| By Author | [ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z | Other Symbols ] |
| By Title | [ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z | Other Symbols ] |
| By Language |
|
Download this book: [ ASCII ] Look for this book on Amazon Tweet |
Title: Robert Fulton and the Submarine
Author: Parsons, Wm. Barclay
Language: English
As this book started as an ASCII text book there are no pictures available.
*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Robert Fulton and the Submarine" ***
ROBERT FULTON
AND THE
SUBMARINE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
NEW YORK
SALES AGENTS
LONDON
HUMPHREY MILFORD
AMEN CORNER, E.C.
SHANGHAI
EDWARD EVANS & SONS, LTD.
30 NORTH SZECHUEN ROAD
[Illustration:
PORTRAIT OF FULTON
]
ROBERT FULTON
AND
THE SUBMARINE
BY
WM. BARCLAY PARSONS
[Illustration: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 1754–1893 IN LITTERIS LIBERTAS]
=New York=
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
1922
_All rights reserved_
_Copyright, 1922_
BY COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
Printed from type. Published December, 1922
PRINTED BY
THE PLIMPTON PRESS
NORWOOD · MASS · U·S·A
_To_
A. R. P.
WHO IN THE LINE OF DUTY DURING THE WORLD WAR
CROSSED AND RECROSSED THE HOSTILE SUBMARINE ZONE
THIS ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST SUBMARINE
IS INSCRIBED
W. B. P.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
FOREWORD
That Robert Fulton devoted some attention to the possibility of an
underwater boat during the years when his mind was laboring with plans
for the propulsion of boats by steam, has been known since that time.
Not, however, until 1896, did it become clear to what extent he had
carried his ideas. In that year Lieut. Emile Duboc discovered in the
Archives Nationales in Paris the full account of Fulton’s negotiations
with the French Government and the plans of the boat that he had
constructed, and in which he actually plunged. Other investigators,
chiefly Lieut. Maurice Delpeuch of the French navy and Mr. S. L. Pesce,
have made public this interesting record. To their respective treatises,
“Les Sous-Marines à travers les Siècles” and “La Navigation sous marine”
the author of this book is indebted for much information.
It was also known that Fulton left France for England in 1804 presumably
to work for the government of the latter country in the development of
torpedoes. It has been supposed that he made some suggestions for a
submarine, suggestions that were not taken seriously. His first
biographer, Cadwallader D. Colden, and his own published writings make
no reference to an underwater boat. But such a boat was the basis and
essence of his work and not merely an incidental suggestion. The lack of
knowledge and consequently the erroneous supposition are due to the fact
that what he actually proposed to the government was purposely kept
secret for political reasons. A manuscript wholly in Fulton’s
handwriting, signed in three places, and large, carefully executed
water-colored drawings made and each signed by him have recently been
found in England. This manuscript and drawings show that the main idea
that he laid before the British Government was a sea-going submarine
vastly superior to the one that he had previously submitted to the
French authorities. The manuscript and other substantiating documents
and letters that have been examined prove clearly that it was alarm on
the part of the British Admiralty regarding his initial French submarine
that led the government to induce Fulton to go to England and place
himself and his devices unreservedly at their service.
This record, now published for the first time, shows that Robert Fulton
was unquestionably the first one to design a practical vessel capable of
submerging and rising at will, that could keep the sea for an extended
period of time with a large crew, and that could be propelled either on
or beneath the surface, or that could lie safely at anchor under either
condition. The record also shows that Fulton foresaw with extraordinary
clearness conditions that might arise, and which actually did come to
pass in the great war recently ended.
Fulton’s manuscripts and letters are reprinted exactly as he wrote them
so far as access has been had to the originals, words that he erased are
enclosed in brackets. Some of his letters taken from books have
evidently been corrected in their orthography before publication. In
such cases the published text has been followed.
In the preparation of this book the author has been assisted, and for
which assistance he makes grateful recognition, by Mrs. Alice Crary
Sutcliffe and Mr. Edward C. Cammann, descendants of Mr. Fulton, who have
kindly placed at the author’s use their great grandfather’s papers; by
Mr. L. F. Loree who did the same with his collection of Fultoniana; by
the British Ambassador who procured a search of the British Government
records, and by the New Jersey Historical Society. The author has drawn
from a number of works on Fulton, particularly the biography by Colden
(1817) and “Robert Fulton” by H. A. Dickenson (1913), as well as the
French volumes above mentioned.
WM. BARCLAY PARSONS
NEW YORK, 1922.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGE
FROM ART TO ENGINEERING 1
Instructions to Barlow regarding the “Drawings and
Descriptions”. Fulton’s youth (1765–1782). Residence in
England studying art (1786–1793). Change from art to
engineering as a vocation (1793). Arrival in France (1798).
CHAPTER II
EARLY ATTEMPTS AT SUB-SURFACE NAVIGATION 15
Fulton’s first efforts for mechanical navigation. Some early
submarines: Bourne, Van Drebbel, Mercenne, de Son, Wilkins,
Bushnell.
CHAPTER III
FULTON’S FIRST SUBMARINE 24
Fulton begins work on a submarine (1797). Nautilus launched at
Rouen (1800). Havre experiments. Fulton aided by Monge and
Laplace. Received in audience by Napoleon Bonaparte. Hopes and
disappointments.
CHAPTER IV
NEGOTIATIONS WITH FRANCE 39
Nautilus reconstructed and tested at Brest (1801). Reports to
Monge, Laplace and Volney. Great expectations. Final rejection
(1802). Partnership with Robert R. Livingston. Work begun on
steamboat. British Admiralty aware of his submarine
accomplishment. Induced to return to England (May, 1804).
CHAPTER V
THE “DRAWINGS AND DESCRIPTIONS” 54
CHAPTER VI
THE BRITISH CONTRACT 78
Size of the “Drawings and Descriptions.” Pseudonyms.
Proposals. Contract with the British government. Was Fulton
false to his principles in supporting Great Britain against
France? His financial position under the contract.
CHAPTER VII
EXPERIENCE IN ENGLAND 93
Attack on fleet at Boulogne. Torpedoing of Dorothea (1805).
Effect of Trafalgar on Fulton’s work. Copies of “Drawings and
Descriptions.” Intent of government not to proceed with the
submarine. Correspondence with Lord Hawkesbury and Mr. Pitt
(1804). Commission of investigation appointed. Decision
adverse to a submarine. Nevertheless Pitt signs contract.
CHAPTER VIII
NEGOTIATIONS WITH CABINET 103
Fulton begins to have doubts of accomplishment (1805).
Correspondence with Mr. Pitt and Lord Castlereagh reciting his
contract, rights and claims. Pitt dies (Jan. 1806) and Fulton
begins anew with Lord Grenville and Lord Howick.
CHAPTER IX
FURTHER CORRESPONDENCE 114
Demand for arbitrators. Further correspondence with Lord
Grenville and Howick.
CHAPTER X
THE FAILURE OF THE NEGOTIATIONS 124
Arbitrators appointed. Fulton’s presentation of his case (Aug.
1806). Arbitrators decide against Fulton. He makes a last
appeal to Lord Grenville, reviewing whole case (Sept. 1806).
No reply.
CHAPTER XI
RETURN TO AMERICA 139
Summary of the British Negotiations. America used as a threat.
Offer of neutrality. Fulton’s review of the past and plans for
the future. Appeal to Jefferson. Departure for home.
CHAPTER XII
EXAMINATION OF FULTON’S DESIGN 146
What the Nautilus accomplished. The British design compared
with that of the Nautilus. Folding propeller. Horizontal
propeller. Details of machinery. Effectiveness of the vessel.
Screening the Channel.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Robert Fulton (self-portrait) _Frontispiece_
TO FACE PAGE
Title page of “Report on the Canal between the Rivers
Heyl and Helford” 8
Jonathan Hulls’ Steamboat, 1737 16
de Son’s Underwater Boat, 1653 18
Fulton’s “Nautilus,” 1798 26
Manuscript page of “Drawings and Descriptions” with
Fulton’s signature 54
Manuscript page from “Drawings and Descriptions” 56
Fulton’s Drawings of Submarine: Plate the First 60
Plate the Second 61
Plate the Third 62
Plate the Fourth 63
Plate the Fifth 64
Plate the Sixth 65
Plate the Seventh 66
Plate the Eighth 68
Plate the Ninth 70
Plate the Tenth 72
Plate the Eleventh 74
Plate the Twelfth 76
Compressed Air Cylinder 76
ROBERT FULTON AND THE SUBMARINE
CHAPTER I
FROM ART TO ENGINEERING
Instructions to Barlow regarding the “Drawings and
Descriptions.” Fulton’s youth (1765–1782). Residence in England
studying art (1786–1793). Change from art to engineering as a
vocation (1793). Arrival in France (1798).
“... I am now busy winding up everything and will leave London about the
23rd inst. for Falmouth from whence I shall sail in the packet the first
week in October and be with you, I hope, in November, perhaps about the
14th, my birthday, so you must have a roast goose ready. The packet,
being well manned and provided will be more commodious and safe for an
autumn passage, and I think there will be little or no risk; at least I
prefer taking all the risk there is to idling here a winter. But
although there is not much risk, yet accidents may happen, and that the
produce of my studies and experience may not be lost to my country, I
have made out a complete set of drawings and descriptions of my whole
system of submarine attack.... These with my _will_, I shall put in a
tin cylinder, sealed and leave them in the care of General Lyman, not to
be opened unless I am lost. Should such an event happen, I have left you
the means to publish these works, with engravings, in a handsome manner,
and to which you will add your own ideas—showing how the liberty of the
seas may be gained by such means.”
Thus Robert Fulton wrote to Joel Barlow who had been his close friend
and faithful guide since his arrival in Paris in 1797. The letter of
which the above is but an extract is dated London, September, 1806, and
was written, as the context shows, on the eve of his final departure
from England, after a residence abroad of nearly twenty years. General
Lyman to whom he referred had been appointed American Consul in London
in 1805, in which capacity he served until he died in 1811.
Joel Barlow was in his day a person of considerable importance. Born in
1754, in Connecticut, educated at Dartmouth and Yale, he first studied
theology and then law. Though he practised these professions in turn for
a short time, he retired from both to devote himself to literature. In
1788, he went to London and Paris to market some lands in Ohio, an
unfortunate undertaking. While in Europe, he became interested in
liberal politics, even to the extent of standing as a candidate for
election to the French Convention of 1793. After having acquired a
competence in commerce, and after a short but highly creditable service
as American Consul at Algiers, he returned to Paris and resumed his
literary life, his principal production being a poem entitled, “The
Columbiad.” In 1805, he returned to America, remaining there until 1811,
when he was appointed American Commissioner to Emperor Napoleon. He
joined the latter at Vilna in 1812, during the Russian campaign and, as
the result of exposure to inclement conditions on the disastrous retreat
from Moscow in the same year, died in Poland on Christmas eve. Barlow
was enough older than Fulton to be accepted not only as a friend, but as
a counsellor, while his character, experience and views on world
questions appealed to the enthusiastic younger American in whom there
was curiously blended a high development of an artistic temperament and
scientific genius, and who was in thorough sympathy with the extreme
liberal movement of the period that Barlow to some extent approved.
When Fulton arrived in Paris in 1797, he at once called on Barlow. The
two men were mutually attracted and there soon sprang up an intimacy
that was to develop into the most affectionate friendship. This intimacy
has been compared to that existing between father and son, or rather
between parents and son because Mrs. Barlow joined with her husband in
taking Fulton into their lives. This they did the more readily as they
had no children of their own. As evidence of the relation, they gave
Fulton the nickname of “Toot.”
Cadwallader D. Colden, in his biographical memoir of Fulton, finds no
fitter words to describe this friendship than by quoting as he says,
“the warm language of one who participated in the sentiments expressed.”
From this description of the quotation by Colden, it is evident that the
words were those of Mrs. Barlow herself, who was still alive when Colden
was writing the memoir in 1817. The quotation that Colden gives is as
follows:
Here commenced that strong affection, that devoted attachment, that
real friendship which subsisted in a most extraordinary degree between
Mr. Barlow and Mr. Fulton during their lives. Soon after Mr. Fulton’s
arrival in Paris, Mr. Barlow removed to his own hotel and invited Mr.
Fulton to reside with him. Mr. Fulton lived seven years in Mr.
Barlow’s family, during which time he learnt the French and something
of the Italian and German languages. He also studied the high
mathematics, chymistry and perspective, and acquired that science
which, when united with his uncommon natural genius, gave him so great
a superiority over many of those who, with some talents but without
any sort of science, have pretended to be his rivals.
The house in which the Barlows lived in Paris and where Fulton lived
with them for much of the time, was No. 59, Rue Vaugirard. The above
quotation gives a suggestion of what the Barlows must have been to
Fulton during his struggles in a foreign land, with visions of success
almost attained alternating with bitter disappointments. It was but
natural that the affection of Joel Barlow should be reciprocated and,
consequently, when facing in 1806 the then not inconsiderable danger of
a transatlantic voyage, it was to Barlow that he entrusted the task of
publishing the results of the discoveries and of his labors, should he
be lost at sea.
Fulton, as we know, reached America safely and, therefore, Barlow was
not called on to publish the “drawings and descriptions” that Fulton had
left behind in England. Due to the fact that Fulton lived for some years
and became very prominent in the successful development of steam
navigation, the drawings and accompanying manuscripts of a device that
had not attained practical recognition seemed to have for the moment
comparatively small value or importance and were put aside, perhaps
after the death of Consul Lyman. They made no appearance until 1870,
when they were sold at auction by a Mr. Andrews of Swarland Hall,
Felton, Northumberland, and apparently without attracting any comment.
Then for a period of 50 years, they rested quietly and unknown to the
general public in the family of the purchaser. In 1920, they once more
changed owners and passed into the possession of the writer. Now after a
lapse of 116 years, the request of Fulton to his dearest friend, Barlow,
a request that he realized when he made it might be his last, will be
complied with, and the interesting story of his work through several
years be made of record.
Could Fulton have foreseen the development that his conception of
submarine navigation would attain, it is well within the limit of
probability that he would have preferred that publication of his plans
be withheld until the basic principle had reached its present status of
complete application. Though he lived more than eight years after
writing his letter to Barlow, he made no effort to publish his plans,
nor did he in any of his subsequent writings refer to his submarine idea
nor what he had done in England. Apparently his sole thought of
publishing was in the event of his being lost at sea on his return. If
he could not carry his conception of submarine attack into actual
execution, he apparently preferred that his plans be allowed to rest
quietly in some English private library until the idea that he had
espoused had taken actual practical form, and the principles that he
advocated had been proved true. Absorbed at first on his return to
America in the construction of his steamboat, perhaps he realized in the
interval between 1806 and his death in 1815, that the world was not yet
ready to receive the innovation of sub-surface navigation, that the
state of the art of engine construction had not yet been advanced
sufficiently to render the theory feasible and, consequently, that
publication might have detracted from his fame as an engineer by
apparently showing that he was a dreamer. Sometimes it is a misfortune
to be ahead of the times. Better to wait until proved facts entitle one
to be accorded praise as a man of vision, rather than through premature
publication to be classed as a visionary man.
Robert Fulton was born on the 14th November, 1765, on his father’s farm
on Conowingo Creek in Little Britain Township, Pennsylvania. His father,
Robert Fulton, Sr., was of Scottish descent. To his mother, Mary Smith,
a woman of force and intelligence, young Robert owed his early
education, and from her he derived the personal qualities that were to
make him distinguished. His father was not successful as a farmer, so
that when he died in 1768 he left his widow and five children in very
straightened circumstances. Of the five children, three were girls, and
of the boys, Robert was the elder.
This story is not concerned with the history of the Fulton family which
has been thoroughly set forth by others, except to recall those salient
steps in Robert’s career that led to his investigation of the
possibilities of submarine navigation, and the designing of a boat to
accomplish the end so far as the then state of the art of boat and
engine construction would permit.
At school he did not excel in his studies which he neglected for
sketching and mechanical experiments. When he was seventeen years of
age, he set out to make his own career. As the village of Lancaster,
where he was living with his mother, offered narrowly limited
opportunities, he went to Philadelphia, then in many respects the most
important city in the colonies. Not much is known of his early
struggles, though apparently he devoted part of his time to art, because
the City Directory in 1786, puts him down as a miniature painter, and
some of his miniatures are in existence. Under the patronage of Benjamin
Franklin, he made progress and earned enough money to purchase a farm
for his mother.
But the spirit that was within him—the spirit that was to record his
name indelibly in history—led him to think of the greater world that lay
beyond the colonies, even though the colonies were at last successful in
their struggle for independence and were then engaged in the equally
difficult and more prolonged struggle to weld themselves into a nation.
In 1786, he sailed for England provided only with a letter from his
protector, Franklin, to Benjamin West. At that time West was approaching
the height of his career as painter in London, being chosen president of
the Royal Academy in 1792. Under the guidance of and probable
instruction by West, Fulton made progress as an artist, the Royal
Academy accepting some of his pictures.
The path of a young artist is rarely a smooth one. It is no smoother
when the young artist is working in a foreign land without fame, friends
or private means. What Fulton did and how he lived in London during the
first four years of his stay in England, is best told by himself in his
own words, in a letter to his mother under date of January 20, 1792, a
letter given at full length by Dickenson.
... And I must now Give Some little history of my life since I Came to
London. I Brought not more than 40 Guineas to England and was set down
in a strange Country without a friend and only one letter of
Introduction to Mr. West—here I had an art to learn by which I was to
earn my bread but little to support whilst I was doing it And numbers
of Eminent Men of the same profession which I must Excell before I
Could hope to live—, Many Many a Silant solitary hour have I spent in
the most unnerved Studdy Anxiously pondering how to make funds to
support me till the fruits of my labours should sifficant to repay
them. Thus I went on for near four years—happily beloved by all who
knew me or I had long ear now been Crushed by Poverties Cold wind—and
Freezing Rain—till last Summer I was Invited by Lord Courtney down to
his Country seat to paint a picture of him which gave his Lordship so
much pleasure that he has introduced me to all his Friends—And it is
but just now that I am beginning to get a little money and pay some
debtt which I was obliged to Contract so I hope in about 6 months to
be clear with the world or in other words out of debt and then start
fair to Make all I Can.
In 1793, when he was on the very threshold of a successful career as an
artist, he suddenly, and without any explanation that is known, gave up
the art of painting and turned to the science of engineering as his
life’s vocation. It is an interesting fact that two great American
engineers—Fulton who made steam navigation practical, and Morse who did
the same for the electric telegraph—were both artists before they became
engineers. The only hint as to the cause of his change of occupation is
given by himself in the introduction to his first and greatest literary
production, “A Treatise on the Improvement of Canal Navigation,” which
appeared in 1796. In this introduction he said: “On perusing a paper
descriptive of a canal projected by the Earl of Stanhope in 1793, where
many difficulties seem to arise, my thoughts were first awakened to this
subject.”
But Fulton in 1796 was something more than an author and investigator of
canals. He was at that date actually in the field as a practicing
engineer as is shown by a printed report, dated London, November 24th,
1796, addressed to “Sir Francis Buller, Bart. and the Gentlemen
interested in the Helston Canal.” This report is of particular interest
in that it is not recorded in any Fulton bibliography and no copy is to
be found in the British Museum, or in the Congressional or other
American public libraries. Perhaps the copy lying before the writer is
the sole survivor. The edition was undoubtedly very small and the few
copies, as soon as immediate interest was lost, were likely to be thrown
aside as of no value. The title page is reproduced in facsimile on the
opposite page.
Now as an addition to the Fulton bibliography, this, his second book and
first published account of his own engineering work, is of importance
and merits a brief description.
The pamphlet consists of fifteen pages, those of the copy referred to
measuring 4⅞ by 7¾ inches, with an engraved map 10¾ by 7¾ inches,
showing the route of the proposed canal from the headwaters of St. Ives
Bay to the navigable waters of the Helford River in Cornwall.
[Illustration:
REPORT
ON THE
PROPOSED CANAL
BETWEEN THE
RIVERS
_HEYL AND HELFORD_.
BY
ROBERT FULTON,
_ENGINEER_.
]
The report possesses no scientific or constructive value. It presents
neither plans nor details, except estimates of cost and earnings,
obviously imperfect. Had Sir Francis and his friends followed the advice
of their professional advisor, it is probable that they would have
suffered financial disappointment. The report, however, is full of a
young man’s optimistic hopes, a spirit of altruism and a plea for
economy. These are sentiments that always actuated Fulton and frequently
find expression in his other writings. It is not impossible, in fact it
is quite probable, that a desire to be of tangible service to others was
one of the compelling reasons that led him to devote himself to
construction rather than to art. The underlying thought on which this
report is based is shown by the following extracts in which Fulton after
pointing out how in his professional opinion he believes that the
operations of this enterprise will be lucrative, gives his own views of
such undertakings as follows:
But I hope the gentlemen of Cornwall will view them in a better light;
and, considering them as of national utility, contemplate the infinite
advantages they give to the numerous operations of society....
In such investigation, if by a facility in carriage I find the expence
of manure reduced, I then see that the farmer may improve more land,
give a greater polish to his estates, and nourish agriculture to the
benefit of the mass of society and the emolument of his landlord....
In towns, if the grocers, carpenters, ironmongers, or other tradesmen,
have the carriage of their commodities reduced, they or their
customers are benefitted; and so on in all professions where much
carriage is required. If the housekeeper or cottager have their coals
reduced, the comfort becomes more extended. In fact there is no point
in which a canal can be viewed but it exhibits advantages to the mass
of the people; and for an evident reason, because all improvements
which reduce manual labour, or which give a greater produce with the
same quantity of labour, will render the conveniences of life more
abundant, cheap and diffused....
By 1786, Fulton had definitely devoted himself to canal engineering, or,
as he says himself in the Report of the Board of Commissioners of the
Western Canal, published at Albany and dated February 22, 1814:
I passed three years at various canals in England to obtain practical
knowledge on the manner of constructing them and to make myself
familiar with their advantages.
With Fulton’s work on canals, his designs for inclined planes to take
the place of locks, his financial difficulties and his acquaintance with
the Earl of Stanhope, the present story has no concern, except as such
work is the intermediate step in Fulton’s career between art and
mechanical navigation.
That Fulton was sorely pressed as to money in these days, the following
extract from a long letter addressed to Lord Stanhope, and given in full
in Dickenson’s “Robert Fulton,” clearly proves:
Works of this kind Require much time, Patience and application. And
till they are Brought About, Penury frequently Presses hard on the
Projector; And this My Lord is so much my Case at this Moment, That I
am now Sitting Reduced to half a Crown, Without knowing Where to
obtain a shilling for some months. This my Lord is an awkward
sensation to a feeling Mind, which would devote every minuet to
Increase the Comforts of Mankind. And Who on Looking Round Sees
thousands nursed in the Lap of fortune, grown to maturity, And now
Spending their time In the endless Maze of Idle dissipation. Thus
Circumstanced My Lord, would it be an Intrusion on your goodness and
Philanthropy to Request the Loan of 20 guineas Which I will Return as
Soon as possible. And the favour shall ever be greetfully Acknowledged
By your lordship’s
Most obliged
ROBERT FULTON
In 1797, Fulton conceived the idea of making a short trip to France and
then returning to America. From various letters he appears to have had
expectations, or perhaps they were only hopes, that he could find
opportunity to apply his canal ideas in his own country. Accordingly,
the summer of 1797 finds him in France en route for America. But instead
of tarrying for a few weeks as he had in mind, he remained seven
fruitful and critical years.
In France he began at once to devote himself, as he had been doing in
England, to the development of small canals, republishing in French his
“Treatise on Canals” under the title, “Recherches sur les Moyens de
Perfectionner les Canaux de Navigation, etc.” It bore date an 7, the
French revolutionary equivalent to 1799, and contained not only all the
matter of the English edition of 1796, but also new material of
particular application to France. In 1798, he was granted a French
patent for certain details of canal construction, and in the same year
attempted to secure the interest of Napoleon in the utilization of his
ideas. The letter in which he makes the attempt was written in French,
and a copy made by Fulton is now preserved in the New York Public
Library.[1]
To General Bounaparte
Citizen General
Citizen Perier having advised me that you desire to know of my work on
the System of Small Canals, I take the liberty of presenting you a
copy of that book, only too happy if you will find therein some means
of improving the industry of the French Republic.
Of all the causes of War, every day, it is true, sees those disappear
which appertain to the existence of kings, priests and all that
accompany them. But, nevertheless, republics will not be free of these
lamentable properties so long as they do not free themselves from the
erroneous systems of _exclusive commerce and distant possessions_. It
is therefore a reason for every man who loves his fellows to endeavor
to destroy these errors. Even ambition cannot seek a greater glory
than in pointing out to men the path of truth and removing obstacles
that impede nations from arriving at a durable peace. What glory can
stand against time if it does not receive the approval of philosophy?
In order to free nations, Citizen Bounaparte, you have executed vast
enterprises and the glory with which you are covered should be as
permanent as time itself. Who then can support with more efficacious
approbation, projects which contribute to the general welfare? It is
with this idea that I submit to you my work, hoping that if you find
therein any useable truths that you will deign to support them with an
influence as powerful as your own, and in effect to patronize projects
the execution of which should render millions of men happy. Can there
be for virtuous genius a more delicious reward? It is from this point
of view that interior improvements and freedom of commerce are of the
highest importance.
Should success crown the efforts of France against England, there will
remain but gloriously to terminate this long war, to give freedom to
commerce and make other powers adopt the system. Political liberty
will then acquire that degree of perfection and breadth of which it is
susceptible and philosophy will see with joy the olive branch of an
eternal peace shade the course of science and industry.
This letter possesses two great points of interest. One that it marks
the first approach of Fulton to Napoleon, leading as will be seen below
to a far more important suggestion than that of building small canals;
and the other that it is animated by an intense desire for French
success over England. That this was in the beginning Fulton’s hope is to
be borne in mind when, as will be shown, having developed in 1804 the
opposite or pro-British sympathy, he lived and worked during two years
in England for the destruction of Napoleon’s power though perhaps not of
French ascendancy. The letter speaks of a “lasting peace.” That is
something that the same nations a century and a quarter later are still
seeking.
How delightfully charming and naïve is Fulton’s confidence that his
picture of an altruistic ambition would excite a sympathetic emotion in
Bonaparte. If Napoleon read the letter he must have smiled at Fulton’s
enthusiastic simplicity.
Fulton’s leaning to French views at this time is explained by the fact
that in politics he was intensely republican, in fact, somewhat extreme,
a position that was undoubtedly encouraged and strengthened by his
mentor, Barlow, who we have seen was a candidate for the celebrated
Convention of 1793. This same leaning very likely influenced his
remaining in France, rather than undertaking his contemplated return to
his native land, because at this period his political ideals seemed more
probable of realization in the former than in the latter country.
CHAPTER II
EARLY ATTEMPTS AT SUB-SURFACE NAVIGATION
Fulton’s first efforts for mechanical navigation. Some early
submarines: Bourne, Van Drebbel, Mercenne, de Son, Wilkins,
Bushnell.
While Fulton was taking out patents for his little canals—patents that
never had either practical or profitable application—and endeavoring to
earn a livelihood through the introduction of some of his methods of
canal construction, there was germinating in his mind the great
principle of mechanical propulsion on water that was eventually to win
for him both fame and a competence.
The seeds had found lodgment some years previously. Dickenson shows that
in 1793, or about the time when he retired from his art career, Fulton
wrote a letter to the Earl of Stanhope stating that he had a project for
moving boats by steam. This was a subject in which Stanhope took
particular interest, being an inventor and a great student of applied
science, and especially as he at that same time was working on a design
of his own for a steamboat. Lord Stanhope requested Fulton to present
his plan in detail. The original letter and accompanying sketches, dated
November 4th, 1793, are still in the possession of the Stanhope family.
The idea of propelling boats by steam was not new. Jonathan Hulls had
published a pamphlet in 1737 entitled, “A Description and Draught of a
New Invented Machine for Carrying Vessels Out of or Into Any Harbour,
Port or River, Against Wind or Tide or in a Calm.” This pamphlet is of
great rarity, and the plate it contains, being the first pictorial
representation of a boat propelled by the force of steam, merits
reproduction. But in Fulton’s own country practical results had already
been achieved. James Rumsey had actually moved a vessel by steam on the
Potomac in 1785–88, and in 1788 and 1790 took out British patents. In
February, 1793, Rumsey ran a steamboat on the Thames. Equally important
was the work of John Fitch, who also constructed a boat operated by a
steam engine and actually conveyed passengers on a regular schedule on
the Delaware River in 1790. Fitch, like his rival inventor Rumsey, went
to Europe further to develop his ideas and, in 1791, took out a French
patent. All these experiments were, of course, known to Fulton and it is
not impossible that they gave him his first suggestion.
For the moment we are not interested in the development of steam
navigation. However fascinating the story of how Fulton gradually
developed a better engine than his predecessors and contemporary
experimenters had succeeded in doing, and one that was completely
practical, it is not to be repeated here. Our story is concerned with
his work on submarines, but before leaving the subject of steamboats, it
is convenient to recall that the fortuitous appointment of Robert R.
Livingston (1746–1813), the famous Chancellor of the State of New York,
as American Minister to France in 1801 brought to Fulton his ultimate
means of success through the partnership that the two men established.
Chancellor Livingston, like Fulton’s other friend, Lord Stanhope, was
interested in philosophical subjects and had turned his attention to the
possibility of steam navigation as early as 1798. Therefore, his arrival
in France in 1801, when Fulton was struggling with the mechanical
problems, was most opportune for Fulton and the art of mechanical
propulsion. Though Fulton even then had almost reached the solution of
the engineering difficulties, he was without the necessary funds to put
his ideas in concrete form. These funds Livingston supplied, and, what
to a man of Fulton’s temperament was almost as valuable, personal
encouragement and guidance. It is not too much to assert that the early
realization of the application of steam to navigation was due to
Livingston’s acceptance of the post of Minister to France, thus bringing
the two men together.
[Illustration:
JONATHAN HULLS’ STEAMBOAT, 1737
]
While Fulton was studying and experimenting with mechanical propulsion
of boats on the surface of the water, it was but natural that he should
take under consideration the possibility of constructing a boat that
could be sunk and raised at will and move under water. This basal
principle was far from being novel. From the earliest times man has not
been content to remain only a land animal. As far back as records go, he
has had the ambition to emulate the birds, and certainly during the
Roman period he began to think of sharing with fishes the power to
explore the depths of the sea.
Perhaps William Bourne was the first writer on submarine vessel design.
In his little quarto volume published in 1573, and entitled, “Inuentions
or Deuises very necessary for all Generalles and Captaines, or Leaders
of Men, as well by Sea as by Land,” he describes as the “18 Deuise,” “a
Ship or a Boate that may goe vnder the water vnto the bottome, and so to
come vp againe at your pleasure.” Recognizing that the variation in
displacement of a vessel whose weight remains constant adds to or
detracts from its buoyancy, he suggested a vessel with sides that could
be distended or contracted at will by screws, thus permitting her to
sink and rise. These distendable sides, he thought, might be made of
leather. For ventilation when submerged, he would have a hollow mast,
taking care that the depth of water in which the boat should plunge
would never exceed the height of the mast. He did not propose any means
of propulsion.
Van Drebbel, a Dutch engineer, born in Holland in 1572, made actual
application of Bourne’s ideas, and constructed a submersible boat in
1624. He tested it in 15 feet of water in the Thames at London, during
one of which tests it is reported that he had King James I. as a
passenger. Apparently he attempted propulsion by means of oars that
passed through the boat’s sides, the apertures being covered by leather
pockets attached to oars and boat. What plan he had for keeping the
boat’s air respirable when submerged is not clear, though there are some
fantastic but not authenticated claims that he used a chemical compound
for refreshing it. If he really plunged, which is by no means certain,
it was probably for only a few minutes at a time.
In 1634, the same year in which Van Drebbel died in London, there was
published a book entitled, “Hydraulica Pneumatica,” containing a chapter
“De nauibus sub aqua natantibus.” This interesting work was written by a
noted French theologian and philosopher, Marin Mercenne (1588–1648), a
member of the order of Minimes Fathers. As was frequently done at that
period in the case of technical treatises, Father Mersenne wrote his
book in Latin, and gave his name the latinized form of Mercennus. He
describes Drebbel’s boat, but credits Bourne with having first proposed
the principles that Drebbel used, and recalled that Bourne had suggested
the possibility of getting fresh air through tubes reaching to the
surface. Mercenne’s contribution to the art was his stated belief that
the compass would be equally efficient beneath as well as on the
surface.
[Illustration:
DE SON’S UNDERWATER BOAT, 1653
]
In 1653, a French engineer, de Son, constructed in Holland a curious
boat, 72 feet long, propelled by a hand-driven wheel. This boat was
hardly a submarine as it was not expected to submerge completely. It is
interesting as the first application of a mechanical motive force other
than oars and the first suggestion of a paddle wheel. It, therefore,
marked a great step forward in matters of design. A translation of de
Son’s modest description of this boat as shown on the bottom of the
design is as follows:
ACCURATE REPRESENTATION OF THE NEW WONDERFUL SHIP MADE AT ROTTERDAM.
As Mons. Duson has been greatly disappointed at the presentment of his
ship, which was in all ways greatly misrepresented, both as regards
the rudder, the paddle wheel, and the whole disposition of the vessel
when published at Amsterdam, we think it useful to give an exact
representation of the ship (as above depicted) and the reader will at
once see the difference. The Inventor will undertake to destroy with
the ship in one day a fleet of a hundred vessels. No fire, no cannon
ball or rocket, no storm or waves can hinder him unless God the Lord
should intend to do so. Even if the ships which lie in the harbors
consider themselves safe, he will run them to the bottom and turn
around just as easily as a bird in the sky so that no one can hurt
him, and should his ship be taken by treason, for otherwise it is
quite impossible, it could not be governed by any one else but him. He
will be able to make in one hour at least ten miles, and should he run
on a bank his vessel will swim as light on the water as a light sloop
would do. He believes he will be able to go with this vessel in ten
weeks to and from the East Indies, and in one day to and from France,
so that it may be called the greatest wonder of the world.
The next contributor was an Englishman, John Wilkins, Bishop of Chester.
Wilkins was an exceedingly interesting character and deserves to be
remembered not only for what he did to advance the art of submarine
design, but for what he was and what he accomplished in many ways. His
life is set forth in considerable detail in the preface of the fifth
edition of his principal scientific production, “Mathematical Magick: or
the Wonders that may be perform’d by Mechanical Geometry,” this
particular edition being published posthumously in 1707.
From this sketch it appears that he was born in 1614. It is stated that
at school his proficiency was such that he entered New Inn, Oxford, when
13 years old. After graduation, not at New Inn but at Magdalen Hall, he
took orders and served as Chaplain, first to Lord Say and then to
Charles, Count Palatine of the Rhine. On the outbreak of the English
civil war, he joined the parliamentary party. In 1648, he received the
degree of Doctor of Divinity, and in 1656, married the sister of Oliver
Cromwell, then Lord Protector. Soon after he was appointed head of
Trinity College, Cambridge. Charles II, on his restoration to power,
removed Dr. Wilkins from his position at Cambridge, though subsequently
gave him preferment, first, by making him Dean of Ripon, and soon after,
Bishop of Chester. Apparently Wilkins had made it clear to the royalist
party that he could serve quite as well under their standard as under
that of his late brother-in-law.
In the short interim while out of royal favor he resided in London,
where he was elected to the Royal Society and a member of its Council.
It will thus be seen that Wilkins was no narrow-minded person. He could
adapt himself to whatever political party was in power, and apparently
he could do equally well as an educator, theologian and man of science.
At any rate, of his varied abilities, his excellence in these three was
recognized by his contemporaries who conferred on him the highest honors
in each of the three fields. He did not however restrict himself to
those labors, but was also an author of no small productivity. Among his
writings are :
1. “The Discovery of a New World; or, a Discourse tending to prove
that (’tis probable) there may be another Habitable World in the
Moon.” 1638.
2. “Discourse concerning the Possibility of a Passage to the World in
the Moon.” 1638.
3. “Discourse concerning a New Planet; tending to prove, that (’tis
probable) our Earth is one of the Planets.” 1640.
4. “Mercury; the Secret Messenger: Shewing how a Man may with Privacy
and Speed communicate his thouhts to his friend at any Distance.”
1641.
5. “Mathematical Magick; or, The Wonders that may be perform’d by
Mechanical Geometry.” 1648.
6. “An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language”
including, “An Alphabetical Dictionary.” 1668.
7. Several works on theological subjects.
The above books seem to have won popular approval because they appear in
several editions. Bishop Wilkins died in 1672 after a life full of
strenuosity, variety and action.
It is with his scientific publication standing fifth in the above list
that we are specially interested. This little book, which treats of a
great number of mechanical devices and principles such as wheels,
pulleys, screws, engines of war, clocks and other similar machines,
contains two chapters, one entitled, “Concerning the Art of Flying. The
several ways whereby this hath been, or may be attempted”; and the
other, “Concerning the Possibility of framing an Ark for Submarine
Navigation. The Difficulties and Conveniences of such a Contrivance.”
The latter chapter is the one that bears on our present discussion.
Although Wilkins gives credit to Mercennus, who as he puts it, “doth so
largely and pleasantly descant upon the making of a ship wherein men may
safely swim under the Water,” nevertheless he follows the line of
thought of Bourne without giving him credit. He closely imitated
Bourne’s scheme of leather attachments. He suggested leather bags open
at both ends, one end being without and the other within the ship, the
ends capable of being closed like those of a purse. These bags he would
use as means of ingress and egress for men and materials. Motion he
proposed to obtain by means of oars whose blades would be collapsible on
the back stroke, the oars projecting through the ship’s sides, the holes
being closed with leather attached to the oars and vessel. Wilkins had
in mind the use of such a vessel in attack against a “Navy of Enemies,
who by this means may be undermined in the water and blown up.”
The submersible power Wilkins would obtain by having his boat or “Ark”
ballasted so as to be of “equal weight with the like magnitude of
water,” that is, to be at the critical point between floating and
sinking, obviously one of greatest danger. He fancied that he could then
obtain vertical motion or plunging by attaching a great weight to the
bottom of the ship, to be computed, of course, as part of the ballast.
If the weight were lowered by means of a cord, so would the boat ascend,
and if the weight were raised, it would descend. The method of supplying
air to the submerged crew was equally amusing. He depended upon the
ability of men to live in a polluted atmosphere by continued practice,
or if that were found impossible, the air might be purified by what he
calls “refrigeration,” that is, by heating it by lamps and allowing it
to cool on coming in contact with the sides of the vessel, the process
being assisted by bellows. It is hoped that the theology of the
undoubtedly worthy bishop was sounder than his science, and that it
emulated rather the particularly high scale of wisdom of his political
adaptability. But no matter how ridiculous his details, he,
nevertheless, left the main idea more firmly implanted in men’s minds.
The above references are not a complete résumé of the early development
of the underlying principles of the art of submarine navigation. They
are nothing more than a brief recital of the salient and outstanding
features that mark the path of progress like milestones along a road.
With these and other similar impracticable conceptions, the art of
submarine construction was found by an American, David Bushnell, born at
Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1742, and graduated from Yale in 1775. In the
war with Great Britain, which broke out shortly after his graduation,
Bushnell conceived the idea of attacking the enemy’s ships under water
and there is no doubt that he constructed a boat embodying among other
novel devices a screw propeller. His boat, a small affair carrying but a
single operator, was scarcely a submarine as it was not intended to
plunge, but to float just “awash” or almost submerged. Like Rumsey and
Fitch, Bushnell went abroad and, as Fulton did later, opened
negotiations with the French Government. Delpeuch says, “Then (1797)
there appeared an engineer who offered to the Directory a means quite as
terrible as it was invisible to force the British to lift their
blockade, and not only did this man undertake to drive the enemy from
our shores, but he even proposed to carry the war to the shores and
ports of Great Britain, heretofore inviolable.”
Fulton undoubtedly became acquainted with Bushnell during the time they
were both in France engaged in similar pursuits. But the failure to
accomplish results or to get his ideas adopted by others disappointed
Bushnell so keenly that he returned to his native country, went to
Georgia, adopted the name of Bush, and began the practice of medicine.
He died in 1826, at the age of 84, when his will disclosed his identity.
CHAPTER III
FULTON’S FIRST SUBMARINE
Fulton begins work on a submarine (1797). Nautilus launched at
Rouen (1800). Havre experiments. Fulton aided by Monge and
Laplace. Received in audience by Napoleon Bonaparte. Hopes and
disappointments.
The previous chapter shows that not only was the principle of a
submarine boat not novel when Fulton began his work on it, but that
according to the record a competitor was actually in France urging upon
the French Government the adoption of a design that, unlike the
fantastic conceptions of Bourne and Drebbel, was capable of being moved
by an invisible power and of making an attack beneath the surface. But
if Fulton lacked initial originality he achieved practical success in
his subsequent labors by greatly improving the plans of his
predecessors, as he later did in the case of the steamboat.
At first his work on a design for a submarine was merely incidental and
secondary to his more cherished ambition to become a great constructor
of canals. It was soon after his arrival in France that the idea of an
underwater boat occurred to him, and this several years before
mechanical operation of boats obtained the supremacy in his mind over
small canals. His first move was apparently on the 24 Frimaire an VI (13
December, 1797) when he wrote to the Directory, “having in view the
great importance of lessening the power of the English fleet, that he
had a project for the construction of a mechanical Nautilus.” It is
interesting to note that this letter was written but six months after
his arrival in France, and in the same year that Delpeuch records
Bushnell as having laid his own plan before the Directory. It is
difficult to repress the thought that the latter’s efforts roused Fulton
to action, even if they did not suggest to him the initial thought.
On the 2nd January, 1798, Fulton made definite proposals to the Minister
of Marine, among the terms being a request that rank in the French navy
be conferred at least on him, if not on all the members of the crews of
the submarines, because otherwise he feared the British would treat him
as a pirate. On February 12, 1798, Fulton was informed that his
proposals had been declined.
Unlike Bushnell, who under similar circumstances went home discouraged
and hid himself under an assumed name, Fulton prepared to renew the
attack. Waiting until another Minister of Marine had been appointed, he
submitted new proposals, under date of 5 Thermidor an VI (23 July 1798),
concluding the offer by pointing out that the destruction of the English
navy would assure the freedom of the seas and the nation which had the
most natural resources—France—would alone hold, and without rival, the
balance of power in Europe. The Minister convened a board of technical
men to whom Fulton submitted his plans for a submarine that he called
the “Nautilus.” This boat had the shape of an imperfect ellipsoid, with
an over-all length of 6 m. 48 (21 ft. 3 in.) and extreme beam 1 m. 94 (6
ft. 4 in.). Beneath the ellipsoid there was a hollow iron keel 0 m. 52
(1 ft. 8 in.) in height, running to within 1 m. from the bow. The keel
contained a quantity of ballast so that the difference between the
weight of the flotation and that of the water displaced by it should be
only about 4 to 5 kilograms. The only communication with the interior of
the keel lay in the two parts of a suction and force pump which by means
of a hand crank would permit the introduction into or removal of water
from the metal keel at will. The excess in buoyancy of the Nautilus
being small, the introduction of only a little water would make it sink,
and conversely, the expulsion of a small quantity would cause it to
return to the surface. On the forward and top part of the Nautilus there
was a spherical dome pierced with port holes covered by thick glass for
observation and a man-hole that served as means of ingress and egress
for the crew.
For propulsion, Fulton proposed a screw as Bushnell had already done, a
principle that was not to be adopted in general practice until nearly
half a century later in spite of its many and great advantages over side
wheels. The screw was placed at the stern and directly ahead of the
rudder and was operated by a hand crank and gearing turning a shaft
passing through a stuffing box. The crank was to be turned by man power
only. Plunging was to be secured by pumping water into the keel, while
submersion at a given depth, provided the boat was in motion, was to be
attempted by means of two inclined planes attached to the sides of the
steering rudder. The angle of these planes could be altered from within,
thus giving an upward or downward direction to the boat. Motion on the
surface he thought to obtain by a fan-shaped sail which, with the
supporting mast, could be folded down to the deck and then, preparatory
to submersion, covered with envelopes like the wings of a fly. Fulton
estimated that he could work the boat with a crew of three men.
[Illustration:
FULTON’S “NAUTILUS,” 1798
]
The offensive feature of the design consisted first of a vertical spike
attached to the top of the observer’s dome. In the spike was an eye
through which passed a cord leading through a stuffing box to a winding
spool in the forward end of the boat. The second part was a torpedo
attached to the other end of the cord. In action the Nautilus would be
placed directly beneath the hull of an enemy vessel, the spike being in
contact with the bottom planking. As one end of the spike projected into
the observer’s dome, a blow on that end would drive the upper end, which
was sharp and detachable, into the ship’s timbers. Then the Nautilus was
to move forward leaving the spike sticking in the ship. As she moved
forward, the torpedo would trail behind, but as the cord passed through
the eye in the spike, the torpedo would soon be brought into contact
with the hull, when the shock would fire the discharge. In the
meanwhile, enough cord would have been paid out to permit the Nautilus
to have attained a safe distance.
The Commission to whom the design was submitted found in its favor,
except as to the sail arrangement, which they pointed out had the larger
part of its area too far aloft, and that consequently the boat would
lack stability under a strong wind. A translation of the Commission’s
conclusion is as follows:
The Minister of the Marine and Colonies is therefore requested to give
to Citizen Fulton the authorization and necessary means to construct
the machine of which he has submitted a model. There is no doubt that
with the same wisdom that has been put into its conception, and the
refinement and solidity of the various mechanisms comprising the
whole, that he who has supervised the execution of this interesting
model will be able to construct the full sized machine in a manner
equally ingenious and that the new ideas that he will have obtained
from study and experience will but lead to its perfecting.
Though the design of the Nautilus fell far short of that of a modern
submarine, nevertheless, it was so far ahead of anything previously
accomplished or suggested that it entitles Fulton to be credited with
being the first to propose a type of vessel capable of plunging and
being navigated beneath the surface of the water. That his plans gave
promise of this accomplishment was recognized by the examining
commission in their report, a report that gave Fulton great
encouragement for further action. Delpeuch in his book on submarines
states that in consequence of this favorable official approval:
Fulton submitted to the Minister on the 27 Vendemiaire an VI (October
17, 1798) a new project of the Company which was similar to those
previously proposed except in the following articles:
1. That the Government should pay immediately on the receipt of news
of the destruction of an English ship of the line, 500,000 francs,
with which sum he engaged to build a squadron of 10 Nautilus to be
used against the English fleets.
2. That the Government was to pay him or his assigns the sum of 100
francs for each pound of calibre of the guns of English ships
destroyed or put out of action by the Nautilus during the war, that is
to say, for a 5 pounder gun 500 francs, or for a 10 pounder, 1000
francs.
In spite of the favorable report by the investigating Commission and of
the financial terms offered by Fulton, which were certainly liberal as
they were entirely contingent on success, Fulton’s proposals were again
rejected.
He then went to Holland, but obtained no more encouragement from the
Dutch Government than from the French. Hearing that Bonaparte had been
named First Consul, he hurriedly returned to Paris. On the 13
Vendemiaire, an XI (October 6, 1800), he wrote to the Minister of Marine
again proposing the consideration of the Nautilus. Attached to this
letter was a memorial entitled, “Observations sur les Effets Moreaux du
Nautile.” This memorial was written in French, and is preserved in the
Archives Nationales and is quoted at length by E. L. Pesce in
“Navigation Sous-Marine.” The plaint as to delay with which he began he
repeated in varying form until finally in 1806, he abandoned all
European negotiations and returned to America. The portion of the
memorial that gives his political reasoning is at the present time the
most interesting, especially as the German Admiralty held almost
precisely the same views with respect to the effect that submarines
would have on the British Empire during the recent war. Fulton’s severe
restrictions on the British navy and his lauding of the submarine as an
instrument for true “liberty and peace” sound much like communiqués
emanating from Berlin during 1914–1918. As we will see, Fulton
recognized later that his description of the criminal character of the
British was at least inaccurate when in very similar language he pointed
out how it could and should destroy the naval power of France.
The Memorial reads in part as follows:[2]
Citizen Minister
It is now twenty months since I presented for the first time the plan
for my Nautilus to ex-Director La Reveillere Lepaux. He presented it
to the Directory who ordered that it be forwarded to Minister of
Marine Pléville, and finally it was turned down after five months of
discussion.
Taken up again under the administration of Citizen Bruix, it had the
same fate after about four months of waiting. A reception so little
favorable on the part of the first magistrates of France, whose duty
it is to encourage discoveries tending to spread liberty and to
establish harmony among nations, proves to me that it was considered
with a false idea of the physical as well as the moral effects of this
machine.
* * * * *
Let us see first what would be for France the immediate effects of the
Nautilus. The loss of the first English ship destroyed by
extraordinary means would throw the English Government into utter
embarrassment. It would realize that its whole navy could be destroyed
by the same means, and by the same means it would be possible to
blockade the Thames and to cut off the whole commerce of London. Under
such circumstances what would the consternation be in England? How
would Pitt then be able to support the allied powers? The result would
be that deprived of Pitt’s guineas, the coalition would vanish and
France thus delivered from its numerous enemies would be able to work
without obstacle for the strengthening of its liberty and for peace.
* * * * *
After having thus shown the happy effects that would follow
immediately a success by the Nautilus, I pass to the objections, quite
as commonplace as they are lacking in philosophy, that have been
raised against this machine. I will show below how the Nautilus can
further real liberty and establish harmony among peoples.
The first objection is that if France should make use of the Nautilus
against England, England would be equally able to make use of it
against France. But it does not seem to me any way likely that the
English would make use of it against France because before they could
become acquainted with the mechanism, France would be able to blockade
the Thames and cut off commerce from London and thus reduce the
cabinet of St. James to terms of the most complete submission.
* * * * *
It is the naval force of England that is the source of all the
incalculable horrors that are committed daily. It is the English navy
which supports the English Government, and it is that Government which
by its intrigues has been the cause of two-thirds of the crimes that
have marked the course of the revolution.
* * * * *
If by means of the Nautilus one could succeed in destroying the
English navy, it would be possible with a fleet of Nautilus to
blockade the Thames to the end that England would become a republic.
Soon Ireland would throw off the yoke and the English monarchy would
be wiped out. A rich and industrious nation would then increase the
number of republics of Europe and this would be a long step toward
liberty and universal peace.
If England should adopt a republican government, I do not doubt that
France and she would bury in oblivion the old hates and that fatal
rivalry fomented by the stupid aristocracy, and the two republics
would treat each other as sisters and would give to their respective
commerce complete freedom, and in this case neither one nor the other
would have need of a military marine. Then friendship in spite of
common opinion would unite these two great peoples and humanity would
breathe freely.
Small circumstances often produce changes in the affairs of men. The
mariners’ compass has given to commerce an extension without limits
and has multiplied its knowledge. The invention of gunpowder has
changed the whole art of war without diminishing its horrors. I hope
that the Nautilus will not only destroy military marines, but in
breaking these destructive instruments in the hands of the aristocracy
will serve the cause of liberty and peace.
I have laid before you in a clear and impartial manner a part of its
happy effects and I am far from assuming any merit of having imagined
the first thought. The idea could have come to any other engineer
seeking with the same ardor that I have to make the cause of humanity
triumph.
At last success seemed to be in sight. Official lethargy and resistance
were overcome and permission was given Fulton to build a Nautilus at
Rouen, which he at once commenced doing in the boat yard of the firm of
Perrier. From his model he made one important change, the addition of a
deck about 6 feet wide and 20 feet long, enabling the crew to come out
of the hull when not submerged.
On July 24, 1800, the Nautilus was launched, and on July 29, she made
her first plunge in 25 feet of water. The first submersion lasted 5
minutes, and the second, 17 minutes, the personnel consisting of Fulton
and two companions. The swift river current interfered with the
manipulation of the boat to such an extent that Fulton decided to make
further tests in still, open water at Havre.
Under date of 19th November, 1800, he wrote a long letter to Messrs.
Monge and Laplace giving an account of results obtained. These gentlemen
appear to have been his loyal and enthusiastic friends through all his
efforts. When others failed, or his propositions were refused by the
authorities, they continued to support him, and were always ready to
undertake to obtain a new hearing.
Gaspard Monge, born 1746, died 1818, was a well-known mathematician,
particularly celebrated in the field of descriptive geometry. He was an
ardent revolutionist, serving as Minister of Marine during 1792–3. When
Bonaparte came into power, Monge espoused his cause and accompanied him
to Italy.
Pierre Simon Laplace, afterward Marquis de Laplace, was even more
illustrious, being a mathematician and astronomer of the highest
distinction. His “Mécanique Céleste” whose exposition of the nebular
hypothesis gives it permanent rank among the masterpieces of scientific
reasoning, secured for its author the proud position of President of the
French Academy. Like Monge he was a republican, and allied himself to
Bonaparte immediately on the latter becoming First Consul, although in
1814, he voted for Napoleon’s dethronement. At the time Fulton could
have found no better supporters than these two men of science,
especially as both enjoyed the personal friendship of Bonaparte.
From the above mentioned letter it appears that while at Havre he
carried the same crew as at Rouen, he now had a lighted candle. On his
early experiment he plunged in darkness fearful that a light might
seriously vitiate the air. He now remained submerged in one test six
hours without inconvenience, during which time he obtained some air
through a tube with the open end supported by a surface float that could
not be seen at a distance of 200 fathoms. While trying relative speeds
produced by two men rowing as against two men working the screw, the
former made the boat cover 60 fathoms in 7 minutes, while the latter
propelled it the same distance in 4 minutes. He reported that the
Archimedes screw and the horizontal rudder for depth control did not
satisfy him in point of efficiency. The Bushnell screw was literally a
full screw with several turns as proposed by Archimedes twenty centuries
earlier to raise water. When Fulton found that a full screw was not
efficient, he proposed to replace it with separate blades set at an
angle similar to the sails of a windmill. To this arrangement he gave
the name of “Flier.” The error of trying to use a full screw in
propeller design persisted for more than forty years after Fulton had
appreciated the lack of efficiency. Other engineers for nearly two
generations ignored Fulton’s experience and decision.
He then returned to Paris and elated by the success of his experiments,
which certainly justified elation, he again drew up new proposals in
which he offered to accept whatever remuneration the government would
give, so great was his confidence. These proposals his friend Monge laid
before the First Consul with whom Monge was on terms of intimacy and
whose interest Fulton had so long desired to obtain. The First Consul
forwarded Fulton’s letter to the Minister of Marine on 27 November,
1800, with the following marginal note:
Je prie le Ministre de la Marine de me faire connaître ce qu’il sait
sur les projets du capitaine Fulton.
BONAPARTE.
A few days later Monge and Laplace presented Fulton to Napoleon
Bonaparte, First Consul, urging the latter to make an allowance of
60,000 francs for further experiments.
What a dramatic moment when the two men of science presented the young
American to the still younger Frenchman! A moment heavy with destiny,
because the fates of nations were trembling in the balance, awaiting the
decision. But no one of the four understood the importance of the
conference, not even he who had most at stake. The central figure was
the young Corsican artillery officer whose guns had swept the remnants
of the French Revolution from the streets of Paris only five years
before, then a man almost unknown, but now First Consul and Dictator of
France. The successes of Lodi, the Pyramids and Marengo were still fresh
in his mind and were beckoning him on to other conquests. Almost within
his grasp was the crown of empire, plans to seize which he was even then
maturing. In his eyes there stretched before him a path through conquest
and glory,—but leading where? As he then saw the path in his imagination
it led to absolute world domination with the great and little powers of
Europe vassals of France.
The beginning of the path as he saw it with all its magnificence he had
already found. It lay over the glittering heights of Austerlitz, Jena,
Friedland and Wagram. Across it there was only one obstacle to prevent
his reaching the culmination of his ambition, and that obstacle was
England’s navy. Unless that could be removed, he would be forced to turn
from the path over the heights and pass down into the valley of
Borodino, Leipzig and Waterloo to the island prison of St. Helena. In
boundless confidence in his destiny and in his own power to control it,
he saw not the obstacle; or if he did, there was no doubt in his mind
that he himself could remove it. Already he was all powerful on land,
and he dreamed of being all powerful on sea.
It is not difficult to picture the dictator, supreme in his arrogance,
facing the American, who was actually offering him the only chance there
was to surmount the obstacle. Bonaparte had already learned who he was,
a foreigner with few friends and no money, an unsuccessful artist in
England, and an engineer in France without practise, a dreamer and
inventor. Hardly the type of man to appeal to one who had already
resolved to be an Emperor.
With what means did this inventor propose to attack those great masses
of oak with their towering sides, with row on row of guns and great
spreads of canvas? A tiny boat propelled by two men by hand, that would
meet the enemy, not as Bonaparte would meet him by an attack in force,
but by stealth, unseen and beneath the surface of the sea! As Bonaparte
looked at his visitor he could not see the valley of Waterloo and St.
Helena. Nor could he possibly imagine that long before that fateful June
day of 1815, when the silence of the guns on the slope of Mt. St. Jean
would mark the end of his career, the man who had been rash enough to
seek the audience would have given to the world a vessel whose motive
power would defy that of wind and that he would have designed a ship of
war more powerful than any ship that sailed under the command of Nelson.
The tiny boat that was offered him was far from being a perfected
machine, but even as it was it presented sufficient potentiality to
strike terror to England’s navy as Fulton had prophesied in his
Memorial. If Livingston with such limited means as he possessed could
develop Fulton’s ideas into practical reality, how much sooner could the
same result have been attained through the resources of a great
government?
Fulton offered to Bonaparte world dominion.
Bonaparte listened and took the offer under consideration.
While waiting Bonaparte’s answer and apparently while Admiral Decrès,
Minister of Marine, still had the matter under investigation in
accordance with Bonaparte’s instructions, Fulton wrote the Minister
under date of 3rd December, 1800, saying among other things:[3]
You will permit me to observe that although I have the highest respect
for you and the other members of the Government, and although I retain
the most ardent desire to see the English Government beaten,
nevertheless the cold and discouraging manner with which all my
exertions have been treated during the past three years will compel me
to abandon the enterprise in France if I am not received in a more
friendly and liberal manner.
It is interesting to note that this is the only letter in French that
has been found in the government archives written wholly in the
handwriting of Fulton himself. The other letters in the possession of
the French Government that are written in French were written by his
secretary and signed by him.
Fulton’s wise and diplomatic friends, Barlow, Monge and Laplace, must
have been absent when the above tactless lines were penned. That they
were the actual handwork of Fulton himself would seem to indicate that
he was actuated by a momentary burst of impatience, and that in his
haste to give vent to his feelings, he did not wait for his secretary to
write the letter in French. What was in consequence almost inevitable,
happened. Admiral Decrès, as Minister of Marine, reported adversely on
Fulton’s plans. Fulton’s letter, of course, had not served to overcome
the settled objection of a sailor to mechanical innovation.
CHAPTER IV
NEGOTIATIONS WITH FRANCE
Nautilus reconstructed and tested at Brest (1801). Reports to
Monge, Laplace and Volney. Great expectations. Final rejection
(1802). Partnership with Robert R. Livingston. Work begun on
steamboat. British Admiralty aware of his submarine
accomplishment. Induced to return to England (May, 1804).
The always faithful Monge and Laplace came once more to the aid of their
temperamental friend. They personally intervened with the First Consul,
and actually succeeded in persuading him to authorize the reconstruction
of the Nautilus in spite of the adverse professional opinion of the
Minister. He appointed a new commission to investigate, naming MM.
Monge, Laplace and Volney. The last, unlike the first two, was not a
scientist. He was an eminent scholar, a great traveller and member of
the Institute. He had visited the United States five years previously
and had written a book on its climate and soil. He narrowly escaped the
guillotine, was created a count under the Empire, and a peer of France
after the restoration. He died in 1820.
With the encouragement induced by the naming of this friendly
commission, Fulton at once began his task. The Nautilus was transported
from Havre to Brest and there refitted with the alterations and
improvements that occurred to Fulton as the result of the Havre
experiments. On July 3rd, 1801, he made his first plunge at Brest in his
improved boat. This time he was accompanied by three men instead of two
as on the previous occasions.
An account of what he did at Brest is preserved in a manuscript copy of
a report that he made to the commissioners. This report was published by
Mrs. Sutcliffe in her book on the “Clermont” but it is so graphic that
with Mrs. Sutcliffe’s consent it is reprinted in full exactly as Fulton
wrote it:
Paris 22^d, fructidore An 9
Robert Fulton to the citizens Monge, La Place and Volney, members of
the National Institute, and Commissioners appointed by the first
Consul to promote the invention of Submarine Navigation—
Citizens, yesterday on my return from Brest I received your note, and
will with pleasure communicate to you the result of my experiments,
during the summer, also the mode which I conceive the most effectual
for using my invention against the enemy. Before I left Paris I
informed you that my plunging boat had many imperfections, natural to
the first machine of so difficult a combination, added to this I found
she had been much injured by the rust during the winter in consequence
of having in many places used Iron bolts and arbours instead of copper
or brass, the reperation of those defects and the difficulty of
finding workmen consumed near two months. And although the machine
remained still extremely imperfect yet she has answered to prove every
necessary experiment In the most satisfactory manner.
On the 3d of thermidor I commenced my experiments by plunging to the
depth of 5 then 10 then 15 and so on to 25 feet but not to a greater
depth than 25 feet as I did not conceive the Machine Sufficiently
Strong to bear the Pressure of a Greater column of water, At this
depth I remained one hour with my three companions and two candles
burning without experiancing the least inconvenience.
Previous to my leaving Paris I gave to the Cn. Gueyton member of the
Institute a calculation on the number of cube feet In my boat which is
about 212 in Such a Volume of Air he calculated there would be
sufficient Oxszine to nourish 4 Men and two small candles 3 hours.
Seeing that it would be of great Improvement to despence with the
candles I have constructed a Small window in the upper part of the
Boat near the bow which window Is only one inch and a half diameter
and of Glass 9 lines thick, with this prepared I descended on the 5th
of thermidor to the depth of between 24 and 25 feet at which depth I
had Suffecient light to count the minuets on the Watch, hence I
conclude that 3 or 4 Such windows arranged in different parts of the
boat would give suffecient light for any operation during the day each
window may be Guarded by a Valve in Such a manner that Should the
glass break the Valve would immediately Shut and Stop out the Water,
finding that I had air and light Suffecient and that I could Plunge
and Rise perpendicular with facility. On the 7th Ther^d I commenced
the experiments on her movements. At 10 in the Morning I raised her
anchor And hoisted her Sails which are the Mainsail and Gib the breeze
being light I could not at the Utmost make more than about two thirds
of a league per hour. I tacked and retacked tryed her before and by
the wind And in all these operations found her to Answer the helm And
Act like a common dul Sailing boat, After exersising thus About An
hour I lowered the mast and Sails and commenced the operation of
Plunging this required about two Minuets. I then placed two men at the
engine which gives the Rectileniar Motion, And one At the helm, while
I governed the machine which keeps her ballanced between two waters.
With the bathomater before me And with one hand I found I could keep
her at any depth I thought Proper the men then commenced movement and
continued about 7 Minuets when mounting to the Serface I found we had
gained 400 Matres. I again plunged turned her round under water and
returned to near the Same place. I again plunged And tried her
movements to the right and left, in all of which the helm answered And
the compass acted the same as if on the serface of the Water having
continued these experiments the 8, 9, 10 and 12th untill I became
fameliar with the movements And confidence in their operation, I
turned my thoughts to Increasing or preserving the Air, for this
purpose the Cn. Gueyton advised to precipitate the carbonic acid with
lime, or to take with me bottles of Oxizine which might be uncorked as
need required; but as any considerable quantity of bottles would take
up to much room, And as oxizine could not be created at Sea without a
Chymical operation which would be Very Inconvenient, I adopted a mode
which occured to me 18 months ago which is a Simple Globe or bombe of
copper capable of containing one cube foot to (Manuscript is torn
here) A Pneumatick Pump by means of which Pump 200 Atmospheres or 200
cube feet of common Air may be forced Into a Bomb consequently the
Bomb or reservoir will contain As much oxegine or Vital air as 200
cube feet of common respirable Air, hence if according to Cn.
Gueyton’s Calculation 212 feet which is the Volume of the boat will
nourish 4 Men and two small candles 3 hours this additional reservoir
will give Suffecient for 6 hours—this Reservoir is constructed with a
measure and two cocks So as to let measures of Air Into the Boat as
Need may require require—
Previous to my leaving Paris I gave orders for this machine but it did
not arrive till the 18 of thermidore on the 19 I ordered 2 Men to fill
it which was an operation of about one hour I then put It into the
boat and with my three companions but without candles plunged to the
depth of about 5 feet, At the expiration of one hour and 40 Minuets I
began to let off Measures of air from the reservoir and So on from
time to time for 4 hours 20 Minuets without experiancing any
Inconvenience—
Having thus succeeded
To Sail like a common Boat
To obtain Air And light
To Plunge and rise Perpendicelar
To turn to the right and left at pleasure
To steer by the Compass under Water
To renew the Common Volume of Air with facility
And to Augment the respirable air by a reservoir, which may be
obtained at all times, I conceived every experiment of importance, to
be proved in the most satisfactory manner hence I Quit the experiments
on the Boat to try those of the Bomb Submarine. It is this bomb which
is the Engine of destruction the Plunging boat is only for the purpose
of carrying the bomb to where it may be used to Advantage. They are
constructed of Copper and of different sizes to contain from 10 to 200
Pounds of powder each bomb is arranged with a Gun lock In Such a
manner that if it Strikes a Vessel or the Vessel Runs against it, the
explosion will take place and the bottom of the Vessel be Blown in or
so Shattered as to insure her destruction. To prove this Experiment
the Prefet Maritime, And Admiral Vellaret ordered a Small Sloop of
About 40 feet long to be anchored in the Road, on the 23d of Thermidor
With a bomb containing about 20 Pounds of powder I advanced to within
about 200 Matres then taking my direction So as to pass near the Sloop
I Struck her with the bomb in my Passage the explosion took Place and
the Sloop was torn into Atoms, in fact nothing was left but the buye
and cable, And the concussion was so Great that a Column of Water
Smoak and fibres of the Sloop was cast from 80 to 100 feet in Air,
this Simple Experiment at once Proved the effect of the Bomb Submarine
to the Satisfaction of all the Spectators; of this experiment you will
See Admiral Villarets description in a letter to the Minister of
Marine Marine—
Having Given in a Short Sketch of the Sucession of my Experiments, the
mode of using these inventions Against the enemy is now to be
considered, on this Point time and experience will make numerous
improvements As in all other new inventions and discover modes of
operation which could not possibly accur to me; when Powder was
Invented Its Infinite applications were not thought of, nor did the
Inventors of the Steam Engine conceive the numerous purposes to which
It could be applied, in like manner it is Impossible At present to See
the Various modes, or the best methods of Using a plunging boat or the
bomb Submarine—
But as far as I have Reflected on this point I conceive the best
operation to be as follows—
First
To construct one or two Good Plunging Boats each 36 feet long and 12
feet wide Boats of this capacity would be Sufficient to contain 8 Men
and Air for 8 hours. With Provisions for (paper is torn here) and
transport from 25 to 30 Bombs at a time, their Cylenders Should be
Brass and of a Strength to admit of descending 60 or 80 feet under
Water in case of need And they may be Constructed to Sail from 5 to 7
Miles per hour; here it may be well too proove that Quick Sailing is
not one of the most important considerations in this invention, if
such a boat is Pursued, She plunges under water and as She Can remain
under Water from 4 to 8 hours and Make at least one Mile Per hour She
Could rise Several miles from the Place where She Plunged to renew her
air, thus the enemies Ports could be approached, And particularly
under the cover of the Night Nor do I at Present See that any Possible
Vigilence could Prevent these invisible engines entering their Ports
and Returning at Pleasure—
Second
Let there also be Some hundreds of Bombs Submarine Constructed of
Which there Are two Sorts one arranged with Clockwork in Such a manner
as to Go off at any Given Period from 4 Minuets to 4 hours, the Other
with a gun Lock as before mentioned So as to go off when it Strikes
against a Vessel or when a Vessel runs Against it. Each of these
carcasses is arranged So as to float from 4 to 15 feet under water in
Proportion to the Water which the Vessels to be attacked Draws, And in
this there are two advantages, the first is that the bomb is
Invisible, the Second is that when the explosion takes place under
water the Pressure of the colume of water to be removed forces the
whole action of the powder Against the Vessel; it was the resistance
of the water which caused the Sloop on which I proved the experiment
to be reduced to Atoms; for Water when Struck Quick such as the Stroke
of a cannon ball or the expansion of Powder acts like a Solid, and
hence the whole force was Spent on the Sloop or rather passed through
the Sloop in finding its Passage to the air by the perpendicular and
Shortest line of Resistance—the Same effect would no doubt be produced
on a Vessel of Any dimensions by applying a Proportionate Quantity of
powder Such as 2, 3 or 4 hundred Weight,
Therefore being prepared with plunging boats and Bombs submarine let
the business of the boats be to go with cargoes of bombs and let them
loos withe the current into the harbours of Portsmouth, Plymouth,
Torbey or elsewhere, those with their graplings floating under water
could not be perceived Some would hook in the cables, bow or Stern, or
touch in their Passage; many no doubt would miss but Some would hit go
off and destroy the Vessels they touched, one or more Vessels
Destroyed in a Port by such invisible agents would render it to
dangerous to Admit of any Vessel remaining. And thus the enemy may At
all times be attacked in their own Ports—and by a means at once cheap,
Simple And I conceive certain in its operation. Another mode Should be
to go with cargoes of Bombs and Anchor them in the entrance of rivers
So as to cut off or Blockade the commerce 2 or 3 hundred for example
Anchored in the Thames or the channels leading to the Thames would
completely destroy the commerce of that river and Reduce London and
the Cabinet of St. Jameses to any tirms; no Pilot could Steer clear of
Such hidden dangers, no one dare to raise them even if hooked by
graplings as they could not tell the moment they Might touch the
Secret Spring which would cause the explosion and destruction of
everything Around them. No Vessel could Pass without the utmost danger
of running on one of them And her instant destruction, if this measure
Should ever become necessary Some Vessels Will most certainly be
destroyed and their Destruction alarm the whole commerce of the
Thames, by this means the Thames may be blockaded and the trade of
London completely stoped nor can the combined fleets of England
prevent this Kind of attack—And this is Perhaps the most Simple and
certain means of convincing England that Science can put her her in
the Power of France and of compelling her to become a humble Pleader
for the liberty of the Seas She now denies to her Neighbors—I
therefore conceive that it will be good Policy to commence as Soon as
Possible the construction of the Boats and bombs if they can be
finished before the arrival of Peace their effects may be Proved
during this War Should Peace be concluded before they are finished the
experiments can be continued Men can be exersised in the use of the
engines; And it is Probable in a few years England will See it her
best policy never to give france reason to exersise this invention
against her—if England cannot prevent the Blockade of the Thames by
the means of plunging boats and Bombs submarine, of what use will be
her boasted navy, the free Navigation of the Thames nourishes the
immense commerce of London And the commerce of London is the Nerves
and Vitals of the Cabinet of St. Jameses—convince England that you
have the means of Stopping that Source of Riches—And She must Submit
to your terms—
Thus Citizens I have presented you with a Short account of my
experiments and Plan for using this invention Against the enemy,
hoping that under your protection it will be carried to Perfection,
and Practised to promote the Liberty of the Seas—
Health and Sincere Respect
ROBERT FULTON
After reading the above, the commissioners desired further information
which Fulton gave in the following letter:
Complimentary day an 9
(i.e. September 20, 1801)
Robert Fulton to the Citizens Monge, La Place and Volney members of
the National Institute and Commissioners appointed by the first Consul
to Promote the invention of Submarine Navigation.
Citizens this morning I received yours of the 2d Comp^l As to the
expence of Plunging boat, I believe when constructed in the best
manner with every improvement which experience has Pointed out She
cannot cost more than 80,000 Livers, the bombs Submarine may be
estimated at 80 Livers each on An Average independent of the Powder.
I am Sorry that I had not earlyer information of the Consuls desire to
See the Plunging boat, when I finished my experiments. She leaked Very
much and being but an imperfect engine I did not think her further
useful hence I took her to Pieces, Sold her Iron work lead and
Cylenders and was necessitated to break the greater part of her
movements In taking them to Pieces, So that nothing now remains which
can give an Idea of her Combination, but even had She been complete I
do not think She could have been brought round to Paris—You will be so
good as to excuse me to the Premier Consul, when I refuse to exhibit
my drawings to a committee of Engineers for this I have two reasons,
the first is not to put it in the Power of any one to explain the
Principles or movements least she Should Pass from one to another till
they enemy obtained information, the Second is that I consider this
invention as my Private Property the Perfectionment of which will give
to france incalculable advantages over her most Powerful and Active
enemy. And which invention I conceive aught to Secure to me an ample
Independence, that consequently the Government Should Stipulate
certain terms with me before I proceed to further explination: the
first Consul is too Just and you know me too well to construe this
Into an Avericious disposition in me.
I have now laboured 3 years and at considerable expence to Prove my
experiments. And I find that a man who wishes to Cultivate the useful
Arts cannot make rapid Progress without Sufficient funds to put his
Sucession of Ideas to immediate Proof—And which Sufficiency I conceive
this invention Should Secure to me, You have intimated that the
movements and combination of So interesting an engine Should be
confided to trusty Persons least any accident Should happen to me,
this Precaution I took Previous to my departure from Paris for my last
experiment by Placing correct Drawings of the machine and every
improvement with their descriptions In the hands of a friend So that
any engineer capable of constructing a Steam engine could make the
Plunging Boat and Carcasses or Bombs. You will therefore be so good as
to beg of the first consul to permit you to treat with me on this
business, And on this Point I hope there will not be much difficulty
Health and Sincere respect
(Signed) ROBERT FULTON
From the above letter it appears that Napoleon had expressed a wish to
inspect the Nautilus, which was prevented by Fulton having destroyed her
immediately after the termination of the experiments. Had she been saved
what an intensely interesting exhibit she would make today!
Fulton’s haste in dismantling her is quite on a par with his refusal to
exhibit his drawings on the ground that they were his private property.
Apparently he expected the French government to adopt his ideas on his
own statement of facts and unverified interpretation of his experiments.
In his impetuosity and lack of judgment he could not see that he was
defeating his own purposes.
The Brest experiments not only repeated the success shown at Havre, but
gave evidence of improvements as was recognized by the authorities.
Their attitude is perhaps shown by the Préfet Maritime at Brest who
after witnessing the tests was forced to approve the Nautilus and all of
Fulton’s claims, but added, “This manner of making war against an enemy
carries the adverse criticism that the person using the device and
sinking with it would be lost. Certainly that is not a death for
military men.” How little did the estimable and high-minded préfet
foresee the ruthless methods of warfare to be employed in another
century.
Delpeuch asks what were the reasons that prevented use being made of the
Nautilus or at least from trying it, and in answering his own question
says that it is a mystery that has been impossible to clear away. There
was no mystery. All innovations, and perhaps particularly so in
connection with ships, have been forced on the world against the
opposition of those to be directly benefited. It was so with Fulton’s
submarine, and later with his steamboat. The change from side wheels to
propellers, the use of metal for hulls, the introduction of watertight
bulkheads and the elimination of sails were all adopted only after long
delay and strong antagonism, due to the same official and unreasoning
opposition.
Realization of defeat came slowly to Fulton, and was all the more bitter
because it came so. He returned to Paris from Brest elated by his
success in demonstrating the value of the improvements to his previous
design. He expected to be notified immediately that his offer had been
accepted. As the days passed without word from Bonaparte, certainty of
victory first gave way to doubt, then doubt to hope, and finally hope
was changed to despair. In his impatience he wrote a personal letter to
Bonaparte. This letter dated 19 Fructidor an IX (16 Sept., 1801) urging
and begging favorable action is still preserved in the Archives
Nationales at Paris.
Bonaparte made no reply.
He had made up his mind to travel the road that led to St. Helena.
Although he gave Fulton no answer, it is reported that he spoke of
Fulton as being a charlatan and a swindler, intent only on extorting
money.
There is one piece of evidence showing that Bonaparte subsequently
regretted his action and realized the value that Fulton and his
inventions might have been to him. Desbrière in his book entitled
“1793–1805, Projets et Tentatives de Débarquement aux Iles
Britanniques,” quotes a letter written on July 21st to M. de Champagny,
at that time Counsellor of State in the Marine department:[4]
I have just read the proposition of Citizen Fulton that you have sent
to me much too late _to permit it to change the face of the world_.
However I desire that you will immediately refer its examination to a
commission composed of members chosen from the different classes of
the Institute. It is there that the wisdom of Europe should seek
judges to solve the problem in question. As soon as the report is made
it will be transmitted to you and you will send it to me. Be sure that
this will not take more than a week.
Desbrière states that the year when this letter was written is commonly
put down as 1804. But he points out that in July of that year Fulton was
in England and Champagny in Austria. The year was probably 1803, because
in July, 1803, Fulton was exhibiting a steam-propelled boat on the
Seine, concerning which innovation an official of the Navy department
would undoubtedly have informed the First Consul.
During the agonizing period of waiting for an answer to his personal
letter to Bonaparte, from which he had the right to expect some
acknowledgment at least in view of the high standing of his introducers,
Fulton still hoped. But when he heard that Bonaparte had characterized
him as a swindler, he knew that all was ended, and that the door to
further progress in France had been shut and finally barred. This was
something much more to Fulton than a mere refusal of an inventor’s offer
of an incomplete device. Such a refusal he could have endured with
courage and some equanimity. He had gone through similar painful
experiences with his canal schemes and his various excavating machines.
Now he had to suffer that disappointment and in addition the still
harder blow of having his altruistic offer of service and his views on
political philosophy rejected with slanderous contempt to which he was
powerless to reply. His writings show that his heart was as much set on
his conception of liberty and freedom as on his mechanical contrivances.
After his defeat, one that Fulton recognized as final so far as France
was concerned, he laid aside permanently his long cherished plans for
constructing small canals, and temporarily his consideration of
submarine warfare, to devote his attention to the development of a boat
propelled by a steam engine. His only subsequent move to promote a
system of canals coupled with his scheme to overcome differences in
elevations by inclined planes was in a letter to Albert Gallatin, dated
Washington, Dec. 8, 1807. Gallatin was then Secretary of the Treasury of
the United States and was about to issue in pursuance of a resolution of
the Senate a report upon “Public Roads and Canals.” Fulton in his long
letter, that Gallatin made a part of his report, urged the construction
of canals in preference to highways. Engrossed, however, in his
steamboat to which, following the rejection of the Nautilus, he had
thrown his impetuous energy, Fulton made no effort personally to carry
his canal plans into execution either in France or the United States.
In 1801, Robert R. Livingston had arrived in France as American Minister
to the French Government. He and Fulton met at the critical period in
the latter’s career. The statesman, whose mind was sympathetic to the
consideration of mechanical applications, soon became interested in his
countryman’s projects. Stimulated by Livingston’s personal encouragement
and supported by his financial aid, Fulton pushed his studies of a
practical steam engine for navigation and entered into correspondence
with Messrs. Boulton and Watt, then the most prominent builders of
engines in England. The junior member of this firm was the famous James
Watt (1736–1819), the discoverer of the principle that power could be
produced from the elastic energy of steam, and the inventor of the steam
condensing engine. Livingston as an individual with his own limited
resources was about to accomplish in a few years a complete revolution
of vessel propulsion that Napoleon with the almost unlimited resources
of France could have done in much less time, certainly in time to offset
England’s superiority on the high seas. Livingston with greater vision
seized the opportunity that Napoleon rejected. But with this we are not
concerned.
While Fulton was working under Livingston’s direction, the British
Government was not unmindful of what he had done in the matter of
submarine experiments. They had a secret service at work in enemy lands
as other governments have done before and since. In England there were
some men in authority who appreciated the possibilities lying dormant in
the scheme of under-water attack.
In the British naval archives there has recently been found the
following letter with its enclosure, recording the information possessed
by the government and sent confidentially to the naval commanders that
they might be on their guard against attack, if, perchance, any of
Fulton’s boats should have been made secretly and unknown to the British
navy. The British authorities did not deceive themselves, nor were they
oblivious of the latent merits and actual accomplishments of Fulton’s
design.
_SECRET_
CIRCULAR
Adml. Lord Keith
Sheerness.
Admiral Montagu /20th/
Portsmouth.
Rear Adml. Montagu
Downs.
Honbl. Adml. Cornwallis /20th/
at Sea.
Adml. Sir Jno. Colpoys, K. B. /20th/
Plymouth.
Admiralty Office,
19th June, 1803.
My Lord,
My Lords Commissioners of the Admty. having been informed that a plan
has been concerted by Mr. Fulton, an American resident at Paris, under
the influence of the First Consul of the French Republic, for
destroying the Maritime Force of this Country; I am commanded by their
Lordships to send you herewith the substance of the information they
have received relative thereto, that you may be apprised thereof, in
order to your taking such measures as may appear to you necessary for
frustrating any attempt on the part of the Enemy, connected therewith.
I have the Honour to be,
etc.
(Signed) EVAN NEPEAN
(ENCLOSURE)
Mr. Fulton, an American resident at Paris, has constructed a Vessel in
which he has gone down to the bottom of the Water, and has remained
thereunder for the space of _seven_ Hours, at one time—that he has
navigated the said Vessel, under water, at the rate of two Miles and
an half per Hour; that the said sub-marine Vessel is uncommonly
managable, and that the whole plan to be effected by means thereof,
may be easily executed, and without much risk; That the Ships and
Vessels in the port of London are liable to be destroyed with ease,
and that the Channel of the River Thames may be ruined; and that it
has been proved that only twentyfive pounds of weight of Gunpowder was
sufficient to have dashed a Vessel to pieces off Brest, tho’
_externally_ applied.
But Fulton contributed directly to the information possessed by the
British Government of what he had been doing and what he had in mind. He
himself states that he wrote to his old friend the Earl of Stanhope
giving him “general ideas of my plans and experiments.” Stanhope became
so much interested, or “alarmed,” as Fulton puts it, that he made a
public speech on the matter in the House of Lords. The speech by the
Earl and the confidential information secured by the Admiralty led the
British authorities to open communication with Fulton and finally,
though without great difficulty, to induce him to go to England. They
saw that it would be better to have the ingenious American a friend on
their side rather than attached to the enemy’s cause. But let Fulton
tell this story in his own words as given in the manuscript that he left
with Consul Lyman to be delivered to Mr. Barlow in the event of his
being lost on the voyage home. This paper will be subsequently called
the “Descriptions” as named by Fulton.
CHAPTER V
THE “DRAWINGS AND DESCRIPTIONS”
Motives for inventing submarine Navigation and attack,
Statement of the causes which brought me to England, reflections
on the prospect of emolument held out to me by Lord Hawkesbury,
and again under the Contract with Mr. Pitt and Lord Melville,
Statement of the Sums received and disbursed by me.
ROBERT FULTON
Motive for inventing Submarine Navigation and attack.
Having contemplated the Federal government of the united States; the
Vast country comprised in them which gives room for 120 Millions of
inhabitents; Seeing the rapid increase of their population and
consequently of their industry and commerce; A people without colonies
and who did not desire to have any; Without Enemies on their frontiers,
and having nothing to contend for but a rational intercourse with
foreign nations by sea; which intercourse would be interrupted on every
war which might take place between England and France or between
European nations; and cause Vexatious feuds and parties in America,
which might lead to marine and army establishments, to alliences
offensive and defensive with European states, thereby direct the
ambition of individuals to Military fame and the people to warlike
pursuits; and all their complication of evils; which might finally
divide the states, and destroy a system which should progress _as near
as man is capable_, to the perfection of civilization.
[Illustration:
MANUSCRIPT PAGES WITH FULTON’S SIGNATURE
]
I was to prevent the possibility of all such consequences; by destroying
the principles which lead to them; that induced me at first to
contemplate a plan which might destroy all Military marines and give
liberty to the seas; But I did not hope to neutralize military marines
by a confederation of maritime states; Henry the Fourt of France, and
the Abbey St. Pierre with all their influence endavoured in vain to
preserve peace in Europe by a confederation of States and a congress [of
st] to decide on grievances;
I therefore looked to the arts for effecient means; and after some
months study found that only two things were wanting: First to navigate
under water, which I soon discovered was within the limits of physics,
Second to find an easy mode of destroying a ship; which after a little
time I discovered might be done by the explosion of some pounds of
powder under her bottom; Being convinced of the practicability of two
such engines, I commenced drawings on their combinations; and
calculations on their power and effects; which occupied me near nine
months. I then began my experiments first on a small and then on a large
scale; and in two years was so wellsatisfied with my success and that
everything which I had contemplated might be performed; that I wrote to
the Earl of Stanhope and gave him general Ideas of my plan and
experiments; His Lordships mathematical mind soon opened to him the
practicability and ultimate consequences of such a System; he felt
alarmed and as we all know spoke of it in the house of Lords; which
excited much public curiosity And Some ridicule; on the justice of which
Gentlemen will now have the opportunity of judging; however still
anxious on a subject which his talents gave him a facility to
understand; he took the trouble about the year 1803 to form a committe
of Gentlemen to consider the principles and powers of my inventions, and
get all possible information on the progress I had made, which committee
I believe made a report to the then Minister Lord Sydmouth; whose
attention was awakened to it; about this time May 1803 there was an
english Gentleman in London who had known me for some years in Paris;
Dr. Grigory became acquainted with him; had many conversations with him
on my plan and its consequences if carried into effect; the Dr.
Communicated what he had learned to Lord Sydmouth and it was agreed to
send the Gentleman to Paris to induce me to come to London; when he
communicated his mission to me, he said the British Government wished to
us my submarine Vessel against the French fleets; I replied that in this
there must be some mistake that it was neither the interest nor policy
of the British government to Introduce such a Vessel into practice; he
Said on consideration that might be true; but Ministers wished to be
fully acquainted with the properties of my inventions; and wished me out
of France and in England; that would I go over and explain to them my
engines I should be rewarded in proportion to their Value; I asked if he
had any written proof that such was their intention; he said no, that it
was too dangerous to carry letters on such a subject; but as a proof of
their liberality and the prospect which I had of being treated in like
manner; they had given him 800 £ to pay his expences and mine in
bringing me over; Knowing the Gentleman to be a man of Integrity; I
believed such might be the wish of Ministers, Yet I would not move
without some plan and written proof of their intention. I therefore
desired him to return with the following proposals and if Ministers
agreed to them I would come over,
First, For leaving France and the pursuits which at present occupy me,
and for going to England I [demand] require the sum of Ten thousand
Pounds;
Second, On my arrival in London Government shall within three weeks,
mane a committe to examin the following principles of submarine
Navigation and attack;
First Principle
That a Submarine Vessel 35 feet long, 10 feet wide, an 8 feet deep,
capable of containing 6 persons, shall have the property of sailing like
an ordinary fishing Boat;
Second
That her capacity including her machinery shall be sufficient to hold
provisions for Six persons to continue at Sea for twenty days;
Third
That Six persons can enter such a vessel & descend in her under water at
pleasure,
Fourth
That the Six men can continue under water three hours without renewing
the air,
[Illustration:
MANUSCRIPT PAGE OF “DRAWINGS & DESCRIPTIONS”
]
Fifth
That to renew the air, it is not necessary the Vessel should appear
above water; but approaching the Surface two tubes project, through one
of which the mephitic air is discharged, through the other fresh air is
drawn into the Vessel, which operation can be performed in 3 or 4
minuets, to continue again three hours under water; in this manner a
crew can conseal themselves under water during the day, on renewing the
air 4 times, hence might lie many days in the Neighbourhood of an enemy
unperceived,
Sixth
That the crew can raise her to the surface at pleasure hoist sail and
proceed on their [Voage] Voyage; as before descending;
Seventh
That where the water is not more than Sixty fathoms deep, and the
current not more than four miles an hour, she can cast anchor and
continue under water at any depth from _one_ to fifty feet; that she
will there remain as stationary as Vessels usually are while anchored on
the surface;
Eighth
That in open Sea where bottom is not saught, she can plunge with safety
and continue Under water while the air is respirable; but in this case
she must drift with the tide like a vessel which cannot anchor and has
no wind,
Ninth
That in Still water and while under water, she can move forwards, or
backwards, to the right or left, mount or descend at pleasure;
Tenth
That She is capable of carrying 30 Submarine bombs each containing 100
pounds of powder
The preciding properties are all which are necessary, to a plunging
Vessel, such a vessel cannot be taken in consequence of the ease with
which she can hide under water during the day, she can make her
approaches [in the night] in the night and must be considered as a
masked [battery] Magazine which can lie secure in the neighbourhood of
an Enemy watch an opportunity to deposit her cargo of Bombs and retire
unperceived.
Should the committee find the properties here specified within the laws
of physics, and by the ordinary course of improvement reducable to
simple practice, the investigation will there finish; but should it so
happen that I cannot make the committee feel these truths without
Occular demonstration, I reserve to myself the power of building a
submarine Vessel, for which the Government shall allow a sum not
exceeding ten thousand pounds; to be paid progressively as I may think
proper to call for it to proceed with the work,
Of the Submarine Bombs,
That a copper case containing from one hundred to three hundred pounds
of powder, coming into contact with the bottom of a Ship of any size and
explosion there taking place will completely destroy her; that the
machinery attached to such Bomb is so contrived [to] as to cause
explosion when the bomb strikes the Vessel, or when the Vessel strikes
the bomb; or at any time desired from 4 minuets to 13 hours or, 8 days;
If the Committee are not to be convinced of this without experiment and
will appropriate any kind of Vessel I will blow her up with a submarine
bomb to give demonstration;
When the properties of the Submarine Vessel and Bombs are demonstrated
and admitted by the committe, a new succession of Ideas will of course
result, it will be seen that England may draw advantages from these
inventions, or they may be turned to the total destruction of the
British marine; in either Case it is of importance to the British
Government to have the entire command of Such engines to do with them as
they may think proper;
But as these inventions are the produce of my labours for some years, I
now consider them as rich gems drawn from the mines of science and which
I and my friends have a right to convert to our own advantage and which
I now offer for sale to the British Government; For putting the
Government in full possession of all the combinations and movements of
the submarine Vessel; so that any Engineer of good talents can construct
one, and navigate her; also for explaining the combinations of the
submarine bomb, and the modes of attack which time and experience will
multiply and perfection; I [demand] require the sum of one hundred
thousand pounds Sterling—;
When the Gentleman departed with these proposals it was agreed that I
should go to Holland and wait his return, I did so, and staid at
Amsterdam three months; contrairy winds prevented his arrival; I
Abandoned the negotiation and returned to Paris where he arrived in a
few weeks with the following letter from Lord Hawkesbury Hawkesbury—
Sir:
Your proposals have been considered with that attention which the
merit of the invention deserves, you must well know that it would be
contrairy to Established rules to grant such sums as you require,
before your invention authenticated by actuel experiment in presence
of persons appointed by this Government, in order that a fair
opportunity may be granted of appreciating its merit and adiquacy to
the end proposed; The responsibility attached to his Majesty’s
Ministers in their official capacity renders it impossible for them to
advance the sums which you have required; in the form pointed out by
you; without exciting such public attention as must be equally
unpleasant to you and His Majestys Ministers; if however you have
sufficient confidence in His Majestys Government to offer them your
invention, you may rely on being treated _with the utmost liberality
and Generosity_. Though this Government and you, have every reason to
be satisfied with the zeal and activity with which your friend has
conducted the business, Yet a negotiation personally conducted would
smoothe many difficulties, and every facility and protection you can
desire shall be granted you,
And should you be disposed to accept Active employment from the
British government you may rely on the most liberal treatment,
proportioned to your efficient Service;—
* * * * *
This letter was brought in cipher; I Shortly after left Paris and
arrived in London on the 28 of April 1804, On My Arrival Lord Sydmouth
and Hawkesbury, were out of office and Mr. Pitt was minister To him I
proposed the terms before mentioned; But Mr. Pitt and Lord Melville
instead of arranging with me on the terms of my proposals; prefered
making an attack on the Enemy with part of my engines; and as a fair
prospect of emolument, at least equal if not superior to that which I
had expected; I was to recieve 200£ a month during the time Government
detained me on this business; and half the Value of all vessels of an
Enemy which might be destroyed by my engines in 14 years; His Majestys
Dockyard and arsenals were to furnish every necessary means to render my
plan, efficient; useful to the Nation and Consequently productive to me;
and on these principles a contract was entered into which is inserted in
the body of the arbitration Bond,
_Here read the Bond and contract_;
On drawing up this contract I foresaw that Ministers might discover the
bad policy of introducing the whole of my engines into practice; and
therefore would not organize it nor exersise men to it so as to render
it productive to me; and this has proved to be the fact; Government may
be said to have abandoned this plan And it will be seen during the
investigations that their true policy is to abandon it; if so, from
whence are my profits to arise, what is my interest in it with this
Governmt for 14 years, where is my emolument equivalent to the sum of
100 thousand pounds mentioned in the proposals? sent to Lord Hawkesbury.
Now Gentlemen I foresee before you enter into an examination of my
engines and their final consequences; that you must as true friends to
your country advise ministers [to] never to use them, but to conseal
them if possible from the world; it will then become a consideration
whether 40 thousand pounds is a reasonable equivalent to me and my
friends for abandoning engines of such importance to this government to
do with as they may think proper,—and for ever giving up the prospect of
gain which was held out to me on coming to this country; or which the
contract presented; had my plans been organized and carried into effect
on System; But your powers are confined within the limits of the
arbitration bonds; whatever may be your opinion you cannot exceed the
sum of 40 thousand pounds. But from your report as men of science and
calm delibiration; Ministers will be able to Judge of the reasonable,
hopes of the proprietors of these inventions and not only of justice
towards them, but of the real interest of the nation; in now finally
Setteling with me for the parties concerned;
[Illustration:
PLATE THE FIRST
]
[Illustration:
PLATE THE SECOND
]
No Man can in Justice Say that we have not a right to make every
possible profit of these inventions; And we have a right to accept Mony,
or to abandon mony for fame—or raise our demands in proportion as time
and new Idas develop the importance of these discoveries; But I have the
pleasure to say that the gentlemen with whom I act, have never troubled
me with one ungenerous or illiberal wish to raise their demands, they
conceived these inventions worth at least the Value of one first rate
man of war or 100 thousand pounds; and they have never deviated from
this first proposal—on my part I Saw that government could not grant any
sum with propriety, unless there was reasonable security given, that the
proprietors would never communicate the engines to any nation or persons
to the injury of the British marine; and there Is but one mode of giving
such security That is to bind these proprietors by their own interest to
keep the secret, I therefore Voluntarily offered that should I be
entitled to the 40 thousand pounds; to receive one moiety in cash, and
an annuity equal to the full value of the other moiety; which annuity is
to be forfeited Should I be the means of Introducing My inventions into
practice against the British marine; perhaps this is the Strongest proof
a man can give of his own sense of Justice and it Should be a convincing
proof of my confidence in my own power over the fate of my inventions,
and the good Opinion I have of the integrity of my friends; but whatever
may be done in this business in capital or annuity; the annuity must
depend on my life as their names cannot appear, having so far stated
facts gentlemen will deliberately consider the engines the modes of
using them their ultimate consequences, the Interest of the Nation, and
a reasonable compensation to the proprietors;
The first consideration will probably be the accounts, of which the
following is a statement,
Of the Accounts,
The sums of money received and expended by me are as follows
1804 July 19 of Mr. Hammond 200
1804 [April] August 11th of Do 1500
————
£ 1700
Article the Second of the contract states that 7000 £ shall be allowed
for Mechanical preperations, this was for the first experiment; but
after the attempt off Boulogne on the Second of October 1804 where Lord
Melville was present; he entertained such hopes from the engines, that
he and Mr. Pitt, _then at Walmer castle_, ordered more Locks and large
copper coffers to be made; and for this purpose a further sum of 3000 £
was about the month of November or December 1804 placed to my order in
the house of Missrs Davison and Co. At this time Ministers were so well
satisfied with the prospect of success from my engines, and feeling the
right which I had to a remuniration, for neglecting other pursuits and
coming to this country, and for the communication of my engines to them
that they granted me for my own use the Sum of Ten thousand pounds; it
will be seen by a letter from Mr. Davison to Mr. Hammond, that this sum
was also granted me to relieve me of some pecuniary embarrassments and
was considered by them as a reward for past services; not to be refunded
should nothing more be done or required, but to make part of any future
sum which might be awarded to me.
Again on the 9th of October 1805 about the time Sir Sidney Smith
took the command off Boulogne; Lord Castlereagh thought it right
to have more locks, Bombs, Boats, and preperations made; and for
this purpose Also to pay old accounts I received of Sir Sidney
Smith 4045£
Of Mr. Hammond first Sum 1700
Of Do Second Sum 7000
Of Do third Sum 3000
For my private Use 10000
——————
25745£
By an error in Mr. Cutlers accounts he has refunded 1,000 £ to the
treasurer of the navy, which leaves 24745 £ to be accounted for, of this
sum it will be seen by the bills and receipts which were submitted to
the commissioners of the Navy and
£ S P
passed by them that 11353.. 3.. 2 has been expended for
government uses And 13391.. 16.. 10 to my own use
First a remuniration 10,000
Second my salary from the 20th of July 1804 to the 20th 5,000
of August 1806 or 25 months at 200 £ a month
———
£ 15,000
[Illustration:
PLATE THE THIRD
]
[Illustration:
PLATE THE FOURTH
]
As my right to the Salary cannot as I conceive be questioned for I have
continued in this Country to get the decision of ministers; and Should
the 10 thousand pounds remuniration be admitted Government will owe me
on this Account 1,608.. 3.. 2, such are the sums received by me and the
Gross of their distribution the accounts will explain the details.
ROBERT FULTON
London august 10th 1806
Description of the drawings of the Submarine Vessel, submarine bombs,
and mode of Attack
* * * * *
_Plate the First half an inch to a foot_,
The incompressible part of this vessel in which the men are when she
descends under water, is composed of cast brass cylenders 6 feet
diameter and 6 feet long about one inch thick; which will be of a
strength to resist the pressure of more than one hundred perpendicular
feet of water; Three or more of such cylenders may be screwed together
at the flanges to make a length of 18 or 24 feet; the ends forming a
part of a sphere to resist the pressure of the water in all directions;
The dome where the Men enter may be three feet diameter three feet high;
with a smaller dome on the lid through which observations may be made
when raised a foot above the water:
The cylender and dome is placed in the body of an ordinary shaped
vessel; and the water chambers for sinking will be round the cylender as
seen in plate the second;
In this place it will only be necessary to mention the different parts
which compose a submarine Vessel, any person acquainted with mechanics
can trace their movements and uses,
_A_ The bow anchor,
_B_ The plunging flyers communicating by two angle wheels to the
insides;
_C_ The bow cable, its windlass Slides backwards and forwards on a
square axis and lays the cable in regular coils;
_D_ A small safety pump to drive the water out of the balancing chest
_G_; suppose this pump one inch diameter, a column of water one inch
diameter and 300 feet high would weigh about 150 pounds; hence one Man
with a lever of three to one; could work such a pump under a pressure
of 300 feet and rendering the Vessel lighter than her volume of water,
could mount from that or even a greater depth to the surface;
_E_ and _F_ a pipe and cock to let the water into the balancing chest
_G_;
_G_ The balancing chest of a capacity to receive from three to five
hundred weight of water, when the outer chambers are full, the Vessel
being still from three to five hundred pounds lighter than water;
Water is then let into the balancing chest correctly to such a weight
that the flyers or plunging anchor can hold her under water;
_H_ A air pipe to let out the Mephitic air; there is a similar one
which extends to the stern, and enters a Ventilator _Q_ by which means
the air may be renewed in the Vessel;
_I_ A movement to work the rudder while under water; on going to
plunge the man who steers must take the helm off, this should always
be his first act least he should forget it,
_K_ The windlass of the plunging anchor sliding like that at the bow;
_J_ The crank of the stern flyers; of the pumps, and of the plunging
anchor; all these movements to be performed at pleasure by sliding the
little wheels _N_ and _O_ in & our of gear;
_P_ A screw movement to hoist the stern flyers out of gear; and out of
water when the vessel is under sail,
_M_ The pumps to force the water out at the pipe _R_.
The mast descends the sail boom and mast are tied together and made fast
to the deck before the operation of plunging commences.
_Plate the Second one inch to a foot_,
This exhibits a transeverse section _A_ the Valve to let in the the
water which rises up to the deck _B.B_ from which to the upper deck all
round the Vessel are chambers to hold submarine bombs; which are placed
in the chambers through trap doors on deck; and which bombs being the
weight of water will in plunging displace their volume of water; and not
add to or deminish the weight of the Vessel; this is the best mode of
arranging the bombs for were they inside they would be embarrassing and
each one when taken out would require to be replaced with its weight of
water—
[Illustration:
PLATE THE FIFTH
]
[Illustration:
PLATE THE SIXTH
]
_F_ The pipe to give air,
_G_ The pipe to discharge the Mephitic air,
_H.H_ Two air pipes to let the air out of the water chambers; they
mount to the highest part of the Vessel to let the air in when the
water is discharging; there should be at least four of these pipes;
two in the bow and two in the stern; they may be lead from the stem
along side and unite at _I.I_ there the two mounting pipes _H.H_ will
be suffecient, care must be taken that the air can pass off with ease
from all parts of the water chambers, or they cannot fill, nor can the
vessel be got under water,
_C_ The balancing chamber.
_D_ The safety pump
_E_ The discharging pipe
_J_ Is a valve to let the water go from the centre chamber to the two
ends, but not return, by this means water may be drawn from either end
to balance the Vessel horizontal there are four such Valves,
All the communications with the exterior have cocks as will be seen in
plate the third,
_Plate the Third one inch to a foot_,
Figure the first shews a section of the double forcing pumps _A_ and
_B_ too cocks to draw the water from the right and left water
chambers.
Figure the second a side View of the pumps _A_ the pump _B_ the valve
which lets the water pass into the body of the pump _C_ the valve
which discharges the water by the cock and pipe _D_ by shutting all
the cocks and screwing off the top plates which cover the Valves they
may be cleaned and put in order though the vessel were under water,
Near the pump the plunging anchor _F_ has a cock to stop the water in
case the cable should break. _E_ is a screw on which the anchor cap
rests while the anchor is up and thus its weight is taken off the
cable,
Figures the 3d and 4 represent a side and end view of the Cable
windlass and the mode of sliding on its axis,
Figure the 5th Shews the whole communications of the pump tubes the
great water chamber being divided into three parts, it is necessary to
drive water out from the middle or either end at pleasure _A A_ the
pump seats, _B.B.B.B_ the four valve chambers, _C_ the discharging
tube through the bottom, _D_ a tube to draw water from the Balancing
chest _E.E_ to draw water from the right and left middle chambers only
one of these are necessary as the water communicates by the Kelson to
both sides
_F_ To draw water from the bow chambers,
_G_ To draw water from the stern chambers,
_H_ The seat of the plunging Anchor,
_Plate the 4th_
Figure the first drawn by a scale of one quarter of an inch to a foot,
Shews the incompressible part laid down in the body of a boat, _A_ and
_B_ the divisions which form the length of the vessel into three water
chambers, with the valve to let the water from the middle chamber to the
two ends; but not return; _C_ is a passage for the water from one side
to the other. The other figures are of the real size, shewing the modes
of constructing the air pipes with cork valves to let in the air and
keep out the water;
_Plate the 5th real Size_
Figure the first shews the mode of placing the conic glass windows with
the stop cocks in case of accidents; Figure the second the lid and cap
of the dome; A head taking an observation through a window; this mode of
making a window conic renders it as strong as the surrounding brass, _as
relates to the pressure of the water_, a stroke only can break them;
Figure the third is a Bathomater, to shew the depth under water.
_Plate the 6_
This is an addition to the dome more curious than useful; it is a mode
of sending up a note and bringing down an answer while the Vessel is
under water, Figure the first _A_ is a cock with the cavity _B_ in which
there is a small reel; _C_ the handle of which runs to _D_.... _E_ is a
piece of Cork, the note is to be written on a piece of parchment, tied
round the cork or put into it, the cock is them turned by the handle _F_
to face the opening _G_; the reel is then turned off and the cork mounts
to the surface attached to a small silk line, when the answer is fixed
to the cork the man below wind it down into the cock which being turned
towards the inside of the Vessel the answer may be taken out.
[Illustration:
PLATE THE SEVENTH
]
Figure the second is an end View.
Figure the Third shews a man operating & the cork mounting, this may
be useful in making experiments;
_Plate the Seventh one quarter of an inch to a foot_
This shews the submarine vessel under sail and at anchor under water
with her plunging anchor out,
These seven drawings with this discription will enable any able
mechanician to construct and perform the experiments of a submarine
Vessel; It is not intended that she should go under or near the vessels
which are to be attacked, her use is to enable the weaker maritime
nations to attack the stronger without being detected or interrupted in
their operations, hence She is contrived to hide under water when
pursued, where she may continue the whole day and approach the fleets
and harbours of the enemy in the night, there anchor her cargo of
submarine bombs under water, or leave them to the tide, or use them in
any other way which time and practice may point out; and retire
unperceived for another cargo and deposit them in like manner on the
coast, in the mouths of rivers in harbours or among fleets at anchor,
and thus place Such numbers as would render it impossible for any Vessel
to move through them without the imminent danger of being blown up and
totally annihilated;
Of the submarine Bombs and modes of Using them.
* * * * *
As Government are in possession of the real locks and Bombs with the
modes of arranging them for action it will not be necessary to make
detailed drawings of the several parts.
_Plate the 8th_
Shews a bomb arranged with an instantanious lock, and anchored from ten
to twenty feet under water, for this purpose when the bomb is arranged
with its lock it should be ten or fifteen pounds lighter than its volume
water, it will then have a tendancy to mount to the surface but must be
held down by an anchor or weight of 20 or more pounds; as the depth of
water in all channels, bays and Harbours is known, the line _D_ should
before setting out be of such a length as will hold the Bomb from 5 to
ten feet under water at low water, it will then be that number of feet
added to the rise of the tide at high water,
At Slack water it will stand in the position _B_ perpendicular from the
anchor at half ebb or flood when the current is strong it will be
inclined to _A_ or _C_ where the action of the water on a flat board
which is fixed to its bottom at _E_ will keep it in the position here
deleniated. On the 5th of June in this year this experiment was made by
my desire by Lieutenant Wm Robinson In Dover roads; and the result was
as here described—A vessel under sail and striking on the Trigger _F_ of
such a Bomb would be instantly blown up, as will be seen in plate the
Ninth,
_Plate the Ninth_
In this drawing _A_ represents the Brig Dorothea as she blew up near
walmer Castle on the 16th of October 1805, the bomb made use of on this
occasion had a clockwork lock set to 15 Minuets; the bomb contained 180
pounds of powder; and was coupled by a line of 70 feet in length; to a
bomb which was filled with peas and which served as a counterbalance; As
the boat run within the Buoy, one was thrown to the Larbord, and one to
the Starbord side of the bow, and at the distance of 60 or 80 yards from
the brig; as the tide drifted them along the coupling line caught the
cable, the pressure of the tide then drove the bombs under her bottom
near the Keel, where the explosion taking place she opened in the middle
was completely decomposed and in 20 Seconds disappeared, which
experiment has proved that wherever such an explosion takes place under
the curve of a Vessels bottom; so that the action must be perpendicular
through her, certain destruction must be the consequence; _B_ represents
a Ship under Sail, _C. D. E_ Bombs anchored as described in the last
plate, she moving towards and among them with the risk of contact and
destruction;
[Illustration:
PLATE THE EIGHTH
]
_Plate the Tenth_,
Figure 1st shews the mode of suspending the bomb to the cork floater
_A_; the line _B_ has pieces of cork on it to keep it from sinking; the
line _C_ is a brace to prevent the tide driving the Bomb by the doted
line to near the surface where it could do no execution: the line _E_
will be longer or shorter in proportion to the draught of water of the
vessel to be attached, which will be further explained in figure the
_Third_;
Figure the Second is another mode of arranging the bomb. _A._ _B._ _C._
are pieces of cork tied by small lines 8 or 10 feet long to the
principal line _D_ in this manner it is floated under water where it is
not Visible nor in danger of being hooked or taken up;
Figure the third is a section of a ship shewing how the bomb lies when
first it comes alongsides; here the suspending line _A_ is of a length
to bend round the curve of the vessel and lay the Bomb in the position
_B._ where the explosion taken place; to get the bomb into that position
two things are necessary. _First_ When it is loaded and has its lock
screwed on, or a weight equal to that of the lock; it must be suspended
in a tub of salt water and if too heavy it must have a cussion of Cork
fastened to it; so as to balance it to two or three pounds heavyer than
its volume of water; in which case its tendency downward being not more
than three or four pounds a little pressure of tide will raise it or
move it latirally; and that it may mount latirally, and move to the
position _B_, it must be hung with an inclination to the tide, as will
be seen in figure the _fourth_, in which _A_ represents a Vessel to be
attacked, _B_ her cable, _C._ _C._ two bombs united by a line 100 or
more feet long, which line is tied by the bridles _D._ _D._ when it
touches the cable the tide drives the bombs alongside; the pressure of
the tide on the angle _D_ will then drive them under the bottom of the
Vessel as seen in Figure the 3d.
The Bomb was thus arranged to blow up the Brig Dorothea,
To throw them in case of an attack it is only necessary for the Boats to
run inside of the Buoy—; which might be done of a dark night without
being observed, or if Seen, would run little risk from musket shot in
the dark, and at such a distance,
Observations on these inventions
It having been fully proved that the explosion of a Submarine Bomb under
a vessel will completely destroy her, it is now necessary to consider
the expence of the two kinds of Bombs and their application; The expence
of the Bomb complete, with the instantanious lock will be as follows
£ S D
Lock 2 0 0
Bomb of Copper 2 10 0
100 lb of powder 7 10 0
Anchor or weight and lines 2 0 0
———— —— —
£ 14 0 0
The Bomb with the clockwork Lock
Lock 10 0 0
Bomb of Copper 2 10 0
100 lb of powder 7 10 0
Cork and lines 2 0 0
———— —— —
£ 22 0 0
The Average price is 18 £ and each bomb of 18 £ Value is of a power to
do as much execution as a fire ship which costs 2 or 3 thousand; 6,660
of them may be made for 120 thousand pounds or the first cost of one
first rate Ship of the line when engines of such destructive powers can
be multiplied to so great a degree, and at an expence which cannot be
felt by an opulent nation the practice of them may produce novel and
serious consequences.
[Illustration:
PLATE THE NINTH
]
In cases where a nation commands the seas as in the present state of the
British marine, the Seamen can approach sufficiently near the Enemy’s
harbours and roadsteads to use such engines from common boats; by which
means several hundred Bombs with instantanious Locks might be anchored
in the passages leading to the Texel, Havre, Brest or other ports of the
Enemy which would render it impossible for any Vessel to move in or out.
But it may be said that the Enemy are already completely blockaded and
England has no need for such a mode of war; this I admit, but this mode
is less expensive than the Usual method of Blockading and destressing an
Enemy’s commerce; yet should the economy not be thought of importance
Still this invention has to be considered in another point of View, and
that of the most interesting kind, Which is;
how would it affect the commerce and marine of England had the French
the means of anchoring 20 or 20 thousand such Bombs in the channels to
the Thames in the Bays, Harbours, Roadsteads, and a long the coast of
England, scotland or Ireland;
I will now endavour to Shew what an Economic simple and certain means
this would give to France to totally destroy the British Marine
And First as to Economy,
The Boulogne Flotilla has cost the french treasury more than three
millions Sterling, for this sum, more than Two hundred thousand
instantanious Bombs might be made; with such a Magazine at Boulogne or
Calais and 100 good row boats the Enemy might each dark night throw some
hundreds of Bombs in the channels of the Thames in the Downs or along
the coast, to the total destruction of the British Commerce, _And if her
commerce cannot be protected what is the use of her Marine?_
I will now Shew that were this Simple System organized in France, it is
not in the power of the whole British marine to prevent the practice of
it to any extent which Bonapart might desire, and he certainly would
desire the annihilation of the British Marine,—
For example. Suppose the French boats were to anchor 500 Bombs in one
night in the waters before Boulogne; where the Blockading squadern
usually cruise; some of the cruising squadern would most certainly be
blown up, and the fleet would be obliged to Keep at a greater distance.
The Bombs being anchored 6 Feet under water at low water, would admit of
row and sail boats to pass over them without danger; while vessels
drawing from 15 to 20 feet of water and running among them would be
destroyed, The french Boats passing over the Bombs or knowing the line
in which they had anchored them; could the next dark night anchor
another 500 still further out, and compel the blockading squadern to
keep at a still greater distance; In fact 1200 Bombs would lay a whole
line from Calais to Dover, allowing an interval of only 30 yards between
each, and 12,000 which would only cost 168,000 £ would lay ten lines
from Dover to Calais which would render it impossible for any Vessel to
pass without certain destruction, and thus a Blockade of the whole
Channel would be formed of which plate the 11 will give some Idea;
_Plate 11_
I have before observed that the french boats could not be prevented
depositing the bombs in this manner; Ships of war could not prevent them
Because they dare not approach where the Bombs are anchored; British
boats could not prevent them because they could not always be on the
watch; and Second because the french boats can or may be encouraged to
combat any boats whatever; And the moment this System or any other
reduces the British marine to Boat fighting, the revered Sovereignty of
the seas will be for ever lost; Colonies must be Abandoned and the whole
influence which England holds in the scale of nations will Vanish, This
is the natural and obvious consequence of this system when reduced to
practice and prosicuted by a powerful nation with energy and Spirit; Ten
lines of Instantanious Bombs or even a less number anchored in the
British channel would cut off the greater part of the commerce of London
and of England, The wealth of England and the existance of her fleets
depend on her immense and uninterrupted commerce, But should France ever
possess a means to cut off or interrupt such trade, England would be
obliged to submit to any terms which Bonapart might think proper to
dictate, I think I have here shewn that the plan described would give
him such power, Gentlemen will deliberately consider it and its
consequences consequences—
[Illustration:
PLATE THE TENTH
]
When Mr. Pitt saw the sketch of this engine of simple construction, easy
application, and powerful effect, he observed that if Introduced into
practice it would lead to the annihilation of all military marines, It
was therefore agreed not to use it,—But when I speak of my interest and
that of my friends in these inventions, I must call the particular
Attention of the Arbitrators to this engine to Shew that while in france
I might have brought forward this system to the infinite Injury of
England; I did not bring it forward but came to this Country by
Invitation to explain the engines to government; and receive what might
be considered a fair equivalent for inventions of such magnitude,
leaving them to government to use or not as they might think proper; It
must therefore be considered that my negative to France is a Positive
advantage to England, and out of these Ideas will arise considerations
on such sums or annuity as a Great nation can afford to pay for her own
security, and which should in reason satisfy men possessed of inventions
the consequences of which are incalculable,
After what has been said on the practice of the instantanious Bomb, it
will be seen that the submarine Vessel is not of much importance nor
necessary to Carry such engines into effect from England against France,
or from France against England, but it would be of the first importance
to the Sweeds, Danes, Dutch, Spaniards or Portuguise in a War against
England for with such vessels they could come without risque and anchor
instantanious Bombs in the British channel in the mouth of the Thames in
the roadsteads and, along the coast, and distress the commerce to as
great a degree as before described,
Each submarine Vessel constructed in the best manner would cost about
8,000 £. 10 of them could be built for 80 Thousand pounds, and each of
them requiring 6 men to Navigate them, the total would be 60 men. Each
Vessel could carry 30 bombs the ten could convoy 300, Besides the Bombs
each could carry water and provisions for 6 men for 6 weeks, they are
therefore calculated to navigate all the narrow seas of Europe and might
anchor Bombs in any channel or roadstead where it might be thought
necessary; Thus it is that this invention of submarine navigation and
Submarine Bombs, gives to the minor maritime powers a decided advantage
over the Major maritime Nations,
The manner of attacking a single ship with two clockwork bombs has been
explained in plate the tenth; which mode I conceive will be allowed to
be less expensive than fire ships and attended with less Risk than
Bordage or any mode now in practice
But suppose an enterprise to send such Bombs in among the Shipping at
Brest or any other open port; the tide running at the rate of two miles
an hour, the clockwork being set to two hours would make it practicable
to set the Bombs afloat at four miles distance from the Enemy; and they
would arrive among the shipping about the time the explosions commenced;
It would of course be advisable to get as near the Enemy as possible
before giving the Bombs to the tide, and in allmost all cases it is
possible to near them within two miles or a mile and a half in the night
time; the clockwork should be set accordingly.
_Plate 12_
Plate the 12 will Shew how the hooks are arranged to pass the Buoys and
yet hook in the Cable; in all cases where the line of the Bomb may cross
one; it is a round ended hook filled in with cork to keep it from
sinking being round at the end it cannot hook in the Buoy, but if the
line crosses a cable it will glide along till it comes to the hook and
be caught, the Bomb will then drift alongside, and sheer under the ships
bottom, this being a mode of attack it is to be considered what would be
the risk of 10, 15 or 20 Sail were 2 or 3 hundred such bombs floated
among them in one night.
But as Ships at anchor cannot follow or even fire to advantage in the
night on boats which are 4 or 5 hundred yards off; it [necessarily]
reduces the enemy to the necessity of defending themselves against
boats, by boats—, this being the Case what could prevent 40 British
Boats running with the flood into the harbour of Brest, there throw
their Bombs across the Bows and retire with the ebb of night;? 16 oard
cutters each with 4 or 5 marines and two swivels would complete such an
enterprise with little risk for as the objects of the British Boats
would not to fight but run: the oars would never be interrupted and
their Velocity together with the fire of the marines would clear their
way through any of the enemy’s boats which could be ready to oppose
them; but they would have another advantage for the explosion of the
first bomb or the Blowing up of the first ship, would occupy all the
enemy’s boats In saving the men which would leave little or no
opposition to the British Boats; I Leave to nautical Gentlemen to
consider whether such an attack with such engines whose operation is
instantanious; Is not practicable for British seamen in Brest harbour;
and if at Brest, it is also practicable at Cadiz and other ports, and
presents a more effectual mode of destroying the Enemys fleets than any
method now in practice and with less risk, But I do not expect Gentlemen
to decide in favour of this mode of attack without first contemplating
Galleys or cutters of the best construction, and picked men, habituated
and exersised to the System and practice of the Bombs,—For as a morter
is not given to the management of a lighthouseman, but to a Bombadeer,
so these engines should not be confided to officers or men till they had
been practiced in the use of them,
[Illustration:
PLATE THE ELEVENTH
]
I have now described the leading principles of this mode of warfare; it
is well known that all new inventions, and particularly those connected
with a government, require years to perfect them, to render them
fameliar, effecient; and introduce them into general practice; men must
be exersised establishments must be made, and the plan whatever it is
Should be pursued with System,
But when ever any invention, or project is within the limits of Physics
and evidently practicable, it is to be reduced to simple operations and
fameliar practice by time; and the inducement to perfect it is always in
proportion to the magnitude of the object in View;
Every principle her ascerted has already been proved by practice, what
then is wanting to make them productive of all the consequences here
contemplated? only time and perseverence, even talent is hardly
necessary; for all the principal defficulties have been overcome, the
question therefore on the policy and true interest of this government
concerning these inventions is whether they Should rest in their present
state or be left to the proprietors to convert to their own advantage as
they think proper;
As gun powder, Cannon, muskets, gun locks, and even flints, all had
opponents prejudices and established habits to encounter; yet have in
time totally Changed the art of war and the relative strength of
nations:—So these inventions on submarine navigation and attack may now
be considered as the Embryo of a total change in the military marine
system; and the existing relative power of States; it, is therefore a
subject not only of simple arbitration but one on which the Arbitrators
as men of science should deliberate with the utmost care For it is now
and by their means, that the present and future Ministers, _the
guardiens of the interests of Great Britain_; are to get exact Ideas on
this subject, and fully make up their minds, whether there is anything
to be hoped or feared from this system; Vulgar men see and admit only of
such things as time and practice has rendered fameliar to all Mankind;
Men of Sense and science penitrate from principles to future and certain
effects.
ROBERT FULTON
London,
August 10th 1806
Additional Notes
Of the supply of air in the submarine Vessel
* * * * *
The Cylender or incompressible part of this Vessel being 6 feet diameter
and 24 feet long will have an Area of 672 cube feet on allowing a Man to
consume the Oxygene of 20 Cubic feet in an hour it would be suffecient
for one Man for 33 hours or for 6 men for 5 hours or should each Man
consume the oxygene of only 15 cube feet in an hour and which is the
usual estimate, there would be suffecient for 6 men for 7 hours or
should a greater supply of air be necessary for any particular operation
it may be done as in the following sketch
[Illustration]
_A_ is a cast Iron or copper box one cube yard or 27 cube feet. Into
this 20 atmospheres may be compressed by proper pumps. _B_ is a measure
of half a cube foot. _C_. _D_ two cocks, _C_ being shut, _D_ is opened
and the measure _B_ filled. _D_ is then Shut and _C_ opened which lets
the measure of air circulate in the Vessel, the 20 atmospheres
compressed in in this reservoir would equal 540 cube feet of common air
and suffice for the 6 men for 5 hours more and thus the 6 men might
continue under water 11 hours in such case were they in a harbour or
surrounded by a fleet they could continue under water all day and
mounting with their air pipe out of water in the night renew the air for
the following day, but this is contemplating an extreme case, a Vessel
which can stay 4 hours under water can move 8 miles in that time where
the tide is two miles an hour and could get out of any open harbour Such
as Brest, Cadiz &
[Illustration:
PLATE THE TWELFTH
]
* * * * *
On the weight of the Cylender and its Buoyancy
Suppose it cast one inch thick on calculating its cube inches and
allowing 4 cube inches of brass to a pound it would Weigh about 8 tons.
Its volume of water or 672 cube feet would weigh upwards of 16 tons,
hence such a cylender hermetically cloased would float 8 tons lighter
than Water
CHAPTER VI
THE BRITISH CONTRACT
Size of the “Drawings and Descriptions.” Pseudonyms. Proposals.
Contract with the British government. Was Fulton false to his
principles in supporting Great Britain against France? His
financial position under the contract.
The “Descriptions” that Fulton left in England were in two parts, of
which the first is a recital of his negotiations and work, and the
second a minute description of the boat and bombs. Both parts are wholly
in Fulton’s handwriting and cover twelve double sheets of paper, five
for the first and seven for the second part. The sheets are 14¾ inches
high with a double or folded width of 19⅛ inches. The writing is on both
sides of the sheets, so that exclusive of the outside pages, which are
left blank, except for the descriptive recital on page 1 of the first
part, there are 43 pages of writing. There are from 26 to 28 lines to a
page with a margin of 2 inches on the left-hand side, and about 8 words
to a line. The paper is heavy hand-made linen, slightly off the white in
color with gilt on the edges. One-half of each sheet is water-marked
with a design composed of a crown and fleur-de-lys surmounting the
letters P & B, the other half of the sheet being water-marked Portal &
Co. 1796.
The drawings are water-colored and are on sheets of heavy Bristol paper
measuring 22¼ × 18¾ inches. As will be seen each one is dated and signed
by Fulton.
The “Bond and Contract” to which reference is made was found in 1812
among the papers of Lord Melville and was then deposited by his
executors in the Public Record office. With the exception of the
Admiralty CIRCULAR given on page 52, the contemporaneous archives of the
government contain little concerning Fulton’s work, and are in this
respect quite different from the French records. The explanation is that
the British ministers were fearful lest information regarding the
submarine should transpire to their detriment. They, therefore, treated
all correspondence as confidential and kept letters and other documents
in their personal rather than official files. In fact Fulton adopted the
pseudonym of “Robert Francis,” a designation that was frequently, though
not exclusively, used by both the Government officials and himself in
correspondence during the years 1804–1806.
The “Contract” was Fulton’s own conception in form and substance, the
government accepting the terms that he proposed. This is shown by his
notes and copies of letters that still exist.
Lord Hawkesbury who had induced Fulton to leave France for England was
Robert Banks Jenkinson (1770–1828). His father, created Lord Hawkesbury
in 1786 and Earl of Liverpool in 1796, had served as Secretary for War
from 1778 and therefore during the greater part of the American
Revolution. The son, using his father’s junior title of Lord Hawkesbury,
became Secretary for Foreign Affairs in 1801 in the Addington ministry.
As such Secretary, he would be the one to open negotiations with Fulton
in Paris.
Fulton arrived in London on the 19th of May. Addington had been
displaced by Pitt in the control of the government a few days before.
Lord Hawkesbury, though no longer in charge of Foreign Affairs,
continued in office, holding the portfolio of the Home Office in the new
cabinet. In spite of his change of status, Fulton would naturally call
on him as the only official with whom he was acquainted. In his note
book, in which he copied in neat hand the letter of Lord Hawkesbury that
the agent “Mr. Smith” had handed him in Paris, he writes at the bottom
of the copy of the letter, “I had an interview with Mr. Hammond on the
21 when he desired me to give in proposals they were as follows.”
From this juxtaposition of names it is fair to assume that to Lord
Hawkesbury he gave the name of Hammond. Fulton was fond of doing such
things. His own attempt at personal disguise under the name of Francis
was very thin. The coincidence that his real and temporarily assumed
names began with the same letter will be noted. So do Hawkesbury and
Hammond. The letters to “Mr. Hammond” are letters that would be written
only to one who was high in authority. It was not in accordance with
Fulton’s character to send such communications as are the Hammond
letters to a subordinate. In “Mr. Hammond” can be seen Lord Hawkesbury
who had just been made a peer in his own right and was Pitt’s leader in
the House of Lords. This identification of “Mr. Hammond” will be borne
in mind in connection with several letters given on pages 96 et seq. as
well as those immediately below containing the proposals promised on May
21st.
London May the 22d 1804
Proposals for the examination of a System of Submarine navigation,
Having been invited to London by the late Administration to
demonstrate the practicability of navigating under water and attacking
and destroying ships of war by submarine operations I propose that
government name a commission as they think proper to examine the
following principles and give their decision for or against each
article, which commission Should be composed of at least two able
mechanecians and one Chymest,—
Then follows matter describing the plunging vessel almost verbatim with
that given in the “Descriptions,” beginning with First principle on page
56 down to and including the demand for £100,000 on page 59, after which
the proposals continue as follows:
What plans government may have in View to draw the power of Bounapart
into governable limits Secure perminant peace and forever remove all
Ideas from the Side of France I do not pretend to Conjecture.
I beg leave to propose one which will be prompt in execution and if
Successful will forever Remove from the mind of Man the possibility of
France making a descent on England. I propose a submarine expedition
to destroy the fleets of Boulogne and Brest as they now lie. I am
ready to exhibit the practicability of my plan or at least that the
chances are many to one in favour of Success, and merits immediate
attention as the Season is much advanced much is to be done and no
time should be lost.
If government adopt my plan it must be organized nearly as follows,
One good Mechanecian must receive my drawings, take my orders and see
to the execution of the Machinery. An Active Sea officer must have
power to choose 100 hardy seamen _out of the fleet_ who are good
swimmers about 40 tons of powder and 7 thousand pounds for various
expences will fit out the expedition.
If government give into this plan I demand the following terms.
A pay of 200 pounds a Month while I devote my time to the enterprise
or till government notify that they have no further need of my
exertions,
If Government appoint their own officers to make the Attack; from the
directions I may give, without my going to Sea to direct it I demand
only the monthly pay.
But if government think proper that I go on board a Ship of war off
Boulogne and Brest to direct the time and mode of Attack I demand one
fourth the Value of each Vessel burnt or destroyed, In either case if
I do not succeed I demand nothing for my trouble but the monthly pay
before mentioned, till government notify that my exertions are no
longer necessary,
ROBERT FRANCIS
These proposals were sent under a covering letter to “Mr. Hammond” dated
the following day.
London May the 23d 1804
Mr. Hammond
Sir I herewith send you my proposals for examining the principles of
submarine navigation, also my proposal for a submarine attack on
Boulogne and Brest, in this period of our communications it is
necessary we Should clearly understand each other, First Ministers
will have the goodness to examine the mode I propose for investigating
the properties and combinations of Submarine navigation, if they
approve of it they will Sign it as a contract between them an me, then
appoint a commission to decide which commission approving the reward
follows; this part finished the expedition if thought proper is to
commence on the terms specified
I have the honor to be with
much respect your most obedient
ROBERT FRANCIS
Without waiting for his proposals to be accepted, Fulton’s mind began
working on the commission to be named. On June 12th he suggested to “Mr.
Hammond” that the government and he should name an equal number, the
majority to decide. On his part, he proposed Bishop Watson, Sir John
Sinclair, Lord Stanhope and the Rev. Edmund Cartwright. Apparently
Fulton had great faith in the efficacy of the church in this matter.
The Bond and Contract is on five pages wholly in Fulton’s handwriting
with an outside sheet with two dockets, one reading
Articles of Agreement
with Mr. Fulton
20th July 1804
The other
This attested Counterpart of an
agreement between His Majesty’s
Government in 1804 & Mr. Robert Fulton
was found among the papers of the late
Lord Viscount Melville, 22nd Jan. 1812.
M——
Articles of Agreement between the Right Honorable William Pitt, first
Lord commissioner of his Majesty’s treasury and Chancelor of the
Exchequer; and the Right Honorable Lord Viscount Melville first Lord of
the Admiralty, in behalf of his Majesty’s government on the one part;
and Robert Fulton citizen of the United States of America and inventor
of a plan of attacking fleets by submarine Bombs, on the other part,
The said Robert Fulton agrees to disclose the principles of his scheme
to Sir Home Popham and to superintend the execution of it on the
following conditions
_First_, To be paid Two hundred pounds a month while he is employed on
this Service for his personal trouble and Expences;
_Second_, To have a credit lodged from time to time for the payment of
his Mechanical preperations, not to exceed Seven thousand pounds.
_Third_, That in His Majesty’s dockyards and Arsenals shall be made or
furnished all such articles as may be required, which are applicable to
this purpose.
_Fourth_, If any circumstance should arise to prevent government
carrying this plan into execution then the parties are each to name two
commissioners for the purpose of examining the principles; and trying
such experiments as they may think proper, And if it should appear to
the Majority of the Members that the plan is practicable and offers a
more effectual mode of destroying the enemies fleet at Boulogne, Brest,
or elsewhere, than any now in practice and with less risk, then
government is to pay the said Robert Fulton the sum of Forty Thousand
Pounds as a compensation for demonstrating the principles, and making
over the entire possession of his submarine Mode of Attack.
_Fifth_, When the Said Robert Fulton has destroyed by his submarine
carcasses or Bombs one of the enemies deck’d Vessels, then Government is
to pay him the sum of Forty Thousand pounds, provided commissioners
appointed As in the previous article shall be of opinion that the same
Scheme can be practically applied to the destruction of the enemies
fleets,
_Sixth_, If the Arbitrators differ in opinion then they are to draw lots
for the choice of an Umpire and the Majority of Voices to decide all
points of reference within the construction of this agreement and that
decision to be final
_Seventh_, One half the supposed Value of all Vessels destroyed by Mr.
Fulton’s Submarine Mode of attack to be paid him by government as long
as he superintends the execution of his plan; but when government has no
further occasion for his service; or that he wishes to retire, then he
is only to be paid one quarter of the supposed value of such vessels as
may be destroyed by his scheme, and this remuneration to continue for
the space of fourteen years from the date thereof
_Eighth_, In case the Vessels destroyed by this scheme should exceed in
amount Forty thousand pounds, then the Forty Thousand pounds first
stipulated to be paid, shall be considered as part payment of the whole
sum which may become due to the said Robert Fulton,
_Ninth_, If in the course of practice any improvemt Should be Suggested
that can only be esteemed as a collateral Aid to the general principles
of Mr. Fulton’s mode of attack, then such improvements are not to
deminish or set aside his claims on government,
_Tenth_, All monies which may become due to Mr. Fulton to be paid within
six months from the time when they Shall be so adjudged according to the
tenor of this agreement,
_Eleventh_, This agreement to be considered by both parties as a liberal
covenant with a View to protect the Rights of the individual, and to
prevent any improper advantages being taken of his Majesty’s Government.
Mr. Fulton having deposited the drawings and plans of his submarine
scheme of attack; in the hands of a confidential friend with the View to
their being delivered to the American government in case of his death,
does hereby bind himself to withdraw all such plans and drawings and not
devulge them or any part of his principles to any person whatever for
the space of fourteen years; which is the term during which he is to
derive all the advantages of their operation from the British
Government,
The benefit of the foregoing agreement shall be extended to the heirs
and executors of the said Robert Fulton, Signed this Seventeenth day of
July one thousand eight hundred and four
ROBERT FULTON
exchanged with a counterpart
signed by the Right Honble
William Pitt & the Right
Honble Lord Melville
H.P.
Witness
Home Popham
The reading of these remarkable documents of such great historical
interest, especially at this time when submarine navigation has been
developed to the point of complete success, kindles many lively
reflections.
The question is whether Fulton acted as a man of honor in abandoning the
country for which he had volunteered to fight and where he had received
such signal and loyal service from its citizens. Was he justified in
transferring his support to another nation at war with France and thus
help destroy the growing power of France for which country he had
professed so much affection? This question has been debated by Fulton’s
biographers, although apparently none of them knew exactly what it was
that Fulton had done for the British Government. They were all under the
impression that his work consisted chiefly in the demonstration of the
efficacy of torpedoes, carcasses or bombs as Fulton vicariously called
them, or mines as we would speak of them today. Cadwallader D. Colden
gives several pages of his book to developing, with some labor, an
excuse for Fulton. Dickinson finds some justification in the fact that
Fulton had been only partially reimbursed by the French Government for
his work, but more particularly in that the development of Napoleon’s
ambitions was repugnant to Fulton’s ideas of republicanism. The last is
without question the correct and only view to take.
A radical republican, hating blindly all forms of autocracy, he had
remained in France believing that in France he would see the full
flowering of his principles. He offered his inventions to the French
Government, not for pecuniary gain, because his proposals show that he
was willing to abide by their decision as to the monetary value to be
determined only after he had achieved success, but because he thought
that the French revolution was a real movement toward perfect liberty.
To this end he offered not only his device, but also himself. He was
anxious to be enrolled in the fighting force of France and go forth in
his little boat to do battle against mighty England. When, therefore, he
was refused by Bonaparte and his sincere offers scorned with absolutely
unjustified insult, we can imagine his revulsion of sentiment and
forgive any bitterness of feeling. In a moment his idol was shattered.
He realized that those in control of the French Government were not
actuated by a broad conception of world freedom, but solely by personal
ambition and thirst for power. He makes this position quite clear in a
letter to Lord Melville quoted by Colden as follows, though, before
publishing, the latter must have edited the orthography: “In writing
this letter, I feel no enmity to the people of France, or any other
people; on the contrary, I wish their happiness; for my principle is,
that every nation profits by the prosperity of its neighbours, provided
the governments of its neighbours be humane and just. What is here said,
is directed against the tyrannic principles of Bonaparte, a man who has
set himself above all law; he is, therefore in that state which Lord
Somers compares to that of a wild beast unrestrained by any rule, and he
should be hunted down as the enemy of mankind. This, however, is the
business of Frenchmen. With regard to the nations of Europe, they can
only hold him in governable limits, by fencing him round with bayonets.”
France, his dearly beloved France, was no more liberal under the upstart
clique of the consulate than was England under the régime of her long
established autocracy. This is the only explanation of how and why
Fulton abandoned his allegiance to France, went to England and there
worked to strengthen the British navy that it might the more easily
smash the growing power of the French fleet with which he had once so
ardently desired to serve. He had been cruelly stabbed by the hands of
his friends in the most tender spot in his heart. This cruelty that
served to clear his vision he could not forgive, much less forget.
Fulton had undoubtedly been unfairly and even cruelly treated by the
French authorities. His cherished ideas into which he had thrown his
whole soul had been rejected without fair or reasonable examination. His
pride had been deeply wounded. But Fulton was magnanimous enough to have
overlooked this treatment had France herself remained true to his
conception of her own ideals. It was not that Fulton abandoned France,
but that France deserted Fulton. From his arrival in 1797, he thought
that he saw in France a great exponent of a new world liberty, with
freedom of trade, freedom of men, freedom of the seas, and above all an
enduring world-wide peace. In his enthusiasm he believed that such
ideals, in which he firmly believed, were not only practically
realizable, but that France was about to make them the guiding
principles of every nation. It was for that reason that he so warmly
espoused her cause.
In 1797, soon after his arrival in Paris, he wrote to his friend Lord
Stanhope his views based on what he fancied to be the actuating theory
of the French revolution:
My Lord
Hoping every month to Return to England, together with the difficulty
of transmitting Letters to London, has hitherto prevented my Writing
to you Since my arrival In Paris. But at present I have troubeled you
with a very Long Letter, the object of Which I will here
explain,—Since my arrival In Paris I have been Very active In my Canal
pursuits, And on this Subject I have Created a Revolution In the mind
of all the french engeneers I have met with, who are now descidedly In
favour of the Small System of Canals—Which are now Contemplated on an
emmense Scale of extension which you will See explained in my
Letter—It is Contemplated to Raise the Whole Revenue by a Single toll
on Canals which System will Infinately Simplify the operations of
Government, tend directly to Set trade free and annihilate a Mass of
Political absurdities which have hitherto disturbed the peace of
Nations—all of Which you will find explained in the annexed Letter,
Which Letter will Shew you how much Frenchmen are turning their mind
to the true fountain of Riches—viz home Improvement and Systems of
Industry. With the true philosophic Ideas which the entertain of
Foreign Possessions and Restricted trade—And I Can assure you that I
find In them the most Resolute determination to establish the
principles which you will find explained And Which to me appears of
the Very first Importance to Lasting peace—and the Wellfare of all
Nations—It is therefore of much Importance that English Men Should
know the truth of these principles and Learn their true Interest by
Giving up as the french mean to do, and will Compel _others to do_ the
System of foreign Possessions and Restricted trade they should also
understand that Frenchmen are Realy thinking Like philosophers Which I
hope my Letter will prove.
By 1801, when his offer of his talents and personal service were
spurned, Napoleon was already leading France far afield from the
altruistic but impossible programme of 1797. In 1802, Napoleon had made
himself consul for life. In the spring of 1804, he was proclaimed
Emperor of the French and the beautiful dream that had entranced Fulton
for more than ten years had faded into nothingness, as dreams usually
do. He saw that in the aristocracy of England he could find a truer
democracy than in the demagogic leaders of France. Fulton was but human.
His warm heart, artistic temperament and impetuous nature now asserted
themselves and drove him back to the country whence his forebears had
come, and away from the people whose governing powers had wounded his
pride and had failed him in his ideals.
The “Descriptions” given above were written just prior to August 10th,
1806, and recite the course of events from the autumn of 1803. At the
time they were signed, Fulton was arranging to return to America, and
actually sailed about ten weeks later. His negotiations with the
Government had not been satisfactory in that his devices had not been
accepted and he had not received in money what he felt was due. The
contract shows that Fulton, profiting perhaps by his French experiences
not to put trust in princes, foresaw this contingency and provided
against it in the Fourth article, that should any circumstance arise to
prevent carrying the plan into execution commissioners should be
appointed to determine whether the stipulated compensation had been
earned. The “Descriptions” were prepared for submission to the
arbitrators and were actually read to them, as is shown by a note
attached to a copy of the manuscript reading as follows:
These papers I read to Sir Charles Blagden, Capt. Hamilton, the Rev.
Dr. Cartwright and Alexander Davison, Esq., on the 18th of August 1806
these gentlemen being named Arbitrators to settle my Claims on
Government under a contract which I made with Mr. Pitt and Lord
Melville—the two last named acting for me.
The words “two last” refer, of course, to Dr. Cartwright and Mr.
Davison. The “Descriptions,” therefore, give Fulton’s case as he saw it,
and consequently are of intense interest and historical importance.
His vision for the United States that the population would increase from
5,500,000, as it then was, to 120,000,000 has already been almost
realized, sooner, of course, than he expected, but the absence of
colonies and lack of desire for them have hardly met an equally
successful prophetic fate. Certainly he never foresaw Porto Rico,
Panama, Samoa, Hawaii, Guam, the Philippines and other outlying
possessions.
What a delightful picture Fulton unconsciously presents of the skillful
and diplomatic way in which the British Ministry handled him from the
beginning to the end! When the emissary, known only as “Mr. Smith,”
stated to Fulton that the Government wished to use the submarine against
the French fleet, Fulton pointed out that it was not the part of wisdom
so to do, that the British with their superiority in sea power had more
to lose than to gain by developing such a weapon. In so doing, he but
anticipated Earl St. Vincent who, bluff old sea-dog like so many of his
profession to whom innovations in naval warfare were anathema, exclaimed
that “Pitt was the greatest fool that ever existed to encourage a mode
of war which they who commanded the seas did not want, and which, if
successful, would deprive them of it.”
“Mr. Smith” was very clever and was not put off by any such argument. He
saw clearly that whether England needed the device or not, they must
have control of the man who possessed the secret. He evidently felt sure
of Fulton’s sentiments because he told him quite frankly that they
wished him “out of France and in England.”
On the financial side, Fulton appears to have had a proper estimate of
himself and the value of his devices. The sum of £10,000 as a retainer
would be no mean figure today, but owing to the difference in purchasing
power it was comparatively a vastly greater figure in 1803. This
retainer was in addition to his main fee or price for selling the
explanation of his devices which he put at £100,000. The “Descriptions”
read that he said “require” that sum. He first wrote “demand,” which
word he erased, but not sufficiently to obliterate it, and then wrote
“require.”
The rating of the value of his devices as being equivalent to a
ship-of-the-line, or battle ship as a capital ship is now called, is
certainly ingenious and not unreasonable. If his devices had any value
at all they would increase the effective power of the fleet by much more
than the addition of one first-class vessel.
But Fulton was dealing with men far abler than he in fixing values and
making contracts. The negotiations were not broken off by abruptly
refusing to pay the sums asked. That would have been a blunder that one
selected for such a delicate mission would not be guilty of committing.
The British representative apparently did not even suggest that the
retainer was exorbitant, but only that it was “contrary to established
rules” to pay in advance. Then, before giving an obligation to pay a sum
commensurate with the value of the devices, the reasonable and
unanswerable preliminary condition of an experimental demonstration was
made a prerequisite.
The British diplomats unlike the French had avoided giving any offense
to his amour propre. Though they refused to grant his financial
requests, they succeeded in getting him to go to England, which was
their main purpose. Not until they had him safe in London, did they take
up the question of a contract. The original demand of £100,000 was
reduced to £40,000. The retainer disappeared entirely except as it was
represented by such portion of the £800 with which “Mr. Smith” was
furnished in the first instance to pay his own and Fulton’s expenses. In
lieu of the reductions, there appears in the contract an agreement to
pay a salary of £200 a month. How deliciously clever! To one in the
straightened circumstances in which Fulton always had been and still
was, for even now any surplus of income of which he might have been
possessed, but of which there is no evidence, was swallowed up by his
steamboat experiments, this monthly payment must have been of
inestimable importance. It guaranteed him comfort and at last a
substantial excess for his other work, because his submarine
disbursements were to be met entirely by the government up to a maximum
limit of £7,000. On the other hand, the Government held secure the man,
who as an enemy they feared, and who as such was a constant source of
worry. This result was obtained at a cost that was to them a trifling
figure.
Fulton appears to have concluded that his claim for £100,000 was perhaps
too high because he voluntarily accepted the sum of £40,000 mentioned in
the contract. Of this latter amount, he made to the arbitrators the
ingenious suggestion that they pay him one-half in cash and the other
half in an annuity based on his life, the annuity to be forfeit should
the secret of his inventions in submarine warfare be divulged by him or
his friends. It is regretted that Fulton did not disclose the names of
his friends who were jointly interested with him, as they were probably
the same who had financed his French experiments.
Fulton’s receipts on his own account amounted on balance to £13,391 ..
16 .. 10, leaving due as he claimed £1608 .. 3 .. 2, exclusive of any
payment in part or whole of the £40,000. As it was, he did not do badly
for two years’ work. In addition the Government furnished £11,353 ..
3 .. 2 to repay his expenditures.
CHAPTER VII
EXPERIENCE IN ENGLAND
Attack on fleet at Boulogne. Torpedoing of Dorothea (1805).
Effect of Trafalgar on Fulton’s work. Copies of “Drawings and
Descriptions.” Intent of government not to proceed with the
submarine. Correspondence with Lord Hawkesbury and Mr. Pitt
(1804). Commission of investigation appointed. Decision adverse
to a submarine. Nevertheless Pitt signs contract.
Two years had passed since the execution of the contract, during which
time Fulton remained actively at work for the Government. He made an
attack on the French fleet at Boulogne by means of his bombs but without
success. He explained the cause, and probably correctly, but
nevertheless he was charged with failure. Then he repeated the
experiment with altered details in the mechanism and blew up a brig
called the “Dorothea” on October 15, 1805, in the presence of Pitt and
other officials. Success was again in sight, but only to vanish as
quickly as it appeared.
Six days after the destruction of the “Dorothea” came the great event
that made secure England’s control of the sea. On October 21st, Nelson
destroyed the combined French and Spanish fleets in the decisive battle
of Trafalgar. After that England had no need of submarines, torpedoes or
Fulton. Her ships of oak were absolutely supreme, and she saw the force
of Lord St. Vincent’s criticism.
The parallel between 1805 and 1922 is close. Then as now, and for
similar reasons, England was, and is, opposed to the use of submarines
in warfare.
Mention was made above that the “Descriptions” he left in England had
been copied. Fulton did this with nearly all his important papers, and
the copies were in manuscript, not letter press tissues. In this case
the copy is in the possession of Edward C. Cammann, Esq., a great
grandson, and bears several dates. To the main recital are added 41
pages of the same size paper, of which 12 pages contain material
entitled “London August the 16th, 1806. Notes on observations of the
Arbitrators, Particularly of Capt. Hamilton and Sir Charles Blagden in
answer to objections stated by them.” The balance are taken up by
letters to Lord Grenville dated September the 3rd, and “Further
considerations on the instantaneous and clockwork bombs.”
Before leaving England he also copied the drawings. These copies are on
thin paper and are obviously tracings of the original “Drawings” that
are on bristol board. In the course of time the tracings have become
separated from the manuscript copy and are now the property of the New
Jersey Historical Society at Newark, N. J. The latter plates are signed
and dated 1806, whereas the originals bear date 1804. In the eleventh
clause of the contract Fulton stated that he had “deposited the drawing
and plans of his submarine scheme of attack in the hands of a
confidential friend with the view to their being delivered to the
American Government in case of his death.” As it is unlikely that Fulton
made two sets of carefully prepared drawings in 1804, the evidence is
presumptive that the plans above referred to are the ones that have
recently been found in England and that form the basis of this book. The
American Consul at the time, especially as he was a man of character and
responsibility, would be the natural depositary for papers of
semi-official character. Of the original drawings, numbers 1, 6, 8, 10
and 11 are unfortunately missing. Through the courtesy of the Historical
Society their copies have been used to make good the deficiency.
By the spring of 1806, Fulton had no misapprehensions as to the intent
of the British Government. It was quite clear to him, as his letters
show, that the authorities had decided not to use his devices for either
submarine or torpedoes. It is also likely that he had received an
intimation that his salary would be discontinued. Professional
recognition was to be denied him, and unless he was also willing to
forego hope for substantial pecuniary recompense he must have recourse
to the arbitration clause of his contract.
Whether the necessity for such action came as a surprise to Fulton, one
thing is clear from his letters. In spite of a liberal contract,
carrying a generous salary and full allowance for his disbursements,
Fulton had not been happy from the very first. He was impatient at every
delay and intolerant of every suggestion. He would not, or could not,
understand that the progress of government affairs is always slow, and
that no government official, no matter how exalted his rank, could make
decision promptly without reference to his professional advisors. The
similar errors in judgment that he committed in France he repeated in
England.
His letters, of which he wrote many, are from the very first couched in
terms that it must be confessed are impatient, dictatorial and
fault-finding, and never in that diplomatic and conciliatory form that
has always been considered proper when addressing high government
officials. This is particularly true when one remembers that he was
corresponding with men holding office under George III, a period when
those directing government did not hesitate to arrogate to themselves
full autocratic powers and to regard all who were not in their own class
as far removed inferiors. From others than their associates they were
not inclined to accept dictation or brook carping criticism. That the
several ministers with whom Fulton dealt tolerated the tone of his
communications and overlooked his demands and complaints, is most
striking testimony of the high regard in which they held his devices.
Just so long as France was in a position to threaten their power on the
ocean they intended to keep and hold Fulton safe.
Although on May 23rd he had submitted his proposals to “Mr. Hammond,”
nevertheless immediately afterward, and before his proposals could be
examined, he decided to go over Lord Hawkesbury’s head and seek a
conference direct with the prime minister. On June 6th, he wrote the
following letter in which it will be noticed he explained the connection
between his right and assumed names:
Robert Fulton known by the name of Francis Author of Submarine
Navigation to Mr. Pitt.
Sir What I have to say on this subject and its prompt effects I hope
you will find interesting, it possibly may be of the utmost importance
in Seconding your Views if Soon adopted; it is at least of some moment
that you feel a conviction what I propose to demonstrate are facts and
that your mind trace over the political consequences I beg 20 minuets
conversation with you as soon as possible.
I have the honor to be your most
Obedient R Francis
Storeys gate coffee house June the 6th 1804
Before Pitt had reasonable opportunity to arrange for an interview, or
Lord Hawkesbury to name a commission of investigation, Fulton wrote “Mr.
Hammond” a tart letter of complaint just one month after he had arrived
in London:
Storeys Gate coffeehouse June the 22d 1804
Mr. Hammond
Sir
The first day I had the pleasure of Seeing you I promised you candor,
and Should time make me more known to your government they will find
frankness one of the leading lines of my character, Now I candidly
declare that having been here 5 weeks in some degree like a prisoner,
and at present as much in the dark as on the day of my arrival such a
state of Suspence begins to grow extremely unpleasant
The flattering and I believe candid promises of the late ministry
induced me to come to this country and as yet I do not repent it but I
beg to be informed if the present ministry mean to act up to the
spirit of Lord Hawkesburies letter to me or what do they desire of me?
On my part I came here to acquire wealth by communicating a new System
to government which I do not hesitate to Say is to them more than one
thousand times the value of any sum I may receive, I have pointed out
the most Simple and honorable mode of determining whether this
ascertion is fact, by means of a committee of scientific men, and now
I beg to know will government agree to such decision and when Shall
the discussion commence? or do they wish to decline all research into
this business you will have the goodness to give me their ultimatum
when I shall have the honor to see you on tuesday
Believe me impressed with the highest
respect for you your most obedient
ROBT FRANCIS
As a matter of fact, in spite of Fulton’s impatience the government
acted with commendable, if not extraordinary, celerity. A commission was
named and it reported before June 27th, because on that date Fulton
addressed to “Mr. Hammond” a review of their findings. The commission
was composed of Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Academy, the
Hon. H. Cavendish, a well-known chemist, Sir Home Popham, Major
Congreve, an inventor of projectiles, and Mr. John Rennie, one of
England’s leading engineers. Dickenson thinks that possibly the first
two were suggested by Fulton. The subjoined letter to “Mr. Hammond”
seems to contradict this, because in it he complains that they “passed
judgment” (adversely) “without even desiring to have the details of
operation.” Had two of the five members been representing Fulton it is
almost certain that they would have insisted on his being invited to be
present to explain his device. As it was, all they had were certain
proposals made by a “Mr. Francis.”
Storeys Gate coffeehouse June the 27th 1804
Mr. Hammond
Sir
I have examined the 5 Articles of the commission they seem to admit
the possibility of making a Submarine Vessel but they conceive it
impossible to use it to Advantage, hence recommend that it Should not
be adopted,
It possibly may be good policy in government not to adopt the whole of
my system, it merits however their serious consideration whether they
cannot draw great advantage from using part of it without risque to
themselves, But that the whole of it is practicable and even in
general cases easy executed can be proved, hence I am somewhat
surprised that 5 Gentlemen of science Should pass Judgement on a work
which rises out of the progress of improving Arts, without even
desiring to have the details of Combination or operation, without
having evidence of what has been done; and Judging from thence what
maybe done, thereby leaving government as much uninformed of the truth
and probable consequences of Submarine navigation as though I had
never arrived; this is not the interest of Government your interest is
to know the whole truth that you may see, clearly what maybe hoped or
calculated upon from this discovery, I shall be happy to have an
interview with Mr. Congreve, Mr. Cavendish and Sir home popham, but I
can say little more to those gentlemen than endavour to convince them
that the true Interest of Government, is to go into a thorough
examination in order to arrive at truth; which examination I will put
on the most liberal and honorable terms, you will have the goodness to
desire a meeting as soon as possible
I have the honor to be yours
with respect
ROBERT FRANCIS
The suggestion to have a conference with Major Congreve, Mr. Cavendish
and Sir Home Popham was referred to Mr. Pitt and was objected to by him,
as is shown by a memorandum among Fulton’s papers:
June the 28th 1804
Saw Mr. Hammond this morning at 1 who informed me Mr. Pitt wished me
to see the whole of the commission least it should offend Sir Joseph
Banks & Mr. Rennie, Agreed
If Fulton was impatient he was also indefatigable. However much one must
condemn his lack of tact, one cannot help admiring his persistence. He
wrote not only to “Mr. Hammond,” but also to Sir Home Popham. In spite
of the fault-finding tone of Fulton’s letters, he and Sir Home Popham
apparently remained friendly to the very end. As will have been noticed,
it was the latter who witnessed the contract and perhaps was
instrumental in arranging for its execution. When Fulton found that the
commission would not come together again, he wrote to Sir Home a long
letter under date of June the 30th. The letter is too long to quote
fully but the following extracts will show its general nature:
To Sir Home Popham
Sir
Were the Gentlemen who reported on my proposals to meet again I Should
have addressed them as a commission. As that may not be the case I
shall be happy to have some conversation with you on the subject of
submarine navigation ........................
If Gentlemen were Actuated by what the conceived Patriotism in
rejecting every investigation of this Subject in order to keep it in
oblivion as much as possible I conceive the measure not effectual,
what has been proved And is Supported with Energy, cannot be consealed
but by the consent of the Author; but perhaps this was not the motive,
for deciding without evidence ........................
Now Sir permit me to make some observations on the real patriotism
connected with this business.
If what I Say of submarine navigation and attack be true, if fleets
can be destroyed by this means without any human foresight preventing
it; is it not important that Government should Know how and by what
means, if on investigation you should found it all false and visionary
would not the infirmation be pleasing to government and cost nothing?
If true is not the wise policy to take amicable measures to prevent it
doing any injury to this country. Suppose the decision of the commitee
should necessitate me to seek fortune else where by disclosing my
system it might fineally appear that such a decision was the most
unpatriotic act a citizen could commit, Sir I give you my honor I have
come here with the most friendly disposition towards the government.
And I have not one sinister feeling the interest of this nation is not
to adopt the submarine vessel they government aught to know what it is
and its probable consequences ........................
When he speaks of the most friendly disposition towards the government,
it is interesting and perhaps amusing to recall that in 1798 he wrote to
Barras, then the guiding spirit of the Directorate, urging the
destruction of British ships of war, saying: “Le commerce énorme de
l’Angleterre, ainsi que son Gouvernement monstreux, dépend de sa marine
militaire.” Times had changed!
To “Mr. Hammond” he wrote begging the latter to persuade “Mr. Pitt to
name one person _in whome he has full confidence_, to treat or arrange
with me.”
Fulton perhaps felt that the action of the commission was not intended
to be final and therefore it was for him to suggest other ways for
passing on his devices. If so, he was justified by the fact that in
spite of the adverse report of the commission of which Mr. Pitt must
have been informed, the latter accorded Fulton an interview on July 20th
at which Sir Home Popham, who had just voted against the submarine, was
present. An account of this interview Fulton committed to paper.
20th of July 1804
Breakfasted with Mr. Pitt at his country house Near Putny common, Sir
Home Popham only present Lord Melville expected but did not arrive,
after my being Introduced Mr. Pitt demanded of Sir Home if he and Mr.
Francis had agree’d on terms Sir Home replied in the affirmative and
told Mr. Pitt his perusal and Signature were only wanting. He then
read and Signed the papers, delivering them to Sir Home, with orders
to call on Lord Melville for his signature.
At Breakfast some general principles of Submarine navigation and mode
of attack explained, which appeared to give pleasure; and make a
Strong impression. When Sir Home Popham went into an ajoining Room,
Mr. Pitt, remarked that this is an extreordinary invention which
seemed to go to the distruction of all fleets; I replied that It was
invented With that View, And as I had no design to desceive him or the
government I did not hesitate to give it as my opinion that this
invention would lead to the total annihilation of the existing System
of Marine war,
But in its present state of perfectionment Said Mr. Pitt those who
command the seas will be benefited by it while the minor maritime
powers can draw no advantag from what is Now known, Answer, true
unless plunging or submarine Vessels were introduced into practice;
that it probably would be some years before any nation could bring to
perfection such a Vessel, that it is not the interest of the British
government to use such Vessels that consequently there was not at
present much danger to be apprehended from that part of my System; at
all events there would be, time to fit future politics to future
circumstances, if at present the french preperations can be destroyed
by Submarine attack, it will convince Bonapart and the whole world
that frenchmen never can make a descent on England for any future
fleet prepared by them may be burnt in like manner manner—
Little more passed it was agree’d to make the Submarine attack on
Boulogne as soon as the engines could be prepared, returned to town
with an appointment to meet at the same place on the following Week,
From the above it will be seen that Fulton and Sir Home had come to an
agreement between June 30, the date of Fulton’s letter, and July 20.
While at work on his submarine he did not permit his political ardor to
cool. He has left a copy of a letter about 2600 words in length written
“to the right Honorable Lord Viscount Melville,” dated London, Jany the
20th, 1805, giving his “Observations on Bonaparte’s pacific
Communications.” This long letter is in the flamboyant style that Fulton
used when writing on political topics. After dilating upon economies
that would flow from peace and how such savings from war disbursements
might be turned to establishing canals, iron works, manufactures and
improving agriculture, he speaks of Napoleon:
Humanity would commend the Man, who turned his talents to such usefull
works provided he should use the fruits of it humainly, but it is a
question whether, Bonaparte would do So, his insatiable ambition and
extravagant Ideas, do not warrent so much confidence in him, Raised
from nothing by military talents and a combination of extriordinary
events, he is intoxicated with success, adulation has become his daily
food as necessary to his happiness as high seasoning to a vitiated
appetite, his mind is perpetually working on schemes, which he thinks
will give great Eclat, he seeks to be ranked by the future historian
above Ceasar and Charlemagne, his principle is that future ages, never
take into consideration the miseries which accompany war, they only
listen to the brilliant actions of the Chief....
CHAPTER VIII
NEGOTIATIONS WITH CABINET
Fulton begins to have doubts of accomplishment (1805).
Correspondence with Mr. Pitt and Lord Castlereagh reciting his
contract, rights and claims. Pitt dies (Jan., 1806) and Fulton
begins anew with Lord Grenville and Lord Howick.
By midsummer of 1805, Fulton was not making the progress that he had
expected, and again we find him writing letters that could not have been
helpful in advancing his cause.
Sackville Street Piccadilly No 13
July the 18th 1805
To the Right Honorable William Pitt
Sir
I have waited till you were releeved from the fateague of attending
Parliament before I would urge you on my particular business, on which
I have written to Lord Barham twice without an answer, which with
other circumstances have led me to believe that government do not
intend to prosecute my system of attack Whatever may be their decision
it is interesting for me to know it As I have other and previous
engagements of much magnitude which call for my attention, and do not
warrant my loosing time; hence I hope you will have the goodness to
mention an hour when I may have the honor to wait on you that a plan
of Acting may be arranged or the business as relates to me put into
such a train as to be speedily and finally setteled
I have made the machines and exhibited to Sir Home Popham all that I
know of them; the mode of using them and their effects, and if it is
thought proper to use them; it can be done as well without my aid as
with it As to the submarine Vessel my opinion ever has been that it
would not be good policy in this government to introduce it into
practice, consequently you will not want me to construct one, But I
have all the drawings to Shew that everything which has been said of
it is practicable and which drawings _according to contract_, are to
be delivered to such persons as you may think proper to name
Under these circumstances I wish to sail for America about the first
of September, I Shall therefore hope that you will have the goodness,
to appoint an early hour when I may have the honor to wait on you
I have the honor to be your most
Obedient ROBT FRANCIS
Before the year was finished the tone of his letters became more bitter.
He was no longer giving the government advice upon how they were to
treat Bonaparte, but was deeply engaged in fighting for what he
considered his own rights. The stilted style gave place to a more simple
and direct form, in which he made no attempt to disguise his irritation
as is shown by two letters written to Lord Castlereagh:
London
Ibbotsons hotel Vere Street Oxford Road
December 13th 1805
Lord Viscount Castlereagh
My Lord
I have the honor to send you reflections without disguise with what I
conceive a fair and honorable proposal for a final settlement with
government you will have the goodness to consider them and let me have
the honor of your decision as soon as possible
With all respects I have the honor
to be your Lordships most Obedient
ROBT FRANCIS—
London December the 13th 1805
Lord Viscount Castlereagh
My Lord
At various times I have been necessitated to say much on the
importance of forming the Submarine mode of warfare into a regular and
permanent System, As there is now full proof of the powerful effects
of the carcasses, and the great execution which maybe done with them,
a well organized mode of acting should be adopted,
System in this business is the true and best Interest of government, I
must also beg leave to state that in System, I have a great and
important Interest, for without it there is little hope of my
acquiring the emolument from my invention which I have a right to
expect,
When I discovered this mode of destroying ships of war, I considered
it as the basis of an ample fortune, And every experiment I have made
has confirmed me in my opinion of its immense importance, and my high
interest In it, Therefore while I frankly give you my opinion on what
I conceive the best interest of government I must be excused if I
begin to insist on what I conceive my personal rights.
Lord Melville with whome I contracted was Very friendly to my
enterprise and I have now no doubt would have wrought it into a form
to produce the greatest possible effect, Since his leaving the
Admiralty I have waited from month to month, hoping Lord Barham would
follow Lord Melvilles measures, but I have reason to believe he
disapproves of the whole plan or is indifferent to it which is the
same thing in effect, however as to my private Interest and the
situation In which I Stand In this country I consider that of little
consequence, though it may be of some importance to the nation,
My contract states a certain reward for every Vessel of an enemy which
shall be destroyed by my engines in 14 years and His Majesty’s
Dockyards and Arsenals are to furnish me the necessary means of
applying the carcasses to the destruction of the enemy hence if they
do not give me reasonable and efficient means, government do not
fulfill their part of the contract, the enemy cannot be attacked nor
destroyed however good and simple the engines may be, and my time is
consumed to no purpose;
As a Neutral in this country I cannot have a command so as to direct
my own enterprise, nor do I desire it nor have I a right to press my
plans and opinions on the Admiralty, but I have a right to convert the
result of my studies to my own emolument And having demonstrated their
certain effects to the conviction of every reflecting mind I cannot
undertake to contend with opinions or prejudices nor wait the
indeterminate time which maybe necessary to produce a conviction of
their utility to this country, I must therefore in justice to myself
and in conformity to all my engagements with this government beg leave
to state my final resolution, The Submarine mode of warfare must be
organized so as to render it effecient, or I must abandon it and
direct my attention to other pursuits equally Interesting to me, The
principles on which I came to this country were changed from the first
week of my arrival I came by the invitation of Lord Hawkesbury to
satisfy ministers as to the truth of whether I had or had not invented
a destructive engine which might be wielded, either for or against the
fleets of this country, and on proving that the engine has powers
superior to the methods at present in practice, I was to receive an
adequate reward, leaving government to use or bury the invention in
oblivion as they might think proper,
After what has been done I hope that the power of the carcasses, and
the certain annihilation which must be the consequence of their right
application will not be doubted, arrangement and ordinary courage are
only wanting to produce the most brilliant success, and were it
prosecuted according to the terms of my contract, I should acquire an
immense fortune, the destruction of 30 Ships of the enemies line would
entitle me to half their Value or more than a Million Sterling, hence
were the System pursued to the annihilation of the enemies fleets, and
it should be practised to their annihilation or abandoned such would
be my reward, but I have no such Ambitious Views, tranquility and a
much less sum will content me
I have now directed the construction of a store of engines, shewn
their incalculable effects and the simple mode of using them,
arrangement time and perseverance are only necessary to destroy every
Ship of the Enemy, but as in this part of the business I can be of no
use I do not at present see that I can be of any further material
service In this system of warfare,
I therefore propose as the most equitable arrangement between his
Majesty’s Ministers and me to revert to the principles which brought
me to this country and finally settle with them,
Before I came to this country Ministers were desirous of knowing
whether my invention was of a kind to be feared this has been proved
in the affermetive, they have possessed themselves of it, may use it
as they think proper and Averted all danger which might be apprehended
this consideration alone is suffecient to justify ministers in
granting me the terms which I shall propose and which being small
compared, with the prospect of emolument before me will be infinately
better terms for the nation than my existing contract
My Lord in making this statement I beg you to be assured that I am
nowise discontented, with what has passed nor with the time lost. It
has been caused by the natural _Suit_ of Idea and demonstration
necessary to open the mind to a new subject. And although I feel a
high sense of my independence of the immense and incalculable
consequences of my discovery, of the right which I have to dispose of
it as I think proper and convert it to my own emolument or Ambition.
In doing which I might change the whole politics of this country and
even Europe* yet on a fair and honorable arrangement with this
government there is nothing to be feared from me, I am perfectly
satisfied with the conduct of Lord Melville, Mr. Pitt and your
Lordship but Seeing that you have prejudices to combat and many
difficulties to encounter, feeling also that I can be of no further
use, and having other and previous engagements which I must In honor
fulfill I wish a final and equitable settlement and on this business I
beg to have the honor of seeing your Lordship and Mr. Pitt as soon as
possible,
I have the honor to be your
Lordships most Obedient
ROBT. FRANCIS
*This will appear strong and extraordinary assertion for a simple
individual, but if necessary I will prove such to be the natural
consequence of the invention if prosecuted to the extent of its powers
with the means which I possess. I alude to the Submarine boat or
Vessel.
The following are the terms I propose the Sum and Conditions are
Similar to those Specified in my letters sent by the agent of
government from paris to Lord Hawkesbury
Terms
That for leaving France and coming to England I Should receeive ten
thousand pounds
That for clearly demonstrating that Ships of war can be destroyed by
my engines with more ease and less risque than by any method now in
practice I demanded the Value of one first rate line of battle Ship or
_one hundred thousand pounds_
With this demand the following Ideas were associated, First that I
Should not exersise or be the cause of exersising this invention
against the fleets of great Britain, Second that by not Shewing the
Mechanism of the Submarine boat and adopting only a part of my plan,
this government might draw advantage from it. Government can now Judge
whether it is important that I should never be the means of using this
invention against the British marine whether it is their interest to
grant these my original terms and whether this proposal is extravagant
considering the demonstrations I have made and the power I possess to
render my invention Infinately more productive. In this proposal as it
Stands I See that Ministers Will have one difficulty which is a
Security that I Shall not be induced to use this invention against the
british fleets after having receeived the sum Specified, there is but
one way to give such security that is to put it in my power and make
it my interest to remain tranquil or occupy myself in other pursuits
equally honorable and important to my country for this purpose I
propose to receive Sixty thousand pounds and my present Salary of two
thousand four hundred pounds per annum for life, the Annuity to be
forfeited if I break the treaty—I have already receeved ten thousand
to be considered part of the above Sum.
My Lord I conceive this proposition fair you have the Interest of
England to consider I have my own. I love tranquility and science in
my chamber. As a man of honor my principle Is to fulfill my part of
all my engagements before writing this letter I have well considered
the subject on all its bearings and made up my mind to the general
principles here proposed.
And I assure you that great as this demand may appear to be I am not
much interested in its success, for by agreeing to let my invention
lie dormant I feel that I abandon a Subject in which there is the most
Philosophic and honorable fame and perhaps the interest of my country
which is dearer to me than all considerations of wealth. However I
hope America And England will so well understand their Mutual
Interest, that it will not be necessary for me to introduce my
Invention into practice for our own defence And I have no desire to
use it to the Advantage of any other Nation.
I am Sir & & &
R FULTON
Fulton was not content to submit his demands to Lord Castlereagh only,
but as on other occasions he went over the head of his correspondent and
appealed to higher authority. In this case he forwarded a copy of the
letter with some additional thoughts to the Prime Minister, Mr. Pitt:
London Jany 6th 1806
Mr. Pitt
Sir
That you may have an opportunity before you come to Town, to Judge of
what I conceive my rights And the governments Interest, I have taken
the liberty to send you a Copy of my letter to Lord Castlereagh, you
will no doubt at the first thought consider my demand great, but there
is one reflection which Usually accompanies all negotiations, whether
between Nations or Individuals, that is the power which each possess
to support certain claims. Now in this business I will not disguise
that I feel the power which I possess which is no less than to be the
means if I think proper of giving to the world a System which must
from necessity sweep all military marines from the ocean, by giving to
the weaker maritime powers Advantages over the stronger which the
Strong cannot prevent, this power I felt before and when I came to
this country but I did not think right to insist upon it nor could I
expect ministers to believe it till I had given them sufficient
demonstration. This is a power which is not possessed by even
Bonapart. It is concentered in me and two friends who are governed by
my success in this country.
Hence on Such power I have a right to set what price I think proper,
but I hope I am not of a disposition to abuse the advantages which the
Arts have given me either by unreasonable demands or any illiberal
act. In my present terms I have not raised the Sum first proposal to
Lord Hawkesbury; And It must be observed, I did not come here so much
with a View to do you any material good as to Shew that I had the
power and might in the exersise of my plan to acquire fortune, do you
an Infinate Injury, which Ministers if they thought proper might
prevent by an arrangement with me,—
I did however Zealously attempt to be of Service, I have proved that
Infinate good or Injury may be done. I have written to Lord Barham two
letters without receiving any Answer. I can easy conceive he has not
had time to consider the position in which I Stand nor my Invention in
all its consequences and might not think An Answer of any importance,
However it is time that he Should See it in all its consequences and
Judge of the propriety of a fair and honorable arrangement with me,
Although Sir you will be overwhelmed with business on your coming to
Town yet I hope you will not let this escape your memory
I have the honor to be your most
Obedient and Very humble servant
ROBERT FRANCIS
The Right Honbl
William Pitt Bath
The letter to Lord Castlereagh is in the best form of any of Fulton’s
communications to the government in spite of the thinly veiled
suggestion of a threat in the closing lines, but Lord Castlereagh must
have been amused to learn that the foreign inventor, then without fame
or position, was “perfectly satisfied with the conduct of Lord Melville,
Mr. Pitt and your Lordship.” He, whose conduct was approved and from
whose decision Fulton practically appealed in advance without time being
given to render it, was a most important character in British politics
at that time.
Lord Castlereagh lived between 1769 and 1822. He was the son of the Earl
of Londonderry, and as his father was still living during the period
under consideration, the son was known by the courtesy title of Viscount
Castlereagh. Instrumental in securing the union with Ireland he
forfeited the King’s support by urging emancipation for Roman Catholics,
and to such an extent that the resignation of the Pitt government was
forced. Castlereagh accepted a position in the new cabinet and on Pitt’s
return to power in May, 1804, continued in office, and in 1805 became
Secretary for War. It was to that official, therefore, that Fulton wrote
the above letters.
On the 23rd of January, 1806, Pitt died and was succeeded in office by
Lord Grenville. This necessitated new approaches by Fulton. Charles Grey
became First Lord of the Admiralty in the ministry then formed. His
father, Sir Charles Grey of Howick, had served as a British General in
America during the revolution and was raised to the peerage as Lord Grey
of Howick in 1801. In April, 1806, he was created Earl Grey, when his
son adopted the courtesy title of Lord Howick. Fulton’s letters,
therefore, to Mr. Gray (misspelled for Grey) and to Lord Howick are to
the same person.
During February, Fulton recommenced his efforts for a settlement by
writing Mr. Grey. At the same time he enclosed copies of letters
previously sent to Mr. Pitt, assuming that Mr. Grey, being new to the
office, it was necessary to acquaint him with what had gone before.
Ibbotsons Hotel Vere Street Oxford
Road Feby 22d 1806
Mr. Gray
Sir
In my letters to Mr. Pitt the copies of which I had the honor to
present you there are some Assertions on the powers of submarine
attack which men in general will be inclined to doubt, few men will
believe that any plan can be carried to Such perfection as totally to
annihilate the present system of Military marines and maritime war.
And I presume most men in my Situation would endavour to conseal this
part of the Business from every member of a Government the consequence
of which depends on her marine.
But as I have been invited to this country to give Ministers full
information on the nature and powers of submarine Attack, I have been
disposed from the first candidly to explain every principle and mode
of practice which Occured to me on the subject, And then leave
Ministers to Judge for themselves Whether fleets can be destroyed by
my means, and how much of my System they may practice with safety, or
what part of it conseal from public knowledge I therefore conceive it
the most prudent and prompt measure, first to go into a full and
Satisfactory examination of the principles of Submarine navigation and
attack, their practicability and consequences and from such
investigation judge of what this nation has to hope or fear from the
System; and on what ground I found my Claims; such a mode of
proceeding will place this Subject clear before the mind. I therefore
Advise that you will have the goodness to Invite such of your friends
as you conceived best acquainted with Mathematical and Physical
Subjects. I will meet them and explain the whole Machinery and mode of
operating and from their decision ministers can Judge how to Act. This
I conceive necessary for every reason, first to Obtain a clear
knowledge of facts; Second to Judge of the policy of practicing my
System; and third whether My deamnds are reasonable; and which demand,
I presume must be setteled by the privy council council—
To go into the investigation it is not Necessary to have Many persons.
3 or 4 will be Suffecient for the less number who become acquainted
with the Mechanism of the submarine Vessel, the less it will be talked
of or become publicly known.
I hope Sir you will form such a committee as soon as possible and when
formed favor me with a line,—
I have the honor to be your
Most Obedient and Very
humble servant
ROBT FULTON
P. S. Would not Lord Sidmouth, Lord St. Vincent, Mr. Windham and
Yourself Suffice for the investigation?
The Right Honorable
Charles Gray
First Lord of the Admiralty
& & &
The duties of new office probably occupied Mr. Grey’s time to the
exclusion of coming to a settlement with Fulton. At any rate the latter
writes again:
March the 17th 1806
Mr. Gray
Sir
After the Various changes of Ministers and Measures which have kept me
in this country for near two years and the time fast approaching when
I must Absolutely sail for America you will excuse me for Urging that
my arrangements with this government may be finally Setteled. In the
copies of my letters to Mr. Pitt which I had the honor to present you
my Ideas of the powers and Consequences of Submarine navigation and
Attack are fully explained and without disguise the question therefore
between government and me appears to be Simply this: have I proved
Sufficient to merit the 40,000 mentioned in the contract? If there be
Still doubts on this point it is Stipulated to be setteled by
arbitration this is Justice founded on the contract, but added to
this: Is it not the Interest of government to finally settle with me
and then use my mode of attack as they think proper? I beg you will
have the goodness to mention an early hour when we may have a
conversation on this subject and fix a plan for a just honorable and
prompt Settlement, let it be morning or evening or any period most
convenient to you when there may be suffeceent time for ample
Explanations.
I am &
R FULTON,
Fulton’s impatience always inclined him to correspond simultaneously
with more than one official, and particularly so if thereby he could
reach one higher in authority. Although his negotiations begun through
Lord Howick were apparently proceeding satisfactorily, he forestalled a
submission by the latter to Lord Grenville by writing to the latter
himself. As this letter gives a review of Fulton’s claims and forms the
basis for arbitrators who were subsequently appointed, it is of peculiar
interest.
CHAPTER IX
FURTHER CORRESPONDENCE
Demand for arbitrators. Further correspondence with Lords
Grenville and Howick.
London May the 5th 1806
To the Right Honorable
Lord Grenville
My Lord
Lord Howick will have a conversation with your Lordship on the mode of
finally setteling with me, As the papers which I have from time to
time written to Successive Ministers and to his Lordship may not be at
hand at the time of such conversation, And as a right understanding of
submarine Navigation with all its probable consequences Is I conceive
of much importance to this government I beg your Lordships attention
to the following observations which shall be as concise as possible,
And I hope it will be admitted by your Lordship that whatever may be
the effect of any Scientific discovery on the interest or politics of
this country, It is better his Majesty’s Ministers should be
acquainted with it than remain uninformed, And I conceive
Investigation the more necessary when it is considered that
discoveries in the Sciences have from age to age changed the whole art
of war and the politics of nations. That being slow in the operation
their consequences cannot be traced by ordinary men, who being
creatures of habit and Guided by existing things consider new
discoveries as Visionary or trivial Such were the Ideas of the
Inventions of printing, gunpowder and the Mariners Compass had their
authors Shown their consequences they would not have been believed by
their Contemporaries.
So my Lord when I say that I have discovered a mode of attacking Ships
of war which if prosicuted to its Ultimate powers and rendered
fameliar to all nations must from necessity destroy the existing
system of military marines and alter the whole politics of Europe I do
not expect to be believed by any but men of penitrating Judgement and
Sound Sense nor do I expect them to believe me untill they have see
the whole of the engines and had ample proof of the simple mode of
using them and their certain destructive effects Now my Lord if this
be a truth it is certainly important to know it, if it be false the
conviction that it is so will be equally important for then there will
be nothing to guard against, hence to place this Subject in its true
light I have proposed to Lord Howick to form a committee compossed of
Your Lordship Lord Moria Lord Sydmouth Lord Erskin Mr. Fox Mr. Windham
Sir george Shee and Alexander Davison Esqr. the members of this
committee are all friends to government to them I will exhibit all the
machinery and modes of using it and Reasoning from Experiments already
made endavour to Shew what may be done leaving to the committee to
Judge whether my preceding assertion is true. And for Such
communications I make no demand, but Should the committee find my
assertion supported by facts It will be acknowledged that I have a
high Interest in this produce of my own mind and that I have a right
to prosecute it to the acquirement of fortune or fame, I have
mentioned to Lord Howick my Views on fortune, the committee will Judge
whether it be the interest of government to acceed to my proposal and
whether the terms Specified are the best security which I can give
that this subject shall not be further prosicuted by me My Lord I beg
you to be Assured that I have every disposition to act in the most
liberal and honorable manner towards this government At the Same time
I must Acknowledge that I never will abandon my private interest Till
satisfied by specific Stipulations and I hope my Lord that this fair
proposal to investigate all the principles and this undisguised mode
of Acting will inspire your Lordship and Every member of the committee
with a confidence that what I agree to Shall be scrupeleusly and
honorably adheared to. Should your Lordship require any private
conversations on this subject I shall be happy to wait on you at an
appointed hour.
I am my Lord your Lordships
Most obedient and Very humble
Servant
ROBERT FULTON
P. S. Just as I was finishing this letter I was informed by Mr. Tucker
that Lord Howick and your Lordship had decided not to have any thing
to do with the submarine boat My Lord I never wished this government
to introduce such boats into practice. But it is Stipulated in my
contract that if for any reason government do not think proper to
practice my mode of war Arbitrators Shall be appointed and if it
appears to the majority that enemies Vessels can be Destroyed by my
means at less expence and Risque than by any method now in practice I
shall receive 40,000 £ hence as the Submarine boat makes part of my
System it must come under the consideration of the arbitrators.
Previous publications dealing with this portion of Fulton’s career have
inclined to the view that consideration of his plan for a submarine boat
had been discarded soon after he came to England. From the postscript to
the above letter it appears that Fulton was not informed that the
submarine had been rejected until May, 1806, or two years after his
arrival in England. Undoubtedly it was held under serious and secret
consideration. Even if Fulton did not construct such a boat for the
British Government, the latter reserved the right so to do until it was
decided to drop all thought of adoption, or even of further
investigation of any form, of under-water attack.
On May 14, Fulton again writes to Lord Grenville:
May the 14th 1806
My Lord:
Since writing to your Lordship on the 10th Inst Lord Howick has agreed
to decide on my Contract by arbitrators, I now beg you Lordship will
have the goodness to give orders that my accounts which are with Mr.
King may be immediately setteld. They have no connection with the
final decision on my contract they have been 4 months moving from
office to office and now wait your Lordships decision
My Lord when I was Invited to this country I was led to believe that
every reasonable attention would be paid to my demonstrations
propositions and claims. I was therefore disposed from the first to do
everything in the most liberal and open manner. I have uniformly acted
on this principle And I have hoped for equal attention and liberality
from each of His Majestys ministers with whome I may have to act. My
Lord mine is no common Case; Tis my Sincere wish and the real interest
of this government which I will hereafter explain that everything
relative to this business may be setteled in the most friendly manner
hoping to have the pleasure of arranging with your Lordship on this
principle
I have the honor to be your Lordships
most obedient and Very humble Servant
ROBT FULTON
The Right Honble
Lord Grenville
From the above it appears that his previous requests to Lords Howick and
Grenville for the appointing of arbitrators had met with a generally
favorable response. But sometimes diplomats agree “in principle” and
then avoid arriving at a settlement of such inconvenient things as
defined details.
There still remained much letter writing, threats and begging before the
arbitrators were actually named, during which time Fulton came very near
giving public proof that he had lost his temper.
More than three weeks after Lord Howick had informed Fulton that he had
decided to submit the contract to arbitration, nothing had been done as
shown by the following letter to Lord Grenville’s secretary:
London June the 6th
Ibbotsons Hotel Vere Street Oxford Road
Mr. King
Sir
Yesterday Lord Howick informed me that Lord Grenville had mentioned to
him two or three persons whome he thought fit arbitrators. I beg you
will speak to his Lordship to decide on two as soon as possible which
decision becomes urgent in consequence of my being under the necessity
of sailing for America About the 10th of July—
That this business may proceed with the least possible delay, and
trouble to Ministers I Conceive the best mode will be to name one
person first who with my friend Mr. Davison or Mr. McArthur will
[first] arrange the terms of the Arbitration bond: then they being
arbitrators [proceed] associated to two others [Can proceed] can
proceed to the examination of the Machinery the principles of
application and a decision on the contract.
I beg Sir to hear from you on this Subject as Soon as possible
I am etc
R FULTON
On June 17th he again writes to Mr. King:
Ibbotsons Hotel June the 17th 1806
Sir
Anxious to Know the progress of my affairs and [conceiving that]
conceiving that there can be no objection or obstacle to prevent the
immediate naming of Arbitrators on the part of government I will take
the liberty of waiting on you tomorrow between the hours of 11 and 12
to have a few minuets conversation on this subject.
I am Sir your most obedient &
Very humble Servant
King Esqr.
ROBT FULTON
No reply having been received within two days, his impatience and
irritation overcame his control of his nerves and on June 19th, he takes
pen in hand to begin the inditing of three letters. Considering that of
these letters one is addressed to the chief of the most powerful
government then existing, a government that controlled the affairs of
the world, another to the member of the cabinet in charge of the Navy,
and both written by a man who had been for two years and still was in
the employ of the government, they leave unbroken few rules for the
proper conduct of official correspondence. At this time Fulton’s
feelings were like the actions of a series of his bombs—a state of
prolonged and violent explosions.
One of the letters is addressed to Mr. King, whose first name Fulton
does not seem to know, the second to Lord Grenville, and the third a
covering letter to Lord Howick. The corrections show that Fulton spent
some time in composing these communications, a task of no small
difficulty in view of Fulton’s position and the disturbed condition of
his temper. The two dates on the Grenville letter indicate that Fulton
slept on it for one night, while the lapse into his earlier degree of
disregard of orthography is perhaps further evidence of his emotions.
The delay of one day in transmittal saved him, as similar delays have
saved others. Perhaps some kind friend came to his guidance on the
morrow, or perhaps a night’s rest had calmed somewhat his troubled
spirit; whatever the reason, according to the footnote to the Howick
letter he refrained from forwarding any of the three.
It is not difficult to picture what Lord Grenville’s outburst would have
been had he received Fulton’s letter of June 19th–20th. The man who had
not feared to break with the all-powerful Pitt, and who had become
premier of England, would hardly have taken kindly to Fulton’s ultimatum
nor his threat to write a letter to The Times.
Mr. King
Sir
by your silence on my Several letters permit me to say that you have
treated me in a most ungentleman like manner; Inclosed is a letter for
Lord Grenville which you will please to read and present to his
Lordship, by it you will perceive the line I mean to pursue I have
more favours to bestow on this government than Ministers will ever
bestow on me and I am now about to put that, to the proof should they
drive me to such necessity.
I am Sir your most
Obedient R FULTON
King Esq Secretary to Lord Grenville
At the Treasury
June the 19th 1806, London
June the 20th 1806
My Lord
I wrote to your Lordship on the 5th 10th and 14th of May, And to Mr.
King on the 30th of May & 6th of June, to which letters I have not
received any answer nor assurance, that my [business] Claims on
government shall be speedily and honorably setteled. As, time presses
hard upon me for for three months past I informed Lord Howick and your
Lordship that I should Sail for america In July, I am driven from
necessity to urge in the strongest manner that my concerns with
governmt may be immediately and finally setteled, hence Should my
rights Continue to be treated with silent indifference, the letters
which I may hereafter have occasion to write to your Lordship must
from necessity be through the medium of the public prints, But I yet
hope that so disagreeable an alternative may be avoided And that your
Lordship will se the Justice and propriety of immediately naming your
Arbitrators and of their immediately proceeding to a discision on my
Claims,
My Lord Much [and Silent] experience has made me conscous of the
powers of the engines I possess. I am also sensible of my own
resources and means of Action I convinced the late Ministers of them
they felt them and treated me with that attention Justice and civility
which should satisfy a rational man. [And] Since the new Ministry has
been formed I have repeatedly offered to your Lordship and Lord Howick
to Submit the whole of my Assertions, demenstrations and claims to Men
of science and Arbitration by which means [government] Ministers may
become acquainted with scientific facts interesting to the nation, and
Justice may be done to me, more liberal and honorable terms cannot be
proposed, these terms I have a right to demand [them] and My Lord I
now do demand them, I look to your Lordship and Lord Howick for prompt
Justice I demand it as my right And I never will Submit to [receive]
plead for it as a favour
My Lord if I have not before monday next Satisfactory Assurance that
Arbitraters Shall be immediately Named on the part of Government And
my [Claims] Business [immediately] proceeded upon in a prompt and
liberal manner I will on the commencement of next week put this letter
in the public prints and proceed to publish such details and
demonstrations As will put it in the power of the nation to Judge if
my rights, the Justice of Ministers And the importance of a Subject
extremely interesting to [them] every Englishman.
I am my Lord your Lordships most
Obedient and Very humble Servant
ROBERT FULTON
Lord Grenville,
June the 19th 1806
Lord Howick
My Lord
As yet I can neither see nor heard from Lord Grenville nor Mr. King.
Inclosed Is a copy of a letter which I have written to his Lordship
degrading neglect, to a man in my situation, compels me to take the
measures which I have adopted;
I am My Lord your Lordships
Most Obedient [and]
R. FULTON
June the 19th 1806
These three letters not delivered for the present the following two
Substituted,
The two letters that he substituted were addressed one to Mr. King and
the other to Lord Howick.
The copy of the King letter, now in the possession of the writer, is
dated but not signed. In it he still gave vent to some of the bitterness
and threats contained in the letter to Lord Grenville, but in gentler
tone. As the censure is not now addressed to Lord Grenville but to his
secretary the irritating character is much softened.
Ibbotsons Hotel June the 20th 1806
Mr. King
Sir
Your Silence on my several letters Is a want of politeness and an
Injustice which I feel in the most sensible manner I have offered His
Majestys Ministers the Most rational and honorable terms, by proposing
to submit my whole plans to men of science and arbitrators if
Ministers have not time or doubt their own [power] ability to Judge of
the powers and consequences of new inventions how can they expect to
arrive at truth or get correct Ideas but through the medium of Men of
Sciences, of their own appointment, to refuse such a proposal and what
is worse to treat it with contempt is injustice to the nation and to
me and is [the] sufficient to sink any man or men in the opinion of
the [nation] public. I hope I Shall not be driven to the necessity of
appealing to the public opinion on this point but that I Shall have
prompt and reasonable attention immediately paid to my claims I hope
sir for your immediate answer
The letter to Lord Howick is a model of self-restraint as compared with
the violent outburst of the withheld epistle to Lord Grenville:
Ibbotsons Hotel June the 20th 1806
Lord Howick
My Lord
I have not as yet seen or heared from Lord Grenville nor Mr. King nor
received any assurance that my business shall be speedily setteled In
a thing so Just and Simple as the naming of two Arbitrators why should
such unnecessary delays and injustice be [extended to me] exercised
toward me? Will Ministers necessitate me to lay my Claims before the
public, and force me to such demonstrations and disclosure of facts as
must be disagreeable to all parties and of serious consequence to the
nation; My Lord I look to your Lordship and Lord Grenville for prompt
Justice I demand it as my right and will not Submit to ask it as a
favor. I am Conscious of my own Strength and resources I convinced the
late ministers of them, they felt them and treated me with Justice
attention and civility, I have offered to convince your Lordship and
His Majesty present Ministers, of the truth of these powers by
submitting the whole to men of Science and Arbitrators Your Lordship
has intimated that [you] you doubted your own [capacity] power to
Judge of the [power or] effect and ultimate consequences of my
Inventions, then how do you expect to arrive at truth but through the
medium of men of Science
My Lord this is common sense and [the Nation] Men of sense and the
Nation will not approve of any other line of conduct in this Business—
My Lord 3 months ago I informed you that my plans were laid for
Sailing to America In July this is still my intention the time is fast
approaching. And one of the gentlemen who [was] agreed to act As my
arbitrater must shortly leave town for these reasons I must [Insist
on] [beg Insist] [beg] hope for your immediate decision, and answer to
this letter.
I am etc.
R. FULTON
As one reads these letters beginning with the moderate request to Lord
Grenville on May 5th, the unwritten matter between the lines suggests
that Fulton was not very hopeful of obtaining either a satisfactory
financial award or the personal treatment that he felt he was entitled
to receive.
CHAPTER X
THE FAILURE OF THE NEGOTIATIONS
Arbitrators appointed. Fulton’s presentation of his case (Aug.,
1806). Arbitrators decide against Fulton. He makes a last appeal
to Lord Grenville, reviewing whole case (Sept., 1806). No reply.
The arbitrators were finally appointed. By that time the increasingly
fault-finding note of Fulton’s correspondence shows that his fears as to
the outcome had become almost certainties in his mind, because he
prepared a written brief for submission, the tone of which was far from
hopeful. This brief is the “Descriptions” of this book.
When the arbitrators met, those representing the government put sundry
questions particularly as to whether any one would risk being caught in
the submarine vessel and expose himself to being hanged in consequence
of using engines not permitted by the laws of war; the sweeping of the
Channel to locate floating bombs; the effect of storms on such bombs,
and on the chance of a submarine being driven on shore by a storm. These
questions were all met by Fulton in a very logical manner. Both
questions and answers are recorded as “Notes on Observations of the
Arbitrators Particularly of Capt^n. Hamilton and Sir Charles Blagden”
attached to Fulton’s own copy of the “Descriptions.” These same notes
show that Fulton made it clear that the plans he submitted to the
British Government were so far in advance of anything he had proposed to
the French that they constituted new plans. On this point he says:
But, it may be said that my Experiments have been so Public that no
part of my plan is now a Secret, I would ask who has seen the Plans
and System which I have exhibited to this Committee where is to be
found did any gentleman here know them all or any part of them
perfectly before I appeared,? It is true there have been Ideas of this
subject scattered in the World but the impracticability of any
important result has always been attached to them which Idea I
perceive has much weight in this Committee.
He urged on the Arbitrators that a list of questions which he sets forth
in his notes bearing on the efficacy of his bombs should be submitted to
Lord Kieth, Commodore Owen, Admiral Demet, Captain Seccombe, Captain
Salt, Captain King, Lieutenant Wm. Robinson and Captain Thomas Johnson
of the Nile Cutter. He concludes his appeal to the Arbitrators in the
following spirited language:
Now Gentlemen I beg you to believe that I have not taken these
measures nor made use of these Arguments to draw from you either
Capital or Annuity I am not a Man much governed by a thirst for Money,
an honorabel fame is to me a much more noble feeling, But I like truth
candor, and Justice to all Parties concerned with me in this Business,
I have therefore used these Arguments for the following reasons.
_First_, That at this meeting it is right for me to Shew you in the
most striking manner in my power what I conceive your danger and
should you not see it as I do and future bad consequences should
result to this Country the fault will not rest with me but with you
and His Majesty’s Ministers, and I shall not have to accuse myself of
want of Candour—
_Second_, I have used them to gratify two friends who have been kind
to me, and who are more governed by the hope of gain than I am, I have
now acquitted myself to this Government and to them, And neither this
Government nor they have more to expect of me Therefore Gentlemen
should your award not meet their views of Wealth, I shall feel free to
act as I think proper And I will take the fame and Consequences of
these Engines on myself Abandoning all calculations of a pecuniary
kind, and the whole of the Drawings and Papers here exhibited shall be
published within one year with all my Experiments in France and
Negotiations with this Government. In fact I will do my utmost to make
it a good Philosophic Work and give it to the World. I will then form
a Committee of the most respectable Men in America and proceed
regularly in Experiments on the large Scale publishing the result from
time to time and thus drawing the attention of the ingenious and
Enterprising to such Pursuits I shall hope to succeed in my first
object that of annihilating all Military Marines and giving liberty to
the Seas.
Gentlemen a man who has the candour to give you this in Writing has
but little deception or fear in his character and will not abandon so
glorious an Enterprise for trifling Rebuffs or mean consideration
At all events whatever may be your Award I never will consent to let
these inventions lie dormant. Should my Country at any time have need
of them, Were you to grant me an Annuity of £20,000 a Year, I would
sacrifise all to the safety & independance of my Country, But I hope
England and America will understand their mutual Interest to well to
War with each other And I have no desire to introduce my Engines into
practice for the benefit of any other Nation.
At the end of the “Notes” he adds his own views and a record that the
decision, adverse to him, was signed soon after the conference was
concluded.
After the Arguments used in the preceding Paper, one would have
thought that Justice and Policy would have induced the Arbitrators to
hear Evidence on the practicability and probable consequences of such
Engines, before they would venture to decide on a Work of Art of so
much consequence, they did not however call in one Evidence nor hear
one opinion and to my great astonishment the Award was Signed in one
Hour after I left the room. Such inconceivable blindness to the
Interest of the Nation, and Injustice to me on the part of Sir Charles
Blagden and Captn. Hamilton, Induced me to write the following Letter
to Lord Grenville and this I did that Ministers may have no excuse to
plead that they were lead into Error by their Arbitrators, and again
that my two friends may be convinced that I never abandoned their
Interest as long as there was one reasonable hope of succeeding to
their wishes.
There is a footnote to the copy as follows:
This paper I read to the Arbitrators on the morning of this date and
it is deposited with the Government.
In the letter to Lord Grenville referred to above and given at length
below, Fulton, it will be seen, states that he had deposited twelve
drawings with descriptions of facts in the hands of Mr. King, secretary
to Lord Grenville. This is undoubtedly what he means by the statement in
his notes of the paper read to the arbitrators having been “deposited
with the government.” As the drawings were intricate and the paper very
long, it is hardly probable that Fulton made three copies including the
copy of the paper and tracings of the drawings that he brought home. As
neither Mr. King nor the arbitrators had any need for the drawings and
paper, it is quite likely that they were returned to Fulton, who left
them with Consul Lyman as described in his letter to Barlow and which
are consequently the foundation of this book.
The letter to Lord Grenville to which Fulton refers is worthy of
reproduction as it is a general summary of his case written immediately
before his departure for America. It is his last appeal, and in it he
uses every argument that occurs to him.
Ibbotsons Hotel, September the 3d 1806
To the Right Honorable
Lord Grenville
My Lord
As the subject of which this letter will treat is of the utmost
importance in as much as it may render the power and independence of
Great Britain doubtful and a wrong judgement of it may not only
involve the country in complicated evils but attach eternal blame to
his Majesty’s present ministers of whome your Lordship is one. I Shall
hope for your calm perusal and deliberate contemplation of the
following facts and observations on the means which science has
developed for destroying military marines and in such case what would
be the fate of England? There is one suit of thinking which gains easy
access to an intelligent mind, and opens the way to a right Judgement
on the progress of the arts and the possibility of effecting every
thing which is within the limits of physics it is that all science is
progressive every year exhibits new combinations and effects, Steam
engines, Cotton Mills, Telegraphs, Baloons, and submarine navigation
and attack have all appeared almost within our memory, and only Vulgar
minds harbour the thought that a Physical possibility is impracticable
because it has not already been done. It does not require much depth
of thought to trace that science by the discovery of Gunpowder changed
the whole art of war by land and sea and may by future combinations
sweep military marines from the ocean My Lord I have discovered the
means which may produce such an effect, and by ample experiments
proved them true, that is I have proved them to a degree which should
convince every reflecting and unprejudiced mind, Common minds which
cling to the Ideas of forefathers, or established customs are only to
be convinced by demonstrations which enter at the Eyes. But if in this
case the marine of England must be destroyed to convince the Vulgar of
the possibility it will then be too late to reason on the
consequences. It is to avoid being driven to so dreadful a proof of
the power of my engines that I now take the liberty of calling the
attention of your Lordship to this Subject, Of the principles of the
Engines I have deposited twelve drawings with descriptions of facts
and reasonings on them in the hands of Mr. King who I believe has
committed them to the care of Alexander Davison Esq^r. In St. Jameses
square which drawings and writings were made for arbitrators who had
to decide on my claims under a contract made with Mr. Pitt and Lord
Melville.
Of the Arbitrators two Mr. Davison and Dr. Cartwright are of opinion
that all military marines may be destroyed by the means which I have
Exhibited, how far Sir Charles Blagden and Capt. Hamilton may be of
that opinion I cannot tell but resting on their own judgement they
never heared evidence nor called for the opinion of nautical men, on
the several modes of using the machines, hence Ministers are Still in
the dark as to what may be the power Practicability and consequence of
such engines.
Now my Lord his Majesty’s Ministers cannot do Justice to the public
nor guard their own honor untill they enter into a full examination of
my system and take the opinion of many nautical men on the means by
which such engines may be used for out of the opinion of the many a
right thinking may arise.
I would therefore propose a meeting of His Majesty’s Ministers, Your
Lordship, Lord Moira, Lord Henry petty, Lord Howick, Lord Erskine, Mr.
Fox if his health will permit and Mr. Windham, or any other Gentleman
whome it may be thought right to call in, And that before them the
opinions shall be taken of Lord Kieth, Admiral Demet, Sir Even Nepene,
Commodor Owen, Capt. Seccombe, Capt. Salt, Capt. Thos. Johnson of the
nile Cutter, and Lieutenant Wm. Robinson—or such other persons as have
seen the experiments and know most of the engines.
But should this mode be inconvenient a Committe of 12 Nautical men to
examine and report on the plans which I have exhibited, by such means
& such only Ministers can do Justice to the public and get a clear
understanding of this subject And at Such committee if thought proper
I will attend and explain my several modes of attack which will give
gentlemen an opportunity to see what means they can devise to prevent
your commerce being distressed and your marine by such engines were
they in the hands of an enemy and practiced by them against this
country,
There are many powerful reasons why such investigation Should be
entered into.
_First._
That if what I ascert be fact and Ministers refuse to take the
rational and easy means here pointed out of being rightly informed and
my engines should be practiced to the Injury of the commerce and
fleets of England the people will not Suffer in silence but attach the
whole blame to Ministers for wilfull neglect, therefore in as much as
gentlemen regard their future reputation this Subject is of serious
consequence to them.
_Second._
If the Engines be harmless it certainly is important to be convinced
on this head But will Ministers consent to be convinced on Vague
reports and Vulgar opinions which accompany all new Inventions and not
calmly sit down with nautical men and by examining principles
penetrate into facts—? My Lord men of sense must penetrate into all
the facts connected with this subject and that His Majesty’s Ministers
may not have the least excuse, that they have not had a fair and
timely warning on what maybe the consequence of these inventions I
have Written this letter which I beg your Lordship to Communicate to
His Majesty’s ministers.
In case of a Committe of investigation I conceive the principle points
for consideration and to guard the interest of the nation will be as
follows,
_First_
What is the present state of perfection of submarine navigation and
attack,?
_Second_,
To what state of perfection is it capable of being brought
_Third_
With such engines in the hands of an Enemy could they injure the
commerce fleets and independence of England?
_Fourth_
What is the general opinion of this subject and public knowledge of
it,?
_Fifth_
Under all considerations is it policy to practice such engines or to
let them be practiced,?
_Sixth_
Is it the interest of the nation that they should rest in their
present state and is the public or European mind so little impressed
with the use of Such engines that they may rest in their present state
of incertitude?
Now My Lord permit me to give you my opinion It has been proved by the
most satisfactory experiments, that were an Enemy in possession of all
the means which I exhibited to the Arbitrators they could at any time
in two months embarrass the commerce of England in the most
distressing degree, Or should they think proper to persevere in the
practice of such Engines they could destroy the whole British Marine
And I thing it cannot be doubted that The french Emperor whose most
ardent wish is to get freedom for his commerce would practice such
engines were he acquainted with them, knew the modes of using them and
the immense advantages they would give him, That he has not such a
Knowledge is in some degree proved by his not making any move in the
manufacture, practice or use of them,—For although I made some
experiments in france they were always thought more curious than
useful and the French never were impressed with the Idea that any
advantage could be drawn from what I had done, which opinion prevails
in this country at present, The feilure at Boulogne has also spread
the Idea that the engines are harmless, but the want of success at
Boulogne was in consequence of not having experience, and no defect in
the principles of the Engines, hence under these impressions in france
and England I believe these inventions may lie silent for many years—
From this I infer that it rests with me and my friends in America
whether these inventions shall sleep or or be rendered fameliar to all
nations, of this Gentlemen can Judge on investigation
When I was invited to this country a prospect of emolument was held
out to me in some degree proportioned to the Value of my engines but
in consequence of Lord Melville going out of office, The death of Mr.
Pitt the change of Ministers and opinions on this subject the
agreement with me has not been fulfilled. Therefore My Lord after
Seven Years Labour, Experience Expence and Successful experiment It is
reasonable and right that I should convert my inventions to my own use
in every honorable way, your Lordship or any other man in my situation
would act in like manner, And it is right now to assure your Lordship
that I never will Suffer these inventions to rest till I Succeed; But
as I have no desire to introduce these inventions Into practice unless
my country should have need of them and which I hope will not be
necessary as long as England and America understand the true interest
of their commerce I still offer my neutrality to this government on
Condition that Ministers will meet the Ideas held out to me on coming
to England,
This my Lord is placing the security of the Commerce and fleets of
England in the Balance against a few thousand pounds Or an Annuity,
_which Annuity to be continued to me only so long as such engines are
not used by France or any other nation against England_, The resting
my pecuniary hopes on such conditions is perhaps the best proof which
can be given of my conviction that such engines are not yet
sufficiently known to be turned against this nation. In Such an
arrangement It should be a condition that government Should not permit
such engines to be used by any british subject least they should be
made known, and turned against this country Or should the present or
future ministers use them they should fulfill the terms of the
contract for fourteen years as Stipulated in Said contract—
But Should terms to this effect not be Acceeded to I must from
necessity place the whole system in such a position as will give it to
the world I must also publish this letter, the nation will then Judge
whether I have acted frankly And whether Ministers have done Justice
to the public and to me,
My Lord having made you this communication your honor and future fame
is involved in this question, the high situation which you hold as one
of his Majesty’s Ministers and your Consequent responsibility to the
nation together with my full conviction that what I have here said is
not only practicable but easy is the reason I have taken the liberty
thus to address you,—
I now beg your Lordship to believe that although this business has
been treated in a manner extremely disagreeable to my feelings and I
have been much disappointed in not finding the calm and rational
investigation which I hoped for, yet I have not one feeling of enmity
towards this nation or any one of his Majesty’s Ministers I make every
allowance for established opinions and Ideas of art which particular
education fix on the human mind And my wish ever has been that this
subject should be one of reason and not of passion or prejudice And
for this reason I again submit it to your Lordship and His Majesty’s
Ministers before I leave the Country which will be in a few days.
September the 3d 1806
Believe me my Lord impressed
with the greatest respect for
your high Character and
Sense of right
ROBERT FULTON
The above is an argument. Fulton placed his facts, which were summarized
as a series of questions put by him to the arbitrators, or by them to
him, and recorded by Fulton in a—
Second Letter
To the Right Honorable Lord Grenville
On Questions, Answers doubts and Considerations at the Arbitration on
the powers of Submarine navigation and attack
* * * * *
After exhibiting the Engines to the arbitrators and the Various modes of
using them I put the following questions to the four arbitrators,
_First_
Will the explosion of a submarine Bomb of one or two hundred pounds of
powder under the bottom of a Ship of the line destroy her?
Answer, we believe it would the blowing up of the Brig Dorothea in
walmer roads being indubitable proof—
_Second_
Were an instantanious bomb anchored under water and a Vessel to run
against it so that the bomb should strike any place under her bottom and
explosion there take place would it destroy her?
Answer, we believe it would.
The power of the engines being thus acknowledged the following opinions
were started by Capt. Hamilton as difficulties in the way of using them.
_First_
Where can men be found who will have courage to use such engines, who
knowing that were they caught they would be liable to suffer death for
using engines not admitted by the laws of war hence what advantages
could the enemy draw from Such engines?
_My Answer_
Englishmen have had courage to run four times among the Enemy in
Boulogne roadstead with such engines and have courage to do so again.
Then is it suffecient security for England to rely on that frenchman
have not courage to take advantage of dark nights to anchor submarine
bombs in the waters near Boulogne where the blockading squaderns usually
cruise or near the Black rocks or ushant where the brest Blockading
squadern usually cruise or off cape Grinez or half channel over In the
waters where British fleets now cruise without a feeling of danger,
Should the French Emperor adopt such a system and Issue a proclamation
that he would retaliate man for man who would hang a Frenchman? This is
for Ministers to consider;
_Second objection of Capt H_.
Were ten thousand of such bombs anchored the first storm would drive
them on shore and destroy them.
_Answer_
The Buoys to mark shoal water are held in the Same spot in all weathers
yet Buoys are of a large Volume and exposed to the shock of the surface
of the water which is much more violent than the action ten or fifteen
feet deep, therefore if Buoys be held by sufficient anchor and cable, a
bomb of not one fortieth of the Buoys Volume may be held also, but to
decide on this doubt let a bomb without a lock be anchored in Dover
Roads and if it be not found there next Spring I will give up this
point.
_Third objection of Capt. H._
A few vessels with cables stretched could sweep the channel and destroy
the Bombs.
_Answer_,
What would be the situation of a commercial country like England were
she obliged to lay an embargo on her trade and keep her Ships of war in
port till 3,000 square miles of channel were swept once a month? for
while sweeping the Channel in one part, the enemy could be laying down
bombs in several places, Suppose for example that the Enemy had anchored
500 or 1000 bombs from the lands end to the humber they who were to
sweep them not knowing where they were laid would be necessitated to
sweep the whole channel to find them, and another difficulty occurs, for
not Knowing the number which were put down who could tell when exactly
every one was taken up?
Will Capt Hamilton have the goodness to point out to his Majesty’s
ministers a certain mode of keeping the channel free from such engines
so that the British commerce and fleets may move with all the security
and confidence which they at present enjoy*?
* * * * *
*When a few hundred of such bombs are anchored it is impossible to clear
the Channel of them nor give confidence to navigation till they destroy
themselves in the given time for which they were set, That is from one
to twelve months. This I know how to do, Therefore the danger may be
laid down for any time from one to 12 months and the trade destroyed for
any period which the french might think proper.
_Fourth Objection._
And one to which I believe all the arbitrators Yielded but which they
did not give me an opportunity to answer and which I shall now do.
That such a system of Attack would not only destroy English but all
neutral commerce, and even the commerce of france that consequently
Buonapart would not use it—
_Answer_
When any port is blockaded the commerce of all neutrals as connected
with that port is distressed But as the existance of England depends on
her uninterrupted commerce while France is more Agricultural, and as
france could lay down such engines in the channel so as to distress
British commerce yet leave Brest, Bordeaux and the Medeterranian free to
her own trade unless England laid down bombs also in which case maritime
war would become a war of Bombs in which France would have the advantage
in consequence of her trade with Spain and her own frontier, the
Question then would be which of the two nations England or France could
bear such interruption of their trade for the greatest length of time
and which must finally yield to the dictates of the other In such a
contest where everything is to be gained Nepolion is not of a temper to
consult the temporary Interest of Neutrals and it will not be wise in
his Majesty’s Ministers to risk it.
Questions put by me to Capt Hamilton and which I desired might be put to
Lord Kieth, Admiral Demet, Commodor Owen, Capt. Seccombe, Capt Salt,
Capt. King, Capt. Thos. Johnson of the nile Cutter, and Lieutenant Wm.
Robinson, but which was not done, Consequently an injustice has been
done to me and to the Government by leaving ministers ignorant of the
facts connected with this subject.
_First Question_
Were you informed that two hundred or more of Such Bombs were anchored
in any particular Channel would you venture to Sail through it and among
them,
Answer by Capt Hamilton _no_
_Second._
Had the Enemy three or four hundred good row boats with six or seven
thousand men exersised to them and such boats were established along
their coast in tens or twenties, from Ostend to Brest with a magazine of
bombs at each place how could they be prevented anchoring bombs in such
places as would endanger the commerce and fleets of England,?
_Third_
If while sailing in a fleet you saw two or three of the headmost Vessels
blown up by such invisible engines would it not destroy your confidence
in sailing in such waters?
_Fourth_
Is there any enemy so distressing to the mind of a seaman or so
calculated to destroy his confidence as one which is invisible and
instantanious destruction and which cannot be avoided but by forsaking
the Seas where they are?
_Fifth_
As each bomb will cost 14 say 20 £ and fifty thousand of them may be
made for a million sterling is the expence compared with the advantage
which is would give France any consideration to prevent the adoption of
such a plan as one thousand Bombs would distress the trade for one
year—50,000 would extend their terrors to 50 years,
Now my Lord I appeal to common sense whether the objections started by
Capt Hamilton are suffecient security for the great interest which this
nation has at Stake against such engines,?
I am my Lord your Lordships
most obedient and very humble
servant
ROBERT FULTON
Sept 3d 1806
Further remarks on the arguments of Capt Hamilton
* * * * *
What claim said he has Mr. Fulton to Forty thousand pounds or ten
thousand or any other sum from this government, while many british
seamen of the first talents do not get half the sum in a whole life of
exertions? I myself would feel happy to be so rewarded.
_Answer._
This is no part of the Question the point for consideration is have I
fulfilled my part of the contract? and aught not government In Justice
to fulfill their part? But I will now put my pretentions to ample reward
in another point of View.
If I cannot exhibit to the world an easy mode of destroying all military
marines and consequently the whole political influence of England If I
cannot give a clear prospect that by my exertions and the exertions of
my friends my plans must in a short time be adopted by European nations
at varience with England then I will admit that I have no pretentions to
any sum from this government, but for the time already spent and which I
consider as paid,
But if science and industry has developed to me a means which by my
exertions and the natural order of things must destroy all military
marines and consequently that of England, and if to preserve the power
of the British marine undeminished is worth millions to the nation it
follows that my neutrality is of as much real value to the nation as the
active services of any man in it. _And I might say of more_ for there is
not nor ever has been an individual in England who could render services
to the country equal to what the marine gives yet there are Gentlemen
whose income from government is from five to ten thousand a year for
services which hundreds of men can do when I speak of reward it is for
what only three men beside myself can do that is my two friends in
America and the Earl of Stanhope in England. Whether I possess such
powers and for my neutrality merit ample compensation can only be known
by investigating the principles and practice of the engines.
ROBERT FULTON
In his letters Fulton has made a number of references to his friends who
were associated with him. In the above letter he gives the only clue as
to whom they might be. At the time when this letter was written, both
Robert R. Livingston and Joel Barlow had returned to the United States.
The above two letters on which he staked everything, were too important
to be entrusted to a messenger, so Fulton carried them himself. In order
to be sure that Lord Grenville should be acquainted with the contents,
Fulton read them aloud as is shown by the following footnote:
On the 3r of September 1806 I had an interview with Lord Grenville in
Downing street I entered his room about three oclock he was, alone
handed me a chair I sat down near him and after a few words I read him
the preceding letters, on which no comment whatever was made His
Lordship only observed that he could not then say anything on the
Subject and I retired.
That was the end. His work of twenty years in Europe was finished!
CHAPTER XI
RETURN TO AMERICA
Summary of the British negotiations. America used as a threat.
Offer of neutrality. Fulton’s review of the past and plans for
the future. Appeal to Jefferson. Departure for home.
One’s sympathy goes unreservedly to Fulton. He was at this time almost
forty-one years old. He had fought his battle of life alone, without
money, and with only such friends as he had attracted to himself from
time to time. He had tried several avenues that might lead to success,
but he found that one after the other came to an end in desert fields.
To his latest effort he had devoted nine years. It had been the most
promising of them all. It had brought him in contact with many powerful
people, it had provided action that he sought, it was lighted with the
bright hopes for success, and for the past two years had furnished a
comfortable living, the first of any of his efforts so to do. But now
this avenue like the others had reached an end. This disappointment must
have exceeded all his previous disappointments. He had abandoned art,
small canal construction and his excavating devices at a time when no
one of them offered any great encouragement. In none of his earlier
efforts had he attained a good foothold. In his submarine he had buried
more time and energy than he had in any of his other lines: in fact, he
had spent nearly one half of the years since leaving home in its study.
Whatever estimate he had placed on art and his various engineering
projects, this time he knew that he was right. There was no doubt in his
own mind as to the correctness of his reasoning and the workable
qualities of his invention. All the harder it must have been, when he
realized that he could not make men see it as he did, other than his two
unnamed friends in America and his one friend in England, the Earl of
Stanhope.
His emotions on sailing from England were of a distinctly different
character from those he felt when leaving France. In the latter country
he had been rejected with contumely, the first real shock that he had
experienced. He departed from France sore and angry, as has been shown.
In England he had been treated quite otherwise. Throughout his stay of
twenty-eight months he had been shown every courtesy. He had the entrée
to government offices and enjoyed the confidence of the highest
officials, including Mr. Pitt and Lord Grenville, in turn prime
ministers. The disagreement with the British Government was on financial
grounds. During his period of work he had received a generous salary in
addition to reimbursement for all his expenses. Development of events
made Fulton no longer necessary to the Government on the one hand, while
on the other his steamboat arrangement with Chancellor Livingston was
forcing Fulton’s return to America. Both parties were ready to end the
contractual relation. The British Government, not having received any
direct benefit from Fulton’s ideas, except the indirect one that he had
been kept from going over to the enemy, naturally sought a means of
terminating the contract without further payment. Fulton, equally
naturally, sought substantial pecuniary reward. He was past the age when
men have usually made their mark, and had accomplished nothing. His
steamboat plans were as yet on paper with nothing more definite than
hope. He was in debt to his “two friends in America,” a debt that he
could repay by no other means in sight than through his submarine
contract. He, therefore, made the best fight he could, single-handed, to
obtain a favorable settlement.
It is interesting to follow the working of Fulton’s mind in these final
negotiations for a satisfactory adjustment, as shown by his own letters.
In his original contract of May, 1804, he made no reservation, but
placed his ideas wholly and exclusively at the disposition of the
British Government. It does not appear that he gave any thought to the
use of his device by the United States. This is not remarkable. He had
left America when he was but twenty-one years old. At that time there
was no constitution, no federal government, nothing but a confederacy of
colonies disturbed by strong jealousies of each other. He had lived
abroad for twenty years, including the formative period of a man’s
character. His sole tie with his native country, his mother, had been
cut by her death. The Barlows were quite as much French as American.
There was nothing except the friendship and personality of Livingston to
rouse in him a sense of patriotism, or lead him to feel the existence of
a national spirit in a united country in America.
The first reference to the use of his submarine by America appears in
his letter to Lord Castlereagh, dated “London December 13th, 1805,”
given on pages 104–8. When this letter was written, it was becoming
clear to Fulton that the British Government might refuse to make payment
under the contract, and that he would have to use some sort of force to
compel a compliance with the terms. The only force that he could employ
would be a threat to give his secret to some other power. France was now
quite out of the question, and there was no one power in Europe that
could serve as a means to scare. The United States, now become a nation,
was the only hope. In his letter to Lord Castlereagh he advances the
ingenious solution that he receive a substantial cash payment and an
annuity, the latter to continue only so long as the secret was kept
inviolate by him. He concludes by diplomatically hinting that the only
government to whom he would be likely to explain his invention would be
his own. In the paper that he read to the Arbitrators he makes a
distinct threat that, unless a satisfactory offer be made, he will not
only give his secret to America but publish it to the whole world,
although he modified this by stating that he had “no desire to introduce
my Engines into practice for the benefit of any other Nation.” (page
126.)
Although refused by the Arbitrators, he made a final effort with Lord
Grenville, on September 3rd, to obtain his pecuniary award, by again
offering what he called his “neutrality.” (pages 137–8.)
But the best exposition of Fulton’s position is given by himself in the
concluding pages of his Notes, this part being written after his letters
to and audience of Lord Grenville on September 3rd. This quotation was
his final word:
“I have now said sufficient of this System to enable any ingenious man
to make and arrange the Engines and any maritime nation to carry the
whole into effect. If I live it is my intention to give this system to
the public engraved with every necessary detail and I have made these
sketches and this loose description which is litte more than a sketch
of my studies on this Subject. In order that they may not be lost to
my country and mankind in case of any accident to me.
The prosecution of this system will put maritime nations on equal
means of offensive war, will give them equal means of distressing each
others commerce or destroying their Ships of war and consequently will
produce the liberty of the Seas. What I mean By the liberty of the
seas, is that all Vessels of all nations should carry any kind of
Cargo to any port of any and every nation whever (wherever?) the
owners thought proper to Send her if In such port she could not
dispose of her cargo or found a duty equal to a prohibition then let
her go elsewhere, unmolested for the perfect liberty of trade is the
real interest of all mankind. Under such a system Infinate stupid
causes of war will be done away, and the genius and millions which are
now Expended on wars, will then be directed to useful enterprises—
With such immense and humain objects In View and which has been the
great Stimules to my prosecuting of this subject, It may be necessary
to give a reason for offering to abandon these inventions to the
British government to use or not as they might think proper.
My first reason is that my country does not at present seem to require
such engines And although I had written to Mr. Jefferson twice on the
progress I had made and the final happy consequences of such a system
I never had an answer from him nor do I know that I shall have the
least encouragement in America to systematize these plans for the use
of the Country.
Second, Untill my country feels the importance of these engines and
seeing the power which they possess to give liberty to the seas, and
will unite with me in introducing them effectually into the world, and
considering the immense advantages which America would gain from a
perfect liberty of the seas, and would make my friends a reasonable
compensation for the Sums they have advanced to enable me to prosecute
my experiments, Untill my (“country,” undoubtedly omitted) sees such
advantages and does such things It is right that I Should do
everything in my power for the interest of such friends and even to
guard my own Interest Will any American or liberal minded man call
such actions sorded and wish me to abandon years of Industry to the
public good while neither he nor the government have offered one
Shilling to promote so glorious an enterprise?
Third.
As my country has not immediate use for such engines and the
prosecution of my system may now be considered on the broad scale of
general good It is no abandonment of my plan to take some years to
reflect on it and give give it to the world with every demonstration
of probable success.
Fourth.
As I am bound in honor to Mr. Livingston to put my steam boat in
practice and such an engine is of more immediate use to my country
than submarine navigation I wish to devote some years to it and Should
the British Government allow me an annuity I Should not only do
Justice to my friends but it would enable me to carry my steam Boat
and other plans into effect for the good of my country. It is
therefore for this reason I have offered England my neutrality for the
present and when I proposed an annuity it was only to continue for so
long as my engines were not used by france or any other nation against
England, this is doing justice to all parties and leaving me at
liberty to abandon the annuity whenever my friends and I might think
proper, to introduce the engines into practice.
It never has been my intention to hide these inventions from the world
on any consideration on the contrary it ever has been my intention to
make them public as soon as consistent with Strict justice to all with
whome I am concerned.
For myself I have ever considered the interest of America, free
commerce the interest of mankind the magnitude of the objective view
and the rational reputation connected with it superior to all
calculations of a pecuniary Mind
Robert Fulton”
It will be seen that Fulton made two appeals to the President at
Washington, undoubtedly when his negotiations for a final settlement
with the British Government were beginning to take a discouraging turn.
But Mr. Jefferson apparently never even acknowledged his letters.
Scorned by France, played with and then rejected by England, ignored by
America, Fulton with weary heart and disappointed spirit set out in
October, 1806, on the return to his own country, that he had left, with
only forty guineas in his pocket, but radiant with youth’s hopes, twenty
years before. He still had hope, and his courage had never failed him.
Now, at last, he was to win his reward, in the way most dear to him, by
receiving recognition of his talents. Though he had but the short space
of nine years more to live, nevertheless, before they were completed he
was to achieve everlasting fame through his steamboat “Clermont.”
His submarine plans he had left in England. He dismissed them from
further consideration in the excitement of his other success. Then came
his death, and his plans lay dormant. Others were to work over the same
idea and bring it after many trials to perfection, until finally after
an interval of more than one hundred years, it was to become, as Fulton
foresaw, a great offensive force. It was then to be used, but not as he
could have imagined, against the three countries, jointly, that he
served and loved in turn.
CHAPTER XII
EXAMINATION OF FULTON’S DESIGN
What the Nautilus accomplished. The British design compared with
that of the Nautilus. Folding propeller. Horizontal propeller.
Details of machinery. Effectiveness of the vessel. Screening the
Channel.
However interesting from an academic point of view may be Fulton’s views
on philosophy, free trade and social problems, and his personal
peculiarities as displayed in his negotiations with government
officials, the animating question of historical bearing relates to the
boat itself. Was the design practical, would it as developed have been
able to serve a useful purpose, or was it only a single step in a long
process of evolution?
The Nautilus, defective as she was in many particulars which Fulton
admitted, clearly demonstrated certain facts: firstly, that a boat could
be made to plunge and rise at will; secondly, that it could remain under
water with a crew of three men for several hours; thirdly, that it could
be manoeuvered and steered by the compass under water as well as on the
surface. These features are the essence of the principle of successful
submarine practice, and so much Fulton accomplished.
It is a far cry from a little vessel like the Nautilus, no bigger than a
ship’s boat that is carried at the davits, to a modern submarine capable
of keeping the seas for many weeks, of crossing and recrossing the ocean
without replenishing either stores or fuel, and of carrying not only
torpedoes and apparatus for their discharge but also a 12–inch
long-range gun firing a projectile weighing nearly one-half ton. Except
as to size, which is not really a basic feature of principle, the modern
submarine differs from Fulton’s proposals in that it possesses an engine
actuated when on the surface by a fuel (oil) whose activity can be
instantly stopped preparatory to plunging, and by a power (electric
storage battery) that neither generates heat nor vitiates the air while
submerged. For that combination of motive power the world had to wait
another hundred years.
The Nautilus, as a matter of fact, was something vastly more than a toy
or experimental model. It possessed real offensive powers, and a fleet
of them, as Fulton proposed and as the British navy officials feared,
would have been able to do real havoc. In estimating the offensive power
of Fulton’s design, the picture of the modern submarine must be kept out
of sight. The latter is called on to meet conditions of mechanical
development and types of hostile vessels that are as much in advance of
those existing when Fulton lived, as is the complicated mechanism of a
present-day submarine over the hand-driven propeller proposed by him.
At the beginning of the last century, a ship-of-the-line was a very
unwieldly affair. She was bluff bowed and high sided and consequently
could be handled satisfactorily only when “off the wind.” Even under
these favorable conditions, speed was comparatively slow. With a light
wind, especially with a light adverse wind, she could make but little
headway. Such a wind rendered capital ships practically helpless. That
they were not destroyed by the opposing force was because at such times
the opposing force was helpless too. A boat that had offensive power of
attack and had means of locomotion enough to overcome tidal currents
would have been an effective menace. As Fulton pointed out, the only
measure of defense by a large vessel at anchor would lie in a cordon of
small boats. But a boat fully, or even partially, submerged would have
had an excellent chance to get through a cordon and destroy her prey. In
spite of the limitation of speed and cruising range that today would
condemn any such boat as absolutely worthless, these limitations were
sufficiently generous when compared with the status of naval
architecture that prevailed in 1800–1806 to make Fulton’s submarine,
when he proposed it, a factor of actual and positive value.
If that can be said of the Nautilus, all the more it is true of the
design that he submitted to the British Government. Between the Brest
experiments in 1801 and his proposals in 1804, as evidenced by his
“Drawings and Descriptions,” it is clear that he had given the matter
considerable thought and to some purpose. The specifications as
submitted to the British agent called for a boat 35 feet long and 10
feet beam as compared with the similar dimensions of the Nautilus of 21
ft. 3 in. and 6 ft. 4 in., respectively, giving at least three times the
tonnage. It was to carry a crew of six instead of three men with
provisions sufficient to enable her to be kept at sea for 20 days. The
offensive capacity was 30 submarine bombs (or mines) as against a single
trailing one with the Nautilus. The vessel designed for the British
Government was a real sea-going boat that could independently navigate
the Channel while the little Nautilus could not venture far from land or
from some large vessel acting as a base.
An examination of the details, particularly those on Plates First and
Second will disclose many improvements over the French prototype, shown
facing page 26. In the first place the hull is that of a seagoing boat,
equipped with a well-developed sail plan for propulsion when on the
surface and not the queer contraption that the French marine architects
condemned. On the surface this boat could have been handled as easily
and she would have sailed as fast as any sloop of the same size. The
mast could have been laid back on the deck and the sails disposed of in
a few minutes preparatory to plunging.
To plunge and again come to the surface of the water, ballast tanks, sea
valves and hand pumps provided ample facilities readily to overcome or
restore excess of buoyancy. The brass cylinder with the hemispherical
ends would suffice to withstand the exterior hydrostatic pressure. The
required thickness of shell was a matter of computation, one readily
made with certainty even in those days.
The difficulty with all early submarines was motion beneath the surface.
In the British plan, Fulton proposed to obtain motion by a manually
operated crank turning a propeller. The boat was larger than the
Nautilus, but so also would have been the crew. For short distances he
could undoubtedly have driven the boat at his estimated speed. The
propeller was a two-bladed affair of modern type. Fulton had now
definitely abandoned the full helical or Archimedes screw that Bushnell
used and which he had himself tried in his first experiments.
Reference to Plate First and its description will show, however, an
exceedingly interesting addition that Fulton had made in the British
boat. He reasoned correctly that a propeller when not turning would
cause a considerable drag to the boat when sailing, and thus reduce her
speed. He, therefore, arranged that his propeller could be folded so as
to lie horizontally. This he proposed to do by a hand crank and gearing
operated from within the boat. On Plate Seventh it will be seen that the
propeller when folded lay well above the water surface and so would not
have been an impediment to the motion of the boat. When it is recalled
that the propeller was not generally adopted as a means of vessel
propulsion until after 1845, when the steamship Great Britain crossed
the ocean between England and New York, the first vessel driven by a
screw propeller to accomplish the feat, and that a propeller that could
be folded or hoisted above water was not introduced until about 1850,
because at that period steam was merely an auxiliary to sails, it will
be seen how far ahead of his time Fulton was in the design that he made
in 1804.
Another radical innovation was a horizontal propeller, Marked _B_ in
Plate First, attached near the bow of the boat. This propeller, also
actuated by a crank from within the boat, was to give the boat vertical
motion when submerged and so enable it to be kept at any depth that
might be desired. This principle of the horizontal propeller is that of
the helicopter, the device now being experimented with by airplane
designers in order to give planes a vertical motion or permit them to
hover stationary in the air. It was precisely those same results in the
water that Fulton undertook to accomplish with his submarine.
The other mechanism in the interior of the boat is simple and
self-explanatory. There were two anchors with windlasses, one anchor to
hold in the usual manner against drifting, the other to regulate depth
when lying stationary. There were pumps for emptying the water ballast
chambers. On deck was a conning tower quite similar to the tower on a
modern submarine, which served when closed as a lookout for the
helmsman, and when open as means of ingress and egress for the crew.
This conning tower had glass windows through which an observer could
watch big prey, or steer his course when the boat was partially
submerged. Plate Fifth shows how the conning tower could be used when it
should be the only part of the vessel above the surface. This particular
plate is of peculiar interest in that Fulton has drawn a picture of
himself looking through the glass-covered ports. In the original drawing
the head is full size.
Attached to the conning tower were two pipes marked _F_ and _G_ in Plate
Second. These pipes led to the interior of the boat and permitted fresh
air to be drawn in, and the vitiated or mephitic air (as Fulton called
it) expelled. These pipes permitted the boat to be submerged so that the
deck was just awash, the only part above the surface being the upper
half of the conning tower and the air pipes. This is the situation as
shown in Plate Fifth. So operated, the boat did not differ materially
from a modern submarine under similar conditions with her periscope out
of water.
From Fulton’s small conning tower he had only direct vision. A periscope
enables the boat to be wholly submerged with vision obtained by
reflecting mirrors. But a boat submerged so as to be just awash, with
only the conning tower showing, and driven by a hand-operated propeller
could have entered at night unseen almost any harbor, because in those
days there were no powerful searchlights to illuminate the surface of
the water at a distance.
The British were right in the secret note that they sent to the naval
commanders that Fulton’s boat, even without the later improvements that
he showed the British Government, could in the hands of the French have
made an attack with very serious results upon an open roadstead such as
the mouth of the Thames.
According to modern phraseology, Fulton’s British boat was a submersible
rather than a submarine. The latter term defines a vessel that has
powers of offense under water by torpedoes that in turn have means of
locomotion. With such a torpedo neither Fulton nor the art was
acquainted. His torpedoes or “bombs” were immobile affairs intended to
be anchored, dragged by a boat or allowed to drift with the tide and to
explode by concussion.
With the Nautilus it is true that he contemplated dragging a “bomb”
beneath the bottom of a ship to be attacked, and in this respect the
Nautilus possessed some feature of a true submarine. The plan that he
proposed for the Nautilus presented many serious difficulties depending
as it did on the fixing of a spike in the bottom of the other vessel.
Fulton himself apparently reached the conclusion that this suggestion
was impracticable, through actual experiments or further study. The boat
that he proposed for the British Government had no such attachment, but
instead was designed to carry “bombs” to be deposited secretly in an
enemy harbor, and there to be anchored so as to remain beneath the
surface when they would come in contact with the bottoms of passing
vessels, or to be released in couples held by bridles and thus to be
carried by tidal currents across the cables of anchored ships when the
“bombs” would be drawn beneath the vessel and explode.
What Fulton called “bombs” are today known as mines. No means are shown
in his plans by which these mines could be placed or released while his
boat was submerged. The capability to submerge and to move beneath the
surface was expected to permit the boat to work into a harbor
unperceived, and there to lie in wait beneath the surface until night
presented the opportunity to rise unseen, when the mines would be placed
or set free. The successful experiment with the Dorothea showed that his
mines could be completely effective and that, therefore, his submersible
mine layer, as perhaps she can be correctly described, could have been
developed into a very effective engine of war.
In Fulton’s bombs, as he calls them, we are not particularly interested
because he has fully described these devices in his book that he wrote
on Torpedo Warfare. It is, however, in view of subsequent events
exceedingly interesting to point out that Fulton foresaw the conditions
that actually obtained in the recent war.
On pages 71–2 of the “Descriptions” he explained how hundreds of such
bombs or mines could be strewn in the channel of the Thames or along the
coast and it would not be in the power of the whole British marine to
prevent such practice. This is precisely what the Germans undertook to
do, forcing the British, even though they had control of the open seas,
to sweep the Channel by daylight, day after day, in order to remove
mines that might have been planted during the night. Furthermore, Fulton
pointed out that a line of such mines could be strung from Calais to
Dover, rendering it “impossible for any vessel to pass without certain
destruction.” When the German submarine attack on British commerce
became seriously acute, the British authorities put into execution that
which Fulton had suggested and strung a line of obstructions across the
Channel from Dover to Calais thereby compelling the German submarines to
pass around the northern coast of Scotland in order to reach the open
sea.
Speaking of the effect of submarines and mines, Fulton’s language is
worthy of repetition because the sinister side of his prophecy became so
nearly realized between 1914 and 1918:
The moment this System or any other reduces the British marine to Boat
fighting, the revered Sovereignty of the Seas will be forever lost;
Colonies must be Abandoned and the whole influence which England holds
in the scale of nations will Vanish. This is the natural and obvious
consequence of this system when reduced to practice and prosicuted by
a powerful nation with energy and Spirit. The Wealth of England and
the existence of her fleets depend on her immense and uninterrupted
commerce, But should France ever possess a means to cut off or
interrupt such trade, England would be obliged to submit to any terms
which Bonapart might think proper to dictate.
Substituting Germany for France and Hohenzollern for Bonaparte, we have
precisely the very situation that existed in 1915, when the naval
authorities of Germany expected to break the power of Great Britain, and
in which attempt they came so perilously near success.
The Commission charged by the Directory to examine the plan of the
Nautilus gave credit in its report on September 5th, 1798, to Fulton for
having invented a terrible means of destruction since it acts in
silence. That description was merited, but it remained no more than an
expression of private opinion. It failed to secure for Fulton the public
support to which his device entitled him. The world, perhaps
fortunately, had to wait a century for the production of this engine of
destruction. In the light of experience an examination of Fulton’s
improved plan as contained in his “Drawings and Descriptions,” fully
confirms the decision of the French Commission in that:
“LE BATEAU SOUS-MARIN IMAGINÉ PAR LE CITOYEN FULTON EST UN MOYEN DE
DESTRUCTION TERRIBLE, PARCE QU’IL AGIT DANS LE SILENCE ET D’UNE
MANIÈRE PRESQUE INEVITABLE.”
-----
Footnote 1:
Au Général Bounaparte,
Citoyen General
Le Cn Perier m’ayant appris que vous desiriez connaître mon Travail
sur le Systême des Petits Canaux, je prends la liberté de vous
présenter une copie de cet ouvrage, trop heureux si vous y trouvez
quelques Moyens d’ameliorer l’industrie de la République Française
* * * * *
Parmi toutes les Causes des Guerres chaque jour, il est vrai, voit
disparaître celles qui tiénnent a l’existence des Rois, des prêtres,
et de ce qui les accompagne. Mais neanmoins les Républiques
elles-mêmes ne seront pas à l’abri de ces funestes querrelles, tant
qu’elles ne se dèferont pas de ces Systêmes erronés de Commerce
_exclusif et de Possessions lointaines_. C’est donc un motif pour tout
homme qui aime ses semblables de chercher a détruire ces erreurs;
l’Ambition même ne doit plus Chercher la gloire qu’en montrant aux
hommes le chemin de la vérité, et en écartant les obstacles qui
empêchent les nations d’arriver à une paix durable; Car, quelle Gloire
peut resister au temps,—si elle ne reçoit la Sanction de La
Philosophie?
Pour affranchir les Nations, Citoyen Général, vous avez exécuté de
vaste entreprises, et la gloire dont vous vous êtes couvert, doit être
aussi durable que le temps; qui donc pourrait seconder d’une
approbation plus efficace des projets qui peuvent Contribuer au bien
Général? C’est dans cette idée que je vous soumets mon Travail,
espérant que si vous y rencontrez quelques vérités utiles, vous
daignerez les appuyer d’une influence aussi puissante que la Vôtre; et
en effet, favoriser des projets dont l’exécution doit rendre des
millions d’homme heureux, peut-il être pour le genie vertueux de plus
delicieuse jouissance? C’est sous ce point de vue que les
améliorations intérieures et la Liberté du Commerce Sont de la plus
haute importance.—
Si le Succés couronne les efforts de la France, Contre l’Angleterre,
il ne tiendra qu’à elle de terminer Glorieusement cette longue Guerre,
en donnant la liberté au Commerce et en faisant Adopter le Systême aux
autres puissances; La liberté politique acquerra ainsi le dégré de
perfection et d’etendue dont elle est susceptible, et la Philosophie
verra avec joie l’olivier d’une paix éternelle ombrager la Carriére
des Sciences et de l’Industrie.
Salut et respect
Robert Fulton
_Paris 12 floreal an 6_
Footnote 2:
Citoyen Ministre
Il y a maintenant vingt mois que je présentai pour la première fois le
plan de mon Nautile à l’Ex-Directeur La Reveillere Lepaux; il le
présenta au Dirèctoire qui eu ordonna le renvoi au Ministre de la
Marine Pléville, et enfin il fut rejeté après cinq mois de
discussions. Reproduit sous l’administration du citoyen Bruix, il eut
le même sort après environ quatre mois d’attente, un accueil si peu
favorable de la part des premiers magistrats de la France, dont le
devoir est d’encourager les découvertes tendantes à propager la
Liberté et à établir l’harmonie entre les nations, me prouve qu’ils
s’étaient fait une idée fausee des effets tant phisiques que moraux de
cette Machine.
* * * * *
Voyons d’abord quels seraient pour la France les effets immédiats du
Nautile. La perte du premier Bâtiment anglais qui serait détruit par
un moyen extraordinaire, jeterroit le Gouvernement Britannique dans le
dernier embarras; il sentiroit que par le même moyen on pourroit
détruire toute sa marine; que par le même moyen il seroit possible de
bloquer la Tamise et de couper tout le commerce de Londres. Quelle
seroit, dans de pareilles circonstances, la consternation de
l’Angleterre? Comment Pitt soudoyeroit-il alors les puissances
coalisées? It en résulteroit que, privée des guinées de Pitt, la
Coalition s’evanouiroit, et que la France, ainsi delivrée de ses
nombreux ennemis, pourrait travailler sans obstacle a l’affermissement
de sa liberté et à la paix.
* * * * *
Après avoir ainsi montré les heureux effets qui résulteroient
immédiatement du succès du Nautile, je passe aux objections aussi
vulgaires que peu philosophiques, élevées contre cette machine. Je
ferai voir ensuite comment le Nautile peut contribuer à propager la
véritable Liberté et à établir l’harmonie entre les peuples.
La première objection est que si la France se servoit du Nautile
contre l’Angleterre, l’Angleterre pourroit également eu faire usage
contre la France; mais il ne me paroit nullement vraisemblable que les
Anglais s’en servent contre la France, car avant qu’ils en connussent
la mécanique, la France pourroit, comme je l’ai dit, bloquer la
Tamise, couper le commerce de Londres et réduire par là le cabinet de
St. James aux termes de la plus entière soumission;
* * * * *
C’est la force navale de l’Angleterre qui est la source des horreurs
incalculables qui se commettent journellement; c’est la marine
anglaise qui soutient le gouvernement anglais, et c’est ce
gouvernement qui, par ces intrigues, a été la cause des deux tiers des
crimes qui ont signalé le cours de la revolution.
* * * * *
Si par le moyen du Nautile on réussissoit à detruire la marine
anglaise, on pourroit, avec une flotte de Nautiles, bloquer la Tamise,
jusqu’à ce que l’Angleterre fut républicanisée; bientôt l’Irelande
secoueroit le joug et la monarchie anglaise seroit anéantie. Une
nation riche et industrieuse viendroit ainsi augumenter le nombre des
républiques de l’Europe, et ce seroit avoir fait un pas immense vers
la liberté et la paix universelle.
Si l’Angleterre adoptait le gouvernement républicain, je ne doute pas
que la France et elle n’ensevelissent dans l’oubli ces vieilles haines
et cette fatale rivalité fomentées par la stupide aristocratie. Les
deux Républiques se traiteroient en soeurs, donneroient à leur
commerce respectif une entière liberté et, dans ce cas, n’auroient
besoin, ni l’une ni l’autre de marine militaire; ainsi l’amitié,
malgré le préjugé vulgaire, uniroit deux grands peuples, et l’humanité
respireroit.
De légères circonstances produisent souvent de grands changemens dans
les opérations des hommes. La Boussole a donné au commerce une
extension sans bornes et a multiplié les lumières; l’invention de la
poudre a changé tout l’art de la guerre, sans en dimineur les
horreurs. J’espère que le Nautile non seulement détruira les marines
militaires, mais en brisant ces instrumens destructeurs dans les mains
de l’aristocratie, servira la cause de la liberté et de la paix. Je
vous ai présenté ici, d’une maniere claire et impartiale une partie de
ses heureux effets, et je suis loin de me faire aucun merité de
l’avoir imaginé le premièr. L’idée pouvoit en venir à tout autre
ingenieur qui cherche avec autant d’ardeur que moi à faire triompher
la cause de l’humanité.
Footnote 3:
Vous me permettrez d’observer, que quoique j’ai le plus haut respect
pour vous et les autres membres du gouvernement, et quoique je
conserve le plus ardent désir de voir abattre la marine Anglaise,
cependant la maniere froide et décourageante dans laquelle toutes mes
exertions ont été traitées depuis trois ans, me forcent à abandonner
l’enterprise en France, si on ne l’accueille pas d’une maniere plus
amicale et libérale.
Footnote 4:
Je viens de lire la proposition du citoyen Fulton que vous m’avez
adressée beaucoup trop tard, _en ce qu’elle peut changer la face du
monde_. Quoiqu’il en soit, je désire que vous en confiiez
immédiatement l’examen à une commission composée de membres choisis
dans les différentes classes de l’Institut. C’est là que l’Europe
savante doit chercher des juges pour résoudre la question dont il
s’agit. Aussitôt le rapport fait, il vous sera transmis et vous me
l’enverrez. Tâchez que tout cela ne soit pas l’affaire de plus de huit
jours.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling.
2. All spelling errors were left uncorrected.
3. Footnotes were re-indexed using numbers and collected together at
the end of the last chapter.
4. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
5. Enclosed bold font in =equals=.
6. Superscripts are denoted by a caret before a single superscript
character, e.g. M^r.
*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Robert Fulton and the Submarine" ***
Copyright 2023 LibraryBlog. All rights reserved.