Bicycling for Ladies - The Common Sense of Bicycling; with Hints as to the Art of Wheeling—Advice to Beginners—Dress—Care of the Bicycle—Mechanics—Training

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Title: Bicycling for Ladies - The Common Sense of Bicycling; with Hints as to the Art of Wheeling—Advice to Beginners—Dress—Care of the Bicycle—Mechanics—Training—Exercise, etc., etc.
Author: Ward, Maria E.
Language: English
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BICYCLING FOR LADIES

[Illustration: WHEELING FROM THE PEG--SHOWING INCLINATION OF WHEEL.]

The Common Sense of Bicycling

BICYCLING FOR LADIES

With Hints as to the Art of Wheeling--Advice
to Beginners--Dress--Care of
the Bicycle--Mechanics--Training--Exercise,
etc., etc.

MARIA E. WARD

Illustrated

New York:
Brentano’S
Chicago Washington Paris

BICYCLING FOR LADIES

PREFACE

I have found that in bicycling, as in other sports essayed by them,
women and girls bring upon themselves censure from many sources. I have
also found that this censure, though almost invariably deserved, is
called forth not so much by what they do as the way they do it.

It is quite natural to suppose, in attempting an unaccustomed exercise,
that you have to do only what you see done and as others about you are
doing. But to attain success in bicycling, as in other things, it is
necessary to study the means as well as to look to the end to be
attained, and to understand what must not be attempted as well as to
know each step that will be an advance on the road to progress.

A great deal has been said against attempting to study a little of
anything; but when a slight knowledge of several important branches of
science that bear directly upon a subject under consideration, and that
a subject concerning the health and safety of many individuals, will
render one intelligently self-dependent, and able at least to exercise
without endangering one’s own health or the lives of others, the
acquisition of such knowledge should not be neglected.

There are laws of mechanics and of physiology that directly concern the
cyclist; it has been the author’s aim to point out these laws, showing,
for instance, the possible dangers of exercise, and how they may be
avoided by the application to bicycle exercise of simple and well-known
physiological laws, thus enabling the cyclist to resist fatigue and
avoid over-exertion. The needs of the bicyclist are an intelligent
comprehension of the bicycle as a machine, an appreciative knowledge of
the human machine that propels it, and a realization of the fact that
rider and bicycle should form one combined mechanism. For this, a
knowledge of the laws that determine the limits and possibilities of
both mechanisms is necessary. The cyclist is limited, not only by laws
physiological and laws mechanical, which determine when and for how long
he may travel, but he is restricted by the laws and ordinances of
county, town and village as to how and where he may travel. A knowledge
of these laws is also necessary.

While not attempting to treat any of these subjects exhaustively, the
author has endeavored to place them comprehensively before her readers,
hoping to prepare the enthusiast to enjoy all the delights of the sport,
to encourage the timid, and to assist the inexperienced to define and
determine existing limitations. The subject of the care of the bicycle
has been carefully treated, some of the means at hand suggested, and
the necessary tools, and their uses explained. Other topics considered
are how the bicycle is propelled, and why it maintains its balance; what
the cyclist should learn, how correct form may be attained and faults
avoided, and what should be the essential features of the clothing worn.

The author wishes to acknowledge indebtedness to Dr. Legrange, and to
Messrs. D. Appleton & Co. for their permission to quote from “Physiology
of Bodily Exercise.”

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE.

_CHAPTER I._
POSSIBILITIES 1

_CHAPTER II._
WHAT THE BICYCLE DOES 8

_CHAPTER III._
ON WHEELS IN GENERAL AND BICYCLES IN PARTICULAR 14

_CHAPTER IV._
FOR BEGINNERS 22

_CHAPTER V._
HOW TO MAKE PROGRESS 29

_CHAPTER VI._
HELPING AND TEACHING; WHAT TO LEARN 37

_CHAPTER VII._
A FEW THINGS TO REMEMBER 47

_CHAPTER VIII._
THE ART OF WHEELING ON A BICYCLE 56

_CHAPTER IX._
POSITION AND POWER 71

_CHAPTER X._
DIFFICULTIES TO OVERCOME 82

_CHAPTER XI._
DRESS 93

_CHAPTER XII._
WATCH AND CYCLOMETER 100

_CHAPTER XIII._
WOMEN AND TOOLS 112

_CHAPTER XIV._
TOOLS AND HOW TO USE THEM 118

_CHAPTER XV._
SOLVING A PROBLEM 125

_CHAPTER XVI._
WHERE TO KEEP A BICYCLE 138

_CHAPTER XVII._
TIRES 145

_CHAPTER XVIII._
MECHANICS OF BICYCLING 156

_CHAPTER XIX._
ADJUSTMENT 164

_CHAPTER XX._
EXERCISE 170

_CHAPTER XXI._
TRAINING 175

_CHAPTER XXII._
BREATHLESSNESS; THE LIMIT MECHANICAL 189

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. WHEELING FROM THE PEG--SHOWING INCLINATION OF WHEEL _Frontispiece_

2. CORRECT POSITION--LEANING WITH THE WHEEL _Opposite Page_ 22

3. INCORRECT POSITION--LEANING AGAINST THE
INCLINATION „ „ 24

4. PROPER WAY TO STAND A BICYCLE „ „ 30

5. CARRYING THE BICYCLE „ „ 32

6. PICKING UP A BICYCLE „ „ 34

7. LEADING A BICYCLE ABOUT „ „ 38

8. PREPARING TO DISMOUNT „ „ 40

9. DISMOUNTING „ „ 42

10. CORRECT PEDALING „ „ 56

11. FOLLOWING PEDAL „ „ 58

12. LIFTING „ „ 60

13. BACK PEDALING „ „ 62

14. BACK PEDALING--SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF
WEIGHT „ „ 64

15. HILL-CLIMBING--PUSHING CRANK OVER „ „ 66

16. COASTING „ „ 72

17. WHEELING ONE FOOT OVER „ „ 74

18. WHEELING FROM THE PEG--SHOWING DISTRIBUTION
OF WEIGHT „ „ 76

19. PREPARING TO MOUNT--SHOWING INCLINATION „ „ 82

20. INCORRECT MOUNTING POSITION „ „ 84

21. MOUNTING--PREPARATORY POSITION „ „ 86

22. CORRECT MOUNTING POSITION „ „ 88

23. MOUNTING--SECOND POSITION „ „ 90

24. DISMOUNTING OVER THE WHEEL „ „ 92

25. MOUNTING OVER THE WHEEL FROM PEG „ „ 94

26. STARTING A NUT „ „ 112

27. ADJUSTING A WRENCH „ „ 116

28. APPLYING POWER „ „ 118

29. SCREWING UP „ „ 120

30. UNSCREWING „ „ 122

31. PREPARING TO TURN BICYCLE OVER „ „ 126

32. TURNING THE BICYCLE OVER „ „ 128

33. THE BICYCLE TURNED OVER „ „ 130

34. STRAIGHTENING THE HANDLE-BARS „ „ 136

BICYCLING FOR LADIES.

_CHAPTER I._

_Possibilities._

Bicycling is a modern sport, offering infinite variety and opportunity.
As an exercise, at present unparalleled, it accomplishes much with
comparatively little expenditure of effort; as a relaxation, it has many
desirable features; and its limitless possibilities, its future of
usefulness, and the effect of its application to modern economic and
social conditions, present a wide field for speculation.

Bicycling possesses many advantages, and is within the reach of nearly
all. For the athlete and the sportsman, it opens up new worlds; for the
family it solves problems; for the tired and hurried worker, it has many
possibilities. The benefits to be derived from the exercise cannot be
over-estimated and the dangers that result from over-doing are
correspondingly great; for it is easy to over-exert when exhilarated
with exercise and unconscious of fatigue.

It is but recently that the bicycle has become a perfected mechanism,
adaptable to general usage, simple and scientific. The railroad makes
possible direct and rapid communication between widely separated
localities. The usefulness of the bicycle begins where that of the
railroad ceases, for it connects and opens districts of country that the
railroad has not reached; indeed, it is to the bicycle in connection
with the railroads with which the country is gridironed that we must
look to make possible the enjoyment of much that is beautiful and
valuable, but otherwise inaccessible. To the naturalist, the traveller,
and the intelligent observer, cycling offers advantages which are
limited only by time and opportunity.

Bicycling has been adapted to serve many purposes; but it is bicycling
as an athletic exercise and sport, with the bicycle propelled by human
power only, that we shall now consider. The history of the bicycle is
modern. The study of its evolution shows the development of a great
industry, constantly introducing and applying improvements; most
important of these was the pneumatic tire, which made bicycling
universally possible.

Getting under way for even a short cruise awheel has some of the
features familiar to the yachtsman. To the skater, the motion is not
unlike the rapid, swaying movement on the ice, the silence and the rush
of succeeding strokes. To the horseman, the dissimilarity of the two
modes of locomotion, after the settling to work has been accomplished,
is very striking. For the uninitiated and for some others, bicycling
does not possess attractions. The bicycle is a familiar object, not
compelling a second thought. One reason for this is that it is not
really brought to the intelligent notice of the casual passer. The
cyclist, to the stationary observer or the comparatively stationary
pedestrian, is such a fleeting instantaneosity that, unless thrown among
enthusiasts over the sport, few of the unenlightened would be tempted to
try it; for they are as unappreciative of what the wheel means to the
cyclist as is the countryman, who lives near a railway, of the
intricacies of commerce which are indicated by the flying mail.

To the lover of out-door life the bicycle presents a succession of
wonderful possibilities. Much has been written of canoe-trips and of the
charms of cruising among our inland waters; as charming and as
attractive is land travel on the wheel. Bicycling, moreover, combines
the best features of many other sports with advantages peculiar to it,
for instance, the cyclist must work, and there is much pleasure in
watching progress made with so little effort--the work all his own, the
machine but a means of locomotion--enjoying and appreciating all the
beauties of the country traversed, while yet conscious of the power to
hasten away as soon as the surroundings cease to interest or amuse. By
the scientist and the naturalist, no encouragement is needed; the
bicycle at once compels their attention. The lover of horses may fear
that this new mode of locomotion may interfere with his sport--the same
objection that was advanced against the introduction of the steam
engine. But the bicycle does not displace; it is rather a link in the
chain connecting driving and railroading. Bicycling, furthermore, means
good roads, not as a luxury, but as a necessity, for it is impossible
without them. Rough country may be crossed, but the bicycle must be
pushed or carried across it, and this is not practicable for any
considerable distance.

The bicycle, though a simple machine, is a complicated mechanism
simplified. The principle that keeps it from falling is a well-known
one--that of the gyroscope, the only known mechanism that overcomes
gravity.

The bicycle has its limits, determined by the powers of its rider and
the surface ridden over. The motion is unquestionably fascinating after
the control of the machine is acquired; and there is an accompanying
exhilaration that is peculiar to the sport, and always something to
conquer, something to accomplish, besides the direct benefit to be
derived from the exercise.

There is a great variety of methods of bicycling, whether for exercise,
transportation or travel. In travelling, the country all about soon
becomes, as it were, your own domain. Instead of a few squares, you know
several towns; instead of an acquaintance with the country for a few
miles about, you can claim familiarity with two or three counties; an
all-day expedition is reduced to a matter of a couple of hours; and
unless a break-down occurs, you are at all times independent. This
absolute freedom of the cyclist can be known only to the initiated, and
as proficiency is acquired, it becomes a most attractive feature of the
sport.

There is bicycling weather, as there is skating weather, yachting
weather, or weather favorable for any out-door sport or exercise. But it
is easy to wait for bicycling weather, and nothing has to make way for
it. The machine is always ready, and that is all that is needed if a
suitable country is accessible. On the road the bicyclist is rendered
independent of assistance, for everything needful is prepared for him,
and parts and repair supplies can be carried and need but little room.
Only inattention or carelessness should cause delay. Still, proper
preparation is essential to enjoy bicycling at its best, and the
bicyclist should be ready to meet any emergency.

That there is necessarily the element of sociability about cycling is
evident. There are so many stops, and the dusty wheelmen grouped among
their wheels at the roadside have always the bond of a common interest;
from this, transition to individual fads and fancies is easy; there is
constant opportunity for acquiring special knowledge and for using it;
and almost every accomplishment is appreciated in addition to capability
as a bicyclist, and may be utilized in a variety of ways; cheerfulness
is an invariable factor; and there is always novelty and the possibility
of excitement, for it is unusual, on a bicycle trip, that everything
happens as it is expected or has been planned for.

Too much cannot be said of the benefits to be derived from out-door
exercise; and one of the best features of bicycling is that it brings so
many to enjoy out-door life who would otherwise have little of either
fresh air or exercise. Proper oxidation is necessary to perfect health.
The great danger that these would-be bicyclists must face is
unfamiliarity with exercise, either general or special. Persons
accustomed to athletic exercise know how to prepare for and how to
resist fatigue, know what practice means and how proficiency may be
attained. The bicyclist unaccustomed to athletics has all this to learn,
and more; to him, ultimate success means more time given to study and
less time to practice. The novice, however, has the advantage that he
has nothing to unlearn, and can profit by the experience of others.

To accomplish the best results, the human machine must not be
overworked; and to stop work at the right moment is one of the hardest
things to learn, and the most important to success. To learn the
construction of a bicycle, the particular duties of all the parts and
their adjustment, is a matter of memory and observation. To understand
the adjustment of the human machine to mechanical environment requires
cultivated perception and special knowledge. But the human machine is so
independently adaptable, so hard to put out of order, that it may be
cared for by intelligent attention to only a few simple laws. Do not
wait for danger signals: know how to avoid them.

Bicycling opens a delightful future to all who attempt it intelligently.
The inspiration of the enthusiast is invaluable; but it is the practical
theorist who is successful.

A bright, sunny morning, fresh and cool; good roads and a dry
atmosphere; a beautiful country before you, all your own to see and to
enjoy; a properly adjusted wheel awaiting you,--what more delightful
than to mount and speed away, the whirr of the wheels, the soft grit of
the tire, an occasional chain-clank the only sounds added to the chorus
of the morning, as, the pace attained, the road stretches away before
you!

_CHAPTER II._

_What the Bicycle Does._

The bicycle has been evolved--a mechanism, propelled solely by human
power, capable of quadrupling the distance traversable by the
pedestrian.

The simple, light, and almost universally accepted machine is
constructed to stand a strain tremendous in proportion to its weight;
for the modern machine weighs only twenty pounds, and it may be lighter,
though for some purposes it should be heavier. The bicyclist is
virtually mounted on a set of casters, which propels the weight with
much greater ease than can be attained in the act of walking. In
walking, advantage is taken of the force of gravity by continually
falling forward, and simultaneously placing the feet, with a regular
motion, one beyond the other, to alternately receive the weight of the
body. On the bicycle, the weight is carried and supported, and the
wheels reduce friction to a minimum.

The wheel being set in motion, power is applied to overcome inertia, and
speed is increased by multiplying the number of the wheel’s revolutions;
the application of the gyroscope principle assists materially, and the
resistance of gravity is overcome in a degree while the wheels are
rapidly revolving.

To set a bicycle in motion requires the expenditure of considerable
power. A given rate of speed on the level may be maintained by a minimum
expenditure of power. Bodies or masses set in motion maintain their
velocity undiminished unless other forces intervene. The bicycle in
motion is resisted on the level by air pressure and friction, on the
roadway by friction, and by the incidental obstacles of the road. On an
ascending plane, it must overcome the additional resistance of its own
and its rider’s weight, which must be lifted constantly; on a descending
plane, it must oppose a constantly lessening resistance. All this
resistance and lack of resistance means a proportionate stress laid upon
the bicycle, the wheels of which are all the while kept rapidly
revolving, the large wheels moving much faster than the cranks and
pedals.

Each separate part of a bicycle must be made capable of withstanding a
certain wear and strain, and must perform its own particular duties and
work in conjunction with all other parts of the machine. To this end, it
has been studied, perfected, tested; its weight and tensile strength
calculated to a nicety; its finish and adjustment made matters of deep
thought and careful investigation.

Only the best can be made to do in bicycle manufacture; each piece of
metal must be separately tested, and the maximum of strength with the
minimum of weight must be attained. What is known as the safety factor
enters largely into the construction of the modern bicycle; that is,
the machine is made much stronger than is necessary for the strain it is
expected to withstand; this added strength involving of course the added
weight of the material which supplies it. The calculated strength of a
machine is the strength which fits it adequately to perform its work.
When, as in the bicycle, the accurate testing by skilled workmen proves
the existence of this degree of strength, the safety factor meanwhile
being reduced to the lowest possible limit, the product is the perfected
result of the highest degree of skill. Each part is tested for so many
pounds strain or tension or compression, and each strain is accurately
figured for each particular part; each part, moreover, must be able to
stand so much additional strain, more than it is ever likely to have
thrown upon it, though no bicycle is built to withstand the shock of
collision under speed. In case of collision, the older, heavy bicycle
was not smashed into fragments, as is the modern twenty-pounder.
Something would give way, perhaps; it might break in several places. The
light modern wheel holds together or is crushed to pieces, though its
rider is less likely to suffer serious injury, the lighter construction
having less power to do damage than the cumbrous wheel of fifty or sixty
pounds weight.

The cost of a well-made bicycle, of perfect workmanship and finish,
represents the amount of skilled labor required to construct it rather
than the value of the raw material, although, when it is remembered that
each part must be tough, hard, strong and elastic, it will be apparent
that only the best of material can be used.

Wheels can be made at a very low cost; but such wheels cannot be
correctly adjusted and tested without the additional cost of skilled
labor. For the production of a perfect bicycle, the machine of tested
strength, simplicity of detail, and beauty of finish, the most accurate
workmanship as well as the best material is necessary. A machine or a
tool should always be the best of its kind, and it pays to take care of
it. A bicycle requires as nice and accurate adjustment as a watch, and
like a watch, with regular attention afterwards, will run steadily and
smoothly. A bicycle, moreover, as much or more than a watch, is
individual property, and each individual wants the best.

Our physical powers have been tested in certain directions; in walking,
for instance, we know what we can do, how far we can go, how much it is
wise to attempt. The bicycle appeals to us as a means of swift
locomotion attained without other force than our own powers four or five
times multiplied by mechanical processes. The bicycle enables one to do,
to prove one’s powers; it puts one in conceit with one’s self. When one
is not a pedestrian, does not care for equestrian pleasures--and,
indeed, in the majority of cases, there is little to compel attention to
these means of recreation--the bicycle offers the opportunity to find
the limit of one’s powers in a new field. It supplies, too, a new
pleasure--the pleasure of going where one wills, because one wills. The
attention has only to be directed, and the wheel, responsive to touch
or thought, moves in unison with the rider’s will, flitting hither and
thither, that he may enjoy the freshness of nature and the ever-changing
beauty of clouds and sky, of sunshine and shadow, of meadow and sea,
lake and river, mountain and forest.

Riding the wheel, our own powers are revealed to us, a new sense is
seemingly created. The unobserving are gradually awakened, and the keen
observer is thrilled with quick and rare delight. The system is
invigorated, the spirit is refreshed, the mind, freed from care, swept
of dusty cobwebs, is filled with new and beautiful impressions. You have
conquered a new world, and exultingly you take possession of it.

Travelling by vehicle or by any public conveyance, the sense of
individual responsibility is reduced to the minimum; it is indeed no
appreciable factor. You pay so much to be taken up and set down, so much
for a reasonable amount of safety, comfort, and convenience. Mounted on
a wheel, you feel at once the keenest sense of responsibility. You are
there to do as you will within reasonable limits; you are continually
being called upon to judge and to determine points that before have not
needed your consideration, and consequently you become alert, active,
quick-sighted, and keenly alive as well to the rights of others as to
what is due yourself. You are responsible to yourself for yourself; you
are responsible to the public for yourself; and you are responsible to
the public for the rights of others. The upholding of laws and
ordinances, the general welfare, public health and safety--problems
never before, perhaps, called to your attention--come up one by one for
consideration. In short, individual duty, recognition of the rights of
others, consideration of means for the proper enforcing of laws, all are
suggested to the awakening mind of the bicyclist. The bicycle is an
educational factor, subtle and far-reaching, creating the desire for
progress, the preference for what is better, the striving for the best,
broadening the intelligence and intensifying love of home and country.
For all that is beautiful is ours--ours to protect and to cherish.

To the many who earnestly wish to be actively at work in the world, the
opportunity has come; they need but to come face to face with it to
solve this problem of something to conquer, something to achieve.

_CHAPTER III._

_On Wheels in General and Bicycles in Particular._

The form of the wheel is very ancient, its construction modern, even
recent. Its evolution has been gradual. First came the round stick or
roller, placed beneath a weight; then a roller with its central portion
shaped and thinned to lessen friction; then two disk-shaped sections of
a log, connected by a bar upon which they revolved, replaced the clumsy
stick.

Each wheel or disk then began to receive separate attention. There was
the wear on the edge or rim to be considered, and it was found that if
its surface were protected, the disk would last indefinitely longer.
Then it was noticed that the hole in the centre of the disk wore
unevenly, and it was reinforced, and the hub began to take form. When
the rim was strong and the central portion of the wheel remained intact,
the disk was found to be heavier and stronger than it need to be to
support the outer portion of the wheel. Some of the useless heavy part
was removed, and the disk pierced with holes to make it lighter; then
these holes were shaped between the remaining portions, which took the
form of pillars or spokes. A pillar would break, and be replaced by a
rounded stick; and thus, perhaps, the rude idea took form of
constructing a wheel out of several pieces, for the sake of securing
economy, durability, and lightness.

A wheel, then, was well constructed, with a large, heavy piece in the
centre to stand friction and bear weight, and with the rim made of
several pieces, each piece supported on a spoke, and all held together
by a band called a tire. In the course of time the hub became heavier,
the spokes thinner, the rim stronger and lighter, and the tire narrower.
The bar connecting two wheels was made very strong, with smooth ends for
the wheels to revolve easily upon. Pins were driven into holes in the
projecting ends of the axle, or bar, and later the pins replaced by
knobs, or nuts. Then the wheels were brought closer together, and found
to run more easily; and the tire, cutting too deep into soft surfaces,
was widened. Attention, moreover, was paid to the roadway, very bad
places being filled and smoothed.

A wheel is defined as “a circular frame turning on an axle”; an axle as
“a shaft or rod, either solid or hollow, on which a wheel is placed.”
The first bicycle wheels were constructed like carriage wheels, the
limit of that method of construction arrived at. The rim was supported
on the spokes, which rested on the hub. The minimum definite quantity of
material was ascertained, but the wheel was still too heavy and bulky.
If the weight of material was lessened, however, it would fall to
pieces.

The bicycle wheel of to-day is a compound mechanism constructed on
reverse principles. The wheel is made on the principle of suspension, an
inverted application of weight and thrust. The hub is hung from the
rim, and the axle supported in that way. Each bicycle wheel is really
two wheels, graceful in form, with but one rim, and with two hubs, one
on either end of a short axle, the spokes being drawn to a common rim,
and made stiff enough to carry weight, and elastic enough to withstand
shock. The rim or frame is elastic and durable. To this rim many wire
spokes are fastened, and the hubs for each wheel are centred and hung
from them. The hubs and axle are wider than the rim of the wheel, and
the spokes are fastened alternately to either end, thus giving a tangent
strain which stiffens the wheel and gives it strength. The tire is a
separate construction, possessing several individual features. The only
office of the old tire was to protect the rim of the wheel from wear;
the pneumatic tire protects the rim, presents a good friction surface,
and is enabled by its elasticity to take the shock and jar of the entire
bicycle.

In order that the wheel may turn, the axle must be lubricated; otherwise
the inside of the hub will become hot, and wear the face of the axle a
little rough. The surfaces then cannot pass, but remain fixed and
immovable, and the wheel cannot turn. The introduction of a third
material of a different consistency between the revolving surfaces
prevents their wearing against each other, and the lubricant is rubbed
and rubbed again; there is so little of the lubricant that it does not
accumulate sufficiently to cause resistance, and the moving surfaces
slip smoothly over each other.

The axle of a modern bicycle wheel is compound, and although there are
two ends to the axle, there is but one rim to the wheel. The rim carries
all the weight distributed from many points at once; the weights resist
each other, and give strength and stiffness. The axle really carries
double, two wheels with but one rim; and each end of the axle is
supported at so many points that it possesses great weight-carrying
power in proportion to the weight of material used in its construction.
The weight of the frame is supported on the axles of the rear and front
wheels. Of its construction it is sufficient to say that the weight is
taken up on the thrust principle and that wherever a point of support
for the thrust is located, the frame is strengthened to support and
resist the thrust.

By a mechanical application of power, the power of the pressure of the
foot on the pedal is multiplied, one revolution of the pedal crank
causing the rear wheel to revolve a number of times. In the chain gear
the mechanical means is a large wheel on the axle to which the pedal
cranks are attached, and a smaller wheel on the axle of the rear wheel.
There are teeth on both these wheels, the large wheel having the greater
number. The band or chain passing over the large sprocket-wheel has
links which engage each tooth of the wheel as the chain passes over it,
and as that wheel revolves, it pulls the chain over, link by link.

The small wheel is also provided with teeth, and every time the large
sprocket-wheel is turned, if only a little way, it pulls the chain link
by link, and the chain link by link pulls the rear wheel tooth by
tooth. The small sprocket-wheel revolves as the chain pulls it,
revolving oftener than the large wheel to keep count with it tooth for
tooth. The number of teeth on the sprocket-wheels determines the
multiplicity of revolutions of the rear wheel.

The rear wheel revolves very rapidly, in the process becoming virtually
a gyroscope; and a gyroscope will maintain the plane in which it
revolves unless other forces intervene. The front wheel takes its motion
from the friction of the surface over which it is propelled, and after
the bicycle is in motion, the forces that are applied to control and
direct its movement are friction and resistance. After the cyclist is
mounted, there is the added complication of a constantly shifting centre
of gravity, caused by change of balance. The steering is effected by
changing the direction of the front wheel, the rear wheel being enabled
to follow by a slight slipping over the wheeling surface. If the change
of direction is too abrupt, the rear wheel will slip enough to lose its
hold on the surface, and the weight of the rider will be suddenly
shifted from above the point of support (the axle of the rear wheel) to
the top of the rim of the wheel, thus becoming a lever with the weight
on the end of the long arm, and the bicycle falls over.

As the wheels revolve, there is a constant pull on tire and rim. Just as
the chain is pulled over the sprocket-wheels, the tire is pulled by
friction over the surface ridden on. If this surface affords the tire no
hold, it is impossible for the wheel to advance, as on a muddy surface.
The crank may impart a motion to the wheel, but this motion will not
enable the wheel to maintain its place; or if, in overcoming the cranks
at the dead centre, too much weight is applied to one side of the wheel,
the same thing occurs, and the wheel falls over. There are a number of
mechanical means for conveying the motion of the foot to the wheel of
the bicycle to cause the wheels to revolve.

There are many ways of constructing a frame, and different designs and
patterns of fittings for different parts; but the main idea of the
bicycle does not change--a fixed wheel to which motion is imparted, and
a movable or guiding wheel, independent of the power wheel, and
revolving only because the machine is pushed or pulled forward. This
second wheel gives stability, and supports the wheel at a movable point.

We have, therefore, a wheel which supports a frame and the weight it
carries. The frame is supported on two wheels, one end of the frame
taking the weight, and that end supported on one wheel. The second wheel
merely supports one end of the frame. If the frame were attached at one
end directly and rigidly to the second wheel, the weight carrying wheel
would move in the same plane with it. A child’s two-wheeled cart will
illustrate this. While moving forward in a straight line, the child is
safe until one or both of the wheels begin to travel in a rut, when the
rigid handle or tongue of the cart resists the guiding power, and the
child is pulled or thrown over. If the tongue or frame of the wagon is
allowed play, as it is called, say by being held easily in the hand, the
pole may be guided. The supported end of the frame of the bicycle
corresponds to the pole or tongue of the cart.

Now, the wheel is made to steer in this way: We have the rigid forks,
and a wheel to support them. The forks hold the wheel in the same plane
as themselves, but the top part of each fork, instead of being fastened
immovably to the frame, passes up through a bearing-head prepared for it
in the frame. The wheel is supported, but it can now maintain a separate
plane, and as the post of the forks changes its direction, it pulls the
frame with it as it advances; and so the controlling or steering power
is transferred.

The weight-bearing wheel is led and directed; part of its power is
transferred by thrust or push to the front wheel, and as the steering
wheel is pushed over the surface, it revolves. As it revolves, part of
its power is diverted by the movable head, and as the head is held and
controlled by the rider, any desired direction may be imparted to the
entire machine.

A bicycle may have either a diamond frame or a drop frame. The drop
frame is made to facilitate mounting and to permit the adjustment of a
woman’s dress. The diamond frame possesses great strength, and can be
lightened to a wonderful degree without injury to the thrust and
strain-bearing quality of its construction.

A form of triangle is made use of to carry the greatest weight and bear
the greatest strain. This triangle is supported on the rear wheel, and
has part of the frame attached to it to connect it with the
steering-wheel. The steering-wheel is provided with handles by which it
may be controlled. The weight of the rider is carried over the power
wheel, and the propelling power, a lever movement, is imparted by the
foot.

From this description an idea may be formed of how and why a bicycle
works; but the details of its mechanism are of endless variety of form
and pattern, material and workmanship. Each small part, its form, its
use, its angles of surface, its every detail indeed, is the product of
the work of many minds for many years. And though the bicycle was looked
for, and hoped for, and worked for, its general acceptance came
suddenly, and came only when it had been built light enough and strong
enough and elastic enough to warrant confidence in its universal usage.

_CHAPTER IV._

_For Beginners._

Mount and away! How easy it seems. To the novice it is not as easy as it
looks, yet everyone, or almost everyone, can learn to ride, though there
are different ways of going about it. Unless the beginner is one of
those fortunate beings who mount, and as it were, wheel at sight, little
need be said about instruction at this stage of proceedings if a bicycle
school is within reach. A few suggestions may be desirable, however,
even with a competent instructor.

Nothing more quickly exhausts one’s strength than the first few minutes
with a bicycle. This is due to the fact that many unused muscles are
called upon to do unaccustomed work and to work together in new
combinations; and the effort required and the accompanying nervous
excitement produce a sudden and apparently unaccountable fatigue. Normal
conditions can be restored by resting long enough to allow repair of the
wasted tissues. It is well to stop when a little tired, rather than to
persist and finish the lesson, even if extra lessons are necessary to
make up for lost time. No one can really learn anything when tired, and
it is unwise to attempt it. In this matter no one else can judge for
you.

[Illustration: CORRECT POSITION--LEANING WITH THE WHEEL.]

What a horrible moment it is when first mounted on a bicycle, a mere
machine, a thing quite beyond your control, and unable even to stand by
itself. But it is impossible to tell without trying whether or not you
can manage a bicycle. Make the experiment, therefore, and find out. Any
competent teacher will guarantee success, and after the first five
minutes on the bicycle can tell how long it will take you to learn. The
time varies with the individual; the period of instruction may last for
five minutes or for six months, without counting extra lessons for fancy
wheeling.

Don’t try to get the better of your wheel. You cannot teach it anything,
and there is really much for you to learn.

_What to keep in mind when taking your lesson._--Attend to the bicycle
and to nothing else. Don’t attempt to talk, and look well ahead of the
machine, certainly not less than twenty feet. Remember that the bicycle
will go wherever the attention is directed.

In sitting upon the wheel, the spinal column should maintain the same
vertical plane that the rear wheel does, and should not bend laterally
to balance in the usual manner. A new balance must be acquired, and
other muscular combinations than those that are familiarly called upon.
To wheel by rule is the better plan until the natural balance of the
bicyclist is developed. Sit erect and sit still.

The bicycle must be kept from falling by a wiggling movement of the
front wheel, conveyed by means of the handle-bar. When moving, the
rapidly revolving wheels maintain the vertical plane by rotation, with
but little assistance or correction from the handle-bars.

It is a good plan, while the instructor assists you, to pedal with one
foot at a time, holding the other foot free. This will enable you to
determine the amount of pressure it is necessary to exert to cause the
wheels to revolve.

When both feet are on the pedals, they oppose each other. The weight
should be lifted from the ascending pedal, or else the descending foot
must push the other foot up until that foot is in position to exert a
downward pressure. This instruction applies to forward pedaling only;
for back pedaling or backing, the movement should be reversed. Practise
pushing first with one foot and then with the other, taking the weight
off the opposite pedal in each case. At each push of the pedal, a little
pull on the handle-bars, pulling with the hand on the same side on which
you are pushing with the foot, will keep the wheel from falling. Look
well ahead. The bicycle covers the ground very rapidly, and the eye does
not at first receive impressions quickly enough to enable you to know
where to look and what to look for.

As soon as your teacher will allow it, take the wheel for a little walk.
This may seem rather an absurd proceeding, but it will assist you
greatly in learning the feel and tendencies of the machine. Lead the
bicycle about carefully, holding the handles with both hands and
avoiding the revolving pedals. Learn to stand it up, to turn it quickly,
and to back it in a limited space.

[Illustration: INCORRECT POSITION--LEANING AGAINST THE INCLINATION]

The machine heretofore has been arranged for you. Now you can begin to
think how you would like to have it adjusted. You will, perhaps, find
fault with the saddle. The saddle is a very important adjunct, and much
depends upon its proper adjustment. A large, soft saddle is usually
preferred by the beginner, and perhaps this is a good kind to learn to
balance on; but it is a very poor kind to wheel on, for many reasons.

At first, in practising pedaling, the height of the saddle should permit
the hollow of the foot to rest firmly on the pedal when the pedal is
lowest. The ball of the foot only should press on the pedal. The foot
should be made to follow the pedal as early as possible. Point the toe
downward on the last half of the down stroke, and keep pointing it until
the pedal is at its lowest, following the pedal with the foot, and
pointing downward until the pedal is half way on the up stroke. This
carries the crank past the dead centre. To acquire a proper method,
attention should be directed to each foot alternately.

To learn to balance, have the saddle raised as high as possible, so that
the ball of the foot just touches the pedal at its lowest. Practise
wheeling in this way, with an instructor, or alone on a smooth surface
where you are sure to be undisturbed.

The hands naturally take a position where it is easy to grasp the
handles of the handle-bars. The handle-bar conveys two principal
movements to the first wheel--a short wiggling movement and a long or
steering sweep. The handle-bars also assist in maintaining the seat at
first.

The beginner usually exerts too much pressure on the pedals, and has to
pull correspondingly hard on the handles to correct the falling tendency
of the machine. This is very hard work, and stiff arms and shoulders and
blistered hands may be often thus accounted for; they are the result of
badly balanced pedaling. To be able to sit comfortably at work, and to
feel that it is not so hard after all, is a great advance.

Now, the question of that other foot. By this time which “the other
foot” is will have become quite evident; it is always the foot to which
attention for the moment is not directed, and which consequently may
meet unexpected disaster--a lost pedal, perhaps, with its accompanying
inconveniences.

Downward pressure with the foot is easily acquired and needs little
effort. To take the pressure off the ascending pedal at the right moment
is a more difficult matter. Usually considerable practice in cycling is
necessary before the unused lifting muscles are strengthened
sufficiently by exercise to permit them to do their work easily.

There is a third movement of the handle-bars--a quick twist in the
direction the machine is leaning if about to fall; it is made suddenly,
and brings the wheel back to its original position. If the wheel were
stationary, and the front wheel were turned, the bicycle would fall in
an opposite direction from the front wheel. If the wheel is about to
fall, it can be prevented from doing so by throwing the balance the
other way by means of the handle-bars. A similar result is accomplished
by wiggling the front wheel, and when a bicycle is moving very slowly, a
continuous wiggle--changing the balance as the machine inclines from
side to side--is necessary to keep it upright.

The body should incline with the rear wheel and maintain the same plane
with it, becoming as much as possible a part of the wheel, as though
united by a straight bar going from the base of the tire to the top of
the head.

The rear wheel and all the weight that it carries is governed by the
front wheel and controlled by means of the handle-bars. The rear wheel
supporting all the rider’s weight, the power is applied to that wheel.
The front wheel serves only for balance and steering.

It is not necessary to provide a complete outfit to take the first
lesson. If you possess a pair of knickerbockers, so much the better.
Wear an old dress, easy shoes and gloves, and a hat that will stay on
under any conditions. The clothing should be as loose as possible about
the waist. Wear flannels, and no tight bands of any kind or anything
elastic. As respiration is increased by the exercise, the clothing
should be loose enough to allow of a long deep breath, drawn easily,
taken by expanding the chest at the lower ribs to fill the lungs. This
precaution being taken, giddiness and short-windedness can result only
from over-exercise. Ten or fifteen minutes’ practise is enough at first;
and a half hour’s lesson later, with several stops for rest, is the
best rule for many people, particularly those unaccustomed to active
exercise.

If you are an equestrian, you will meet with many unexpected problems.
The bicycle will do nothing for you, and the lack of horse-sense must be
supplied by your own intelligence. It is well, when learning, to remove
all bicycle accessories. They are only in the way, and add weight and
distract the attention. The propelling of the bicycle--that is the one
idea to keep in mind. Make the machine go; shove it along. Never mind if
you are not quite comfortable or at ease at first. Sit on your saddle
and stay there. Do not try to balance the machine. Lean the way the
machine inclines, not away from it, as it will be your first impulse to
do. The bicycle is not to be fought against; it is to be propelled and
controlled; and the art is not difficult to acquire.

Avoid starting a bicycle on a down grade when you are learning. For on a
slight, even an almost imperceptible incline, the cycler must
back-pedal; but the beginner wishes to propel the bicycle, and for that
purpose must use an altogether different muscular combination.

_CHAPTER V._

_How to Make Progress._

You have learned to wheel a bicycle,--have had some lessons, can take
the machine and mount it, wheel a little way, and fall off; or can wheel
for some time without a dismount, but feel utterly exhausted after a
short spin. You have accomplished what you attempted,--you can wheel a
bicycle; but you feel dissatisfied. You have tried to ride with friends,
perhaps, and have had to give it up; yet you feel that you should be
able to do what others have done and are doing all the time. It is very
discouraging.

What you should have now is a suitable and comfortable wheeling outfit.
You perhaps have a bicycle of your own; if not, a good wheel may be
hired reasonably. The matter of dress is now all-important, and a
costume suitable for cycling should be selected; it is impossible to do
good work or to practise comfortably unless you are properly dressed.

Choose for a practice ride a pleasant day, with little or no wind, and
neither too hot nor too cold. The atmospheric conditions are an
important factor in bicycling; indeed, beginners are often discouraged
by external conditions which really have nothing to do with their
mastery of the machine. Take the bicycle out on a smooth road, where you
may have two or three miles free from traffic, and as level as possible.
If the road is muddy or slippery, wait for the proper conditions. Unless
the surface is smooth and dry, it is better to take the bicycle back
without attempting to mount it. If two or three miles of good road are
not accessible, a quarter-mile stretch or even less will serve. Select a
good pathway, however short.

See that the wheel is adjusted to suit you; the saddle of a comfortable
height, certainly not too high; the handle-bars convenient to grasp.
Assure yourself that all the nuts are secure, the saddle and handle-bars
firm. Spin the pedals to see that they revolve easily. Make up your mind
before mounting how far you want to go; mount the machine, wheel it for
this distance, and dismount. Do not try to look about while wheeling.
Give your whole attention to the bicycle and keep your eyes fixed in the
direction you are travelling. Avoid hollows and cart-ruts, though these
should not occur if the locality for practice is well chosen. If an
unexpected hollow or hump should be encountered, hold hard to the
handle-bars and press firmly on the pedals, rising at the same time a
little from the saddle. The pedals are most important parts, the
controlling power being centred in them. If there is a good hand-brake
on the bicycle, it is well to note its action and to understand how to
apply it; for in case of a lost pedal, its application might give a
little confidence. By a “lost pedal” is meant, not that part of the
machine is literally lost, but that the foothold is missed on it, and so
control of the wheel lost for the moment.

[Illustration: PROPER WAY TO STAND A BICYCLE.]

If out of breath, wait until rested. Rest for a few minutes in any case,
and look about, and note the surface wheeled over. Then plan another
spin, of perhaps a few hundred feet. Fix upon an objective point, wheel
to it, and dismount. Rest thoroughly, and mount again. Be careful to
avoid becoming chilled while resting, stopping only long enough to
restore the natural breathing and to look over the road.

Half an hour of this kind of work at first every suitable day is enough.
If you are strong and accustomed to active exercise, the time may be
prolonged to an hour or an hour and a half; or you may practise twice
daily, morning and afternoon, or afternoon and evening. Cycling weather
is an uncertain quantity, and all possible advantages should be taken of
it. If tired after the first day’s practice, do not attempt to resume it
until entirely rested, even if it is necessary to wait for two or three
days; for unless the wheel is well understood and the wheeler fairly
practised, it is hard work. The practised cyclist controls the bicycle
without conscious effort, and may direct his attention to his
surroundings; but the novice must concentrate his attention on his
machine.

A bicycle should always be handled carefully; for though it is made
strong enough for the emergencies of being thrown and pulled and
twisted, none of these things improve it. Keep the polish free from
scratches, and the more delicate parts free from dents. Do not let the
bicycle fall or throw it down carelessly. Learn to balance it against a
curb or post or fence or any other convenient object, without injury to
the bicycle or to the supporting surface.

A bicycle will balance in this way: The front wheel kept from moving at
either the tire or the centre of the frame; the pedal resting against
some firm object.

Do not wheel near anything, but give yourself as much room as possible.
A practised cyclist can take a bicycle wherever it is possible to walk,
but it is sometimes a feat to do this.

The proper position cannot be too soon acquired. Sit erect and not too
far from the handle-bars. Let the hands grasp the handles in an easy,
natural position. The saddle should be quite over the pedals to give a
natural movement, forward, down, back, and up. The bicycle is sensitive,
and yields to almost unconscious direction; but if the eye is not
trained to judge distances, steering will be difficult at first. It is
necessary to look well ahead, to decide quickly what you will do, and to
do it. Pedal fast, but do not hurry. Don’t try to find out how fast you
can go. This is not a good time for such an experiment; it will be easy
later to test your speed. Pedal fast enough to keep the machine running
easily and smoothly and to feel it take care of itself a little. It is
easier to guide and control it when it is in motion with the wheels
rolling rapidly.

[Illustration: CARRYING THE BICYCLE.]

It is not a good plan to select a very light wheel for practice. The
tendencies and the peculiarities of the bicycle are more readily
determined when there is a little weight to resist. Be careful to wear
nothing tight, particularly shoes, gloves, waistband, or hat; for they
might prove a source of discomfort or even danger.

Learn to steady the bicycle as soon as you can. It will wiggle and
wobble from a number of causes. The front wheel must be kept steady.
Wobbling results from losing the sense of direction for a moment. To
overcome the difficulty, either stop and dismount, or, if it is
possible, increase your speed.

Before taking a bicycle out, have any oil that may have settled on the
outside of the bearings wiped off, and add a little fresh oil to the
oil-cups. The chain or power gear should be lubricated, and any
superfluous lubricant carefully removed. The ease with which the bicycle
runs depends on proper cleaning and oiling; an illy cared for or badly
oiled machine, moreover, is very unpleasant to handle.

A course of practice will inspire confidence, and wobbling will occur
less and less frequently. Then the inequalities of surface will be
noticed, and the cyclist will wonder why it is harder to wheel in some
places and in certain directions. Parts of the road are covered, the
wheeler being almost unconscious of exerting any force, and again in
places the foot seems to be pushed up. Ease and comfort in wheeling are
dependent to a large degree on the wind and to a much larger degree on
the grades and hills. A very little grade, a very slight rise, quite
unnoticeable to the pedestrian, is disagreeably obvious to the
bicyclist. The difficulty presented may be overcome by pushing on the
pedal at the right place as it descends, and at the right time, time and
place being also adjusted to the weight and power of the bicyclist. To
push at just the right time on a grade assures an easy ascent. Any
difficulty in pedaling may be traced to a wrong application of power.

Hill-climbing and grade work require thought and practice. Do not be
discouraged because a little bit of a hill seems quite impossible.
Overcoming grades is no easy matter, and is usually learned slowly;
every time a grade is attempted, however, some progress is made. Wheel
as far as it is possible to go comfortably; then dismount, and walk the
rest of the way. Never try to mount on an up grade unless you are
expert, for this is a difficult and most fatiguing thing to do. When
mounting, notice the grade, and if it is downward, do not have the
mounting pedal at its full height; and select a clear place to mount in.
If an up grade must be wheeled over, it is often advisable to mount in a
downward direction, wheel far enough for a start, and then turn to
ascend without dismounting. Learn to pedal slowly and steadily and to
start and stop easily. These things may be practised at convenient
times, and with sufficient practice will be mastered, but meanwhile need
keep no one from attempting a moderately long run.

[Illustration: PICKING UP A BICYCLE.]

Uncertain attempts at mounting are very fatiguing. Get some one to mount
and start you when off for the first long outings; the energy saved can
be better utilized in wheeling. Do not be afraid to wheel over small
inequalities if their direction is at right angles to the direction
of the bicycle; but avoid all ruts and depressions parallel with the
wheel’s direction. It is easy to slip into them, and difficult to get
out of them without a spill.

Never eat a full meal before starting on a bicycle trip; if possible,
set the time for starting at least an hour after eating. Ten, twenty,
and thirty miles are often covered after the first or second trial. It
is better to sit on your wheel and pedal slowly than to dismount.
Getting on and off, stopping and starting, are much more fatiguing than
wheeling; and it is well to economize your strength at this stage.
Always see that the tool-kit is in place on the bicycle, and never go
far without a wrench and a screw driver.

The tires also should receive close attention; they should be properly
inflated, and the hand-pump carried on a convenient place on the
machine. It is never well to use a tire that is not property inflated.
Avoid all broken glass, nails, etc., and do not rest the wheel against a
barbed wire fence.

The wheeler who desires to succeed cannot too soon begin to observe and
take notes. Early learn to use the wrench yourself, and study how to
apply that instrument properly. Study the different parts of the
bicycle, and note how they are put together; and particularly observe
each nut and screw, and determine its purpose. Each nut must be at its
proper tension to hold securely. Study the valves of the tires and learn
their construction; and be sure you know how to apply the pump-coupling
properly. Learn the names and uses of the different parts of the
bicycle, and study their construction. This is mechanical geography, if
I may use such a term. Learn to care for your health and how to prepare
your system to resist fatigue. Then you will find that you have mastered
the subject, and are prepared to avail yourself of the many pleasures of
the sport.

The oftener discouraged, the oftener the opportunity to hope again. The
art of bicycling is a purely mechanical attainment; and though its
complications may at first seem hopeless, sufficient practice will
result in final mastery.

_CHAPTER VI._

_Helping and Teaching; What to Learn._

Accuracy is the first principle of cycling; and the would-be bicyclist
should learn as early as possible that ease of movement and precision of
movement are inseparable; and that bruises and bumps and wrenches,
though they may have an educational value, are not a necessary
accompaniment of the sport. The skilful instructor need never allow a
scratch or a bruise. Some people want to learn everything at once; but
only so much should be done at each attempt as can be done accurately,
if it be only walking the machine about and standing it up. This
exercise is helpful, for walking a bicycle about requires a series of
accurate movements, and accurate movement is necessary in learning
mounting and propelling.

The bicycle is a marvel of adjustment, and the bicyclist is obliged to
adopt movements that correspond with the movements of the bicycle. The
more accurate this correspondence of movement, the greater the ease of
propulsion.

The lines and angles of the levers of feet and legs must be studied to
so apply them as to secure the best results. Avoid undue tension. Learn
just how much to lean the bicycle in mounting, just where to place the
foot, where to stand in relation to the handle-bars, and where to place
the weight on the machine. This understood, mounting is accomplished.
The bicycle may be mastered, and easily mastered, by remembering all the
things not to do and by doing all the things that should be done.

To assist another to do what you do not know how to do yourself is not
an easy task; yet there are people who are willing to undertake it.

A bicycle is so nicely balanced that it is easy to hold it up if it is
taken hold of in the right way. Grasp the back of the saddle firmly with
one hand, take hold of one of the handles with the other, and the
machine is in your power. A person seated on the saddle with a firm hold
of the handles of the handle-bar, becomes, as it were, a part of the
machine, and when sitting quite still is governed by the same laws of
balance that control the bicycle.

Take hold of a bicycle with some one seated in the saddle, and move it a
few inches forward, then a few inches backward, and it becomes at once
perceptible that but little force is necessary to overcome the inertia
of the combined weights of wheel and rider. The wheel has a tendency to
fall to either side, but it is easy to balance the weight on the tires.
Then hold the wheel a little toward you, for it is easier and less
fatiguing than to hold it from you. If the bicycle is allowed to incline
from you, it will pull you over; if it inclines toward you, you can
support its weight against the shoulder. If the rider sits still and
inclines with the machine, it is easily righted; but if the rider’s
weight is thrown in a direction opposite to the inclination of the
bicycle, the tendency to fall is increased, and the inclined bicycle is
pushed over.

[Illustration: LEADING A BICYCLE ABOUT.]

Before assisting another person with a bicycle, it is well to note all
the tendencies of the machine. This may be done by taking a bicycle and
putting it in all the different positions mentioned. The motions are the
same whether or not there is any one in the saddle, and it is well to
learn to manage the machine without exerting too much force. Stand on
the left-hand side of the bicycle, and hold the saddle with the right
hand. The steering may be done with the left hand, and the bicycle kept
upright by wiggling the front wheel. It is better to do this than to
attempt to hold the front wheel still. Walk the bicycle about by the
handle-bars only, and you will find that to keep the wheel straight it
is necessary to hold the bars stiff, and this is quite a difficult
undertaking. Allowed to move gently from side to side, the wheel is more
easily controlled.

When assisting a person for the first time, stand beside the machine,
see that the pedal farthest from you is raised to its greatest height,
and move the bicycle forward until the pedal is commencing its down
stroke. Then let the wheeler step in beside the bicycle, in front of you
and on the same side of the machine, and grasp both handles firmly.
Stand as close as possible to the bicycle, having it inclined toward you
at such an inclination that the weight of the wheeler, stepping to the
opposite pedal, will right it. Then, while you hold the bicycle still,
the wheeler should step on the raised pedal, stand upon the pedal with
the knee stiff, and then settle slowly on the saddle; the other foot
must find the down pedal. Do not let the machine move yet, but have the
beginner go over these movements again, practising them from both sides
of the machine until a little confidence is felt.

It is all important to get on the saddle quickly and easily and without
necessity for readjustment. If a skirt is worn, it should be arranged
before placing the weight on the pedal, and the knee should be slightly
bent when the pedal is lowest. The saddle should be the right height;
the handle-bars should be a trifle high, that is, when the rider sits
erect; the hands should rest easily and comfortably on the hand-grips.
Now the thing for the rider to do is to ride and hold on to the handles.
Don’t let the wheel get away from you. To prevent an accident, should
this happen, the beginner should know how to come off the bicycle. An
active person can step to the ground before the wheel has time to fall.
To get off, step on the pedal that is down, and throw the other foot
over.

If the saddle is not right, dismount the wheeler in this way: Have the
wheeler’s feet firmly placed on both pedals, and see that the down pedal
is on the side on which you are standing. Pull the machine a little to
that side, and see that the foot is on the down pedal. Then direct the
wheeler to step on this down pedal, throwing all the weight on it, and
to pass the raised foot over in front of the down foot to the ground.
The foot on the down pedal should not be removed until the other
foot, placed on the ground, has taken the rider’s weight.

[Illustration: PREPARING TO DISMOUNT.]

Say that you are now going to move, and let the wheeler mount as before.
Show that a wiggling movement must be kept up with the front wheel, and
say that you will help to do it. See that the wheeler has both handles
held firmly, and then grasp the bars just in front of the handle. Keep
firm hold of the saddle, and control the balance and push by that,
letting the bars do their own work.

A learner always pushes too hard on the pedals.

Take the machine about, and trot it up and down, holding it firmly and
keeping it balanced. Should it pull you over, the wheeler can step off
without difficulty.

It is much easier for two than for one to help a beginner. A trio of
novices can form a very fair school. A bicycle is inclined either to
pull or to push, and if supported on both sides, the pulling tendency is
avoided and the pushing tendency readily corrected. If ladies are
helping one another, the best way is for two to hold the bicycle,
standing one on each side of the machine. Both should hold the saddle
and both should hold the handle-bars just beyond the handles and above
the hands of the wheeler. One should instruct, and the other help to
hold the machine.

Let a beginner first learn to mount, then to dismount, practising these
movements several times before starting; then, having made sure that the
pedal on that side is two-thirds up, come to the left hand side of the
wheel, step on the pedal, and be seated in the saddle; then put the
weight on the pedal that is down, and step off with the other foot.
Repeat several times, mounting from each side, dismounting on the same
side and on the opposite side, at command, and repeating. Tilt the wheel
as the weight goes on the pedal. Dismount the pupil, and walk the wheel
about between you, wiggling the front wheel. Then mount your pupil, and
proceed as already explained. After the pupil begins to propel the
wheel, very little assistance from the instructor is necessary, and care
should be taken not to confuse the pupil as to the amount of work they
are doing. Call attention to the ease with which the wheel is brought up
when inclined to fall, and explain about turning and steering and
wiggling, and what these motions are for. You cannot propel a bicycle
unless you know what you are doing; there cannot be guess-work about it.
The perfect confidence that comes with familiarity and practice must
precede success.

Given three people with one bicycle, all can learn to ride, helping each
other in turn. Having learned to mount and dismount, the next thing is
to learn to start the bicycle. The weight should be allowed to start the
bicycle as soon as the foot, pressing on the pedal as it descends,
brings the wheeler to the saddle.

The stop should be learned next. The wheeler should be reminded to
notice which is the down pedal, and to step on it with all the weight
just as it begins to rise. This will stop the machine, and the dismount
is made in the usual way by throwing the other foot over, and stepping
with that on the ground. The foot that has stopped the machine should
not leave the pedal too soon, but remain on it long enough to control
the bicycle.

[Illustration: DISMOUNTING.]

As soon as the wheeler can pedal a little and has the balance well
enough to ride without assistance, the next thing is to learn to ride
over ordinary obstructions, and to remain on the wheel for a given
number of minutes without dismounting. All this can be taught in an
ordinary room or on a piazza; and both teacher and pupil will find a
smooth surface, such as a board floor or a pavement, best adapted for
the work. Attention cannot too soon be directed to taking the weight off
the ascending pedal, and the exercise should not be prolonged for a
moment after this becomes a difficult thing to do.

At first the practice leaves the beginner much agitated and breathless;
but these conditions are overcome after a few lessons, though
experienced riders sometimes experience a return of them when they find
mounting difficult and do not notice the grade they are attempting. The
sensitiveness of the wheel sometimes puzzles the beginner, and the sense
of adjustment is often difficult to acquire.

Nervous work and nervous effort are noticeable in no other sport in the
same marked degree. Some seize and adopt its salient points at once and
almost unconsciously, but the majority are not so fortunate. The first
fifteen minutes on a bicycle are frequently enough to cause thorough
exhaustion. The best remedy for this is to take the wheel and walk it
about; the pupil should be left alone with it. If fifteen minutes’ work
is too much, alternate five minutes’ work with rest at the next lesson.

The balance and distribution of strength for the pull by the hands is
quite important in directing and controlling the machine. The feet are
used to propel and to balance. The teacher should note carefully if the
beginner errs by incorrect pedaling or by too much pull on the handles,
and correct the wrong tendency.

Balance by pedaling comes next in order, and cannot be practised too
early; and as by this time a fair amount of speed will have been
attained, the natural balance begins to be acquired.

Balanced pedaling and swaying are very different, and should not be
confused. The bicycle may be propelled, balanced, and controlled
entirely by the pedals; and as this is the best and most important mode
of wheeling, it should early be understood and attempted.

The adjustment of the machine should now be taken up, and the wheeler
should know how and why the bicycle can be changed to suit individual
peculiarities. The wiggling tendency of the front wheel lessens as the
wheeler acquires confidence; and its unsteadiness can be overcome and
controlled with the balance and by pedaling, with the swaying of the
body or the pressure of either foot.

There is much to avoid as well as much to do. Incorrect position means
difficult work, almost impossible propulsion and possible personal
injury. The knowledge that everything is firmly screwed up about the
bicycle, and particularly that the saddle is secure, cannot be too soon
acquired. Never attempt to mount or even to try the bicycle unless the
saddle is properly secured and immovable. If anything breaks, it is not
necessarily your fault; if anything is insecure, blame no one for not
attending to something you should yourself have attended to. Always
examine the pedals to see that they turn easily; and be sure about that
saddle. It is a good deal of trouble to screw the nut up tight for a few
minutes, or even for half a minute, but it should be done.

When adjusting the saddle, never be hurried when tools are to be used,
for it is necessary to apply them carefully to insure accuracy; and a
nut really requires serious attention, for often a good deal depends
upon it. If screwed hurriedly, the thread is in danger of being injured,
and on that thread the holding power of the nut depends.

When the beginner can balance and propel the bicycle for a little way
alone, the really tedious part of learning often begins. At this point
beginners become discouraged, for there seems to be nothing new to
learn; yet the results attained are unsatisfactory. What is needed is
practice.

Practise on a smooth piece of road, with some one running beside the
bicycle to give confidence and prevent falls. The proper position in
mounting should be studied. In mounting a drop-frame machine, never step
over the frame and place the foot on the ground; it is an awkward and
ungainly method. Take a proper position, then be sure everything is
right, and last of all, step on the pedal, and you are moving.

A good way to practise, if you have no one to help you, is to mount the
bicycle in the gutter, and limp along; or if in the country, a roadside
fence may give the needed assistance. Grasp a post firmly, and holding
by it, try to mount; and study the tendencies and the balance of the
bicycle without letting go the post.

Make up your mind how to mount, start the pedal properly, and keep
trying until you can ride a little. If a little, why not more? Keep on
practising, avoiding faults.

For instruction, the bicycle should be fitted with an instructor’s
handle, and the pupil provided with a belt having one handle or more.
The instruction handle and a hold on the handle-bar are sufficient
safeguard for most pupils, but the belt will often give confidence to
the timid and aid the instructor.

_CHAPTER VII._

_A Few Things to Remember._

Two important points for the bicyclist to study are avoidance of road
traffic and consideration of the surface ridden over. The law of the
road applies to all traffic passing over the road; the law of mechanics
to the surface of the road as it affects the bicycle and the cycler. In
cities, on much-used thoroughfares, careful work, quick eyes, experience
and caution are demanded to insure safety.

The law of the road, “Keep to the right, pass on the left anything going
in the same direction,” is explicit, and if always observed would render
collisions almost impossible. The avoidance of careless and unobservant
travellers is quite a study. Passing to the right, you can see and be
seen; passing on the left, a traveller moving in the same direction does
not become aware of your intention without being notified. You give
notice to prevent others from changing their direction and to enable
them thus to avoid crowding.

To pass a vehicle on the road, when travelling in the same direction,
involves increase of speed if the vehicle in front maintains its pace;
should it go slower or stop, and the roadway permits, a change of pace
is neither necessary nor desirable, unless you wish to steady your
machine. In nearing any vehicle or person coming from the opposite
direction, keep your share of the road. Be always alert and observant;
do not fail to give ample room to the approaching vehicle; but on the
other hand, do not permit yourself to be crowded or inconvenienced, and
keep enough of the roadway on your right in reserve in case a change of
direction becomes necessary.

The importance of having your machine at all times perfectly under
control cannot be over-estimated. Put faith in your pedaling, and never
ride at greater speed than you can determine and check at will.
Dependence on any brake, however perfect its action, is bad practice.

Vehicles approaching pass each other on the right. In case of collision,
the vehicle which has maintained the proper side of the roadway has the
advantage in case of legal controversy. In passing a vehicle drawn by
horses, the bicycle should keep to the centre of the roadway when
possible, leaving the curb for the horse-drawn vehicle. The bicycle can
only draw away from the curb, and is limited to one direction. The
centre of the roadway, therefore, affords the best opportunity for a
change of direction.

Sit well on your saddle, observe the adjustment of the centre of
gravity, but ride on the pedals, using the weight as much as possible.
Trust to the pedals only for rough riding and for unexpected
inequalities of surface. The study of the mechanics of balance,
resistance, and friction is most interesting in this connection, as
their action affects cycler or wheel or the combined mechanisms.

The law of the road is simple and very generally understood, though
there are reckless and ignorant people who disregard it. The law defines
where you shall ride, how you shall pass, and sets a limit to increase
of speed beyond what is considered compatible with the general safety.
There is, besides, the unwritten law of courtesy, more often observed
than disregarded; and there is the law you make for yourself.

The traffic of a crowded thoroughfare may be analyzed, and the conduct
of a wheel explained and simplified, though travel on such routes is
difficult at best and had better be avoided. Given a long, straight
road, with two streams of travel from opposite directions. One of these
streams will consist of vehicles, quadrupeds, and pedestrians, few
maintaining an even rate of progress, fewer still the same rate. The law
requires that you pass on the left, and you must await the opportunity
to do so. When a clear way opens, take immediate advantage of it, and
increase your speed. Should there not be room enough to pass, signal,
and the vehicle in advance is bound to make way for you. Should there be
a free road to the right, you may take it, but only with the consent of
the traveller ahead, and then at your own risk.

Never ride more than two abreast. Riding in single file, with ample room
for turning, is better on a crowded street or when making time. For
moderate wheeling, the cyclists being disciplined and drilled, the
distance between bicycles may be shortened. But control of the wheel
should be absolute before this is attempted. When travelling at even a
moderate rate of speed, a certain distance between wheels should be
observed. When in single file, turn on the same line, but not at the
same time as the leader. Inexperienced wheelers are apt to turn at the
moment the wheel ahead turns. Should you be following close, keep on
your own line, unless you see good cause to change your direction. If
the leader wishes to stop, let him turn out: if you are wanted, you will
know soon enough. Gain all the distance you can between dismounts. A
little drill and the understanding of a few signals will prove very
useful.

For the public at large, the bicycle may be specialized to suit
individual needs, and locomotion becomes simplified, distances are
reduced, and the obliterated landscape of railroad travel takes form and
substance. Cycling means travel over well-constructed highways, with
telephone and telegraph, post-office and express office, usually easily
accessible. To enjoy the full freedom that wheeling should give, little
luggage should be carried, yet that little must include all necessaries.

When a party of six or even twelve start to wheel a given distance, what
are the problems to be met? All being fairly expert cyclists, in good
practice, sociability is incidental while making time. On the road
attention, strict attention, to business and to the signals is
necessary. Conversation is not prohibited; it is entirely dependent upon
the nature of the surface you are travelling.

How to keep together is a vexed question, and a very nice adjustment of
animate and inanimate mechanism would be necessary to its satisfactory
settlement. The better way is, all knowing the road, to wheel along
independently, with an occasional halt, not necessarily a dismount,
assembling at intervals of half or three-quarters of an hour. The leader
should keep back until the roller of the party is hailed, and has
reported, then increase speed again until the next interval has elapsed.
Another plan is to wheel with only a given number of minutes headway,
this arrangement keeping the roller-up always within hailing distance.

A good leader deserves implicit confidence. He has responsibilities
aside from wheeling, for the comfort and convenience of others must be
intelligently studied, and consideration for each individual cyclist in
the party makes constant demand on the qualities of tact and decision;
in other words, the leader must possess good judgment and be as well a
thorough bicyclist.

The present rate of wheeling averages ten miles an hour, and greater
speed is undesirable, except for special purposes. A point to keep in
mind is that every five minutes’ halt is a mile lost. The time lost in
slowing and stopping should also be carefully taken, as it is of value
in reckoning possible mileage.

There are grades to hesitate about, and there are grades to avoid. If a
grade seems possible, try it, but dismount the instant it becomes hard
work. It is better to dismount too soon than to persist too long.
Without regard to the inclination, there are two principal kinds of
grades--the increased grade and the decreased grade. In mounting the
increased grade, more and more power is required at every stroke to push
the machine upward. In mounting the decreased grade, this additional
power is not necessary, and the ascent is accomplished with little
fatigue. Increase of grade means application of more power in ascending,
and an increase of momentum in descending. This is on the whole the most
dangerous kind of bicycle travel; for over-work on the ascent, loss of
pedals or dangerous coasting on the descent, are to be expected, and
danger should be looked for, and observed in time to be avoided.

It is always well to walk an increasing grade, if the hill be long and
steep, both in ascending and descending. The decreasing grade has many
pleasant features, and on a well-known road may be ridden up or down
with ease and with little danger of injury. It is interesting to watch
the effect of individual adjustment to hill-work, a group of bicyclists
being almost always scattered when mounting a grade.

When and where to apply power and when to make the push tell best on his
own machine, each cyclist must determine by practice and experience.
Sometimes a long and apparently easy down-grade is rendered dangerous by
its increase of pitch; and seemingly easy roads are often difficult to
travel on account of an increasing but almost imperceptible ascent.
Unless power is applied to the stroke at the right place, much
inconvenience from fatigue will be felt, and will soon overcome the
ambitious bicyclist.

When short expeditions are to be undertaken--all trips of more than an
hour’s duration being so classed--remember that lack of preparation
means delay, and that ignorance entails discomfort. If the start is to
be an early one, go over the bicycle carefully, see that the lamp is in
order, that matches are convenient, tools and repair-kit in place, a
small envelope of sewing materials with needle and thread and another of
red-cross supplies in the pocket.

I have often been laughed at for taking out my lamp for a short
afternoon’s ride with friends who could ride well enough for their own
satisfaction; and as often have I been obliged to help with my lantern’s
light belated wheels coming in close behind me. A lantern is a
convenience at dusk, or even earlier, enabling others to see and avoid
you; and this helps more than the uncertain light annoys.

For luncheon on a short trip, it is quite safe to depend on the road; if
you carry luncheon, a couple of bread-and-butter sandwiches well wrapped
in waterproof paper, and thin slices of cheese in a separate paper, or
hard chocolate and water-biscuit, are as good as anything; and such a
luncheon may prevent delay in swampy or foggy or damp country from
becoming dangerous.

Study the country you are to travel and the road-surface, understand
your map, know your route, its general direction, etc. Always observe
the road you cover; keep a small note-book, and jot down everything of
interest. Use the pocket-compass, even in your home locality, to fix
general direction; for when detained at night, such knowledge may prove
useful. Fog and rain or a moonless night are bewildering, rendering
familiar roads weird and strange; and, unlike the driver or equestrian
in the dark, a bicyclist must trust to himself alone. Wheeling in the
dark, however, has some advantages, as you are apt to ride in a straight
line, and not turn out for bad places in the road; on the other hand, a
certain amount of risk is necessarily taken. There should be no close
riding, and constant care should be exercised for the avoidance of
collision.

Cycling offers endless opportunities for the formation of clubs, and
cycling clubs there are of all ages and sizes. A simple form of club for
the earlier phases of the sport may be organized in this way: Buy two
bicycles, and form as small a club as can manage their purchase. Keep a
register, and pass the bicycles from member to member, for say a week at
a time, repairs in case of accident to be paid for by the member using
the wheel at the time of the accident. The club may later be enlarged by
receiving any desired number of members and purchasing additional wheels
in proportion. But nothing is so satisfactory as a chosen mount of your
own, adjusted to suit your individual needs and kept for your own
exclusive use. A bicycle exactly adjusted to your liking should be
jealously devoted to your individual use. A beautiful machine should be
kept free from finger-marks. Keep a chamois and a clean piece of
cheese-cloth at hand where it is kept, and use them. Nickel holds its
polish if not attacked by acid or grease. Enamel should be treated
differently, with cold water, sponge and chamois, after light dusting.

_CHAPTER VIII._

_The Art of Wheeling a Bicycle._

There are three very important methods of controlling the bicycle,
namely, steering by the hands, guiding by foot-pressure on the pedals,
and guiding by the swaying of the body; and these methods may be used
separately or in combination.

The wheels are kept in motion either by pedaling, or simply by gravity
in descending a grade. The use of the hands on the handle-bar is
two-fold for the inexperienced--for steering and for correcting undue
pressure on the pedals. The hand opposite the pedal that receives too
much pressure corrects the tendency of the bicycle by an extra pull on
the handle-bars. This is very good exercise, but it is a useless
expenditure of force, and cannot be prolonged without great fatigue. It
is the work of hill-climbing done on the level. The feet are on the
pedals, and the natural tendency is to press equally at all times on
both pedals and pull at the same time on both handles. One pedal must
descend, and the other pedal must ascend; they are attached to the same
axle, which is turned by either pedal or both pedals. As the pedals are
always on opposite sides of a circle, one is always coming up, and its
upward tendency is resisted by any pressure, however slight. The
lifting of the foot, therefore, from the ascending pedal means easy
wheeling. This is one of the hardest things to realize. If there is
little or no pressure to resist from the up-coming pedal, it is
necessary to expend but little force to propel or push the down pedal;
only enough, indeed, to overcome the weight or inertia of the bicycle
and the bicyclist and of surface friction, provided there is no grade.
But of grades, there are many; and to this is due the infinite variety
of the sport of cycling, the muscular development and increased
respiration of the cycler.

[Illustration: CORRECT PEDALING.]

The handle-bars should at all times be ready to receive a sudden grip or
squeeze. Grip the handles hard when you want to hold on, and only pull
as much as is absolutely necessary; for if the arms are stiff and rigid
from pulling on the bars, they will not be sensitive enough to control
the bicycle. The handles of the bar are the ends of a pair of levers;
and the nearer the hand to the centre of the bar, the less power is
needed to oppose the other hand. When there is a tendency to pull hard
on the handles, gradually slip the hands near the middle of the bar, and
the pull will ease up. The front wheel, to run easily, should run
steadily; and the less wiggle there is, the better for steady travel.

The pedal is the projection on the crank adapted to the use of the foot.
There are many varieties of pedals, of differing sorts, weights,
patterns, and purposes. The foot placed on the pedal pushes it down; the
push is communicated to the wheel to propel the bicycle forward. As the
pedal leaves the dead centre, the power begins to take effect, and
continues until the dead centre below is reached. Now, it is necessary
to push at just the right time and place; if too soon and too hard, the
wheels of the bicycle will go too fast, and must be retarded by pressing
down on the up-coming pedal. The natural weight pressure of the foot is
more than enough to propel the bicycle over ordinary surfaces at a fair
rate of speed, without the application of great muscular power.

The foot should be placed squarely on the pedal, the ball of the foot
only resting on it, and the toe pointing downward. The foot may be made
to perform divers duties, and numberless new combinations of pressure
can be and are called for and applied.

To apply more power in the stroke, begin to push when the pedal is all
the way up, the toe pointing down until at the lowest part of the
stroke, ready to follow the pedal around, pushing it backwards, and
helping to lift it. Here the toe-clip helps, and holds the foot on the
pedal, in the place where the tendency to leave it is greatest. Balanced
pedaling is a little different, and weight-pressure on the pedal is used
as a factor to overcome the front wheel.

Use the weight as much as possible to propel, and reserve the push for
hard grade-work. Keep the knees well turned in; it squares the foot and
prevents the ankle from receiving hard knocks. When the knee is turned
out, the ankle bones are turned in, and so receive many a bruise that
could have been avoided. To keep the ankles from interfering, turn
the knees in, and ride square leg.

[Illustration: FOLLOWING PEDAL.]

Controlling a bicycle on a down-grade requires pressure on the ascending
pedal. Point the heel down or hold the toe up, and an even pressure will
be maintained. Let the lift come with the heel well squared and the leg
as straight as possible, the weight to be supplied at the right point on
the up stroke to control the machine. Always use the weight when
possible as a supplementary driving power.

The pedals differ in construction and in material, being differently
adapted for racing and for road work. A pedal with a good broad resting
surface for the foot is very comfortable, though a “rat-trap” pedal used
with a stiff-soled shoe is lighter and preferable. Toe-clips are
desirable for those who can use them easily, but for a novice they are
dangerous, being liable to cause the mishaps they are intended to
prevent. Experienced bicyclers prefer any discomfort to that of a lost
pedal, and when wheeling with only a light, even pressure, toe-clips are
good reminders; but their principal use is to apply more power and help
the foot to carry the pedal around and back.

The swaying of the body controls the bicycle from the saddle. In walking
the bicycle about, it is soon perceived that it may be directed by
holding the saddle only. The pressure comes from the saddle, and the
bicycle is swayed by the rider, by leg pressure against the saddle.
There is little or no shoulder movement, and the body, though flexible,
does not move perceptibly. When starting a machine, hold it well
balanced by the handle-bars, and know how much inclination to allow.
Take hold, and mount steadily and easily, and move off quietly, noting
the running of the bicycle. Gradually increase the speed, leaning a
little forward to lessen any sudden strain and to help the push on the
pedals. Then increase the stroke to the desired speed, and the machine
will take care of itself. Speed power may be increased, and it is good
practice to slow, and start again at will.

Figure wheeling, with a good leader, is capital practice to insure
steadiness and increase the power of control over the bicycle. It is not
easy to stop suddenly when going at a good rate of speed, and it is well
to know your limit of distance in such case; nor is it easy to spring
alertly from the saddle when bringing up in a dangerous position, even
when frightened into doing it. Back pedal hard, grip with the hands and
press down, holding the bicycle still as you reach the ground. The
pedals will not get in the way, and it is well to remember not to let go
of the machine if you do not want to get hurt. To jump off and hold the
bicycle still may at times prevent collisions.

The cyclist, however sure of his skill, should not throw his machine at
any one, even inadvertently. There is much unnecessarily fine riding
done--dashing between two passing vehicles, for instance, or rushing
through a gap instead of wheeling slowly behind a wagon until an open
space is reached; but some prefer the stimulation and excitement of
danger to safety, and like to perform such hazardous feats.

[Illustration: LIFTING.]

Steering is a subject for serious consideration; a sharp eye, quick
determination, constant care, and a steady hand are needed. A knowledge
of steering is essential for safe coasting; and as one of the pleasures
of cycling is to descend easily the hill you have climbed, a fair degree
of steadiness should be attained. Brakes are important aids. Learn to
brake with the foot, but do not resort to this expedient unless
compelled to.

Now to consider hill-work. The resistance of the grade is always
perceptible; it is not always recognized. As the angle of ascent
increases, the powers of the bicyclist are taxed.

The spindle of the pedal describes a circle. The foot part of the pedal
revolves around the spindle, and permits the foot to take any angle that
is needed for the best application of power, the plane always, however,
remaining parallel with the spindle. This arrangement of the pedal
allows of ankle-motion within certain limits; and to give greater
efficiency, the foot and ankle may move in adjustment with the weight
and power to be applied. This is the much-talked-of ankle-motion. The
pressure may be applied to the pedal by this ankle-motion at any part or
at all parts of the circle that the pedal describes.

As constructed, the pedal permits free ankle and instep movement,
prevents cramping of the foot, and allows the foot the same freedom that
it has in walking or running. Ease of work depends on proper application
of power. To be able to apply just the right amount of push to carry the
crank past the dead centre, and to pull it past the lowest dead centre,
and to follow the pedal accurately, is the aim of all good pedal work.
The push down is almost instinctive; but the lifting of the weight from
the ascending pedal can be acquired only by practice, when the muscles
have become sufficiently accustomed to the work to move without the
effort of mental concentration that they seem to require in the
beginning.

The power of the stroke may be given by applying the weight after the
dead centre is passed.

The weight should be entirely removed from the ascending pedal, and the
balance and sway used to take the pull off the handle-bars by throwing
the weight from side to side for that purpose. The weight and balance
should be directed in this way: If the push on the down pedal only is
used, it must be corrected by a pull on the handle; this pull increases
as the grade obstructs the wheel. Skilful hill-work shows in the
lessened pull on the handles.

In travelling on the level, the ascending foot is pushed up, and rested
by being lifted. There is no reason why the pushing muscles should be
stronger than the lifting muscles of the leg except that they are
accustomed to do more work.

Always try to ride a hill, but never begin by looking at the top to see
how far off it is. Pay no more attention to the surface than is
absolutely required by the nature of the surface. Concentrate all
thought on the pedals and how best to push or take the pull off the
handle-bars. Lean a little forward if necessary, and do not try to
increase the stroke. The number of strokes is bound to lessen if the
power is not increased proportionately on the ascent. And how can the
power be effectively applied unless the work is done intelligently by
mental application, or instinctively by the use of accustomed muscles?

[Illustration: BACK PEDALING.]

Hills should be ridden easily, or not ridden at all. It is easier to
wheel up an ascent than to walk up, if the wheeling is properly done.
Always stop before the hill proves too much for you. Never think any
incline too steep to attempt; this is the first move on the road to
successful hill-climbing.

The seat for hill-work should be made to support the body. The bicyclist
should not be obliged to cling to the handles to keep from slipping off
over the saddle; there should be something else to push against. To get
all possible power out of the levers, there should be a sufficiency of
fulcrum for the lever to work against; and the saddle should certainly
be made to do duty in hill-work.

If there is no support from the rear of the saddle, the fulcrum must be
located at the handle-bars, which should have all possible strain
removed from them to lessen the pedal work. A saddle placed at this
angle is of little use as a fulcrum on an incline. In all work, levers
and fulcrums are kept in position by the hands, unless the weight is
supported from the saddle. If this principle of the application of power
is considered, the usual difficulty of hill-climbing is overcome. Why
should it be harder to wheel up hill than to walk up and push a bicycle?

In the first place, it is necessary to be able to stay on the bicycle
without holding yourself on; in the next place, to know how to apply the
power; and then to perform the work, keeping all essential points well
in mind. Wheel up hill with the mouth shut, or get off; wheel slowly;
concentrate power to apply it most effectively.

Power is needed in overcoming both the crank dead centres. The weight
should be applied to force the crank downward, and the weight lifted to
let the other crank rise. The body sways to ease the handle pull, and
the bicycle mounts steadily. The inertia, of course, becomes more
apparent as the weight is resisted by gravity; so do not attempt to
force or strain, with the idea that hill-climbing is something that must
be done. It should be done only when it can be done easily.

The rule for climbing universally recommended reads, “Pay no attention
to the hills. Ride them.” This is good as far as it goes, but it is of
little assistance in mounting an incline.

There are two kinds of grades independent of the angle--the increase
grade and the decrease grade, in ascending, and in descending as well;
for descending is only the reverse of ascending. In approaching an
ascending grade, always note its character, whether long or short, what
the pitch is, and particularly if the angle of ascent increases or
decreases at the top of the incline, and prepare for the work before
you.

[Illustration: BACK PEDALING--SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT.]

Each hill has its peculiarities, which must be studied and conquered.
The actual mounting to the top is not all you have to do; you should
mount in proper trim, arriving at the summit fresh and fit. It is most
saddening to see some one else mount a hill easily, leaving you,
puffing and pushing, half way up, and to know that, when you reach the
top, speechless and exhausted, that exasperating person will be seated
there, cool, contemplative, and comfortable.

Intelligent practice, however, should result in scientific attainment.
The saddle should be adjusted in relation to the pedals for the carrying
of the cranks past the dead centre. The angle of the saddle should be
studied, and the adjustment permit of its use as a fulcrum in hill-work,
while admitting of balance-work on a level and of comfort and ease in
coasting. It should support the weight when the feet are on the forks,
not merely permit of balancing.

In studying this adjustment, weight, length of limb, strength, and the
work to be done should all be taken into consideration. The rule that
what is lost in speed is gained in power should comfort the hill climber
when, half-way up a grade, the bicycle gradually loses speed, and seems
to be stopping, in spite of all efforts to the contrary.

In mounting, the machine is started by the placing of the weight on the
pedal, and in hill-climbing the weight should be used to force the pedal
down and around. The bringing of the pedal into position where the
weight will take effect is the true secret of success. Follow this by
making the weight carry as far as possible, prolonging its usefulness by
pushing the pedal back past the lowest dead centre, and following and
lifting it. But it is useless to prolong the work if the commencement of
the stroke is not executed in an effective manner.

The up-coming pedal must either be pulled up, or have all weight removed
to permit the power to be fully effective on the down pedal. What is the
point where power applied will begin to tell? If the upper dead centre
is left to be overcome by the downward stroke of the foot on the pedal,
the foot on the ascending pedal is doing no work, only kept from doing
harm, held in a cramped position.

After carrying the crank past the lower dead centre, the weight is
removed and the angle of the foot changed from pointing the toe down to
holding the toe up and dropping the heel. As the foot-rest will follow
the sole of the foot, it is a simple matter to change the pressure from
pushing and pulling up to pressing and shoving over. Before the crank
has arrived at the top of the circle, say at sixty degrees, the heel
should be lowered, and the attention directed to pushing the cranks over
and past the dead centre. As the top of the circle is reached, the foot
levels, and prepares to point the toe to make an effective downward
thrust. Rise from the saddle a little at this point, to make the weight
more effective, and prepare to carry the pedal back as far as possible.
This method leaves very little time for the foot to change its angle.
From the toe pointing downward to the toe held up ready to push, the
change from pull to push is abrupt, and hill-work depends on correct
ankle-motion more than anything else. The ankle-motion may be corrected
by swaying, the hands meanwhile being held lightly on the handle-bars
ready for emergencies, but not used for the work of climbing.

[Illustration: HILL-CLIMBING--PUSHING CRANK OVER.]

The breathless condition induced by extra work may be remedied; for the
upper chest is forced to expand, while, if the arms are held rigid, a
plentiful supply of air for the lungs is not insured. (See Chapter on
Exercises). Free combustion is needed for the extra power exerted.

The bicycle and its load are lifted, and a given weight requires a given
power to lift it. That power must be supplied by the stored force of the
human body, and must be utilized to the best advantage if the work is to
be prolonged. Hill-work is not impossible of achievement; but it
requires intelligent work unless one applies mechanical laws
intuitively. Easy hill-work is delightful; it is work, hard work, but
work done without strain. Nothing, on the other hand, can be more
injurious than forced hill-climbing; the strain on heart and lungs is
severe, particularly for one wearing a tight belt, or any constrictive
clothing about the waist.

Because a hill looks rough and the surface difficult, it does not at all
follow that it will be bad wheeling. If the tires are not too full,
inequalities of surface are an assistance, helping to block the wheels,
and preventing them from slipping back, while the soft tire takes up the
stones and bumps, holding on by them. Always look well at your hill on
approaching it; study its inclination, determine its grade, and the
nature of its surface, and quickly decide how best to attack it.

On mounting the top of a grade, never hurry or increase speed; wheel
along slowly and easily, with the mouth shut, until rested and really
ready to start up. If there is a good coast, don’t hurry to it, but
keep working gently until the balance of the respiratory organs is fully
restored. Then take the coast, and all the benefits of hard work, and
rest, and the exhilarating effects of swift motion and free oxidation
are fully realized.

To work in balance or equilibrium is the aim of hill-work, and there
should not be too abrupt a transition after severe exertion. Pedal along
at a pace to restore the breathing after hard work, then change; never
dismount when breathless, but wheel along slowly. The strain is thus
much less than by forcing the body to accommodate itself to a change of
position just when a general easing is required, a general slackening of
all the muscles that have been at work.

Rest always before dismounting long enough at least to restore
breathing; and rather than coast after climbing, back-pedal gently and
slowly if the grade should descend from the top of the ascent.

Never let a hill get the better of you, if it is one that you have a
chance to attack a second time. Set to work and study it. Find out the
changes of grade, and prepare for a change in the amount of power at the
proper place in the incline. See if the grade is simple, prolonged, or
compound. If the surface is very smooth, it will be more difficult.
There is a bit of road that I remember well, a country road, seemingly
good enough, with a little grade perhaps in some places; but, one after
another, it dismounted us all. A heavy Telford pavement was laid, but
there was still a mile and a half of that road that winded the best of
us every time. Though it was up grade all the way, experience had taught
us that at places we must stop, and mount again and go on. Our machines
were heavy, but this fact did not explain what puzzled us; for it ought
not to be easier to start a heavy wheel up a grade than to continue to
wheel up steadily. Knowing this bit of road so well, we were on the
lookout to note its effect on others; and there were always wheels lined
up at some part of the road, and a curious variety of expressions on the
countenances of their riders--puzzled defeat on those unacquainted with
the road, and sad determination on those who knew it too well.

After a careful study of this grade, that was long but not steep, and
seemingly not difficult, we found it made up of a series of differently
inclined planes and curves, the up-curves all against us; and, taken
from foot to top, there was a continued increase of pitch, with certain
changes that were all against wheeling; and moreover a generally
increasing pitch for the whole distance, and four places of change of
grade, each change an increase of pitch and an increased angle of
ascent. The smooth surface concealed these difficulties at first, making
the deceptive stretch appear easy and inviting. It was like the inside
of a curved line set with scollops.

To overcome this most difficult kind of incline, wheel along at a good
pace, note the increase of grade, and drop the heel at the beginning of
the down stroke, or rather while the pedal is half way on the up stroke
and the foot is prepared to resist the change. Take into consideration
the fact that an increase of power is necessary; look where to apply it,
adjust the balance of the body to the work, and your work will be
effective.

_CHAPTER IX._

_Position and Power._

The racing wheelman has adopted a position that has received much
censure--a position accepted as the one enabling applied power to
produce the greatest speed. If this position is analyzed and compared
with the erect position, several interesting features may be noted, and
by comparing the two positions, important information may be gathered.

The bicyclist seated upon the saddle, not against it, has little power
for work. The thrust is downward; there can be no forward push or
backward thrust, unless the hands grip the handle-bars and pull against
the push, if the push needed is greater than can be resisted by the
weight of the body.

The power of the stroke is all in the downward direction; there can be
but little power in the forward thrust; the most important part of the
stroke in hill-climbing is that given by getting behind the pedal and
pushing it down. If the saddle be too far forward, power is again lost
in the push and thrust, and the up-and-down motion must do the work, and
power is lost on the down thrust, though added in the upward and
backward push.

We may conclude that a proper position has much to do with the work of
bicycling; that there is more than one correct position, different
positions being adapted to different work. The racing position on the
bicycle is the position for speed, and is the position of the running
athlete. It is not adapted to moving at a moderate pace or to being
maintained for any length of time. It is the position in which power may
be most readily converted into speed; where the leverage may be applied
with the greatest efficiency, and the greatest amount of work
accomplished in the least possible time.

The drop position also takes the strain off the upper leg muscles, and
is desirable on that account, apart from the fact that more power may be
exerted from that position. The leg does not straighten out, and is
always ready to give a powerful stroke and maintain an increased or even
speed. It is a position of continuous movement; and if the weight and
all the muscles are not directed to propel, the weight is improperly
supported on all fours.

The position for speed where the weight is distributed between
handle-bar, saddle, and pedals is not suitable for road work, nor can it
be maintained for any long period without injurious results. It is the
position where power is best converted into speed.

For prolonged work a different position is demanded. Here speed is not a
necessary factor, but ease of movement and continuous movement are
essential. We are not anxious to convert power quickly, but rather to
reserve our powers, and use them slowly.

[Illustration: COASTING.]

For pleasure riding and ordinary exercise, the erect position is the
best. The drop position is the racing or running position; the erect
position, the position of ease.

Here the saddle question presents itself. The saddle should support the
weight while seated, or, in the racing position, hold the weight; it
should not hamper movement, and should be comfortable for coasting. In
moving over the ground, the relative position for the balance of the
cyclist changes according to the grades; and the seat should be adjusted
so as to be adaptable to the different positions required to enable the
bicyclist to change the balance for the work of the moment.

There is also the position adapted to quick work and exercise. Change in
adjustment of the application of power varies with the amount of work
done by the bicyclist in covering a certain distance. The resistance
caused by change of speed and varied wind resistance have also to be
taken into the calculation. People of different lengths of leverage must
study the different adjustments of the machine to produce the best
results for the different kinds of work required of the machine.

When a hill is to be surmounted, the climb should be made without
effort, that is, effort understood in its technical sense. The position
should be such as to permit of work being done by the foot, and the
power should be applied at the right time and place. Assistance by a
pull on the handle-bars means lessened power on the stroke. Effort
succeeds effort. The work should be done by the foot, the pelvis being
the fulcrum. The saddle should be the real fulcrum. If the hands are
used to do the work by pulling, the pelvis becomes the only fulcrum, and
the bicycle saddle is not used at all for the application of power. The
weight should be made to do as much of the work as possible, and the
added resistance of lever pressure made auxiliary.

To obtain leverage for the hands, it is necessary to use a fulcrum.
Where is that fulcrum located? Each set of muscles pulls on its point of
application--the hand on the arm, the arm on the shoulder, the shoulder
on the thorax, the thorax on the pelvis. If more power is needed, it
must require effort.

In hill-climbing, effort is a physiological phenomenon associated with
great expenditure of force. In making an effort, exerting force, the
air-passages of the lungs are closed, the air in them making of them an
air-cushion, as it were, which acts as a fulcrum for certain extra
muscular combinations. This accounts for the feeling of suffocation
experienced in severe hill-climbing, which should never be prolonged.
The hill should be climbed with the hands held easily, not gripping the
handles; and gripping and pulling on the handles, it should be
remembered, lessen the power for prolonged work. Squeezing the
handle-bars induces involuntary lung compression, and pulling on them
adds to the strain. Lean forward, if need be, to balance and maintain
the equilibrium, but do not maintain the centre of gravity by pulling on
the handles.

[Illustration: WHEELING ONE FOOT OVER.]

The fixed position of the arms, when sitting with spinal column erect,
certainly prevents a full, free inflation of the lungs; the shoulders
are held fixed, and between the saddle and the fixed shoulders there
is no up and down lung-play. In running, the forearms and shoulders
permit free chest expansion. In the racing position on a bicycle, the
arms and shoulders take the same relative position as in running, and a
full, free lung expansion is obtained.

No rigidity is maintained between shoulders and saddle in the racing
drop-position.

For speeding and work of that kind, the position that allows of the
greatest flexibility as well as the greatest leverage is the position to
be chosen.

In travelling and in every-day wheeling, the position should be one
permitting the minimum expenditure of power; the weight should be
supported, yet the position should be such as to permit the weight to be
used as a propelling power. The hands should be held where they are
supported and in the position where they can most easily control the
wheel under any change of conditions. The saddle should be placed where
the foot can act most effectively at all parts or at as many parts as
possible of the circle that the pedal describes. The height of the
saddle should be calculated to permit of extension of the leg without
supporting the weight on the saddle, which causes compression of the
larger veins and arteries. The foot should at all times be fully on the
pedal; that is, the position should permit of throwing all the weight on
to the pedals, whatever the position of the cranks at the moment. The
handle-bar should be adjusted; also length of arm and relative position;
and the weight, height, and curve of bar adapted to suit individual
build.

Length of crank, gear, height, position, and adjustments of saddle may
be used as factors in adjustment of position for ease of movement and
prevention of fatigue. Each individual has different combinations of
lever power, varying with the lengths of the different parts of
different limbs. One may have a long thigh-bone with short lower leg;
another may have just the reverse combination--short thigh-bone and long
lower leg.

The crank is the lever of application of power; the gear, the power in
resistance. The gear determines, in a sense, how much force is needed;
the length of crank, combined with the levers of foot and leg, the
proper or most comfortable lever for overcoming that resistance.
Long-limbed people do well on long cranks, short-limbed people on short
cranks,--the question of length of limb to be determined, not by actual
measurement, but as to the proportions in weight and length of limbs
generally. Either too long or too short a crank will produce numbness
and fatigue. The leg and foot on the crank as it works form a crank
lever movement. The crank of a bicycle should be of such length as to
permit of the greatest amount of force being conveyed along the lever
movement with the least resistance.

The sprocket-wheel is the weight to be moved by the crank; but the crank
is only one of a series of levers.

[Illustration: WHEELING FROM THE PEG--SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT.]

The knee, the ankle, and the pedal-pin must revolve in a circle or a
part of a circle; and each individual must find out the size of circle
that is determined by the crank that will best move in adjustment
with his individual lever combination. A small circle on the pedal may
mean cramped or uncomfortable movement for a long-limbed cyclist; or a
large pedal circle too great distance to traverse on the stroke for a
short-limbed cyclist. A stout person working on a high gear, with a
crank adapted to his requirements, makes fewer strokes of the pedal for
distance traversed, but expends more power at each stroke; therefore,
when wishing to reduce weight, he should use a low gear, working
rapidly, and when wishing to travel easily, a higher gear. A thin person
should be careful to choose such a length of crank and such a gear as
will give ease, so that undue fatigue may be avoided.

The position of the saddle should be most carefully considered. It
should be just far enough back to permit of getting a forward pressure
on the pedal against the crank, as it were, at the top of the stroke,
and yet have something to work against in hill-climbing. The tilt or
inclination should be studied as well as the build of the saddle; its
height from the pedal should allow the foot, when on the pedal, at its
most distant point from the saddle, to press with the ball firmly on the
pedal; and yet the saddle, when the leg is extended, should not press so
as to compress the large blood vessels of the inside of the leg as it
rests against the saddle.

The handle-bar adjustment permits of individual preference to a certain
extent. The handles should be within easy reach of the hands and below
the line of the elbow. If above the level, power is lost, and the
controlling sense of direction as well. The grip on the handles is
instinctive, and as there is much work for the hands to do, they should
be able to grip easily and quickly, and to move easily in all directions
that the handles take, retaining their controlling power undiminished. A
position with the hands reaching down a little gives more power than a
position with the hands reaching up; and in this position the leverage
of the elbows and the power of the shoulder and upper arm may be more
effectively exerted.

Speed work should be done only on a track or a place set apart for that
kind of work; and the most delicate adjustment and balance of weight and
pressure should be studied to produce the proper results. Scorching,
also, to be effective, should be done only on a track, and the position
for the work should be planned most carefully. High speed over rough
surfaces on even well-made roads may prove disastrous if the position
for the work is not a correct one. Serious injury may result to the
bicyclist working incorrectly, with wheel out of adjustment.

Scorching and racing, however, are not properly part of the subject of
bicycling, but are a sport, and should be separately considered.

The adjustment of position may be changed for rest or for any particular
purpose; but for practical purposes it is well to adopt a fixed
adjustment of handle-bar and saddle and length of crank and gear, and
adhere to that, endeavoring to acquire the best form on a machine
adapted to suit your individual requirements.

A bicycle should be used only by the person for whom it has been
adjusted; for comfort on a bicycle depends on such infinitely small
adjustments. Never lend a bicycle or a tool, and never make any change
in adjustment by guess. For ordinary use, the saddle should be a little
back of the pedals and not too high, and the handles within easy reach.
This will allow of the balance and adjustment of weight and balance to
suit changing conditions of surface and grade.

Sprinting is often tempting, and comparatively harmless. Scorching is a
form of bicycle intoxication, and the taste once acquired, the bicyclist
craves its excitement, caring little for the other pleasures of the
sport. The scorcher sees little, hears little, and is conscious of
little but the exhilaration of the moment, and seems to be imbued with
the idea of consuming a certain amount of tissue in a given time.
Scorching is a form of bicycling hardly to be commended, and reckless
scorching is to be condemned at all times. Sprinting consumes a large
quantity of material in a limited time, and though it is well at times
to practise speeding, still the getting up of speed involves
considerable expenditure of power and greatly increased momentum, and
should be indulged in only by those who understand the limit of their
powers and know what they hold in reserve.

The wheel of to-day was evolved on the race-track and for the conditions
determined thereon; and the amateur bicyclist owes much to the
professional wheelman. Improvements in construction, in detail, and in
adaptability have reached a certain limit, a limit of possibilities in
certain directions. It behooves us now to accept the machine and to
adapt ourselves to its requirements and to avail ourselves of all that
it offers.

The elasticity of the machine, the resiliency of the tire, rigidity of
frame, position, vibration, and concussion should be next considered.

On a bicycle fitted with a rigid saddle and with hard tires, well blown
up, the vibration that is conveyed through the entire machine is very
perceptible, even on a smooth wheeling surface. Over uneven country,
Belgian blocks, or other rough or corrugated surfaces, the vibration
produces concussion; and if too erect and rigid a position is
maintained, fatigue, if nothing worse, is sure to result.

On a horse the position, while erect, is studied to lessen the
concussion; the weight is carried well under to avoid it. The flexible
curve of the spine is there, though not perceptible, as the body is held
erect and in balance. The lower part of the body becomes part of the
saddle, the upper body flexible from above the hips. The concussion
comes as each of the horse’s feet is placed on the ground; while
concussion on the bicycle is produced by the change caused by each
inequality of surface. The pneumatic tire lessens this to a degree, if
not blown up too hard; for inequalities sink into the yielding surface
that would make a wheel with a hard tire bump.

The frame should be stiff to hold its direction, and the saddle elastic
enough to interrupt the vibration of the frame. The position on the
saddle should be studied to prevent tension or compression of any of
the joints, large or small; and the spine should be easily erect, not
stiff and rigid, but flexible.

The sense of balance and the adjustment required to balance the bicycle
tends to keep the body flexible. The danger to be avoided is concussion
induced by a rigid position--a position where, the bones being held
closely against each other by tense muscles, shock is easily conveyed
over the entire body.

Let the weight come well on the saddle, in such a position that it can
be shifted to the pedals at will; and let the whole trunk be flexible,
elastically flexible, equally in all directions. Then the bicycle may be
controlled almost unconsciously and from the saddle, the hands being
used only in an auxiliary manner. The front wheel may be steered and
controlled from the saddle by means of the power over the front wheel
gained by the bicycle frame construction.

Bicycling can be thoroughly enjoyed only when the machinery ceases to
require constant and concentrated attention. The rhythmical movements of
a bicyclist at ease, master of the conditions, comes only with
confidence and the persistent practice which causes all the muscles to
move easily together in uninterrupted combinations, and the bicycle no
longer to require conscious attention.

_CHAPTER X._

_Difficulties to Overcome._

There is the mounting difficulty and the steering difficulty and the
pedaling difficulty; and then there is the general difficulty of doing
all these things together.

The first thing to do after learning the theory of starting and stopping
the machine is to make it go. No matter what happens, keep it going, the
faster the better, until a taste is acquired for the pastime; until the
going-forward-forever idea seems to have taken possession of you.

Then you want to try it again, but mounting seems more difficult than
ever. The machine will not do anything it ought to do; it bucks and
kicks and stops and spills and slips, and will not stand still, or even
move on. You know how to mount, or think you know; but that knowledge
does not seem to aid materially in overcoming the tendencies of the
machine.

Now be sure that you do know what to do. The first thing to know is that
the weight placed on the pedal starts the machine; that the foot on the
ground will hold the machine, and keep it from starting; that the
machine when in motion will move without falling, and when at rest
will not stand still unless held up.

[Illustration: PREPARING TO MOUNT--SHOWING INCLINATION.]

Then determine the amount of inclination the bicycle requires to balance
against your weight. The weight placed on the pedal pulls the machine up
to a vertical plane; and the inclination to be calculated for soon
becomes an accepted quantity. In gripping the handles and inclining the
machine, the balance that is felt will set you up on your wheel.

In mounting, the beginner is apt to stand too far behind the mounting
pedal. The position should be beside it, and the mounting foot be placed
over the frame and on the pedal. Then, raising the weight by means of
the handles, step off the ground, letting the pedal take the weight. Do
not give any push from the foot on the ground, but step off the ground
as you step on the pedal. Stepping on the pedal sets the machine in
motion, and rights it at the same time. There is nothing now to do but
to let the pedal lower you to the saddle, and hold the other foot up
until the other pedal comes around and carries the foot forward.

In mounting, the weight should be distributed between the handles and
the pedal until seated on the saddle. To practise mounting, take the
wheel, and start on a very slight down grade. Never attempt to practise
mounting against a grade, no matter how slight the inclination. A
careful instructor teaches mounting and dismounting thoroughly; but if a
poor method has been acquired, practise alone until you have gained
confidence and perhaps a few bruises. The only way to succeed is to try
and try again. Practise fifteen minutes at a time, for it is fatiguing
work; and do not become discouraged. With sufficient practice, the
difficulty vanishes.

Never practise mounting when tired; for you should be alert, and all
your muscles responsive. But persist; practise first mounting, and then
dismounting; and then rest by walking the machine about to learn its
balance.

Any one who rides or drives, or rows or sails, knows something of the
art of steering,--pulling or pushing on one side or the other to change
direction,--and on mounting a bicycle has only to apply knowledge
already acquired. In steering a bicycle, look directly over the centre
of the handle-bars in the direction you wish to take, and push or pull
the wheel until the centre of the bars coincides with your objective
point. This is really what is done; but the machine is so delicately
sensitive that you change its direction almost without knowing that you
are doing so. You go where you look; the hands follow the eye; and the
art of steering a bicycle resolves itself into knowing where you want to
go, and looking in that direction as you move. In steering or mounting,
always have an objective point. Look up the road well ahead, and keep
the general direction.

A difficulty early experienced is uncertain steering and an uncertain
sense of direction. When you are out for practice, look well ahead
towards the end of your road over the handles. Novices run into anything
they look at, and must concentrate their attention, therefore, on the
direction the bicycle ought to take.

[Illustration: INCORRECT MOUNTING POSITION.]

The weight inclined from side to side steers the bicycle; pressure on
either pedal steers it as well.

Correct and effective pedaling is a very difficult attainment, to be
acquired only with care and practice. First make the bicycle go, then
study how you do it, and improve your method. Keep in mind the points
that are required for correct pedaling. The early difficulty experienced
is to keep the knees and ankles in proper line. Turning the knees in and
the heels out will prevent the ankle-bones from striking, a difficulty
that many experience.

The reason that mounting is so difficult for some is because the foot is
placed incorrectly on the pedal, with the toe pointing out. The foot
should be parallel with the frame of the bicycle, and the knee turned
in; or else, when the weight is raised, the ankle will strike, and the
discomfort of the blow will render the attempt to mount unsuccessful.
The position seems awkward until correctly acquired; but the awkwardness
is due usually to lack of confidence to come close to the machine and to
taking a position too far back of the mounting pedal.

The change of direction on mounting often proves confusing, and the
bicycle must be steadied, and made to keep its direction at the same
time.

Choose your direction, and assure yourself of plenty of room to work in,
away from trees or stones or other objects that might prove a source of
danger in case of collision. Then mount and go. Keep these two ideas
well in mind. If you are uncomfortable, stop and get off; don’t try to
adjust anything while in motion. When you get on, go. You cannot get on
and keep still. Do not get on unless you are ready to go; keep going
when you are on; and the mounting difficulty vanishes.

Steer steadily, and be quick without haste. A hurried change of
direction can only be made without danger of a spill by an expert, and
then only in an emergency or for track-work. Bicycling requires
precision, and haste or hurry is out of place, while quick and alert
movement is required.

Take the bicycle out and do as much as you can with it. Part of the fun
is conquering difficulties, and each difficulty overcome is an
achievement.

Another difficulty experienced is striking the saddle in mounting. This
is usually due to springing from the ground to the saddle, or attempting
to do so, instead of stepping on the mounting pedal, and supporting and
holding the weight on the handle-bars. Of course, if the weight is not
supported on the machine, and the machine is started, it cannot carry
the weight forward. The saddle will strike, and push you over. Mount by
means of the handle-bars; let them take you; shift the weight up by them
on to the pedal. Then lower the weight to the saddle, step clear of the
ground, and lean a little over the bars if necessary to clear the
saddle.

In mounting a bicycle, you mount up on the pedal, and settle from that
down to the saddle. If the pedal strikes the other foot, it is because
the foot is not held up. Do not be in dread of that other foot; hold it
well up out of the way, using the mounting foot to make the machine
go.

[Illustration: MOUNTING--PREPARATORY POSITION.]

Too great inclination of the machine will spoil the mount, and
insufficient inclination will have the same effect. The front wheel must
be held in line with the frame, and any wrong tendency corrected by the
handle-bars after the weight is raised on the pedal, and the machine is
upright.

Many good tires are ruined by ineffectual efforts to mount. The machine
is pulled against the tire, and it is hard to understand why the tires
are not torn off or ripped to pieces. The light wheels are not made to
stand such usage; and it is a mistake to subject a new wheel to it. The
rubber is pulled sideways (a proper way to pull a tire off), and the
novice is fortunate if the bicycle is not all pulled out of true by
being strained in directions not calculated to resist wear and strain. A
twenty-pound wheel may be pulled out of true and so bent and untwisted
by ineffectual mounting efforts that it cannot be restored without labor
that amounts to practically rebuilding the bicycle.

In turning a bicycle, always lean in the direction the machine is
inclined. Lean in the direction you want to go, and very little
correction will be needed from the handle-bars. In turning, lean with
the wheel, and meet it with the handle-bars. Meeting the machine is done
continually, and is done by swinging the front wheel to meet the
inclination of the bicycle on whichever side it has a tendency to fall.
Bringing up is done by pulling the wheel around a little further
quickly, and very quickly back again. The frame is lifted by the front
wheel. This is explained in the principles of bicycle construction.
When an obstacle, as a car track or rut in the road, is met, the
obstacle must be crossed squarely; or if obliged to make a different
angle, the angle should be met with the front wheel at the instant of
contact, and a proper balance maintained with the pedals.

To stop and stand still, pedal slowly until the machine is almost ready
to stop; then “catch the pedals half way,” that is, stand on them,
rising from the saddle, having the pedals at equal heights, and
alternate the pressure. Hold the saddle firmly, pressing against both
sides to feel the balance and to hold the balance by means of the saddle
between the pedals with the weight on the feet.

As you catch the pedals, give the front wheel a sudden twist towards the
back pedal, which will prevent the bicycle from falling on that side;
then control the balance by the weight on the other pedal, and if
necessary restore balance by a quick twist of the front wheel. The best
way to practise this is to stop near a smooth wall, and use that to
assist to steady the balance.

Two people can stop and stand still in this way, crossing hands as in
skating, gripping the inner handles of the bicycles, and stopping by
holding the pedals and controlling the front wheels by the handles,
using the outer hand. This makes a very pretty and effective pause.

[Illustration: CORRECT MOUNTING POSITION.]

Numbness undoubtedly comes from interrupted circulation, caused either
by the clothing or the method of working. Numbness of the hands and
fingers may be traced generally to tight clothing, and after all
surface pressure is removed may safely be attributed to a too tight
gripping of the handles. A large soft glove often aids to prevent
numbness of the fingers; if gloves are not worn, the hand is apt to
grasp too closely. Change of position, too, will tend to counteract
numbness. It is not well to work too long at a time without a rest, if
there is any tendency of this kind. Walk up hill or on the level to
restore the circulation.

Numbness of the foot can be caused by surface pressure, the shoes, or
the saddle. Sitting too close to the saddle while working, instead of
carrying the weight on the pedals, is apt to produce numbness of the
feet. Garters or belts will have the same effect, and must be watched
and regulated. A shoe adapted for walking is not at all suitable for
serious bicycle exercise; the strains and pressure all come in the wrong
places, and confine and numb the feet. Free ankle movement is
imperative, and freedom for the lower muscles of the calf of the leg;
room for the feet, and especially for the toes to spread and to assist
in pressing the pedal. The sole of the shoe should be stiff, to prevent
bruises from the pedals or from irregularities on the ground.

Concussion and a consequent vibratory movement of the bicycle are
impossible to avoid, but they need not affect the wheeler injuriously.
Numbness is sometimes due to a condition of the nerves of the parts
affected by the vibratory movement. To prevent this condition of
affairs, never wheel with the weight on the hands, nor grip the handles
of the handle-bars too tight. Rest the hands lightly on the handles,
and be prepared to squeeze hard when necessary. Study the best position
and most convenient height for the hands when the machine is best under
control, and the jar and vibration are not perceived. All joints of
wrist, elbow, and shoulder should transmit any motion, not locate it, by
being fixed or rigid at any point.

The tire of the wheel should not be hard, nor should the saddle be
fitted with springs; and it should be so placed as to allow the rider to
rise easily on the pedals for rough wheeling. These rules being
observed, serious danger from this cause need not be apprehended.

Wheeling over cobble-stone pavement or over good Belgian blocks produces
a marked vibration in the bicycle. It would be a satisfactory test for
adjustment of position to be able to wheel over such a surface with
comfort, feeling the vibration of the bicycle hardly at all.

The difficulty experienced in wheeling over rough surface is caused by
lack of confidence and by general stiffness of all the muscles, which
causes the full force of the vibration to be felt. In carrying the
weight on the pedals, the vibration is less intensely felt. To grip the
handles for rough surface riding is almost involuntary, but it is
accompanied by acute discomfort from vibration. Pedal work only will
meet this difficulty.

There are different methods of mounting. The pedal mount is usually the
one first attempted on a drop-frame bicycle; the mount over the wheel on
a diamond-frame.

[Illustration: MOUNTING--SECOND POSITION.]

The diamond-frame mount from the peg is made in this way: Standing
directly behind the machine, the handles of the handle-bars are grasped
firmly. One foot is placed on the peg, and the wheel inclined away from
that foot; the foot on the ground gives a shove, and the bicycle moves
off, carrying the weight on the peg; and the other foot swings forward
to catch the pedal, which was a little behind the top of the circle on
starting.

The drop-frame has several rather pretty pedal mounts and vaults. In
one, the bars are held, and the machine is started. Watch the rhythm of
the pedal, and as it passes the top of the stroke, incline the machine
away from you, place the other foot on the pedal, swing the foot next
the machine over in front, and catch the other pedal as it rises; then
sit easily on the saddle. The vault is made after starting the machine,
running or hurrying along, and springing from the ground to the saddle,
using the handles to help. The pedals are found after being seated on
the saddle; and the machine moves with the momentum given it in running
before rising in the vault.

There is a mount from the pedal on the same side on which you are
standing. Start the bicycle, and keep along with it, watching the
pedals. As the pedal near you comes up and over the top of the curve,
step on it with the outside foot, inclining the machine well away from
you; at the same time the weight will carry the pedal around with you,
and as it rises, the other pedal and the saddle can be found. The same
mount may be made without starting the machine. Hold the machine
inclined from you; place the outside foot against the pedal until it is
at its furthest point away from you; hold the bicycle firmly, and step
on, swinging the foot off the ground around to the other pedal, in front
of the saddle, not behind it. On the diamond-frame, the same mount is
made, only the foot is swung behind the saddle, not in front of it, as
is possible on the drop-frame machine.

To stop the bicycle with another person on it, grasp the handle-bars,
and take hold of the shoulder of the person propelling the bicycle, if
necessary.

[Illustration: DISMOUNTING OVER THE WHEEL.]

_CHAPTER XI._

_Dress._

The matter of dress for bicycling is quite important from the hygienic
standpoint.

Clothing should be most carefully selected, with the view to an equal
distribution of weight and an even thickness of material; it should have
no constricting, no tight bands anywhere, but should permit of absolute
freedom of movement, and be warm enough to prevent chilling through too
great radiation of heat, yet porous enough to allow of free evaporation.

All seasons of the year permit of cycling; the bicyclist therefore has
opportunity for much variety in dress. The essentials are
knickerbockers, shirt-waist, stockings, shoes, gaiters, sweater, coat,
no skirt, or skirt with length decided by individual preference, hat and
gloves.

The knickerbockers should be very carefully cut; smooth and tight just
over the top of the hips, and fitting easily below; not fulled or
gathered; full at the knees, and boxed or finished with a band and
button and button-hole; nothing elastic on any account. The stockings
should be worn folded on the boxed part of the knickerbockers, below the
knees, and rolled down and held by the band of the knickerbockers, being
fastened below. This arrangement does away with garters, which compress
surface circulation, or pull if attached at the waist, causing pressure
where they pull, and are most objectionable for many reasons. The
knickerbockers should be made of cloth or woollen material.

The shirt-waist should have wristbands or sleeves finished to open a
little way, and button; the neck finished with a band, with a detachable
collar of the same material. The body of the waist should be shaped to
the figure at the sides and back, gathered slightly in the front, and
finished at the waist-line without a band, and may be of the same
material as the rest of the suit. The knickerbockers should button to
this waist, the places for the buttons being reinforced. The stockings
should preferably be of wool, and of a seasonable weight.

The combination of knickerbockers, shirt-waist, and stockings forms the
essential part of a cycling costume. A union under-garment may be worn
and the knickerbocker suit; over this a coat and a skirt if desired,
with a sweater for an extra wrap.

Bicycling is warm work, and the clothing should always be rather light
in weight. For touring it must all be carried on the wheel, and yet be
heavy enough for comfort when not exercising, and not too heavy for
work, and should, moreover, allow of adjustment for changes in
temperature or for any required change in distribution. To this end, all
the clothing should be of one color or of colors that look well
together. The knickerbockers, waist, and skirt should match; then if the
coat is removed, the costume looks complete. An outfit might consist
of two suits complete, of different weights; sweaters of different
weights; wool stockings, heavy and light, that will roll below the knee
without being either bulky or tight.

[Illustration: MOUNTING OVER THE WHEEL FROM PEG.]

The knickerbockers are better fastened with a button, the button being
in just the right place, than with a strap and buckle, which is liable
to be pulled too tight at times.

The shoes should be low, made of thin leather, laced well down toward
the toe, with light uppers, and soles stiff yet flexible, and made with
grooves to take the pedals and prevent slipping. Blocks or cleats on the
soles to fit the pedals are sometimes preferred, but are hardly so good
for general work.

The gaiters may be made of almost any suitable material, leather,
canvas, or woollen, to match or contrast with the rest of the costume.
They should fit easily around the ankle and over the instep, and should
never, on any account, extend more than half way to the knee. The
muscles of the calf of the leg must have room to work; and gaiters badly
cut, or too tight or too long, would impede circulation and restrict
muscular action.

The sweater should come well up around the neck, and pull down easily
below the saddle; it is better too long than not long enough to cover
the large muscular masses that have been at work, and may be turned up
if in the way. It should slip on easily, and be soft and woolly, and not
so cumbersome that the coat cannot slip on over it and be buttoned up to
the throat.

The coat should be cut long-waisted, and easy across the shoulders,
single-breasted, and made to button close to the throat; the collar to
roll and remain open, but so cut that it may be easily turned up to the
ears. The sleeves should be finished with two buttons and button-holes,
so that they may be turned up a little if desired.

There are occasions when a covert coat made of close cloth may be
useful, when out in very cold weather or standing in the wind without
shelter; but it cannot be generally recommended.

Pockets in any part of the dress should be made of woollen material.
Cotton retains moisture, and a cotton pocket or a pocket lined with
cotton may become damp and clammy and cold, acting almost like a damp
compress. The fewer pockets, the better; but a number are often found
convenient. Everything if possible should be carried on the wheel, not
in the pockets. Metal condenses moisture and interrupts evaporation.

As the skirt should always open at the side, and fasten with several
buttons, a convenient pocket may be placed in the placket-hole; a
watch-pocket in the skirt is a good thing, but the watch is better
carried on the wheel; and a pocket should be set aside for matches,
where they may always be found quickly.

Collars and cuffs of linen or of celluloid, of silk or of the same
material as the suit, may be used for touring; but soft neckwear should
be worn if possible.

If a neck-muffler is worn, it should be of cashmere, not of silk.

Neatness is most important. Each article of dress should be carefully
adjusted and fastened. Never use pins or put things carelessly
together, hoping they will stay, but be sure that every article of dress
fits and is securely fastened, and it will never need a thought after it
is in place.

In warm weather gloves with one button are most comfortable; for cooler
weather, four buttons, fastened about the wrists, keep the hands warm.

The adjustment of the covering of wrists and ankles makes the greatest
difference in comfort in wheeling. In cold weather, hands and feet
should be kept warm; in hot weather, it is comfortable to work with the
cuffs turned back and wearing low shoes without gaiters. Indeed, in hot
weather it is important not to encase the ankles in heavy boots or
leggings, as these would ensure overheating.

The outfit may be completed with a number of hats--a light straw for
summer, a soft felt for touring, and a small and becoming hat for the
park. The hat should be chosen to stay on easily, and not pinned, but
fastened under the hair with elastic, and the hair dressed to stand any
amount of blowing about.

The skirt should not reach more than half way below the knee, and the
hem and all seams should be finished on the outside; then there will be
nothing to catch or pull. The width around the bottom may be a matter of
choice, but the skirt need not fall behind the pedal when furthest back,
and should be cut full enough in the front to permit the knees to work
easily. The top of the skirt should take the place of a waistband,
following the curves of the figure, made to flare at the top of the
waist, and fitted snugly over the hips and hanging from them. It may be
worn with or without a belt.

The coat should be long enough to touch the saddle or hang an inch or
two below it, to protect all the vital organs and as much of the working
masses of muscle as possible.

The sweater may be worn for coolness or warmth. As an outside garment,
it allows the air to pass through its mesh easily; worn under another
garment, it is very warm, retaining the heat.

The color of a bicycle suit may be chosen for the kind of work to be
done; its texture may be decided suitable if, a piece being held over
the mouth, it is possible to inhale and exhale through it easily. The
cloth should be firm enough to stand wear and rough usage; smooth enough
to shed dust easily; and of a quality that will stand being wet without
shrinking, and will turn the rain if caught in a shower. It should be
firm, elastic, soft; have what is known as substance; be very light in
weight and yet not clinging; and possessing all these qualities, the
ideal cloth for bicycling should not be so expensive that it cannot be
renewed easily.

Simplicity in detail for any garment made to work in is always
commendable, and a bicycle dress must be simple to be suitable.

A corset, if one is worn, should not extend below the waist-line, and
should have elastic side-lacing.

To choose what to wear when the weather is changeable is rather
difficult; and the bicyclist starting early in the morning for an
all-day outing must expect changes of temperature during the day.
Starting, the coat may be folded on the handles, and the sweater worn;
later, as the sun grows warmer, the sweater may be removed; at the
noonday halt, the coat may be donned while lunching, as it usually seems
chilly coming under cover; later in the afternoon the sweater is again
of use; and before the evening is advanced, the coat worn over the
sweater often proves acceptable.

For touring, only an extra change of underwear, with a change of
neckwear, is needed to carry on the wheel.

To look well at all times when bicycling, it is necessary to remember
the possible conditions that may be encountered, and to wear no garment
that may prove incongruous.

When touring, of course, fresh toilettes may be indulged in at the
expense of extra luggage. The chief pleasure of bicycling is
independence and the joy of being free; yet a long trip without access
to the conveniences and even the luxuries of civilization, should not be
attempted. A trunk may be sent home as soon as it has been proved
unnecessary, or sent ahead and met at intervals; but its non-arrival
should never be allowed to disconcert the traveller.

It is an accepted fact that bicycling cannot be properly enjoyed unless
the clothing is suitable. Of course, one can take a drop-frame bicycle,
mount, and wheel slowly for a short distance, barring inconveniences, in
ordinary dress; so can one swim a little if unexpectedly placed in the
water. Bicycling requires the same freedom of movement that swimming
does, and the dress must not hamper or hinder.

_CHAPTER XII._

_Watch and Cyclometer._

Suitably attired, with a bicycle of the latest model and most perfect
construction, it matters little whether the residence be in town or
country, for the largest city is soon left behind. The country, when the
highway ceases to be passable, is easily traversable on the foot-trodden
pathway beside it. Wherever the foot has trodden, the wheel may follow,
if the path be well defined; and as the wheel can be carried easily,
there is no limit but the limit of endurance in crossing country that
cannot be wheeled over. But in order to cover distance without
dismounting and within a time limit, where the speed attained is an
element to be considered, good roads should be chosen.

The bicycle multiplies our power of advancing by five. One who can walk
three miles in an hour can wheel fifteen miles on a bicycle, given all
the conditions necessary to attain that speed for the period of an hour.
The wonderful speed of the running and sprinting athlete is again
multiplied by five, for a short time, in the contests where wheeling
records are made.

While increasing the distance travelled the bicycle has greatly
decreased the time limit. A person travelling afoot at the rate of three
miles an hour (the average walking gait) covers a mile in twenty
minutes, and at the end of an hour is not more than three miles from the
starting point. On a bicycle a mile is covered usually in four minutes
or less. The average distance, owing to the varied resistance met, is
not usually so great; and more power may be expended in the hour than is
required to walk three miles in the same length of time. Six miles may
be the record for an hour on a wheel, and yet the amount of work done be
very great. Until the position is adjusted to suit individual
requirements, the output of power to accomplish a certain distance, even
though it be a short one, is necessarily great. Considerable study is
necessary to work out the perfect individual adjustment of the bicycle,
weight of clothing, and amount of practice requisite to easy, rhythmical
movement; but that once attained, the world lies before you.

Bicycling trains and quickens the perceptions; it cultivates and
develops courage, judgment, and discrimination as well as prompt
decision and quick and accurate sight. The hand follows the eye without
effort; and the machine responds to each impression received without
conscious expenditure of power.

To cyclists is due the keen public interest recently aroused in good
roadways and in legislation to effect their construction, and the
consequent improvement in public highways. For years the amateur
cyclists of the country labored to this end in the interest of the
sport, the League of American Wheelmen intelligently preparing the minds
of the public on the subject.

To be accomplished as a bicyclist means something more than knowing how
to wheel a bicycle and to be able to get about on it. It is necessary
besides to keep informed of the laws and ordinances relating to bicycles
and to vehicles in general; to possess a complete and accurate knowledge
of the wheel as a machine; to be able to do for it all that can be done
one’s self or to direct another who has not this knowledge; to know the
country travelled, know distance and direction; the use of map and
compass, and how to travel without them, finding the direction by sun or
stars, or even, if need be, without either; to understand the effect of
time and season on the face of nature and to cultivate the senses of the
woods.

If, while touring with a party, you find that you have missed the way in
a strange country and that something about the bicycle has given out,
calm decision is requisite. Estimate your resources, and keep quiet. Do
not try to find your party; let them find you. Study your wheel-tracks;
if off the line of travel, follow them carefully to where they join the
tracks of your companions. Then wait until some one comes for you. Rest
or be busy about your wheel. Do what you can easily, not to be tired and
worn out when your companions find you. It is seldom wise to try and
walk after the party; the only object in moving would be to keep warm,
for a chill must be avoided.

There is a wonderful difference in the distances covered under different
conditions. Winds, adverse or favorable, affect the bicyclist more than
anything else. An unfavorable wind is one directly ahead or that can be
felt on either cheek while advancing. A favorable wind is one that blows
on the back, or cannot be felt on either cheek while looking ahead. A
wind blowing directly at right angles with the direction of the wheel is
a favorable wind; you unconsciously balance against it, and the bicycle
glides forward under pressure as a boat does with the sail trimmed in.

When starting out, note the weather conditions; what the prevailing
winds are and what the changes are likely to be during the time you
expect to be on your bicycle. If the wind is west or northwest, do not
take that direction for the run out, unless the trip is to be a short
one. Always try to have the wind with you, both going and returning.
Learn the peculiarities of the weather and study the government weather
reports; they are of quite as much assistance to the bicyclist as to the
mariner who knows how to use them; for winds frequently change their
direction, and the indications for such changes should be sought and
studied.

If a short trip is planned, as the wind is not likely to change during
the run, start out against the wind; that is, plan to do the hardest
work first, and let the wind help on the return. Avoid hard work
whenever possible. Hill-climbing against the wind is the hardest kind of
work; with the wind to assist, even quite steep hills may often be
coasted part of the way up, and all easy grades taken with the feet off
the pedals. Coasting should be indulged in with discretion, or the
bicycle may run away with you. Check speed at the first indication that
the wheel is escaping control by applying the brake and catching the
pedal, back pedaling at the same time. On a public road, the bicycle
should never be beyond control.

To thoroughly enjoy an outing, road, direction, and atmospheric
conditions should be studied. If you are out for several hours’ spin in
chilly weather, there is little pleasure to be had in exploring; but in
weather when the temperature permits of stops without danger to health,
frequent dismounts and short-distance trips across country are
enjoyable. One of the pleasures of bicyclists is the good fellowship
existing between them, which is rarely disturbed. On the bicycle
conversation is interrupted by long pauses, by intervals of silence,
when each rider is alone, with opportunity for reflection and mental
expansion.

On long trips note first the general direction of the road, the wind,
and the sun; try to have the wind with you and the sun behind you for
the better part of the day. Be able to change your plans quickly to meet
changed conditions, and have a reserve of grit to fall back on if things
do not go quite to your liking. Dressed for bicycling, it matters little
whether it rains or shines; but wind, sand, and stones make impossible
conditions for the bicyclist. When wind has reached a certain velocity,
wheeling becomes unsafe. Mud causes the wheels to slip and prevents
them from turning; sand does the same. A surface offering little or no
resistance is impossible. Stones are dangerously liable to cause spills,
while ruts and bumps twist the bicycle and are apt to throw the rider.

In the autumn months, when the sun sets early, a lantern should be
provided even when it seems an absurdly unnecessary encumbrance; for a
town or village where the ordinances are strict may lie on the route,
and the unlucky bicyclist without a light must go afoot.

Of course, speeding cannot be attempted with the bicycle encumbered; but
with all the extras, a good average speed may be maintained. The
bicyclist wishing for freedom from all encumbrance is apt to forget
unpleasant possibilities. A punctured tire thirty miles from anything is
such a possibility; so, though the tool-kit weighs something, it can
never prudently be dispensed with.

Have the bicycle all ready, and start free from care and with a quiet
mind, after a last careful and reassuring inspection of the machine.
Starting from a town with a perfectly running machine, the attention is
first directed to getting into the country easily, either by train or by
wheeling. In wheeling, streets free from traffic and with the best
possible surfaces should be chosen.

Country wheeling is often good when city work is impossible. The dangers
of city wheeling are traffic, car tracks, and mud. City mud is usually
of a greasy nature, very difficult to wheel over. Even pedaling is very
necessary, and uneven pressure on the pedals means a side spill.

In wheeling over mud, never attempt to control the machine by the front
wheel; it must be controlled by the pedals. If too much pressure is
used, there is nothing left but to step off. Do not try to recover by
means of the front wheel; the attempt will be useless, and a fall can be
avoided only by stepping off. Keep the front wheel steady, and rely on
the weight-carrying wheel to take you clear of the mud. Keep a sharp
lookout, and travel slowly. Any one can make a bicycle go.

Get out of town, and then be ready to pedal up to time on the first
clear stretch of good road. Make time, but never hurry. Never work hard
over hill-work or try to go fast against the wind. When using
side-paths, always recollect they may be protected by local ordinances.
Keep posted on the law of the road, taking to the highway on approaching
towns and villages. If the work is hard, travel slowly, and look ahead.
Two good rules are--To travel fast, look well ahead; and watch the
ground when there is a hard bit of road to pass over.

A good stiff pull against the wind can be accomplished easily, really
easily, if you take your time, giving full attention to pedaling, and
keeping the eyes a short distance ahead of the wheel. It is much easier
to rest on the bicycle by slowing than to dismount. In cold weather,
never stop without seeking shelter, at least the lee of bank or wall;
and keep away from a fire, as it renders one liable to take cold.
Nothing is so dangerous in frosty weather as a pause of even a few
minutes dismounted.

In warm weather, it is permissible to drink water when wheeling; but it
should be remembered that the bicyclist passes through all sorts of
country, and the water may sometimes be anything but drinkable from a
sanitary point of view, even causing typhoid and other fevers. Water
that has been boiled is unpalatable, but it is safe; boiled and cooled,
it may be rendered more palatable by shaking it or pouring it from one
pitcher to another to mix air with it. Ice in water is another source of
danger. The water, after being boiled or filtered, should be placed in
bottles with absorbent cotton for stoppers, and cooled by being placed
on ice. Muddy water may be cleansed with a piece of alum. If a lump of
alum is stirred about for a second or two in a pail or pitcher of muddy
water, and then the water allowed to settle, it will be found fit to
boil for drinking. Bottled waters are safest when the country is unknown
or when there is doubt as to the purity of the local supply; but failing
these, the precautions mentioned will ensure safety.

Never prolong bicycle exercise without eating, and never work after a
hearty meal; but the consumption of a couple of sandwiches at noon
cannot be regarded as a serious meal; and it is often better to push on
after a short halt, moving slowly, than to sit around on rocks or stumps
to wait for a proper digestive period to elapse. It is well to have a
small reserve supply of food, such as chocolate or beef tablets, to tide
one over a prolonged period between meals. Milk and bread and cheese
are good to take as an extra meal. Never work hungry if it can be
avoided; the bicycle will lag, and the cyclist wonder at being weary.
Keep up the food supply by all means, for fatigue sets in quickly with
the desire for food, and the system quickly becomes enfeebled.

The cyclometer registers each revolution of the wheel, and by an
ingenious mechanism the dial gives the record in miles. There is a great
temptation to roll up miles, that the cyclometer may make a good
showing; indeed, this striving after mileage often becomes a ruling
passion, interfering with the real pleasures of the sport.

The pedestrian, accustomed to noting distances, can usually judge the
rate or pace travelled, and decide very accurately upon the distance
traversed, with only the time as a guide; for the pace, so many miles an
hour, multiplied by the number of hours, gives the distance.

On the bicycle the pace is very easily estimated in a similar manner.
Count the strokes per minute as each knee rises, divide that by two, and
you have the number of revolutions of the crank. The gear gives the
diameter of the wheel larger than the one on the bicycle; sixty-four
gear, for instance, means that the crank revolution covers a distance
equal to a wheel with a diameter of sixty-four inches. The circumference
of a wheel is three times its diameter; and 64 multiplied by 3 equals
192 inches measured on the ground for one revolution of the crank.
Multiply the distance measured on the ground by the crank revolution by
the number of strokes made per minute, divide by twelve to give the
number of feet the crank has covered in one revolution, and you have the
distance in feet travelled per minute. To find the rate of miles per
hour, multiply that result by 60 to find the number of feet travelled
per hour, and divide the result by 5280, the number of feet in a mile.
The watch should have a second hand for bicycle work. The cyclometer
taken for five minutes, then multiplied by twelve, gives the rate of
mileage per hour, a very convenient way of ascertaining the rate of
speed per hour.

It is well to know the rhythm of stroke of a certain rate per hour, for
it is often of assistance in determining distance, and will frequently
prevent a hurry when train connections are to be made, by assuring you
that you are easily travelling a pace that will take you to your
destination on time.

The alertness and quickness of perception that bicycling cultivates seem
marvellous. A road, previously accepted as ordinarily good, becomes full
of pitfalls that the wary learn to avoid. Slippery or uneven surfaces,
tacks and broken glass, are to be noted and avoided, inequalities
allowed for, and preparation made to overcome the tendency of the
machine on unexpected hard bits of road.

One of the dangers of sidepath wheeling often encountered is a slippery
spot or a place where the surface may give way, such as the edge of a
bank along which the path runs, with a fence on the other side. Here, if
the bicycle slips, the bicyclist is pretty sure to be thrown against the
fence. In sidepath wheeling a sharp lookout must be kept for these
slippery spots and weak edges, and also for stones or stumps that run
through the uneven surface.

A first coast on a hill whose pitch has been miscalculated, and which
proves steeper than was anticipated, is a terrible surprise. To find
one’s self clinging desperately to a runaway machine, with no hope save
in the ascending grade that seems so far away, is anything but a
pleasant experience. In such case sit still, hold fast, keep straight,
and if nothing is in the way to collide with, there is hope, barring
unexpected surface obstacles. The coaster’s safety in steering lies in
swaying; the pedals are out of the question, and the front wheel is
better undisturbed. A slight inclination to either side will alter the
course of the bicycle without interfering with balance or momentum, and
the hands can be ready, gripping hard, to keep the wheel steady.

In coasting, sit well in the saddle, letting that take the whole weight,
and do not push too hard with the feet on the coasters. The feet should
not be braced against the coasters, but should rest easily against them
with an even pressure.

To learn to coast, practise at first either on a slight or a small
grade; another way is to get up speed on the level, and take one foot
off at the time. The most marvellous experience of bicycling is to have
a wind carry you coasting up hill--a wind, too, that is seemingly
adverse, or at least not directly favorable.

Trust to the map, the watch, and the cyclometer to locate your
whereabouts, and do not place too much faith in answers to inquiries,
unless you are speaking to a bicyclist; for people unaccustomed to
accurate judgment differ greatly in their estimation of a given distance
or a general direction. You need only stop three or four times in a mile
or two, and inquire the way to a town say five or six miles distant, to
be convinced of this fact.

_CHAPTER XIII._

_Women and Tools._

Most women can sew on a button or run up a seam; sewing, in fact, is
regarded rather as a feminine instinct than an art. There are many
capable people in the world, both men and women, who can comprehend at a
glance the use or the application of an article or an idea--people who
instinctively use their eyes and hands with ease and accuracy; there are
others who learn more slowly to use their mechanical senses; and there
are also those whose attention has never been called to certain simple
mechanical facts and details that they are quite capable of
understanding. To all the mastery of these facts means an expenditure of
more or less time, and in this busy world of ours, there is nothing so
much appreciated or so carelessly wasted. It is my intention to place
before my readers a few simple mechanical explanations.

I hold that any woman who is able to use a needle or scissors can use
other tools equally well. It is a very important matter for a bicyclist
to be acquainted with all parts of the bicycle, their uses and
adjustment. Many a weary hour would be spared were a little proper
attention given at the right time to your machine.

[Illustration: STARTING A NUT.]

Ask any carriage maker or coachman, and he will tell you that everything
on wheels needs attention. Any owner or lover of horses will say that
horses require constant care. The bicyclist is the motor, the horse; the
bicycle, the vehicle. These ideas should remain distinct. When you mount
a wheel, you do not mount an iron horse; you are a human propelling
power, and the bicycle is a carriage.

It is all important to work without unnecessary effort, and for this you
must have a knowledge of bicycle construction, how to make the machine
run smoothly, and how not to injure the human motor or the mechanism.
The human body is so beautifully self-adjustable that it may be safely
attributed to ignorance or neglect if anything goes wrong with it.
Attention should always be paid at the right time to nature’s warnings;
they are danger-signals, and if disregarded, unpleasant results are sure
to follow. A little common-sense goes far; and with that and a right
knowledge--not necessarily an extensive knowledge--of the working of the
human machine, there need be little to fear from injuries resulting from
athletic exercise.

The amount of work different individuals can perform, of course, varies.
Find out how much work you ought to do, and do it. A physician is the
only competent judge of your limitations. Never attempt any new form of
exercise without being examined for it. Sensible people when they
purchase a horse require a veterinary certificate to accompany the
guarantee; and the work the horse is to do is planned according to the
ascertained amount the animal is capable of performing. If it is right
for you to wheel but five miles every other day, and at a certain hour
only, it does not follow that that is always to be your limit. Practice
accomplishes great results; and the strength and endurance that come of
exercise taken regularly, under proper conditions, seems marvellous to
those who, after a course of proper preparation, attempt and accomplish
with pleasure and ease what at first seemed impossible. It is hard, of
course, to see some one else do what you would like to do and cannot;
but it is weak not to be able to say, “I have done enough, and I must
stop.” There are many other people similarly placed.

The bicycle may be so adapted and adjusted as to enable bicyclists of
different powers to work together and enjoy a fair amount of
sociability; for if one has wheeled around the world, why should that
spoil one’s pleasure in wheeling around a block? To wheel alone is not
much pleasure. Find some one to wheel around the block with you, and you
have the beginning of a club.

Many people do not understand what is best for them. The experienced
athlete knows the amount of work he can do, and what must be done and
avoided to enable him to do his work well. Women and girls are able to
do good work, but they should not expect to accomplish such a result
through ignorance or neglect. They must be willing to study and to give
proper attention to important details, and their knowledge of the
subject must be sufficient to enable them to use judgment and
discrimination. Almost any form of athletics will aid in cultivating
these qualities; and bicycling has besides valuable educational features
of its own. A certain familiarity with mechanics is assured by a course
of bicycling, for it is impossible to handle a bicycle without taking
some degree of interest in its construction.

Women must expect ridicule and little sympathy from experienced cyclists
if they essay feats they should not attempt. Many decide that a thing
must be easy of accomplishment because they have seen some one do it
easily. Easy muscular work, however, is the result of strength,
confidence, and precision of movement, which come only from practice.
All new muscular movements and combinations of movements must be
learned; they cannot be acquired hurriedly with good results. People who
can work well are usually patient with a beginner who is doing his best,
knowing themselves what it means to work hard and to face disappointment
and failure and what is involved in repeated effort. The ambitious are
liable to over-exertion, the timid not to practice enough.

There is much prejudice against athletic exercise for women and girls,
many believing that nothing of the kind can be done without over-doing;
but there is a right way of going about athletics as everything else.
Prejudice can be removed only by showing good results, and good results
can be accomplished only by work done under proper restrictions. To do a
thing easily is to do it gracefully; and grace, without properly
balanced muscular action, is impossible; grace is the embodiment of
balance, strength, and intelligence. Jerky movement indicates lack of
muscular development and training.

The human machine is capable of a seemingly unlimited series of muscular
movements and combined muscular motions. Any training or practice of
mind or muscles assists to fit them for new combinations. But little
time is necessary to learn to know how to do and what to do, though the
subjects to be considered, mechanics and physiology, are exhaustive and
extensive in their range.

It is always a pleasure to do a thing well, whether it is handling a
needle or using a screw-driver; and the art of using either successfully
is not difficult to acquire. With the bicycle it is necessary to know
what to do; the human motor, unless pushed beyond reasonable limits, is
self-adjusting. Over-taxing is the result often of too great ambition,
of failure to keep in view the proper aim of exercise, and sacrificing
health and ultimate success for passing vanity. The bicycle is but the
means to the end, first of all, of health--health of mind and body. The
human mechanism is far more difficult to adjust when out of order than
the mechanism of the bicycle. In bicycling, the two machines are one and
interdependent. The foot on the pedal pushing the crank is but one point
of application of power conveyed by a series of levers, actuated by
muscles, controlled by nerves, supplied and directed by accumulated
power.

[Illustration: ADJUSTING A WRENCH.]

We hear of horse-power as a unit; we have also human power--the amount
of power the average individual can exercise. Food supplies material to
be converted into power, stored and transmuted in the human system
either for use or waste, as the case may be. Energy or power, unless
applied within a specified time, is given off as heat, etc. Less food
is needed, loss of appetite follows, if too little work is done. The
muscular tissues become almost useless, it is an effort to do any kind
of work; the power is not there. By gradual and persistent practice,
strength is acquired, and power stored in reserve. Exercise tends to
strengthen, not to weaken; over-exercise uses up stored power and newly
acquired power as well; longer periods of rest are needed to renew the
wasted tissues than is necessary when exercise is not carried to excess.
It must be kept in mind when bicycling that rider and wheel are a
complete, compound, combined mechanism, and mechanically inseparable.
The wheeler’s weight, when shifted or inclined, affects his equilibrium,
and wheeler and bicycle are as much one as a skater and his skates.

Levers and their application; power, stored, distributed, or wasted; how
to prevent waste and acquire reserve; proper adjustment to mechanical
environment, translated to mean the use of a few common tools, and their
application to the adjustment of the bicycle; and the care, adjustment,
and proper preparation of the machine for work, are points of such
importance that too much stress cannot be laid on them. A little
thought, a little attention at the right time, prepares for emergencies,
for cheerful work, and for the enjoyment of the exercise, and the health
and accumulated benefits sure to follow.

_CHAPTER XIV._

_Tools and How to Use Them._

“A nut is a piece of metal adapted to screw on the end of a bolt.” “A
bolt is a stout metallic pin adapted for holding objects together.” The
nut is to the bolt what the knot is to the thread, to keep it from
slipping through. Iron and steel are fibrous materials, and very hard;
though strong, they are also brittle. Indeed, these metals, and metals
generally, resemble molasses candy in their nature more than any other
familiar substance that will serve for illustration. When heated, they
become soft and liquid; when cold, they are tough, hard, and even
brittle. A few powerful, sharp blows with a heavy object are enough to
fracture a piece of metal. Direct, heavy blows or tapping on the end of
a bolt will flatten and alter its shape sufficiently to cause the edges
to project, a very little seemingly, but enough to render it useless.

[Illustration: APPLYING POWER.]

If you wish to remove a bolt that seems to fit too tight and resists
ordinary methods, place the nut on the bolt, and screw it on level, so
that the end of the bolt will be flush or even with the top of the nut.
Then lay your piece of wood, quite smooth and flat, on the nut and bolt,
covering both, and hammer gently on that with a heavy hammer, with
gentle, short, sharp, even strokes. The most obstinate bolt will usually
yield to this method of persuasion. Should a burr have formed on the end
of a bolt, a file is necessary to remove it; and filing off a burr is a
somewhat lengthy and tedious operation.

Unscrew a nut gently and examine it. On the inside will be found a
spiral groove and a spiral ridge or thread. Examine the bolt, and
observe a similar spiral groove and thread. These, when screwed
together, prevent slipping, and the nut cannot be pulled or pushed off.
To remove the nut, it is necessary to turn it; and always turn one way,
from left to right, if the nut lies uppermost.

To keep a nut from unscrewing by jarring, etc., screw it down until it
jams, as it is called, firmly against the surface it rests on. If
screwed too tight, it will burst or break the thread, or if enough force
is applied the bolt may break. This hardly seems possible until we
realize that in the wrench we possess a very powerful lever, capable of
destroying quite a large bolt and its accompanying nut. If pains be
taken always to start a nut on square and to turn gently and firmly and
not too fast, the previous instructions may prove unnecessary.

There are usually two kinds of wrench in a bicycle outfit--an adjustable
wrench with sliding jaw, and one or more key-wrenches, so called because
made to fit particular parts of the machine, and to be used for them
only. The adjustable wrench with sliding jaw should be used with the
pressure or pull coming on the angle of the head, and the sliding jaw
so placed as to hold its position, the wrench applied so that the
greatest strain is taken at the strongest part; then the faces of the
jaw keep smooth and true, and will not deface the plating or polish of
the machine.

There is another point to note--that a properly adjusted wrench starts a
nut easily, while if the strain is taken on the movable jaw of the
wrench, there is give enough in the wrench itself to prevent the nut
from starting, and the wrench slips off the nut without effecting its
object. The handle of the wrench acts as a lever, and the head of the
wrench forms a right angle with the handle; it is here that the power is
centred, not at the angle made by the movable jaw. Of course, this
position seems the reverse of proper until it is analyzed; but once
understood and adopted, it will prove most effective.

There are various screws in and about the machine. A screw is defined as
a bolt or bar having a thread cut upon it spirally, so that it will
enter a hole in which a corresponding spiral groove and thread have been
cut, or on which they will be formed by the screw entering the hole. The
thread and screw interwind and prevent the screw from being withdrawn
unless it is turned. To turn the screw, a notch is cut on one end, which
is made flat for that purpose, and the other end of the screw is
pointed, to enable it to enter the hole easily. After a screw is placed
and started in its proper hole, it is only necessary to turn it until it
is driven home. To turn the screw, a short bar is flattened thin to
enter the notch on the end of the screw.

[Illustration: SCREWING UP.]

The screw-driver should be held and turned with one hand, and steadied
and guided with the other. Metal is not so hard but that the leverage of
the screw-driver is enough to bend the notches on the end of a screw,
and thus render it useless. The question may be raised, Why are not
screws made harder? If metal is tempered too hard, it becomes brittle,
and flies. A well-tempered screw should be neither too hard nor too
soft, but adapted for its particular use or position.

A screw should always be made clean before it is screwed home, any
particle of dust or rust being liable to injure the thread and spoil the
screw. If the screw is oily or greasy, it will work loose. All screws,
bolts, etc., therefore, should be carefully wiped, and never placed
where there is any chance for even a little dust to settle upon them. A
nut with a small grain of sand inside will burst or break the thread of
the bolt.

Bolts and screws are used to hold different parts together or in place
and to give strength and firmness.

There is usually an oil-can belonging to every machine, and a bicycle
should be provided with a good one, small, light, and easily carried;
and special care should be taken that it does not leak. A greasy oil-can
is unpleasant to handle and almost useless, as it cannot be handled
properly. The least possible amount of oil that can be used is the
proper quantity. Greasy bearings only collect dust, and the dust follows
the oil back into the friction surfaces, where its presence is always
undesirable.

Two kinds of lubricant are used on a bicycle--oil and graphite. A
lubricant is used to diminish friction where two or more surfaces move
over each other. If these surfaces are of the same material and the same
degree of hardness, they do not slip; but the unevennesses of the
surfaces engage each other and cause resistance, which produces
friction, and friction causes heat, and the parts move more and more
slowly, until at last they stop. Now, if a substance of a different
character, like oil or graphite, is introduced between the moving
surfaces, it forms little cushions, which prevent the two surfaces from
coming into close contact; and, as the oil or graphite splits up readily
into minute particles, the surfaces slip upon that, instead of holding
fast. A smooth surface of metal is full of inequalities, perceptible
when magnified, and slipping past each other with as much difficulty as
would surfaces of sand paper. Only oil of the best quality and pure
graphite should be used. Nothing sticky or gritty in its nature should
be allowed near bearing surfaces.

The pump is an all-important and indispensable adjunct of the pneumatic
tire. Each tire is fitted with a valve, and accompanied by a pump with
which to inflate it. A valve is a lifting, sliding cover, connected with
an aperture to prevent the passage of air or other fluids, and so
constructed that the pump forces the cover down, and the air pushes
past. The cover is held in place by a spring and air pressure, and,
fitting tightly against a washer of some soft, impervious material,
makes an air-tight joint, and will not move unless displaced. The pump
itself is fitted with a valve to fill its cylinder or barrel with
air, and to hold the air after the cylinder is full and when the plunger
of the pump is forcing the air out of it again. A flexible tube coupling
is used to connect the pump-barrel with the valve of the tire.

[Illustration: UNSCREWING.]

The valves are of many patterns and sizes, and there are pumps made to
fit special tires, and pumps that will in a manner suit almost any
ordinary valve. It is most important to note that all the washers about
the pump and valves are in place. Deflated tires are often caused by a
misplaced washer; and though valves are so constructed that it is not
easy to disturb the washers, still it is well to know where they are and
when they require attention. Washers wear out and require renewing, and
sometimes a defective washer should be replaced; they are usually made
of rubber or leather, but metal washers are sometimes used where there
is much pressure or friction.

The metal used in bicycle construction must be finished, smoothed, and
prepared to resist the corroding effects of the atmosphere and to
present an attractive and durable exterior. The metal used for the
different parts must be smoothed and polished; all foreign substances,
like grease, removed from their surface by a chemical process; and
lastly a coating of nickel deposited on the surface by means of
electricity. The nickel in this way becomes a part of the original
metal, and protects its surface from rust and corrosion. A well-nickeled
piece of metal, beautifully polished, and kept free from finger marks,
loses its lustre only when neglected. Of course, there are other ways
of finishing the surface of the metal parts of the bicycle; other
plating metal may be substituted for the nickel, and other finish than
polish used.

Light wheels cannot be recommended for rough country or for very fast
work over only moderately good roads. A certain weight of material has
been taken from the bicycle to make it light; the machine begins to lose
its rigidity and consequently its accuracy, and cannot maintain its
direction, but wavers, and really travels further to attain a given
distance. The weight of a bicycle should depend on the roads it is to
cover and the purposes it is to serve. Very light wheels wear out
quickly; they cannot stand the strain of practice. Beginners, therefore,
should choose a wheel that can endure the handling they will give it.

A very light, well-made, and delicately adjusted bicycle can carry a
skilled cyclist anywhere; but a light wheel sooner loses its accuracy,
and is then more difficult to work than a heavier wheel that runs true.
Heavy wheels are not to be endured; light wheels, too light wheels, not
to be encouraged.

_CHAPTER XV._

_Solving a Problem._

When choosing a wheel, you should know what you want and why you want
it. Machines are built for special purposes, and any reliable dealer can
help you in selecting a machine and will guarantee satisfaction.
Bicycles wear out, of course, but with proper care they may be made to
last a long time.

Careful examination of your wheel should always be made before starting
for even a short ride; and on returning it is well to test gear and
pedals, to look at spokes and tires. Any needed repair can be noted, and
attended to at convenience. Always examine your bicycle thoroughly after
a collision, for shocks are dangerous even to the toughest metal, and
such precaution may prevent a serious accident.

On returning from a ride the wheel should have a thorough going over,
the enamel dusted, and any mud washed off with a wet sponge. The chain,
if your machine has one, should be taken off every two or three hundred
miles of dusty road, and soaked in kerosene over night; the nickel or
metal well dusted, rubbed with a chamois, and polished; and all the
bearings, axles, and gear carefully wiped, and dust and grit removed.
Then the chain should be replaced, oiled, graphited, and the bearings
oiled.

The chain is a complicated mechanism, consisting of many repetitions of
parts; it should be kept clean and well lubricated. To apply graphite,
turn the wheel upside down, hold the graphite still against the chain,
and turn the wheel. The oil is needed in the joints of the chain; the
graphite where the chain engages the cogs. The other parts used for
applying power need the usual care given to the best machines--absolute
cleanliness, freedom from grit, and thorough lubrication.

The chain is at present a mechanical detail only, and the application of
power to the wheel capable of a great variety of forms. The principle
remains the same, the application of power; the mechanical contrivance
for transmitting it is a detail of construction. The difference of
individuality can be compensated for in the length of the lever, size
and number of gear, size of wheel, diameter of wheel, and width of
tread.

The ideal machine requires little adjustment. The less the screws, the
nuts, and the bearings are wrenched, the more perfect is the machine,
the more free from wear and dents and scratches. To apply a wrench is a
serious responsibility that should not be undertaken lightly. It seems
easy, and yet skilled men are employed just for that kind of work, for
it is work requiring the precision of the trained mechanic.

[Illustration: PREPARING TO TURN THE BICYCLE OVER.]

After purchasing a watch, the owner does not at once investigate the
machinery; yet many, because the tools are at hand, are tempted to
experiment on a bicycle. A bicycle, like a watch, should be ready to
run, and only require winding up to keep it going. It should be
adjusted; and if it needs regulating, this should be done by people who
understand the machine and have the requisite knowledge and
responsibility to do well what is to be done. Two rules may be laid down
for one who does not study mechanical details--never to touch the
bicycle except to ride it; and never to let any one else touch it who
has not skill and experience.

This practice will prove satisfactory until some day, miles from home,
the bicycle will not go; you carry it more miles to the nearest
conveyance, and send it home. There you have it examined, and find that
a touch sets it free; just as sometimes, when your watch will not go,
you take it to a watchmaker, and he examines it, winds it up, and hands
it back, telling you there is no charge. After learning to wheel a
bicycle, therefore, the next step should be to learn to care for it.
Unless somewhat familiar with machinery, it is bewildering to
contemplate taking the thing apart and putting all those parts together
again; even more bewildering is it, having taken the thing apart, not to
be able to put it together. In such case, there is nothing to do but to
gather the pieces of the puzzle, and send them to be set up. If in this
extremity a friend who knows all about a bicycle should offer
assistance, it is well to hear what he has to say before he undertakes
the work. “I do not think your wheel is just like mine,” perhaps, or
“Where do these things belong?” is enough for the wise. Better send to
the shop for a machinist at once. All the parts of the bicycle are made
to go together in one way, and any attempt at experiment may injure the
mechanism.

When you undertake to investigate a bicycle for the first time, take an
old one as a subject, and endeavor to put it in perfect running order.
If an old bicycle cannot be had, proceed with much circumspection. Go
where you will be undisturbed, where there is plenty of room, and where
a key may be turned if there is possibility of interruption. There is
sure to be some oil and grease spattered about, in spite of the utmost
care, and it is well to remember this while making preparations. Have
ready a pile of old newspapers, some cups, plates, and boxes, and a
painting apron if you possess one; if not an old skirt and apron, and
sleeves well rolled up. For tools, a monkey-wrench, two or three
screw-drivers, large as well as small, a hammer, one or two pieces of
wood, the bicycle kit, oil, graphite, a can of kerosene, some
cheesecloth and canton flannel, and a large wooden box.

Take two newspapers folded in half, and put them on the floor for the
saddle and handle-bars; then turn the bicycle upside down, and arrange
the newspapers under the saddle and handles. If there is a bell, take it
off, or place a block under the opposite end of the bar to balance it.
Before turning the bicycle over, remove the lantern, if there is one on
the bicycle, as the oil will be spilled out if the lamp is turned upside
down.

[Illustration: TURNING THE BICYCLE OVER.]

Begin by carefully removing all mud and grit from the bicycle. Wear
old gloves, and remove mud with the hand when possible, finishing with a
cheese-cloth duster and an old oily cloth. Go over all the joints where
the wheels turn, and remove every particle of grit, then remove mud and
dust.

An experienced worker, to save labor, cleans each piece as it comes off,
but the beginner must work more slowly. Have ready a shallow box or tray
to receive the parts as they are removed. Lay each part, as it is taken
off, in the tray, with the oily side up, for a guide. First, remove the
chain, turn it until the nut of the little screw-bolt is found. This
little bolt forms one of the link-pins, and can be found quite readily.
One end of the bolt has a screw-head notch, and the other a nut and
thread. Use the small bicycle screw-wrench for this, a large
screw-driver, and a small screw-driver to fit the screw. Turn the chain
until the bolt is in a convenient position, then take the large
screw-driver or a rod, and place through the spokes of the rear wheel,
letting the bar rest on the frame. This will prevent the wheel from
turning, and keep the pedals and sprocket-wheel in position; your
fingers may be caught and badly cut if this precaution is not taken.
Fasten the small wrench on the little nut, and hold it there with one
hand, with the other unscrewing the little screw with a small
screw-driver. Should the screw fail to yield easily, a drop or two of
kerosene will soften the rust and grit, and help to start it.

Return the nut to the screw end, and place it on the tray. Take hold of
one end of the chain, and remove the bar that steadies the rear wheel,
then turn one of the pedal cranks, and the chain will come off in your
hand. The chain should be placed in kerosene and left to soak.

The enamel of the frame should then be carefully rubbed and polished
with canton flannel. A clean piece should be kept for the purpose, for
if greasy it gives a dull look to the enamel. The plating should be
first polished with a cloth, and then if dull with whiting. Nickel
plating takes a beautiful polish with electro-silicon used on canton
flannel.

Go carefully over each oil-cup, and be sure it is cleaned, and work
around the ends of the axles. Ascertain if either wheel needs adjusting,
and look carefully to see that the rims are true. A good way to do this
is to hold a pencil-top on the frame against the rim of the wheel, and
spin the wheel. If it touches evenly all around, the wheel is true; if
uneven, take the bicycle to a repair shop and have the wheels trued as
soon as possible.

After cleaning all the bearings, put oil in the oil-cups and replace the
chain. It is well to leave the chain soaking in kerosene, and later hang
it up to drip, and when dry, it will be found bright and clean; or keep
a can of lubricating oil in which to soak the chain, and after draining
it thoroughly, wipe clean before replacing on the machine. Take an
oil-can, and oil each separate rivet. Start the chain on the sprocket,
and pull it over the rear sprocket by turning a pedal crank, bringing
the ends on the lower side. Place the bar across as before, to keep the
sprocket from moving, and then replace the little screw-bolt, using a
small wrench, and a screw-driver that fits the screw. Remove the bar,
see that the chain is not too tight, and note if it requires any taking
up, an adjustment that is done in the rear wheel.

[Illustration: THE BICYCLE TURNED OVER.]

Hold the stick of graphite on a convenient surface of the chain, and
turn the cranks; then dust the chain to take off any small lumps of the
lubricant, and the wheel is ready to be run. Examine the tires and
valves, see that the tires are not too soft, and inflate them. See that
the valves are in order, then set the wheel right side up. Replace bell
and lantern, rub off any finger-marks, and the bicycle is ready.

If the bicycle has been running for some time, and in spite of the care
bestowed on it, the chain runs a little heavy, the pedals don’t spin as
they should, or the cranks revolve as often as they might, and the
wheels are sluggish, there is no remedy but to take down the bicycle,
clean it thoroughly, set it up and adjust it. It will require several
hours’ hard work to do this, combined with a knowledge of machinery and
a knowledge of bicycle working, or else enterprise, care, and common
sense.

Begin work on a wheel perfectly free, as far as the outside can be made
so, from sand, mud, and grit. Remove the chain and put it to soak. Have
a pan of kerosene, and place each small part in that to soak, and any
part that has friction surface or is notably oily or greasy.

Begin serious work on a pedal, which is small and easily handled. If the
pedal is a removable one, take it off. If the spindle is stationary,
take off the movable parts, first the nuts or screws, then loosen the
cones, having a box placed underneath to catch the balls if any should
fall out. Support the box well up under the pedal, as the balls bounce
and jump about. Even if you have had the pedals off before, and know how
it is done, it is well to have something to catch the balls, as
otherwise you must atone for any mistake by a scramble. Place the balls
in a separate dish of kerosene, and carefully count them. Wipe the
movable parts of the pedals with a cloth wet in kerosene, and finish
with a dry cloth.

In taking a pedal down, the place of each part should be carefully
noted, so that it may be a simple matter to replace the parts. If, the
first pedal being now apart, the novice is confused, there is the other
pedal to afford comparison. Study that, then return the parts of the
dismembered pedal to their proper places, and adjust them. The balls may
prove troublesome; but a screw-driver dipped in vaseline will pick up
any very small balls, and pliers can manage the larger ones. See that
cones and washers are replaced, then add a few drops of oil, adjusting
the pedal to spin easily without lateral play, and tighten cones and
nuts. Spin the pedal for a final test, and then begin on the other
pedal.

If after several hours’ work, but one pedal is finished, if that one
pedal is in perfect order, there is much cause for congratulation. The
other pedal may be done very much more easily and rapidly. Of course, it
takes time to wipe all the balls and cones, and nuts and screws, and
washers and spindles, and when the pedal is in your hand, a little time
may be spent to give it an extra rub to brighten its polish. Wipe off
any oil that may have shown in the joints of the bearings, and the
pedals are finished.

The front wheel should next engage attention. Take a large wrench, and
start the bearing cones, and take off the nuts at opposite sides of the
ends of the forks. These nuts are screwed on the ends of the axle, and
perhaps have metal washers under them. Place them in a box by
themselves, and if the forks are notched, there will be nothing to do
but to lift out the wheel. If the ends of the forks have only eyes, the
forks must be sprung to take the wheel out.

When the wheel is in your hand, avoid letting any grease or oil touch
the tire, for it will injure the rubber. Now proceed to work on the
axles. Support the wheel on a large, empty wooden box. The axle is a
spindle, and has cones to hold the balls in against the bearings. The
cones must be removed and cleaned, and the socket of the hub made clean
with an oily cloth followed by a clean one. The axle’s spindle should be
replaced, and the balls and cones restored to their proper relative
positions. Drop in a little oil, adjust and tighten the cones, then
spring the wheel back between the forks, and true it; see that it runs
even between the forks and that the cones are keyed up firm and even.
Replace the nuts, and screw up firm. Wipe off any oil that may have
worked out, and spin the wheel to try it. If it runs long and steadily,
and has no lateral play, and everything is keyed up tight and true, this
part of the work may be considered finished.

Some prefer to use a little pure graphite for the balls, and no oil; and
again some bicycles are made without oil-cups. For the first work, oil
is safer to handle; but remember that two or three drops are enough. Too
much is worse than useless, for oil spreads over a large surface, and
will cover all the surface of the bicycle with a thin film, which will
need to be constantly wiped off.

The rear wheel may be removed without springing the frame. Unscrew the
adjustment attachment, and the wheel will come out. Clean the rear wheel
bearings in the same way you have cleaned those of the front wheel;
replace the rear wheel, and put back the adjusting attachment.

Give the crank axle the same care and attention that the wheel axles
have received. The pedal cranks are fastened on either end of the crank
axle in such a way that the dead centre is avoided as much as possible.
The large sprocket-wheel is on the crank axles, and sometimes not
movable. The cranks are screwed or fastened with pins to the ends of the
axles, and should not be disturbed. Take the large key-wrench from the
kit, and start the bearing cones. If the crank must come off, see that
the nut on the end of the crank-pin is flush with the end, and place a
piece of wood on it before striking it with a hammer, as already
explained, to start the bolt or pin. Or if you have some one to help,
let a heavy hammer-head be held under the crank beside the bolt, at the
other end; and the double shock and recoil from the heavy hammer as the
blow is struck will jar the bolt loose.

Remove and clean the cones and balls, then replace and oil them, and
adjust the cones tight, ready for adjustment when the cranks are in
place. The only bearings left to attend to are those in the head of the
frame. Take out the handle-bars, and wipe them and their socket very
carefully; never allow any oil to remain there. The handles should never
be immovably tight; yet grease, if any were introduced, would perhaps
cause them to slip when they should remain in place. The crank axle-key
usually fits the cone of the head of the frame, and that may be treated
as any other set of ball bearings--loosened, removed, cleaned, replaced,
oiled, adjusted, and tightened. Any dust may be removed from inside the
frame-head while the bearings are off.

When the head bearings have been restored and the handle-bar replaced,
put on the chain and adjust it. The rear wheel is arranged to move
forward or back on the frame by the adjusting attachment. This allows
the two sprocket-wheels to be placed nearer together or farther apart,
and the chain may be stretched and held between them to any desired
degree of rigidity or of slackness.

When the bicycle has been set up, the parts correctly replaced, before
turning it right side up, go over the entire adjustment of the machine,
to see that nothing has been forgotten. Have wrench and screw-driver at
hand and a clean cloth. Begin with the bearings of the front wheel. See
that the oil is not working out, and wipe them again. Take the key, and
see that they are true and tight. Apply the screw-wrench to the nuts of
the fork, and see that they are screwed home. Treat the rear wheel in
the same way, and look that both wheels travel on the same line or
plane; if they do not, it is because the bearings are out or the frame
is bent. Go over the axle bearing, feel the chain, spin the pedals and
wheels. A well-adjusted wheel will carry the weight of the valve around
quickly and then swing back, showing how sensitive it is to so small a
weight. If you are satisfied that everything is right, turn the bicycle
right side up, and square the handle-bars. The only way to do this is to
stand in front of the bicycle, and take the wheel between the knees
while the handles are pulled into place.

The saddle-post and screw-nuts that hold it should be examined and
removed and carefully wiped, as well as the socket where they belong.
The screw that holds the saddle-post in place does its work by friction,
and any oil would prevent it from acting properly, and the saddle would
slip. Keep the oil-can carefully wiped, and see that the little spout
has a clean round hole at the end that will allow only a drop at a time
to escape; for oil travels and spreads in a marvellous manner, appearing
where least expected or wanted. If there is a hand-brake on the bicycle,
adjusted to alter with the handle-bars, examine it carefully, and wipe
the rods. Oil here will allow the coupling to slip and the action of the
brake to be impaired.

[Illustration: STRAIGHTENING THE HANDLE-BARS.]

There are so many things to be carefully observed and accurately done in
this kind of work that mistakes and omissions may be easily made by the
inexperienced; but there need not be so many blunders, after all, if
one works slowly and observingly, taking notes, in writing if necessary,
as for instance how far the bearing cones are keyed in when in place,
which is the reverse side of the crank and pedal pins, if they are
interchangeable, or rights and lefts.

Screw threads are made rights and lefts, and threads are made to fit
them in the sockets where they belong. That pedals may not work loose,
the spindles are made right and left, with a reverse screw, so that
forward pedaling drives them tighter. In the older constructions, the
pedal sometimes became unscrewed and fell off, or the nut fell off and
the pedal loosened. All such matters should be studied before taking
down a machine. Usually the maker’s catalogue will describe and
illustrate these details. Study that, and learn the names and uses of
all the parts of the bicycle, and then you will be prepared to go to
work by yourself, or with but little assistance.

_CHAPTER XVI._

_Where to Keep a Bicycle._

Almost anywhere that a bicycle can stand or hang will do for a place to
keep it; and almost any place will do to go to work on a bicycle--the
roadside, the lawn (though the grass is worse than a haystack to lose
things in), anywhere, in fact, that may suit your convenience. The
accessories of the bicycle should have places where they may always be
found, and the bicycle itself should be kept where it will be
undisturbed and where it may be kept free from finger-marks, dust, and
oil.

With the bicycle should be kept certain conveniences for handling it--a
table or bench fitted conveniently, frames to hold the wheel for
cleaning and adjusting, a good light to work by, and a place for the
tools that are sure to accumulate. There are two kinds of workshop for
the amateur--the one that you fit up for yourself, and the one that is
fitted up for you. The amateur with a place well fitted out likes to add
details of home construction, and the proud owner of a corner cupboard
is always anxious to replace makeshifts. In either case, get the best
you can, and take care of it. Of tools, the best are always cheapest;
but good tools, or tools of any kind, can become a very expensive
luxury. Taste for the best comes quickly to even the moderately
enthusiastic.

A bicycle rack room should be light, with plenty of head room, and
conveniently fitted with racks, shelves, and lockers. Each rack should
have its corresponding shelf-room and pigeon-hole, either beside it or
above and behind it. There is an infinite variety of racks to select
from, from the two stakes driven into the ground or fastened to the
floor, to the handsomely finished metal racks with joints to hold the
frame at any angle.

If there is but one bicycle to care for, it is better to have its rack
and shelf and cupboard together--the rack to hold the bicycle in a
proper position, the shelf for sundry attachments, and the cupboard for
the lamp and extras. Such a bicycle corner can be made very attractive
to look at when everything is arranged and kept in perfect order. When
several bicycles are to be cared for together, when neatly set up they
make a very pretty showing. If possible, the rack-room should be
separate, set apart for that purpose, and kept under lock and key; it
should be dry and well lighted, free from frost, and not likely to be
over-heated by direct sun-rays in summer. The frost is injurious to
metal and enamel; and the sun or too much heat will spoil rubber, and
possibly injure enamel as well.

An even temperature, not any special degree of temperature, is
requisite; for changes of temperature cause different degrees of
expansion and contraction in different materials; and as the steel
frame, and the enamel it is covered with, do not expand and contract in
quite the same degree, they will gradually work loose from each other,
and the enamel will flake or split.

The rubber tire should be kept out of the sun, and the place where it
stands should be kept very clean, and no oil allowed about; for oil is
injurious to the rubber, and in case of punctures makes repairing very
difficult, if not impossible. A rubber surface with even the slightest
film of oil will not make a joint, as the oil prevents the rubber
surface and that of the cement and the article to be repaired from
uniting.

If the workshop is to be used by more than one person, each should have
a tool-chest and a work-bench of his own, and each tool-chest provided
with lock and key, and each person with a key to the outer door. Tools
are but the continuation of the individual brain and will power. What
one handles becomes, while in one’s hand, a part of one’s self, as it
were. Tools, therefore, should be individual property always, just as
scissors and thimble are, though of course extra tools may be provided
for general work. Every one prefers a good pair of scissors to a poor
pair, and the same preference is likely to be evinced in the case of
other tools. If the tools are common property, the best will be always
taken, and often not restored to their proper place.

A bicycle workshop is devoted to metal work, woodwork, and rubber work.
The metal work should be kept by itself, and the tools used for metal
work only.

The amateur can commence fitting a shop by setting up a small deal table
and a vise. The table will do for a work-bench, and one vise will serve
for a beginning; it should be of medium size, quite heavy, made of
wrought iron or cast steel, and capable of holding a wrench in its jaws,
though a less expensive one could be made to do. A cheap vise, however,
is pretty sure to break if a strain is put upon it; and, while a good
workman could get comparatively good work out of a poor vise, the poor
tool in unskilled hands would be sure to show its weak place.

Have a notch cut in the edge of the table to let the vise back to where
there is bearing surface; and it is well to have it as far in as
convenient, for the weight will thus be supported more steadily. Get a
plumber to cut a section of lead pipe about as long as the jaws of the
vise, and have the piece of pipe split and flattened. You can do this
yourself if you can handle a saw, and have one that is suitable for
cutting metal; or a jig saw will do, and the lead can be flattened on a
block with a mallet. Screw one of the flattened pieces of lead into the
jaws of the vise, leaving about an inch to project above; hammer the
projecting part over, and one side of the jaws will have a lead face
that can be taken out. Do the same with the other piece of lead. Replace
them both, and the vise is fitted with a pair of lead jaw faces, which
will be found most useful.

The lead being soft, any small metal object may be held between the jaws
without injury, while if the steel face of the vise came in direct
contact with the metal, a screw for example, the thread might be
bruised; or if the screw were harder than the vise, the face of the jaws
would be marred.

With a work-table, a vise, and the bicycle kit, a very fair beginning
may be made, and any refractory small part handled with ease. Even the
spindle of the axles of one of the wheels may be screwed in, and the
bearings removed, while held in this way. The vise will act as a clamp
for holding pieces to be polished, and it is most useful in taking a
pedal or other small parts down. Above the table should be a tool-rack,
three feet of board ten or twelve inches wide, with a ledge or shelf
nailed along the lower edge, and a strip of leather or some stiff and
pliable material nailed on in loops to hold the tools. Under the table
should be kept a couple of boxes--wooden boxes such as canned goods come
in will do--one as a receptacle for oil-cans, kerosene, and cloths, and
the other to use as a frame. The outfit should be completed by a little
bench, and a wooden stool to sit on when working at the table; for much
of the work about a bicycle may be done while seated comfortably, and it
is always well to save strength when possible.

A workshop once started, many little contrivances suggest themselves for
convenient working,--a nail must be put up for the apron, a corner found
for the working gloves, separate places allotted for oily cloths and
clean ones and for the kerosene. The bicycle lamp, if an oil-lamp,
should have a stand for trimming and filling, and should be cared for
regularly; the best of lamps will smoke occasionally, and the soot must
not be allowed to fly about.

From fitting up a bicycle workshop, the transition is easy to studying
accomplishments that may be of use--planning tours and trips, exercising
scientifically to prepare to enjoy them, studying the construction and
improvement of modern contrivances, learning the use of map and compass,
investigating camping possibilities, and learning how to depend on
limited resources when cut off from supplies. The simple appliances and
contrivances of the home workshop lead the mind to appreciation and
desire for something better, more workmanlike. A choice of tools
suggests itself; and from the first assortment of a couple of wrenches,
a few screw-drivers, a hammer, and a couple of wooden boxes, is finally
evolved the well-furnished amateur workshop.

The ideal room for this purpose should have a good north light, with
windows on two sides if possible, and high enough from the floor to
allow a work-bench to be placed in front of the window with the light
falling upon it, and a space of ten inches or a foot between the lowest
part of the window and the bench; this space to be arranged as a rack
for tools. The windows should open and shut easily, and be fitted with
two kinds of shades, dark green and white, two pairs of shades to each
window, two rolling up from the lower part, and two down from the upper
part. Nothing is so fatiguing as working by light not suited to the work
to be done. With shades arranged in this way, light may be perfectly
controlled, and distributed where needed by means of reflectors.
Ventilating and heating, also, must be arranged for.

The workshop should have running water, and a closet for working
clothes, which are apt to be oily or greasy. There should be plenty of
shelf-room, and an extra cupboard or two. The floor should be of wood,
unpainted. There should be a bench for carpenter work and carpenter
tools; a bench for cabinet-working tools for fine wood-working; a table
for rubber and naphtha; and a long, heavy, narrow bench fitted with
vises of different sizes and patterns; a table devoted to the blast
furnace, a corner for an anvil and portable forge and another for a
lathe and power-saw, though these may be dispensed with. The movable
furniture may consist of stools and benches of different heights, and
the frames necessary to take down and handle a bicycle on.

Metal can be bent, twisted, cut, pressed, elongated, sawed, stretched,
and melted into any shape desired. The tools adapted to this work may
consist of holding tools, carving tools, molding tools, and bending
tools; and contrivances and tools made to perform certain work, as
screw-driver, etc.

Cutting tools are knives, saws, files, and chisels, which perform their
work by applied power, whether controlled directly by the hand or
otherwise.

The metal-working outfit may contain many varieties of tools.

_CHAPTER XVII._

_Tires._

In the older forms of wheel, the tire did duty in protecting and
strengthening the wheel and holding it together. In the bicycle wheel,
the rim is the strengthening and supporting contrivance. The tire
protects the rim, and acts as a spring cushion as well, receiving shock
and jar. The solid rubber tire was an advance over the old steel tire on
the bone-shaking machine, as it was called, in the days when the bicycle
was still in its experimental stage.

The solid tire was narrow, and after a certain diameter of material was
reached, the weight of rubber became too great if the tire was made
larger. It was found that a certain thickness of material was sufficient
for wear and tear and that more surface was desired to grip the roadway,
and that consequently the tire should be made lighter. Hose-pipe was
tried, and did well; and then experiment succeeded experiment in the
effort to produce a tire that would fit, wear well, be light, and give
speed and resiliance.

A pneumatic tire is made of a tough, hard outer material to resist wear,
a fibrous inner material to give stiffness and prevent stretching, and
an impervious inner layer to retain the air. Rubber is a sticky, gummy
substance, easily melted at a comparatively low temperature, and
becoming hard when exposed to the air and moderately low temperature; it
dissolves readily in benzine or gasoline or naphtha, and is insoluble in
water. Grease and oil have a peculiar disintegrating effect on rubber
and rubber materials, and are most injurious to them. To prevent rubber
substances from adhering to each other, they are prepared in a
particular way, and feel dry and gritty to the touch.

Tires are made in layers, and double-tube tires have a separate inner
tube of impervious rubber to hold the air, and an outer covering of
toughened material, that is quite separate and not necessarily
air-tight, to resist wear.

The tire must be held immovable on the rim of the wheel. There is all
the pull of the weight of the moving bicycle against the surface over
which it moves, and the tire must be secured to the rim in such a way as
to keep it forced in place. There are two methods of fastening it
permanently to the rim,--with cement or other material of that
character, so as to make it a part of the rim, as it were; and by
clamping it fast. A cemented tire, or indeed any tire of rubber, should
never be left in the sun, as the heat affects the rubber and perhaps the
cement.

Changes of temperature affect different materials in different degrees,
and the different materials expand and contract, working loose from each
other until something gives way, with apparently inexplicable results.
When two or more different materials are used in construction in this
way, this problem will always present itself.

The tire inflated, the impervious inner covering of the tire tube, which
is made of a soft and yielding substance, fills the interstices in the
outer covering, rendering it air-tight. Should a hard substance then be
introduced into this material, and a puncture occur, it is necessary to
locate the puncture. This is very difficult to do if the puncture is
small, and the substance that made the hole has been removed. Ascertain
first that the trouble is not with the valve of the tire if the air is
not retained properly. Then test for puncture in this way. Wet the
surface of the tire, and note the bubbles that form under the film of
water, and the puncture is found.

The inner surface tire is made to resist the air, and is usually of pure
rubber. The outer covering is for strength and wear. Rubber may be
repaired with rubber easily enough, and the purer the rubber, the easier
it is to cement it with a cement made of pure rubber dissolved in a
volatile vehicle. Almost any repair or renovation of the tire may be
accomplished with rubber material, rubber cement to be used for
plugging, and twine or cotton cloth to be used for strengthening
purposes. Small punctures require only plugging from the inside; tears
and rents require plugging and reinforcing as well. Each make of tire
has its repair-kit and directions for use.

The single-tube tire, with its inner coat, is so made that the inner
covering will act as a continuous plug. The soft rubber is compressed,
and put on in such a way that the air pressure, even if a puncture
occurs, will help to close the hole by pressing on all sides around and
about it. To illustrate this principle, cover the outside of the tube
with soft rubber cement, and let it dry. Then turn the tube inside out.
The rubber will be in an active state of compression. Force air against
the surface, and it is easily seen how the rubber is crowded if there is
any place made by puncture, and how the hole would be closed.

Numberless punctures are made and resealed, and the tire works all
right. The puncture that does not reseal must be plugged or patched.
Rubber plugs are made in all sizes; and rubber cement, liquid rubber, is
put up in collapsible metal tubes, like paint-tubes, with a pointed
spout to introduce the cement behind and through the puncture. There are
numberless convenient contrivances made to hold plugs, enlarge holes,
and to do the repair work neatly.

In mending a puncture, the tire remains on the wheel, and the work is
done from the outside of the tire. If the hole is very small, it must be
enlarged sufficiently to introduce the plug. The rubber of the plug is
very soft and compressible, and the hole should be considerably smaller
than the shank of the plug.

The plug must be held firmly, and forced through the hole, and held in
place while the nose of the cement-tube is introduced, and a plentiful
supply of liquid rubber smeared over the inside of the hole around and
on the plug, and enough extra cement added to flow all about the inside
of the tire around the puncture. Pull the plug back by the shank,
allowing the head to rest on the inside of the tire, and the shank to
come back through the hole. Pull the plug firmly into place by the
shank, which should fit the hole very tight. Cut off the projecting end
of the plug shank, and the repair is made. Turn the wheel until the plug
comes to the lowest point, and keep it there until the cement gets
around the plug. To smooth a ragged hole before introducing the plug,
when the proper tools are not to be had, a heated wire may be used to
make a round smooth hole. Rubber may be handled and cut while wet with
water, but must be dry and free from grease to take cement. Always wet
the knife-blade before cutting the end off the plug; this will ensure a
smooth, clean cut.

A puncture may be repaired by introducing almost any material on the
inner surface, and holding it in place; and it is well to know of a few
substitutes for the regular repair-kit for emergency use. Punctures
difficult to locate may be found by inflating the tire and wetting with
soapy water, when a bubble will form where the air escapes.

A puncture that goes all the way through the inner tube of the tire must
be repaired on the inside. The outer covering of the tire is porous, and
if the hole is plugged or patched on the outside, the air will escape in
other directions through the material of the tire. Failing the
repair-kit tools, a rubber plug, some liquid cement, a piece of string,
and a pair of pliers will do good work. Tie the string to the plug to
keep it from slipping, apply plenty of cement to the plug, then grasp it
with the pliers, and introduce it through the hole prepared for it in
the tire. Pull the string to pull the plug into place, see that there is
plenty of cement around and about it, inflate the tire, and the air will
hold the plug in place until the cement hardens.

The plugs that are supplied are disks of rubber of different sizes, with
stems attached to the centre, and a nice tool is made for the purpose of
punching the hole in the tire. When a hole is burned, the charred edges
should be removed, and if possible cleaned with benzine. A tire well
patched on the inside is almost as good as new, and very serviceable,
unless the brake is applied frequently and unevenly, when the plug is
almost sure to feel the push.

The commercial patch or plug makes the most satisfactory repair for a
puncture, although there are other things that may be used. Rubber bands
may be pressed into service, and sheet rubber also may be used. Repair
on the roadside is made in the same way as repair in the workshop, the
differences being in the conveniences for working and the permanency of
the patch. A rent may be repaired with plugs, it being first stitched
together, then the plugs introduced, and finally a patch cemented on the
outside over the rent to protect the stitches. A puncture may be
repaired with rubber bands held in place on a wire, covered with cement,
and forced into the hole made in the tire. A piece of wire flattened on
the end, a cross piece with a notch cut in it and twisted below, makes a
fair repair needle. The end of the projecting rubber cut off, a very
fair plug results.

Sheet rubber may be placed over the hole on the inside, though it is
difficult to keep it in place. Twisted up and tied into a plug, or
spread into place on the inside, the difficulty with this repair is that
the patch must be held in place until the cement hardens, and then is
liable to work out of place. Inner tube tires are repaired with patches
of soft rubber. After the puncture is located, the patch will retain its
place by being pressed against the inner surface of the tire when
inflated.

To do good work in repairing rubber, always clean the surface of the
rubber material thoroughly, washing with benzine when possible; and
always test a patch when finished by placing it in water or wetting it,
to ascertain that it is satisfactory. On the road a puncture may be
plugged in any time under five minutes when located. In the workshop, it
is more convenient to hang the wheel up while making a patch, as it is
more readily held in place when working from below.

There are many ways of doing makeshift repairs. Melted rosin may replace
the rubber cement, and rosin may be found at any tinsmith’s. Melt the
rosin, and dip the rubber in that to make it stick.

Tire tape may be used in a variety of ways. Find the puncture, cut
strips three or four inches long, and place them lengthwise on the tire,
lapping the edges at least half way over; then wrap the two thicknesses
of tape round and round the tire, and keep lapping the tape each time
over the last turn to hold the edge down, making it air-tight. Well put
on, tire tape will last for many miles. The tire should be partly
inflated while the tape is being put on, and fully inflated when it is
all on. Force more air into the tire to cause the tape to grip securely.
Such repair, though not permanent, may prove serviceable in emergency.

A simple and effective substitute for the rubber plug is absorbent
cotton or jeweller’s cotton, well dipped in cement, and the cement
worked into the cotton. Quite a large puncture may be repaired with
this, and the hole need not be enlarged or burnt to receive it, as the
soft mass of cotton fills the irregularities in the puncture. It may be
introduced into the puncture either with an ordinary repair tool or a
piece of twisted wire. The tire is held on the rim by cement made of
shellac or some other equally good cementing substance. Of course, in
using a cotton plug, the greatest mass of the cotton should be on the
inside of the tire, leaving a stem in the puncture, and then the outside
ends should be trimmed off.

The tire may be readily removed with the hands by pulling at right
angles with the wheel. Rubber cement may be made by dissolving perfectly
pure rubber in naphtha; but the commercial cement is usually found the
cheapest in the end.

If you should be so unfortunate as to break down, what are the problems
you must meet? The bicycle is made of different materials--iron, metal,
steel, wood, rubber, and leather, and each different material requires a
different kind of treatment. The general idea in any kind of repairs is
to effect the holding of the parts in position with a material that
will supply strength and stiffness. The use of glue or cement is merely
to hold parts in position, to replace the fractured pieces and keep them
in place, to enable the particular part to do its duty, and to keep the
piece in place while the cement hardens.

There is room for great ingenuity in handling repair work and in
estimating the available resources. The most common accident is a
puncture in a pneumatic tire. There are also repairs to be considered to
the wooden rims and the spokes and the tubing and lost or broken parts.
A great deal of damage could occur in a collision, and the bicycle be in
very poor shape, but it can be set right with a little assistance from a
mechanic, even though he does not understand the mechanism of a bicycle.

Suppose nothing to be injured except a piece of the supporting tubing;
or that the bicycle could be made to go if the rim were spliced or
strengthened at a place where it has been split. A temporary repair
usually takes considerable time, and should never be attempted unless
there is nothing else to be done. A blacksmith shop, unless the smith is
very ingenious, is not a very good place to look for assistance; a
plumber or tinsmith or locksmith, unless a bicyclist, can help but
little. For a broken rim I would betake me to a carpenter shop or
carriage maker’s. If the break is in a straight piece of tube, get the
carpenter to make a round stick, not as long as the broken tube, and fit
it to the inside, to slip in easily. Hardware stores keep round wooden
rods, and perhaps one of these would answer. Push the round stick up
into the tube, and, holding the parts in place, let it slip down into
the other part of the break; this will keep the ends of the break
together. Then get the carpenter to take two blocks of wood, hollow them
out to hold the tube, and screw them fast together, holding the tube
between them. If he has an auger-bit the size of the tubing, he can
easily bore a hole in a block the size of the tube; then have this block
cut in two with the saw, leaving the hole cut in half, and screw the
pieces together after they are placed on the broken part. The same kind
of a repair may be made on the angles of the frame if the blocks are
hollowed to fit. This makes an unsightly job, but can be recommended as
strong and safe when properly done.

A broken spoke may be repaired, if it cannot be replaced, by bending the
ends of the broken parts into loops; then, taking a piece of wire
through both loops, fasten it together, and tighten by screwing it up.

A wooden rim may be whipped or wound. The tire must be deflated first,
and removed from the rim at the broken place; then wind fine wire or
fish-line about the place, after filling the break with glue or shellac.
In wrapping, take care that the turns are made very smooth and even, and
close to each other. Then the tire may be cemented and inflated. Of
course, there will be a lumpy place on the rim, but it will do until the
rim can be replaced.

Any bolt that has lost its nut, when the nut cannot be replaced, may be
held by hammering a burr on the end. If the end is too long, a piece may
be cut or filed off, and a burr hammered down to hold.

A bicycle cannot travel easily if the frame has been bent out of true;
and to straighten a bent frame is an easy matter. Take out wheels,
saddle, and handle-bars, and use a piece of broom-handle to spring the
frame into true; or take a stout cord, fasten it to either end of the
part to be straightened, insert a stick, and wind the cord up tight.

There are three things to take into consideration when doing repair
work: First, finding out what is to be done, then doing it, then seeing
that it has been done right.

_CHAPTER XVIII._

_Mechanics of Bicycling._

All applied mechanical power is the application of lever movement (and
lever movement is but the effect of applied power), either simple,
compound, or complex.

In the bicycle propelled by human power, we have a series of lever
movements, initiated and executed by the highest and most effective
mechanism known--the human body, applied human power. There is the seat
of power, the point of application, and the object. The bicycle or
object is so constructed that it continues the application of power
applied.

The lever is described as “a bar or other rigid instrument having a
fixed point for the exercise of power and the application of power to
the object to be moved.” The series of lever movements in the human body
is the most wonderful known.

There are three varieties of levers, of three different degrees of
efficiency, known as levers of the first, second, and third classes, or
orders, of levers.

In the lever of the first class, the fulcrum is between the weight and
the power:

P F W.

In the lever of the second class the fulcrum is opposite to the power:

P W .
F

In the lever of the third class the fulcrum is opposite to the weight:

P W.
F

These different powers of levers are used in combination, and produce a
great variety of power effects and applications.

Other factors to note are:

That a body in motion persists in maintaining its direction unless other
forces intervene.

That the gyroscope overcomes the force of gravity while rapidly
revolving.

That a body set in motion tends to move in a straight line.

That the centre of gravity must be maintained by balance if disturbed or
shifted.

That force is the cause of a change in the velocity or direction of
motion of a body.

That all alterations of velocity take place gradually and continuously.

That centripetal force and centrifugal force are force directed by
radial action.

That the air offers resistance, which increases when the air is in
motion.

That friction offers resistance to power.

That the smaller the surface presented, the less friction there is to
resist.

That resistance must be overcome by power expended for the purpose.

That the base of the bicycle is practically without width, and is
usually about from forty-two to forty-four inches long.

That the direction of the base may be changed at will within certain
limits.

That the bicycle will fall unless prevented from doing so.

That to prevent a bicycle from falling, or to maintain a bicycle on its
base, it is necessary to balance it.

That the constant effort to maintain the bicycle upright upon its base
is on account of the motion of the different opposing forces.

The bicycle is constructed to overcome the resisting forces in different
ways, supplying as many forces as can be made available to accomplish a
particular purpose, permitting a certain choice and discrimination in
the matter.

The bicycle has one weight-carrying wheel and a frame and a pivoted
wheel. The driving power is applied to the weight-carrying wheel, and
the steering is done with the pivoted wheel. The bicycle remains upright
because several forces co-operate to enable it to maintain its plane,
change direction, and overcome certain resisting and opposing forces.

A bicyclist is propelled at a sufficient velocity to maintain the plane
of movement. By altering the centre of gravity, inclining one way or the
other, change of direction may be made.

The front or guiding wheel of the bicycle, being controlled by the
different angles of resistance it presents to the surface it rotates
upon, and not being immovably fixed, can pivot to a plane corresponding
to a plane of least resistance. After a little momentum is attained, a
bicycle will maintain its speed with but little assistance of power,
unless it is accidentally obstructed, or an increase of grade requires
an increase of power.

The frame of a bicycle is a compound lever, combining the second and
third orders. The wheels are a compound lever of the second and third
orders. The fork and handles a lever of the second order.

The forks and handle-bars are set at an angle with the front wheel, thus
conveying the touch on the ground or other surface to the pivot head and
the hands.

A moving body tends to pursue its direction. A wheel loses its power to
change its direction after passing the point of friction. With the forks
at this angle, the blow is felt, and change of direction caused by an
obstacle conveyed; but the wheel has still some power to maintain its
plane from friction, and is steadied by its head. The motion of swaying
is conveyed and overcome at the tire base. If the pivot were directly
over the tire base, the swing would be given to the wheel; and the tire,
having passed its point of friction, would continue to swing. If the
head were pivoted on a point, there would be no side friction on the
rim; because it is pivoted at an incline, the friction base is increased
in proportion, and the wheel, steadied in itself, is easily controlled
by an increased line of friction or by prolonging the time from the
point of contact.

A body in motion persists in maintaining its plane of motion unless
additional forces intervene. The occurrence of these forces is
detrimental and frequent, requiring a continuous swing of the guiding
wheel either by the hands or by balance. The direction of the base line
is continually changed, as it were, broadening the base line. The weight
must incline with the front wheel, and the front wheel will support it.
If inclined away from the direction of the front wheel, the weight
becomes the long arm of the lever, exerting weight against weight at the
base of the bicycle, there being no opposing force. The front wheel
being turned away, the bicycle falls or slips over.

With the fork at this angle the wheel is inclined, the frame held on the
wheel at this angle, as the wheel is turned sideways, it gradually
brings the centre directly over the axles, raising the front end of the
frame up. This pressure or leverage from the frame tends to keep the
wheel straight in the line of least resistance. In turning, the wheel
must lift the weight, and push it up; and this factor greatly adds to
the steadiness of direction.

A bicycle with the steering wheel held fast will maintain its plane so
long as its momentum is not overcome. With the steering wheel the plane
of movement may be regained after each opposition, provided the
proportionate amount of power is expended.

The radius of a wheel is the long arm of a lever; the pedal crank is the
short arm of the lever, though its length may exceed that of the radius
of the wheel.

Power and speed are interchangeable. The shorter the arm of the crank,
the greater the weight required to balance the long arm at the rim of
the wheel (an imaginary line). If the pedal crank is lengthened, it will
require less power to move it. At the same time the foot, following the
crank, describes a larger circle for the distance travelled by the rear
wheel. The crank lengthened, the power is diminished, demanding
increased exertion to follow it, the foot travelling at a rate
determined by the distance to be traversed.

When the hub rests on the axle of the wheel, there is considerable
friction to overcome in the entire length of the hub, the friction, or
ability of the wheel to turn, depending on the amount of axle surface.
The axle, therefore, becomes heated when the air cannot readily reach
the surface to convey away the heat generated by friction.

Weight may be balanced and supported on a point; when weight rests on a
sphere, only a point supports weight. By surrounding the axle with
balls, the weight is taken from point to point on each ball, and a
circulation of air allowed. The weight, carried from ball to ball, gives
the advantage of a larger cooling surface in a confined space, while the
weight and friction are applied directly to a very limited area. Each
ball is also an axle in itself, and carries the weight, and passes it on
to the next ball. The balls act as lubricators, preventing the moving
surfaces from contact.

The problem of speed produced by power means that speed is obtained at
the expense of power expended. The relative size of the sprocket-wheels
determines the relative speed of the cranks and rear wheel. To get the
greatest speed with the least power possible means diminished friction
and lessened weight. The band or chain complies mechanically with these
requirements, permitting a certain amount of play, which lessens the
danger of sudden strains and jars, and supplies the power to the rear
wheel with the least possible loss by friction.

Gear 63 72 76 80
6¹⁄₂ crank
proportion 4¹¹⁄₁₃ to 1 ⁵⁄₁₃ to 1 5¹¹⁄₁₃ to 1 6²⁄₁₃ to 1
8 crank
proportion 3¹⁵⁄₁₆ to 1 44¹⁄₂ to 1 33³⁄₄ to 1 5 to 1
6¹⁄₂ crank pressure 4.85 5.54 5.85 6.15
8 crank pressure 3.37 3.84 4.5 5.00
6¹⁄₂ crank ground
covered by large wheel 16 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft.
8 crank ground
covered by large wheel 16 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft.
6¹⁄₂ crank ground
covered by pedal 40.84 inches
8 crank ground
covered by pedal 50.26 inches

“_Scientific American Supplement, No. 1025_,” August 24, 1895.

Rating wheel by the amount of progression for each turn of the crank
(pedal), the following table, compiled by Henry Starkweather, will be
found of advantage:

No. teeth in 26 in. wheel.
large Sprocket. No. teeth in small sprocket.
6 7 8 9
18 20 ft 17 ft 15 ft 13 ft
19 21 ft 18 ft 16 ft 14 ft
20 22 ft 19 ft 17 ft 15 ft
28 inch wheel.
18 22 ft 19 ft 16 ft 14 ft
19 23 ft 20 ft 17 ft 15 ft
20 24 ft 21 ft 18 ft 16 ft

The following table, from the New York _Evening Post_, shows the gear
according to the number of teeth on large and small sprocket-wheels:

Sprockets 28 in. wheel
on pedal crank. Sprockets on rear wheel.
7 8 9
17 68 59¹⁄₂ 53
18 72 63 56
19 76 66¹⁄₂ 59
20 80 70 62
21 84 73¹⁄₂ 65

_CHAPTER XIX._

_Adjustment._

In bicycling, the word “adjustment” means much, for the movable parts of
the bicycle must be adjusted to suit the requirements of the individual
bicyclist, and the mechanical parts of the bicycle’s construction
adjusted so that they will work together properly.

In a machine properly adjusted, the chain and other gear should run
smoothly, the chain be neither too tight nor too loose, and the
sprocket-wheels exactly in line. The bicycle wheels should run true and
be exactly in line with the frame, and the rear wheel follow the
identical plane of the front wheel when in place. The frame should be
true and square at all points, and should be examined and tested always
after the machine has been travelling by rail or has had a fall. The
bearings in all parts of the machine should have their cone-caps in
place and so screwed and keyed that the balls run easily without
perceptible play. Nuts and washers should all be in place and screwed
home. The handle-bar should be tight and square with the front wheel,
but only tight enough to turn the wheel on a good surface, not so tight
as to prevent it from turning easily if the wheel is caught or held.
The proper adjustment for position has to do with the frame, wheel-base,
length of crank, height and position of saddle; the curve, width,
height, and general adjustment of the handle-bar; the size and number of
teeth on the sprocket-wheels, which determines the gear; and the weight,
construction, and inflation of the tire.

The saddle is one of the most important, if not the most important, part
of the bicycle to study, as it should provide the fulcrum to work from.
Any saddle may be adjusted to be comfortable, but saddles seldom remain
comfortable after being adjusted. The saddle should be hard enough to
act as a fulcrum and should not give or spring under work, for power is
lost on each stroke that presses down on a soft saddle; it should also
permit of change of position without readjustment, unless it is intended
for racing purposes, for the bicyclist should be able to speed, climb,
or coast on a saddle properly constructed for general purposes. Each of
these different kinds of bicycle work requires a different application
of muscular power, and the saddle should permit of a readjustment of
position that will at least accommodate the altered tendency caused by a
shifted centre of gravity in grade work.

Every individual is differently proportioned, with differing lever
lengths and lever power. If people differently proportioned find the
same adjustment possible, it would be for the reason, not that their
different requirements average the same, but that the average of their
different requirements is the same. A higher gear means greater
resistance; a lengthened crank causes the foot to travel in a larger
circle while gaining in increased leverage in the lengthened arm.

In determining the proper proportion of crank length and gear, it may be
calculated that the same amount of resistance may be overcome by using a
higher gear and longer crank as by using a lower gear and shorter crank,
the difference being in the rapidity of the stroke necessary to cover a
given distance in a certain length of time. This adjustment may be
considered equivalent to length of pace and rapidity of pace in walking.
It is well to have crank and gear selected by some one sufficiently
experienced to make an intelligent choice.

In the lever action of the leg, working the bicycle crank, care should
be taken to prevent waste of power in carrying the foot back and behind,
rendering the lever movement useless behind the line where the power may
be made to tell. This loss will occur when the saddle is placed too far
forward. The foot in returning should supply the pull, and lift with a
push-back. The power here gained cannot compensate for power lost on the
forward and down thrust, and the saddle should be placed far enough back
to permit of the full power of the forward push and downward thrust. The
knee should never fully extend when the pedal is pushed to the point
where it is furthest from you, for if it is, there is danger in
hill-climbing of straining the knee as well as the tendons and muscles
of the back of the leg.

The handle-bars should be adapted to the work to be done, whether
racing, touring, or ordinary. They certainly should not be high enough
to prevent them from taking part of the weight of the body, nor so low
as to cramp any portion of the trunk.

Fatigue, with its various manifestations, cramp, stiffness, and
numbness, comes from too long a period of work without change of
position. For this reason different muscular combinations should be
called to do the same work, or different work should be done with unused
muscular combinations, permitting rest or partial rest to muscles that
have been taxed.

A bicycle should be fitted with adjustable handle-bar and saddle-post,
and in case of fatigue or cramp, a slight change in the adjustment will
reduce the tendency at once. Travelling should be done with as little
weight on the saddle as possible, working on the pedals and resting on
the handles. But when it comes to climbing, the push must be located
from a fulcrum, and that fulcrum must be the saddle. All weight must be
removed from the handles, and the wheel ridden by balance.

A hill should be coasted with the weight all on the saddle, the feet
supported, and the handles held firmly and lightly, a proper average
position for continuous work being, however, maintained. To carry weight
forward, the weight should be forward of the centre of gravity, and the
hands dropped.

The question of handle-bars, with the reason of their many varying
curves, may pertinently be discussed here. The bar is a pair of levers
finding a common fulcrum in the head or centre bar, and the difference
in curve has to do with the distribution of weight and the touch best
suited to control the bicycle according to position and individual
balance and lever power. A distribution of weight and leverage may be
made without altering the wheel base by the use of a different pattern
of bar that seems to suit the individual touch.

To analyze the curves in a handle-bar, and their different lever values,
would be difficult. Preference has much to do with it, and this may be
accounted for by the different steering touch of the differently
adjusted bars. The forward drop should never be so great that the face
cannot be lifted easily and the eyes always able to see up and ahead.

In the tire we look for elasticity, and the amount of air it contains
has much to do with the comfort of the rider and the speed of the wheel.
Soft tires are adapted for a rough or stony road. The soft tire may wear
out a little sooner, but the extra wear is fully compensated by the gain
in lessened shock and apparent improvement of wheeling surface. A very
hard tire is not necessarily made of rubber. The advantage of the rubber
tire is its elasticity, which should come between the fulcrum and the
power.

To attain a proper position and its equivalent adjustment, first have
the saddle as nearly right as possible so that you can work comfortably;
then have the handles and the height of the bar tested, working on these
until you can determine if the saddle is too far forward or too far
back. Then change the height of the bars to suit the saddle.

Next attend to gear. Find if with comfort you could exert more pressure
on the pedals. If so, have the gear increased. If there is cramp in the
foot, or the foot feels strained, have the length of crank changed. If
the foot is long in proportion to the other lever lengths, lengthen the
crank to permit of freer instep play; or have it shortened to relieve a
strained feeling in the foot. The crank length may be changed to relieve
either cramp or strain in the leg and thigh until the pressure and
length are arranged to suit the natural step or pace.

While these adjustments are in progress--and it may take months to
determine them--the shoe may cause discomfort. The slightest pressure, a
shoe too tight or ill-fitting, would be responsible for much more
discomfort than could possibly be caused by either crank or gear.
Waist-bands, or any pressure on the trunk, will cause numbness of the
foot; and a saddle of imperfect construction or wrong adjustment would
be responsible for the same evils--unequal pressure and unequal strains
and overcharged blood-vessels, with their accompanying discomforts of
cramp, fatigue, numbness, and more permanent disorders.

_CHAPTER XX._

_Exercise._

How shall be determined the proper amount of exercise for any
individual? The human body is constructed for use, and will suffer from
want of use, rust out, as it were; and it will suffer from over-use if
any one set of muscles or any one supply of nerve power is overtaxed.

Exercise, in some form, is necessary for every one; work is necessary;
recreation is necessary. Rest is to recreate, to renew. The food that we
eat is digested and made into blood; the blood flows through the system
of tissues, depositing building material and taking up waste matter. The
arterial system, physiologists tell us, supplies the new material; the
venous system takes up the waste material, returning the blood to the
heart, after which the fresh air comes in contact with the blood in the
lungs, and is aerated and oxygenated, and waste material given off. The
heart pumps the blood through the arterial and venous systems. When we
move or work, more blood is needed, and the heart pumps harder. When
little or no exercise is taken, the heart loses its vigor from want of
use; and it may be strained if overtaxed.

Brain power and nerve power depend on the blood supply for renewal of
their tissue. Any organ or any combination of organs and muscles, when
exercised, give off their accumulated material, and then, after a limit
of assimilation is reached, the products are reabsorbed. The materials
properly accumulate only when needed.

These facts bring to our notice three conditions--a condition of
atrophy, or too little use; a perfect condition of equilibrium of
forces; and a condition of strain from over-work. In the condition of
equilibrium or perfect health, the brain is active and the muscular
tissue under perfect control. The mind can receive impressions, and can
convey them at will; and the muscles obey without difficulty and without
fatigue, because of the great existing power of resistance. On the power
to resist fatigue depends the power of prolonging exertion.

In exercising we exert our powers, and if from lack of use or other
cause our amount of stored energy is small, exercise for even a very
short period will produce a condition which makes rest absolutely
necessary. Muscles must be gradually accustomed to work; and if work is
prolonged beyond the point where exercise is beneficial, a state of
tension and exhaustion ensues which can be remedied only by rest
prolonged enough to allow the system to recuperate. Where the tissues,
from disuse, have come to have little resistance value, a very gradual
and persistent course of exercise must be determined upon, for
unaccustomed muscles are quickly fatigued, and the subsequent rest they
require may seem out of proportion to the work done. This condition of
affairs is discouraging when not understood; yet there can be no
different result except in degree; and in degree must the condition be
changed and the tissues gradually renewed. If there is but little power
stored, only little may be used until the power of assimilation is
established.

The thin woman is benefited by bicycling; the liver works better, the
food digests better. The stout woman is benefited, for the exercise
hardens and condenses the flesh. The average healthy woman is kept in
the best of health by the exercise and plenty of pure, fresh air. For
the sedentary, the undeveloped, and the insufficiently nourished, the
bicycle seems to work wonders. All the powers are accelerated and a
general renewing of tissues takes place. The organs of digestion are
stimulated and do better work, the appetite improves, the complexion
brightens, and the mind responds readily. But people of either of these
classes should be careful not to prolong exercise until loss of appetite
is brought about; for the exercise should tend to increase, not to
decrease, the desire for food and power of assimilation.

Baths should be taken in moderation, the skin being kept in free,
healthy condition by dry rubs and tepid baths until the system is
brought to the state where the cold bath can be used beneficially. The
diet should be generous and wholesome, and care should be taken to avoid
food that does not digest easily. Sufficient clothing should be worn but
not too much, and all exercise should be avoided that might produce
very copious perspiration. Only a healthy activity of the skin should be
induced, and plenty of water drunk.

Do not work nervously. Go to work gently, and save your energies to make
the wheels go around. A thin person can remain thin and a fat person
remain fat while exercising assiduously if the exercise is not properly
directed.

To overcome fat, persistent, systematic, and regular exercise is needed,
and attention to diet must be considered essential. For the food
consumed produces certain results; and if the system selects and digests
most readily the fat-producing elements, their amount should be
curtailed, and a diet of good working quality chosen. Fat is burned in
producing heat; but if the same amount of fat-producing elements are
again taken into the system, the same amount of fat results. The
fat-producing tendency must be overcome, and the fat already accumulated
consumed, until a good healthy average of tissue is produced and
maintained.

Tea and coffee are not foods; they retard the assimilation of tissue,
and must be eliminated from the diet of the weight-reducer. Sugar and
starch--the latter when eaten is converted into sugar--are
heat-producing foods, first forming fats which are used as
energy-producing material. Persons wishing to reduce weight, therefore,
must manufacture, not so much fat, but bone and sinew. To produce these,
nitrogenous foods must be eaten. Fat consists largely of water; and
heavy work, like hill-climbing, which induces free perspiration, is
desirable. But any one wishing to seriously undertake weight-reduction
should learn to enjoy bicycling for itself before attempting this
application of the exercise.

Excess of fat produces physical laziness, which is hard to overcome; and
stout persons, after exercise, crave fat-producing elements of food to
reduce the tissue consumed. A taste seems to develop for sweet stuff and
mild stimulants, and it is difficult to refrain from indulging it. Stout
people are apt to believe, also, that they cannot endure exercise. They
cannot comfortably, and must work with care until they are in a fair
state of balance, where exercise ceases to fatigue, before attempting
anything like scientific weight-reducing. Sufficient exercise regularly
taken, proper diet persistently selected, will finally have the desired
effect.

Exercise sufficiently to produce good, thorough perspiration; take a
bath and rub down, and put on fresh clothing; avoid tea and coffee,
sugar and ice cream, dessert and pastry.

For those in health and in the habit of exercising regularly, there are
only the dangers of the sport to avoid while enjoying its pleasures and
benefits.

_CHAPTER XXI._

_Training._

If you intend a fifty-mile or a week’s trip awheel, it will be very
necessary to accustom yourself to the work before attempting a distance
you have not yet covered. Suppose, though your muscles are unaccustomed
to long-continued exercise, that you know how to wheel a bicycle and are
anxious to go with your friends. They perhaps wheel for an hour or two
hours daily, or for several hours twice a week. They are afraid to take
you with them; and you feel sure that you can go as far as they do, and
at the same rate of speed.

You must make your opportunity and prove your ability. Suppose you can
wheel for half an hour without fatigue. Wheel that half-hour every day
the weather permits; know your distance and your road; and then practise
increasing speed, that is, do your distance in less than the half-hour
without hurry. Start slowly, and keep the pace until you get your
breathing apparatus steady; then ride faster, and maintain that pace;
and so on, in increasing ratio. If you have been in the habit of
covering your distance in five minutes under the half-hour, next time
add that distance to your spin, and do it in your limit time. When you
easily do five miles in half an hour on the road, add a mile or more for
the next two or three spins; then do not wheel for one day; the next day
wheel twice the distance, wheel eight miles, and rest a day. Then double
your distance again. If you cannot do this without feeling the effects
seriously, go back to where you made your greatest distance with ease,
and start from that point again.

Keep a careful record of your outings, dates, wind, sun, time of day,
and humidity. The latter is very important, for on a hot, dry day,
greater distance can be done with safety than when evaporation is slow.
Consider all the conditions when you find that you are fatigued, and
decide if the trouble is with yourself or with the weather. Do not start
for at least an hour after eating, and always rest after exercise before
taking a meal. Observing these directions, you will soon find that you
are making very fair progress, that your confidence is assured, and that
you have acquired a certain amount of endurance, and can attempt any
reasonable distance.

Exercise transforms, making the inactive capable of performing work and
of enjoying opportunities for using their newly discovered powers. The
weak are strengthened; the strong retain and renew their stores of
strength; the young are symmetrically developed, and the older remain
supple and active. Exercise preserves and develops all parts of the
organism that are capable of performing work. Exercise is work, muscular
work; and in working the muscles, all the tissues become readjusted, and
all materials and accumulations tending to hinder movement are
diminished in quantity and equalized in distribution.

Ease of movement and a state of muscular inactivity are incompatible. To
be active, one must work; and the whole organism will respond, and
adjust itself to the conditions imposed by occupation and manner of
living. The complicated mechanisms and intricate processes of the human
body adapt themselves to required conditions; it is only necessary to
determine what those conditions shall be to produce certain results.

It is difficult for some to overcome the tendency to a state of
inactivity; and there are others to whom even the contemplation of
repose is distasteful. The physiological effects produced by exercise
differ in different individuals, active persons and those not in the
habit of doing muscular work being very differently affected. For
exercise, of whatever kind, is muscular work, and “muscular work tends
to modify the nutrition of all motor organs and to give them a structure
favorable for the performance of work.”

All muscular work is done through the contractile power of the muscles.
By use the fibres become freed from fat and other accumulations, the
muscles increase in size, the contractile power becomes greater, and the
impedimenta of fat, etc., are removed by the processes that are
accelerated by movement. “Repose causes atrophy of muscular tissue,” and
the necessary discernment and powers of discrimination must be
cultivated to avoid a tendency either in the direction of over-doing or
of insufficient exercise.

“The effect of muscular exercise is to render vital combustion more
active; it causes more active processes of assimilation.” “Muscular
education leads to an economy of forces. Practice leads to a diminution
of muscular expenditure”--more work done for power expended. For the
power to perform work depends on knowing how to do it properly. Real
strength lies, not so much in the mass of muscular tissue as in the
ability to use it.

“Exercise of strength demands the simultaneous action of a great number
of muscles.” “Exercise of speed involves repetition of movement and the
application of nervous energy.” “Exercises of endurance permit of
economy of fatigue,” and are characterized by the necessity of perfect
equilibrium between muscular effort and the powers of assimilation of
the system.

In exercise of strength, every muscle should bring its whole force into
play, and the bony structure is united by pressure to make a rigid
whole. “Exercises of speed are accompanied by fatigue out of proportion
to the mechanical work represented.” “Every movement needs the
intervention of a great number of muscles; each muscle must contract
with definite force in order that the whole work may lead to definite
movement.”

Co-ordination is the operation of choosing the muscles which shall
participate in a certain movement and of regulating the exact quantity
of nervous energy necessary to produce the right amount of contraction.
Automatism is acquired by practice; and the muscles must be exercised
regularly to enable them to respond intuitively. A complicated series
of movement can only be acquired gradually, unless the mind has a large
number of muscular combinations at command.

“Exhaustion will result from overwork even when well fed.” “Exercises of
endurance do not disturb the working of the organs; while increasing
their activity, it gives to the system the power to repair wasted
tissue, even during work.” Carbonic acid is not formed in excess, and is
eliminated without producing noticeable results.

The bicyclist, even though indulging moderately in the pastime, must
consider these things, and determine the course to be pursued; otherwise
the exercise will prove a bane instead of a blessing. There are
principles capable of general or special application; and there are
special laws that may be generalized; and all may be made to accord with
the exercise of bicycling, but each individual must accept a certain
responsibility in the matter. The bicycle having been accepted as a
means, the end sought for can be attained only by its intelligent use
and application.

One of the many advantages of cycling is that the exercise involved is
not limited to the use of any one set of muscles. The legs propel the
machine, the muscles of the trunk engage in balancing the body, and the
arms are employed in steering and controlling the front wheel. All the
larger joints are active, and are made supple as well as strengthened
and developed. Muscles, unless directed by mental effort, are useless.
The bones give stiffness, and act as levers and fulcrums; the muscles
are tools of the mind, levers wherewith to pull and push the bones into
position.

Precision of movement means economy of expenditure of force, no more
effort being expended than is necessary for the act of the moment.
People who hunt for the pedal, and try for the saddle two or three
times, and fall off because the bicycle fails to start, work hard enough
to have mounted a number of times; that is, they have lifted or
supported their own weight in different directions a number of times
without attaining their object. They appear to be awkward; they are
really unaccustomed to their work. Practice will accustom the muscles to
the work they have to do.

Try to do one thing only at a time. If it is mounting, for instance,
memorize each thing that must be done; how, when, and where to do it. Do
not think, because the mind does not at once grasp all that is forced
upon its attention, that your brain is of inferior quality; it may not
be able to adapt itself to that particular mental process at that
minute. But the effort made will result in added tissue, and next time
there will be more hope of success. Increase by a little at a time the
amount of exercise undertaken. You can gauge the practice you need only
by the amount of attention you give to the subject. After muscles are
once trained to an exercise, the mind will not readily lose power to
reproduce the combination, and experience begins to help.

Endurance means well-directed strength as well as capacity of power
stored in reserve; and the aim of all athletic work is to give an
increased store of strength, vitality, and power to draw upon, not
merely to expend the stock already on hand.

The muscular development that comes with bicycle exercise will often
cause surprise. In persons unaccustomed to active exercise, the increase
is most noticeable on the chest and forearms, the chest development
increasing two and three inches, the arm and forearm in proportion, and
the whole muscular system gaining in firmness and tone. Persistent
bicycling, prolonged exercise on the wheel, speed work on the track,
develop disproportionately the muscle of the leg. The track-man,
therefore, prepares for his season of work, not by exercising and
developing his legs, but by general exercise and special work that will
develop the arms and back and other sets of muscles not called upon for
heavy work during the season when he is to do his best. Getting up
speed, increasing speed, and hill-climbing all tend to develop the
muscles of the leg, which in such exercise are called upon for the heavy
work of push and thrust, using a concentrated power to propel. Light
dumbbell work is recommended as a good alternate for bicycle work and a
means of keeping the muscular system in balance.

Leisure and the weather limit bicycling; other causes are incidental.
The weather, indeed, affects bicycling more than any other sport. One of
the most imperative needs of bicycling is rapid evaporation, and
conditions that do not permit of that are unfavorable. Observe
atmospheric conditions, therefore, and avoid severe work when the dew
point is approached.

All the hard work wanted can be accomplished in half an hour after the
wheel has been taken out; or it may be used as a vehicle for travelling
steadily hour after hour for days consecutively; or an invigorating spin
of two or three hours may be taken, regulating the pace and the work.
One of the things to know about a bicycle is that you can get almost any
kind of work you want out of it. To realize that you are doing the work
you have been accustomed to have a horse do for you, and in a similar
way, and to know that many of a horseman’s rules for the care of their
working animals may be equally well applied to human beings who do the
same work, is apt, perhaps, to cause a sensation of unpleasant surprise.
It is a fact, however, that there is much information about the care of
horses that the cyclist may study and apply with advantage.

The bicycle is not an iron horse; it is more like skates; is in some
things like a boat; in some like a coasting sled; and in many ways is
different from anything else. It seems alive at times, as does a boat;
but it is the power propelling it that causes the delusion. The only
thing alive about bicycles is the persons who propel them; and if they
are only half alive before attempting to mount, they will become very
alert and keenly appreciative of all that concerns them long before the
sport has ceased to be a novelty.

“Exercise is important as a regulator of nutrition.” “The best athletic
exercise for increasing the size of the chest is that which compels the
deepest inspiration.” The lower limbs, with their masses of muscular
tissue, are most capable of awakening the respiratory need which is
proportioned to the expenditure of force. Exercise induces change of
shape as well as change of size; and too much exercise of any one kind
will produce a local effect.

Breathlessness is not the only form of fatigue, and fats are not the
only reserve material. Nitrogenous products of combustion, which cannot
be derived from fatty substances, are produced by work; and these are
stored among the reserve material, and produce stiffness, as fat
produces breathlessness.

In no other sport is the blood sent coursing through the veins in the
same way as in bicycling; and as there is not a very great quantity of
that wonderful fluid passing and repassing through the circulatory
system, any obstruction or pressure is instantly felt and provided for.
To avoid giving nature unnecessary trouble in providing for interrupted
or unequal circulation, not even a glove that is the least tight should
be worn; indeed, the covering of head, hands, and feet should be
carefully selected. And the same precaution should be exercised with
regard to all clothing. No tight underwear should be worn, and nothing
like equestrian tights, which interfere with surface circulation. The
waist and lower ribs must be kept free. You should never ride so hard as
to allow the air to force the ribs out and in, so that you cannot
control them. It is a good rule not to ride so hard that you cannot hold
your breath at pleasure.

It is important always to remove perspiration before cooling; therefore,
take a bath at once on coming in from a ride; if you cannot do that, rub
off with a dry towel, or sponge with tepid water, and rub dry gently;
then put on dry underclothing. The cold bath is most invigorating and
refreshing, and never more refreshing than after bicycle exercise; but
all cannot use it with good results. Provide for your change of
underclothing before starting out, and if you do not intend to return,
take it with you.

Remember always that it is essential to provide an entire covering for
the body that will admit of free exhalations, and warm enough to prevent
chilling under all circumstances. While riding, provided the condensing
moisture is allowed to escape, it is quite possible to feel overheated,
yet the skin must be protected from chill resulting from rapid motion
through the air. Air pressure and evaporation nearly balance each other,
and the extra heat caused by exertion is tempered by moisture and the
constant fanning of rapid locomotion. These effects are most appreciably
felt upon halting. If the covering is thin, of light weight, and of too
hard a texture to admit of quick passage of air and steam, the garments
at once become saturated with moisture, and a serious chilling follows.
Even if the halt be but short, it will be found that an appreciable time
passes after remounting before one becomes warm, and the distaste for
work that follows is a sure indication that something is amiss. If
energy were preserved, instead of wasted in warming up after halting,
the benefit of the rest would be felt.

A proper porous material should be always worn. With a flannel
shirt-waist and woollen sweater, even in quite warm weather, riding is
not at all uncomfortable; but substitute a Holland linen coat for the
sweater, and the rider will be first very warm, and then very damp
indeed and most uncomfortable. Nature provides various means for keeping
the body at an even temperature, and it is most essential not to disturb
this balance. While working, heat is generated, the skin becomes moist,
and a normal temperature is maintained by the rapid evaporation. Too
little covering means too great evaporation and lowering of temperature;
and even if no chill is experienced, the too rapid cooling prevents good
working results, and stiffness is apt to set in with fatigue after the
day’s work, and a languid, sleepy feeling on the day following.

Too much stress cannot be laid on the necessity of being able easily and
expeditiously to adjust or redistribute the clothing. Flannel is a good
non-conductor of heat, but the bicyclist must use discrimination in
selection. Too heavy flannel will induce a copious and weakening
perspiration; insufficient clothing will allow the body to be chilled by
too rapid evaporation.

One of the greatest benefits to be derived from bicycle exercise is the
free, healthy action of the skin that is induced. If this activity is
retarded by pressure, much injury may be done by the holding and
reabsorbing of waste matter. This reabsorbed matter, which is a direct
poison and must be worked off again in the complexities of the system,
causes languor and headache and a feeling that exercise is of no
benefit, as indeed it is not if proper hygienic laws are not complied
with.

While in the open air, there is little danger to be apprehended from
damp clothing, as oxidation is going on freely. It is under shelter that
danger lurks, where the air does not circulate freely. The underwear
should be changed before eating, or the food will do little good. Where
you can get shelter, you can usually find conveniences for making the
change; otherwise, it is better to eat in the open air.

Digestion involves muscular action as well as chemical processes.
Wherever in the system muscular work is being done, the blood is needed
in large quantity to enable the muscular processes to continue. In the
process of digestion important chemical work is accomplished by the
action of certain juices or secretions of the stomach, and rhythmical
muscular work in the walls and coatings of the stomach is required to
regulate their supply. It may be easily understood, therefore, that
digestion should be properly or rather uninterruptedly accomplished, and
it cannot be thus properly accomplished if too much of the blood supply
is called away in the earlier stages of assimilation.

Active muscular work should never be undertaken immediately after a full
meal. The more food there is to be digested, the more work there is to
be done, the less capable is the rest of the system for severe work.
Such work, after eating heavily, would involve an interruption, almost a
suspension, of digestive processes, and a consequent difficulty in the
adjustment of the processes involved in muscular work. It would mean a
much longer time to get the second wind, inability to do hard or heavy
work, as well as inability to prolong the work without discomfort. Such
a course of action must lead to serious complications and derangements
of the digestive functions and eventually induce liability to disease.

It is very injurious, also, to attempt to perform heavy work fasting, or
to prolong the period of exercise when food or rest is required. The
human machine requires a certain amount of fuel, and the supply must be
taken at regular intervals, or reserved material, which is too valuable
to be recklessly expended, will be consumed.

A mixed diet, with plenty of variety, is the best to work on, everything
to be thoroughly cooked. Three good meals a day, and no eating between
meals; though, when tired, it is not well to work on an empty stomach,
and if you are delayed it is better to eat something while waiting than
to go too long without eating. Beef and mutton are always good food; and
fresh vegetables, fruit, milk and eggs, and cereals either with cream
and sugar or milk and sugar. Simple desserts are not harmful, neither
are they necessary.

The so-called sustaining power of stimulants merely enables one to burn
up reserve tissue, to use up more fuel, to produce more power. Work done
under such conditions is forced work, like the forced draught of a
steam-engine using power to force the air into the furnace. In both
cases, intense heat and great power can be produced, and corresponding
radiation and depression occur while the system is undergoing its
processes of restoration. Tea, coffee, bouillon, are stimulating, and
good as food accessories; but they are not good to work on.

_CHAPTER XXII._

_Breathlessness; The Limit Mechanical._

Seated awheel, the bicyclist feels master of the situation. The bicycle
obeys the slightest impulse, moving at will, almost without conscious
effort, virtually as much a part of the rider, and as easily under
control, as hand or foot. It is because weight is supported and friction
overcome that the bicyclist loses consciousness of effort as he moves,
with seemingly no limit to endurance.

A trouble often experienced is breathlessness. For this there are
several causes. Sometimes the machine is started too hurriedly and
before the processes of the body have had time to adjust themselves. To
work easily, the muscles must be heated gradually, until they are
brought to the proper point of tension. Again, the easy movement of the
wheel often causes the cyclist to become oblivious of the fact that the
muscles are working quickly while doing easy work, that the power
applied is being converted into speed with little appreciable effort,
until suddenly his breath becomes labored, and a halt must be made for
rest. We need not attempt here to give the figures for power expended
and work done, though both factors may be estimated.

Technically, effort is a physiological condition involving complicated
chemical changes and concentration of power. The work of the lungs is
done mechanically, automatically, is muscular work, involving chemical
changes and giving chemical results. We breathe in air full of oxygen;
we exhale air loaded with carbonic acid. Muscular effort produces
carbonic acid through chemical changes in the tissues of the body. The
oxygen of the air, taken into the lungs to purify the blood, is absorbed
and stored. Easy muscular movements give off a limited quantity of
carbonic acid and other products, but not more than can be eliminated
without readjustment of processes. When a succession of efforts is made,
involving the manufacture of larger quantities of carbonic acid, the
eliminating capacity is correspondingly taxed.

In making an effort, the lungs become momentarily fixed, and their
regular respiratory movement is suspended. Carbonic acid is held, not
given off, and a feeling of suffocation is observed. Unless respiration
is restored by a pause, poisoning by the waste products ensues, they
being reabsorbed, and inducing discomfort and fatigue. Working with
effort, the lungs should be free to expand and contract. To this end it
is all-important to exhale, expelling the air from the lungs by
compression of the chest after severe exertion. Air rushes naturally
into the chest cavity; attention, therefore, should be directed, not to
getting in air, but to expelling the air already in the lungs. This
successfully done assists materially in bringing about that desirable
condition known as “second wind,” and gives control over the muscles of
the chest, which enables waste products to be readily eliminated.

“The intensity of breathlessness during exercise is in direct proportion
to the expenditure of force demanded by the exercise in a given time.”
Breathlessness is due to power expended in a limited time. This, at
least, is one of the inducing causes. On the bicycle, power is converted
into speed. In hill-climbing, shortness of wind is due not so much to
position on the wheel as to the amount of power expended in doing the
work. If power is wasted, the work attempted is usually not
accomplished; if intelligently expended, the work is done easily and
well, leaving the bicyclist in condition to renew the effort when
necessary.

Hill-climbing is like stair-climbing; power is expended in a succession
of efforts made in raising the weight on an ascending plane. The weight
must be lifted, either pushed up or pulled up, and the respiratory need
is increased. The hill-climber must aim to mount with as little effort
as possible and to make the ascent with the minimum expenditure of
power.

Rapidly increased heart-beat is accompanied by deeply inflated lungs and
a tendency the bicyclist should guard against to work open-mouthed. Here
the question of tight clothing comes prominently forward. Sitting erect
and holding by the handle-bars, the bicyclist’s upper chest muscles are
held comparatively fixed or rigid; the arms, being used for support,
act as levers holding down the upward expansion of the chest. The air,
being compressed, is forced laterally and downward. The downward
expansion of the chest is checked by the movement of pedaling, there
being a constant upward pressure in the ascending stroke and an
increased muscular compression in the descending stroke. With a tight
belt, the breathing is chiefly upward, and downward when sitting or
walking, the lateral expansion depending on the width and compression of
the belt.

When working on a bicycle, with the hands fixed and holding hard, the
upper chest is comparatively rigid, the muscles below the diaphragm hard
at work; and muscles at work do not admit of compression, which prevents
the diaphragm from moving downward. The diaphragm is a muscular wall,
stretched across the trunk below the lung cavity and near the
waist-line. If the lower muscles of the trunk are actively at work, the
diaphragm can be distended but a little way in a downward direction by
lung pressure. The air in the lungs, which are hard at work, and
over-full, presses against the heart, and makes harder work for that
organ. When the lungs are distended, any clothing that can be felt about
the waist exerts more or less pressure. The lungs of a bicyclist at work
are constantly distended, seldom deflated, and an equal pressure is
exerted in all directions. The diaphragm is forced downward, pressure
comes on the large blood-vessels, and the legs feel tired as one of the
results of the constriction. Pressure on the heart and the large blood
vessels of the lung cavity causes rush of blood to the head and gives a
heated look to the face and a feeling of faintness and headache.

The muscles of the waist are elastic, but lose their elasticity when not
in use. Fat accumulates, and is pressed down, usually below the belt,
causing the muscles of the figure to sag and the trunk to lose its
proper lines. Compression of the waist while cycling is dangerous, and
will cause enlargement of the hips and distort the lines of the figure
below and above the waist. If tight clothing must be worn, do not wear
it while exercising any more than while sleeping.

Bicycling is a great equalizer of tissue. The system, when this exercise
is moderately indulged, is freshened as is a city by a heavy rain, all
accumulations and deposits being swept away.

There is a difference, a very great difference, between muscular fatigue
and breathlessness, and the two conditions should not be confused.
Breathlessness is general fatigue; muscular fatigue is fatigue
localized. When you are breathless, all your muscles are tired; they do
not want to work and are indeed incapable of performing work. Work
performed by the lower limbs causes breathlessness more quickly than any
other kind of exertion, and the bicyclist must bear this fact in mind.
The respiratory need is increased in proportion to the amount of
carbonic acid in the blood. The lower limbs can perform a great deal of
work in a few seconds, the large masses of muscle in the legs at work
throwing large quantities of carbonic acid into the blood to be given
off or eliminated by the lungs.

Each individual has his own limit or pace, at which he can do work most
easily. If this pace is exceeded, effort follows and increased
expenditure of power; a greater quantity of carbonic acid is produced to
be given off; and fatigue is induced sooner than when working at the
pace which can be kept without extraordinary exertion. Every bicyclist
knows his own natural pace, and when departing from that must expect to
be winded sooner or later.

Rapid work on the bicycle is similar, as muscular exertion, to running,
racing, speeding, and sprinting. Here we have the time limit,--great
speed produced in a short time; tissue consumed, and carbonic acid
produced in large quantities to be quickly eliminated. Increased effort
means more power expended. The fixed lung cavity means lessened capacity
for increased air-consumption and greatly lessened means of inhaling and
expelling air. One of the effects produced by carbonic acid in the blood
is a stimulation to increased effort, which causes a desire to prolong
work after reasonable limits have been exceeded, a feeling that more
must be done, rather than a desire to stop and rest.

Second wind is the condition produced by the adjustment of the processes
of the body to the new state of exertion, where the heart and lungs
balance and work according to the demands of the new condition. A
pendulum, slipped on its spindle and let go, swings irregularly until it
finds its new rhythm. The rhythm that corresponds with its weight,
momentum and length of spindle, leverage, is the rhythm of the work. All
repeated work has a rhythm, and the movement disturbed requires a
little time for readjustment. The heart and lungs work automatically and
rhythmically, and any new movement disturbs their rhythm, which must be
adjusted for change of occupation or exercise until the balance of the
working functions is established.

The second wind usually comes after the first fifteen minutes of work.
Quickly acquired, it means rapid and easy adjustment of processes, a
quick response to effort, and little power wasted. Though individuals
differ in this respect, a difficulty in getting the second wind, when
exercise has been suspended for a time, will sometimes be experienced,
and care should be taken not to overwork when taking up an exercise that
has been for some time discontinued.

When you have had exercise enough, stop and rest. Change of occupation,
turning from active mental work to active muscular work, has been said
to give rest to the mental faculties. Though they perhaps do, in a
sense, experience rest, it might be unwise to assert that this rest is
really recuperative. Repeated alternation from active mental exercise to
active physical exercise would inevitably result in a state of
exhaustion, in which the reserve fund of energy or strength would be
completely consumed. It is a more accurate statement that a certain
amount of muscular work, which will restore the balance of the system,
is a good preparation for rest after active mental exertion.

During mental work of any kind, muscular work must be performed; for
breathing, seeing, moving the hands, require muscular movement. The
question, therefore, resolves itself into one of degree of work done and
equilibrium of forces to be maintained, rather than one of restoration
of one set of faculties by the overtaxing of another set. Good muscular
work cannot be accomplished without the exercise of brain and will;
therefore, when the mind is actively employed, a certain amount of
muscular tissue is consumed, though not enough to maintain the system in
a state of bodily activity. For body and mind, to be in a state of
perfect health or equilibrium, should be equally active.

The tissues of the body are constantly renewed, and the amount of work,
mental or muscular, that can be accomplished is determined by these
constantly renewing processes. The amount of material taken up and
stored for use depends upon the amount of material needed; and this is
gauged by the amount of work already done, and restricted by the amount
of work the material is capable of performing. The balance of work and
rest, quantity and quality, varies with different temperaments.

Training means nothing more than preparation. For those engaged in
active mental occupation it is well to consider if they are giving
themselves the best preparation for resisting the fatigue consequent
upon their occupation. Cycling is a pastime and sport, and may be a
relaxation and the alternate of other athletic exercises. After the
machine is under control, the muscular work becomes virtually automatic;
and for this reason cycling, in its various forms, has proved so
beneficial as a relaxation.

Overwork produces the effect of poisoning of the system, and reduces its
power of resistance. This poisoning is produced by the waste products of
the system, which accumulate during work, as the forces for eliminating
them are overtaxed; and before work can be properly resumed, the poison
must be eliminated from the system, and the power-producing materials
again stored for use.

Stiffness is a form of fatigue due to an accumulation of deposits in the
tissues, which are best removed by exercising after a period of rest.
With their removal, stiffness disappears, to return with fresh deposits
if exercise is again prolonged. The amount of material not taken up by
the system lessens with regular exercise, and the tendency to stiffness
gradually disappears. The only remedy for stiffness is work, then rest,
then work again. Sleep does not always come to the over-tired, and we
may therefore conclude that it is better to be rested before attempting
to sleep.

A pause, to be recuperative, need not be prolonged; fifteen minutes’
rest after exertion should be sufficient; and during a day’s work, this
fifteen minutes’ rest between changes of occupation, not including the
quiet necessary for digestion, will keep one fresh. A pause longer than
fifteen minutes prepares or readjusts the processes. Do no work, mental
or muscular, for at least an hour after a meal; and sleep in a cool--not
cold--well-ventilated room.

Low tension power usually accomplishes its object without waste. Work
done at high pressure, that might be done at low pressure, indicates
waste of effort under strain. The intense concentration of effort when
the beginner is struggling with a bicycle is made at high pressure. The
excitement of the unexpected probably has something to do with this, as
well as the novelty of the situation. If all bicycle work required the
same state of tension, however, it could not be long endured; the strain
would be too great.

There is a certain amount you can do, or think you can do; this is one
measure of your capacity. The work you do is done by stored energy. How
may that energy be applied to give the best results? The intricate
workings of the mind we may not attempt to analyze: what we do, we do
because we wish to, or because we ought, or because we must.
Concentrated effort, persistent effort, continuous effort, all consume
force. When you dread anything you have undertaken as too difficult of
accomplishment, just so much more force is required to overcome that
idea. If, mounted on your bicycle, you wheel along in a state of
apprehension, you induce a high nervous tension that requires a great
reserve of power to resist and supply. Fear, or a sense of insecurity,
or a lack of confidence, produces the same result. A bicycle is run by
the direct application of power; and power diverted is power wasted.

In wheeling, after the invigorating freshness of the exercise has
reached a certain point, the benefit derived lessens with the amount of
power drawn from the reserve. Bicycle exercise, moreover, to be really
beneficial, should be alternated with other exercise. The bicycle
freshens and brings into good condition muscles already developed, but
it is an exercise that must be taken with judgment. It is not a panacea
for all human ills; it can be generally beneficial, or, immoderately
indulged, may become most harmful.

Wheeling for long distances should not be undertaken without proper
training. For the sedentary, and for all others tempted by the
fascinations of the sport to over-exertion, caution is most necessary.
Reaction from over-exertion will bring about a physical condition as
detrimental as that caused by lack of exercise--general lassitude and
unfitness for work, if nothing more serious.

Persons who are naturally timid cannot accomplish in the same time as
much as the more courageous, for their powers are actively at work
overcoming their dread of collision and fear of falling; and the
distance covered, for power expended, must consequently be less than
when no other exertion is required than is needed for propelling the
bicycle.

Learn to work without strain or effort; practise where fear is not
likely to be aroused, for fear induces a state of tension, and bicycling
cannot be enjoyed or prolonged if this drain of the power-supply is
allowed. Confidence will come with the knowledge that you are no longer
at the mercy of the machine, that it is in your power.

No one make of bicycle is acknowledged the best, and no one is
absolutely perfect. The selection of a bicycle, therefore, is a matter
of knowledge and nice discrimination, and its use opens a wide field of
opportunity before you--touring and cruising, and expeditions of all
kinds; travel and sight-seeing; means for study and investigation.

The possible cost of cycling may be quite appalling to consider; but in
cycling, as in other things, you may choose between the demands of
necessity and the suggestions of luxury. One--almost the
chief--fascination of the sport is its simplicity as a mode of travel;
the possibility of doing away with all impedimenta. The bicyclist soon
learns to dispense with every accessory not positively necessary and to
know every possible use of indispensable articles.

The bicycle bestows and restores health; it has its limit, though it
does so much that more seems always possible. Take the bicycle as it is,
use it intelligently, enjoy it, and become an enthusiast.

* * * * * *

Transcriber’s note:

Inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, etc. and unusual spelling
have been retained.

Page 162 and 163, tables: as printed in the source document, although
they obviously contain several errors.

Changes made

Illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs.

Some minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
silently.

The illustration numbers in the List of Illustrations have been added
by the transcriber.

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Bicycling for Ladies - The Common Sense of Bicycling; with Hints as to the Art of Wheeling—Advice to Beginners—Dress—Care of the Bicycle—Mechanics—Training—Exercise, etc., etc." ***

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