Yeomen of the Guard.= A veteran company, consisting of 100 old soldiers
of stately presence, employed on grand occasions, in conjunction with
the gentlemen-at-arms, as the body-guard of the sovereign. These yeomen
were constituted a corps, in 1485, by King Henry VII., and they still
wear the costume of that period. Armed with partisans, and in the quaint
uniform, the men present a curious sight in the 19th century. The
officers of the corps are a captain (ordinarily a peer), a lieutenant,
and an ensign. There is also a “Clerk of the Cheque and Adjutant.” All
these appointments are held by old officers, and are considered as
important prizes. The whole charge is borne by the sovereign’s civil
list. The headquarters of the corps is at the Tower of London, where the
men are popularly known as “Beef-eaters.”

=Yermuk= (Syria). Near here the emperor Heraclius was totally defeated
by the Saracens, after a fierce engagement, November, 636. Damascus was
taken, and his army was expelled from Syria.

=Yesawul.= In India, a state messenger; a servant of parade, who carries
a gold or silver staff; an aide-de-camp.

=York.= The capital of Yorkshire, England, is situated at the junction
of the rivers Ouse and Foss. Before the invasion of the Romans it formed
one of the chief cities of the Brigantes, the most powerful of British
tribes; and it is supposed that on their subjugation by Agricola, he
founded here about the year 79 the Roman city of Eboracum, which became
the great “Colonia” of the Romans in Britain, the seat of imperial
government, and the “Altera Roma.” On the departure of the Roman
cohorts, about 409, it became a prey to the wars which prevailed between
the Picts and the Britons, and between the latter and the Saxons; and
also to the invasions of the Danes; but under these vicissitudes it
still maintained its distinction as one of the chief cities of the
kingdom. William the Conqueror was long unable to overcome this
stronghold of the north. One Norman garrison, numbering 3000 men, was
put to the sword in 1069; but William exacted a terrible vengeance in
the following year, when he laid waste the whole country between York
and Durham. During the insurrections consequent upon the dissolution of
the monasteries by Henry VIII., York was seized by the insurgents of the
“Pilgrimage of Grace”; and in its immediate neighborhood, Fairfax, in
1644, conquered Prince Rupert on Marston Moor; after which battle York
was taken (July 16) for the Parliament.

=York= (Upper Canada, founded in 1794; since 1834 named Toronto). In the
war between America and Great Britain, the U. S. forces made several
attacks upon the province of Upper Canada, and succeeded in taking York,
the seat of the government, April 27, 1813; but it was soon afterwards
retaken by the British.

=York and Lancaster, Wars of.= See ROSES, WARS OF THE.

=Yorkshire.= The largest county of England, is situated in its northern
part. The history of the county in early times may be mainly read in
that of its chief city. In the troublous times which preceded the
Conquest, many battles were fought against the invading Danes, and
generally with success. At Stamford Brig, a few miles from York, Harold,
the last of the Anglo-Saxon kings, defeated the united Danish and
Norwegian armies, three weeks before he fell before the Normans on the
fatal field of Hastings. Among the more notable events of later history,
may be named the battle of Wakefield, where the Duke of York was
defeated by Queen Margaret in 1460; the battle of Towton Field, near
Tadcaster, fought on Palm-Sunday in 1461, the most sanguinary conflict
of the bitter war between the rival Roses; and that of Marston Moor,
which gave the final blow to the falling fortunes of Charles I. Since
that time, with slight exceptions, its history has been one of peace and
prosperity.

=Yorktown.= Capital of York Co., Va., situated on the right bank of the
York River, 70 miles from Richmond. This locality was the theatre of one
of the most important events in American history,--the surrender of Lord
Cornwallis to Gen. Washington, which occurred on October 19, 1781.
Yorktown was besieged during the civil war in April, 1862, but before
the Federals opened fire on the town, the Confederates evacuated it.

=Youngsters.= A familiar term to signify the junior officers of a troop
or company.

=Ypres=, or =Yperen=. A fortified town of Belgium, province of West
Flanders, 30 miles south-southwest from Bruges. Ypres in the 9th
century, when only a strong castle, was destroyed by the Normans. It was
rebuilt in 901; and was first walled in 1388. Louis XIV., in 1688, made
it one of the strongest fortresses of the Low Countries. In the great
European wars, it seldom escaped a siege or bombardment.

=Yucatan.= The most eastern department of Mexico, Central America. It is
in the form of a peninsula, jutting out into the Gulf of Mexico. It was
discovered in 1517, and conquered by Spain in 1541, and retained until
1821, when it became a department of Mexico. This department declared
itself independent of Mexico in 1846, but it subsequently annexed itself
to Mexico.

=Yumas.= A tribe of North American Indians, located on the Colorado
River, near the village of Yuma. In 1781 they massacred a number of
white settlers, and again in 1853 they rose and committed depredations.
Since the latter date they have generally been peaceable. They numbered
in 1876 about 900.

=Yvres.= Now Ivry-la-Bataille (which see).



Z.


=Zabern, Rhein=, or =Rhein-Zabern=. A town on the Erlenbach, in Rhenish
Bavaria. It is noted for the two battles fought here and at the village
of Jokgrin, about 2 miles farther south, between the Austrians and the
French, June 29 and August 20, 1793.

=Zagaie.= A long dart or lance in use among some African tribes,
particularly the Moors, while fighting on horseback. It is armed with a
sharp stone and thrown like a javelin. The savages of New Holland are
still armed with it.

=Zaikany.= A village of Austria, in Transylvania, 38 miles from Deva. It
was here that Trajan won his third victory over Decebalus, a part of
whose treasure was discovered, as it is supposed, in 1543.

=Zaim.= High caste among the Turks, who are bound to maintain a
proportion of militia according to their revenue, viz., one horseman for
every 5000 aspres.

=Zama Regia.= A strongly-fortified city in the interior of Numidia, on
the borders of the Carthaginian territory. It was the ordinary residence
of King Juba and was the scene of one of the most important battles in
the history of the world, that in which Hannibal was defeated by Scipio,
and the second Punic war was ended, 202 B.C.

=Zamora.= A very ancient town of Spain, of the province of that name, on
the right bank of the Douro, 132 miles northwest of Madrid. Zamora was
of great importance in the Moorish times, and is said to have been
inclosed by seven lines of walls, with a moat between each. Sir J. Moore
urged the Junta of Salamanca to repair the defenses of Zamora, and
receive there his stores; but his retreat had commenced before they had
done deliberating. The French afterwards got possession of it, and
although no resistance was made, the town was sacked, neither age nor
sex was spared, and the principal persons were executed. It was again
plundered by the French, and has never recovered these visitations.

=Zamosc=, or =Zamosz=. A town of Russia in Europe, in the kingdom of
Poland, in the province of Lublin. This place is strongly fortified, and
has long been considered a military station of importance. In 1656 it
was unsuccessfully besieged by the Swedes; in 1715 it was surprised by
the Saxons; and in the civil contests of 1771 the Poles were defeated in
its vicinity by the Russians. In 1812 it was one of the few towns in
which the French left a garrison after their retreat from Russia.

=Zanzibar=, or =Zanguebar=. An island in the Indian Ocean, near the east
coast of Africa, belonging to the sultan of Zanzibar. In 1784 the island
was taken by the imaum of Muscat, in whose family the government
remained until 1858.

=Zaym.= In the East Indies, a feudal chief, or military tenant.

=Zeithun.= A town and district in the highlands of Cilicia, inhabited by
a community of Armenian Christians, virtually independent of the Turkish
government, and forming in fact an Asiatic republic. The Zeithumlus can
muster an army from 7000 to 8000 men to defend the mountains against the
Turkish pashas; and they are in alliance with a neighboring Turcoman
chief, also independent of the Turks, who brings 10,000 men into the
field. It was not till after the Crimean war that the massacres in the
East called special attention to the existence of Zeithun. An attempt by
the Turks to settle Circassians near Zeithun, gave Aziz Pasha of Marash
an opportunity of attacking the Christians, and the atrocities committed
remind one of the worst excesses of Cawnpore. The inhabitants defended
themselves, however, with the greatest gallantry, twice defeating in the
field large Turkish forces; and the struggle was at length terminated by
the interference of the French and English governments at
Constantinople, and the recall of the pasha.

=Zela=, or =Ziela=. A city in the south of Pontus, not far south of
Amasia, and four days’ journey east of Tavium. It stood on an artificial
hill, and was strongly fortified. At Zela the Roman general Valerius
Triarius was defeated by Mithridates; but the city is more famous for
another great battle,--that in which Julius Cæsar defeated Pharnaces,
and of which he wrote this dispatch to Rome: _Veni: Vidi: Vici_.

=Zenta=, or =Szenta=. A town of Hungary, on the right bank of the
Theiss, 120 miles south-southeast from Pesth. Near here Prince Eugène
defeated the Turks, September 11, 1697 (1696). This victory led to the
peace of Carlowitz, ratified January, 1699.

=Zierikzee.= A town of Holland, in the province of Zealand, situated on
the southeast of the island of Schouwen. It suffered severely in the
contests between Flanders and Holland for the possession of Zealand. In
1303, the Flemings besieged it with a large army, but were compelled by
Count William of Holland to retire, on August 10, 1304. In the long war
of independence, after an obstinate defense, the Spaniards took
Zierikzee in July, 1576.

=Zigzags.= In fortification, are trenches or paths, with several
windings, so cut that the besieged are prevented from enfilading the
besieger in his approaches.

=Ziyamut.= In the East Indies, a fief bestowed for military services.

=Zizarme.= A sort of ancient pike or lance.

=Znaym=, or =Znaim=. A town of Austria, situated on the Thaya, 34 miles
southwest from Brunn. A conflict took place here in 1809, between the
Austrians and the French.

=Zoarque.= A soldier who had charge of an elephant among the ancients.

=Zone of Defense.= A term used in fortification, signifying the belt of
ground in front of the general _contour_ of the works within effective
range of the defenders.

=Zone of Operations.= The strip of territory which contains the lines of
operations--or lines on which an army advances--between the base and the
ulterior object. See STRATEGY.

=Zorndorf.= A village of Prussia, province of Brandenburg, 4 miles north
of Kustrin, and was the scene of the bloodiest of the many desperate
conflicts of the Seven Years’ War. The Russians having for the second
time been ordered by the czarina Elizabeth to invade Prussia, advanced
towards Berlin, committing frightful devastations, while Frederick the
Great, with the bulk of his forces, was engaged with the Austrians in
Silesia and Saxony. The Russians, under Fermor, were 50,000 strong, and
easily drove before them Dohna’s little Prussian army of 15,000; but
Frederick hastened northwards with such reinforcements as raised the
army to 30,000; and after taking care, by the breaking down of bridges,
etc., to cut off their retreat, engaged the invaders. The battle was
commenced at eight on the morning of August 25, 1758, and lasted till
evening, consisted mainly in a succession of furious charges,
accompanied with a tremendous artillery-fire, and was not decided till
Seidlitz, by an able movement, turned the Russian flank. The next
morning Fermor drew off his forces, diminished by 20,000 men, 103
cannon, and 27 standards; having inflicted on the Prussians a loss of
13,000 men, 26 cannon, and a few standards.

=Zouaves= (Arab. _Zwawa_). A body of troops in the French army, which
derives its name from a tribe of Kabyles, inhabiting the mountains of
Jurjura, in the Algerian province of Constantine. Long previous to the
invasion of Algiers by the French, these Kabyles had been employed as
hired mercenaries in the service of the rulers of Tripoli, Tunis, and
Algiers; and after the conquest of the last-named country in 1830, the
French, in the hope of establishing a friendly feeling between the
natives and their conquerors, took the late dey’s mercenaries into their
service, giving them a new organization. Accordingly, Gen. Clausel
created, in 1830, two battalions of zouaves, in which each company
consisted of French and Kabyles in certain proportions, officers,
subalterns, and soldiers being selected from either race; the zouaves,
though retaining their Moorish dress, were armed and disciplined after
the European fashion; and the battalions were recruited by voluntary
enlistment. Afterwards the native element was eliminated, and since 1840
they may be considered as French troops in a Moorish dress. They now
number about 15,000, and are divided into four regiments. They are
recruited from the veterans of the ordinary infantry regiments who are
distinguished for their fine “physique” and tried courage and
hardihood. Their uniform is very picturesque. There is one regiment of
zouaves incorporated in the Guards. The name was also given to several
regiments of volunteers in the Union army during the American civil war
(1861-65), who were clad in zouave uniform.

=Zullichau= (Prussia). Here the Russians under Soltikow severely
defeated the Prussians under Wedel, July 23, 1759.

=Zululand.= The country lying northeast of the colony of Natal, between
its east boundary, the Umtugela and Umzimyati Rivers, lat. 29° 10′ E.,
and Delagoa Bay, lat. 26° S., long. 32° 40′ E., is generally known under
the name of Zululand, or the Zulu country, inhabited by independent
tribes of Zulu Kaffirs. The Zulu is by nature social, light of heart,
and cheerful; his passions are, however, strong, and called out when in
a state of war. He is hospitable and honest, yet greedy and stingy; and
whatever the better nature of his impulses may be, yet when his great
chief commands war, he is converted into a demon. It is from the Zulu
country, however, that those terrible tyrants who so long devastated
Southeastern Africa, the chiefs Chaka, Dingaan, Moselikatze, etc.,
issued. The training of their subjects to a peculiar mode of warfare
spread desolation and havoc for many years among the Betjuana and other
tribes of the interior. These chiefs with their thousands of followers,
fighting, like Homer’s heroes, hand to hand, armed with stabbing
assagais and shields of ox-hide, the colors of which distinguished the
different regiments they were formed into, melted away with broken power
into comparative insignificance before the terrible rifles of a few
hundred emigrant Dutch Boers, who, in their turn, gave way to the
energetic action of the British authorities. The Zulus often have
serious intestine wars among themselves. The principal Zulu tribes are
the Amazulu, the Amahute, Amazwazi, and Amatabele. The last, under the
chief Moselikatze, have emigrated far to the north, where, among the
mountains which separate the valley of the Limpopo from the basin of the
Zambesi, they still issue forth, and carry their depredations as far
north as the Lake Nyassa, where they were found by Dr. Livingstone. A
war broke out in the latter part of 1878, or beginning of 1879, between
the British and the Zulus, and on January 22, 1879, the British were
defeated with terrible slaughter about 10 miles in front of Rorke’s
drift; their loss in killed being put down at 30 officers, about 500
enlisted men of the Imperial troops, and 700 enlisted men of the
Colonial troops. It seems that the troops were enticed away from their
camp, as the action took place about one mile and a quarter from it. The
camp containing surplus ammunition, etc., of the British force was taken
by the Zulus, but was occupied after dark the same night by British
troops. About the same time Rorke’s drift was attacked by some 3000 or
4000 Zulus; its defense by some 80 men of the 24th Regiment was most
gallant, 370 bodies lay close around the post; the loss of the Zulus was
estimated at 1000 here alone. At the camp where the disaster occurred,
the loss of the Zulus was computed at over 2000. The Zulus are even more
formidable than the military authorities expected; they are well
drilled, great numbers are armed with breech-loaders, and they fight
courageously. It is now known but too well how large a force they can
mass at one point. Lord Chelmsford, the commander of the English forces
in Zululand, after suffering some additional reverses, was superseded in
June, 1879, by Sir Garnet Wolesley. Eugene Louis Jean Napoleon, prince
imperial of France, participated as a volunteer with the British forces
against the Zulus, and was killed (about the end of May or the beginning
of June) while on a reconnoissance under the command of Col. Wood; he
was suddenly beset by Zulus and assagaied, receiving no less than
seventeen wounds. Prince Napoleon was born in Paris on March 16, 1856.
He received his “Baptism of Fire” at the battle of Saarbruck, August 2,
1870, during the Franco-German war, in company with his father, the
emperor. After the fall of the empire and the death of his father he
resided in England, and graduated with high honors at the Military
Academy at Woolwich. The war was terminated in the latter part of 1879,
by the total defeat of the Zulus and the capture of the king Cetawayo.

=Zumbooruks= (Pers. _Zumboor_, “wasp”). Diminutive swivel artillery,
carried on the backs of camels.

=Zurich.= A town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of the same name,
at the northern extremity of the Lake of Zürich, 60 miles northeast from
Berne. The Swiss defeated the Austrians near this town in 1443, and in
1799 the French defeated the Russians and Austrians before it. In 1859 a
treaty between Austria, France, and Sardinia was signed here, and
Lombardy sold by Austria to the king of Sardinia for £10,000,000.

=Zutphen.= An inland town of Holland, in the province of Gelderland, on
the Yssel, 16 miles northeast from Arnheim. It is fortified and rendered
peculiarly strong by its situation, which is in the midst of drained
fens. It formerly belonged to the Hanseatic League, and was taken by Don
Frederick of Toledo in 1572; by Prince Maurice in 1591; and by the
French in 1672. The gallant and accomplished Sir Philip Sidney, author
of “Arcadia,” was mortally wounded in the battle fought here on
September 22, 1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch. He was serving
with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the Earl of Leicester.

=Zypersluys= (Holland). Here Sir Ralph Abercromby defeated an attack of
the French under Brune, September 9, 1799.



APPENDIX.

EMBRACING WORDS CASUALLY OMITTED IN THE BODY OF THE WORK AND THE
ARTICLES OF WAR.


A.

=Acanzi.= In military history, the name of the Turkish light-horse who
formed the vanguard of the sultan’s army.

=Adoni=, or =Adonani=. A city in Hindostan, formerly strongly fortified;
captured by Tippoo Sahib in 1787; sold to England after his death in
1800.

=Afabuar= (_Fr._). Color-bearer of the ancient Icelanders. Every
war-vessel had one of these officers aboard, who commanded the soldiers.
These officers were selected for this duty for their bravery.

=Alains= (_Fr._). People of ancient Sarmatia; they followed the Huns in
their invasions, and penetrated as far as Spain in the 6th century.

=Alexandria.= A port in Egypt, where, on March 21, 1801, the French army
destined by Napoleon Bonaparte to conquer Egypt, and afterwards proceed
to India with hostile designs, was routed by the British under Sir Ralph
Abercromby. The town capitulated to Hutchinson on September 2, 1801; and
surrendered upon a subsequent occasion to Gen. Fraser, on March 20,
1807.

=Allezoir.= A frame of timber firmly suspended in the air with strong
cordage, on which is placed a piece of ordnance with the muzzle
downwards. In this situation the bore is rounded and enlarged by means
of an instrument which has a very sharp and strong edge made to traverse
the bore by force of machinery, or horses, and in a horizontal
direction.

=Allezures.= The metal taken from the cannon by boring.

=Ancient.= A term formerly used to express the grand ensign or standard
of an army.

=Anspessade= (_Fr._). This term was originally used to denote dismounted
horsemen, who were obliged to serve temporarily in the infantry, and who
broke off the tops of their lances so as to reduce their length to that
of the halberds of the sergeants. Also, a non-commissioned officer who
acts subordinate to a corporal; a lance-corporal.

=Antoninus, Wall of.= Was a rampart or defense (the remains of which
still exist under the name of _Graham’s Dyke_), which was erected in
Scotland in 139 by the Romans against the incursions of the North
Britons.

=Aquileia= (=Istria=). Made a Roman colony about 180 B.C., and fortified
A.D. 168. Constantine II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at
Aquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus was defeated and slain
by Theodosius, near Aquileia, July 28, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenius
and Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole emperor,
September 6, 394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by his
own hand, mortified by his overthrow. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally
destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 Theodoric and the
Ostrogoths totally defeated Odoacer, the king of Italy.

=Auberoche, Guienne.= In Southern France. The Earl of Derby defeated the
French, besieging this place, August 19, 1344.

=Auray= (Northwest France), Here on September 29, 1364, the English
under John Chandos defeated the French and captured their leader, Du
Guesclin. Charles of Blois, made duke of Brittany by the king of France,
was slain, and a peace was made in April, 1365.


B.

=Band, Military.=[1] Consists of a body of musicians attached to each
army regiment or battalion. The law provides for a band at the Military
Academy at West Point. And for each artillery, cavalry, and infantry
regiment a chief musician, who shall be instructor of music; and for
each artillery and infantry regiment two principal musicians; each
cavalry regiment to have one chief trumpeter. Musicians for regimental
bands are enlisted as soldiers, and formed under the direction of the
adjutant, but are not permanently detached from their companies, and are
instructed in all the duties of a soldier.

  [1] Incorrectly printed in the body of the work.

=Bander= (_Fr._). To unite; to intrigue together for the purpose of
insurrection.

=Barry.= In heraldry, the term applied to a shield which is divided
transversely into four, six, or more equal parts, and consisting of two
or more tinctures interchangeably disposed. _Barry-bendy_ is where the
shield is divided into four, six, or more equal parts, by diagonal
lines, the tincture of which it consists being varied interchangeably.
_Barry-pily_ is where the shield is divided by diagonal lines, the
different colors being interchanged.

=Bassinet= (_Fr._). The pan of a musket.

=Bautzen.= A town in Saxony, near which desperate battles were fought
May 20-22, 1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, and the
allies under the emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia. The struggle
commenced on the 19th, with a contest on the outposts, which cost each
army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th (at Bautzen), the French were
more successful; and on the 21st (at Murschen), the allies were
compelled to retire; but Napoleon obtained no permanent advantages from
these sanguinary engagements. Duroc was killed at Rachenbach by a
cannon-ball on May 22, to the great sorrow of the emperor and the French
army.

=Beaver=, or =Bever=. That part of a helmet covering the lower part of
the face, which shifted on pivots to allow the wearer to drink. The word
is derived from the Latin word _bevere_, to drink.

=Bethune.= A town of France, in the department Pas-de-Calais; it is
strongly fortified, part of the works and the citadel having been
constructed by Vauban; taken by the French in 1645; retaken by the
allies in 1710, but was restored to France by the treaty of Utrecht,
1714.

=Biset= (_Fr._). Was a member of the national guard who performed his
duty in civilian’s dress, before the wearing of uniform on duty was made
obligatory.

=Blackstock’s Hill.= A hill situated in South Carolina, United States,
memorable for the victory the Americans gained over the English in 1780.

=Blakemere.= A village of England, near where a memorable battle was
fought between the Scots and the troops of Edward II. of England, in
which the latter were defeated.

=Blumenau.= In Lower Austria; on July 22, 1866, the Austrians in
possession of this place were attacked by the Prussians on their march
towards Vienna, a severe conflict was interrupted by the news of the
armistice agreed to at Nikolsburg; and the same evening Austrians and
Prussians bivouacked together.

=Brabant.= Part of Holland and Belgium, an ancient duchy, part of
Charlemagne’s empire, fell to the share of his son Charles. In the 17th
century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabrant and the
Walloon provinces, and underwent many changes through the wars in
Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French in 1746 and 1794.
It was united to the Netherlands in 1814, but South Brabant was given to
the kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, 1830. The heir of the throne of
Belgium is styled Duke of Brabant.

=Braquemart=, or =Jacquemart= (_Fr._). In antiquity, a two-edged
broadsword.

=Breda.= A strongly fortified town of Holland; taken by Prince Maurice
of Nassau in 1590; by the Spaniards under Spinola in 1625, and by the
Dutch in 1637; taken by the French in 1793. The French garrison was
expelled by the burgesses in 1813.

=Briche= (_Fr._). A machine of war formerly used to throw stones.

=Broad Arrow.= A mark for goods belonging to the royal dock-yards or
navy, England; is said to have been ordered to be used in 1698, in
consequence of robberies.

=Brussels.= Once capital of Austrian Brabant, now of Belgium (since
1831), was founded by St. Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It was
bombarded and captured by Marshal Villeroi in 1695; taken by the French
in 1701 at the beginning of the War of Succession; captured by the Duke
of Marlborough in 1706; by the French under Marshal Saxe in 1747, and by
Gen. Dumouriez in 1794; the revolution commenced in 1830.


C.

=Cabacle= (_Fr._). Military coat of the modern Grecians.

=Cabas= (_Fr._). A large shield or buckler, which served to protect the
archers who attacked in intrenchments.

=Cage de la Bascule= (_Fr._). A space into which one part of a
draw-bridge falls, whilst the other rises and conceals the gate.

=Calosiers.= Soldiers of ancient Egypt, who with the _Hermotybes_
composed the particular guard of the king.

=Calotte= (_Fr._). The back plate of a sword-handle; the cap of a
pistol; species of skull-cap worn by French cavalry, sabre-proof, made
of iron or dressed leather.

=Candjiar=, or =Canjar=. A kind of crooked Turkish sabre.

=Carcas= (_Fr._). The name given to a quiver during the Middle Ages.

=Chadd’s Ford.= A village in Delaware Co., Pa., on the Brandywine Creek.
Near here was fought the battle of Brandywine, September 11, 1777.

=Charlestown.= A former city and seaport of Middlesex Co., Mass.; is now
a northern suburb of Boston. Was burnt by the British forces under Gen.
Gage, June 17, 1775. On Bunker’s Hill a monument is erected
commemorating the battle of that name, which was fought June 17, 1775.

=Charlestown.= A village of Jefferson Co., West Va. In this place John
Brown was tried and executed, December, 1859. On October 18, 1863, a
Confederate force of 1200 or 1400 men, under Gen. Imboden, surrounded
the place at daylight, and attacked the Union troops stationed there.
Being surprised, they were panic-stricken, and, flying in confusion,
were nearly all captured. The place was recaptured within an hour by a
force of U. S. troops under Col. George D. Wells, and the Confederates
driven from the town.

=Chateau Cambresis.= A fortified town of French Flanders, on the Selle,
where the French republican army was defeated by the Duke of York in
April, 1794.

=Cherry Valley.= A village of Otsego Co., N. Y. It was the scene of a
dreadful massacre by the Tories and Indians in the British service,
October 11, 1778. Thirty-two inhabitants, nearly all women and children,
were murdered, besides sixteen soldiers of the Continental army. The
rest of the citizens were made prisoners and taken away, and all the
buildings were burned.

=Chickasaw Bluffs, Battle of.= Before Vicksburg, Miss. The U. S. forces
under Gen. W. T. Sherman assaulted this strongly fortified position,
December 29, 1862, but, though the head of the assaulting column reached
the works, the severe fire from the rifle-pits and batteries caused them
to fall back to the point of starting, leaving many dead, wounded, and
prisoners on the field. The Confederate loss was but light.

=Clipeadus.= So were called, in ancient times, the soldiers who were
armed with the Grecian buckler, which was large and round. By _clipeadus
chlamyde_ was understood combatants, who, in place of the shield, wound
their coats (chlamyde) around their left arms.

=Clunaculum.= A poniard carried by certain Roman troops in ancient
times. It was so called because it was carried on the back of the
soldier.

=Cnemidas.= A kind of leggings, made of bronze, which were worn by
Grecian soldiers.

=Cnidos= (now _Crio_). A town of Anatolia, in Asia Minor; in its
neighborhood a battle was fought between the Lacedæmonian and Persian
fleets in 394 B.C.; the latter gained the victory.

=Colismarde= (_Fr._). A long, slender sword.

=Colletin= (_Fr._). So was called, in ancient times, that part of an
armor which protected the neck and upper part of the breast.

=Custozza.= Near Verona, Northern Italy. Here the Italians were defeated
by Marshal Radetzky, July 23, 1848; and here they were again defeated,
June 24, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the Austrian army.
The Italians were commanded by their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the
Austrians by the Archduke Albrecht.


D.

=Davids Island.= An island of 100 acres in Long Island Sound, within the
township limits of New Rochelle, Westchester Co., N. Y. It was purchased
in 1867 by the U. S. government, to be used for military purposes.

=Dinkelsbuhl.= A town of Bavaria, surrounded with a high wall, flanked
with towers and ditches. It suffered much during the Thirty Years’ War.

=Dorylæum= (_Phrygia_). Soliman, the Turkish sultan of Iconium, having
retired from the defense of Nicæa, his capital, was here defeated with
great loss by the Crusaders, July 1, 1097.

=Douglas.= An ancient noble family of Scotland. The earls of Douglas,
the earls of Angus, and the earls of Morton belonged to this family. Sir
James Douglas, surnamed “The Good,” was the founder of their fame and
grandeur. He commanded the left wing at Bannockburn in 1314, and was
killed by the Saracens in Spain about 1330, in a pilgrimage to
Palestine. James the second, earl of Douglas, was a famous warrior, and
was killed at the battle of Otterburn in 1388. Archibald the Grim, third
earl, fought for the French at Poitiers, and died about 1400. He was
succeeded by his son Archibald, fourth earl, who displayed great courage
at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403), where he fought against Henry IV.,
and rendered important services to Charles VII. of France, who rewarded
him with the duchy of Touraine. He was killed at the battle of Verneuil,
in France, in 1424.

=Dry Tortugas.= A group of ten small, low, barren islands belonging to
Monroe Co., Fla. These islands served as a place of imprisonment for
persons under sentence by courts-martial during the late civil war.
Several criminals concerned in the conspiracy in which President Lincoln
was murdered were confined here.


E.

=Egard= (_Fr._). An ancient tribunal of Malta which decided, by
commission, suits among the knights.

=Eleasa.= In Palestine; here Judas Maccabæus was defeated and slain by
Bacchides and Alcimus, and the Syrians about 161 B.C.

=Entrenchments.= The field-works which are hastily thrown up to cover a
force in position.

=Erivan=, =Irvin=, or =Irivan=. A fortified town of Russian Armenia,
situated on the Zenghi. It was taken by the Turks in 1553 and 1582, but
recovered by Abbas the Great, 1604; after being several times captured,
it was ceded to Persia, 1769. The Russians blockaded this place during
six months in 1808, and were repulsed, with great slaughter, in an
attempt to storm it. In 1827, however, it was taken by them.

=Ermin.= An order of knights instituted in 1450, by Francis I., duke of
Bretagne, and which formerly subsisted in France. The collar of this
order was of gold, composed of ears of corn in saltire, at the end of
which hung the ermine, with the inscription _a ma vie_. But the order
expired when the dukedom of Bretagne was annexed to France.

=Erouad=, or =Erroad=. A town of Hindostan, in the province of
Coimbetoor. This town was reduced in size during the reign of Tippoo
Sahib; and during the invasion of Gen. Meadows the town was destroyed.
It was taken by the British in 1790, and retaken by Tippoo; but it came
into the final possession of the British, along with the province, in
1799.

=Evans Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.


F.

=Fabian.= Delaying; dilatory; avoiding battle, in imitation of Quintus
Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, a Roman general who conducted military
operations against Hannibal, by declining to risk a battle in the open
field, but harassing the enemy by marches, countermarches, and
ambuscades.


G.

=Gad.= The first-born of Zilpah, Leah’s maid, was the seventh son of
Jacob. The _tribe_ of Gad numbered in the wilderness of Sinai more than
40,000 fighting-men. Nomadic by nature, they preferred to remain on the
east side of Jordan, and were reluctantly allowed to do so by Joshua, on
condition of assisting their countrymen in the conquest and subjugation
of Canaan. The men of Gad--if we may judge from the eleven warriors who
joined David in his extremity--were a race of stalwart heroes; “men of
might, and men of war, fit for the battle, that could handle shield and
buckler, whose faces were like the faces of lions, and were as swift as
the roes upon the mountains.”

=Gomer Chamber.= Chamber of the 24-pounder Coehorn mortar; it is in the
form of a frustum of a cone, superior diameter 3 inches, and inferior, 2
inches.

=Gore.= In heraldry, a charge consisting of one-third of the shield cut
off by two arched lines, one drawn from the dexter or sinister chief,
and the other from the bottom of the escutcheon, meeting in the fess
point. A _gore sinister_ is enumerated by heralds as one of the
abatements or marks of dishonor borne for unknightly conduct. See
GUSSET.

=Guelf=, =Guelph=, or =Welf=. The name of a noble family in Germany, the
founder of which lived in the time of Charlemagne.


H.

=Half Merlons.= The merlons at the ends of the parapet.

=Harrow.= In a military sense, means to lay waste; to ravage; to
destroy.

=Here.= Is a word used by soldiers at a regimental roll-call, to
intimate their presence.


M.

=Magnano.= In Northern Italy; here Scherer and a French army were
defeated by the Austrians under Kray, April 5, 1799.

=Mars.= The name of the Roman god of war, was a contraction of _Mavors_.
He was supposed to be a son of Jupiter and Juno, and was identified with
the Ares of Greek mythology. According to Ovid he was a son of Juno, but
had no father. Homer and other poets relate that Mars fought for the
Trojans at the siege of Troy, and was wounded by Diomede. Mars was
believed to love war for its own sake, and to delight in carnage. He is
usually represented as a grim soldier in full armor,--sometimes as
driving furiously in a war-chariot.

=Moliones=, or =Molionidæ=. Regarded as the sons of Neptune (Poseidon);
according to Homer the Moliones, when yet boys, took part in an
expedition of the Epeans against Neleus and the Pylians. When Hercules
marched against Augeas, the latter intrusted the conduct of the war to
the Moliones; but as Hercules was taken ill, he concluded peace with
Augeas, whereupon his army was attacked and defeated by the Molionidæ.
In order to take vengeance, he afterwards slew them near Cleonæ, on the
frontiers of Argolis. Their sons, Amphimachus and Thalpius, led the
Epeans to Troy.


N.

=Nugent.= The name of a noble family, originally from Normandy, who
settled in Ireland in the 12th century. Richard Nugent was created by
King James I. earl of Westmeath in 1621. George Thomas John Nugent, born
in 1785, became marquis of Westmeath in 1822. Sir George Nugent,
grandson of Viscount Clare, born in 1757, served in America and the
Netherlands. He was successively appointed governor of Jamaica and
commander-in-chief of the army in the West Indies, and in 1846
field-marshal. Died in 1849. His brother, Sir Charles Edmund Nugent,
served with distinction under Rodney, and was created admiral of the
blue in 1808. In 1833 he received the title of admiral of the fleet.
Died in 1844.


P.

=Paneas=, or =Panius= (Syria). Here Antiochus the Great defeated Scopas,
the Egyptian general, and his Greek allies, 198 B.C.

=Percy.= The name of an ancient and noble English family, descended from
William de Percy, who, in the reign of William the Conqueror, possessed
several manors in the counties of Lincoln and York. He was probably a
Norman. In the reign of Edward I. a Henry de Percy acquired Alnwick and
other estates in Northumberland. Another Henry de Percy, in the reign of
Edward III., married Mary Plantagenet, a great-granddaughter of King
Henry III., and had two sons, Henry, earl of Northumberland, and Thomas,
earl of Worcester. Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, a son of Henry last
named, rebelled against Henry IV., and was killed at the battle of
Shrewsbury (1408). A son of Hotspur was restored to the earldom, fought
for the house of Lancaster, and fell at Saint Albans, in 1455, leaving
several sons, who were killed in the war of the Roses. In the reign of
Elizabeth, a Percy, earl of Northumberland, was executed for rebellion
(1572).

=Pharaoh.= The term applied in the Bible to the kings of Egypt, of which
many explanations have been proposed, as _pa-ra_, “the sun;” _pi-ouro_,
“the king;” _per-aa_, “the great house,” “court;” _pa-ra-anh_, or “the
living sun.” None of these etymologies are altogether satisfactory, some
not being found at an early period. It is still less possible to connect
it with the name of any Egyptian monarch, and it must have been a common
appellation like _khan_, _cæsar_, or _czar_. Pharaoh is the one under
whom the Israelites were in bondage, and who compelled them to build the
treasure-cities of Pithom and Rameses of bricks; and it was under him or
his successor that Egypt was afflicted with the ten plagues, and that
Moses and Aaron led the Israelites out of Egypt, and the Egyptian army
in its pursuit of the retreating Israelites was drowned in the sea,
although it is doubtful if Pharaoh perished with them. The identical
Egyptian monarch who was the Pharaoh of the Exodus has been a subject of
dispute, but it is principally confined to the period of the eighteenth
and nineteenth dynasties. The other Pharaohs mentioned in the Bible are
the father of Hadad the Edomite, supposed to be a king of the
twenty-second dynasty; the father-in-law of Solomon; one of the
predecessors of Sheshanka or Shishak; that monarch himself, who overran
the Holy Land and pillaged Jerusalem; Tirhakah the Ethiopian, who for a
time wrested Egypt from the Assyrians; Nekau or Necho II., who invaded
Palestine to reduce it to subjection, then in alliance with the
Assyrians, but was finally defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchadnezzar,
then at a youthful age, 605 B.C.; and Uah-pa-ra, Hophra or Apries, of
the twenty-sixth dynasty, who marched to relieve the siege of Jerusalem,
causing the Babylonians to retire for a while, although it was finally
taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 588 B.C. It is remarkable that the Ethiopian
Kings Zerah and so mentioned in the Bible are not styled Pharaohs, like
the Egyptian rulers, as if for some reason they had not the same title
or were recognized as lawful rulers of the country.

=Phylarque= (_Fr._). A Grecian cavalry officer who commanded the cavalry
of his tribe.


R.

=Reichenbach= (Prussia). Here was signed a subsidy treaty between
Russia, Prussia, and England, whereby the last engaged to provide means
for carrying on the war against Napoleon I. on certain conditions, June
14-15, 1813. Austria joined the alliance soon after. Here Duroc was
killed during the conflicts between the French and the allies, May 22,
1813.


S.

=Shako.= A kind of military cap.


T.

=Tesseræ Militares.= Military watchwords, or countersigns, among the
ancient Romans.


V.

=Viana.= A town of Portugal, in the province of Minho, situated on the
Lima, 38 miles north from Oporto. This place surrendered to Admiral Sir
Charles Napier in the civil war which deprived Don Miguel of the throne
of Portugal.



ARTICLES OF WAR.


SECTION 1342. The armies of the United States shall be governed by the
following rules and articles. The word officer, as used therein, shall
be understood to designate commissioned officers; the word soldier shall
be understood to include non-commissioned officers, musicians,
artificers, and privates, and other enlisted men, and the convictions
mentioned therein shall be understood to be convictions by
court-martial.

ARTICLE 1. Every officer now in the Army of the United States shall,
within six months from the passing of this act, and every officer
hereafter appointed shall, before he enters upon the duties of his
office, subscribe these rules and articles.

ART. 2. These rules and articles shall be read to every enlisted man at
the time of, or within six days after, his enlistment, and he shall
thereupon take an oath or affirmation, in the following form: “I, A B,
do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will bear true faith and
allegiance to the United States of America; that I will serve them
honestly and faithfully against all their enemies whomsoever; and that I
will obey the orders of the President of the United States, and the
orders of the officers appointed over me, according to the Rules and
Articles of War.” This oath may be taken before any commissioned officer
of the Army.

ART. 3. Every officer who knowingly enlists or musters into the military
service any minor over the age of sixteen years without the written
consent of his parents or guardians, or any minor under the age of
sixteen years, or any insane or intoxicated persons, or any deserter
from the military or naval service of the United States, or any person
who has been convicted of any infamous criminal offense, shall, upon
conviction, be dismissed from the service, or suffer such other
punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 4. No enlisted man, duly sworn, shall be discharged from the
service without a discharge in writing, signed by a field-officer of the
regiment to which he belongs, or by the commanding officer, when no
field-officer is present; and no discharge shall be given to any
enlisted man before his term of service has expired, except by order of
the President, the Secretary of War, the commanding officer of a
department, or by sentence of a general court-martial.

ART. 5. Any officer who knowingly musters as a soldier a person who is
not a soldier shall be deemed guilty of knowingly making a false muster,
and punished accordingly.

ART. 6. Any officer who takes money, or other thing, by way of
gratification, on mustering any regiment, troop, battery, or company, or
on signing muster-rolls, shall be dismissed from the service, and shall
thereby be disabled to hold any office or employment in the service of
the United States.

ART. 7. Every officer commanding a regiment, an independent troop,
battery, or company, or a garrison, shall, in the beginning of every
month, transmit through the proper channels, to the Department of War,
an exact return of the same, specifying the names of the officers then
absent from their posts, with the reasons for and the time of their
absence. And any officer who, through neglect or design, omits to send
such returns, shall, on conviction thereof, be punished as a
court-martial may direct.

ART. 8. Every officer who knowingly makes a false return to the
Department of War, or to any of his superior officers, authorized to
call for such returns, of the state of the regiment, troop or company,
or garrison under his command; or of the arms, ammunition, clothing, or
other stores thereunto belonging, shall, on conviction thereof before a
court-martial, be cashiered.

ART. 9. All public stores taken from the enemy shall be secured for the
service of the United States; and for neglect thereof the commanding
officer shall be answerable.

ART. 10. Every officer commanding a troop, battery, or company, is
charged with the arms, accoutrements, ammunition, clothing, or other
military stores belonging to his command, and is accountable to his
colonel in case of their being lost, spoiled, or damaged otherwise than
by unavoidable accident, or on actual service.

ART. 11. Every officer commanding a regiment or an independent troop,
battery, or company, not in the field, may, when actually quartered with
such command, grant furloughs to the enlisted men, in such numbers and
for such time as he shall deem consistent with the good of the service.
Every officer commanding a regiment, or an independent troop, battery,
or company, in the field, may grant furloughs not exceeding thirty days
at one time, to five per centum of the enlisted men, for good conduct in
the line of duty, but subject to the approval of the commander of the
forces of which said enlisted men form a part. Every company officer of
a regiment, commanding any troop, battery, or company not in the field,
or commanding in any garrison, fort, post, or barrack, may, in the
absence of his field-officer, grant furloughs to the enlisted men, for a
time not exceeding twenty days in six months, and not to more than two
persons to be absent at the same time.

ART. 12. At every muster of a regiment, troop, battery, or company, the
commanding officer thereof shall give to the mustering officer
certificates, signed by himself, stating how long absent officers have
been absent and the reasons of their absence. And the commanding officer
of every troop, battery, or company shall give like certificates,
stating how long absent non-commissioned officers and private soldiers
have been absent and the reasons of their absence. Such reasons and time
of absence shall be inserted in the muster-rolls opposite the names of
the respective absent officers and soldiers; and the certificates,
together with the muster-rolls, shall be transmitted by the mustering
officer to the Department of War, as speedily as the distance of the
place and muster will admit.

ART. 13. Every officer who signs a false certificate, relating to the
absence or pay of an officer or soldier, shall be dismissed from the
service.

ART. 14. Any officer who knowingly makes a false muster of man or horse,
or who signs, or directs, or allows the signing of any muster-roll,
knowing the same to contain a false muster, shall, upon proof thereof by
two witnesses, before a court-martial, be dismissed from the service,
and shall thereby be disabled to hold any office or employment in the
service of the United States.

ART. 15. Any officer who, willfully or through neglect, suffers to be
lost, spoiled, or damaged, any military stores belonging to the United
States, shall make good the loss or damage, and be dismissed from the
service.

ART. 16. Any enlisted man who sells, or willfully or through neglect
wastes the ammunition delivered out to him, shall be punished as a
court-martial may direct.

ART. 17. Any soldier who sells or, through neglect, loses or spoils his
horse, arms, clothing, or accoutrements, shall suffer such stoppages,
not exceeding one-half of his current pay, as a court-martial may deem
sufficient for repairing the loss or damage, and shall be punished by
confinement or such other corporal punishment as the court may direct.

ART. 18. Any officer commanding in any garrison, fort, or barracks of
the United States who, for his private advantage, lays any duty or
imposition upon, or is interested in, the sale of any victuals, liquors,
or other necessaries of life, brought into such garrison, fort, or
barracks, for the use of the soldiers, shall be dismissed from the
service.

ART. 19. Any officer who uses contemptuous or disrespectful words
against the President, the Vice-President, the Congress of the United
States, or the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United
States in which he is quartered, shall be dismissed from the service, or
otherwise punished as a court-martial may direct. Any soldier who so
offends shall be punished as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 20. Any officer or soldier who behaves himself with disrespect
towards his commanding officer shall be punished as a court-martial may
direct.

ART. 21. Any officer or soldier who, on any pretense whatsoever, strikes
his superior officer, or draws or lifts up any weapon, or offers any
violence against him, being in the execution of his office, or disobeys
any lawful command of his superior officer, shall suffer death, or such
other punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 22. Any officer or soldier who begins, excites, causes, or joins in
any mutiny or sedition, in any troop, battery, company, party, post,
detachment, or guard, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a
court-martial may direct.

ART. 23. Any officer or soldier who, being present at any mutiny or
sedition, does not use his utmost endeavor to suppress the same, or
having knowledge of any intended mutiny or sedition, does not, without
delay, give information thereof to his commanding officer, shall suffer
death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 24. All officers, of what condition soever, have power to part and
quell all quarrels, frays, and disorders, whether among persons
belonging to his own or to another corps, regiment, troop, battery, or
company, and to order officers into arrest, and non-commissioned
officers and soldiers into confinement, who take part in the same, until
their proper superior officer is acquainted therewith. And whosoever,
being so ordered, refuses to obey such officer or non-commissioned
officer, or draws a weapon upon him, shall be punished us a
court-martial may direct.

ART. 25. No officer or soldier shall use any reproachful or provoking
speeches or gestures to another. Any officer who so offends shall be put
in arrest. Any soldier who so offends shall be confined, and required to
ask pardon of the party offended, in the presence of the commanding
officer.

ART. 26. No officer or soldier shall send a challenge to another officer
or soldier to fight a duel, or accept a challenge so sent. Any officer
who so offends shall be dismissed from the service. Any soldier who so
offends shall suffer such corporal punishment as a court-martial may
direct.

ART. 27. Any officer or non-commissioned officer, commanding a guard,
who, knowingly and willingly, suffers any person to go forth to fight a
duel, shall be punished as a challenger; and all seconds or promoters of
duels, and carriers of challenges to fight duels, shall be deemed
principals, and punished accordingly. It shall be the duty of any
officer commanding an army, regiment, troop, battery, company, post, or
detachment, who knows or has reason to believe that a challenge has been
given or accepted by any officer or enlisted man under his command,
immediately to arrest the offender and bring him to trial.

ART. 28. Any officer or soldier who upbraids another officer or soldier
for refusing a challenge shall himself be punished as a challenger; and
all officers and soldiers are hereby discharged from any disgrace or
opinion of disadvantage which might arise from their having refused to
accept challenges, as they will only have acted in obedience to the law,
and have done their duty as good soldiers, who subject themselves to
discipline.

ART. 29. Any officer who thinks himself wronged by the commanding
officer of his regiment, and, upon due application to such commander, is
refused redress, may complain to the general commanding in the State or
Territory where such regiment is stationed. The general shall examine
into said complaint and take proper measures for redressing the wrong
complained of; and he shall, as soon as possible, transmit to the
Department of War a true statement of such complaint, with the
proceedings had thereon.

ART. 30. Any soldier who thinks himself wronged by any officer may
complain to the commanding officer of his regiment, who shall summon a
regimental court-martial for the doing of justice to the complainant.
Either party may appeal from such regimental court-martial to a general
court-martial; but if, upon such second hearing, the appeal appears to
be groundless and vexatious, the party appealing shall be punished at
the discretion of said general court-martial.

ART. 31. Any officer or soldier who lies out of his quarters, garrison,
or camp, without leave from his superior officer, shall be punished as a
court-martial may direct.

ART. 32. Any soldier who absents himself from his troop, battery,
company, or detachment, without leave from his commanding officer, shall
be punished as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 33. Any officer or soldier who fails, except when prevented by
sickness or other necessity, to repair, at the fixed time, to the place
of parade, exercise, or other rendezvous appointed by his commanding
officer, or goes from the same, without leave from his commanding
officer, before he is dismissed or relieved, shall be punished as a
court-martial may direct.

ART. 34. Any soldier who is found one mile from camp, without leave in
writing from his commanding officer, shall be punished as a
court-martial may direct.

ART. 35. Any soldier who fails to retire to his quarters or tent at the
beating of retreat, shall be punished according to the nature of his
offense.

ART. 36. No soldier belonging to any regiment, troop, battery, or
company shall hire another to do his duty for him, or be excused from
duty, except in cases of sickness, disability, or leave of absence.
Every such soldier found guilty of hiring his duty, and the person so
hired to do another’s duty, shall be punished as a court-martial may
direct.

ART. 37. Every non-commissioned officer who connives at such hiring of
duty shall be reduced. Every officer who knows and allows such practices
shall be punished as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 38. Any officer who is found drunk on his guard, party, or other
duty, shall be dismissed from the service. Any soldier who so offends
shall suffer such punishment as a court-martial may direct. No
court-martial shall sentence any soldier to be branded, marked, or
tattooed.

ART. 39. Any sentinel who is found sleeping upon his post, or who leaves
it before he is regularly relieved, shall suffer death, or such other
punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 40. Any officer or soldier who quits his guard, platoon, or
division, without leave from his superior officer, except in a case of
urgent necessity, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 41. Any officer who, by any means whatsoever, occasions false
alarms in camp, garrison, or quarters, shall suffer death, or such other
punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 42. Any officer or soldier who misbehaves himself before the enemy,
runs away, or shamefully abandons any fort, post, or guard, which he is
commanded to defend, or speaks words inducing others to do the like, or
casts away his arms or ammunition, or quits his post or colors to
plunder or pillage, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a
court-martial may direct.

ART. 43. If any commander of any garrison, fortress, or post is
compelled, by the officers and soldiers under his command, to give up to
the enemy or to abandon it, the officers or soldiers so offending shall
suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 44. Any person belonging to the armies of the United States who
makes known the watch-word to any person not entitled to receive it,
according to the rules and discipline of war, or presumes to give a
parole or watch-word different from that which he received, shall suffer
death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 45. Whosoever relieves the enemy with money, victuals, or
ammunition, or knowingly harbors or protects an enemy, shall suffer
death, or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 46. Whosoever holds correspondence with, or gives intelligence to,
the enemy, either directly or indirectly, shall suffer death, or such
other punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 47. Any officer or soldier who, having received pay, or having been
duly enlisted in the service of the United States, deserts the same,
shall, in time of war, suffer death, or such other punishment as a
court-martial may direct; and in time of peace, any punishment,
excepting death, which a court-martial may direct.

ART. 48. Every soldier who deserts the service of the United States
shall be liable to serve for such period as shall, with the time he may
have served previous to his desertion, amount to the full term of his
enlistment; and such soldier shall be tried by a court-martial and
punished, although the term of his enlistment may have elapsed previous
to his being apprehended and tried.

ART. 49. Any officer who, having tendered his resignation, quits his
post or proper duties, without leave, and with intent to remain
permanently absent therefrom, prior to due notice of the acceptance of
the same, shall be deemed and punished as a deserter.

ART. 50. No non-commissioned officer or soldier shall enlist himself in
any other regiment, troop, or company, without a regular discharge from
the regiment, troop, or company in which he last served, on a penalty of
being reputed a deserter, and suffering accordingly. And in case any
officer shall knowingly receive and entertain such non-commissioned
officer or soldier, or shall not, after his being discovered to be a
deserter, immediately confine him and give notice thereof to the corps
in which he last served, the said officer shall, by a court martial, be
cashiered.

ART. 51. Any officer or soldier who advises or persuades any other
officer or soldier to desert the service of the United States, shall, in
time of war, suffer death, or such other punishment as a court-martial
may direct; and in time of peace, any punishment, excepting death, which
a court-martial may direct.

ART. 52. It is earnestly recommended to all officers and soldiers
diligently to attend divine service. Any officer who behaves indecently
or irreverently at any place of divine worship shall be brought before a
general court-martial, there to be publicly and severely reprimanded by
the president thereof. Any soldier who so offends shall, for his first
offense, forfeit one-sixth of a dollar; for each further offense he
shall forfeit a like sum, and shall be confined twenty-four hours. The
money so forfeited shall be deducted from his next pay, and shall be
applied, by the captain or senior officer of his troop, battery, or
company, to the use of the sick soldiers of the same.

ART. 53. Any officer who uses any profane oath or execration shall, for
each offense, forfeit and pay one dollar. Any soldier who so offends
shall incur the penalties provided in the preceding article; and all
moneys forfeited for such offense shall be applied as therein provided.

ART. 54. Every officer commanding in quarters, garrison, or on the
march, shall keep good order, and, to the utmost of his power, redress
all abuses or disorders which may be committed by any officer or soldier
under his command; and if, upon complaint made to him of officers or
soldiers beating or otherwise ill-treating any person, disturbing fairs
or markets, or committing any kind of riot, to the disquieting of the
citizens of the United States, he refuses or omits to see justice done
to the offender, and reparation made to the party injured, so far as
part of the offender’s pay shall go towards such reparation, he shall be
dismissed from the service, or otherwise punished, as a court-martial
may direct.

ART. 55. All officers and soldiers are to behave themselves orderly in
quarters and on the march; and whoever commits any waste or spoil,
either in walks or trees, parks, warrens, fish-ponds, houses, gardens,
grain-fields, inclosures, or meadows, or maliciously destroys any
property whatsoever belonging to inhabitants of the United States
(unless by order of a general officer commanding a separate army in the
field), shall, besides such penalties as he may be liable to by law, be
punished as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 56. Any officer or soldier who does violence to any person bringing
provisions or other necessaries to the camp, garrison, or quarters of
the forces of the United States in foreign parts, shall suffer death, or
such other punishment as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 57. Whosoever, belonging to the armies of the United States in
foreign parts, or at any place within the United States or their
Territories during rebellion against the supreme authority of the United
States, forces a safeguard, shall suffer death.

ART. 58. In time of war, insurrection, or rebellion, larceny, robbery,
burglary, arson, mayhem, manslaughter, murder, assault and battery with
an intent to kill, wounding, by shooting or stabbing, with an intent to
commit murder, rape, or assault and battery with an intent to commit
rape, shall be punishable by the sentence of a general court-martial,
when committed by persons in the military service of the United States,
and the punishment in any such case shall not be less than the
punishment provided, for the like offense, by the laws of the State,
Territory, or district in which such offense may have been committed.

ART. 59. When any officer or soldier is accused of a capital crime, or
of any offense against the person or property of any citizen of any of
the United States, which is punishable by the laws of the land, the
commanding officer, and the officers of the regiment, troop, battery,
company, or detachment, to which the person so accused belongs, are
required, except in time of war, upon application duly made by or in
behalf of the party injured to use their utmost endeavors to deliver him
over to the civil magistrate, and to aid the officers of justice in
apprehending and securing him, in order to bring him to trial. If upon
such application, any officer refuses or willfully neglects, except in
time of war, to deliver over such accused person to the civil
magistrates, or to aid the officers of justice in apprehending him, he
shall be dismissed from the service.

ART. 60. Any person in the military service of the United States who
makes or causes to be made any claim against the United States, or any
officer thereof, knowing such claim to be false or fraudulent; or

Who presents or causes to be presented to any person in the civil or
military service thereof, for approval or payment, any claim against the
United States or any officer thereof, knowing such claim to be false or
fraudulent; or

Who enters into any agreement or conspiracy to defraud the United States
by obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, the allowance or payment of
any false or fraudulent claim; or

Who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, the
approval, allowance, or payment of any claim against the United States
or against any officer thereof, makes or uses, or procures or advises
the making or use of, any writing, or other paper, knowing the same to
contain any false or fraudulent statement; or

Who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, the
approval, allowance, or payment of any claim against the United States
or any officer thereof, makes, or procures or advises the making of,
any oath to any fact, or to any writing or other paper, knowing such
oath to be false; or

Who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, the
approval, allowance, or payment of any claim against the United States
or any officer thereof, forges or counterfeits, or procures or advises
the forging or counterfeiting of, any signature upon any writing or
other paper, or uses, or procures or advises the use of, any such
signature, knowing the same to be forged or counterfeited; or

Who, having charge, possession, custody, or control of any money or
other property of the United States, furnished or intended for the
military service thereof, knowingly delivers, or causes to be delivered,
to any person having authority to receive the same, any amount thereof
less than that for which he receives a certificate or receipt; or

Who, being authorized to make or deliver any paper certifying the
receipt of any property of the United States, furnished or intended for
the military service thereof, makes, or delivers to any person, such
writing, without having full knowledge of the truth of the statements
therein contained, and with intent to defraud the United States; or

Who steals, embezzles, knowingly and willfully misappropriates, applies
to his own use or benefit, or wrongfully or knowingly sells or disposes
of any ordnance, arms, equipments, ammunition, clothing, subsistence
stores, money, or other property of the United States, furnished or
intended for the military service thereof; or

Who knowingly purchases, or receives in pledge for any obligation or
indebtedness, from any soldier, officer, or other person who is a part
of or employed in said forces or service, any ordnance, arms,
equipments, ammunition, clothing, subsistence stores, or other property
of the United States, such soldier, officer, or other person not having
lawful right to sell or pledge the same,

Shall, on conviction thereof, be punished by fine or imprisonment, or by
such other punishment as a court-martial may adjudge. And if any person,
being guilty of any of the offenses aforesaid, while in the military
service of the United States, receives his discharge, or is dismissed
from the service, he shall continue to be liable to be arrested and held
for trial and sentence by a court-martial, in the same manner and to the
same extent as if he had not received such discharge nor been dismissed.

ART. 61. Any officer who is convicted of conduct unbecoming an officer
and a gentleman shall be dismissed from the service.

ART. 62. All crimes not capital, and all disorders and neglects, which
officers and soldiers may be guilty of, to the prejudice of good order
and military discipline, though not mentioned in the foregoing Articles
of War, are to be taken cognizance of by a general, or a regimental,
garrison, or field-officers’ court-marshal,[2] according to the nature
and degree of the offense, and punished at the discretion of said court.

  [2] Court-martial.

ART. 63. All retainers to the camp, and all persons serving with the
armies of the United States in the field, though not enlisted soldiers,
are to be subject to orders, according to the rules and discipline of
war.

ART. 64. The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia or
others, mustered and in pay of the United States, shall, at all times
and in all places, be governed by the Articles of War, and shall be
subject to be tried by courts-martial.

ART. 65. Officers charged with crime shall be arrested and confined in
their barracks, quarters, or tents, and deprived of their swords by the
commanding officer. And any officer who leaves his confinement before he
is set at liberty by his commanding officer shall be dismissed from the
service.

ART. 66. Soldiers charged with crimes shall be confined until tried by
court-martial, or released by proper authority.

ART. 67. No provost-marshal, or officer commanding a guard, shall refuse
to receive or keep any prisoner committed to his charge by an officer
belonging to the forces of the United States; provided the officer
committing shall, at the same time, deliver an account in writing,
signed by himself, of the crime charged against the prisoner.

ART. 68. Every officer to whose charge a prisoner is committed shall,
within twenty-four hours after such commitment, or as soon as he is
relieved from his guard, report in writing, to the commanding officer,
the name of such prisoner, the crime charged against him, and the name
of the officer committing him; and if he fails to make such report, he
shall be punished as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 69. Any officer who presumes, without proper authority, to release
any prisoner committed to his charge, or suffers any prisoner so
committed to escape, shall be punished as a court-martial may direct.

ART. 70. No officer or soldier put in arrest shall be continued in
confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court-martial
can be assembled.

ART. 71. When an officer is put in arrest for the purpose of trial,
except at remote military posts or stations, the officer by whose order
he is arrested shall see that a copy of the charges on which he is to be
tried is served upon him within eight days after his arrest, and that he
is brought to trial within ten days thereafter, unless the necessities
of the service prevent such trial; and then he shall be brought to trial
within thirty days after the expiration of said ten days. If a copy of
the charges be not served, or the arrested officer be not brought to
trial, as herein required, the arrest shall cease. But officers
released from arrest, under the provisions of this article, may be
tried, whenever the exigencies of the service shall permit, within
twelve months after such release from arrest.

ART. 72. Any general officer, commanding the army of the United States,
a separate army, or a separate department, shall be competent to appoint
a general court-martial, either in time of peace or in time of war. But
when any such commander is the accuser or prosecutor of any officer
under his command, the court shall be appointed by the President, and
its proceedings and sentence shall be sent directly to the Secretary of
War, by whom they shall be laid before the President, for his approval
or orders in the case.

ART. 73. In time of war the commander of a division, or of a separate
brigade of troops, shall be competent to appoint a general
court-martial. But when such commander is the accuser or prosecutor of
any person under his command, the court shall be appointed by the next
higher commander.

ART. 74. Officers who may appoint a court-martial shall be competent to
appoint a judge-advocate for the same.

ART. 75. General courts-martial may consist of any number of officers
from five to thirteen, inclusive; but they shall not consist of less
than thirteen when that number can be convened without manifest injury
to the service.

ART. 76. When the requisite number of officers to form a general
court-martial is not present in any post or detachment, the commanding
officer shall, in cases which require the cognizance of such a court,
report to the commanding officer of the department, who shall,
thereupon, order a court to be assembled at the nearest post or
department at which there may be such a requisite number of officers,
and shall order the party accused, with necessary witnesses, to be
transported to the place where the said court shall be assembled.

ART. 77. Officers of the Regular Army shall not be competent to sit on
courts-martial to try the officers or soldiers of other forces, except
as provided in Article 78.

ART. 78. Officers of the Marine Corps, detached for service with the
Army by order of the President, may be associated with officers of the
Regular Army on courts-martial for the trial of offenders belonging to
the Regular Army, or to forces of the Marine Corps so detached; and in
such cases the orders of the senior officer of either corps who may be
present and duly authorized, shall be obeyed.

ART. 79. Officers shall be tried only by general courts-martial; and no
officer shall, when it can be avoided, be tried by officers inferior to
him in rank.

ART. 80. In time of war a field-officer may be detailed in every
regiment, to try soldiers thereof for offenses not capital; and no
soldier, serving with his regiment, shall be tried by a regimental[3]
garrison court-martial when a field-officer of his regiment may be so
detailed.

  [3] The word _or_ omitted from the roll.

ART. 81. Every officer commanding a regiment or corps shall, subject to
the provisions of article eighty, be competent to appoint, for his own
regiment or corps, courts-martial, consisting of three officers, to try
offenses not capital.

ART. 82. Every officer commanding a garrison, fort, or other place,
where the troops consist of different corps, shall, subject to the
provisions of article eighty, be competent to appoint, for such garrison
or other place, courts-martial, consisting of three officers, to try
offenses not capital.

ART. 83. Regimental and garrison courts-martial, and field-officers
detailed to try offenders, shall not have power to try capital cases or
commissioned officers, or to inflict a fine exceeding one month’s pay,
or to imprison or put to hard labor any non-commissioned officer or
soldier for a longer time than one month.

ART. 84. The judge-advocate shall administer to each member of the
court, before they proceed upon any trial, the following oath, which
shall also be taken by all members of regimental and garrison
courts-martial: “You, A B, do swear that you will well and truly try and
determine, according to evidence, the matter now before you, between the
United States of America and the prisoner to be tried, and that you will
duly administer justice, without partiality, favor, or affection,
according to the provisions of the rules and articles for the government
of the armies of the United States, and if any doubt should arise, not
explained by said articles, then according to your conscience, the best
of your understanding, and the custom of war in like cases; and you do
further swear that you will not divulge the sentence of the court until
it shall be published by the proper authorities; neither will you
disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the
court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof, as a witness,
by a court of justice, in a due course of law. So help you God.”

ART. 85. When the oath has been administered to the members of a
court-martial, the president of the court shall administer to the
judge-advocate, or person officiating as such, an oath in the following
form: “You, A B, do swear that you will not disclose or discover the
vote or opinion of any particular member of the court-martial, unless
required to give evidence thereof, as a witness, by a court of justice,
in due course of law; nor divulge the sentence of the court to any but
the proper authority, until it shall be duly disclosed by the same. So
help you God.”

ART. 86. A court-martial may punish, at discretion, any person who uses
any menacing words, signs or gestures, in its presence, or who disturbs
its proceedings by any riot or disorder.

ART. 87. All members of a court-martial are to behave with decency and
calmness.

ART. 88. Members of a court-martial may be challenged by a prisoner, but
only for cause stated to the court. The court shall determine the
relevancy and validity thereof, and shall not receive a challenge to
more than one member at a time.

ART. 89. When a prisoner, arraigned before a general court-martial, from
obstinacy and deliberate design, stands mute, or answers foreign to the
purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment, as if the prisoner
had pleaded not guilty.

ART. 90. The judge-advocate, or some person deputed by him, or by the
general or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garrison, shall
prosecute in the name of the United States, but when the prisoner has
made his plea, he shall so far consider himself counsel for the prisoner
as to object to any leading question to any of the witnesses, and to any
question to the prisoner the answer to which might tend to criminate
himself.

ART. 91. The depositions of witnesses residing beyond the limits of the
State, Territory, or District in which any military court may be ordered
to sit, if taken on reasonable notice to the opposite party and duly
authenticated, may be read in evidence before such court in cases not
capital.

ART. 92. All persons who give evidence before a court-martial shall be
examined on oath, or affirmation, in the following form: “You swear (or
affirm) that the evidence you shall give, in the case now in hearing,
shall be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. So help
you God.”

ART. 93. A court-martial shall, for reasonable cause, grant a
continuance to either party, for such time, and as often, as may appear
to be just: _Provided_, That if the prisoner be in close confinement,
the trial shall not be delayed for a period longer than sixty days.

ART. 94. Proceedings of trials shall be carried on only between the
hours of eight in the morning and three in the afternoon, excepting in
cases which, in the opinion of the officer appointing the court, require
immediate example.

ART. 95. Members of a court-martial, in giving their votes, shall begin
with the youngest in commission.

ART. 96. No person shall be sentenced to suffer death, except by the
concurrence of two-thirds of the members of a general court-martial, and
in the cases herein expressly mentioned.

ART. 97. No person in the military service shall, under the sentence of
a court-martial, be punished by confinement in a penitentiary, unless
the offense of which he may be convicted would, by some statute of the
United States, or by some statute of the State, Territory, or District
in which such offense may be committed, or by the common law, as the
same exists in such State, Territory, or District, subject such convict
to such punishment.

ART. 98. No person in the military service shall be punished by
flogging, or by branding, marking, or tattooing on the body.

ART. 99. No officer shall be discharged or dismissed from the service,
except by order of the President, or by sentence of a general
court-martial; and in time of peace no officer shall be dismissed,
except in pursuance of the sentence of a court-martial, or in mitigation
thereof.

ART. 100. When an officer is dismissed from the service for cowardice or
fraud, the sentence shall further direct that the crime, punishment,
name, and place of abode of the delinquent shall be published in the
newspapers in and about the camp, and in the State from which the
offender came, or where he usually resides; and after such publication
it shall be scandalous for an officer to associate with him.

ART. 101. When a court-martial suspends an officer from command, it may
also suspend his pay and emoluments for the same time, according to the
nature of his offense.

ART. 102. No person shall be tried a second time for the same offense.

ART. 103. No person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a
general court-martial for any offense which appears to have been
committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such
trial, unless, by reason of having absented himself, or of some other
manifest impediment, he shall not have been amenable to justice within
that period.

ART. 104. No sentence of a court-martial shall be carried into execution
until the whole proceedings shall have been approved by the officer
ordering the court, or by the officer commanding for the time being.

ART. 105. No sentence of a court-martial, inflicting the punishment of
death, shall be carried into execution until it shall have been
confirmed by the President; except in the cases of persons convicted, in
time of war, as spies, mutineers, deserters, or murderers, and in the
cases of guerilla marauders, convicted, in time of war, of robbery,
burglary, arson, rape, assault with intent to commit rape, or of
violation of the laws and customs of war; and in such excepted cases the
sentence of death may be carried into execution upon confirmation by the
commanding general in the field, or the commander of the department, as
the case may be.

ART. 106. In time of peace no sentence of a court-martial, directing the
dismissal of an officer, shall be carried into execution, until it shall
have been confirmed by the President.

ART. 107. No sentence of a court-martial appointed by the commander of
a division or of a separate brigade of troops, directing the dismissal
of an officer, shall be carried into execution until it shall have been
confirmed by the general commanding the army in the field to which the
division or brigade belongs.

ART. 108. No sentence of a court-martial, either in time of peace or in
time of war, respecting a general officer, shall be carried into
execution, until it shall have been confirmed by the President.

ART. 109. All sentences of a court-martial may be confirmed and carried
into execution by the officer ordering the court, or by the officer
commanding for the time being, where confirmation by the President, or
by the commanding general in the field, or commander of the department,
is not required by these articles.

ART. 110. No sentence of a field-officer, detailed to try soldiers of
his regiment, shall be carried into execution, until the whole
proceedings shall have been approved by the brigade commander, or, in
case there be no brigade commander, by the commanding officer of the
post.

ART. 111. Any officer who has authority to carry into execution the
sentence of death, or of dismissal of an officer, may suspend the same
until the pleasure of the President shall be known; and, in such case,
he shall immediately transmit to the President a copy of the order of
suspension, together with a copy of the proceedings of the court.

ART. 112. Every officer who is authorized to order a general
court-martial shall have power to pardon or mitigate any punishment
adjudged by it, except the punishment of death, or of dismissal of an
officer. Every officer commanding a regiment or garrison in which a
regimental or garrison court-martial may be held, shall have power to
pardon or mitigate any punishment which such court may adjudge.

ART. 113. Every judge-advocate, or person acting as such, at any general
court-martial, shall, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time
and distance of place may admit, forward the original proceedings and
sentence of such court to the Judge-Advocate General of the Army, in
whose office they shall be carefully preserved.

ART. 114. Every party tried by a general court-martial shall, upon
demand thereof, made by himself, or by any person in his behalf, be
entitled to a copy of the proceedings and sentence of such court.

ART. 115. A court of inquiry, to examine into the nature of any
transaction of, or accusation or imputation against, any officer or
soldier, may be ordered by the President or by any commanding officer;
but, as courts of inquiry may be perverted to dishonorable purposes, and
may be employed, in the hands of weak and envious commandants, as
engines for the destruction of military merit, they shall never be
ordered by any commanding officer, except upon a demand by the officer
or soldier whose conduct is to be inquired of.

ART. 116. A court of inquiry shall consist of one or more officers, not
exceeding three, and a recorder, to reduce the proceedings and evidence
to writing.

ART. 117. The recorder of a court of inquiry shall administer to the
members the following oath: “You shall well and truly examine and
inquire, according to the evidence, into the matter now before you,
without partiality, favor, affection, prejudice, or hope of reward. So
help you God.” After which the president of the court shall administer
to the recorder the following oath: “You, A B, do swear that you will,
according to your best abilities, accurately and impartially record the
proceedings of the court and the evidence to be given in the case in
hearing. So help you God.”

ART. 118. A court of inquiry, and the recorder thereof, shall have the
same power to summon and examine witnesses as is given to courts-martial
and the judge-advocates thereof. Such witnesses shall take the same oath
which is taken by witnesses before courts-martials,[4] and the party
accused shall be permitted to examine and cross-examine them, so as
fully to investigate the circumstances in question.

  [4] _Sic_ in the roll.

ART. 119. A court of inquiry shall not give an opinion on the merits of
the case inquired of unless specially ordered to do so.

ART. 120. The proceedings of a court of inquiry must be authenticated by
the signatures of the recorder and the president thereof, and delivered
to the commanding officer.

ART. 121. The proceedings of a court of inquiry may be admitted as
evidence by a court-martial, in cases not capital, nor extending to the
dismissal of an officer: _Provided_, That the circumstances are such
that oral testimony cannot be obtained.

ART. 122. If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of
the Army happen to join or do duty together, the officer highest in rank
of the line of the Army, Marine Corps, or militia, by commission, there
on duty or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for
what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by
the President, according to the nature of the case.

ART. 123. In all matters relating to the rank, duties, and rights of
officers, the same rules and regulations shall apply to officers of the
Regular Army and to volunteers commissioned in, or mustered into said
service, under the laws of the United States, for a limited period.

ART. 124. Officers of the militia of the several States, when called
into the service of the United States, shall on all detachments,
courts-martial, and other duty wherein they may be employed in
conjunction with the regular or volunteer forces of the United States,
take rank next after all officers of the like grade in said regular or
volunteer forces, notwithstanding the commissions of such militia
officers may be older than the commissions of the said officers of the
regular or volunteer forces of the United States.

ART. 125. In case of the death of any officer, the major of his
regiment, or the officer doing the major’s duty, or the second officer
in command at any post or garrison, as the case may be, shall
immediately secure all his effects then in camp or quarters, and shall
make, and transmit to the office of the Department of War, an inventory
thereof.

ART. 126. In case of the death of any soldier, the commanding officer of
his troop, battery, or company shall immediately secure all his effects
then in camp or quarters, and shall, in the presence of two other
officers, make an inventory thereof, which he shall transmit to the
office of the Department of War.

ART. 127. Officers charged with the care of the effects of deceased
officers or soldiers shall account for and deliver the same, or the
proceeds thereof, to the legal representatives of such deceased officers
or soldiers. And no officer so charged shall be permitted to quit the
regiment or post until he has deposited in the hands of the commanding
officer all the effects of such deceased officers or soldiers not so
accounted for and delivered.

ART. 128. The foregoing articles shall be read and published, once in
every six months, to every garrison, regiment, troop, or company in the
service of the United States, and shall be duly observed and obeyed by
all officers and soldiers in said service.

SEC. 1343. All persons who, in time of war, or of rebellion against the
supreme authority of the United States, shall be found lurking or acting
as spies, in or about any of the fortifications, posts, quarters, or
encampments of any of the armies of the United States, or elsewhere,
shall be triable by a general court-martial, or by a military
commission, and shall, on conviction thereof, suffer death.



INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS


(_For description of Illustrations, see body of work._)

                                                    PLATE
  Abatis,                                               1
  Acinace,                                              1
  Aillettes,                                            1
  Aiming kneeling,                                      1
  Aiming, with an overhead rest,                        1
  Aiming, sand-bag rest,                                1
  Alman-rivets,                                         1
  Amazon,                                              29
  Ambulance,                                            1
  American Indians,                                    28
  Amusette,                                             1
  Anlace,                                               1
  Aparejo,                                              1
  Aqueduct,                                             1
  Arbalest,                                             1
  Blocks and Tackles,                                   3
  Blood-hound,                                          3
  Blunderbuss,                                          1
  Bombs,                                                3
  Bomb-proof,                                           3
  Boomerang,                                            3
  Bourguignote,                                         3
  Bracconière,                                          3
  Braquemurt,                                           3
  Brassard,                                             3
  Breech-sight,                                         3
  Bridge (read Bateau bridge),                          3
  Bridge, Trestle,                                      2
  Bridge, Trestle,                                      2
  Bridge, Trestle,                                      2
  Bridge, Lashing for Trestle,                          2
  Bridge, Frame,                                        2
  Bridge, Frame,                                        2
  Bridge, Sling,                                        2
  Bridge, Tension,                                      2
  Bridge, Suspension,                                   2
  Bridge, Suspension,                                   2
  Bridges, Holdfasts for,                               2
  Bridle,                                               2
  Brigantes,                                           26
  Broadsword,                                           1
  Bucklers,                                             2
  Bugle,                                                3
  Bullet-proof Gate,                                    2
  Busby,                                                1
  Buskin,                                               3
  Cabasset,                                             5
  Caligæ,                                               4
  Caltrop,                                              5
  Calumet, or Pipe of Peace,                           19
  Candjiar Turc,                                        5
  Canister,                                             5
  Canonnier (Louis XIV.),                              26
  Canteen,                                              5
  Caparison,                                           29
  Carabineer (Louis XIV.), France,                     31
  Carabineer, Italy,                                   28
  Carbine, 17th Century,                                4
  Carreau,                                              5
  Cartridge,                                            5
  Cartridge-box,                                        5
  Casemate,                                           3-4
  Casque,                                               5
    Lacedæmonian,                                       5
    Boetian,                                            5
    Athenian,                                           5
    Of the Dacia,                                       5
    Of the Dacia (Infantry),                            5
    Of the Dacia (Cavalry),                             5
    French (Cuirassier of the Guard),                   5
    French (Carabineer),                                5
    French (Dragoon of the Line),                       5
  Casse-tête,                                           4
  Castellated,                                          5
  Castle,                                               4
  Catapult,                                             5
  Catapulta,                                            5
  Cat-o’-nine-tails,                                    5
  Cavalry, 18th Century (France),                      32
    Bavaria,                                           32
    United States,                                     31
    Greek (Ancient),                                   31
    Regular (China),                                   31
    Roman,                                             29
  Chain-shot,                                           5
  Chapeau Bras,                                         5
  Chapeau (Henry II.),                                  5
  Chapeau (Henry III.),                                 5
  Chapeau (François I.),                                5
  Chapeau (Louis XV.),                                  5
  Chapeau (Louis XIV.),                                 5
  Chapeau (Louis XIII.),                                5
  Chasseur, Bavaria,                                   28
  Chasseur, Tyrolean (Austria),                        28
    Foot, 1862 (France),                               27
    Foot (Louis XV.),                                  27
    Algerian,                                          30
    Of the Guard, Mounted (France, 1802),              31
  Cheval-de-frise,                                      4
  Cimeterre,                                            4
  Cimier,                                               5
  Claymore,                                             5
  Clunaculum,                                           4
  Cnémides,                                             4
  Coat of Mail,                                         5
  Coat of Mail,                                         4
  Colletin,                                             5
  Colors,                                               4
  Corium,                                               5
  Cornet, Light Cavalry (Louis XIII.),                 30
  Corselet,                                             5
  Cossack,                                             30
  Crèaneaux,                                            4
  Cross-bow,                                            5
  Crown, Mural,                                         5
  Crows-foot,                                           5
  Cuirass,                                              5
  Cuirassier (Prussia),                                32
  Cutlass,                                              5
  Dagger,                                               4
  Daggers,                                              4
  Dagues (cut next to Device),                          4
  Dangerous Space,                                      4
  Dart,                                                 4
  Decoration,                                           4
  Device,                                               4
  Diameter,                                             4
  Donjon,                                               4
  Dragoon, Sepoy,                                      27
    Switzerland,                                       32
    Austria,                                           32
  Drawbridge,                                           4
  Drum,                                                 4
  Drum-Major, French Guards (1786),                    27
    Of the Grenadiers of the Guard, France, 1813,      27
  Eagles, Roman,                                        6
  Echaugette,                                           4
  Ecu,                                                  4
  Embrasures,                                           4
  Embrasures,                                           6
  Embrasure Lining,                                     6
  Entanglement, Wire,                                   6
  Epaulette,                                            4
  Escarp,                                               6
  Espadon,                                              6
  Espingole,                                            4
  Falarique,                                            6
  Fantassin (Japan),                                   28
  Fantassin of the Nizam,                              28
    Japan,                                             28
  Fasces,                                               6
  Fascine,                                              6
  Fascine Blind,                                        6
  Fascine Choker,                                       7
  Fascine Trestle,                                      7
  Fascine, Withe for,                                   7
  Fire-arrow,                                           6
  Fire-ball,                                            6
  Fleaux d’Armes,                                      23
  Fleches,                                              9
  Foil,                                                 6
  Foot Artillery, Line (France),                       27
  Fortification--Trenches,                              6
    Gun Pit,                                            6
    Military Pits,                                      6
    Defense (Hedges),                                   6
    Defense (Screen),                                   6
    Defense (Walls),                                    6
    Defense (Wall),                                     7
    Defense (Stockades),                                7
    Fraises,                                            6
    Fascine Revetment,                                  6
    Fascine Revetment,                                  7
    Gabion Revetment,                                   6
    Gabion Revetment,                                   7
    Sod Revetment,                                      7
    Brushwood Revetment,                                7
    Sand-bag Revetment,                                 7
    Fascine Stockade,                                   7
    Log Stockade,                                       7
    Log Loop-hole,                                      7
    Brushwood Loop-hole,                                7
    Sand-bag Loop-hole,                                 7
    Breastwork,                                         7
      Hurdles,                                          7
      Fascines,                                         7
      Logs,                                             7
    Gun or Gatling-port in Stockade,                    7
    Palisades,                                          7
    Palisade,                                          18
    Profile,                                            7
    Lunette,                                            7
    Shell-proof,                                        9
    Field-works,                                        7
    Field-works,                                        8
    Ditch, Glacis, Parapet, and Trench,                 8
    Bastioned Fort,                                     8
    Star Fort,                                          8
    Crémaillère,                                        8
    Lunette (Defense of Bridge),                        8
    Splinter-proof,                                     8
    Traverse,                                           8
    One gun “en barbette” on straight parapet,          8
    Keep,                                               8
    Gabionnade,                                        23
    Gun-bank,                                           8
    Field Casemate,                                     8
    Earthen Retrenchment,                               9
    Tambour,                                            9
    Tambour,                                            9
    Caponniere,                                         9
    Shoulder Caponniere,                                8
    Machicolation,                                     13
    Machicolation,                                     23
    Magazine,                                           8
    Magazine, Plan of,                                  8
    Magazine in a Traverse,                             9
    Escarp Gallery,                                     8
    Parallels,                                         23
  Francisques,                                          6
  Friction Tube,                                        6
  Fusileer, Mounted (Louis XIII.),                     31
  Fusils, Indien,                                       9
  Fusils, Marocain,                                     9
  Fuze, Bormann-,                                       6
  Fuze, German Time-,                                   6
  Fuze, Percussion-,                                    6
  Fuze, Percussion- (English G. S.),                    6
  Fuze, Percussion- (English G. S.),                    6
  Fuze, Swiss Combination,                              6
  Fuze, Time-,                                          6
  Fuze, Time-,                                          6
  Gabion,                                               7
  Gabion Knife,                                         7
  Gabionnade,                                          23
  Gadling,                                              9
  Garter, Collar of,                                    9
  Garter, Star of,                                      9
  Gauntlet,                                             9
  Gendarme, 1453,                                      29
  Gendarme, Foot, 1824 (France),                       27
  Gladiator,                                            9
  Gong,                                                 9
  Gorget,                                               9
  Grape,                                                9
  Grenade and Fuze,                                     9
  Grenadier,                                            9
  Grenadier, Belgium,                                  28
    England, 1690,                                     26
  Guide, Belgium,                                      32
  Guillotine,                                           9
  Guisarme,                                             9
  Haches d’Armes,                                       9
  Halberdier, 1534,                                    26
  Halberds,                                            10
  Hand Sling-cart,                                     23
  Handspike, Manœuvring,                                9
  Hauberk,                                              9
  Hausse, Pendulum,                                    18
  Haversack,                                            9
  Head-piece,                                           5
  Helmet, Barred,                                       5
  Helmet, U. S.,                                        5
  Heraldry,                                            10
    Eagle Recursant,                                   10
    Fanciful variations of the Shield,                 10
    Fleur-de-lis,                                      10
    Inescutcheon,                                      10
    Lion Statant,                                      11
    Lozenge,                                           11
    Norman Shield,                                     11
    Pale,                                              10
    Paly,                                              10
    Party per Pale,                                    10
    Passant,                                           10
    Patee,                                             10
    Pheon,                                             10
    Pile,                                              10
    Pomme,                                             10
    Quartered Arms,                                    10
    Raguled,                                           10
    Rampant,                                           10
    Rampant Gardant,                                   10
    Rampant Regardant,                                 10
    Regardant,                                         10
    Respectant,                                        10
    Roundel,                                           10
    Sable,                                             10
    Salient,                                           10
    Saltire,                                           11
    Sejant,                                            11
    Spread eagle,                                      11
    Supporters,                                        11
    Surmounted,                                        11
    Tressure,                                          11
  Herisson,                                             9
  Herse,                                               10
  Heuses,                                              10
  Highlander, Scots (England),                         28
  Holdfasts,                                           19
  Homme d’Armes, Lancer (1610),                        29
  Hoplitai,                                            25
  Hoqueton,                                            10
  Horse,                                               10
  Horse and Harness, Artillery,                        10
  Horse Guard (England),                               32
  Hulans, 1745,                                        31
  Hurdle,                                               7
  Hussar, Belgium,                                     30
    France, 1796 (Chamborin’s),                        32
  Implements, Artillery,                               11
    Ladle,                                             11
    Lifting-jack,                                      11
    Lifting-jack,                                      11
    Lifting-jacks,                                     11
    Pass-box,                                          11
    Rammer,                                            11
    Sponge and Rammer,                                 11
    Springhead (Sponge),                               11
    Worm,                                              11
  Infantry, 1572 (Charles IX.),                        25
    Louis XIV.,                                        25
    Negro (Brazil),                                    28
    Of the Line (Austria),                             28
    Of the Line (Russia),                              28
    Of the Guard (Morocco),                            28
    Regular (Persia),                                  28
    Tiger (China),                                     28
    U. S. Foot-soldier, 1870,                          27
  Jack-boot,                                           11
  Jambeaux (Ancient and Modern),                       28
  Jambes,                                              11
  Javelins,                                            11
  Joan of Arc,                                         25
  Jupon,                                               11
  Kalmuck,                                             30
  Kettle-drum,                                         12
  Knapsack,                                            12
  Knight in Full Armor,                                12
  Knighthood, Conferring,                              12
  Knots, Hitches, Splices, etc.,                       11
    Anchor Knot,                                       11
    Becket Knot,                                       11
    Bight,                                             11
    Bight,                                             11
    Blackwall,                                         11
    Bowline,                                           11
    Cable-laid Rope,                                   11
    Capstan or Prolonge Knot,                          11
    Carrick Bend,                                      11
    Catspaw,                                           11
    Fisherman’s Bend,                                  11
    Granny,                                            11
    Grommet,                                           11
    Hawser-laid Rope,                                  11
    Hitch, Clove,                                      11
    Hitch, Timber,                                     11
    Hitch, Marlinespike,                               11
    Hitches, Two Half,                                 11
    Hitches, Two Half, and a Round Turn,               11
    Mooring Knot,                                      11
    Nipper or Rack Lashing,                            11
    Parceling a Rope,                                  11
    Pointing a Rope,                                   11
    Rolling,                                           11
    Sheet Bend,                                        11
    Seizing a Rope,                                    11
    Serving a Rope,                                    11
    Sheepshank,                                        11
    Splice, Eye,                                       11
    Splice, Short,                                     11
    Splice, Long,                                      11
    Square,                                            11
    Strap,                                             11
    Whipping a Rope,                                   11
    Worming a Rope,                                    11
  Kriss,                                               12
  Labarum,                                             12
  Lancer (Egypt),                                      32
  Lances,                                              13
  Lances, Ancient,                                     23
  Lansquenet,                                          26
  Lanyard, Handle, and Hook,                           12
  Lashing and Slinging,                                12
    Lashing,                                           12
    Lashing, Shear,                                    12
    Slinging, Barrel,                                  12
  Legatus,                                             25
  Litters,                                             12
    Army Regulation Two-horse Litter,                  13
    British Crimean Cacolet,                           12
    British Army Mule-litter,                          12
    French Litter unfolded,                            12
    Litter,                                            13
    Litter of poles and raw-hide,                      12
    Lord and Baine’s Horse-litter,                     12
    Splint of willow-twigs united by buckskin thongs,  13
    Two-horse Litter of the, 16th Century,             13
    Wounded Soldier on a “Travail”,                    12
    Wounded Soldier conveyed on a Double-mule Litter,  13
  Lochaber-axe,                                        12
  Machette,                                            14
  Machicolations, 13,                                  23
  Maiden,                                              13
  Mameluke Guards,                                     30
  Mangonneau,                                          13
  Manipule,                                            13
  Mantelet, Ancient,                                   12
  Mantelet, Gun,                                       13
  Mantelet, Rope,                                      13
  Maréchausée (France, 1786),                          30
  Marine of the Guard, 1804 (France),                  27
  Mars,                                                14
  Marteau d’Armes,                                     14
  Martello Tower (U. S., 1780),                        13
  Marteis-de-fer,                                      13
  Masses d’Armes,                                      13
  Mattock,                                             13
  Merlons,                                             13
  Miner, 1786 (England),                               26
  Minié-ball,                                          13
  Mining,                                              24
    Shaft with Cases,                                  24
    Shaft with Frames,                                 24
    Shaft, Hard Soil,                                  24
    Galleries, Hard Soil,                              24
    False Frames, Use of,                              24
    Detonator, No. 5,                                  24
    Detonator, No. 8,                                  24
    Detonator, No. 9,                                  24
    Detonator, No. 10,                                 24
    Detonator, No. 13,                                 24
    Fuze No. 1,                                        24
    Fuze, Instantaneous (Bickford’s),                  24
    Tube, No. 4,                                       24
    Fuzes in pairs, coupling up,                       24
    Fuzes in Powder-bag, Insertion of,                 24
    Quantity Dynamo-Electric Machine,                  24
    Circuit, Continuous,                               24
    Circuit, Simple,                                   24
    Commencement of Three Way Joint,                   24
    Tube, Flexible,                                    24
    Tube, Tin,                                         24
    Miner’s Pick,                                      24
    Push Pick,                                         24
    Miner’s Shovel,                                    24
    Miner’s Truck,                                     24
    Candle-stick,                                      24
    Bucket,                                            24
    Bellows,                                           24
    Spark Measurer,                                    24
  Miquelet,                                            27
  Mole,                                                13
  Morion,                                              13
  Musculas, 14th Century,                              23
  National Guard (Mexico),                             28
  Officer of the Guard (Prussia),                      28
  Ordnance,                                            14
    Armstrong Gun (8-inch),                            14
    Cannon, 15th Century,                              14
    Cannon, 16th Century,                              14
    Cannon, 17th Century,                              14
    Carronade,                                         13
    Caisson and Body,                                  17
    Caisson and Limber,                                15
    Field-gun and Carriage, German,                    15
    Field-gun and Carriage, Swedish,                   15
    Forge and Body, Traveling-,                        17
    Flank Casemate-carriage,                           15
    Gatling Gun,                                       14
    Gatling Gun on Cavalry Cart,                       14
    Gin,                                               15
    Gun-lifts,                                         15
    Gunner’s Quadrant,                                 17
    Howitzer,                                          15
    Howitzer and Carriage, Siege-,                     14
    Howitzer, German,                                  15
    Krupp, 12-inch Gun and Carriage,                   16
    Limber,                                            17
    Mortar,                                            14
    Mortar, Coehorn,                                   14
    Mortar, Russian,                                   14
    Mortar and Carriage, Austrian,                     14
    Mortar and Carriage, Krupp,                        15
    Mortar-wagon,                                      16
    Mortars, Pointing,                                 23
    Sea-coast Carriage,                                15
    Shears,                                            16
    Siege-gun-carriage,                                15
    Siege-gun and Carriage,                            15
    Siege-carriage, Austrian,                          14
    Sling-cart,                                        15
    Sling-cart, Hand,                                  23
    Star-gauge,                                        17
    Truck Wagon,                                       14
    Truck, Casemate,                                   15
    Ball, U. S. Rifle,                                 15
    Ball Chassépot,                                    16
    Bullet, Percussion-,                               16
    Cartridge, Multi-ball,                             16
    Fixed Round-shot,                                  16
    Fixed Canister,                                    16
    Projectile, Krupp Howitzer,                        16
    Projectile, English Howitzer,                      16
    Projectile, Butler,                                16
    Projectile, Whitworth,                             16
    Sabot,                                             16
    Strapped Shell,                                    16
  Oriflamme,                                           17
  Pack and Draught Animals,                            18
    Buffalo,                                           18
    Camel, Bactrian,                                   18
    Dromedary,                                         18
    Dromedary and Saddle,                              18
    Elephant,                                          18
    Horse,                                             18
    Llama,                                             18
    Mule,                                              18
    Mule laden with pack on cross-tree saddle,         18
  Pack-saddle,                                         18
  Paludamentum,                                        25
  Parallels,                                           23
  Parthian,                                            26
  Pavisor and Pavise,                                  18
  Petard,                                              18
  Pilum,                                               19
  Piquier,                                             25
  Pistolier, 17th Century,                             31
  Platform, Gun,                                        9
  Plummet Stand,                                       18
  Plummet Stand,                                       19
  Pointing Instruments,                                18
  Pointing Mortars,                                    23
  Pole-axes,                                           18
  Poniard,                                             18
  Portcullis,                                          19
  Portuguese Legion,                                   27
  Powder,                                              23
    Cubical,                                           23
    Hexagonal,                                         23
    Mammoth,                                           23
    Prismatic (Molded),                                23
    For 3-inch and 3¹⁄₂-inch Field Rifle,              23
  Pretorian,                                           25
  Pretorian,                                           29
  Quiver,                                              20
  Quoin,                                               20
  Range-finder, Nolan’s,                               20
  Ravelin,                                             20
  Rèchaud,                                             20
  Redoubt,                                             20
  Ribaud,                                              25
  Ribaudequin,                                         23
  Rivers, Means employed in passing,                   19
    Ponton,                                            19
    Ponton-bridge,                                     19
    Raft complete,                                     19
    Raft, Log,                                         19
    Flying Bridges,                                    19
    Barrel Pier,                                       19
  Roi d’Armes,                                         26
  Rondelle,                                            20
  Sabretache,                                          20
  Saddle,                                              21
  Salade,                                               5
  Sapper of the “Legion of the Vistula”,               27
  Sceptre,                                             20
  Scorpion,                                            20
  Scutum,                                              20
  Semaphores,                                          20
  Sepoy,                                               26
  Shabracs, 1800-1850,                                 23
  Shakos,                                               5
  Shield,                                              20
  Signal Pistol fired,                                 20
  Signal Station,                                      20
  Signal Station at Night,                             20
  Slinger,                                             21
  Small-arms,                                          18
    Air-gun,                                           18
    Chassépot Rifle,                                   17
    Martini-Henry Rifle,                               17
    Springfield Rifle, U. S.,                          18
    Vitterlin Rifle,                                   17
    Werndl Rifle,                                      17
    Werder Carbine,                                    17
    Werndl Carbine,                                    17
    Pistolets, 16th and 18th Centuries,                18
    Pistol, 1855,                                      18
    Pistol, Werder,                                    18
    Pistol, 18th Century,                              18
    Percussion-lock,                                   18
    Revolver, Austrian,                                18
    Beach’s Combination Sight,                         16
    Lyman’s Combination Sight,                         16
    Chassépot Sight,                                   16
    Globe Sight,                                       16
    Martini-Henry Sight,                               10
    Wind-gauge (Spirit Level),                         16
    Wind-gauge and Sight, U. S.,                       16
    Winchester Reversible Sight,                       16
  Soldier of the “Legion Copthe”,                      26
  Soldier Foot Legion (Roman),                         25
  Spahis,                                              30
  Sparum,                                              20
  Spear,                                               20
  Spear-heads,                                         20
  Spurs,                                               20
  Standard,                                            21
  Standard, Pacha’s,                                   21
  Stirrup, 18th Century,                               21
  Strappado,                                           20
  Stylets,                                             20
  Swiss Captain (1550),                                26
  Swords,                                              20
  Tabard,                                              22
  Tangent Scale,                                       21
  Target, Floating,                                    21
  Target, Laidley’s Shelter,                           21
  Targets,                                             21
  Tasses, or Tasces,                                   21
  Telegraph (Electric Field),                          21
  Telemeter,                                           22
  Telemeter, for Field and Mountain Batteries,         22
  Telemeters,                                          22
  Tents,                                               23
    “A,” or Common Tent,                               22
    Bell-tent,                                         22
    Cushing’s Shelter-tent,                            22
      Pole (open),                                     22
      Pole (shut),                                     22
    Conical Tent (France),                             22
    Hospital Tent (Russian),                           22
    Roman Tents,                                       23
    Shelter-tent,                                      22
    Sibley Tent,                                       23
    Sibley Wall-tent,                                  23
    Tent-d’abri (France),                              22
    Wall-tent,                                         22
  Tirailleur, Native (Algeria),                        27
  Toga,                                                21
  Tollenon,                                            21
  Tomahawks,                                           21
  Tortue d’Hommes,                                     22
  Tour Bélière,                                        22
  Tower,                                               21
  Tower, Watch-,                                       21
  Trajectory,                                          22
  Tribune, Military (Roman),                           25
  Trident,                                             21
  Tromblon,                                            23
  Trumpet,                                             22
  Unicorn,                                             23
  Velite,                                              25
  Velite, 1807,                                        25
  Vexilla,                                             29
  Vexilla,                                             23
  Vireton,                                             23
  Vivandière,                                          26
  Vivandière, 1809 (France),                           30
  Wahabees,                                            29
  Wigwam,                                              22
  Zagaie,                                              23
  Zouaves (France),                                    27


[Illustration: PLATE 1.

Ambulance.

Abatis.

Arquebuse.

Amusette.

Anlace.

Acinace.

AIMING KNEELING.

AIMING, WITH AN OVERHEAD REST.

Arbalest.

Arch.

A SAND-BAG REST.

Aillettes.

Aparejo.

Aqueduct.

Broadsword.

Battering Ram.

Blunderbuss.

Busby.

Bascule Bridge.

Alman-rivets.

Arbalest.

Beaver.

Battlement.

Battle-ax.

Block-house.

Bagpipe.]


[Illustration: PLATE 2.

Block-house.

Block-house.

_Bill Hook, 1 lb 12 oz. 1′ 4¹⁄₂″_

Bastion. A. bastion; _a_, curtain angle; _b_, shoulder angle; _c_,
salient angle; _a a_, gorge; _a b_, flank; _a d_, curtain; _b c_, face.

Gatling Blind.

Barricade.

Bucklers. 1. Targe. 2. Franc.

Bridle.

_Trestle Bridge._

Trestle Bridge.

BULLET-PROOF GATE.

Trestle Bridge.

Lashing.

Frame Bridge.

Sling Bridge.

Tension Bridge.

Frame Bridge.

Suspension Bridge.

Holdfasts.

Suspension Bridge.]


[Illustration: PLATE 3.

Baril-foudroyant.

Barbacan.

Battery-wagon.

Blood Hound.

Balloon.

Banners.

Bastinado.

Bayonets, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries

Bar-shot.

Baldrick.

Breech-sight.

Buskin.

Bugle.

Bourguignote.

Ballista.

Bridge. _a a_, _a a_, bateaux; _b b_, _b_, _b_, balks; _c_, _c_,
chesses.

Braconnière.

Boomerang.

Brassard.

Bandoulière.

Bartizan.

Bombs.

Blocks and Tackles. _Whip._ _Whip upon Whip._ _Gun tackle._ _Luff._
_Screw._ _Runner._ _Burton._

Bomb proof.

Back-plate.

Braquemart.]


[Illustration: PLATE 4.

Castle. 1, moat; 2 drawbridge; 3, wicket; 4, sally-port; 5, portcullis;
6, outer walls; 7, parapet; 8, rampart; 9, loop-holes; 10, escutcheon;
11, bulwark; 12, sentinel; 13, magazine; 14, a cell; 15, donjon or keep;
16, barracks; 17, barbacan; 18, watchman; 19, turret; 20, chapel; 21,
belfry; 22, state court; 23, merlons; 24, embrasures.

Casemate.

Créneaux.

Caligae.

Colors.

Carbine, 17th century.

Diameter.

Coat of Mail.

Cheval de frise.

Cnémides.

Clunaculum.

Drum.

CASSE-TÊTE.

Cimeterre.

Decoration.

Dart.

Drawbridge.

Dangerous Space. A, B, E, F, Trajectories. (Laidley)

Dagger.

Donjon.

Espingole.

Epaulette.

Embrasures.

Daggers.

Ecu.

Echaugette.

Device.

Dagues.]


[Illustration: PLATE 5.

Catapult.

Canteen.

Chapeau Bras.

Coat of Mail.

Cartridge-box.

Cartridge.

Chain shot.

Cuirass.

Carreau.

Cutlass.

Castellated.

Candjiar turc.

Casque.

Colletin.

Canister.

Caltrop.

Head-piece.

Crow’s Foot.

CASQUES GRECS. 3. Lacédémonien. 1. Béotien. 2. Athénien.

CIMIER.

CHAPEAUX MILITAIRES: Henri II. Henri III. François I^{er}. Louis XIV.
Louis XV. Louis XIII.

CASQUES ROMAINS ET DACES. 3. Dace. 1. D’infanterie. 2. De cavalerie.

Corselet.

Cabasset.

Helmet, Barred.

CASQUES DE CAVALERIE. Cuirassier de la garde. Carabinier. Dragon de la
ligne.

Catapulta.

Sallet, or Salade.

Claymore.

U. S. Helmet.

Cross-bow.

Corium.

Cat-o-nine-tails.

Schakos.

Mural Crown.]


[Illustration: PLATE 6.

_Rear Elevation._ _Fascine Revet^{t}._ _Gabion Revet^{t}._ _For high
angles_ Embrasures.

Wire Entanglement.

Embrasure. A, A. Merlons. B, Genouillere. C C, Cheeks.

Fireball.

Embrasure lining of boiler iron, with mantelet.

Espadon.

Roman Eagles.

Foil.

_Fascine._

Fasces.

_Rear Elevation._ _Section._ FASCINE BLIND.

Francisques.

_Time fuze._

Fire-arrow.

Friction Tube.

Falarique.

Percussion Fuze. (English G. S.)

Percussion Fuze.

Time Fuze.

Bormann-fuze.

German Time Fuze.

Percussion Fuze. (English G. S.)

Swiss Combination Fuze.

TRENCHES.

Gun Pit.

Military Pits.

Defence (Hedges).

_Escarp_ Fraises.

Defence (Screen).

Defence (Walls).]


[Illustration: PLATE 7.

_Gabion Knife._

Defence (Wall).

Defence (Stockades).

Log Stockade.

LOG LOOPHOLE.

Brushwood Loophole.

Sandbag Loophole.

FASCINE STOCKADE.

Breastwork.

Breastwork.

Breastwork.

Palisades.

Gun or Gatling-port in Stockade.

_Fascine Trestle._

_Withe._

_Fascine Choker._

Hurdle.

Gabion.

Gabions. Facines. Sods. Brushwood. Sandbags. Revetments.

Profile.

Lunette.

Field-works.]


[Illustration: PLATE 8.

Ditch, Glacis, Parapet, and Trench.

Field-works.

Star Fort.

Bastioned Fort.

Field-works.

MAGAZINE.

Cremaillere.

Shoulder Caponniere.

_Plan of_ MAGAZINE

ESCARP GALLERY

Lunette (Defence of Bridge.)

GUN ‘EN BARBETTE’ ON STRAIGHT PARAPET.

_The Excavations supply Earth for the Gun Bank and Banquettes in front
of them: the earth for ordinary Parapet in front of Crest comes from
Ditch._

Keep.

Splinter-proof.

Gun Bank.

Keep.

Traverse.

Field Casemate.]


[Illustration: PLATE 9.

EARTHEN RETRENCHMENT.

GROUND PLATFORM.

MAGAZINE IN A TRAVERSE.

Shell-proof.

Caponniere.

Gadling.

Tambour.

Gauntlet.

Gorget.

Grape.

Grenade and Fuse.

Tambour.

Grenadier

Fusils: Marocain. Indien.

Star of Garter.

Gladiator.

Guisarme.

Collar of Garter.

Guillotine.

Haversack.

Haches d’armes.

Gong.

Flèches diverses.

Herisson.

Hauberk.

Manoeuvring Handspike.]


[Illustration: PLATE 10.

Artillery Horses and Harness. 1. Ears; 2. Nape of the neck; 3. Forelock;
4. Foretop; 5. Eye-pit; 6. Eyes; 7. Face; 8. Cheeks; 9. Nostrils; 10.
Tip of nose; 11. Lips; 12. Chin; 13. Beard; 14. L’auge; 15. Nether jaw;
16. Throat; 17. L’encolure; 18. Mane; 19. Withers; 20. Chest; 21.
Shoulders; 22. Arm; 23. Fore-arm; 24. Elbow; 25. Chesnut; 26. Knees; 27.
Shank-bone; 28. Sinew; 29. Bullet; 30. Fetlock; 31. Pastern; 32.
Coronet; 33. Hoof; 34. Fetlock of the hind leg; 35. Heel; 36. Toe; 37.
Back; 38. Loins; 39. Girths; 40. Ribs; 41. Belly; 42. Flanks; 43.
Sheath; 44. Croup; 45. Tail; 46. Rump; 47. Haunches; 48. Thighs; 49.
Leg; 50. Stiffle; 51. Hock; 52. Point of the hock.

1, Halter; 2, Crown-piece; 3, Cheek-strap; 4, Brow-band; 5, Nose-band;
6, Chin-strap; 7, Throat-strap; 8, Throat-lash. Bridles, composed of
Head-stall, Curb-bit, and Reins. 9, Near Saddle; 10, Girth; 11, Collar;
12, Hames; 13, Chin and Toggle; 14, Safes; 15, Trace-tugs; 16,
Trussing-straps; 17, Hame-strap; 18, Collar-strap; 19, Traces; 20,
Front-trace chains; 21, Rear-trace chains; 22, Trace-toggles; 23,
Lion-strap, Crupper, including 24, Back-strap; 25, Body; 26, Dock.
Breeching, including 27, Breech-strap; 28, Hip-strap; 29, Breast-strap;
30, Sliding-loops; 31, Off Saddle; 32, Hook for Reins and Valise-strap;
33, Valise, Coupling-rein, Whip, Leg-guard, and Nose-bag.

Hoqueton.

Halberds.

Herse.

Fleur-de-lis.

Heuses.

Inescutcheon.

Pale.

Passant.

Patee.

Pheon.

Pile.

Paly.

Party per Pale.

Pommé.

Quartered Arms.

Raguled.

Rampant.

Rampant gardant.

Rampant regardant.

Eagle recursant.

Regardant.

Respectant.

Roundel.

Sable.

Salient.

Fanciful Variations of the Shield.]


[Illustration: PLATE 11.

Lion statant.

Spread-eagle.

Saltier.

Sejant.

Norman Shield.

Lozenge Shield.

Supporters.

Surmounted.

Tressure.

Sponge and Rammer.

Springhead Sponge.

Rammer.

Ladle.

Worm.

Pass box.

Lifting Jacks.

Lifting-jack.

Jambes.

Jupon.

Lifting-jack.

Jack-boot.

_Capstan or Prolonge Knot._

Javelins.

EYE SPLICE.

_Mooring Knot._

GROMMET.

NIPPER OR RACK LASHING.

MARLINSPIKE HITCH.

SHEEP SHANK.

TWO HALF HITCHES.

CLOVE HITCH.

BOWLINE.

_Short Splice._

_Long Splice._

ROUND TURN AND TWO HALF HITCHES.

GRANNY.

SQUARE.

POINTING.

BLACKWALL. TIMBER HITCH.

ROLLING.

CATSPAW. FISHERMAN BEND.

HAWSER LAID ROPE.

SHEET BEND.

CABLE LAID ROPE.

STRAP.

WHIPPING.

SERVICE. WORKING. PARCELLING.

_Becket Knot._

CARRICK BEND.

_Anchor Knot._

~A~ BIGHT.

~THE~ BIGHT.]


[Illustration: PLATE 12.

_Lashing._ _Seizing._

_Shear Lashing._

_Lanyard and Handle._

_Barrel Sling._

_Wound in S^{t}. Andrew’s Cross._

_Hook._

Conferring Knighthood.

Knight in full Armor.

Knapsack.

Kettle-drum.

Lochaber Ax.

Wounded soldier on a “travail.” [From a photograph.]

Labarum.

LORD and BAINES’S horse-litter.

Kris.

French litière unfolded.

British army mule-litter attached to its pack-saddle.

British Crimean cacolet. [After WEIR.]

Litter of poles and raw-hide.]


[Illustration: PLATE 13.

Wounded soldier conveyed on a double mule-litter. [From a photograph.]

Splint of willow-twigs united by buckskin thongs.

Army regulation two-horse-litter. [From a sample in the Army Medical
Museum.]

Two-horse litter of the XVI century.

_Rear Elevation_ _Section_ ROPE MANTLET.

Litter.

Gun Mantelet.

Lances.

Mantelet ancien.

Môle.

Martels-de-fer.

Mattock.

Minie-ball.

Manipule.

_m_, _m_ Merlons.

Machicolation.

Morion.

Martello Tower. (U. S. 1780.)

Maiden.

Mangonneau.

Masses d’armes.]


[Illustration: PLATE 14.

Marteau d’armes.

Machette.

Cannon. 15th Century.

Cannon. 16th Century.

Mars.

Cannon. 17th Century.

Siege Howitzer and Carriage.

Mortar.

Gatling Gun.

Coehorn Mortar.

Austrian Siege-carriage.

Armstrong gun. (_8-inch._)

Gatling Gun on Cavalry Cart.

TRUCK WAGON.

Austrian Mortar and Carriage.

Russian Mortar.]


[Illustration: PLATE 15.

Siege-gun-carriage, A, bolster.

Sea coast-carriage, for Casemate or Barbette.

Krupp Mortar and Carriage.

Caisson and Limber.

Field-gun and Carriage. (German.)

Flank Casemate-carriage.

Gun-lifts.

Gin.

Sling-Cart.

Siege-gun and Carriage. _N^{o}. 1. Ferrule._ _N^{o}. 2. Pole clasp._
_N^{o}. 3. Pole._ _N^{o}. 4. Trace hook._ _N^{o}. 5. Lashing chain._
_N^{o}. 6. Pintle._ _N^{o}. 7. Under strap._ _N^{o}. 8. Strap and
buckle._ _N^{o}. 9. Splinter bar._ _N^{o}. 10. Fork._

Carronade Truck.

Carronade.

Howitzer (German.)

Field-gun and Carriage. (Swedish.)

Howitzer.]


[Illustration: PLATE 16.

Mortar Wagon. _N^{o}. 1 Middle rails (stock)._ _N^{o}. 2 Side rails._
_N^{o}. 3 Bottom planks._ _N^{o}. 4 Windlass._ _N^{o}. 5 Breech buster._
_N^{o}. 6 Stake sockets._ _N^{o}. 7 Roller hooks._ _N^{o}. 8 Fork._
_N^{o}. 9 Hounds._ _N^{o}. 10 Splinter bar._ _N^{o}. 11 Pole._ _N^{o}.
12 Sweep bar._ _N^{o}. 13 End bands._ _N^{o}. 14 Middle bands._ _N^{o}.
15 Trace hooks._ _N^{o}. 16 Front cross bar plate._ _N^{o}. 17 Rear
cross bar plate._ _N^{o}. 18 Pintle bridle and nuts._

Sheers.

Krupp Howitzer Projectile.

English Howitzer Projectile.

Krupp. 12-inch Gun and Carriage.

Fixed Round Shot.

Fixed Canister.

Strapped Shell.

Sabot.

U. S. Rifle Ball.

Butler’s Projectile.

Whitworth Projectile.

Chassapot Ball.

Multiball Cartridge.

Wind-gauge (Spirit level).

Globe Sight.

Percussion-bullet.

Beach Combination Sight.

Martini-Henry Sight.

Lyman’s Combination Sight.

Winchester Reversible Sight.

U. S. Wind-gauge and Sight.

Chassapot Sight.]


[Illustration: PLATE 17.

Caisson and Body. 1, Stock; 2, Side-rails; 3, Front Foot-board; 4, Rear
Foot-board; 5, Middle-chest; 6, Rear-chest. 7, Spare-wheel Axle; 8,
Chain and Toggle; 9, Lock-chains; 10, Spare-pole; 11, Spare-pole Key,
Plate, Chain, and Pin; 12, Carriage-hook; 13, Wheel-guard Plates; 14,
Spare-pole Ring; 15, Ring-bolt; 16, Key-plate, Chain and Key; 17, Middle
Assembling-bar; 18, Slot; 19, Rear Assembling-bar; 20, Slot. Axle. 21,
Axle-body; 22, Staples for Tool-handles; Wheels.

Oriflamme.

Star-guage.

Chassapot.

Werder Carbine.

Werndl Carbine.

Werndl.

Gunner’s Quadrant.

Travelling-forge and Body. 1, Lunette; 2, Prop; 3, Vice; 4, Stock; 5,
wheel-guard, Plates; 6, Stock-stirrup; 7, Fire-place; 8, Back of
Fire-place; 9, Air-back; 10, Wind-pipe; 11, Bellows; 12. Ribs; 13,
Hinges; 14, Hook; 15, Fulcrum; 16, Hook and Staple; 17, Roof of
Bellows-house; 18, Bows; 19, Studs; 20, Girders; 21, End-boards; 22,
Bottom-boards; 23, Side-rail; 24, Lock-chain Hook; 25, Coal-box; 26, Lid
or Roof; 27, Handles; 28, Hinges; 29, Turnbuckle and Hasp.

Vitterlin.

Martini-Henry.]


[Illustration: PLATE 18.

U. S. Springfield Rifle.

Air-gun.

Austrian Revolver.

Werder Pistol.

Pistol 18th Century.

Pistolets. 2. 18th Century 1. 16th Century.

Pistol, 1855.

Pétard.

Llama.

Dromedary.

Bactrian Camel.

Elephant.

Dromedary and Saddle.

Pack-saddle.

Horse.

Buffalo.

Mule.

Poniard.

Pendulum Hause.

Mule laden with pack on cross-tree saddle.

Palisade.

Percussion-lock.

Pole-axes.

Pavisor and Pavise.

Pointing Instruments.]


[Illustration: PLATE 19.

Pilum.

Calumet or Pipe of Peace.

Portcullis.

PLUMMET STAND.


MEANS EMPLOYED IN PASSING RIVERS.

Ponton-bridge. _a._ side view of ponton; _b._ end view of ponton joists,
flooring plank and timbers fastened upon flooring to keep it in place;
_c._ plan of pontons; _d._ plan of flooring joists; _f._ plan of
flooring boards, with timbers thereon, near side of floor, to keep it in
place.

Ponton.

Ponton.

_Raft Complete._

Log Raft.

Flying Bridge.

Flying Bridge.

Holdfasts.

_Barrel Pier._

_Method of lashing Barrels to Gunnels._]


[Illustration: PLATE 20.

Quoin.

Quiver.

Rondelle.

Ravelin.

BB, ravelin: A redoubt; CC, ditch: E, passage from fortress to ravelin.

Redoubt.

Ravelin. A.A. bastions; _b b_, curtain; _c c_, tenailles; _d d_,
caponniere; _e_, ravelin; F redoubt in the ravelin; _g g_, covert way;
_h h_, re-entering places of arms; _i i_, redoubt in do.; _k k_, ditch;
_l l_, ditch or ravelin; _m m_, _m m_, glacis; _s s_, exterior side; _s
t_, capital.

Réchaud.

Nolan’s Range Finder.

Spear.

Spearheads.

Spurs.

Swords. 1, Saxon sceax; 2, English hanger, old form; 3, rapier, about 33
inch blade; 4, Eastern cimeter; 5, cut and thrust sword, 30 to 32 inch
blade; 6, saber, or cavalry broadsword, 33 to 36 inch blade; 7, heavy
cavalry broadsword, 40 inch blade; 8, claymore, or Scotch broadsword,
with basket hilt, 40 inch blade; 9, falchion; 10, 11, navy cutlasses, 18
or 20 inch blade; 12, hari-kari, or Japanese disemboweler.

Scutum.

Sabretache.

Scorpion.

Stylets.

Strappado.

Sparum.

Signal Station at Night.

Signal Pistol fired.

Signal station.

Shield.

Scepter.

Semaphores.]


[Illustration: PLATE 21.

Telegraph (Electric Field).

Saddle. 1, Saddle-tree, including Pommel; 2, Seat; 3, Cantle; 4,
Stirrups; 5, Stirrup-leathers; 6, Girth; 7, Girth-straps.

Standard.

Pasha’s Standard.

Stirrup 18th Century.

Tomahawks.

Tangent-scale.

Slinger.

Tasses or Taces.

Tower.

Watch-tower.

TARGETS.

Trident.

Floating Target.

Tollénon.

Toga.

IRON TARGET LAIDLEY’S SHELTER.]


[Illustration: PLATE 22.

Trumpet.

Tortue d’Hommes.

Tour bélière.

Tabard.

Trajectory. _Line of Fire._ _Trajectory._ _Line of Sight._

Telemeter. Field and Mountain.

“A” or Common Tent.

Wigwam.

Cushing’s Shelter Tent.

Telemeters.

Telemeter.

Pole Shut.

Pole Open.

Bell Tent.

Shelter Tent.

Wall Tent.

Conical Tent (France).

Tent-d’abri (France).

Russian Hospital Tent.]


[Illustration: PLATE 23.

Sibley Tent.

Roman Tents.

Sibley Wall Tent.

Vireton.

Zagaie.

MISCELLLANEOUS.

Machicolation.

Vexilla.

Hand Sling Cart.

Gabionnade.

Parallels.

Ancient. Modern. Jambeaux.

Fleaux d’armes.

Pointing Mortars.

Lances, ancient.

Ribaudequin.

Musculus, 14th Century.

Tromblon,

Unicorn

1800. Shabracks. 1850.

Powder, 3-in. and 3¹⁄₂-in. Field Rifle.

Cubical Powder.

Prismatic Powder.

Hexagonal Powder.

Mammoth Powder.]


[Illustration: PLATE 24.


MINING.

_Shaft with Cases._

_Shaft with Frames._

_Galleries, Hard soil._

_Shaft, Hard Soil._

_Use of False Frame._

_Section on A.B._

COMMENCEMENT OF THREE-WAY JOIN.

INSERTION OF FUZES IN POWDER BAG.

_Spark Measurer._

CASE. _For Wire Fuzes._ Quantity Dynamo-Electric Machine.

_Continuous Circuit._

_Simple Circuit._

_Push Pick, 3lbs. 6oz._

_Miner’s Shovel, 6lbs. 4oz._

_Miner’s Pick, 6 lbs._

Miner’s Truck, 50 lbs.

_Candle-stick. 3¹⁄₂ oz._ _Fig. 5._

_Bucket._

_Flexible Tube._

_Tin Tube._

COUPLING UP FUZES IN PAIRS.

_Bellows, 15 lbs._

_N^{o}. 4 Tube._

_N^{o}. 13 Detonator._

_N^{o}. 5 Detonator._

_N^{o}. 9 Detonator, Naval._

_N^{o}. 1 Fuze._

_N^{o}. 10 Naval._

_Bickford’s Instantaneous Fuze._

_N^{o}. 8 Bickford Detonator._]


[Illustration: PLATE 25.

Tribune, Military. (Roman).

Legatus.

Velite.

Velite, 1807.

Joan of Arc.

Ribaud.

Pretorian.

Hoplitai.

Arbaletrier.

Soldier Foot Legion (Roman).

Paludamentum.

Piquier.

Infantry, 1572 (Charles IX.).

Infantry (Louis XIV.)]


[Illustration: PLATE 26.

Parthian.

Roi d’armes.

Lansquenet.

Brigantes.

Swiss Captain (1550).

Halberdier (1534).

Soldier of the “Legion Cophte.”

Bersaglieri.

Miner (1786).

Vivandière.

Cannonier (Louis XIV.).

Artificer of Artillery, 1756 (France).

Grenadier, 1690 (England).

Sepoy.]


[Illustration: PLATE 27.

Marine of the Guard, 1804 (France).

Gendarme, Foot, 1824 (France).

Zouaves (France).

Chasseur, Foot, 1862 (France).

Foot Artillery Line (France).

Miquelet.

Tirailleur, Native (Algeria).

Chasseur, Foot. (Louis XV.).

Sapper of the Legion of the Vistula.

Portuguese Legion.

Drum-major of the French Guards (1786).

Drum-major of the Grenadiers of the Guard (France 1813).

Archers, 1470 (France).

Dragoon, Sepoy.

U. S. Foot Soldier (1870).]


[Illustration: PLATE 28.

Chasseur (Bavaria).

Grenadier (Belgium).

Infantry of the Line (Austria).

Chasseur, Tyrolean (Austria).

Carabineer (Italy).

National Guard. (Mexico).

Scots Highlander. (England).

Regular Infantry. (Persia).

Fantassin of the Nizam.

Infantry of the Line. (Russia).

Officer of the Guard. (Prussia).

Fantassin (Japan).

Infantry, Negro. (Brazil).

Infantry, Tiger (China).

Infantry of the Guard (Morocco).

American Indians.]


[Illustration: PLATE 29.

Argoulet.

Amazon.

Caparison.

Homme d’Armes. Lancer (1610).

Pretorian.

Gendarme (1453).

Roman Cavalry.

Wahabees.

Vexilla.]


[Illustration: PLATE 30.

Hussar (Belgium).

Chasseur, Algerian.

Marechaussee. (France, 1786).

Cornet of Light Cavalry (Louis XIII.).

Kalmuck.

Vivandière, 1809 (France).

Mameluke Guards.

Spahis.

Cossacks.]


[Illustration: PLATE 31.

Fusilier, Mounted. (Louis XIII.).

Hulans, 1745.

U. S. Cavalry.

Ban, Arriere (France).

Greek Cavalry Ancient.

Pistolier, 17th Century.

Carabineer, Louis XIV. (France.)

Chasseurs of the Guard, Mounted (France, 1862).

Regular Cavalry. (China).]


[Illustration: PLATE 32.

Dragoon. (Switzerland).

Cuirassier. (Prussia).

Cavalry, 18th Century. (France).

Guide. (Belgium).

Lancer. (Egypt).

Hussar (Chamborin’s). France, 1796.

Horse Guard. (England).

Dragoon (Austria).

BAVIÈRE. Cavalry. (Bavaria).]



  ESTABLISHED 1815.

  Horstmann Bros. & Co.,
  ~_Fifth and Cherry Streets_,~
  PHILADELPHIA.

  MANUFACTURERS OF
  Military Goods and Equipments
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  NEW ENGLAND
  Mutual Life Insurance Company
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  The attention of Officers of the Army and Navy is
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  Assets             $15,941,879.40
  Liabilities         13,352,918.88
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THE DIRECTORS’ ANNUAL REPORT, containing a detailed statement, can be
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  _Office of the Company_,
  BENJ. F. STEVENS, President.      POST-OFFICE SQUARE.
  JOS. M. GIBBENS, Secretary.


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  [Illustration: THE GEM.]

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  AMERICAN
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  GEORGE W. HILL, President.      JOHN S. WILSON, Secretary and
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MEANINGS.

Also contains a NEW BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY of over 9700 NAMES.

_Recommended_ by State Superintendents of Schools in =36= States, and by
=50= College Presidents.

There have been =32,000= Webster’s Unabridged placed in the Public
Schools of the United States.

Every State purchase of Dictionaries for the Schools has been of
Webster.

The Books in the Public Schools of the United States are mainly based on
Webster.

The _sale of Webster’s Dictionaries_ is =20= times as great as the sale
of any other series.

“_January 1, 1881._ The Dictionary used in the Government Printing
Office is Webster’s Unabridged.”

Published by G. & C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mass.


  Assets, $7,250,000.      Surplus, $1,500,000.

  THE PENN MUTUAL
  Life Insurance Company
  OF PHILADELPHIA.

  Purely Mutual.      Incorporated 1847.

Has age and stability; is purely mutual, liberal, and progressive; solid
and vigorous, wide-awake and well-managed; securities all first-class;
estimates its liabilities upon the severest standard known to the
law,--four per cent.; has a relatively greater surplus than others; and
is a non-contesting company.

STATEMENT OF POLICY NOW IN FORCE.

Policy No. 36, for $5000, on the life of Henry C. T----d, Esq., was
issued July 13, 1847, at age 26, annual premium, $105.50.

  To this date (1880) thirty-four premiums have been paid,
  aggregating                                              $3587.00
  Dividends have been allowed, in reduction of premium,
  amounting to                                              1992.69
                                                           --------
          Net cost to the member                           $1594.31

AVERAGE DIVIDEND OVER FIFTY-FIVE PER CENT.

  The actual cash paid in thirty-four years, as above           $1594.31
  Equal to an average annual payment, for $5000 insurance, of      46.89
  Per year, for $1000 insurance                                    $9.37

ALL “PENN” POLICIES NON-FORFEITABLE.

  SAMUEL C. HUEY, President.
  E. M. NEEDLES,  } Vice-Presidents.
  H. S. STEPHENS, }
  J. J. BARKER, Actuary.
  HENRY AUSTIE, Secretary.
  HENRY C. BROWN, Ass’t Secretary.


VALUABLE WORKS FOR MILITARY MEN

RIFLE FIRING.

A Course of Instruction in Rifle Firing. Prepared by command of
Brigadier-General S. V. BENÉT, Chief of Ordnance, U.S.A. By Colonel T.
S. LAIDLEY, Ordnance Department, U.S.A. With numerous Illustrations.
_New and Revised Edition_, 16mo. Extra cloth. $1.50.

“Its every page bears the mark of a high degree of professional ability,
earnestly directed to the development of the subject.”--_United Service
Magazine._

MEADE’S NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.

A Treatise on Naval Architecture and Ship-Building; or, An Exposition of
the Elementary Principles involved in the Science and Practice of Naval
Construction. Compiled from various Standard Authorities. By Commander
RICHARD W. MEADE, U.S.N. Fully Illustrated. Crown 8vo. Extra cloth.
$10.00.

LIFE OF STONEWALL JACKSON.

Life of General Thomas J. Jackson. By S. N. RANDOLPH, author of “The
Domestic Life of Thomas Jefferson.” With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Extra
cloth. $2.00.

LIFE OF GENERAL THOMAS.

Life and Services of Major-General George H. Thomas. By General R. W.
JOHNSON, U.S.A. Illustrated with Portraits of Distinguished Officers
from Steel. Crown 8vo. Extra cloth. $2.00.

THE FIELD MANUAL OF COURTS-MARTIAL.

By Captain HENRY COPPEE. _Second Edition, Revised._ 18mo. Extra cloth.
$1.00.

THE COMPANY CLERK.

By Major-General AUG. V. KAUTZ. 12mo. Extra cloth. $1.25.

CUSTOMS OF SERVICE FOR ARMY OFFICERS,

As Derived from Law and Regulations, and Practiced in the United States
Army. By Major-General A. V. KAUTZ. 18mo. Fine cloth. $1.25.

CUSTOMS OF SERVICE FOR NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS,

As Derived from Law and Regulations, and Practiced in the United States
Army. By Major-General A. V. KAUTZ. 18mo. Cloth. $1.25.

ORDNANCE MANUAL.

The Ordnance Manual, for the use of Officers of the Army and others.
_Third Edition._ Fully Illustrated with Engravings on Steel. Demi 8vo.
Extra cloth. $3.00.


⁂ For sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by mail, postage prepaid,
on receipt of the price by

  J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., Publishers,
  715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia.


  VALUABLE MILITARY WORKS,
  _Published by D. VAN NOSTRAND_,
  23 MURRAY & 27 WARREN STS., NEW YORK.

A Treatise on Military Law,

And the Jurisdiction, Constitution, and Proceedings of Military Courts,
with a Summary of the Rules of Evidence as applicable to such Courts. By
Lieut. R. A. Ives, U. S. Army. 1 vol. 8vo. Law sheep. $4.00.

Hotchkiss and Allan’s Battle of Chancellorsville.

THE BATTLE-FIELDS OF VIRGINIA. Chancellorsville, embracing the
Operations of the Army of Northern Virginia, from the First Battle of
Fredericksburg to the Death of Lieut.-Gen. T. J. Jackson. By JED.
HOTCHKISS and WILLIAM ALLAN. Illustrated with Five Maps and Portrait of
Stonewall Jackson. 8vo. Cloth. $3.50.

Stevens’s Three Years in the Sixth Corps.

THREE YEARS IN THE SIXTH CORPS. A Concise Narrative of Events in the
Army of the Potomac from 1861 to the Close of the Rebellion, April,
1865. By GEO. T. STEVENS, Surgeon of the Seventy-seventh Regiment New
York Volunteers. Illustrated with Seventeen Engravings and Six Steel
Portraits. New and Revised Edition. 8vo. Cloth. $3.00.

Jomini’s Grand Military Operations.

TREATISE ON GRAND MILITARY OPERATIONS. Illustrated by a Critical and
Military History of the Wars of Frederick the Great. With a Summary of
the Most Important Principles of the Art of War. By BARON DE JOMINI.
Illustrated by Maps and Plans. Translated from the French by Col. S. B.
HOLABIRD, A.D.C., U. S. Army. 2 vols., 8vo, and Atlas. Cloth. $15.00.
Half calf or morocco. $21.00. Half Russia. $22.50.

Send for Catalogue of Military and Naval Books. Copies of the above
books sent free by mail on receipt of price.


  PENNSYLVANIA
  Military Academy
  CHESTER, PENNA.

  Courses of Instruction:
  ~Civil and Mining Engineering,
  Chemistry, Classics,
  and English.~

DEGREES CONFERRED.

  COL. THEO. HYATT,
  President.


COMPOUND OXYGEN.

_For the Cure of Consumption, Asthma, Bronchitis, Catarrh, Dyspepsia,
Headache, Ozœna, Debility, and all Chronic and Nervous Disorders, by a
Natural Process of Revitalization._

A REMARKABLE RESULT.

We are constantly meeting with new and singular results from the
administration of Compound Oxygen. Witness the following, in the sudden
penetration of the air into a collapsed lung. A gentleman in
Pleasantville, Iowa, writing under date of October 10, 1880, says:

“My daughter had not been confined to her bed, but for the past twelve
years had not been able to inhale much air in her left lung, in
consequence of congestion, owing to overheating. She was unable to stand
heat, and she was liable to sinking and smothering spells; also her
heart would not beat regularly; every hour or two it would stop its
pulsations, or feel as if it was going to. On the second inhalation her
_lung expanded to its fullest capacity_, which, of course, caused great
distress of body (as the chest had sunk in over her lung), but ever
since she has had no symptoms of smothering. _The heart pulsations are
regular, and she feels like a new person; is gaining rapidly in flesh._
Her lung is not yet strong, but is gaining. _We are truly grateful to
you for rescuing her from an untimely grave._”

“AM SO MUCH BETTER.”

Extract from letter of a patient in Biddeford, Me.:

“It is with pleasure I tell you what your Compound Oxygen Treatment has
done for me. Last April, when I commenced using it, _I was very low_;
suffered from a weak, tired feeling all the time. _Had not been able to
do any housework or sewing for four years, and but very little for ten
years past._ My right side was very bad, a continual smarting ache
extending from the throat to the hip, aggravated by using my arm. _Had
not been free from a cough for four years. Now I do most of my
housework; all my family sewing; walk out every pleasant day; think I
could walk a mile and not be very tired; am so much happier to feel that
I am some use in the world._ For all this consider myself indebted to
your Compound Oxygen Treatment.”

FORCED CHEERFULNESS.

A patient writes:

“I used to seem cheerful, and people often remarked it; but my husband
would look sad, and tell me he feared I did not feel it; which was true.
(I did it to keep up his spirits.) But now it does me good to take a
hearty laugh. Every one I meet says, ‘How well you are looking.’ I tell
them it is the Compound Oxygen rebuilding me.... _I can scarcely believe
myself to be the same miserable little woman I once was._”

“VICTORY!”

Under this caption, a gentleman in Iowa, who had procured the Compound
Oxygen Treatment for his wife, writes:

“_I am surprised at finding her so much improved in health._ When she
began using the Oxygen she could not sit up more than four hours at a
time. Could not walk a quarter of a mile. Improved from the first
inhalation, and now, having used the Treatment for six weeks, does
considerable work around the house, and _can walk two miles and not be
tired_. Raises no more bloody matter. No cough. Sleeps and eats well.
All that I can say is, ‘Thank God, and Drs. Starkey & Palen.’”

BRONCHITIS.

A lady in Carmel, N. Y., after using the Oxygen Treatment for about four
weeks, writes as follows in regard to the result:

“Four years ago I had an attack of _Acute Bronchitis_. It was two or
three months before I got over it, _and then I had lost my voice_. I
could not sing. The next winter I had two attacks, and in the spring I
had chronic inflammation of the throat. I was treated for it from March
till June. Then my husband took me to Brooklyn for medical treatment. I
got very much better; but as soon as the weather became cold I took
cold, and had to stay in the house for most of the time with an inflamed
throat. When I sent for the Oxygen I had just had the worst attack from
which I had ever suffered. I feared that I was going to lose my voice
entirely, it hurt me so to talk. Last year, every time I had a cold it
left me with a _pain in the lower part of my left lung_. This summer the
doctor sounded my lung, and said all the trouble was in the larger air
passage.

“The first time I inhaled the Oxygen _that pain left me in half an hour,
and I have not felt it since_. For two days my lung felt real good; then
the inhaling made it feel sore, and every time I coughed it seemed to
come from that place where the pain had been, and what I passed had a
very bad taste, but did not look bad.

“I have taken a great many different things, but never in my life took
anything like the Oxygen. _I feel so strong and well, and have such a
good, healthy appetite._”

ASTONISHED AT THE RESULT.

A lady writing from Louisiana, November 15, 1880, says:

“The reception of your interesting quarterly reminds me that I have been
very ungrateful to you, in not reporting progress for so long. I am not
yet entirely cured, but when I think of the miserable condition I was in
when, on the 7th of last February, I began the Oxygen Home Treatment, _I
am truly astonished at the result_. I am still thin in flesh, but I
believe I am still gaining ground. My health is better than in years
before, and I can eat anything I can get to eat. I have a small supply
of gas yet, which I use when I feel depressed. I will order another
Treatment before long, for I feel sure it will eventually effect a cure.
_I cannot say how thankful I am for having been induced to send to you
for the Oxygen._”

LETTER FROM AN OLD PATIENT.

We make an extract from a letter recently received from one of our
patients, which shows the permanent effects of the Oxygen Treatment:

“You will, no doubt, remember me as one of your patients of more than a
year ago. I am not entirely cured, nor ever expect to be, as my business
is such that as long as I am able to be about I must go. I am manager of
a large grain and stock farm, and my business keeps me out of doors most
of the time, which is a decided benefit to me. _I have felt stronger
this year than ever before, and have done ten times as much work as ever
before._ I still have a part of the last Treatment, which I use once in
awhile when I am not feeling good, _and it immediately revives me_. Only
this morning I had a bad headache, and felt badly; _I took an inhalation
of the Oxygen and felt like another man_.”

Our Treatise on Compound Oxygen _is sent free of charge_. It contains a
history of the discovery, nature, and action of this new remedy, and a
record of many of the remarkable results which have so far attended its
use.

_Also sent free_, “_Health and Life_,” a quarterly record of cases and
cures under the Compound Oxygen Treatment.

DEPOSITORY ON PACIFIC COAST.--H. E. Mathews, 606 Montgomery Street, San
Francisco, California, will fill orders for the Compound Oxygen
Treatment on Pacific Coast.

  DRS. STARKEY & PALEN,

  G. R. STARKEY. A.M., M.D.    1109 and 1111 Girard St.
  G. E. PALEN Ph.B., M.D.      (between Chestnut & Market), Phila., Pa.



  Transcriber’s Notes


  Unless listed below, the text of the source document has been
  retained, including inconsistencies, dubious, unusual and archaic
  spellings, mixed languages (all including proper and geographical
  names), etc. (The absence of) accents and other diacriticals and other
  errors (in particular in non-English words and phrases) have not been
  corrected either. Factual errors (including dates and names),
  contradictions, duplications, repetitions, ambiguities and debatable
  calculations, formulas, definitions and descriptions have not been
  individually noted or corrected, but have been copied verbatim. Except
  in the Index of Illustrations, the occasional mistakes in the
  alphabetical order of the articles have not been corrected.

  Plates and illustrations: the spelling and/or language of the captions
  may differ significantly from those in the body of the text and the
  Index to Illustrations. Some captions were largely illegible, and have
  been reconstructed based on the Index of Illustrations or on the main
  text where possible. Several of the individual illustrations lack a
  caption; only when it is clear what the caption should be (i.e., a
  clear, unambiguous illustration that is listed in the Index of
  Illustrations) has a caption been inserted, as listed below. Some
  illustrations have been rotated or otherwise re-arranged for better
  readability or visibility.

  Changes made

  Several obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been
  corrected silently.

  Footnotes have been moved to directly under the paragraph to which
  they belong.

  Some tables and mathematical formulas have been re-arranged or
  re-aligned for better readability or moved to separate lines. In some
  cases the italics mark-up (_) has been applied to groups of letters
  and symbols rather than to individual letters or symbols to improve
  readability.

  page 374: (.3-inch changed to (3 inch)

  page 375: 935,649,235 pounds changed to 935, 649, and 235 pounds;
  caliber 10,236 inches changed to caliber 10.236 inches





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