Title: Magic and Fetishism
Author: Haddon, Alfred C. (Alfred Cort)
Language: English
As this book started as an ASCII text book there are no pictures available.


*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Magic and Fetishism" ***


produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)



RELIGIONS ANCIENT AND MODERN

MAGIC AND FETISHISM



RELIGIONS: ANCIENT AND MODERN.

_Foolscap 8vo. Price 1s. net per volume._


ANIMISM.

    By EDWARD CLODD, Author of _The Story of Creation_.

PANTHEISM.

    By JAMES ALLANSON PICTON, Author of _The Religion of the
    Universe_.

THE RELIGIONS OF ANCIENT CHINA.

    By Professor GILES, LL.D., Professor of Chinese in the
    University of Cambridge.

THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT GREECE.

    By JANE HARRISON, Lecturer at Newnham College, Cambridge,
    Author of _Prolegomena to Study of Greek Religion_.

ISLAM.

    By Professor T. W. ARNOLD, Assistant Librarian at the India
    Office, Author of _The Preaching of Islam_.

MAGIC AND FETISHISM.

    By Dr. A. C. HADDON, F.R.S., Lecturer on Ethnology at Cambridge
    University.

THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT.

    By Professor W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S.

THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.

    By THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, late of the British Museum.

BUDDHISM. 2 vols.

    By Professor RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., late Secretary of The Royal
    Asiatic Society.

HINDUISM.

    By Dr. L. D. BARNETT, of the Department of Oriental Printed
    Books and MSS., British Museum.

SCANDINAVIAN RELIGION.

    By WILLIAM A. CRAIGIE, Joint Editor of the _Oxford English
    Dictionary_.

CELTIC RELIGION.

    By Professor ANWYL, Professor of Welsh at University College,
    Aberystwyth.

THE MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

    By CHARLES SQUIRE, Author of _The Mythology of the British
    Islands_.

JUDAISM.

    By ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, Lecturer in Talmudic Literature in
    Cambridge University, Author of _Jewish Life in the Middle
    Ages_.

PRIMITIVE OR NICENE CHRISTIANITY.

    By JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, LL.D., Joint Editor of the
    _Encyclopædia Biblica_.

SHINTOISM.

MEDIAEVAL CHRISTIANITY.

ZOROASTRIANISM.

THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ITALY.

_Other Volumes to follow._



                                  MAGIC
                              AND FETISHISM

                                   By
                     ALFRED C. HADDON, Sc.D., F.R.S.
               UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN ETHNOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE

                                 LONDON
                     ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. LTD.
                        16 JAMES STREET HAYMARKET
                                  1906

         Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty



PREFATORY NOTE


It is by no means easy to do justice to such a large, comprehensive, and
at the same time vague subject as magic in the small compass of a Primer,
and part of even that small space had to be devoted to another subject.
For sins of omission I must claim this excuse; for sins of commission I
claim the indulgence of the reader.

                                                                 A. C. H.



CONTENTS


MAGIC

I. SYMPATHETIC MAGIC.

  A. Contagious Magic.

    Hair, nail-pairings, etc. (3), scalp-lock (4), saliva (5),
    luck-ball (5), footprints (6), clothes (7), rag bushes and
    pin-wells (8), personal ‘ornaments’ (9), food (10), cannibalism
    (10), sympathetic relations between persons (11), couvade (13).

  B. Homœopathic Magic.

    Plants (15), rain-making (16), wind-making (18), increase of
    plants (18), and of animals (19), luring animals to be caught
    (19), human effigies to injure or kill people (20).

II. MAGICAL POWER OF NAMES AND WORDS.

    Objection to names being mentioned of people, fairies, and
    animals (22), names of power (24), satire (26), _geis_ (27),
    tabu (28).

III. TALISMANS AND AMULETS.

    Stones and metals (30), colour (31), bones, teeth, claws,
    etc. (32), lucky pig (33), amulets against the evil eye (33),
    luck-bone (39).

IV. DIVINATION—(40).

V. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MAGIC.

  A. Public Magic.

    Australian _intichiuma_ totem ceremonies (41), corn-planting
    dance of the Musquakie (45).

  B. Private Magic.

    Folk-remedies (46), love-charms (47), nefarious magic (48).

VI. MAGICIANS.

    Training of sorcerers and societies of magicians (51).

VII. PSYCHOLOGY OF MAGICAL PRACTICES.

    Nervous instability (53), suggestion (53), make-believe (55),
    tabu (55), _mana_ (58), projective will-power or telepathy
    (60), from spell to prayer (61), the impossible not undertaken
    (62), loopholes in case of failure (63).


FETISHISM

I. DEFINITION.

    1. Etymological (66), 2. Historical (66), 3. Dogmatic (67).

II. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS OF FETISHISM.

    May be any object (72), a symbolic charm with sympathetic
    properties (74), a sign or token representing an ideal notion
    or being (76), habitation of a spiritual being (77), vehicle
    for communication of a spirit (79), instrument by which spirit
    acts (80), possesses personality and will (83), may act by own
    will or by foreign spirit (84), spirit and material object can
    be dissociated (87), worshipped, sacrificed to, talked with
    (89), petted and ill-treated (90).

III. FETISHISM AS A FORM OF RELIGIOUS WORSHIP—(91).



MAGIC


I. SYMPATHETIC MAGIC

As knowledge increases, mankind learns more and more about the world and
the processes of nature, but even at the present day the vast majority of
white men possess only a rudimentary amount of this knowledge; indeed,
most so-called educated people have very vague ideas concerning the
physical universe in which they live. Such being the case, it is not
surprising that primitive peoples have very confused notions concerning
these matters, and, as the result of false inductions concerning the
causes of phenomena, they seek to accomplish ends by means that we
recognise as inadequate. ‘It is plain,’ as Dr. Jevons points out (36,
33), ‘that as long as man is turned loose as it were amongst these
innumerable possible causes with nothing to guide his choice, the chances
against his making the right selection are considerable.’ Further, ‘no
progress could be made in science until man had distinguished, at any
rate roughly, possible from absolutely impossible effects (or causes),
and had learned to dismiss from consideration the impossible. It might
be expected that experience would suffice of itself to teach man this
essential distinction, but the vast majority of the human race have not
yet learned from experience that like does not necessarily produce like:
four-fifths of mankind, probably, believe in sympathetic magic.’

The instances of sympathetic magic as Dr. Hirn points out (32, 278)
are naturally divided into two main classes which, broadly speaking,
correspond to the two types of association, contiguity and similarity,
and as in psychology it is often difficult to decide whether a given
associative process has its origin in a relation of contiguity or in one
of similarity, so it is often an open question to which group a given
superstition is to be assigned. We will start from the facts that are
simpler and easier to explain.


A. Contagious Magic.

1. Sympathetic Magic based on a material connection between things (32,
279) has been aptly termed by Dr. Frazer (21, 77) =Contagious Magic=. All
over the world we meet with examples of the belief that objects which
were once related to one another retain their connection though they may
be separated, and whatever may happen to one part or object the other
part or object is similarly affected; thus, by acting upon a part of a
given whole we may influence the whole as well as all its other parts.

This belief explains why a magician, wishing to influence or act upon
some particular individual, desires to obtain some portion of his body
or something actually connected with him. A few hairs from the beard,
a lock of hair, some nail-parings, a drop of blood from the nose which
has fallen to the ground, and which has not been rendered impalpable
by effacing it with the foot, are used by Basuto sorcerers (10, 277),
and indeed by workers of magic everywhere. A few of the examples
collected by Mr. Hartland (30, ii. 66) will suffice to demonstrate the
universality of this belief. In some parts of England a girl forsaken by
her lover is advised to get a lock of his hair and boil it; whilst it is
simmering in the pot he will have no rest. In certain parts of Germany
and Transylvania the clippings of the hair or nails, as well as broken
pieces of the teeth, are buried beneath the elder tree which grows in
the courtyard, or are burnt, or carefully hidden, for fear of witches.
Patagonians burn the hairs brushed out from their heads, and all the
parings of their nails for they believe that spells may be wrought upon
them by any one who can obtain a piece of either.

The potency of the hair is shown in the beliefs about the long narrow
beaded band which is used to tie up the hair of a Musquakie woman (56,
96, 7). This, though a talisman when first worn, becomes something
infinitely more sacred and precious, being transfused with the essence of
her soul; any one gaining possession of it has her for an abject slave if
he keeps it, and kills her if he destroys it. A woman will go from a man
she loves to a man she hates if he has contrived to possess himself of
her hair-string; and a man will forsake wife and children for a witch who
has touched his lips with her hair-string. The hair-string is made for a
girl by her mother or grandmother and decorated with ‘luck’ patterns; it
is also prayed over by the maker and a shaman. The scalp-lock ornament
worn by the Musquakie men is kept with great care as it helps to protect
the soul. As the tearing out of the scalp-lock makes the soul at its root
the slave of the one obtaining it, so the possession of its ornament and
shield, which has absorbed some of its essence, gives the possessor the
ability to send the rightful owner brain fever and madness (56, 106).

In the South Sea Islands it was necessary to the success of any sorcery
to secure something connected with the body of the victim. Accordingly
a spittoon was always carried by the confidential servant of a chief in
the Hawaiian Islands to receive his expectorations, which were carefully
buried every morning. The Tahitians used to burn or bury the hair they
cut off, and every individual among them had his distinct basket for
food. As Mr. Hartland points out (30, ii. 76), the custom, everywhere
practised, of obliterating all trace of the saliva after spitting,
doubtless originated in the desire to prevent the use of it for magical
purposes, and the same desire led to the extreme cleanliness in the
disposal of fouler excreta which is almost universally a characteristic
of savages. Thus this belief has been one of the most beneficial of
superstitions.

Luck-bags of red cloth, which contain ‘the four things of good fortune,’
are made by witches in Italy (43, 287), who while sewing it sing an
incantation. American Negroes brought over from West Africa the art of
making ‘luck-balls’ or ‘cunjerin’ bags,’ a practice which is kept up to
the present day. They are supposed to bring happiness and success in
everything the owner undertakes; one made for Charles G. Leland, at the
instigation of Miss Owen (57, 173), contained, in addition to knotted
threads, a piece of foil to represent the brightness of the little spirit
that was going to be in the ball, a leaf of clover _in the place of the
hair of the one that is going to own the ball_, and some dust which
was designed to blind the eyes of enemies. Miss Owen got the same man,
Alexander, the King of the Voodoos, who made the ball for Mr. Leland,
to make one for me, and she informed me that ‘it was made just like Mr.
Leland’s with the same words and with the same materials, excepting the
clover. This is not the season for clover, _so a fragment of paper, torn
from one of your books, represents you_.’

It is not essential that the object to be operated upon should have
formed an actual part of a person, for something associated with that
person, such as something habitually worn or used, is sufficient, or as
in the case of the luck-ball just cited, the association may be as remote
as that between an author and a piece of the paper of a book he has
published.

Earth from a man’s footprints, on account of its close contact with the
person, has acquired the virtues of a portion of his body. Widely spread
in Germany is the belief that if a sod whereon a man has trodden—all the
better if with the naked foot—be taken up and dried behind the hearth
or oven, he will parch up with it and languish, or his foot will be
withered. He will be lamed, or even killed, by sticking his footprint
with nails—coffin nails are the best—or broken glass (30, ii. 78); but
these are also the practices of Australian or other savages. To quote
only one example from Australia (34, 26), sharp fragments of quartz,
glass, bone, or charcoal are buried in the footprints of the victim or in
the mark made in the ground by his reclining body. They are supposed to
enter the victim, and rheumatic affections are very frequently attributed
to them.

Clothes, from their intimate association with the person, have naturally
attained a prominent place among the instruments of witchcraft. In
Germany and Denmark no portion of a survivor’s clothing must on any
account be put upon a corpse, else the owner will languish away as it
moulders in the grave. To hang rags from the clothing of a dead man upon
a vine is to render it barren. ‘Probably,’ as Mr. Hartland suggests, ‘it
is only a different interpretation of the same belief which alike in
Christian, in Mohammedan, and in Buddhist lands has led to the ascription
of marvellous powers to the clothes and other relics of departed saints.
The divine power which was immanent in these personages during life
attaches not merely to every portion of their bodies but to every shred
of their apparel’ (30, ii. 90). An illustrative parallel can be taken
from the Pacific. The red feathers which adorned the sacred girdle worn
by the Tahitian kings were taken from the images of the gods. The girdle
‘thus became sacred, even as the person of the gods, the feathers being
supposed to retain all the dreadful attributes of power and vengeance
which the idols possessed, and with which it was designed to endow the
king.’ So potent was it that Mr. Ellis says (17, iii. 108) it ‘not only
raised him to the highest earthly station, but identified him with their
gods.’

It is conceivable, as Mr. Hartland suggests (30, ii. 214), that
uneducated folk might argue thus: if an article of my clothing in a
witch’s hands may cause me to suffer, the same article in contact with a
beneficent power may relieve pain, restore me to health, or promote my
general prosperity. Hence the practice of throwing pins into wells, of
tying rags on bushes and trees, of driving nails into trees and stocks,
of throwing stones and sticks on cairns, and the analogous practices
throughout the world, suggest that they are to be interpreted as acts of
ceremonial union with the spirit identified with well, tree, stock, or
cairn (30, ii. 228). In the British Islands the sanctity of the well or
bush was subsequently annexed by the missionaries who took up their abode
beside them, and thus we find the wells or trees called after certain
saints and the healing power attributed to the latter, whereas the
holiness and efficacy of the wells were in the vast majority of cases, if
not in all, pre-Christian (27, 383).

Objects are worn or eaten so that by induction the individual may acquire
their properties. Thus the Red Indian hunter (70, 131) wears ornaments of
the claws of the grizzly bear, that he may be endowed with its courage
and ferocity, and the Tyrolese hunter still wears tufts of eagle’s down
in his hat, to gain the eagle’s keen sight and courage. ‘Look,’ writes
Casalis (10, 271), ‘at those strange objects hanging from the necks of
our little black friends. There is a kite’s foot in order that the poor
child may escape misfortune with the swiftness of the kite in its flight.
Another has the claw of a lion in order that his life may be as firmly
secured against all danger as that of a lion; a third is adorned with
the tarsus bone of a sheep, or an iron ring, that he may oppose to evil
a resistance as firm as iron, or as that little compact bone without
marrow which could not be crushed between two stones without difficulty.’

The eating of certain kinds of food, more especially of the flesh of
animals, would similarly have a very potent effect; thus among the Dyaks
(65, i. 176), young men sometimes abstain from eating the flesh of deer,
lest they should become timid. The Abipones of Paraguay (14, 258) ‘detest
the thought of eating hens, eggs, sheep, fish, or tortoises, imagining
that these tender kinds of food engender sloth and languor in their
bodies and cowardice in their minds. On the other hand they eagerly
devour the flesh of the tiger [jaguar], bull, stag, boar, anta and
tamandua [ant-eaters], having an idea that, from continually feeding on
these animals, their strength, boldness, and courage are increased.’

Belief in contagious magic leads quite logically to various revolting
practices. In Torres Straits the sweat of renowned warriors was drunk
by young men, who also ate mixed with their food the scrapings from the
finger-nails of the warriors which had become saturated with human blood
in order ‘to make strong and like a stone; no afraid’ (29, v. 301). The
eyes and tongue of a freshly killed enemy were frequently torn out and
given to lads to make them brave and fearless. The Australian natives
believe that a man’s fat and his strength and vitality are connected,
therefore the wasting of the body and disease are the result of the
absence of fat, perhaps to be followed by death. By eating a man’s fat,
and thus making it part of himself, the black fellow thinks that he also
acquires the strength of the deceased. So also they think that human fat
brings success in hunting, causes spears which are anointed with it to
fly true, or the club to strike irresistible blows. The possession of
human fat is, therefore, much desired by these aborigines, especially
those who feel age or disease, or who wish to be successful in the
magical arts, for it is believed that the spirit of the dead man whose
fat has been used will help the charm to act (35, 411, 361). Cannibalism
for magical purposes of this sort has probably been extremely common and
is possibly at the base of a good deal of anthropophagy.

Very widely spread is the belief that close relatives or even friends are
bound together in a sympathetic relation, which is especially manifest on
important occasions or at critical times. When a Land Dyak village has
turned out for a wild-pig hunt in the jungle, those who remain at home
may not touch water or oil with their hands during the absence of their
friends, lest the hunters should all become ‘butter-fingered,’ and the
prey so escape them (60, i. 430). It is also recorded from Borneo that
when men are on a war expedition, fires are lighted at home, the mats
are spread, and the fires kept up till late in the evening and lighted
again before dawn, so that the men may not be cold; the roofing of the
house is opened before dawn, so that the men may not lie too long and
so fall into the enemies’ hands (60, ii. 104). Again when a Dyak is out
head-hunting, his wife, or, if he is unmarried, his sister, must wear
a sword day and night, in order that he may be always thinking of his
weapons; and she may not sleep during the day nor go to bed before two
in the morning, lest her husband or brother should thereby be surprised
in his sleep by an enemy (20, i. 30). Similar instances could easily
be multiplied indefinitely from various savage countries, but even in
Europe there are not lacking records of a real sympathy between husband
and wife, where the former suffers from certain characteristic ailments
of the latter (59, 240). There is a very widely spread series of customs
based upon the belief that the father and his unborn or newly born child
are in such sympathetic relationship that the former has to take all
sorts of precautions lest his offspring should in any way be injured. The
extreme form this custom takes is for the newly made father to take to
his bed and be specially dieted; this occurs in many places, but notably
in the East Indian Archipelago and in South America. The custom, which
is known as the _Couvade_, is subject to many modifications, which have
been tabulated and discussed by Mr. H. Ling Roth (59, 204). Among the
Land Dyaks of Borneo the husband of a pregnant woman, until the time of
her delivery, may not do work with any sharp instrument, except what may
be absolutely necessary for the cultivation of his farm; he may not tie
things together with rattans, or strike animals, or fire guns, or do
anything of a violent character for fear of injuring the child. Often the
men must abstain from certain food lest it should affect the child; thus
in Guiana partaking of the Agouti would make the child meagre, or eating
a _labba_ would make the infant’s mouth protrude like the _labba’s_, or
make it spotted like the _labba_, which spots would ultimately become
ulcers (59, 220). Thus the father is frequently debarred from performing
many of the usually unconsidered daily acts, lest they should affect the
welfare of a child that is newly born or is about to be born; and there
is the curious development of the belief of an occult reaction of the
expected child on the father, affecting, to take one example, his success
in fishing (59, 234).


B. Homœopathic Magic.

2. When man first began to think about the world around him he must
have noted (what he, in common with other animals, had unconsciously
acted upon in the past) that day and night and the seasons arrived in
regular succession, the same stars rose and set, an animal reproduced
its own kind, in fact that there was a uniformity in nature. But side by
side with these natural sequences there were irregularities. Some days
were shorter than others, some were bright, others cloudy, the length
and character of the seasons varied from year to year, some stars had
a course in the heavens independent of the majority. Again, he might
early have noticed that many of these fluctuations in sunshine and rain,
in heat and cold, affected him directly or indirectly by influencing
vegetation. We need not be surprised, therefore, if he came to the
conclusion that it would be better for him if he exerted himself to
regulate matters somewhat, but then the difficulty would arise, what was
he to do?

The unenlightened mind does not discriminate between cause and effect,
and imagines that as like produces like, so a result can be attained by
imitating it. Hence arose =Mimetic= or =Symbolic Magic=, which, following
Dr. Hirn, is better termed =Homœopathic Magic=, which is occult influence
based upon a likeness between things (32, 282). On this was founded
the mediæval medical theory known as the Doctrine of Signatures, which
supposes that plants and minerals indicate by their external characters
the diseases which nature intended them to remedy.

It would be easy to give a large number of examples to illustrate
homœopathic magic, but a few will suffice. Thus the Euphrasia, or
eye-bright, was, and is, supposed to be good for the eyes, on the
strength of a black pupil-like spot in its corolla (70, 123). The yellow
turmeric, or saffron, cured jaundice. The roots of roses or their slips,
with their knots removed and set amongst broom, will bring forth yellow
roses (47, x. 70).

The influence of homœopathic magic can be traced in beliefs and practices
from the lowest savages to civilised nations. The magician who works
by similarities makes representations of things or beings, in order
to acquire an influence over them. By dramatic or pictorial imitation
heavenly bodies are influenced, rain is made, plants and animals are
increased, animals enticed to their destruction, human beings acted upon.

When it was wished to cause rain to fall in Murray Island, Torres
Straits, the rain-maker scooped a hole in the ground, and lined it with
leaves and placed in it a rude stone image of a man which had previously
been anointed with oil and rubbed with scented grass; then he poured the
decoction of minced leaves of various plants mixed with water over the
image—the image being so laid in the hole as to point to the quarter from
which the rain was expected. Earth was heaped over the image and leaves
and shells placed on the mound, and all the while the rain-maker muttered
an incantation in a low sepulchral tone. Four large screens composed
of plaited coco-nut leaves were placed at the head, foot, and sides of
the grave to represent clouds; on the upper part of each was fastened a
blackened oblong of vegetable cloth to mimic a black thunder-cloud, and
coco-nut leaves, with their leaflets pointing downwards, were suspended
close by to represent rain. A torch was ignited and waved lengthwise
over the grave; the smoke represented clouds and the flames mimicked
lightning, and a bamboo clapper was sounded to imitate thunder.

The rain was supposed to come when the decoction round the image was
rotten. The incantation consisted of enumerating various aspects of
certain forms of clouds. Rain could be made in this manner only by one
section of the community, and amongst these one or two men had a much
greater reputation than the others (29, vi.).

This may be taken as an example of a typical rain-making ceremony, in
which all the phenomena of a thunder shower are imitated.

If a native of Mabuiag, in Torres Straits, required rain he went to the
rain-maker and asked him to make some. The latter might reply, ‘You go
and put some more thatch on your house and on mine too’; this was to keep
out the forthcoming rain. The rain-maker painted the front of his body
white, and the back black. This was explained by my informant thus: ‘All
along same as clouds, black behind, white he go first,’ or he painted
his body with black spots to make the clouds come separately; when they
congregated, the rain fell. The rain-maker put ‘medicine’ in his right
hand and waved it towards his body and chanted an incantation. To stop
the rain the rain-maker put red paint on the crown of his head, to
represent the shining sun, and ruddled his body all over. He then lay
doubled up and was closely surrounded with three mats, so that no wind
could penetrate to him. Finally he burnt some leaves on the sea-shore
close to the water, on a rising tide; the smoke represented the clouds,
and as it was dissipated so they disappeared, and as the encroaching sea
washed away the ashes, so the clouds were scattered (29, v. 350).

In the island of Muralug certain old men could raise a wind by very
rapidly whirling a thin bull-roarer attached to a long string. More wind
could be obtained by climbing to the top of a tree and performing there.
In this case the noise made by the bull-roarer imitated that produced by
a gale of wind (29, v. 352).

Examples of the magical increase of plants are found in the ‘yam stones’
placed in their gardens by various Papuans, which by their rounded shape
suggest the actual tubers (28, 202; 29, vi.).

The following instances are culled from that treasury of folk custom and
belief—_The Golden Bough_. In Thüringen the man who sows flax carries the
seed in a long bag which reaches from his shoulders to his knees, and he
walks with long strides, so that the bag sways to and fro on his back.
It is believed that this will cause the flax to wave in the wind. In the
interior of Sumatra rice is sown by women who, in sowing, let their hair
hang loose down their back, in order that the rice may grow luxuriantly
and have long stalks. It is commonly believed in Germany and Austria
that leaping high in the fields will make the flax or hemp grow tall. A
Bavarian sower, in sowing wheat, will sometimes wear a golden ring, in
order that the corn may have a fine yellow colour (20, i. 35, 36).

As references are given on pp. 41-44 to magical practices for the
increase of animals, further examples need not be added here, their
object being to provide plenty of food for the community. It was for the
same reason that images of fish, turtle, and dugong were made by the
islanders of Torres Straits and taken with them when they went fishing,
with the idea that the image lured the real animal to its destruction;
and men of the dugong clan who were symbolically decorated made mimetic
movements with a dead dugong to constrain others to come and be caught
(29, v. 337, 182, and vi.).

The same people used to carve small human effigies out of thin slabs
of wood and coat them with beeswax, or the images were made entirely
of beeswax. These figures were treated in various ways for nefarious
magic, but always the first action was to call them by the names of the
persons who were to be affected by them. If the magician pulled an arm
or a leg off the image, the patient felt sore in the corresponding limb,
and became ill, and eventually died in great pain; should the magician
restore the dismembered limb, the patient would recover. If a magician
pricked with the spine of a sting ray an image that had been named,
the person indicated would be stung in the same place by a sting ray
when he went fishing on the reef (29, v. 324). Analogous customs are to
this day practised in Britain. The first example comes from Ross-shire
(48, 373). The _corp creagh_ is a body of clay rudely shaped into the
image of a person whose hurt is desired. After a tolerably correct
representation is obtained, it is stuck all over with pins and thorns
and placed in a running stream. As the image is worn away by the action
of the water the victim also wastes away with some mortal disease. The
more pins that are stuck in from time to time the more excruciating
agony the victim suffers. Should, however, any wayfarer discover the
_corp_ in the stream, the spell is broken and the victim duly recovers.
From Argyleshire we learn (49, 144) that a long incantation was used as
the pins were being put in the clay image, the beginning of which was
something to this effect: ‘As you waste away, may —— waste away; as this
wounds you, may it wound ——.’ When it was desired that the person should
die a lingering death, care was taken that the pins should not touch
where the heart was supposed to be; but when a speedy death was desired,
the pins were stuck over the region of the heart. Actual instances of
the employment of the _corp chrè_ or _corp chreadh_, clay body or clay
corpse (as Dr. Maclagan calls it), are given by the two authors last
cited, one of which occurred about the year 1899. This practice is merely
the continuance of old customs, for ‘King James in his _Dæmonology_,
says that “the devil teacheth how to make pictures of wax or clay,
that by roasting thereof, the persons that they bear the name of may
be continually melted or dried away by continual sickness”; and in the
eleventh century certain Jews, it was believed, made a waxen image of
Bishop Eberhard, set about with tapers, bribed a clerk to baptize it,
and set fire to it on the Sabbath, the which image burning away at the
middle, the bishop fell grievously sick and died’ (70, 124).

Many magical practices and beliefs are difficult to classify as either
contagious or homœopathic magic; they may even be a mixture of both. Such
is the belief in the power of names or words, talismans and amulets,
divination, and various practices of public and private magic. These will
be dealt with under separate headings.


II. MAGICAL POWER OF NAMES AND WORDS

A =Name= is considered by backward folk to be part and parcel of a
living being, and as magic can be performed on a person through tangible
substances that have come into contact with him, so magic can be
performed or influence exerted through the utterance of a person’s name.
In the west of Ireland and in Torres Straits people have refused to tell
me their names, though there was no objection to some one else giving me
the information; the idea evidently being that by telling their own name
to a stranger they were voluntarily putting themselves into the power of
that stranger, who, by the knowledge of their name so imparted, could
affect them in some way. Over the greater part of America was spread the
belief in a personal soul, which is neither the bodily life nor yet the
mental power, but a sort of spiritual body. In many tribes, writes Dr.
Brinton (7, 277), this third soul or ‘astral body’ bore a relation to
the private personal name. Among the Mayas and Nahuas, it was conferred
or came into existence with the name; and for this reason the personal
name was sacred and rarely uttered. The name was thus part of the
individuality, and through it the soul could be injured. Professor Rhŷs
has shown (58, 566-7) from philological evidence, that Aryan-speaking
peoples ‘believed at one time not only that the name was a part of the
man, but that it was that part of him which is termed the soul, the
breath of life.’ The dislike of hearing their names mentioned is not
confined to human beings, for, as is well known, in the British Islands
the Fairies have a very strong repugnance to being so called; hence they
should be termed the Wee-folk, the Good People, or by other ambiguous
terms. Certain Scottish and English fishermen believe that the salmon and
pig have a similar objection to being ‘named,’ but they do not mind being
called respectively the ‘red-fish’ or the ‘queer fellow.’

If power can be exerted over men by the use of their names, it is
only reasonable to believe that spirits and deities can be similarly
influenced. Torres Straits islanders believe that a local bogey or a
spirit-girl can be summoned by being mentioned by name (29, v. 14, 86),
as the witch of Endor brought up the spirit of Samuel. Dr. Frazer (20,
i. 443-6) gives examples to show that people have believed that gods
must keep their true names secret, lest other gods or even men should
be able to conjure with them; even Ra, the great Egyptian god of the
sun, declared that the name given him by his father and mother ‘remained
hidden in my body since my birth, that no magician might have magic power
over me.’ This probably was one reason why the real name of supreme
Gods was known but to a chosen few; one instance will suffice. To the
Mohammedans, Allah is but an epithet in place of the Most Great Name;
for, according to a Moslem belief, the secret of the latter is committed
to prophets and apostles alone. Another reason is that the utterance of
these secret names gives tremendous power, for (42, 273) those who know
the Most Great Name of God can, by pronouncing it, transport themselves
from place to place at will, can kill the living, raise the dead to life,
and work other miracles.

According to Jewish tradition, when Lilith, Adam’s first wife, refused
to yield obedience to him she uttered the Shem-hamphorash, that is,
pronounced the ineffable name of Jehovah and instantly flew away. This
utterance evidently gave her such power that even Jehovah could not
coerce her, and the three angels, Snoi (Sennoi), Snsnoi (Sansennoi), and
Smnglf (Sammangeloph), who were sent after her, were contented with a
compromise, and Lilith swore by the name of the Living God that she would
refrain from doing any injury to infants wherever and whenever she should
find those angels, or their names, or their pictures, on parchment or
paper, or on whatever else they might be drawn, ‘and for this reason,’
says a rabbinical writer, ‘we write the names of these angels on slips
of paper or parchment, and bind them upon infants, that Lilith seeing
them, may remember her oath; and may abstain from doing our infants any
injury’ (1, 165). The custom is still maintained in the east of London of
printing portions of Scripture and these three names on pieces of paper,
which are placed on the four walls of a room where a baby is expected,
where they remain eight days for a boy and twenty days for a girl.

Apart from the coercive power which is attributed to the pronouncing
of names, there is an analogous belief in the utterance of words or
phrases. Those =Words of Power= have been classed by Mr. Clodd (11,
194) as: (1) Creative Words; (2) Mantrams and their kin; (3) Passwords;
(4) Spells or Invocations for conjuring up the spirit of the dead, or
for exorcising demons, or for removing spells on the living; and (5)
Cure-charms in formulæ or magic words. Mr. Clodd points out that these
classes overlap and intermingle.

Even among such backward people as the Australians, certain of the
medicine-men or sorcerers were bards who devoted their poetic faculties
to the purposes of enchantment, such as the Bunjil-yenjin of the Kurnai,
whose peculiar branch of magic was composing and singing potent love
charms and the arrangement of marriages by elopement spells (35, 356,
274).

In few countries was the spoken word more effective than in ancient
Ireland; a sorcerer, whether a druid or not, would stand on one foot,
with one arm outstretched and with one eye shut, and chant an incantation
in a loud voice (37, i. 240). The grand weapon of the Irish poets by
which they enforced their demands was the _satire_. A poet could compose
a satire that would blight crops, dry up milch-cows, and raise an
ulcerous blister on the face. A story is told (37, i. 454) of Senchán
Torpest, chief poet of Ireland, who lived in the seventh century, that
once when his dinner was eaten in his absence by rats, he muttered a
satire beginning, ‘Rats, though sharp their snouts, are not powerful in
battle,’ which killed ten of them on the spot. Shakespeare, and other
Elizabethan writers, often refer to the belief that Irish bards could
rhyme rats to death. The Irish =geis= or =geas= [pronounced gesh or
gass], plural _geasa_ [gassa], was the exact equivalent of an ordinary
=tabu=, but people sometimes put an injunction on a person in some such
form as ‘I place you under heavy _geasa_, which no true champion will
break through, to do so and so.’ In this manner, the witch-lady forces
Finn to search for the ring she had dropped into the lake; and Marbhan
put the arch-poet Senchán Torpest under _geasa_ to obtain a copy of a
lost story. When the request was reasonable or just the abjured person
could not refuse without loss of honour and reputation and probably in
early days personal harm would accrue if the _geasa_ were disregarded.
The power of the _geis_ was so strong that when Grania put Diarmuid under
_geasa_ of danger and destruction to elope with her, he was advised by
his friends against his will to agree: Oisin said, ‘You are not guilty
if the bonds were laid on you,’ and Osgar said, ‘It is a pitiful man that
would break his bonds’ (25, 347, 8).

Sympathetic magic bulks largely in the life of backward peoples, not
merely in the form of actions to be performed, but also in those to be
abstained from. The ‘Thou shalt not’ is more in evidence than ‘Thou
shalt.’ The prohibitions of savages and barbarians are now spoken of
under the general term of =tabu=. Some tabus are rational from our point
of view, others seem to us to be utterly irrational, but this does not
affect their validity in any way. So much has been written on this
subject by divers writers that only one or two examples need be given
here. The subject is again referred to on p. 55.

The old Irish tale, the ‘Bruiden Dá Derga,’ tells of the destruction
following the violation of tabus. Conaire, King of Ulster, was put under
certain _geasa_ by his father, such as: ‘Thou shalt not go _desiul_ round
Tara nor withershins round Bregia,’ ‘The evil beasts of Cerna must not
be hunted by thee,’ ‘There shall not go before thee three Reds to the
house of Red,’ and others. But on the way to Dá Derga’s Hostel ‘They went
righthandwise round Tara, and lefthandwise round Bregia, and the evil
beasts of Cerna were hunted by him, but he saw it not till the chase had
ended.’ Then he saw three red men going before him to the house of Red,
and Conaire says, ‘All my _geasa_ have seized me to-night,’ and before
the next day Conaire and all his host were destroyed in Dá Derga’s Hostel
(66, xxii.). When Cuchulain was on his way to his last combat he met
three hags, daughters of a wizard, all blind of the left eye. They were
cooking a dog with poisons and spells on spits of a rowan tree. It was
_geis_ to Cuchulain to eat at a cooking-hearth, or to eat the flesh of a
hound, but the women put him on his honour not to refuse the piece they
offered him, so he took it, and all the strength went out of the left
hand in which he took the food (66, iii.).


III. TALISMANS AND AMULETS

In the forms of magic we have hitherto considered, something is done by
a human being, whether by action, representation, or word, but there is
another branch of magic in which the virtue resides intrinsically in
certain objects which are variously termed charms, talismans, amulets,
or mascots. Those that transmit qualities or are worn for good luck
may be termed =talismans=, while the term =amulet= may be restricted
with advantage to those charms which are preventive in their action; but
the same charm is in some cases employed for both these purposes. These
objects are continuously effective without any action on the part of the
preparer or wearer, as they possess power in their own right, but this is
from very diverse causes.

Certain =stones= from their colour suggest flesh; thus garnets and
carnelians are worn in the rough or worked into beads as amulets against
skin diseases. Most precious stones are credited with distinctive
properties, and some have a reputation for being unlucky, as for example
the precious opal. The amethyst, as its name implies, was regarded by
the ancient Greeks as a charm against becoming intoxicated; among the
ancient Egyptians the amethyst corresponded to the Zodiacal sign of
the Goat, and as the goat was an enemy to vines, so the amethyst was a
foe to wine. Leland (43, 351) points out that it also ‘drives away bad
thoughts and confers ripe and happy genius.’ Amber beads are carried by
people of various races for weak eyes, and it is essential they should
be looked through to strengthen the sight (43, 267). The electrical
power of attraction of light objects by amber when rubbed was doubtless
one cause of its supposed virtue. The several =metals= have their active
magical properties. A lump of crude antimony in Italy is very efficacious
when the following invocation is pronounced: ‘Antimony, who art of zinc
and copper! thou most powerful, I keep thee ever by me, that thou mayest
banish from me evil people, and bring good luck to me.’ Gold is the most
genial or luck-bringing, and, as a woman said, ‘antimony is stronger than
lead, because it consists of three metals, or rather always has in it
copper and lead’ (43, 373-4).

=Colour= alone has its magical qualities, hence the frequency of red
woollen thread or stuff in counter-charms against the evil eye, as an old
saw expresses it: ‘Roan tree and red thread, will drive the witches aa
wud’ (49, 156). For the same reason red coral is so greatly valued. Blue
is of equal efficacy, hence the wearing of turquoise by so many Oriental
and North African peoples, and blue beads are worn by people for much the
same reason, that they suspend them round the necks of donkeys or camels.

When dealing with contagious magic, we saw that many objects are worn,
in order that certain qualities of the animals from which they were
obtained may be imparted to the wearer. The wild =boar’s tusk=, the
acquisition of which is greatly desired by the natives of the Papuan Gulf
as a mark of bravery, is coveted not so much as a personal ornament, as
for the courage, ferocity, and daring which it is supposed to contain and
to be capable of imparting to any one who wears it (33, 427). Probably
this is the reason why boars’ tusks are so much prized all over New
Guinea, where they are wrought into ‘ornaments,’ which are carried in
the mouth or worn on the chest when on the war-path. In West Africa the
=bones= from the legs of tortoises are much valued as anklets, in order
to give the wearers endurance. The lower jaw-bone of the tortoise is
worn by certain tribes as a preventive against toothache; in this case
the reason would seem to be that as the tortoise has no teeth it cannot
suffer from toothache, and thus freedom from toothache can be imparted by
that edentulous jaw. The spinal bones of snakes are strung together for a
girdle as a cure for backache (3, 237).

Africans, according to Arnot (3, 237), believe largely in preventive
measures, and their charms are chiefly of that order. In passing through
a country where leopards and lions abound, they carefully provide
themselves with the =claws=, =teeth=, =lips=, and =whiskers= of those
animals, and hang them around their necks, to secure themselves against
being attacked. For the same purpose the point of an elephant’s trunk is
generally worn by the elephant-hunters.

A large class of talismans consists of =models= or =representations of
objects=, and the attributes of the original pass on to the symbol. The
pig, perhaps on account of its abundant fecundity, was primarily sacred
to the earth goddess, whether she was known as Demeter, Ceres, or by any
other name. Leland points out (43, 255) that little gold and silver pigs
were offered to Ceres, who was pre-eminently a goddess of fertility,
and therefore of good luck and all genial influences. For these reasons
they were worn by Roman ladies, and ‘=lucky pigs=’ are still very common
charms, especially in South Germany.

The belief in the =evil eye= is not only widely spread, but extremely
ancient, and in some places is still firmly rooted among the folk.
‘Overlooking’ may be intentional, but it is believed that many persons,
without intention and even against their will, by the glance of their
eye, have caused injurious effects; so that, in some cases, mothers would
not venture to expose their infants to the look of their own fathers.
Plutarch (18, 13) vouches for this, and admits that envy exerts an evil
influence through the eyes, and adds that it is wise to employ charms
and antidotes to turn aside these evil glances. A friend of his stated
that some even fascinate themselves by their own gaze, and alluded to the
story of Eutelidas, who, like Narcissus, fell a victim to the admiration
he felt for his own likeness. Women and children seem to have been
accounted by all old classical writers as the most liable to injury.
Among the Greeks and Romans statues of Nemesis were erected which were
adored and invoked to save their worshippers from fascination. In Rome,
according to Pliny, special laws were enacted against injury to crops by
incantation, excantation, or fascination (18, 15).

‘Eat not the bread of him that hath an evil eye’ is just as much a maxim
to-day as it was in the time of Solomon, and Mr. Elworthy says (18, 107)
in Naples, at the appearance of a person having this reputation, a cry
of ‘Jettatore!’ is passed, and even in a crowded street it causes an
instantaneous vanishing of everybody—a rush up entries, into shops, or
elsewhere. Ever since the establishment of the religious orders, monks
have had the special reputation of possessing the fatal influence. The
last Pope but one, Pius the Ninth, was firmly believed to have had the
evil eye. A Roman would candidly say: ‘Nothing succeeds with anybody or
anything when he wishes well to it. When he went to St. Agnese to hold
a great festival, down went the floor, and the people were all smashed
together. Then he visited the column to the Madonna in the Piazza di
Spagna, and blessed it and the workmen; of course, one fell from the
scaffold the same day and killed himself’ (18, 23, 25).

Domestic animals always have been considered as peculiarly susceptible
to this evil influence. Cows are particularly liable to fascination
in Scotland, while in England of all animals the pig is most often
‘overlooked.’ The Turk and the Arab think the same of their horses and
camels; above all the Neapolitan cabman of to-day believes in the great
danger to his horse from the eye of the _jettatore_.

The commonest of all ancient Egyptian amulets, except the scarab, was
‘the Eye of Osiris,’ as it is called by us. These mystic eyes were worn
equally by the living and the dead as amulets; it being natural, from the
associations of homœopathic magic, that representations of the eye itself
should have been considered potent amulets against its malign influence.
All the peoples round the Mediterranean employed representations of eyes
as amulets. In Syria and Cairo necklaces composed of flat glass eyes
are sold to the present day, and eye-designs protect the clothes, horse
trappings, and many of the objects of daily use of the Moors (72, 211).

Plutarch declares that the objects that are fixed up to ward off
witchcraft or fascination derive their efficacy from the fact that they
act through the strangeness and ridiculousness of their forms, which fix
the mischief-working eye upon themselves.

It was this firm belief, says Elworthy (18, 143), which led to the design
of those extremely grotesque figures, of which the ancient Romans were so
fond; indeed, anything that was ridiculous or indecent was supposed to
be a corrective to the harmful influence of fascination. Amulets which
protect against this power are of three classes: (1) Those the object
of which was to attract upon themselves the harmful glance (those were
necessarily exposed to view); (2) charms worn or carried secretly; and
(3) written words of Scripture, Koran, and other sacred writings, or
cabalistic figures and formulæ (18, 149).

The crescent moon was a symbol of many deities, Parvati, Devaki, and
other Indian goddesses, Isis, Athena or Minerva, Artemis or Diana and
the Madonna. Artemis or Diana was the patroness of domestic animals as
well as of the wild creatures of the wood (21, 14); hence we may trace
the extreme prevalence of amulets symbolic of their attributes upon
horses. The crescent—that is the horned moon—and horns appear to be
interchangeable: thus horns, in one form or another, are of all objects
the most common as amulets against the evil eye, whether affecting man
or beast; so much so, that at last it has come to be fully believed by
the Neapolitans, that in default of a horn, in coral or other form, the
mere utterance of the word _corno_ or _corna_ (‘horn’) is an effectual
protection. In Italy, particularly in Naples, the cart harness is
literally made up of charms and prophylactics, such as feathers, hair,
brightly coloured ribbons, and especially objects of shining brass; of
the last the crescent is the most common.

It would take too long to describe all the objects that are employed to
counteract the evil eye in Italy alone. The following may be mentioned:
fish, snakes, and various other animals, tigers’ teeth, keys, a hunchback
(_gobbo_). A single pendent horn, whether of coral, shell, or metal
is extremely common, as are miniature hands, these frequently have
all the digits closed up except the index and little finger, which are
fully extended. This is a potent gesture, and a Neapolitan’s right hand
is almost constantly in that position pointing downwards, just as the
hand-charms are made to hang downwards, as a prophylactic against unknown
or unsuspected attacks (18, 261). Dr. Westermarck has recently (72, 211)
given an illuminating description of the use and representations of the
hand against the evil eye in Morocco.

On studying various kinds of talismans and amulets, it at once becomes
evident that while some are credited with contagious sympathy, others
are mimetic or symbolic, that is homœopathic in their action, while
there are many others that owe their efficacy to an intimate relation
with a spiritual being of some kind or other, or with a deity. The
charms of this third group are to be regarded as =fetishes= so long as
the recognition lasts that they are dependent for their virtue upon
these extraneous beings; but when this belief is lost the charm becomes
a mere talisman or amulet. The change from a fetish to a =luck-object=
is constantly taking place owing to the despiritualising effect of
increasing civilisation. To take one example, Mr. E. Lovett first drew
my attention to the ‘=luck bones=’ that are worn by Whitby, and probably
by other Yorkshire, fishermen, and another friend subsequently confirmed
the fact that these bones not only bring good fortune but are safeguards
against drowning. The bone in question being the =T=-shaped hyoid- or
tongue-bone of a sheep, Mr. Lovett suggested that this bone might have
something to do with Thor’s hammer. Later Professor Boyd Dawkins showed
me the identical bone worn for a similar purpose by Manx fishermen, and
it is worthy of note that there were Scandinavian settlements at both
Whitby and the Isle of Man. I informed Herr E. Friedel of these facts
and inferences, and he discovered (22, 412) that the men in the Berlin
slaughter-yards have a similar custom, the end of the long arm of the
bone being perforated for a thread that is fastened round the neck of the
wearer. On looking into the archæological evidence he found that in the
early iron age unmistakable representations of Thor’s hammer were worn as
charms in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein. In those early days there can
be little doubt that the influence of the god passed into the models of
his weapon, and that these objects partook of the nature of fetishes,
but later the symbols of the god degenerated into luck-objects.


IV. DIVINATION

Men not only attempt to act directly upon nature, but they usually
exhibit a keen desire to be guided as to the best course to take when
in doubt, difficulty, or danger, and to be forewarned of the future.
The practice of =divination= is by no means confined to professional
magicians, or even to soothsayers, but any one may employ the accessory
means.

Any object may be used in divination: thus in Europe, as in Torres
Straits (29, v. 361), a stick may be dropped to indicate a direction
to be taken; or coins may be spun or dice thrown. Divination by means
of skulls was common in Torres Straits (29, v. 362); in this case the
spirit of the dead person was supposed to give the required advice.
Haruspication, or divination by means of certain viscera, was largely
employed by the Romans, and I have several times seen a pig’s liver
used in Borneo for the same purpose (28, 336, 354). In these instances
the message, as indicated by the state of the particular viscus, was
obtained from a deity. Other examples and varieties of divination are
given by Tylor (71, i. 123).


V. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MAGIC

Magic may be employed for public purposes or for private ends. In the
former case it is almost invariably for the public weal, in the latter it
is most frequently nefarious.


A. Public Magic.

Among some totemic peoples the men of a totem group perform magical
ceremonies for the benefit of the community. The best examples of this
=communal magic=, as it might be termed, are those described by Messrs.
Baldwin Spencer and Gillen (64, 179-183) as practised by the Arunta tribe
of Central Australia at the =intichiuma= ceremonies. For example, the
headman of a local group of the Emu totem and some other Emu men opened a
vein and allowed their blood to stream on a patch of smooth ground, until
about three yards were saturated. On the hard surface of the clotted
blood the sacred design of the Emu totem was painted with white, yellow,
red, and black. It represented certain parts of the emu; two large
patches of yellow indicated lumps of fat, of which the natives are very
fond, but the greater part represented, by means of circles and circular
patches, the eggs in various states of development, some before and some
after laying. Various sinuous lines indicated parts of the intestine.
Throughout the ceremony the headman was treated with the greatest
deference, and no one spoke to him except in a whisper. The sacred wooden
slabs (_churinga_) were placed on one side of the painting. In the
intervals of a monotonous chant the headman explained the drawing. Three
men wore a headdress which represented the long neck and small head of
the emu; with a curious gliding movement they approached the spectators,
occasionally stopping and moving only their heads, imitating the aimless
gazing about of the bird.

The witchetty grub _intichiuma_ ceremony (64, 170-179) is performed at a
special cave, where lies a large block of quartzite surrounded by small
rounded stones. The former represents the perfect insect, and the latter
its eggs. The headman and his associates tap the large stone and chant
songs, the burden of which is an invitation to the insect to lay eggs;
the headman strikes each man with one of the small stones, saying, ‘You
have eaten much food.’ Later they go to a large rock which they tap, and
invite the animal to come from all directions and lay eggs. After various
symbolic ceremonies they enter a long narrow booth made of bushes, which
represents the chrysalis case from which the perfect insect emerges, and
there they sing of the animal in its various stages and of the sacred
stones.

There are many similar ceremonies which the men of a totem group make in
order to increase or produce their particular totem; thus, taking the
tribe as a whole, the object of these ceremonies is that of increasing
the total food supply (64, 315-319). Among the Arunta and Ilpirra only
the men of the totem are allowed to be present or to take part in the
actual ceremony. During its progress there is always some ceremony,
such as that of allowing the blood of young men of the totem to flow
over the stone which is associated with the ancestors of the totem. The
idea of this is to send the spirits of the animals out of the stone to
replenish the stock of the totemic animal. After the ceremony, when, as
a consequence, the animal or plant has become abundant, the men of all
classes and totems go out and bring supplies into the main camp. No one
as yet may eat it. The headman of the totem, in the presence of all in
camp, solemnly eats a little and hands the remainder over to the men of
the other totems, telling them to eat freely. If the headman did not eat
a little he would lose the power of performing _intichiuma_ successfully.

In other tribes to the north similar ceremonies exist, but they are less
elaborate and sometimes of the simplest description. The headman of the
white cockatoo totem group and his son spent the whole of one night
‘singing’ the cockatoo. In the Wara tribe on the shore of the Gulf of
Carpentaria a man of the rain-group goes to a pool, and, taking care
that no women or strangers are in sight, bends down over and ‘sings’ the
water; then he takes some up in his hands, drinks it, and spits it out
in various directions. After that he throws water all over himself, and
after scattering some all round he returns quietly to his camp, and rain
is supposed to follow (64, 314). There is very little difference between
this act and ordinary individual magic, the essential distinction being
that the man in this case makes rain by virtue of rain being his totem,
it being a function of human male members of the totem group to increase
their totem.

When the totemic system falls into decay there seems to be a tendency for
the old magical ceremonies which had for their purport the increase of
the totem, to be performed by certain families, rather than by groups of
men; this appears to be associated with the growth of property in land,
so that in time the performance of certain ceremonies is restricted to
a single man, who transmits the right to his son, and they alone of the
community have this duty. There is nothing to distinguish men with these
rights from ordinary sorcerers who practise definite departments of magic.

A very large number of examples of public magical ceremonies, undertaken
for the good of the community, have been collected by Dr. Frazer in
his _Golden Bough_; of especial interest are those connected with
the production of abundant harvests, and the active participation of
women in such customs is very significant. I here give an example
recently published by Miss Mary Owen (56, 60). The Corn-planting dance
of the Musquakie or Fox Indians takes place in April, though the real
corn-planting commences about the 1st of May. It is danced by men only;
they trot at sunrise along the east side of a cornfield selected by the
shaman, going in single file with their rattles and little tambourines
or prayer drums, while a young maiden goes into the field and plants
a few grains from a perfect ear handed to her by the Honourable Women
(women who have borne sons). If the harvest of the year before was
scant the dancers may go entirely round the field. Afterwards there is
some eating and drinking, but not an elaborate feast. Formerly the real
planting of the field followed the ceremonial, and no food was eaten
until the women had finished planting. Another old custom was to have the
maid who did the planting given a husband, who went with her into the
field. Later a prophet had a revelation that this custom should cease.
The day is at the present time a favourite one for weddings.


B. Private Magic.

Individuals frequently practise magic for private ends, of which the
objects to be attained may be perfectly legitimate or even praiseworthy,
but more frequently recourse is had to magical practices for harmful
purposes.

=Folk remedies= for sickness and pains are very frequently of a purely
magical character. For example, a common cure for warts is to rub them
with a piece of raw meat, which must then be buried; as the meat decays
so will the warts disappear: to be effective the meat should be stolen.
A woman in Islay was cured of toothache by a man driving a nail into the
upper lintel of the kitchen door; he told her to keep it there, and,
should it become loose at any time, to tap it a little with a hammer
until it had a grip, and he assured her she would be free from toothache.
She never again suffered from toothache (49, 158).

Any variety or combination of varieties of sympathetic magic may be
employed in the manufacture or practice of =love-charms=; frequently
they are fortified by the subtle association of scent. Doubtless certain
scents have a direct stimulating effect, but, apart from this, should any
scent be definitely worn when young men wish to attract girls, there can
be no doubt that the suggestion would tend to act powerfully upon the
latter, and that ‘girl-medicine,’ as I have heard it called, would of
itself be potent even if other practices were not employed. I was told by
a Torres Straits islander that just as a snake that is in one tree can,
by swallowing its spittle, make a bird that is in another tree come to
it, so if a man chews a certain medicine and a girl sees him swallowing
the infusion in his saliva, she understands what the man means and is
constrained to go to him (29, v. 328).

Various instances of =nefarious magic= have been given in the preceding
pages. A good example came under my own observation. In Torres Straits
there is a vine-like plant that loses its leaves at a certain season of
the year, and the stem breaks up into joints, which often bear a striking
resemblance to some of the long bones of the human skeleton. This
circumstance led magicians to employ these sticks to make human beings
into similar dried and shrivelled-up objects. The dry segments of the
vine were collected and the magician gave the name of some part of the
body to each joint: for example, one would be called an ‘arm,’ another
a ‘leg,’ and so forth. The magician crouched like a fish-eagle and,
imitating the way that a bird tears flesh off bones, threw the segments
behind him without looking round. If he left the spot without turning
round to look at the sticks the patient would die; but if he did not wish
to proceed to this extremity, he turned and looked at the segments, and
subsequently he would return and pick them up and place them together and
put ‘medicine’ on them, and the patient would recover (29, v. 325).

The following account recently published by Mrs. J. Gunn (26, 98) is so
characteristic that I quote it nearly verbatim. In North Australia any
one can ‘sing magic,’ even lubras [women], but of course the wise old
magic men do it best. It never fails with them, particularly if they
‘sing’ and point one of the special ‘death-bones’ or ‘sacred stones’ of
the tribe. Generally a black fellow goes away quite by himself when he is
‘singing magic,’ but very occasionally a few men join together, as they
did in the case of ‘Goggle Eye.’ When enough magic has been ‘sung’ into
the bone, it is taken away to the camp, and very secretly pointed at the
unconscious victim. The magic spirit of the bone runs into the man who
is pointed at, and gradually kills him. Of course the man who has been
‘sung’ must be told somehow, or he will not get a fright and die. There
are many ways of managing this; one very good way is to put the bone
where he will be sure to find it, in his dilly-bag, or near his fire, or
through the handle of his spear; but the man who leaves the bone about
must, of course, be very careful to destroy his own tracks. ‘Goggle Eye,’
after he had found the bones lying about, knew exactly what was going to
happen to him, and of course it did. His throat got very sore, and he
grew so thin and weak that he could hardly stand. A man can be cured
by magic men charming the ‘bone’ away again; but ‘Goggle Eye’ was old,
and, what was worse, he was getting very cross, and too fond of ordering
people about, so the black fellows thought it would be the best plan not
to cure him, and a few more sneaked away into the bush and ‘sang’ some
more bones, and pointed them at him to make quite sure about his dying.
Poor old ‘Goggle Eye’ suffered dreadfully; no native would help him
except his blood-brother, because they were afraid of the curse coming to
them. Some said they would like to help, but that if they made ‘Goggle
Eye’s’ fire for him, their own would never burn again. Nobody could even
carry his food to him. Soon after, at ‘fowl sing out,’ or cockcrow, he
died.


VI. MAGICIANS

Most forms of magic can be performed by anybody provided he knows what
to do; but there are specialists in magic, who, by us, are variously
termed medicine-men, magicians, sorcerers, wizards, witches, wise women,
and the like. Their lore is transmitted orally to their disciples, who
may or may not be their own children. Magical powers may be due to the
mere accident of birth, as for example in the European belief in the
therapeutic gifts of the seventh son of a seventh son. In some cases
the sorcerer has to undergo a rigorous training, often being subjected
to painful or loathsome ordeals; by these means the weaklings are
eliminated, and those who persist have their character and fortitude
strengthened, and they gain increased respect from their fellow-men.
Further, in Australia and elsewhere, the medicine-man is not always a
‘doctor’; he may be a ‘rain-maker,’ ‘seer,’ or ‘spirit-medium,’ or may
practise some special form of magic.

Usually the sorcerers unite together to form a society, which may attain
great influence among backward races. According to Leland (43, 10),
‘there is actually in Tuscany a culture or worship of fetishes which are
not Catholic, _i.e._ of strange stones and many curious relics. But there
is a great deal of mystery and secrecy observed in all this cult. It has
its professors; men, but mostly women, who collect charms and spells, and
teach them to one another, and hold meetings; that is, there is a kind
of college of witches and wizards, which, for many good reasons, eludes
observation.’ The old faith, as it is termed, is pre-Christian, but not
actively anti-Christian.


VII. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MAGICAL PRACTICES

The superficial observer is apt to regard the medicine-men or sorcerers
as cheats who deliberately humbug their neighbours; but it is probable
that most of them really believe themselves to be possessed of occult
or supernormal power. Doubtless they do many things for mere effect,
in order to enhance the respect they desire to have paid to themselves
personally, as well as to put the subjects or spectators into a proper
frame of mind; but this is precisely what is deliberately done by the
organisers of all ceremonies by all peoples. Doubtless, also, many acts
are performed which are intended to impose upon the credulity of others;
but this is a device which is not unknown among cultured people, as, for
example, the liquefying of the blood of St. Januarius in Naples. There
remain, however, a large number of phenomena, which are as mysterious
to them as they are to the vast majority of mankind, and many of these
are receiving the attention of psychologists of the present day, without
their significance being understood. Mr. Podmore (55, 373) is not afraid
to say that ‘many of the alleged wonders of witchcraft and of ancient
magic in general, when disentangled from the accretions formed round them
by popular myth and superstition, present a marked resemblance to some of
the facts recorded’ in his book.

The mental equilibrium of many backward peoples is very unstable,
although they may not suffer from the same derangements of the nervous
system that affect the more highly civilised peoples. To take an example
or two of this =nervous instability=, Castren observed long ago that if
the Samoyeds were sitting around inside their skin tents in the evening,
and some one crept up and struck the tent, half of them were likely to
fall into cataleptic fits. Bogoras (5, 42) refers to the well-known
Arctic hysteria which is so widespread among the Yukaghir and Lamut
women, and to a less extent among the Chukchee, the Russianised, and
even the Russian women. This disease develops chiefly in the form of
an uncontrollable desire to repeat in a loud voice each word spoken by
somebody else, and to imitate every sudden gesture or action. This is the
same nervous disorder as the widely spread _lâtah_ of Malaysia, which has
been so admirably described by Sir F. A. Swettenham (68, 64).

The far-reaching power of =suggestion= has been perhaps the most
potent factor in upholding magical practices, especially when it is
=combined with hypnotism=. The hypnotic state, it must be remembered,
though ordinarily produced by another, can be self-induced by gazing
at an object. There is an overwhelming number of modern instances of
bad habits, various diseases, inflammations, local and general pain,
insomnia, neurasthenia, psychic paralysis, and psychic hysteria, being
cured by suggestion while the patient is in the hypnotic state (31,
607). Conversely pain, inflammations, and other organic changes can
be produced through the same means; such is the explanation of the
appearance of stigmata on the hands and feet of religious ecstatics,
who had induced auto-hypnotism by intently gazing on the Figure on the
Cross. The cataleptic and anæsthetic conditions producible by hypnotism
are well known all over the world, and have for ages been part of the
stock-in-trade of sorcerers, medicine-men, or of certain religious
enthusiasts.

=Suggestion alone=, without the aid of hypnotism, can effect wonders, and
faith-cures and Christian science are by no means a new thing under the
sun, but something very old under new names. Probably every physician has
known cases of ‘persons who died because they did not want to live or
were at least indifferent; and probably an equal number who materially
lengthened their lives by the mere determination not to die’ (67, 612).

‘The psychology of the matter,’ writes Marett (51, 143), ‘is up to a
certain point simple enough. Just as the savage is a good actor, throwing
himself like a child into his mime, so he is a good spectator, entering
into the spirit of another’s acting, herein again resembling the child,
who can be frightened into fits by the roar of what he knows to be but a
“pretended” lion. Even if the =make-believe= is more or less make-believe
to the victim, it is hardly less efficacious; for, dominating, as it
tends to do, the field of attention, it racks the emotional system, and,
taking advantage of the relative abeyance of intelligent thought and
will, sets stirring all manner of deep-lying impulses and automatisms.’

All peoples have prohibitions of certain kinds, and most have a firm
belief that should these =tabus= be broken dire consequences will befall
the offender. Occasionally the punishment is effected by the social
executive, through representatives of secret societies or by other
means; but usually it is left in the hands, so to speak, of the outraged
spiritual powers, and so strong is this belief that it drees its own
weird. For example, Father Merolla (54, xvi. 238) tells of a young Congo
negro who, being on a journey, lodged at a friend’s house; the latter
got a wild hen for his breakfast, and the young man asked if it were a
wild hen. His host replied ‘No.’ Then he fell on heartily, and afterwards
proceeded on his journey. After four years these two met together again,
and his old friend asked him ‘If he would eat a wild hen,’ to which he
answered that it was tabooed to him. ‘Hereat the host began immediately
to laugh, inquiring of him, “What made him refuse it now, when he had
eaten one at his table about four years ago?” At the hearing of this
the negro immediately fell a-trembling, and suffered himself to be so
far possessed with the effects of imagination that he died in less than
twenty-four hours after.’ Armit (2, 459) relates that an Australian
died of fright within a fortnight after he had discovered his sick wife
had lain upon his blanket. Nowhere is the power of taboo greater than
among the Polynesians. And examples of its potency in procuring its own
fulfilment in the Heroic Age of Ireland have already been given (p. 29).

No wonder then that belief in the magical powers of sorcerers can cause
the same effects. Messrs. Spencer and Gillen (64, 537) state that the
Australian natives believe that any bone, stick, spear, etc., which
has been ‘sung’ is supposed to be endowed with what the natives call
_Arungquiltha_, that is, magical poisonous properties, and any native who
believes that he has been struck by, say, a charmed spear, is almost sure
to die, whether the wound be slight or severe, unless he be saved by the
counter magic of a medicine-man. He simply lies down, refuses food, and
pines away. Actual instances are given of men with slight wounds dying in
a few days from this belief.

There can be no doubt that magical practices can act by =suggestion=
through =fear= and =fascination= upon human victims who are aware of
their occurrence, and it is probable that in most cases the victim is
made aware of such practices as in the instance given on p. 49. Also
there is every reason to believe that all backward peoples, including the
sorcerers themselves, believe in the power of magic. Casalis (10, 275)
gives an instructive instance in point. A chief of the Basutos once held
forth in his presence on the matter of sorcery: he said, ‘Sorcery only
exists in the mouths of those who speak of it. It is no more in the power
of man to kill his fellow by the mere effect of his will, than it would
be to raise him from the dead. This is my opinion. Nevertheless, you
sorcerers who hear me speak, use moderation.’

Probably more widely spread than is usually accepted is the belief of
some backward peoples, and therefore of their magicians, in a spiritual
force that accomplishes their desires; such, for example, as the =mana=
of the Melanesians. ‘The Melanesian mind,’ writes Dr. Codrington (12,
118), ‘is entirely possessed by the belief in a supernatural power or
influence, called almost universally _mana_. This is what works to effect
everything which is beyond the ordinary power of man, outside the common
processes of nature; it is present in the atmosphere of life, attaches
itself to persons and to things, and is manifested by results which can
only be ascribed to its operation. When one has got it he can use it and
direct it, but its force may break forth at some new point; the presence
of it is ascertained by proof. A man comes by chance upon a stone which
takes his fancy; its shape is singular, it is like something, it is
certainly not a common stone, there must be _mana_ in it. So he argues
with himself, and he puts it to the proof; he lays it at the root of a
tree to the fruit of which it has a certain resemblance, or he buries
it in the ground when he plants a garden; an abundant crop on the tree
or in the garden shows that he is right, the stone is _mana_, has that
power in it. Having that power, it is a vehicle to convey _mana_ to other
stones. In the same way certain forms of words, generally in the form
of a song, have power for certain purposes; a charm of words is called
_mana_. But this power, though itself impersonal, is always connected
with some person who directs it; all spirits have it, ghosts generally,
some men. If a stone is found to have a supernatural power it is because
a spirit has associated itself with it. A dead man’s bone has with it
_mana_, because the ghost is with the bone; a man may have so close a
connection with a spirit or ghost that he has _mana_ in himself also, and
can so direct it as to effect what he desires. All conspicuous success is
a proof that a man has _mana_; his influence depends on the impression
made on the people’s mind that he has it.’ If a man has been successful
in fighting, it is not through his own qualities, but ‘he has certainly
got the _mana_ of some deceased warrior to empower him, conveyed in an
amulet of a stone round his neck, or a tuft of leaves in his belt, in a
tooth hung upon the finger of his bow hand, or in the form of words with
which he brings supernatural assistance to his side.’

The Omaha (19) believe that a man’s own will can act directly on his
fellows by singing certain songs; this act is called _wazhin-dhedhe_,
that is ‘directive energy, to send’; the Omaha term ‘signifies to
send forth one’s thought and =will power= toward another in order to
supplement his strength, and thereby affect his action,’ or, as we should
term it, =telepathy=. By an appeal to _Wakanda_ (that is ‘immanent life
manifest in all things,’ or the ‘hidden and mysterious power which brings
to pass’), in the rite of vision, the man’s powers could be supplemented
by the co-operation of the elements and of animals.

The innate spirituality of the savage appears to be largely ignored by
students, who usually dub the magic worker as a conscious cheat and
humbug, whereas it seems to be more correct to regard him as dealing with
material objects mainly as endowed with life (=Animism=; 50, 171), or as
the vehicles of spiritual or supernatural power, and by means of such
objects or by the shafts of speech he can effectively project his will.

If then, as Mr. Marett points out (51, 150), the occult projectiveness
of the magical act is naturally and almost inevitably interpreted as an
exertion of will that somehow finds its way to another will and dominates
it, the spell or uttered ‘must’ will tend to embody the very life and
soul of the affair. Nothing finds its way home to another’s mind more
sharply. It is the very type of a spiritual projectile.

In many examples of magical procedure the magician appears to act
directly upon nature, and seeks to enforce the action of his will by
the power of the spoken word or spell. In other cases he obtains power
from energy derived from something outside of himself; for example,
the shaman of Siberia may be possessed by a spirit, or the magician
may even be possessed by a god. Thus by insensible stages do we arrive
at actions that may better be described as religious or theurgic than
as magical. Numerous examples of transition stages are given by Mr. W.
W. Skeat (63). The god-inspired magician may become an actual deity,
for many royal magicians, who are more especially rain-makers, are
regarded, as Dr. Frazer has recently pointed out, as incarnate gods in
Africa and elsewhere (21). Concurrently with ideas of personification
and progressive deification the =spell evolves into prayer=. On the
other hand, power may be obtained over deities by practices that are
essentially magical, as, for example, by uttering the ineffable name, or
by spells and incantations, and these may at the same time be associated
with prayer, or the prayer itself may degenerate into a spell.

However it may be with human beings, few culture-folk will admit that
sorcerers can effect the ordinary phenomena of nature, and in this
respect, at all events, they should soon become discredited. On one
occasion in Murray Island, Torres Straits, a native showed me two stones
in a recess on the foreshore which were pointed at by men holding
certain leaves which were left there. A ‘big wind’ would immediately
arise which lasted until the plants were removed. This _zogo_ was
employed only in the season of the South-east trade wind. On my asking
whether the ceremony was done in the North-west monsoon, my informant
said emphatically, ‘Can’t do it in North-west.’ That is, the charm is
performed only at that season of the year when the required result is
possible—indeed, when it is of normal occurrence (28, 60; 29, vi.)
In this, as in other cases, I found that =the impossible was never
attempted=. A rain charm would not be made when there was no expectation
of rain coming, or a south-east wind be raised during the wrong season.
Probably this is the experience of others elsewhere, and thus it is not
remarkable if the desired result frequently follows the performance of
the charming.

A =loophole is generally provided in case of failure=. Either some
irregularity or mistake occurred in the performance of the charm, or
another sorcerer was performing contrary magic which proved of greater
potency.



FETISHISM


I. DEFINITION

The word Fetishism has been so misused of late that ethnologists
are apt to view it askance and hesitate to employ it in religious
classifications. It has been stretched to such an extent in various
directions that it has lost the definition and precision necessary for a
scientific term. Starting from a humble origin, referring in its native
land (Portugal) to the charms and amulets worn ‘for luck,’ and to relics
of saints, ‘fetish’ grew to such amazing proportions when transplanted
to West African soil, that at last there was nothing connected with West
African religion to which it was not applied. De Brosses introduced
Fétichisme as a general descriptive term (8), supposing the word to be
connected with _chose fée_, _fatum_. Comte[1] employed it to describe
the universal religious tendency to which Dr. Tylor has given the name
of Animism (71, chaps. xi.-xvii.). Bastholm claimed ‘everything produced
by nature or art, which receives divine honour, including the sun, moon,
earth, air, fire, water, with rivers, trees, stones, images and animals,
considered as objects of divine worship, as Fetishism;[2] and Lippert
(46) defines Fetishism as ‘a belief in the souls of the departed coming
to dwell in any thing that is tangible or visible in heaven or earth.’

Although Miss Kingsley (39, 139) expresses regret that the word Fetish
‘is getting very loosely used in England,’ she scarcely helps forward
the work of distinction and arrangement when a few lines further on
she announces ‘When I say Fetish, or Ju Ju, I mean the religion of the
natives of West Africa.’ Subsequently she overstepped her own definition,
describing the secret societies as ‘pure fetish’ (41, 139), although they
‘are not essentially religious,’ but ‘are mainly judicial.’

The Rev. R. H. Nassau perpetuates this vague use of the word, grouping
under the name of Fetishism all native customs even remotely connected,
as everything is in West Africa, with religious or magical beliefs,
until the ejaculation uttered when one sneezes or stumbles receives the
sounding title, ‘fetish prayer’ (53, 97).

These ‘lumpings’ are all the more to be regretted since Miss Kingsley and
the Rev. R. H. Nassau are among the chief authorities on West African
Fetishism in its most characteristic forms, and a clear definition of the
use of the word, with a rigid adherence to its proper meaning, would have
done great service in preventing many misconceptions.

The meaning of any word depends upon its definition, and it may
be defined in three ways: 1. etymologically; 2. historically; 3.
dogmatically.

1. The word fetish is derived through the Portuguese _feitiço_ from the
Latin _facticius_—_facere_ = to do. This shows the original conception at
the root of the word.

2. The historical definition shows the growth or evolution of the meaning
of the word, starting from its original conception. Dr. Tylor has pointed
out how magic has appropriated to itself the derivatives of ‘to do,’
such as _feitiço_ in Portuguese, _fattura_ in Italian, _faiture_ in Old
French, and many more, thus claiming to be ‘doing’ _par excellence_
(70, 135). This tendency is already noticeable even in classical times
(‘_potens et factiosus_,’ possessed of power and influence, Auct.
_Her._ 2, 26, 40), and is well marked in Plautus, who uses various
derivatives of _facere_ to mean ‘powerful’ or ‘influential,’ especially
with reference to influence due to family connection or to riches
(_factiones_, _Aul._ II. i. 45; _factiosus_, ib. II. ii. 50; _factio_,
_Cist._ II. i. 17, etc.). From this sense of =potent politically=,
later Latin developed the meaning of =potent magically=, as seen in
_facturari_, to bewitch, _factura_, witchcraft, from which latter is
descended the Old French _faiture_, witchcraft, and perhaps our slang
word ‘fake.’ =Fetish= as derived from the passive form _facticius_,
meaning made by art, artificial, was probably first applied to images,
idols or amulets made by hand, and later included =all objects possessing
magical potency=, _i.e._ bewitched or ‘faked.’[3]

3. The dogmatic definition of a word is the meaning attached to it by
individuals of authority.

Fetishism is defined as ‘the worship of inanimate objects,’ the worship
of stocks and stones, ‘the religious worship of material objects’ (61,
61), ‘tangible and inanimate objects worshipped for themselves alone’
(15, 196), and a fetish is defined as ‘differing from an idol in that
it is worshipped in its own character, not as the symbol, image, or
occasional residence of a deity’ (_New English Dictionary_, Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1901).

The account of the native of Fida given by Bosman (54, xvi. 493) is often
quoted as the classic example of fetishism:—

    ‘I once asked a negro with whom I could talk very freely ...
    how they celebrated their divine worship, and what number of
    gods they had; he, laughing, answered that I had puzzled him;
    and assured me that nobody in the whole country could give
    me an exact account of it. “For, as for my own part, I have
    a very large number of gods, and doubt not but that others
    have as many.” “For any of us being resolved to undertake
    anything of importance, we first of all search out a god to
    prosper our designed undertaking; and going out of doors with
    the design, take the first creature that presents itself to
    our eyes, whether dog, cat, or the most contemptible creature
    in the world for our god: or perhaps instead of that, any
    inanimate that falls in our way, whether a stone, a piece of
    wood, or anything else of the same nature. This new-chosen
    god is immediately presented with an offering, which is
    accompanied by a solemn vow, that if it pleaseth him to prosper
    our undertakings, for the future we will always worship and
    esteem him as a god. If our design prove successful, we have
    discovered a new and assisting god, which is daily presented
    with a fresh offering; but if the contrary happen, the new god
    is rejected as a useless tool, and consequently returns to
    his primitive estate.” “We make and break our gods daily, and
    consequently are the masters and inventors of what we sacrifice
    to.”’

Bosman goes on to say:—

    ‘I was very well pleased to hear the negro talk in this manner
    concerning his country gods; but, having conversed with him
    for some time, I observed that he ridiculed his own country
    gods, for, having lived amongst the French, whose language he
    perfectly understood and spoke, he had amongst them imbibed the
    principles of the Christian religion, and somewhat towards a
    just notion of the true God and how he is to be worshipped, ...
    wherefore he no further concerned himself with the gods of the
    country than as engaged to it for quietness’ sake, or to make
    his friends easy.’

A sceptic is scarcely likely to give a sympathetic report of a religion
he has discarded, and Bosman’s negro is no exception to the rule. He
describes the outward tangible aspect of fetishism, but ignores its
spiritual interpretation, and the dogmatic definitions above follow in
the same path of error.

Fetishism and the fetish, as thus defined, do not exist, except in
‘incomplete observations’; they certainly are nowhere to be found in West
Africa, the typical land of fetishism.

‘Every native with whom I have conversed on the subject,’ writes Ellis,
‘has laughed at the possibility of it being supposed that he could
worship or offer sacrifice to some such object as a stone, which of
itself it would be perfectly obvious to his senses was a stone only and
nothing more’ (15, 192). So the Maori _wakapakoko_ were only thought
to possess virtue or peculiar sanctity from the presence of the god
they represented when dressed up for worship; at other times they were
regarded only as bits of ordinary wood (69, 212), and Brinton affirms
that ‘nowhere in the world did man ever worship a stick or a stone as
such’ (6, 131).

All cases of Fetishism, when examined, show that the worship is paid to
an intangible power or spirit incorporated in some visible form, and
that the fetish is merely the link between the worshipper and the object
of his worship. Any definition therefore which takes no account of the
spiritual force behind the material object is seen to be incomplete and
superficial, as it ignores the essential conception of the worship.

Dr. Tylor enlarges the scope of the word, classing Fetishism as a
subordinate department of Animism, and defining it as the doctrine of
spirits embodied in, or conveying influence through, certain material
objects. He includes in it the worship of stocks and stones, ‘and thence
it passes by an imperceptible gradation into idolatry’ (71, ii. 144).

It is these imperceptible gradations which blur all the outlines of the
rigid systematist, and make an exclusive classification impossible.
Encouragement is found in the reflection that exclusive classifications
are almost unknown to science, and, where met with, are generally due
to ignorance, waiting for greater knowledge or further research to
provide the intermediate links which everywhere blend class with class,
species with species. But when the group is studied in its area of
characterisation, certain features stand prominently forward, and by a
study of these the essential characteristics of the whole class can be
determined.


II. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS OF FETISHISM

The characteristic features of fetishism, and particularly of West
African fetishism, are as follows:—

The fetish may consist of any object whatsoever, but the object chosen
is generally either a wonderful ornament or curiosity, a symbolic charm
with sympathetic properties, or a sign or token representing an ideal
notion or being. It is credited with mysterious power, owing to its
being, temporarily or permanently, the vessel or habitation, vehicle
for communication, or instrument of some unseen power or spirit, which
is conceived to possess personality and will, and ability to see, hear,
understand, and act. It may act by the will or force of its own power
or spirit, or by force of a foreign power entering it or acting on it
from without, and the material object and the power or spirit may be
dissociated. It is worshipped, prayed to, sacrificed to, talked with, and
petted or ill-treated with regard to its past or future behaviour. In its
most characteristic form a fetish must be consecrated by a priest.

1. =A fetish may be any object whatsoever=, but there is always a reason
for its choice.

The simplest reason is =that it attracts attention= (61, 61) (71,
ii. 145), and anything that attracts attention at once acquires an
exaggerated value, and appeals to that natural instinct of human nature,
found also among some birds and animals, the love for collecting.

‘In the love of abnormal curiosities there shows itself a craving for the
marvellous, an endeavour to get free from the tedious sense of law and
uniformity in nature’ (71, ii. 145).

So the fetish consists of a queer-shaped stone, a bright bead, a
stick, parrots’ feathers, a root, claw, seed, bone, or any curious or
conspicuous object.

In Benin they take everything which seems extraordinary in nature for a
god, and make offerings to him, and each is his own priest, in order to
worship his gods in what manner pleases him best (54, xvi. 530).

=Or= the object =may have attracted attention by its behaviour=.

A visitor to a fetish hut took up a stone about as big as a hen’s egg,
and its owner told its history. ‘He was once going out on important
business, but crossing the threshold he trod on this stone and hurt
himself. Ha, ha! thought he, art thou here? So he took the stone, and it
helped him through his undertaking for days’ (71, ii. 158).

=Sometimes the object= to be chosen =is revealed= to a man =in a dream=,
as among the natives of the Gold Coast, where a dead relation will return
to direct a man to go to a certain spot and there select a certain stone,
or piece of a tree, which he is to bring home with him, and guard and
reverence as the habitation of a protecting deity (15, 90).

This connects the fetish with the guardian spirits of the North American
Indians, which appear to young men in dreams, or visions, after prayer
and fasting. The vision generally takes the form of some tangible object,
often an animal, a portion of which is preserved by the man as his most
precious possession, and if not, some concrete form is taken to represent
the subject of the vision. A guardian spirit differs, however, from a
fetish, in that it is a life-long possession, some men are not privileged
to obtain one, and no man could possess more than one; while any man
could obtain a fetish, and could discard one and adopt another if it
proved to be unavailing.

2. It consists of a =symbolic charm with sympathetic properties=.
‘There is a relation between the selected substances and the object to
be obtained: to give the possessor bravery or strength, some part of
a leopard or an elephant; to give cunning, some part of a gazelle; to
give wisdom, some part of a human brain; to give courage, some part
of a heart; to give influence, some part of an eye,’ etc. etc. ‘These
substances are supposed to lure some spirit (being in some way pleasing
to it) which thenceforward is satisfied to reside in them and to aid the
possessor in the accomplishment of some specific wish’ (53, 82).

For convenience of carriage these substances are put into snail-shells,
nut-shells, or the small horns of gazelles, or of goats, and the whole
then forms the fetish.

Bosman describes the way in which a fetish, consisting of a pipe filled
with various substances, was generally made on the Guinea Coast in 1705.

‘They have a great wooden pipe filled with earth, oil, blood, bones
of dead men and beasts, feathers, hair, and to be short, all sorts of
excrementitious and filthy trash, which they do not endeavour to mould
into any shape, but lay it in a confused heap in the pipe’ (54, xvi. 398).

‘Human eyeballs, particularly of white men, are a great charm. This, I
fancy, is to secure the man “that lives in your eyes” for the service of
the village’ (40, 305).

Sometimes there is a tangible connection between the object chosen for
the fetish and the spirit occupying it. Thus among the Gold Coast
natives the object which is entered by the subordinate spirit of
Sasabonsum must be taken from the habitat of a Sasabonsum, from a place,
that is, which is marked with red earth, where the red earth marks the
blood of the victim of a Sasabonsum (15, 109).

3. It may consist of =a sign or token representing an ideal notion
or being=, and here it is difficult to draw any distinction between
fetishism and idolatry, ‘for a small line and a few streaks of colour
may change a fetish into an idol’ (61, 77). Certainly the lower forms
of idolatry present the aspect of fetishism, but the true fetish is not
shaped to resemble the spirit it represents, and the true idol is only
the symbol, not the vessel, vehicle, or instrument of deity. At the same
time, an image may be worshipped as a fetish, and regarded as a material
body provided for a spirit; or a fetish, being regarded merely as the
symbol or representative of a spirit, seems to develop the earliest form
of idolatry (71, ii. 169). The distinction lies in the attitude of mind
in which the objects are worshipped, and no objective differentiation is
possible, for the object will be a fetish for one worshipper and a pure
symbol of a spirit to another.

Stone worship is often pure fetishism, the stone being regarded as
the tangible sign or token of a spirit or power to which worship is
addressed. But it advances beyond the limits of fetishism if a general
spirit, or a god of a community, while worshipped in the form of a stone,
is also believed to animate other objects. The animating force of a
fetish must be individual, and cannot animate more than one object at a
time. When the spirits of the _suhman_ charms (15, 99) are considered to
be individual spirits dependent upon Sasabonsum they are fetishes; if the
spirit of Sasabonsum were supposed to animate all the _suhman_ charms
they could not properly be called fetishes.

4. A fetish is =credited with mysterious powers owing to its being the
habitation, temporary or permanent, of a spiritual being=.

This sounds like a definition of the principle of animism, and so it may
be, for fetishism is animism, seen, as it were, from the other end and
seen in detail. Animism sees all things animated by spirits; fetishism
sees a spirit incorporated in an individual object.

But there is this distinction, that the spirit which is believed to
occupy the fetish is a different conception from the spirit of the
animistic theory; it is not the soul or vital power belonging to the
object, and inherent in it, from which the virtue is derived, but a
spirit or power attracted to and incorporated in it, while separable
from it. The spirit of the fetish is also distinct from a god, as it can
animate one object only, while a god can manifest his power in various
forms.

Thus in Bosman’s account of the Benin fetish quoted above, he talks of
‘the pipe where the idol is lodged,’ that is the material habitation
into which the spirit has been lured by some means of attraction. Miss
Kingsley, describing a fetish or _juju_, says ‘it is not a doll or toy,
and has far more affinity to the image of a saint, inasmuch as it is not
venerated for itself, or treasured because of its prettiness, but only
because it is the residence, or the occasional haunt, of a spirit’ (40,
287).

The material objects which form the tutelary deities or _Bohsŭm_ of the
natives of the Gold Coast are not symbols of gods which usually reside
elsewhere; each is the actual receptacle or ordinary abiding-place of
an indwelling god. One may be a wooden figure, another a stone, a third
a covered calabash or an earthen pot, containing a mixture of blood and
earth (15, 80).

The best example of this class is provided by the _suhman_.

The man who wants a _suhman_ takes some objects, it may be a rudely cut
wooden image, or a stone, a root of a plant, or some red earth placed in
a pan, and then he calls on a spirit of Sasabonsum (‘a genus of deities,
every member of which possesses identical characteristics’) to enter the
object prepared, promising it offerings and worship. If a spirit consents
to take up its residence in the object a low hissing sound is heard, and
the _suhman_ is complete. It receives a small portion of the daily food
of its owner, and is treated with reverence, and mainly used to bring
evil on some one else (15, 100-101).

5. Sometimes the fetish is merely the =vehicle or means by which the
spirit communicates= with his worshippers, and only acquires a temporary
personality when thus inspired. This is the character of the New Zealand
fetishes, _wakapakoko_, or images.

‘A small image was used about 18 inches long, resembling a peg, with a
carved head. The priest first bandaged a fillet of red parrot feathers
under the god’s chin, which was called his _pahau_ or beard; when this
was done it was taken possession of by the _atua_, whose spirit entered
it; the priest then either held it in the hand and vibrated it in the
air, whilst the powerful _karakia_ (charm, prayer) was repeated, or he
tied a piece of string, formed of the centre of a flax leaf, round the
neck of the image and stuck it in the ground: he sat at a little distance
from it, holding the string in his hand, and gave the god a jerk to
arrest his attention’ (69, 182).

These Maori fetishes ‘were only thought to possess virtue or peculiar
sanctity from the presence of the god they represent when dressed up,
at other times they were regarded as bits of ordinary wood’ (69, 212).
The use of the words ‘image’ and ‘god’ seem to place this ceremony on a
higher plane than fetishism, but the ‘god’ is generally the spirit of an
ancestor, and the ‘image’ is less a portrait of a worshipped deity than
an expression of the Maori genius for wood-carving.

6. While the conception of the fetish as the vehicle of communication
between spirit and worshipper raises fetishism to a higher plane in
religious evolution, the conception of the fetish as an =instrument by
which the spirit acts= lowers it to a stage which is not necessarily
religious at all, to a stage where the fetish is often regarded merely in
the light of a charm or an amulet.

This is the lowest and the commonest form of fetishism; it may
practically be said to be universal.

Bosnian relates that the word Fetiche is chiefly used in a religious
sense, or at least is derived from thence, but ‘all things made in honour
of these false gods, never so mean, are called Fetiche.’

These material charms are so common that by the universality of their
use, and the prominence given to them everywhere, in houses and on the
person, they almost monopolise the religious thought of the Bantu negro,
subordinating other acknowledged points of his theology, dominating
his almost entire religious interest, and giving the departmental
word ‘fetich’ such overwhelming regard that it has furnished the name
distinctive of the native African religious system (53, 80). ‘The
new-born infant has a health-knot tied about his neck, wrists, or loins,
and down to the day of oldest age every one keeps on multiplying or
renewing or altering these life talismans’ (53, 85).

It is interesting to find this form of fetish charm described by Bosman
at the beginning of the eighteenth century.

‘The child is no sooner born than the priest (here called Fetichee or
Confoe) is sent for, who binds a parcel of ropes and coral and other
trash about the head, body, arms, and legs of the infant; after which he
exorcises, according to their accustomed manner, by which they believe it
is armed against all sickness and ill accidents, and doubtless this is as
effectual as if done by the Pope himself’ (54, xvi. 388).

Father Merolla, a still earlier traveller, mentions these charms from the
Congo district (1682).

‘The fourth abuse is that whilst their children are young these people
bind them about with certain superstitious cords made by the wizards,
who likewise teach them to utter a kind of spell while they are binding
them. They also at the same time hang about them bones and teeth of
divers animals, being preservatives, as they say, against the power of
any disease. Likewise there are some mothers so foolish that they will
hang Agnus Deis, medals, and relicks to the aforesaid cords’ (54, xvi.
237). ‘To remedy these disorders, we have thought proper to issue forth
the following ordinances: That all mothers should make the cords they
bound their infants with of palm leaves that had been consecrated on
Palm Sunday; moreover guard them well with other such relicks as we are
accustomed to make use of at the time of baptism’ (54, xvi. 239).

These fetish charms may be worshipped and regarded as anthropopathic,
when they are true fetishes, or they may be merely ‘lucky’ with no
religious regard or spiritual interpretation, or they may be anything
between the two extremes.

7. Just as the human body and soul form one individual, so the material
object and its occupying spirit or power form one individual, more
vague perhaps, but still with many attributes distinctively human. It
=possesses personality and will=, it has also many human characters. It
possesses most of the human passions, anger, revenge, also generosity and
gratitude; it is within reach of influence and may be benevolent, hence
to be deprecated and placated, and its aid enlisted (53, 62).

The objects used as fetishes by the Ainu, sticks, skulls of animals,
claws, paws, mistletoe, stones, etc., are all looked upon as animate,
with a distinct life of their own, with power to protect their
worshippers in time of danger, heal them when sick, and bless them with
general prosperity (4, 375-6).

In this characteristic, in the possession of personality and will, in
its material and spiritual duality, a fetish differs from a charm or an
amulet as from an idol; it is always ‘anthropopathic’ (61, 61).

8. The fetish may =act by will or force of its own proper spirit=, or =by
force of a foreign spirit, entering or acting on it from without=.

‘Beyond the regularly recognised habitats of the spirits, that may be
called natural to them, any other location may be acquired by them
temporarily, for longer or shorter periods’ (53, 62).

When the fetish acts by force of its own proper spirit, it is something
more than mere Animism (v. above, p. 77). It does not become a fetish
by applying the general belief in souls to a special object, but by
a process which has been divided by Schultze into four stages (62,
215-223):—

1. The value which an uncultured man attributes to any object is often
exaggerated, especially if the object is in any way conspicuous, unusual,
or mysterious.

2. He attributes to it an anthropopathic nature, believing that all
natural objects are like man, with human characteristics.

3. By the causal connection of ideas he associates the object with
auspicious or inauspicious events, which he believes it to influence.

4. A belief in its power leads him to reverence it, and to attempt to
conciliate and propitiate the power by worship.

As an example, the anchor cast up on the beach at the mouth of the river
Keissi (45) may be cited:—

1. The anchor was an unusual object, and was therefore credited with an
exaggerated value and regarded with great interest.

2. It was believed to possess a life of its own, a soul or spirit,
somewhat analogous to man’s.

3. A Kaffir broke off a piece of the anchor, and he soon afterwards died.
The two events were associated with one another, and the breaking of the
anchor was believed to have caused the death.

4. The power of the anchor-spirit was thus established, and the natives
worshipped it in fear and hope.

Thus the fetish was evolved.

But more commonly a spirit is attracted to the object from without, as
in the case of the _suhman_ of the Gold Coast, where the spirit of the
Sasabonsum is invited into the stone or other object prepared for it,
or as in the most usual type of West African fetish, where the wandering
spirit becomes localised in an object by means of the ceremonies and
conjurings of the Uganga or magic doctor (53, 81).

The distinction between the different powers animating the fetish are
clearly distinguishable on the Gold Coast (16, 275). The Tshi believe
that everything in nature is animated; that everything not made with
hands has an indwelling spirit, possessing powers beneficial or
prejudicial to man, according to whether it is propitiated or neglected;
so the more dangerous spirits, those of rivers, mountains, rocks, and
shoals are worshipped. Later on an image is made of the nature-god, from
material from his habitat, and it is brought to a place more convenient
for the worshippers, and forms their tutelary deity. Gradually his origin
is forgotten, and the nature-god becomes a fetish.

But besides these ‘nature-gods’ there are ‘ghost-gods.’ The fetish may
be animated by a ‘ghost-god,’ for the power of dead men lives on in
their ghosts; sacrifices are made to them, and ghost-gods also develop
into tutelary deities. Perhaps ancestor-worship and Fetishism may be
more intimately related than is generally acknowledged (16, 280). The
Melanesians believe that the souls of the dead act through bones; while
the independent spirits choose stones as their mediums (6, 131).

9. In the popular view of Fetishism the material object was worshipped
in its own character, but one of the fundamental conceptions of the
West African fetish is that =the spirit and the material object can be
dissociated=, and that, although the spirit is temporarily incorporated
in the fetish, yet the two are no more inseparable than man’s soul and
body. The conception of the duality of everything lies at the root of
all the West African beliefs. ‘Everything that he knows by means of his
senses he regards as a two-fold entity—part spirit, part not spirit,
or, as we should say, matter; the connection of a certain spirit with a
certain mass of matter, he holds, is not permanent. He will point out to
you a lightning-struck tree, and tell you its spirit has been broken; he
will tell you, when the cooking-pot has been broken, that it has lost its
spirit; if his weapon fails, it is because some one has stolen, or made
its spirit sick by witchcraft. In every action of his life he shows you
how much he lives with a great powerful spirit world around him’ (39,
141).

When the spirit is ‘dead’ the fetish has no further value, ‘the little
thing you kept the spirit in is no more use now, and only fit to sell to
a white man as “a big curio”!’ (40, 304-5). But occasionally sanctity
still clings to the former dwelling of the spirit, and it is used as a
charm, though no longer worshipped as a fetish.

The _Mirrone_, a tree worshipped in the Congo region, was the tutelar
god of the dwelling, and the owners placed calabashes full of palm-tree
wine at the foot of the tree for the spirit to drink, ‘nor do they dare
to tread upon its leaves any more than we would on the holy cross.’
But if it were damaged in any way, they no longer worshipped it, but
they stripped off the bark or rind, which was made into petticoats for
the women, to act as protecting charms (54, xvi. 236). Owing to the
possibility of the spirit leaving the fetish, it has to be tested, to see
whether it really contains an indwelling spirit or no, and the natives of
the Gold Coast put their Bohsum in the fire as a probation. If the fire
injures it in the very least degree, it is not a true Bohsum, there is no
indwelling spirit (15, 92).

Sometimes the spirit is forcibly ejected from his dwelling-place for a
particular purpose. Soon after Sir Richard Burton had arrived at Dahomé,
‘a fetish youth made his appearance in the evening, knelt down before the
domestic altar, broke some of the images, and went away declaring that he
had called out the fetishes, and that I might after the _evocatio deorum_
do my worst’ (9, i. 299).

10. The fetish is =worshipped, prayed to, sacrificed to, and talked
with=, as a sentient and willing personification of the spirit or power.
Examples of sacrifices and prayers and worship offered to the fetishes
are found in all parts, and many instances have already been quoted.

Offerings of food and drink are placed before them daily, and sometimes
a cock is sacrificed; occasionally, if the worshippers are rich, a sheep
is killed, ‘which they offer up to the gods in words alone, for they
immediately fall upon it and tear it to pieces with their fingers’ (54,
xvi. 400).

The personal interest of the fetishes in the affairs of their worshippers
is seen in the ceremonies connected with the death and burial of the
Fiote. ‘When all are assembled, the elder addresses the two family
fetishes held by two of the family. Pointing and shaking his hand at
them, he tells them how the deceased died, and all the family has done to
settle the matter; he tells them how they have allowed the father to be
taken, and prays them to protect the rest of the family; and when he has
finished his address the two who hold the fetishes pick up a little earth
and throw it on the heads of the fetishes, then, lifting them up, rub
their heads in the earth in front of them’ (13, 135).

11. The fetish is =petted or ill-treated with regard to its past or
future behaviour=. The spirit is invited to enter the _suhman_ charm
prepared for it by promises of offerings and food (16, 100), and special
offerings are made before embarking on any great enterprise.

But when conciliation fails, the owner sometimes has resort to force,
though Colonel Ellis states that in all his experience of the natives of
the Gold Coast he has never seen or heard of any coercion of a fetish by
the natives, and that the idea of coercion is entirely foreign to their
minds (15, 194). The Kafirs appear to be harsher in their methods.

‘The Caffres play at a game of chance before their idols, and, should
chance be against them, kick and box their idols; but if, after
this correction, on pursuing their experiments they should continue
unsuccessful, they burn the hands and feet of them in the fire; should
ill fortune still attend them, they cast the idols on the ground, tread
them under foot, dash them about with such force as to break them to
pieces. Some, indeed, who show greater veneration for the images, content
themselves with fettering and binding them until they have obtained their
end; but should this not take place as early as their impatience looks
for, they fasten them to a cord and gradually let them down into the
water, even to the bottom, thus trusting to force them to be propitious;
if after this good fortune should not follow, the idols are then
withdrawn from the water, the patience of even the milder Caffres becomes
exhausted, and the images are subjected to the grossest indignations’
(54, xvi. 696).

The negro in Guinea beats his fetish if his wishes are frustrated, and
hides it in his waist-cloth when he is about to do something of which he
is ashamed (38, 91).


III. FETISHISM AS A FORM OF RELIGIOUS WORSHIP

Fetishism is a stage of religious development associated with a low
grade of consciousness and of civilisation, and it forms a basis from
which many other modes of religious thought have developed, so that
it is difficult to point out where fetishism ends and nature-worship,
ancestor-worship, totemism, polytheism, and idolatry begin, or to
distinguish between a fetish, an idol, and a deity.

It includes conceptions which are purely magical, coercion of the
supernatural by means of natural objects; and it also includes
conceptions which persist into higher forms of religion, such as the
worship of the symbol of an unseen power.

It is an early product of the primitive religious instinct of humanity,
developing at a low grade of culture among a people of a highly
imaginative temperament.

The fundamental religious feeling which is everywhere part of the
mental equipment of man has been called by Marett supernaturalism, and
is perhaps best indicated in English by the term awe, in which word
are implicated fear, wonder, admiration, interest, respect, even love,
perhaps. The object of this religious ‘sense,’ or, as many would call it,
‘instinct,’ is the supernatural. The recognition of the supernatural, the
fundamental religious feeling of awe, develops in two ways. ‘There arises
in the region of human thought a powerful impulse to objectify, and even
personify, the mysterious or ‘supernatural’ something felt; and in the
region of will a corresponding impulse to render it innocuous, or, better
still, propitious, by force of constraint, communion, or conciliation’
(50, 168).

So man personifies the power which he cannot understand, calling it
by names which we translate as spirit or god, and he worships it,
propitiating and conciliating it by offerings and sacrifice, and entering
into communion with it by prayer. Thus are produced the two fundamental
factors of religion, the belief in some mysterious power, and the desire
to enter into communication with the power by means of worship. The
worship of different groups of peoples expresses itself in different
ways, reflecting the mental type of the worshippers, their civilisation,
their culture, their character and temperament.

The cold, practical, phlegmatic Northerners worship within bare walls,
while the fervour of the imaginative South demands expression in an
elaborate ritual, with richness of decoration, warmth of colour, dim
lights and soft music.

The extraordinarily vivid imagination and the childlike capacity for
‘make-believe’ of the negro, load him further still; the lively fancy
of the West African demands a visible object to which worship may be
directed. He wishes really and sensibly to behold and even to possess
his god, so he incorporates him in a tangible object, and satisfies his
religious ardour by directing his worship to that object. Thus fetishism
and the fetish are evolved.



FOOTNOTES


[1] _Philosophie Positive._

[2] _Historische Nachrichten zur Kenntniss der Menschen._

[3] For the references to the suggestive use of the word by Plautus, I
am indebted to Miss Rachel White of Newnham College.



BIBLIOGRAPHY


1. ALLEN, J. _Modern Judaism._ London: Hamilton, 1816.

2. ARMIT, W. E. ‘Customs of the Australian Aborigines.’ _Journ. Anth.
Inst._, ix. London, 1880.

3. ARNOT, FRED. S. _Garenganze, or Seven Years’ Pioneer Mission Work in
Central Africa._ London: Hawkins, 1889.

4. BATCHELOR, J. _The Ainu and their Folk-Lore._ London: Religious Tract
Society, 1901.

5. BOGORAS, W. ‘The Chuckchee.’ _The Jessup North Pacific Expedition_,
vii. (1) Leiden: Brill; New York: Stachert, 1904.

6. BRINTON, D. G. _The Religions of Primitive Peoples._ New York:
Putnams, 1897.

7. —— _The Myths of the New World; a Treatise on the Symbolism and
Mythology of the Red Race of America_ (3rd Ed.) Philadelphia: M’Kay, 1896.

8. BROSSES, CH. DE. _Du culte des dieux fétiches._ Paris: 1760.

9. BURTON, R. F. _Mission to Gelele, King of Dahomé._ London: Tinsley
Bros., 1864.

10. CASALIS, E. _The Basutos, or Twenty-three Years in South Africa._
London: Nisbet & Co., 1861.

11. CLODD, E. _Tom Tit Tot; an Essay on Savage Philosophy in Folktale._
London: Duckworth, 1898.

12. CODRINGTON, R. H. _The Melanesians: Studies in their Anthropology and
Folk-Lore._ Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1891.

13. DENNETT, R. E. ‘Death and Burial of the Fiote.’ _Folk-Lore_, viii.
1897.

14. DOBRIZHOFFER, M. _An Account of the Abipones, an Equestrian People of
Paraguay._ London: Murray, 1822.

15. ELLIS, A. B. _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast of West
Africa._ London: Chapman & Hall, 1887.

16. —— _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa._
London: Chapman & Hall, 1894.

17. ELLIS, W. _Polynesian Researches._ London: Fisher, Son & Jackson (2nd
Ed.), 1831.

18. ELWORTHY, F. T. _The Evil Eye._ London: Murray, 1895.

19. FLETCHER, ALICE C. ‘The Import of the Totem.’ _Report Am. Assoc.
Advanc. Sci._ (Detroit Meeting, 1897); also ‘Notes,’ etc. (Buffalo
Meeting, 1896).

20. FRAZER, J. G. _The Golden Bough; a Study in Magic and Religion._ (2nd
Ed.) London: Macmillan & Co., 1900.

21. —— _Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship._ London: Macmillan
& Co., 1905.

22. FRIEDEL, E. _‘Brandenburgia’; Monatsblatt der Gesellschaft für
Heimatkunde der Provinz Brandenburg zu Berlin_, xii. 1904.

23. GARNER, R. O. ‘Superstitions of the West African Tribes.’ _Austral.
Ass. Rep._ 1895.

24. GASTER, M. ‘Two Thousand Years of a Charm against the Child-Stealing
Witch.’ _Folk-Lore_, xi. 1900.

25. GREGORY, AUGUSTA, Lady. _Gods and Fighting Men._ London: Murray, 1904.

26. GUNN, JEANNIE. _The Little Black Princess; a True Tale of Life in the
Never-Never Land._ London: Moring, 1905.

27. HADDON, A. C. _The Study of Man._ London: Murray, 1898.

28. HADDON, A.C. _Head Hunters; Black, White, and Brown._ London:
Methuen, 1901.

29. —— _Exports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres
Straits._ Cambridge University Press, 1904.

30. HARTLAND, E. S. _The Legend of Perseus; a Study of Tradition in
Story, Custom, and Belief._ London: Nutt, 1894-6.

31. HAYS, H. M. ‘Hypnotism, its History, Nature, and Use.’ _Pop. Sci.
Monthly_, lxvii. New York, 1905.

32. HIRN, Y. _The Origins of Art; a Psychological and Sociological
Inquiry._ London: Macmillan & Co., 1900.

33. HOLMES, J. ‘Notes on the Religious Ideas of the Elema Tribe of the
Papuan Gulf.’ _Journ. Anth. Inst._, xxxii. 1902.

34. HOWITT, A. W. ‘On Australian Medicine Men.’ _Journ. Anth. Inst._,
xvi. London, 1886.

35. —— _The Native Tribes of South-East Australia._ London: Macmillan,
1904.

36. JEVONS, F. B. _An Introduction to the History of Religion._ (2nd Ed.)
London: Methuen & Co., 1902.

37. JOYCE, P. W. _A Social History of Ancient Ireland._ London: Longmans,
Green & Co., 1903.

38. KIDD, D. _The Essential Kafir._ London: Black, 1904.

39. KINGSLEY, M. H. ‘The Fetish View of the Human Soul.’ _Folk-Lore_,
viii. 1897.

40. —— _Travels in West Africa._ London: Macmillan, 1898.

41. —— _West African Studies._ London: Macmillan, 1899.

42. LANE, E. W. _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians._ Paisley
and London: A. Gardner, 1895.

43. LELAND, C. G. _Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition._ London:
Fisher Unwin, 1892.

44. LETOURNEAU, C. _La Sociologie._ Paris: Reinwald, 1880.

45. LICHTENSTEIN, H. _Travels in Southern Africa._ London: Colburn, 1812.

46. LIPPERT, J. _Die Religionen der Europäischen Culturvölker._ Berlin,
1881.

47. _Lupton’s 1000 Notable Things._ 1612.

48. MACDONALD, S. ‘Old World Survivals in Ross-shire.’ _Folk-Lore_, xiv.
1903.

49. MACLAGAN, R. C. ‘Notes on Folk-lore Objects collected in
Argyleshire.’ _Folk-Lore_, vi. 1895.

50. MARETT, R. R. ‘Pre-animistic Religion.’ _Folk-Lore_, xi. 1900.

51. —— ‘From Spell to Prayer.’ _Folk-Lore_, xv. 1904.

52. MAX MÜLLER, F. _Natural Religion._ London: Longmans, 1892.

53. NASSAU, R. H. _Fetichism in West Africa._ London: Duckworth, 1904.

54. PINKERTON, J. _A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting
Voyages and Travels in all Parts of the World._ London: Longmans, 1814.

55. PODMORE, F. _Apparitions and Thought-Transference._ London: W. Scott,
1894.

56. OWEN, MARY A. _Folk-lore of the Musquakie Indians of North America._
London: Nutt, 1904.

57. —— _Old Rabbit the Voodoo and other Sorcerers._ London: T. Fisher
Unwin, 1893.

58. RHŶS, J. ‘Welsh Fairies.’ _Nineteenth Century_, Oct. 1891.

59. ROTH, H. LING. ‘On the Significance of Couvade.’ _Journ. Anth.
Inst._, xxii. 1893.

60. —— _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo._ London:
Truelove & Hanson, 1896.

61. SAUSSAYE, P. D. C. DE LA. _Manual of the Science of Religion._
London: Longmans, 1891.

62. SCHULTZE, F. _Psychologie der Naturvölker._ Leipzig: Veit, 1900.

63. SKEAT, W. W. _Malay Magic._ London: Macmillan, 1900.

64. SPENCER, B., and GILLEN, F. J. _The Native Tribes of Central
Australia._ London: Macmillan, 1899.

65. ST. JOHN, S. _Life in the Forests of the Far East._ London: Smith,
Elder & Co., 1862.

66. STOKES, WHITLEY. ‘The Destruction of Dá Derga’s Hostel.’ _Revue
Celtique._

67. SUPER, C. W. ‘Physicians and Philosophers.’ _Pop. Science Monthly_,
lxvii. New York, 1905.

68. SWETTENHAM, F. A. _Malay Sketches._ London: Lane, 1895.

69. TAYLOR, R. _Te Ika a Maui._ London: Macintosh, 1870.

70. TYLOR, E. B. _Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the
Development of Civilisation._ (3rd Ed.) London: Murray, 1878.

71. —— _Primitive Culture._ (2nd Ed.) London: Murray, 1873.

72. WESTERMARCK, E. ‘The Magic Origin of Moorish Designs.’ _Journ. Anth.
Inst._, xxxiv. 1904.

    Printed by T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty
    at the Edinburgh University Press





*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Magic and Fetishism" ***

Copyright 2023 LibraryBlog. All rights reserved.